diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/51702-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51702-0.txt | 31160 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 31160 deletions
diff --git a/old/51702-0.txt b/old/51702-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8ab085d..0000000 --- a/old/51702-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31160 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 -(of 2), by David Starr Jordan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2) - -Author: David Starr Jordan - -Release Date: April 9, 2016 [EBook #51702] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO STUDY OF FISHES, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES - - -[Illustration: - - VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES - - The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, _Inimicus japonicus_ (Cuv. and Val.), - from Wakanoura, Japan. From nature by Kako Morita. - - Surface coloration about lava rocks. - - Coloration of specimens living among red algæ. - - Coloration in deep water; _Inimicus aurantiacus_ (Schlegel). -] - - - - - A GUIDE - TO - THE STUDY OF FISHES - - - BY - - DAVID STARR JORDAN - - _President of Leland Stanford Junior University_ - - - _With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations_ - - - IN TWO VOLUMES - - VOL II. - - "I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge - and the better qualified for all fortunes - for knowing that there is a minnow in that - brook."—_Thoreau_ - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK - HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY - 1905 - - - - - Copyright, 1905 - - BY - - HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY - - - Published March, 1905 - - - - - CONTENTS - VOL. II. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE GANOIDS. - - PAGE - - Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a 1 - Natural Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on the - Ganoids as a Natural Group. - - CHAPTER II. - - THE GANOIDS (_Continued_). - - Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The Palæoniscidæ.—The 13 - Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The Dictyopygidæ.—Order - Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Order - Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of - the Garpike.—Fossil Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.— - The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ. - - CHAPTER III. - - ISOSPONDYLI. - - The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.—The 37 - Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of - Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The Elopidæ.—The - Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ.—The - Ctenothrissidæ.—The Notopteridæ.—The Clupeidæ.—The - Dorosomatidæ.—The Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The - Osteoglossidæ.—The Pantodontidæ. - - CHAPTER IV. - - SALMONIDÆ. - - The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, the Lake 61 - Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Oncorhynchus, - the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream Theory.—The Jadgeska - Hatchery.—Salmon-packing. - - - CHAPTER V. - - SALMONIDÆ (_Continued_). - - Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.—The 89 - Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of Western - America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho, the Huchen.— - Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—The - Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—Fossil Salmonidæ. - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT. - - The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The Microstomidæ.— 120 - The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.— - Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The - Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.— - Chirothricidæ.—Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The - Sternoptychidæ.—Order Lyopomi. - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES. - - The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.—Suborder 139 - Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family Anguillidæ.— - Reproduction of the Eel.—Food of the Eel.—Larva of the Eel.— - Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.— - Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order - Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.— - Order Heteromi. - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI. - - Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The Cyprinidæ.— 159 - Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—The Carp - and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches. - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES. - - The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ.—The Sea 177 - Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The Mad-toms.—The Old - World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The - Hypophthalmidæ or Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The - Callichthyidæ.—Fossil Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti. - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI. - - Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The Pikes.—The Mud 188 - minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.—Kneriidæ, etc.—The - Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi. - - CHAPTER XI. - - ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI. - - Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder 208 - Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-fishes: - Exocœtidæ. - - CHAPTER XII. - - PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI. - - Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The Mullets: 215 - Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—Stephanoberycidæ.— - Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—Suborder Rhegnopteri. - - CHAPTER XIII. - - PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII, AND - - HYPOSTOMIDES. - - Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The 227 - Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The Trumpet-fishes: - Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—The - Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The Lophobranchs.—The - Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses: - Hippocampus.—Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ. - - CHAPTER XIV. - - SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS. - - Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.— 241 - Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.— - Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John Dories: Zeidæ.— - Grammicolepidæ. - - CHAPTER XV. - - BERYCOIDEI. - - The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier-fishes: 250 - Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone Fishes: - Monocentridæ. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - PERCOMORPHI. - - Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—The Mackerel 258 - Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—The Escolars: - Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and - Trichiuridæ.—The Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.— - The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ. - - CHAPTER XVII. - - CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS. - - The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—The 272 - Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes: - Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-fishes: - Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The - Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.—The Square-tails: - Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ. - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES. - - Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The Pigmy 293 - Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—Crappies and - Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—The True - Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters to Perches.—The Perches.— - The Darters: Etheostominæ. - - CHAPTER XIX. - - THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES. - - The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The Asineopidæ— 316 - The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The - Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.— - The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers: - Lutianidæ.—The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The - Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes: - Kyphosidæ. - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR RELATIVES. - - The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: Sciænidæ.— 351 - The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The - Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.— - The Malacanthidæ.—The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes: - Cepolidæ.—The Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ. - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI. - - The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The 365 - Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.— - Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The Embiotocidæ. - - CHAPTER XXII. - - CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI. - - Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes: 380 - Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse Fishes: - Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ. - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - THE SQUAMIPINNES. - - The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The 397 - Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The - Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The - Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder - Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ. - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - SERIES PLECTOGNATHI. - - The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.— 411 - The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The Spinacanthidæ.—The - Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The - Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.— - The Head-fishes: Molidæ. - - CHAPTER XXV. - - PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES. - - The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.—The 426 - Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The - Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The - Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The - Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder - Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying - Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ. - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI. - - Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder Discocephali, 459 - the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder Tæniosomi, the - Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Dealfishes: - Trachypteridæ. - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA. - - The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of Flounders.— 481 - The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The - Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.— - The Soles: Soleidæ.—The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European - Soles (Soleinæ).—The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ. - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - SUBORDER JUGULARES. - - The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The Nototheniidæ.—The 499 - Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets: - Callionymidæ.—The Dactyloscopidæ. - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ. - - The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The 507 - Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ, etc.— - The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The - Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—Sand-lances: - Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—The Brotulidæ.— - Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—Suborder Xenopterygii. - - CHAPTER XXX. - - OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI. - - Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ.—The 532 - Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ. - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS. - - The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea-devils: 542 - Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The Batfishes: - Ogcocephalidæ. - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - VOL. II. - - - PAGE - - Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_ 2 - - _Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ 14 - - _Eurynotus crenatus_ 15 - - _Dorypterus hoffmani_ 16 - - _Chondrosteus acipenseroides_ 18 - - _Acipenser sturio_, Common Sturgeon 19 - - _Acipenser rubicundus_, Lake Sturgeon 20 - - _Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon 20 - - _Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, side-view 21 - - _Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, view from below 21 - - _Psephurus gladius_ 21 - - _Gyrodus hexagonus_ 22 - - _Mesturus verrucosus_ 23 - - _Semionotus kapffi_ 24 - - _Dapedium politum_ 25 - - _Tetragonolepis semicinctus_ 26 - - _Isopholis orthostomus_ 27 - - _Lepisosteus osseus_, Long-nosed Garpike 27 - - _Caturus elongatus_ 28 - - _Notagogus pentlandi_ 28 - - _Ptycholepis curtus_ 28 - - _Pholidophorus crenulatus_ 29 - - _Lepisosteus tristœchus_, Alligator-gar 31 - - Lower Jaw of _Amia calva_, showing the gular plate 33 - - _Amia calva_, Bowfin (female) 35 - - _Megalurus elegantissimus_ 36 - - _Leptolepis dubius_ 41 - - _Elops saurus_, Ten-pounder 42 - - _Holcolepis lewesiensis_ 42 - - _Tarpon atlanticus_, Tarpon or Grand Écaille 43 - - _Albula vulpes_, Lady-fish 44 - - _Chanos chanos_, Milkfish 45 - - _Hiodon tergisus_, Mooneye 45 - - _Istieus grandis_ 46 - - _Chirothrix libanicus_ 46 - - Skeleton of _Portheus molossus_ 47 - - _Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ 48 - - _Clupea harengus_, Herring 49 - - _Pomolobus pseudoharengus_, Alewife 50 - - _Brevoortia tyrannus_, Menhaden 51 - - _Diplomystus humilis_ 52 - - _Dorosoma cepedianum_, Hickory-shad 53 - - _Anchovia perthecata_, Silver Anchovy 54 - - _Notogoneus osculus_ 55 - - _Phareodus testis_ 57 - - Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing _Phareodus_, at Fossil, 58 - Wyoming - - A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales 59 - - _Alepocephalus agassizii_ 60 - - _Coregonus williamsoni_, Rocky Mountain Whitefish 63 - - _Coregonus clupeiformis_, Whitefish 64 - - _Argyrosomus nigripinnis_, Bluefin Cisco 66 - - _Stenodus mackenziei_, Inconnu 67 - - _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (female) 69 - - _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, King-salmon (grilse) 70 - - _Oncorhynchus nerka_, Male Red Salmon 70 - - _Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_, Humpback Salmon (female) 72 - - _Oncorhynchus masou_, Masu 72 - - _Oncorhynchus nerka_, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after 76 - spawning) - - _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (dying after spawning) 77 - - _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon 79 - - _Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (male) 98 - - _Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (female) 99 - - _Salmo rivularis_, Steelhead Trout 101 - - Head of Adult Trout-worm, _Dibothrium cordiceps_. From intestine 103 - of white pelican - - Median segments of _Dibothrium cordiceps_ 103 - - _Salmo henshawi_, Tahoe Trout 104 - - _Salmo stomias_, Green-back Trout 105 - - _Salmo macdonaldi_, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes 105 - - _Salmo clarkii spilurus_, Rio Grande Trout 106 - - _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, Colorado River Trout 106 - - _Hucho blackistoni_, Ito 107 - - _Salvelinus oquassa_, Rangeley Trout 108 - - _Salvelinus aureolus_, Sunapee Trout 109 - - _Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout (male) 110 - - _Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout 111 - - _Salvelinus malma_, Malma Trout 113 - - _Salvelinus malma_, Dolly Varden Trout 114 - - _Cristivomer namaycush_, Great Lake Trout 114 - - _Plecoglossus altivelis_, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet 116 - - _Thymallus signifer_, Alaska Grayling 120 - - _Thymallus tricolor_, Michigan Grayling 122 - - _Osmerus mordax_, Smelt 123 - - _Thaleichthys pretiosus_, Eulachon or Ulchen 124 - - Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon 125 - (_Thaleichthys pacificus_) - - _Mallotus villosus_, Capelin 126 - - _Salanx hyalocranius_, Icefish 128 - - _Stomias ferox_ 128 - - _Chauliodus sloanei_ 129 - - _Synodus fætens_, Lizard-fish 130 - - _Ipnops murrayi_ 131 - - _Cetomimus gillii_ 132 - - _Diaphus lucidus_, Headlight-fish 132 - - _Myctophum opalinum_, Lantern-fish 133 - - _Ceratoscopelus madeirensis_, Lantern-fish 133 - - _Rhinellus furcatus_ 134 - - _Plagyodus ferox_, Lancet-fish 135 - - _Eurypholis sulcidens_ 136 - - _Eurypholis freyeri_ 137 - - _Argyropelecus olfersi_ 137 - - _Aldrovandia gracilis_ 138 - - _Anguilla chrisypa_, Common Eel 143 - - _Anguilla chrisypa_, Larva of Common Eel 148 - - _Simenchelys parasiticus_, Pug-nosed Eel 149 - - _Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ 149 - - _Leptocephalus conger_, Conger-eel 150 - - Larva of Conger-eel, _Leptocephalus conger_ 150 - - _Xyrias revulsus_ 151 - - _Myrichthys pantostigmius_ 151 - - _Ophichthus ocellatus_ 151 - - _Nemichthys avocetta_, Thread-eel 152 - - Jaws of _Nemichthys avocetta_ 152 - - _Muræna retifera_ 153 - - _Gymnothorax berndti_ 154 - - _Gymnothorax jordani_ 155 - - _Gymnothorax moringa_, Moray 155 - - _Derichthys serpentinus_ 156 - - _Gastrostomus bairdi_, Gulper-eel 156 - - _Notacanthus phasganorus_ 158 - - Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (_Ictiobus 160 - bubalus_), showing the mesocoracoid - - Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp 160 - - _Brycon dentex_ 162 - - Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, _Leuciscus cephalus_ 163 - - _Rhinichthys dulcis_, Black-nosed Dace 164 - - _Notropis hudsonius_, White Chub 165 - - _Ericymba buccata_, Silver-jaw Minnow 165 - - _Notropis whipplei_, Silverfin 166 - - _Campostoma anomalum_, Stone-roller 167 - - Head of Day-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ 167 - - _Semotilus atromaculatus_, Horned Dace 168 - - _Abramis chrysoleucus_, Shiner 168 - - _Ptychocheilus grandis_, Squawfish 169 - - _Leuciscus lineatus_, Chub of the Great Basin 169 - - Lower Pharyngeal of _Placopharynx duquesnii_ 171 - - _Erimyzon sucetta_, Creekfish or Chub-sucker 172 - - _Ictiobus cyprinella_, Buffalo-fish 173 - - _Carpiodes cyprinus_, Carp-sucker 173 - - _Catostomus commersoni_, Common Sucker 174 - - _Catostomus occidentalis_, California Sucker 174 - - Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, _Catostomus macrocheilus_ 175 - - _Xyrauchen cypho_, Razor-back Sucker 175 - - _Felichthys felis_, Gaff-topsail Cat 179 - - _Galeichthys milberti_, Sea Catfish 179 - - _Ictalurus punctatus_, Channel Catfish 180 - - _Ameiurus nebulosus_, Horned Pout 181 - - _Schilbeodes furiosus_, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral 182 - spine - - _Torpedo electricus_, Electric Catfish 183 - - _Chlarias breviceps_, African Catfish 185 - - _Loricaria aurea_, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela 186 - - _Gnathonemus curvirostris_ 189 - - _Esox lucius_, Pike 191 - - _Esox masquinongy_, Muskallunge 192 - - _Umbra pygmæa_, Mud-minnow 193 - - _Anableps dovii_, Four-eyed Fish 195 - - _Cyprinodon variegatus_, Round Minnow 196 - - _Jordanella floridæ_, Everglade Minnow 197 - - _Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (male) 198 - - _Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (female) 198 - - _Zygonectes notatus_, Top-minnow 198 - - _Empetrichthys merriami_, Death Valley Fish 199 - - _Xiphophorus helleri_, Sword-tail Minnow (male) 199 - - _Goodea luitpoldi_, a Viviparous Fish 200 - - _Chologaster cornutus_, Dismal Swamp Fish 201 - - _Typhlichthys subterraneus_, Blind Cave-fish 202 - - _Amblyopsis spelæus_, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave 203 - - _Dallia pectoralis_, Alaska Blackfish 206 - - _Tylosurus acus_, Needle-fish 210 - - _Scombresox saurus_, Saury 212 - - _Hyporhamphus unifasciatus_, Halfbeak 212 - - _Fodiator acutus_, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish 213 - - _Cypselurus californicus_, Catalina Flying-fish 214 - - _Chirostoma humboldtianum_, Pescado blanco 217 - - _Kirtlandia vagrans_, Silverside or Brit 217 - - _Atherinopsis californiensis_, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey 218 - - _Iso flos-maris_, Flower of the Waves 218 - - _Mugil cephalus_, Striped Mullet 221 - - _Joturus pichardi_, Joturo or Bobo 222 - - _Sphyræna barracuda_, Barracuda 223 - - _Cobitopsis acuta_ 224 - - Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, _Polydactylus approximans_ 225 - - _Polydactylus octonemus_, Threadfin 225 - - Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ 227 - - Shoulder-girdle of _Fistularia petimba_, showing greatly extended 227 - interclavicle, the surface ossified - - _Gasterosteus aculeatus_, Three-spined Stickleback 232 - - _Apeltes quadracus_, Four-spined Stickleback 232 - - _Aulostomus chinensis_, Trumpet-fish 234 - - _Macrorhamphosus sagifue_, Japanese Snipefish 234 - - _Æoliscus strigatus_, Shrimp-fish 235 - - _Æoliscus heinrichi_ 235 - - _Solenostomus cyanopterus_ 237 - - _Hippocampus hudsonius_, Sea-horse 238 - - _Zalises umitengu_, Sea-moth 240 - - _Percopsis guttatus_, Sand-roller 241 - - _Erismatopterus endlicheri_ 242 - - _Columbia transmontana_, Oregon Trout-perch 242 - - Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, _Lampris guttatus_ (_Brünnich_), 243 - showing the enlarged infraclavicle - - Ligatures_Semiophorus velifer_ 246 - - _Amphistium paradoxum_ 247 - - _Zeus faber_, John Dory 248 - - Skull of a Berycoidfish, _Beryx splendens_, showing the 250 - orbitosphenoid - - _Beryx splendens_ 251 - - _Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_ 252 - - _Paratrachichthys prosthemius_ 253 - - _Holocentrus ascenscionis_, Soldier-fish 254 - - _Holocentrus ittodai_ 254 - - _Ostichthys japonicus_ 255 - - _Monocentris japonicus_, Pine-cone Fish 256 - - _Scomber scombrus_, Mackerel 260 - - _Germo alalunga_, Long-fin Albacore 263 - - _Scomberomorus maculatus_, Spanish Mackerel 264 - - _Trichiurus lepturus_, Cutlass-fish 268 - - _Palæorhynchus glarisianus_ 268 - - _Xiphias gladius_, Young Swordfish 269 - - _Xiphias gladius_, Swordfish 270 - - _Naucrates ductor_, Pilot-fish 273 - - _Seriola lalandi_, Amber-fish 273 - - _Trachurus trachurus_, Saurel 274 - - _Carangus chrysos_, Yellow Mackerel 275 - - _Trachinotus carolinus_, the Pampano 277 - - _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_, Bluefish 279 - - _Rachycentron canadum_, Sergeant-fish 282 - - _Peprilus paru_, Harvest-fish 284 - - _Gobiomorus gronovii_, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish 285 - - _Coryphæna hippurus_, Dolphin or Dorado 287 - - _Mene maculata_ 288 - - _Gasteronemus rhombeus_ 289 - - _Pempheris mulleri_, Catalufa de lo Alto 289 - - _Pempheris nyctereutes_ 290 - - _Luvarus imperialis_, Louvar 290 - - _Aphredoderus sayanus_, Pirate Perch 295 - - _Elassoma evergladei_, Everglade Pigmy Perch 295 - - Skull of the Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_ 296 - - _Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie 297 - - _Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie (from life) 298 - - _Ambloplites rupestris_, Rock Bass 299 - - _Mesogonistius chætodon_, Banded Sunfish 299 - - _Lepomis pallidus_, Blue-gill 300 - - _Lepomis megalotis_, Long-eared Sunfish 300 - - _Eupomotis gibbosus_, Common Sunfish 301 - - _Micropterus dolomieu_, Small Mouth Black Bass 303 - - _Micropterus salmoides_, Large Mouth Black Bass 305 - - _Perca flavescens_, Yellow perch 308 - - _Stizostedion canadense_, Sauger 309 - - _Aspro asper_, Aspron 309 - - _Zingel zingel_, Zingel 310 - - _Percina caprodes_, Log-perch 311 - - _Hadropterus aspro_, Black-sided Darter 311 - - _Diplesion blennioides_, Green-sided Darter 312 - - _Boleosoma olmstedi_, Tessellated Darter 312 - - _Crystallaria asprella_, Crystal Darter 313 - - _Ammocrypta clara_, Sand-darter 313 - - _Etheostoma jordani_ 314 - - _Etheostoma camurum_, Blue-breasted Darter 314 - - _Apogon retrosella_, Cardinal-fish 316 - - _Telescopias gilberti_, Kuromutsu 318 - - _Apogon semilineatus_ 319 - - _Oxylabrax undecimalis_, Robalo 319 - - _Morone americana_, White Perch 322 - - _Promicrops itaiara_, Florida Jewfish 323 - - _Epinephelus striatus_, Nassau Grouper: _Cherna criolla_ 324 - - _Epinephelus drummond-hayi_, John Paw or Speckled Hind 325 - - _Epinephelus morio_, Red Grouper 325 - - _Epinephelus adscensionis_, Red Hind 326 - - _Mycteroperca venenosa_, Yellow-fin Grouper 327 - - _Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans_ 328 - - _Epinephelus niveatus_, Snowy Grouper 329 - - _Rypticus bistrispinus_, Soapfish 330 - - _Lobotes surinamensis_, Flasher 331 - - _Priacanthus arenatus_, Catalufa 331 - - _Pseudopriacanthus altus_, Bigeye 332 - - _Lutianus griseus_, Gray Snapper 334 - - _Lutianus apodus_, Schoolmaster 335 - - _Hoplopagrus guntheri_ 336 - - _Lutianus synagris_, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba 336 - - _Ocyurus chrysurus_, Yellow-tail Snapper 337 - - _Etelis oculatus_, Cachucho 337 - - _Xenocys jessiæ_ 338 - - _Aphareus furcatus_ 339 - - _Hæmulon plumieri_, Grunt 340 - - _Anisotremus virginicus_, Porkfish 341 - - _Pagrus major_, Red Tai of Japan 342 - - _Ebisu_, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai 343 - - _Stenotomus chrysops_, Scup 344 - - _Calamus bajonado_, Jolt-head Porgy 345 - - _Calamus proridens_, Little-head Porgy 345 - - _Diplodus holbrooki_ 346 - - _Archosargus unimaculatus_, Salema, Striped Sheepshead 347 - - _Xystæma cinereum_, Mojarra 348 - - _Gerres olisthostomus_, Irish Pampano 349 - - _Kyphosus sectatrix_, Chopa or Rudder-fish 349 - - _Apomotis cyanellus_, Blue-green Sunfish 350 - - _Pseudupeneus maculatus_, Red Goatfish or Salmonete 351 - - _Mullus auratus_, Golden Surmullet 352 - - _Cynoscion nebulosus_, Spotted Weakfish 353 - - _Bairdiella chrysura_, Mademoiselle 355 - - _Sciænops ocellata_, Red Drum 356 - - _Umbrina sinaloæ_, Yellow-fin Roncador 357 - - _Menticirrhus americanus_, Kingfish 357 - - _Pogonias chromis_, Drum 358 - - _Gnathypops evermanni_ 359 - - _Opisthognathus macrognathus_, Jawfish 359 - - _Opisthognathus nigromarginatus_ 360 - - _Chiasmodon niger_, Black Swallower 360 - - _Cirrhitus rivulatus_ 364 - - _Trichodon trichodon_, Sandfish 364 - - _Anabas scandens_, Climbing Perch 366 - - _Channa formosana_ 371 - - _Ophicephalus barca_, Snake-headed China-fish 371 - - _Cymatogaster aggregatus_, White Surf-fish 372 - - _Hysterocarpus traski_, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch 373 - - _Hypsurus caryi_ 373 - - _Damalichthys argyrosomus_, White Surf-fish 374 - - _Rhacochilus toxotes_, Thick-lipped Surf-fish 374 - - _Hypocritichthys analis_, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous 375 - - _Hysterocarpus traski_, Viviparous Perch (male) 379 - - _Hypsypops rubicunda_, Garibaldi 382 - - _Pomacentrus leucostictus_, Damsel-fish 382 - - _Glyphisodon marginatus_, Cockeye Pilot 383 - - _Microspathodon dorsalis_, Indigo Damsel-fish 384 - - _Tautoga onitis_, Tautog 384 - - _Tautoga onitis_, Tautog 386 - - _Lachnolaimus falcatus_, Capitaine or Hogfish 387 - - _Xyrichthys psittacus_, Razor-fish 388 - - _Pimelometopon pulcher_, Redfish (male) 389 - - _Lepidaplois perditio_ 389 - - Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, _Sparisoma cretense_. _a_, 391 - Upper; _b_, Lower - - Jaws of Parrot-fish, _Calotomus xenodon_ 391 - - _Cryptotomus beryllinus_ 391 - - _Sparisoma hoplomystax_ 392 - - _Sparisoma abildgaardi_, Red Parrot-fish 392 - - Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, _Scarus cæruleus_ 393 - - Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_ 393 - - Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_ 393 - - _Scarus emblematicus_ 394 - - _Scarus cæruleus_, Blue Parrot-fish 394 - - _Scarus vetula_, Parrot-fish 395 - - _Halichæres bivittatus_, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the 399 - coral-reefs - - _Monodactylus argenteus_ 397 - - _Psettus sebæ_ 399 - - _Chætodipterus faber_, Spadefish 401 - - _Chætodon capistratus_, Butterfly-fish 402 - - _Pomacanthus arcuatus_, Black Angel-fish 403 - - _Holacanthus ciliaris_, Angel-fish or Isabelita 404 - - _Holacanthus tricolor_, Rock Beauty 405 - - _Zanclus canescens_, Moorish Idol 406 - - _Teuthis cæruleus_, Blue Tang 407 - - _Teuthis bahianus_, Brown Tang 408 - - _Balistes carolinensis_, Trigger-fish 412 - - _Osbeckia lævis_, File-fish 414 - - _Amanses scopas_, Needle-bearing File-fish 414 - - _Stephanolepis hispidus_, Common File-fish 415 - - _Lactophrys tricornis_, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold 416 - - _Ostracion cornutum_, Horned Trunkfish 416 - - _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish 416 - - _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish (face view) 417 - - _Lactophrys triqueter_, Spineless Trunkfish 417 - - _Lactophrys trigonus_, Hornless Trunkfish 418 - - Skeleton of the Cowfish, _Lactophrys tricornis_ 418 - - _Lagocephalus lævigatus_, Silvery Puffer 419 - - _Spheroides spengleri_, Puffer, Inflated 420 - - _Spheroides maculatus_, Puffer 420 - - _Tetraodon meleagris_ 421 - - _Tetraodon setosus_, Bristly Globefish 422 - - _Diodon hystrix_, Porcupine-fish 422 - - _Chilomycterus schœpfi_, Rabbit-fish 423 - - _Mola mola_, Headfish (adult) 424 - - _Ranzania makua_, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu 425 - - _Sebastes marinus_, Rosefish 427 - - Skull of _Scorpænichthys marmoratus_ 427 - - _Sebastolobus altivelis_ 428 - - _Sebastodes mystinus_, Priest-fish 430 - - _Sebastichthys serriceps_ 431 - - _Sebastichthys nigrocinctus_, Banded Rockfish 432 - - _Scorpæna grandicornis_, Lion-fish 433 - - _Scorpæna mystes_, Sea-scorpion 434 - - _Pterois volitans_, Lion-fish or Sausolele 435 - - _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_, Black Nohu or Poison-fish 436 - - _Snyderina yamanokami_ 437 - - _Trachicephalus uranoscopus_ 438 - - _Anoplopoma fimbria_, Skilfish 438 - - _Pleurogrammus monopterygius_, Atka-fish 439 - - _Hexagrammos decagrammus_, Greenling 440 - - _Ophiodon elongatus_, Cultus Cod 440 - - _Jordania zonope_ 442 - - _Astrolytes notospilotus_ 442 - - _Hemilepidotus jordani_, Irish Lord 443 - - _Triglops pingeli_ 443 - - _Enophrys bison_, Buffalo Sculpin 443 - - _Ceratocottus diceraus_ 444 - - _Elanura forficata_ 444 - - _Cottus punctulatus_, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb 444 - - _Uranidea tenuis_, Miller's Thumb 445 - - _Cottus evermanni_ 445 - - _Cottus gulosus_, California Miller's Thumb 446 - - _Myxocephalus niger_, Pribilof Sculpin 446 - - _Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus_, 18-spined Sculpin 447 - - _Oncocottus quadricornis_ 447 - - _Blepsias cirrhosus_ 448 - - _Hemitripterus americanus_, Sea-raven 448 - - _Oligocottus maculosus_ 449 - - _Ereunias grallator_ 450 - - _Psychrolutes paradoxus_, Sleek Sculpin 451 - - _Gilbertidia sigolutes_ 451 - - _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_, Richardson's Sculpin 451 - - _Stelgis vulsus_ 451 - - _Draciscus sachi_ 452 - - _Pallasina barbata_, Agonoid-fish 453 - - _Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ 453 - - _Cyclopterus lumpus_, Lumpfish 454 - - _Crystallias matsushimæ_, Liparid 454 - - _Neoliparis mucosus_, Snailfish 455 - - _Prionotus evolans_, Sea-robin 456 - - _Cephalacanthus volitans_, Flying Gurnard 457 - - _Peristedion miniatum_ 457 - - _Philypnus dormitor_, Guavina de Rio 460 - - _Eleotris pisonis_, Dormeur 460 - - _Dormitator maculatus_, Guavina mapo 461 - - _Vireosa hanæ_ 461 - - _Gobionellus oceanicus_, Esmeralda de Mar 461 - - _Pterogobius daimio_ 462 - - _Aboma etheostoma_, Darter Goby 462 - - _Gillichthys mirabilis_, Long-jawed Goby 463 - - _Boleophthalmus chinensis_, Pond-skipper 466 - - _Periophthalmus barbarus_, Mud-skippy 466 - - _Eutæniichthys gillii_ 467 - - _Leptecheneis naucrates_, Sucking-fish or Pegador 468 - - _Rhombochirus osteochir_ 469 - - _Regalecus russelli_, Glesnæs Oarfish 476 - - _Trachypterus rex-salmonorum_, Dealfish or King of the Salmon 478 - - Young Flounder just hatched 482 - - _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, Larval Flounder 483 - - Larval Stages of _Platophrys podas_, a Flounder 484 - - _Platophrys lunatus_, Peacock Flounder 485 - - Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, _Salmo fario_ 486 - - Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_ 486 - - _Lophopsetta maculata_, Window-pane 487 - - _Syacium papillosum_, Wide-eyed Flounder 488 - - _Etropus crossotus_ 489 - - _Hippoglossus hippoglossus_, Halibut 492 - - _Paralichthys dentatus_, Wide-mouthed Flounder 493 - - _Liopsetta putnami_, Eel-back Flounder 494 - - _Platichthys stellatus_, Starry Flounder 495 - - _Achirus lineatus_, Hog-choker Sole 496 - - _Symphurus plagiusa_ 498 - - _Pteropsaron evolans_ 502 - - _Bathymaster signatus_ 503 - - _Ariscopus iburius_ 504 - - _Astroscopus guttatus_, Star-gazer 505 - - _Neoclinus satiricus_, Sarcastic Blenny 507 - - _Gibbonsia evides_, Kelp Blenny 508 - - _Blennius cristatus_ 508 - - _Alticus atlanticus_, Rock-skipper 509 - - _Alticus saliens_, Lizard-skipper 509 - - _Emblemaria atlantica_ 510 - - _Scartichthys enosimæ_, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred 510 - island of Enoshima, Japan - - _Zacalles bryope_ 511 - - _Bryostemma tarsodes_ 511 - - _Exerpes asper_ 511 - - _Pholis gunnellus_, Gunnel 512 - - _Xiphistes chirus_ 512 - - _Ozorthe dictyogramma_ 513 - - _Stichæus punctatus_ 513 - - _Bryostemma otohime_ 514 - - _Ptilichthys goodei_, Quillfish 514 - - _Blochius longirostris_ 514 - - _Xiphasia setifera_ 515 - - _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_, Wrymouth 516 - - _Anarhichas lupus_, Wolf-fish 517 - - Skull of _Anarrhichthys ocellatus_ 517 - - _Zoarces anguillaris_, Eel-pout 518 - - _Lycodes reticulatus_, Eel-pout 519 - - _Lycenchelys verrilli_ 519 - - _Scytalina cerdale_ 519 - - _Rissola marginata_, Cusk-eel 520 - - _Lycodapus dermatinus_ 520 - - _Ammodytes americanus_, Sand-lance 521 - - _Embolichthys mitsukurii_ 521 - - _Fierasfer dubius_, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl 522 - - _Fierasfer acus_, Pearlfish 523 - - _Brotula barbata_ 524 - - _Lucifuga subterranea_, Blind Brotula 524 - - _Opsanus pardus_, Leopard Toadfish 525 - - _Porichthys porosissimus_, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines) 526 - - _Aspasma ciconiæ_ 530 - - _Caularchus mæandricus_, Clingfish 531 - - _Mastacembelus ellipsifer_ 532 - - _Gadus callarias_, Codfish 533 - - Skull of Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_ 536 - - _Melanogrammus æglifinus_, Haddock 536 - - _Theragra chalcogramma_, Pollock 537 - - _Microgadus tomcod_, Tomcod 538 - - _Lota maculosa_, Burbot 539 - - _Enchelyopus cimbrius_, Four-bearded Rockling 539 - - _Merluccius productus_, California Hake 540 - - _Coryphænoides carapinus_, showing leptocercal tail 540 - - _Cælorhynchus carminatus_, Grenadier 541 - - _Steindachnerella argentea_ 541 - - _Lophius litulon_, Anko or Fishing-frog 545 - - _Cryptopsaras couesi_ 547 - - _Ceratias holbolli_, Deep-sea Angler 548 - - _Caulophryne jordani_ 548 - - _Pterophryne tumida_, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers 549 - - _Antennarius nox_, Fishing-frog 550 - - Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_ 551 - - _Antennarius scaber_, Frogfish 551 - - _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ 552 - - _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish 553 - - _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish 553 - - - - - ERRATA[1] - VOL. II - - - Page xviii, line 7, for _Ophicæphalus_ read _Ophicephalus_ - - xviii, " 37, for _Mononactylus_ read _Monodactylus_ - - xix, " 33, for _Trachicephales_ read _Trachicephalus_ - - xx, " 37, for _Regaleaus glesneacsanius_ read _Regalecus - russelli_ - - xxi, " 2, for _Etopus_ read _Etropus_ - - xxi, " 35, for _Zoacres_ read _Zoarces_ - - 1, " 7, _for_ jaws _read_ jaw - - 14, " 9, _for_ hetercoercal _read_ heterocercal - - 136, " 3, for _Evermannellus_ read _Evermannella_ - - 170, " 11, _for_ the fin _read_ the dorsal fin - - 171, " 10, _for_ have _read_ has - - 303, legend, _for_ Lacepède _read_ Lacépède - - 307, line 14, _for_ vertebrate _read_ vertebral - - 311, " 12, not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least - developed in those species which cling - closest to the bottom of the stream - - 350, legend, for _Apomotes_ read _Apomotis_ - - 355, line 18, _for_ ours _read_ our - - 357, " 14, _for_ chætodon _read_ Chætodon - - 358, " 17, for _Scriænidæ_ read _Sciænidæ_ - - 360, " 14, for _Percesoces_ read _Percesoces_ - - 409, " 16, for _naseus_ read _Naseus_ - - 419, " 23, _for_ of the generic of this group _read_ - separating the group into genera - - 440, " 17, _for_ Chinnook _read_ Chinook - - 459, " 24, _for_ but the most _read_ but most - - 459, " 25, _for_ thme _read_ them - - 467, " 14, for _Typhogobius_ read _Typhlogobius_ - - 472, lines 34, _omit_ "but never in the United States". - 35, Specimens of _Regalecus_ have been taken at - Anclote Key, Florida, and at the Tortugas. - - 580, col. 3, line 17, _for_ 165 _read_ 105 - -The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology -necessitates a few changes in generic names used in this book. - - Thus _Amia_ (ganoid) becomes _Amiatus_ - _Apogon_ becomes _Amia_ - _Scarus_ becomes _Callyodon_ - _Teuthis_ becomes _Hepatus_ - _Acanthurus_ becomes _Monoceros_ - _Paramia_ becomes _Cheilodipterus_ - _Centropomus_ (_Oxylabrax_) remains _Centropomus_ - _Lucioperca_ (_Centropomus_) becomes _Sander_ - _Pomatomus_ (_Cheilodipterus_) remains _Pomatomus_ - _Nomeus_ (_Gobiomorus_) remains _Nomeus_ - _Galeus_ (_Galeorhinus_) remains _Galeus_ - _Carcharias_ (_Carcharhinus_) remains _Carcharias_ - -Footnote 1: - - For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest - of Dr. B. W. Evermann. - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE GANOIDS - - -=SUBCLASS Actinopteri.=—In our glance over the taxonomy of the earlier -Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, we have detached from the main stem -one after another a long series of archaic or primitive types. We have -first set off those with rudimentary notochord, then those with -retrogressive development who lose the notochord, then those without -skull or brain, then those without limbs or lower jaw. The residue -assume the fish-like form of body, but still show great differences -among themselves. We have then detached those without membrane-bones, or -trace of lung or air-bladder. We next part company with those having the -air-bladder a veritable lung, and those with an ancient type of paired -fins, a jointed axis fringed with rays, and those having the palate -still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left only those having -fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the modern fish. -For all these in all their variety, as a class or subclass, the name -_Actinopteri_, or _Actinopterygii_, suggested by Professor Cope, is now -generally adopted. The shorter form, _Actinopteri_, being equally -correct is certainly preferable. This term (ακτίς, ray; πτερόν or -πτερύξ, fin) refers to the structure of the paired fins. In all these -fishes the bones supporting the fin-rays are highly specialized and at -the same time concealed by the general integument of the body. In -general two bones connect the pectoral fin with the shoulder-girdle. The -hypercoracoid is a flat square bone, usually perforated by a foramen. -Lying below it and parallel with it is the irregularly formed -hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, the actinosts, or -pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, which actually support the -fin-rays. In the more specialized forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts are -few (four to six) in number, but in the more primitive types, or -Ganoids, they may remain numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen -in the Crossopterygians, and especially in _Polypterus_. Other -variations may occur; the two coracoids sometimes are imperfect or -specially modified, the upper sometimes without a foramen, and the -actinosts may be distorted in form or position. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 1.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_ - (Ayres). -] - -=The Series Ganoidei.=—Among the lower _Actinopteri_ many archaic traits -still persist, and in its earlier representatives the group approaches -closely to the _Crossopterygii_, although no forms actually intermediate -are known either living or fossil. The great group of _Actinopteri_ may -be divided into two series or subclasses, the _Ganoidei_, or -_Chrondrostei_, containing those forms, mostly extinct, which retain -archaic traits of one sort or another, and the _Teleostei_, or bony -fishes, in which most of the primitive characters have disappeared. -Doubtless all of the _Teleostei_ are descended from a ganoid ancestry. - -Even among the _Ganoidei_, as the term is here restricted, there remains -a very great variety of form and structure. The fossil and existing -forms do not form continuous series, but represent the tips and remains -of many diverging branches perhaps from some Crossopterygian central -stock. The group constitutes at least three distinct orders and, as a -whole, does not admit of perfect definition. In most but not all of the -species the tail is distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of -symmetry of the tail in some Teleosts being confined to the bones and -not evident without dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the skeleton -still cartilaginous, and in some it remains in a very primitive -condition. Usually the Ganoids have an armature of bony plates, -diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that developed on the teeth. In all -of them the pectoral fin has numerous basal bones or actinosts. All of -them have the air-bladder highly developed, usually cellular and -functional as a lung, but connecting with the dorsal side of the gullet, -not with the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms there -is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms retain also -the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral valve of the -intestines found in the more archaic types of fishes. But traces of some -or all of these structures are found in some bony fishes, and their -presence in the Ganoids by no means justifies the union of the Ganoids -with the sharks, Dipnoans, and Crossopterygians to form a great primary -class, _Palæichthyes_, as proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of -body may be found among the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these fishes -were scarcely less varied and perhaps scarcely less abundant than the -Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They far exceed the Crossopterygians in -number and variety of forms. Transitional forms connecting the two -groups are thus far not recognized. So far as fossils show, the -characteristic actinopterous fin with its reduced and altered basal -bones appeared at once without intervening gradations. - -The name _Ganoidei_ (γάνος, brightness; εἶδος, resemblance), alluding to -the enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to those forms, mostly -extinct, which were covered with bony scales or hard plates of one sort -or another. As the term was originally defined, mailed catfishes, -sea-horses, _Agonidæ_, _Arthrodires_, _Ostracophores_, and other wholly -unrelated types were included with the garpikes and sturgeons as -Ganoids. Most of these intruding forms among living fishes were -eliminated by Johannes Müller, who recognized the various archaic -characters common to the existing forms after the removal of the mailed -Teleosts. Still later Huxley separated the Crossopterygians as a -distinct group, while others have shown that the _Ostracophori_ and -_Arthrodira_ should be placed far from the garpike in systematic -classification. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped the name -Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through the many meanings -attached to it. Others have kept it as a convenient group name for the -orders of archaic _Actinopteri_. For these varied and more or less -divergent forms it seems convenient to retain it. As an adjective -"ganoid" is sometimes used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled -scales, some-in the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes. - -=Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?=—Several writers have urged that the -_Ganoidei_, even as thus restricted, should not be considered as a -natural group, whether subclass, order, or group of orders. The reasons -for this view in brief are the following: - -1. The group is heterogeneous. The _Amiidæ_ differ more from the other -Ganoids than they do from the herring-like Teleosts. The garpikes, -sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge widely from each other and -from the _Palæoniscidæ_ and the _Platysomidæ_. Each of the living -families represents the residue or culmination of a long series, in some -cases advancing, as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps -degenerating, as in the case of the sturgeons. - -2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several (the -cellular air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the spiral valve in -the intestine, the heterocercal tail) are all possessed in greater or -less degree by certain _Isospondyli_ or allies of the herring. All these -characters are still better developed in _Crossoptergyii_ and -_Dipneusti_, and each one disappears by degrees. Of the characters drawn -from the soft parts we can know nothing so far as the extinct Ganoids -are concerned. - -3. The optic chiasma, thus far characteristic of Ganoids as distinct -from Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged that in closely -related species of lizards some have the optic chiasma and others do -not. This, however, proves nothing as to the value of the same character -among fishes. - -4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the same character -as the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed fishes, or that from -fishes with a duct to the air-bladder to those without such duct. - -Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient to retain -the Ganoidei (or _Chrondrostei_ if the older name be discarded on -account of the many meanings attached to it) as a group equivalent to -that of _Teleostei_ within the class or subclass of _Actinopteri_. It -comprises the transitional forms between the _Crossopterygii_ and the -bony fishes, and its members are especially characteristic of the -Mesozoic age, ranging from the Devonian to the present era. - -Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question we may -quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass of Ganoids, the -first by Francis M. Balfour and William Kitchen Parker, the second from -the pen of Theodore Gill. - -Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp. -430-433) thus discuss the - -=Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.=—"Alexander Agassiz concludes his -memoir on the development of _Lepidosteus_ by pointing out that in spite -of certain affinities in other directions this form is 'not so far -removed from the bony fishes as has been supposed.' Our own observations -go far to confirm Agassiz's opinion. - -"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development of -_Lepidosteus_ is strikingly Teleostean. In addition to the general -Teleostean features of the embryo and larva, which can only be -appreciated by those who have had an opportunity of practically working -at the subject, we may point to the following developmental features[2] -as indicative of Teleostean affinities: - -"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel of the -epiblast. - -"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic stratum. - -"(3) The mode of development of the gut. - -"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though the pronephros of -_Lepidosteus_ has primitive characters not retained by Teleostei. - -"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral column. - -Footnote 2: - - The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to - _Lepidosteus_ and Teleostei, but are always eminently characteristic - of the latter. - -"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters there -are not a few important adult characters: - -"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands. - -"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of numerous -so-called pancreatic cæca. - -"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine. - -"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of the -cerebellum; the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores on the -infundibulum, and of tori semi-circulares in the mid-brain. - -"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to which we have -just called attention, a list containing not less important characters, -both embryological and adult, separating _Lepidosteus_ from the -Teleostei, can be drawn up: - -"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus. - -"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters. - -"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying the semen from -the testes to the kidney, and through the tubules of the latter into the -kidney-duct. - -"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill. - -"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character may possibly -break down with the extension of our knowledge. - -"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon and the -cerebral hemispheres. - -"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves. - -"(8) The absence of a pecten, and presence of a vascular membrane -between the vitreous humor and the retina. - -"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ. - -"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal arches of the -tail with the processes of the vertebral column. - -"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral and -ventro-lateral divisions. - -"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum. - -"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate that -Lepidosteus cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we hold that -Müller's view is correct, according to which _Lepidosteus_ is a true -Ganoid. - -"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however, recently -been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist as Günther, and it -may therefore be well to consider how far the group as defined by Müller -is a natural one for living forms, and how far recent researches enable -us to improve upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the -characters of the Ganoids are thus shortly stated: - -"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular or rounded -cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates, or are quite naked. -The fins are often, but not always, beset with a double or single row of -spinous plates or splints. The caudal fin embraces occasionally in its -upper lobe the end of the vertebral column, which may be prolonged to -the end of the upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of -Teleostei. The gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under an -operculum, like those of Teleostei. Many of them have an accessory organ -of respiration, in the form of an opercular gill, which is distinct from -the pseudobranch, and can be present together with the latter; many also -have spiracles like Elasmobranchii. They have many valves in the stem of -the aorta like the latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the -aorta. Their ova are transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts. -Their optic nerves do not cross each other. The intestine is often -provided with a spiral valve, like Elasmobranchii. They have a -swimming-bladder with a duct, like many Teleostei. Their pelvic fins are -abdominal. - -"'If we include in a definition only those characters which are -invariable, the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being those fish with -numerous valves to the stem of the aorta, which is also provided with a -muscular coat, with free gills, and an operculum, and with abdominal -pelvic fins.' - -"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to his paper, -the presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a processus -falciformis and a choroid gland. - -"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we may probably -add the following: - -"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open by a common -urogenital aperture behind the anus. - -"(2) Skull hyostylic. - -"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated, though -perhaps _Amia_ may be found to resemble the Teleostei in this -particular. - -"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the larva. - -"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed. - -"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is not divided -behind into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided part being -extremely thin. - -"(7) Abdominal pores always present. - -"The great number of characters just given are amply sufficient to -differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously enough, the only -characters, amongst the whole series which have been given, which can be -regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids are (1) the characters of the brain, -and (2) the fact of the oviducts and kidney-ducts uniting together and -opening by a common pore to the exterior. - -"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an indication of -how widely separated in organization are the different members of this -great group. - -"At the same time, the only group with which existing Ganoids have close -affinities is the Teleostei. The points they have in common with the -Elasmobranchii are merely such as are due to the fact that both retain -numerous primitive vertebrate characters,[3] and the gulf which really -separates them is very wide. - -Footnote 3: - - As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the - frequent presence of a spiracle; (3) the frequent presence of a - communication between the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4) the - heterocercal tail. - -"There is again no indication of any close affinity between the Dipnoans -and, at any rate, existing Ganoids. - -"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of a very -primitive stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder into a true -lung, the highly specialized character of their limbs,[4] their peculiar -autostylic skulls, the fact of their ventral nasal openings leading -directly into the mouth, their multi-segmented bars (interspinous bars) -directly prolonged from the neural and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays -of the unpaired dorsal and ventral fins, and their well-developed -cerebral hemispheres, very unlike those of Ganoids and approaching the -Amphibian type, they form a very well-defined group and one very -distinctly separated from the Ganoids. - -Footnote 4: - - Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired - Fins of Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881. - -"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed from the -Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links uniting these Ganoids with -the Teleostei have been so fully preserved in the existing fauna of the -globe that the two groups almost run into each other. If, in fact, we -were anxious to make any radical change in the ordinary classification -of fishes, it would be by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather -constituting the Teleostei into one of the subgroups of the Ganoids, -equivalent to the Chondrostei. We do not recommend such an arrangement, -which in view of the great preponderance of the Teleostei amongst living -fishes would be highly inconvenient, but the step from _Amia_ to the -Teleostei is certainly not so great as that from the Chondrostei to -Amia, and is undoubtedly less than that from the Selachii to the -Holocephali." - -=Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.=—Dr. Gill observes ("Families -of Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti) was originally -framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal term for fishes having the scales -(when present) angular and covered with enamel; and in the group so -characterized were combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as -the Teleostean orders Plectognathi, Lophobranchii, and Nematognathi, and -(subsequently) the genus _Sudis_ (_Arapaima_), the last being regarded -as a Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with these limits or -characters. - -"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy and -classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated -memoirs on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal name Ganoidei; -those memoirs have left an impression on ichthyology perhaps more -decided than made by any other contributions to science, and that -published _in extenso_ will ever be classical; numerous as have been the -modifications since introduced into the system, no forms except those -recognized by Müller (unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since -among the Ganoids. - -"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute a natural -group, and that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic nerves and -multivalvular bulbus arteriosus) alleged by Müller to be peculiar to the -teleostomous forms combined therein are problematical, and only -_inferentially_ supposed to be common to the extinct Ganoids so called, -and, finally, such objections couched in too strong language have -culminated in the assertion that the characters in question are actually -_shared_ by other physostome fishes. - -"No _demonstration_, however, has been presented as yet that any -physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma and multivalvular -_bulbus arteriosus_, and the statement to the contrary seems to have -been the result of a venial misapprehension of Prof. Kner's statements, -or the offspring of impressions left on the memory by his assertions, in -forgetfulness of his exact words. - -"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters referred to, -merely objects: (1) that they are _problematical_, are not confirmable -for the extinct types, and were _probably_ not existent in certain forms -that have been referred to the Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of -the valves of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among recent Ganoids is so great -as to show the unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is -developed in the intestine of several osseous fishes ('genera of the -so-called intermediate clupeoid groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and (4) -the chiasma of the optic nerves in no wise furnishes a positive -character for the Ganoids. - -"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the case of the -intestinal spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague. The failure of the -intestinal spiral valve, as a diagnostic character, has long been -conceded, and in this case only have the forms that _prove_ the failure -been referred to; in the other cases, where it would be especially -desirable to have indicated the actual types falsifying the universality -or exclusiveness of the characters, they have not been referred to, and -the objections must be met as if they were not known to exist. - -"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used, problematical, -inasmuch as no examination can be made of the soft parts of extinct -forms, but with equal force may it be urged that any characters that -have not been or cannot be _directly_ confirmed are problematical in the -case of all other groups (e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied -that the coordination of parts has been so invariably verified that all -probabilities are in favor of similar coordination in any given case. - -"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number of valves -of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among the various Ganoids, and even among the -species of a single family (e.g., _Lepidosteidæ_), but the character of -Ganoids lies not in the number, more or less, but in the greater number -and relations (in contradistinction to the opposite pair of the -Teleosts) in conjunction with the development of a _bulbus arteriosus_. -In no other forms of Teleostomes have similar relations and structures -been yet demonstrated. - -"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already been -conceded, and no great stress has ever been laid on the character. - -"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all the known -Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms (e.g., _Arapaima_, -_Osteoglossum_, and _Clupeiform_ types) agreeing with typical physostome -Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc., but which at the same time -simulate most certain Ganoids (e.g., _Amia_) in form. - -"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the arguments -against the validity of title, to natural association, of the Ganoids, -have to meet the positive evidence of the coordinations noted; the value -of such characteristics and coordinations can only be affected or -destroyed by the demonstration that in all other respects there is (1) -very close agreement of certain of the constituents of the subclass with -other forms, and (2) inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those -forms from _any_ (not all) other of the Ganoids, and consequently -evidence _ubi plurima nitent_ against the taxonomic value of the -characters employed for distinction. - -"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance between -the Hyoganoids (_Lepisosteus_, _Amia_, etc.) and ordinary physostome -Teleosts than between the former and the other orders of Ganoids, but it -is equally true that they agree in other respects than in the brain and -heart with the more generalized Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1) -the paraglenal elements undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid, -hypocoracoid, and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided, that -is, differentiated into metapterygium and mesopterygium); and (3) those -with ossified skeletons agree in the greater number of elements in the -lower jaw. Therefore, until these coordinates fail, it seems advisable -to recognize the Ganoids as constituents of a natural series; and -especially on account of the superior taxonomic value of modifications -of the brain and heart in other classes of vertebrates, for the same -reason, and to keep prominently before the mind the characters in -question, it appears also advisable to designate the series, until -further discovery, as a subclass. - -"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized Teleosts at -least _traces_ of some of the characters now considered to be peculiar -to the Ganoids may be discovered. In anticipation of such a possibility, -the author had at first discarded the subclass, recognizing the group -only as one of the 'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration -convinces him of the propriety of classification representing known -facts and legitimate inferences rather than too much anticipation. - -"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with increasing -knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but little more than the -expressions of our want of knowledge of the intermediate forms; it may -in truth be said that ability to segregate a class into well-defined -groups is in ratio to our ignorance of all the terms." - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE GANOIDS—Continued - - -=CLASSIFICATION of Ganoids.=—The subdivision of the series of Ganoidei -into orders offers great difficulty from the fact of the varying -relationships of the members of the group and the fact that the great -majority of the species are known only from broken skeletons preserved -in the rocks. It is apparently easy to separate those with cartilaginous -skeletons from those with these bones more or less ossified. It is also -easy to separate those with bony scales or plates from those having the -scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton grades into the other, and -there is a bony basis even to the thinnest of scales found in this -group. Among the multitude of names and divisions proposed we may -recognize six orders, for which the names _Lysopteri_, _Chondrostei_, -_Selachostomi_, _Pycnodonti_, _Lepidostei_, and _Halecomorphi_ are not -inappropriate. Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from -the first primitive group. - -=Order Lysopteri.=—In the most primitive order, called _Lysopteri_ -(λυσός, loose; πτερόν, fin) by Cope, _Heterocerci_ by Zittel and -Eastman, and the "ascending series of Chondrostei" by Woodward, we find -the nearest approach to the Chondropterygians. In this order the arches -of the vertebræ are more or less ossified, the body is more or less -short and deep, covered with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus -is well developed, with numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are -present, and the fins provided with fulcra. Dorsal and anal fins are -present, with rays more numerous than their supports; ventral fin with -basal supports which are imperfectly ossified; caudal fin mostly -heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in form. All the members of this -group are now extinct. - -=The Palæoniscidæ.=—The numerous genera of this order are referred to -three families, the _Palæoniscidæ_, _Platysomidæ_, and _Dictyopygidæ_; a -fourth family, _Dorypteridæ_, of uncertain relations, being also -tentatively recognized. The family of _Palæoniscidæ_ is the most -primitive, ranging from the Devonian to the Lias, and some of them seem -to have entered fresh waters in the time of the coal-measures. These -fishes have the body elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin. -The tail is heterocercal and the body covered with rhombic plates. -Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like scales are developed on the upper edge -of the caudal fin in most recent Ganoids, and often the back has a -median row of undeveloped scales. A multitude of species and genera are -recorded. A typical form is the genus _Palæoniscum_,[5] with many -species represented in the rocks of various parts of the world. The -longest known species is _Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ from the Permian -of Germany and England. _Palæoniscum magnum_, sixteen inches long, -occurs in the Permian of Germany. From _Canobius_, the most primitive -genus, to _Coccolepis_, the most modern, is a continuous series, the -suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique, the basal bones of -the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther forward, and the scales -more completely imbricate. Other prominent genera are _Amblypterus_, -_Eurylepis_, _Cheirolepis_, _Rhadinichthys_, _Pygopterus_, -_Elonichthys_, _Ærolepis_, _Gyrolepis_, _Myriolepis_, _Oxygnathus_, -_Centrolepis_, and _Holurus_. - -Footnote 5: - - This word is usually written _Palæoniscus_, but Blainville, its author - (1818), chose the neuter form. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 2.—_Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ Blainville. Family - _Palæoniscidæ_. (After Zittel.) -] - -=The Platysomidæ.=—The _Platysomidæ_ are different in form, the body -being deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped, with very long dorsal -and anal fins. In other respects they are very similar to the -_Palæoniscidæ_, the osteology being the same. The _Palæoniscidæ_ were -rapacious fishes with sharp teeth, the _Platysomidæ_ less active, and, -from the blunter teeth, probably feeding on small animals, as crabs and -snails. - -The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and held together as -a coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The most extreme form is -_Platysomus_, with the body very deep. _Platysomus gibbosus_ and other -species occur in the Permian rocks of Germany. _Cheirodus_ is similar to -_Platysomus_, but without ventral fins. _Eurynotus_, the most primitive -genus, is remarkable for its large pectoral fins. _Eurynotus crenatus_ -occurs in the Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are -_Mesolepis_, _Globulodus_, _Wardichthys_, and _Cheirodopsis_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 3.—_Eurynotus crenatus_ Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family - _Platysomidæ_. (After Traquair.) -] - -Some of the _Platysomidæ_ have the interneural spines projecting through -the skin before the dorsal fin. This condition is found also in certain -bony fishes allied to the _Carangidæ_. - -=The Dorypteridæ.=—_Dorypterus hoffmani_, the type of the singular -Palæozoic family of _Dorypteridæ_, with thoracic or sub-jugular -many-rayed ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appearance, with distinct -resemblances to certain Scombroid forms, but with a heterocercal tail -like a ganoid, imperfectly ossified back-bone, and other very archaic -characters. The body is apparently scaleless, unlike the true -_Platysomidæ_, in which the scales are highly developed. A second -species, _Dorypterus althausi_, also from the German copper shales, has -been described. This species has lower fins than _Dorypterus hoffmani_, -but may be the adult of the same type. _Dorypterus_ is regarded by -Woodward as a specialized offshoot from the _Platysomidæ_. The -many-rayed ventrals and the general form of the body and fins suggest -affinity with the _Lampridæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 4.—_Dorypterus hoffmani_ Germar, restored. (After Hancock and - Howse.) -] - -=Dictyopygidæ.=—In the _Dictyopygidæ_ (_Catopteridæ_), the body is -gracefully elongate, less compressed, the heterocercal tail is short and -abruptly turned upwards, the teeth are sharp and usually hooked, and the -bony plates well developed. Of this group two genera are recognized, -each containing numerous species. In _Redfieldius_ (= _Catopterus_ -Redfield, not of Agassiz) the dorsal is inserted behind the anal, while -in _Dictyopyge_ this is not the case. _Redfieldius gracilis_ and other -species are found in the Triassic of the Connecticut River. _Dictyopyge -macrura_ is found in the same region, and _Dictyopyge catoptera_ and -other species in Europe. - -=Order Chondrostei.=—The order _Chondrostei_ (χόνδρος, cartilage; -ὀστέον, bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized by the -persistence of the notochord in greater or less degree, the endoskeleton -remaining cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts and baseosts of the median -fins are arranged in simple regular series and the rays are more -numerous than the supporting elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of -infraclavicular plates. The pelvic fins have well-developed baseosts. -The branchiostegals are few or wanting. In the living forms, and -probably in all others, a matter which can never be ascertained, the -optic nerves are not decussating, but form an optic chiasma, and the -intestine is provided with a spiral valve. In all the species there is -one dorsal and one anal fin, separate from the caudal. The teeth are -small or wanting, the body naked or covered with bony plates; the caudal -fin is usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To this -order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids belong, as -well as the modern degenerate forms known as sturgeons and perhaps the -paddle-fishes, which are apparently derived from fishes with rhombic -enameled scales. The species extend from the Upper Carboniferous to the -present time, being most numerous in the Triassic. - -At this point in Woodward's system diverges a descending series, -characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and elongate form, this -leading through the synthetic type of _Chondrosteidæ_ to the modern -sturgeon and paddle-fish, which are regarded as degenerate types. - -The family of _Saurorhynchidæ_ contains pike-like forms, with long jaws, -and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is not heterocercal, but -short-diphycercal; the bones of the head are covered with enamel, and -those of the roof of the skull form a continuous shield. The opercular -apparatus is much reduced, and there are no branchiostegals. The fins -are all small, without fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal -series of bony scutes, but is not covered with continuous scales. The -principal genus is _Saurorhynchus_ (= _Belonorhynchus_; the former being -the earlier name) from the Triassic. _Saurorhynchus acutus_ from the -English Triassic is the best known species. - -The family of _Chondrosteidæ_ includes the Triassic precursors of the -sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon, but the body is -scaleless except on the upper caudal lobe, and there are no plates on -the median line of the skull. The opercle and subopercle are present, -the jaws are toothless, and there are a few well-developed caudal rays. -The caudal has large fulcra. The single well-known species of this -group, _Chondrosteus acipenseroides_, is found in the Triassic rocks of -England and reaches a length of about three feet. It much resembles a -modern sturgeon, though differing in several technical respects. -_Chondrosteus pachyurus_ is based on the tail of a species of much -larger size and _Gyrosteus mirabilis_, also of the English Triassic, is -known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18 to 20 feet in -length. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 5.—_Chondrosteus acipenseroides_ Egerton. Family _Chondrosteidæ_. - (After Woodward.) -] - -The sturgeons constitute the recent family of _Acipenseridæ_, -characterized by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and the presence -of four barbels below the snout. In the _Acipenseridæ_ there are no -branchiostegals and a median series of plates is present on the head. -The body is armed with five rows of large bony bucklers,—each often with -a hooked spine, sharpest in the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are -developed on the tail, besides large fulcra. The sturgeons are the -youngest of the Ganoids, not occurring before the Lower Eocene, one -species, _Acipenser toliapicus_ occurring in the London clay. About -thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred to three genera: -_Acipenser_, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, _Scaphirhynchus_, -in the Mississippi Valley, and _Kessleria_ (later called -_Pseudoscaphirhynchus_), in Central Asia alone. Most of the species -belong to the genus _Acipenser_, which abounds in all the rivers and -seas in which salmon are found. Some of the smaller species spend their -lives in the rivers, ascending smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons -are marine, ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the -spawning season. They range in length from 2½ to 30 feet. - -All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse and beefy. -From their large size and abundance they possess great economic value. -The eggs of some species are prepared as caviar. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 6.—Common Sturgeon, _Acipenser sturio_ Mitchill. Potomac River. -] - -The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish. The mouth, -underneath the long snout, is very protractile, sucker-like, and without -teeth. Before it on the under side of the snout are four long feelers. -Ordinarily the sturgeon feeds on mud and snails with other small -creatures, but I have seen large numbers of Eulachon (_Thaleichthys_) in -the stomach of the Columbia River sturgeon (_Acipenser transmontanus_). -This fish and the Eulachon run in the Columbia at the same time, and the -sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon will draw into it numbers of small -fishes who may be unsuspiciously engaged in depositing their spawn. In -the spawning season in June these clumsy fishes will often leap wholly -out of the water in their play. The sturgeons have a rough skin besides -five series of bony plates which change much with age and which in very -old examples are sometimes lost or absorbed in the skin. The common -sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is _Acipenser sturio_. -_Acipenser huso_ and numerous other species are found in Russia and -Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia is _Acipenser -transmontanus_, and the great sturgeon of Japan _Acipenser kikuchii_. -Smaller species are found farther south, as in the Mediterranean and -along the Carolina coast. Other small species abound in rivers and -lakes. _Acipenser rubicundus_ is found throughout the Great Lake region -and the Mississippi Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six -feet long, and at Sandusky, Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were -taken in the pound nets. A similar species, _Acipenser mikadoi_, is -abundant and valuable in the streams of northern Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 7.—Lake Sturgeon, _Acipenser rubicundus_ Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich. -] - -In the genus _Acipenser_ the snout is sharp and conical, and the -shark-like spiracle is still retained. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 8.—Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. _Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_ - (Rafinesque). Ohio River. -] - -The shovel-nosed sturgeon (_Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_) has lost the -spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly bony, and the -snout is broad and shaped like a shovel. The single species of -_Scaphirhynchus_ abounds in the Mississippi Valley, a fish more -interesting to the naturalist than to the fisherman. It is the smallest -of our sturgeons, often taken in the nets in large numbers. - -In _Scaphirhynchus_ the tail is covered by a continuous coat of mail. In -_Kessleria[6] fedtschenkoi_, _rossikowi_, and other Asiatic species the -tail is not mailed. - -Footnote 6: - - These species have also been named _Pseudoscaphirhynchus_. _Kessleria_ - is the earlier name, left undefined by its describer, although the - type was indicated. - -=Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.=—Another type of Ganoids, allied -to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate, is that of the -paddle-fishes, called by Cope _Selachostomi_ (σέλαχος, shark; στόμα, -mouth). This group consists of a single family, _Polyodontidæ_, having -apparently little in common with the other Ganoids, and in appearance -still more suggestive of the sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is -derived from the long flat blade in which the snout terminates. This -extends far beyond the mouth, is more or less sensitive, and is used to -stir up the mud in which are found the minute organisms on which the -fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very minute barbels corresponding -to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular names of spoonbill, duckbill -cat, and shovel-fish are also derived from the form of the snout. The -skin is nearly smooth, the tail is heterocercal, the teeth are very -small, and a long fleshy flap covers the gill-opening. The very long and -slender gill-rakers serve to strain the food (worms, leeches, -water-beetles, crustaceans, and algæ) from the muddy waters from which -they are taken. The most important part of this diet consists of -Entomostracans. The single American species, _Polyodon spathula_, -abounds through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger streams. It -reaches a length of three or four feet. It is often taken in the nets, -but the coarse tough flesh, like that of our inferior catfish, is not -much esteemed. In the great rivers of China, the Yangtse and the Hoang -Ho, is a second species, _Psephurus gladius_, with narrower snout, fewer -gill-rakers, and much coarser fulcra on the tail. The habits, so far as -known, are much the same. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 9.—Paddle-fish, _Polyodon spathula_ (Walbaum). Ohio River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 10.—Paddle-fish. _Polyodon Spathula_ (Walbaum). Ohio River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 11.—_Psephurus gladius_ Günther. Yangtse River. (After Günther.) -] - -_Crossopholis magnicaudatus_ of the Green River Eocene shales is a -primitive member of the _Polyodontidæ_. Its rostral blade is shorter -than that of _Polyodon_, and the body is covered with small thin scales, -each in the form of a small grooved disk with several posterior -denticulations, arranged in oblique series but not in contact. The -scales are quadrate in form, and more widely separated anteriorly than -posteriorly. As in _Polyodon_, the teeth are minute and there are no -branchiostegals. The squamation of this fish shows that _Polyodon_ as -well as _Acipenser_ may have sprung from a type having rhombic scales. -The tail of a Cretaceous fish, _Pholidurus disjectus_ from the -Cretaceous of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family of -_Polyodontidæ_. - -=Order Pycnodonti.=—In the extinct order _Pycnodonti_, as recognized by -Dr. O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and without ossification, the -body is very deep, the teeth are always blunt, the opercular apparatus -is reduced, the dorsal fin many-rayed, and the fins without fulcra. The -scales are rhombic, but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail. -Many genera and species of _Pycnodontidæ_ are described, mostly from -Triassic and Jurassic rocks of Europe. Leading European genera are -_Pycnodus_, _Typodus_ (_Mesodon_), _Gyrodus_, and _Palæobalistum_. The -numerous American species belong to _Typodus_, _Cœlodus_, _Pycnodus_, -_Hadrodus_, and _Uranoplosus_. These forms have no affinity with -_Balistes_, although there is some resemblance in appearance, which has -suggested the name of _Palæobalistum_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 12.—_Gyrodus hexagonus_ Agassiz. Family _Pycnodontidæ_. - Lithographic Shales. -] - -Woodward places these fishes with the _Semionotidæ_ and _Halecomorphi_ -in his suborder of _Protospondyli_. It seems preferable, however, to -consider them as forming a distinct order. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 13.—_Mesturus verrucosus_ Wagner. Family _Pycnodontidæ_. (After - Woodward.) -] - -=Order Lepidostei.=—We may place, following Eastman's edition of Zittel, -the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single order, for which -Huxley's name _Lepidostei_ may well be used. In this group the notochord -is persistent, and the vertebræ are in various degrees of ossification -and of different forms. The opercles are usually complete, the -branchiostegals present, and there is often a gular plate. There is no -infraclavicle and the jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and -the supports of the fins agree in number with the rays. The tail is more -or less heterocercal. The scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique -series, which are often united above and below with peg-and-socket -articulations. This group contains among recent fishes only the garpikes -(_Lepisosteus_). They are closely allied to the _Palæoniscidæ_, but the -skeleton is more highly ossified. On the other hand they approach very -closely to the ancestors of the bowfin, _Amia_. One genus, -_Acentrophorus_, appears in the Permian; the others are scattered -through Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, the isolated group of gars still -persisting. In the gars the vertebræ are concavo-convex, with -ball-and-socket joints. In the others the vertebræ are incomplete or -else double-concave, as in fishes generally. - -For the group here called _Lepidostei_ numerous other names have been -used corresponding wholly or in part. _Rhomboganoidea_ of Gill covers -nearly the same groups; _Holostei_ of Müller and _Hyoganoidea_ of Gill -include the _Halecomorphi_ also; _Ginglymodi_ of Cope includes the -garpikes only, while _Ætheospondyli_ of Woodward includes the -_Aspidorhynchidæ_ and the garpikes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 14.—_Semionotus kapffi_ Fraas, restored. Family _Semionotidæ_. - (After Fraas, per Nicholson.) -] - -The _Semionotidæ_ (_Stylodontidæ_) are robust-bodied Ganoids, having the -vertebræ developed as rings, the jaws with several rows of teeth, those -of the outer row styliform. - -_Semionotus bergeri_ is a well-known species, with the body moderately -elongate. _Semionotus agassizi_ and many other species occur in the -Triassic of the Connecticut valley and in New Jersey. The body is very -deep in the related genus _Dapedium_, and the head is covered with -strong bony plates. _Dapedium politum_ is a well-known species of the -English Triassic. _Tetragonolepis_ (_Pleurolepis_) is a similar form, -very deep and compressed, with strong, firm scales. - -In the extinct family of _Lepidotidæ_ the teeth are conical or -chisel-shaped, while blunt or molar teeth are on the inside of the -mouth, which is small, and the suspensorium of the mandible is vertical -or inclined forward. The body is robust-fusiform, covered with rhomboid -scales; the vertebræ form rings about the notochord; the teeth are -either sharp or blunt. The dorsal fin is short, with large fulcra. - -The best known of the numerous genera are _Lepidotes_, rather elongate -in body, with large, blunt teeth. Of the many species of _Lepidotes_, -_Lepidotes elvensis_ abounds in the English and German Triassic, and -_Lepidotes minor_ in the English Triassic. Another well-known European -species is _Lepidotes mantelli_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 15.—_Dapedium politum_ Leach, restored. Family _Semionotidæ_. - (After Woodward.) -] - -The _Isopholidæ_ (_Eugnathidæ_) differ from the families last named in -the large pike-like mouth with strong teeth. The mandibular suspensorium -is inclined backwards. The body is elongate, the vertebræ forming -incomplete rings; the dorsal fin is short with large fulcra. - -_Isopholis dentosus_ is found with numerous other species in the British -Triassic. _Caturus furcatus_ is especially characteristic of Triassic -rocks in Germany. _Ptycholepis marshi_ occurs in the Connecticut valley. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 16.—_Tetragonolepis semicinctus_ Brown. Lias. Family - _Semionotidæ_. (After Woodward.) -] - -The _Macrosemiidæ_ are elongate fishes with long dorsal fin, the -numerous species being found in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous -of Europe. _Macrosemius rostratus_ has a very high, continuous dorsal. -_Macropistius arenatus_ is found in the Cretaceous of Texas, the only -American species known. Prominent European genera are _Notagogus_, -_Ophiopsis_, and _Petalopteryx_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 17.—_Isopholis orthostomus_ (Agassiz). Lias. (After Woodward.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 18.—The Long-nosed Garpike, _Lepisosteus osseus_ (Linnæus). Fox - River, Wisconsin. (From nature; D. S. Jordan and M. L. McDonald, - 1874.) -] - -Intermediate between the allies of the gars and the modern herrings is -the large extinct family of _Pholidophoridæ_, referred by Woodward to -the _Isospondyli_, and by Eastman to the _Lepidostei_. These are small -fishes, fusiform in shape, chiefly of the Triassic and Jurassic. The -fins are fringed with fulcra, the scales are ganoid and rhombic, and the -vertebræ reduced to rings. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and -formed as in the _Isospondyli_. The caudal is scarcely heterocercal. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 19.—_Caturus elongatus_ Agassiz. Jurassic. Family _Isopholidæ_. - (After Zittel.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 20.—_Notagogus pentlandi_ Agassiz. Jurassic. Family - _Macrosemiidæ_. (After Woodward.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 21.—_Ptycholepis curtus_ Egerton. Lias. Family _Isopholidæ_. - (After Woodward.) -] - -Of _Pholidophorus_, with scales joined by peg-and-socket joints and -uniform in size, there are many species. _Pholidophorus latiusculus_ and -many others are found in the Triassic of England and the Continent. -_Pholidophorus americanus_ occurs in the Jurassic of South Dakota. -_Pleuropholis_, with the scales on the lateral line, which runs very -low, excessively deepened, is also widely distributed. I have before me -a new species from the Cretaceous rocks near Los Angeles. The -_Archæomænidæ_ differ from _Pholidophoridæ_ in having cycloid scales. In -both families the vertebræ are reduced to rings about the notochord. -From fishes allied to the _Pholidophoridæ_ the earliest _Isospondyli_ -are probably descended. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 22.—_Pholidophorus crenulatus_ Egerton. Lias. (After Woodward.) -] - -In the _Aspidorhynchidæ_ the snout is more or less produced, the -mandible has a distinct presymphysial bone, the vertebræ are -double-concave or ring-like, and the fins are without fulcra. This -family constitutes the suborder _Ætheospondyli_. In form these fishes -resemble _Albula_ and other modern types, but have mailed heads and an -ancient type of scales. Two genera are well known, _Aspidorhynchus_ and -_Belonostomus_. _Aspidorhynchus acutirostris_ reaches a length of three -feet, and is found in the Triassic lithographic stone of Bavaria. Other -species occur in rocks of Germany and England. - -_Belonostomus_ has the snout scarcely produced. _Belonostomus -sphyrænoides_ is the best known of the numerous species, all of the -Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. - -=Family Lepisosteidæ.=—The family of _Lepisosteidæ_, constituting the -suborder _Ginglymodi_ (γιγγλυμός, hinge), is characterized especially by -the form of the vertebræ. - -These are opisthocœlian, convex in front and concave behind, as in -reptiles, being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail is -moderately heterocercal, less so than in the _Halecomorphi_, and the -body is covered with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled scales in -structure similar to that of the teeth. A number of peculiar characters -are shown by these fishes, some of them having often been regarded as -reptilian traits. Notable features are the elongate, crocodile-like -jaws, the upper the longer, and both armed with strong teeth. The -mandible is without presymphysial bone. The fins are small with large -fulcra, and the scales are nearly uniform in size. - -All the species belong to a single family, _Lepisosteidæ_, which -includes the modern garpikes and their immediate relatives, some of -which occur in the early Tertiary. These voracious fishes are -characterized by long and slender cylindrical bodies, with enameled -scales and mailed heads and heterocercal tail. The teeth are sharp and -unequal. The skeleton is well ossified, and the animal itself is -extremely voracious. The vertebræ, reptile-like, are opisthocœlian, that -is, convex in front, concave behind, forming ball-and-socket joints. In -almost all other fishes they are amphicœlian or double-concave, the -interspace filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species, and -perhaps all the extinct species also, belong to the single genus -_Lepisosteus_ (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled -_Lepidosteus_). Of existing forms there are not many species, three to -five at the most, and they swarm in the lakes, bayous, and sluggish -streams from Lake Champlain to Cuba and along the coast to Central -America. The best known of the species is the long-nosed garpike, -_Lepisosteus osseus_, which is found throughout most of the Great Lake -region and the Mississippi Valley, and in which the long and slender -jaws are much longer than the rest of the head. The garpike frequents -quiet waters and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often lies quiet for -a long time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does not -readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It feeds on -crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly destructive, as -its bad reputation indicates. Fishermen everywhere destroy it without -mercy. Its flesh is rank and tough and unfit even for dogs. - -In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second dorsal and anal, -the filamentous tip of the tail passing through and beyond it. - -The short-nosed garpike, _Lepisosteus platystomus_, is generally common -throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short broad snout like the -alligator-gar, but seldom exceeds three feet in length. In size, color, -and habits it agrees closely with the common gar, differing only in the -form of the snout. The form is subject to much variation, and it is -possible that two or more species have been confounded. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 23.—Alligator-gar, _Lepisosteus tristœchus_ (Bloch). Cuba. -] - -The great alligator-gar, _Lepisosteus tristœchus_, reaches a length of -twenty feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of the streams about -the Gulf of Mexico. Its snout is broad and relatively wide, and its -teeth are very strong. It is very destructive to all sorts of -food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and its enameled scales resist a -spear or sometimes even shot. It breathes air to a certain extent by its -lungs, but soon dies in foul water, not having the tenacity of life seen -in _Amia_. - -=Embryology of the Garpike.=—Mr. Alexander Agassiz has given an account -of the embryology of the garpike, of which the following is an abstract: - -"The garpike comes up the St. Lawrence in May, lays its eggs about the -20th, and then disappears. The eggs are large, viscous, stick fast in an -isolated way to whatever they fall upon, and look much like those of -toads, having a large outer membrane and a small yolk. Artificial -fecundation failed, but about 500 naturally-laid eggs were secured, of -which all but 30 perished through mold. The young began to hatch in six -days. Out of 30 young hatched, 27 lived until the 15th of July. -Connection with the sharks appears in the similarity of the branchial -arches and by the presence of the lateral fold in which the pectoral -fins are formed; the way the tail is developed is very like that of the -bony fishes. Among the Ganoids it appears, as well as in ordinary -fishes, the dorsal cord is straight at first, then assumes a slightly -upward curve at the extremity, when finally there appears the beginning -of a lobe underneath, pointing to a complete heterocercal tail. All this -is as in the bony fishes, but this is the permanent condition of the -garpike, while in the bony fishes the extremity of the dorsal cord -becomes extinct. The mode of development of the pectoral lobe (very -large in this species) furnishes another resemblance. In the brain, and -in the mode of formation of the gills, a likeness to the sharks is -noticeable. The young garpikes move very slowly, and seem to float -quietly, save an exceedingly rapid vibration of the pectorals and the -tip of the tail. They do not swim about much, but attach themselves to -fixed objects by an extraordinary horseshoe-shaped ring of -sucker-appendages about the mouth. These appendages remain even after -the snout has become so extended that the ultimate shape is hinted at; -and furthermore, it is a remnant of this feature that forms the fleshy -bulb at the end of the snout in the adult. The investigations thus far -show that the young garpike has many characteristics in common with the -sharks and skates, but it is not so different from the bony fishes as -has been supposed." - -=Fossil Garpikes.=—A number of fossil garpikes, referred by Cope to the -genus _Clastes_ and by Eastman and Woodward to _Lepidosteus_, are found -in the Eocene of Europe and America. The most perfect of these remains -is called _Lepisosteus atrox_, upward of four feet long, as large as an -alligator-gar, which the species much resembles. Although found in the -Eocene, Dr. C. R. Eastman declares that "it has no positively archaic -features. If we inquire into the more remote or pre-Eocene history of -Lepidosteids, palæontology gives no answer. They blossom forth suddenly -and fully differentiated at the dawn of the Tertiary, without the least -clue to their ancestry, unheralded and unaccompanied by any intermediate -forms, and they have remained essentially unchanged ever since." - -Another fossil species is _Lepisosteus fimbriatus_, from the Upper -Eocene of England. Scales and other fragments of garpikes are found in -Germany, Belgium, and France, in Eocene and Miocene rocks. On some of -these the nominal genera _Naisia_, _Trichiurides_, and _Pneumatosteus_ -are founded. _Clastes_, regarded by Eastman as fully identical with -_Lepisosteus_, is said to have the "mandibular ramus without or with a -reduced fissure of the dental foramen, and without the groove continuous -with it in _Lepisosteus_. One series of large teeth, with small ones -external to them on the dentary bone." Most of the fossil forms belong -to _Clastes_, but the genus shows no difference of importance which will -distinguish it from the ordinary garpike. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 24.—Lower jaw of _Amia calva_ Linnæus, showing the gular plate. -] - -=Order Halecomorphi.=—To this order belong the allies, living or -extinct, of the bowfin (_Amia_), having for the most part cycloid scales -and vertebræ approaching those of ordinary fishes. The resemblance to -the _Isospondyli_, or herring group, is indicated in the name (Halec, a -herring; μορφή, form). The notochord is persistent, the vertebræ -variously ossified. The opercles are always complete. The -branchiostegals are broad and there is always a gular plate. The teeth -are pointed, usually strong. There is no infraclavicle. Fulcra are -present or absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in -number to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid, but -bony at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible complex, with -well-developed splenial rising into a coronoid process, which is -completed by a distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin with more than five -actinosts; scales ganoid or cycloid. In the living forms the air-bladder -is connected with the œsophagus through life; optic chiasma present; -intestine with a spiral valve. This group corresponds to the _Amioidei_ -of Lütken and essentially to the _Cycloganoidei_ of Gill. The -_Protospondyli_ (προτός, before; σπόνδυλος, vertebra) of Woodward -contains essentially the same elements. - -=Pachycormidæ.=—In the family of _Pachycormidæ_ the notochord is -persistent, the ethmoids and vomer fused and projecting between the -maxillaries to form the prominent snout, the teeth large, the body -fusiform, the dorsal short, with slender rays and few fulcra or none, -and the scales are thin and rhombic. The numerous species are -characteristic of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In _Sauropsis_ -(_longimana_) the body is elongate, and the pectoral fins are large and -sickle-shaped. _Euthynotus_ has small fulcra. In _Pachycormus_ -(_macropterus_, _esocinus_, etc.) the form is robust and the ventral -fins are wanting. In _Hypsycormus_ ventrals are present, and the caudal -deeply forked. - -In the American family of _Protosphyrænidæ_ the jaws are armed with very -strong teeth, as in the Barracuda, which, however, the species do not -resemble in other respects. _Protosphyræna nitida_, _perniciosa_, and -numerous other extinct forms, some of them of large size, were voracious -inhabitants of the Cretaceous seas, and are found fossil, especially in -North Carolina and Kansas. Numerous species called _Erisichthe_ and -_Pelecopterus_ are all referred by Hay to _Protosphyræna_. In this -family the scapula and coracoids are ossified, and perhaps the vertebræ -also, and, as Dr. Hay has recently suggested, the _Protosphyrænidæ_ may -really belong to the _Isospondyli_. In any event, they stand on the -border-line between the most fish-like of the Ganoids and the most -archaic of the bony fishes. - -The _Liodesmidæ_ (genus _Liodesmus_) are much like _Amia_, but the -notochord is persistent, its sheath without ossification. _Liodesmus -gracilis_ and _L. sprattiformis_ occur in the lithographic stones of -Bavaria. Woodward places _Liodesmus_ with _Megalurus_ among the -_Amiidæ_. - -=The Bowfins: Amiidæ.=—The _Amiidæ_ have the vertebræ more complete. The -dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct fulcra. The -diamond-shaped enameled scales disappear, giving place to cycloid -scales, which gradually become thin and membranous in structure. A -median gular plate is developed between the branchiostegals. The tail is -moderately heterocercal, and the head covered with a bony coat of mail. - -The family of _Amiidæ_ contains a single recent species, _Amia calva_, -the only living member of the order _Halecomorphi_. The bowfin, or -grindle, is a remarkable fish abounding in the lakes and swamps of the -Mississippi Valley, the Great Lake region, and southward to Virginia, -where it is known by the imposing but unexplained title of John A. -Grindle. In the Great Lakes it is usually called "dogfish," because even -the dogs will not eat it, and "lawyer," because, according to Dr. -Kirtland, "it will bite at anything and is good for nothing when -caught." - -The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the male being -smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated black spot on the -tail. Both sexes are dark mottled green in color. The flesh of the -species is very watery, pasty, much of the substance evaporating when -exposed to the air. It is ill-flavored, and is not often used as food. -The species is very voracious and extremely tenacious of life. Its -well-developed lung enables it to breathe even when out of the water, -and it will live in the air longer than any other fish of American -waters, longer even than the horned pout (_Ameiurus_) or the mud-minnow -(_Umbra_). As a game fish the grindle is one of the very best, if the -angler does not care for the flesh of what he catches, it being one of -the hardest fighters that ever took the hook. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 25.—Bowfin (female), _Amia calva_ Linnæus. Lake Michigan. -] - -The _Amiidæ_ retain many of the Ganoid characters, though approaching -more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the modern herring tribe. -For this reason the name _Halecomorphi_ (shad-formed) was given to this -order by Professor Cope. The gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids -reappears in the herring-like family of _Elopidæ_, which includes the -tarpon and the ten-pounder. - -Woodward unites the extinct genera called _Cyclurus_, _Notæus_, -_Amiopsis_, _Protamia_, _Hypamia_, and _Pappichthys_ with _Amia_. -_Pappichthys_ (_corsoni_, etc.), from the Wyoming Eocene, is doubtless a -valid genus, having but one row of teeth in each jaw, and _Amiopsis_ is -also recognized by Hay. Woodward refers to _Amia_ the following extinct -species: _Amia valenciennesi_, from the Miocene of France; _Amia -macrocephala_, from the Miocene of Bohemia; and _Amia ignota_, from the -Eocene of Paris. Other species of Amia are known from fragments. Several -of these are from the Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Some of them have -a much shorter dorsal fin than that of _Amia calva_ and may be -generically different. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 26.—_Megalurus elegantissimus_ Wagner. Family _Amiidæ_. (After - Zittel.) -] - -The genus _Megalurus_ differs from _Amia_ in the still shorter dorsal -fin, less than one-third the length of the back. The body is elongate -and much depressed. _Megalurus lepidotus_ and several other species are -found in the lithographic stones of Bavaria and elsewhere. - -=The Oligopleuridæ.=—In the extinct family _Oligopleuridæ_ the scales -are cycloid, the bones of the head scarcely enameled, and the vertebræ -well ossified. Fulcra are present, and the mouth is large, with small -teeth. The genera are _Oligopleurus_, _Ionoscopus_, and _Spathiurus_, -the species not very numerous and chiefly of the Cretaceous. _Ionoscopus -cyprinoides_ of the lithographic shales of Bavaria is a characteristic -species. - -From the three families last named, with the _Pholidophoridæ_, there is -an almost perfect transition from the Ganoid fishes to teleosteans of -the order of _Isospondyli_, the primitive order from which all other -bony fishes are perhaps descended. The family of _Leptolepidæ_, -differing from _Oligopleuridæ_ in the absence of fulcra, is here placed -with the _Isospondyli_, but it might about as well be regarded as -Ganoid. - - - - - CHAPTER III - ISOSPONDYLI - - -=THE Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.=—The fishes which still remain -for discussion constitute the great subclass or series of _Teleostei_ -(τελεός, true; οστέον, bone), or bony fishes. They lack wholly or partly -the Ganoid traits, or show them only in the embryo. The tail is -slightly, if at all, heterocercal; the actinosts of the pectoral fins -are few and large, rarely over five in number, except among the eels; -the fulcra disappear; the air-bladder is no longer cellular, except in -very rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration. The optic nerves are -separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the skeleton is -almost entirely bony, the notochord usually disappearing entirely with -age; the valves in the arterial bulb are reduced in number, and the -spiral valve of the intestines disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid -traits may persist somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a -distinct specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type, -with the loss of characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and -Ganoids. In a general way the skeleton of all Teleosts corresponds with -that of the striped bass (see Figs. 22, 23, Vol. I), and the visceral -anatomy is in all cases sufficiently like that of the sunfish (Fig. 16, -Vol. I). - -The mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids, persists in -the less specialized types of bony fishes, although no trace of it is -found in the perch-like forms. With all this, there is developed among -the bony fishes an infinite variety in details of structure. For this -reason the _Teleostei_ must be broken into many orders, and these orders -are very different in value and in degrees of distinctness, the various -groups being joined by numerous and puzzling intergradations. - -=Order Isospondyli.=—Of the various subordinate groups of bony fishes, -there can be no question as to which is most primitive in structure, or -as to which stands nearest the orders of Ganoids. Earliest of the bony -fishes in geological time is the order of _Isospondyli_ (ἴσος, equal; -σπόνδυλος, vertebra), containing the allies, recent or fossil, of the -herring and the trout. This order contains those soft-rayed fishes in -which the ventral fins are abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch -is developed, and the anterior vertebræ are unmodified and essentially -similar to the others. The orbitosphenoid is present in all typical -forms. In certain forms of doubtful affinity (_Iniomi_) the mesocoracoid -is wanting or lost in degeneration. Through the _Isospondyli_ all the -families of fishes yet to be considered are apparently descended, their -ancestors being Ganoid fishes and, still farther back, the -Crossopterygians. - -Woodward gives this definition of the _Isospondyli_: "Notochord varying -in persistence, the vertebral centra usually complete, but none -coalesced; tail homocercal, but hæmal supports not much expanded or -fused. Symplectic bone present, mandible simple, each dentary consisting -only of two elements (dentary and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments -of a splenoid on the inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the -cranium; precoracoid (mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates -wanting. Pelvic (ventral) fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only in the less -specialized families. In the living forms air-bladder connected with the -œsophagus in the adult; optic nerves decussating (without chiasma), and -intestine either wanting spiral valve or with an incomplete -representative of it." - -=The Classification of the Bony Fishes.=—The classification of fishes -has been greatly complicated by the variety of names applied to groups -which are substantially but not quite identical one with another. The -difference in these schemes of classification lies in the point of view. -In all cases a single character must be brought to the front; such -characters never stand quite alone, and to lay emphasis on another -character is to make an alteration large or small in the name or in the -boundaries of a class or order. Thus the _Ostariophysi_ with the -_Isospondyli_, _Haplomi_, and a few minor groups make up the great -division of the _Abdominales_. These are fishes in which the ventral -fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that the pelvis is -free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being attached to -different parts of the skeleton. Most of the abdominal fishes are also -soft-rayed fishes, that is, without consecutive spines in the dorsal and -anal fins, and they show a number of other archaic peculiarities. The -Malacopterygians (μαλακός, soft; πτερύξ, fin) of Cuvier therefore -correspond very nearly to the _Abdominales_. But they are not quite the -same, as the spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets have abdominal ventrals, -and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes, as the sea-snails and -brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their fin-spines. - -In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the slender tube -connecting the air-bladder with the œsophagus persists through life. -This character defines Müller's order of _Physostomi_ (φυσός, bladder; -στόμα, mouth), as opposed to his _Physoclysti_ (φυσός, bladder; -κλεῖστός, closed), in which this tube is present in the embryo or larva -only. Thus the _Thoracices_ and _Jugulares_, or fishes having the -ventrals thoracic or jugular, together correspond almost exactly to the -Acanthopterygians, (ακανθα, spine; πτερύξ, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes -of Cuvier, or to the _Physoclysti_ of Müller. The Malacopterygians, the -_Abdominales_, and the _Physostomi_ are in the same way practically -identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have mostly ctenoid scales, -and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the _Physostomi_ correspond -roughly to Agassiz's _Cycloidei_, and the _Physoclysti_ to his -_Ctenoidei_. - -But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly exact, and in -any system of classification we must choose characters for primary -divisions so ancient and therefore so permanent as to leave no room for -exceptions. The extraordinary difficulty of doing this, with the -presence of most puzzling intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest -that the great body of bony fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed, -abdominal, thoracic, and jugular alike, be placed in a single great -order which he calls _Teleocephali_ (τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head). The -aberrant forms with defective skull and membrane-bones he would separate -as minor offshoots from this great mass with the name of separate -orders. But while the divisions of _Teleocephali_ are not strongly -differentiated, their distinctive characters are real, ancient, and -important, while those of the aberrant groups, called orders by Gill (as -_Plectognathi_, _Pediculati_, _Hemibranchii_), are relatively modern and -superficial, which is one reason why they are more easily defined. There -seems to us no special advantage in the retention of a central order -_Teleocephali_, from which the divergent branches are separated as -distinct orders. - -While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of most of the -families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident that the -relationships of the groups cannot be shown in any linear series or by -any conceivable arrangement of orders and suborders. The living teleost -fishes have sprung from many lines of descent, their relationships are -extremely diverse, and their differences are of every possible degree of -value. The ordinary schemes have magnified the value of a few common -characters, at the same time neglecting other differences of equal -value. No system of arrangement which throws these fishes into large -groups can ever be definite or permanent. - -=Relationships of Isospondyli.=—For our purposes we may divide the -physostomous fishes as understood by Müller into several orders, the -most primitive, the most generalized, and economically the most -important being the order of _Isospondyli_. This order contains those -bony fishes which have the anterior vertebræ unaltered (as distinguished -from the _Ostariophysi_), the skull relatively complete, or at least not -eel-like, the mesocoracoid typically developed, but atrophied in -deep-sea forms and finally lost, the orbitosphenoid present. In all the -species the ventral fins are abdominal and normally composed of more -than six rays; the air-duct is developed. The scales are chiefly cycloid -and the fins are without true spines. In many ways the order is more -primitive than _Nematognathi_, _Plectospondyli_, or _Apodes_. It is -certain that it began earlier in geological time than any of these. On -the other hand, the _Isospondyli_ are closely connected through the -_Berycoidei_ with the highly specialized fishes. The continuity of the -natural series is therefore interrupted by the interposition of the side -branches of Ostariophysans and eels before considering the _Haplomi_ and -the other transitional forms. The forms called _Iniomi_, which lack the -mesocoracoid and the orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the -_Haplomi_ by Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance. - -Ganoid traits are present in certain families of _Isospondyli_. Among -these are the gular plate (found in _Amia_ and the _Elopidæ_), doubtless -derived from the similar structure in earlier Ganoids; additional valves -in the arterial bulb in the cellular air-bladder of _Notopterus_ and -_Osteoglossum_, the spiral intestinal valve in _Chirocentridæ_, and the -ganoid scales of the extinct _Leptolepidæ_. - -=The Clupeoidea.=—The _Isospondyli_ are divisible into numerous -families, which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions, -_Clupeoidea_, the herring-like forms; the _Salmonoidea_, the trout-like -forms; and the _Iniomi_, or lantern-fishes, and their allies. The -last-named group should probably be removed from the order of -_Isospondyli_. In the _Clupeoidea_, the allies of the great family of -the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed, retaining the -mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the post-temporal is -articulated above with the cranium. The fishes in this group lack the -adipose fin which is characteristic of most of the higher or salmon-like -families. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 27.—_Leptolepis dubius_ Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After - Woodward.) -] - -=The Leptolepidæ.=—Most primitive of the _Isospondyli_ is the extinct -family of _Leptolepidæ_, closely allied to the Ganoid families of -_Pholidophoridæ_ and _Oligopleuridæ_. It is composed of graceful, -herring-like fishes, with the bones of the head thin but covered with -enamel, and the scales thin but firm and enameled on their free portion. -There are no fulcra and there is no lateral line. The vertebræ are well -developed, but always pierced by the notochord. The genera are -_Lycoptera_, _Leptolepis_, _Æthalion_, and _Thrissops_. In _Lycoptera_ -of the Jurassic of China the vertebral centra are feebly developed, and -the dorsal fin short and posterior. In _Leptolepis_ the anal is short -and placed behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the -Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found in the -Cretaceous. _Leptolepis coryphænoides_ and _Leptolepis dubius_ are among -the more common species. _Æthalion_ (_knorri_) differs in the form of -the jaws. In _Thrissops_ the anal fin is long and opposite the dorsal. -_Thrissops salmonea_ is found in the lithographic stone; _Thrissops -exigua_ in the Cretaceous. In all these early forms there is a hard -casque over the brain-cavity, as in the living types, _Amia_ and -_Osteoglossum_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 28.—Ten-pounder, _Elops saurus_ L. An ally of the earliest bony - fishes. Virginia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 29.—A primitive Herring-like fish, _Holcolepis lewesiensis_, - Mantell, restored. Family _Elopidæ_. English Chalk. (After - Woodward.) -] - -=The Elopidæ.=—The family of _Elopidæ_ contains large fishes -herring-like in form and structure, but having a flat membrane-bone or -gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw, as in the Ganoid -genus _Amia_. The living species are few, abounding in the tropical -seas, important for their size and numbers, though not valued as -food-fishes save to those who, like the Hawaiians and Japanese, eat -fishes raw. These people prefer for that purpose the white-meated or -soft-fleshed forms like _Elops_ or _Scarus_ to those which yield a -better flavor when cooked. - -The ten-pounder (_Elops saurus_), pike-like in form but with very weak -teeth, is found in tropical America. _Elops machnata_, the jack -mariddle, the awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in the Pacific, is -scarcely if at all different. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 30.—Tarpon or Grande Écaille, _Tarpon atlanticus_ Cuv. & Val. - Florida. -] - -The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sable (_Tarpon -atlanticus_), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of Florida and -Carolina. It takes the hook with great spirit, and as it reaches a -length of six feet or more it affords much excitement to the successful -angler. The very large scales are much used in ornamental work. - -A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of the dorsal -very much produced, is _Megalops cyprinoides_ of the East Indies. Other -species occur in the South Seas. - -Numerous fossil genera related to _Elops_ are found in the Cretaceous -and Tertiary rocks. _Holcolepis lewesiensis_ (wrongly called -_Osmeroides_) is the best-known European species. Numerous species are -referred to _Elopopsis_. _Megalops prisca_ and species of _Elops_ also -occur in the London Eocene. - -In all these the large parietals meet along the median line of the -skull. In the closely related family of _Spaniodontidæ_ the parietals -are small and do not meet. All the species of this group, united by -Woodward with the _Elopidæ_, are extinct. These fishes preceded the -_Elopidæ_ in the Cretaceous period. Leading genera are _Thrissopater_ -and _Spaniodon_, the latter armed with large teeth. _Spaniodon blondeli_ -is from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. Many other species are found in -the European and American Cretaceous rocks, but are known from imperfect -specimens only. - -_Sardinius_, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand near -_Spaniodon_. _Rhacolepis buccalis_ and _Notelops brama_ are found in -Brazil, beautifully preserved in concretions of calcareous mud supposed -to be of Cretaceous age. - -The extinct family of _Pachyrhizodontidæ_ is perhaps allied to the -_Elopidæ_. Numerous species of _Pachyrhizodus_ are found in the -Cretaceous of southern England and of Kansas. - -=The Albulidæ.=—The _Albulidæ_, or lady-fishes, characterized by the -blunt and rounded teeth, are found in most warm seas. _Albula vulpes_ is -a brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food. The metamorphosis -(see Fig. 112, Vol. I) which the larva undergoes is very remarkable. It -is probably, however, more or less typical of the changes which take -place with soft-rayed fishes generally, though more strongly marked in -_Albula_ and in certain eels than in most related forms. Fossils allied -to _Albula_, _Albula oweni_, _Chanoides macropomus_, are found in the -Eocene of Europe; _Syntegmodus altus_ in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In -_Chanoides_, the most primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in -_Albula_. _Plethodus_ and _Thryptodus_, with peculiar dental plates on -the roof and floor of the mouth, probably constitute a distinct family, -_Thryptodontidæ_. The species are found in European and American rocks, -but are known from imperfect specimens only. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 31.—The Lady-fish, _Albula vulpes_ (Linnæus). Florida. -] - -=The Chanidæ.=—The _Chanidæ_, or milkfishes, constitute another small -archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are large, brilliantly -silvery, toothless fishes, looking like enormous dace, swift in the -water, and very abundant in the Gulf of California, Polynesia, and -India. The single living species is the _Awa_, or milkfish, _Chanos -chanos_, largely used as food in Hawaii. Species of _Prochanos_ and -_Chanos_ occur in the Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene. Allied to -_Chanos_ is the Cretaceous genus _Ancylostylos_ (_gibbus_), probably the -type of a distinct family, toothless and with many-rayed dorsal. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 32.—Milkfish, _Chanos chanos_ (L.). Mazatlan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 33.—Mooneye, _Hiodon tergisus_ Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich. -] - -=The Hiodontidæ.=—The _Hiodontidæ_, or mooneyes, inhabit the rivers of -the central portion of the United States and Canada. They are shad-like -fishes with brilliantly silvery scales and very strong sharp teeth, -those on the tongue especially long. They are very handsome fishes and -take the hook with spirit, but the flesh is rather tasteless and full of -small bones, much like that of the milkfish. The commonest species is -_Hiodon tergisus_. No fossil _Hiodontidæ_ are known. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 34.—_Istieus grandis_ Agassiz. Family _Pterothrissidæ_. (After - Zittel.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 35.—_Chirothrix libanicus_ Pictet & Humbert. Cretaceous of Mt. - Lebanon. (After Woodward.) -] - -=The Pterothrissidæ.=—The _Pterothrissidæ_ are sea-fishes like _Albula_, -but more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live in deep or cold -waters along the coasts of Japan, where they are known as gisu. The -single species is _Pterothrissus gissu_. The fossil genus _Istieus_, -from the Upper Cretaceous, probably belongs near the _Pterothrissidæ_. -_Istieus grandis_ is the best-known species. Another ancient family, now -represented by a single species, is that of the _Chirocentridæ_, of -which the living type is _Chirocentrus dorab_, a long, slender, much -compressed herring-like fish, with a saw-edge on the belly, found in the -East Indies, in which region _Chirocentrus polyodon_ occurs as a fossil. -Numerous fossil genera related to _Chirocentrus_ are enumerated by -Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family of -_Ichthyodectidæ_ (_Saurodontidæ_). Of these, _Portheus_, -_Ichthyodectes_, _Saurocephalus_ (_Saurodon_), and _Gillicus_ are -represented by numerous species, some of them fishes of immense size and -great voracity. _Portheus molossus_, found in the Cretaceous of -Nebraska, is remarkable for its very strong teeth. Species of other -genera are represented by numerous species in the Cretaceous of both the -Rocky Mountain region and of Europe. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 36.—Gigantic skeleton of _Portheus molossus_ Cope. (Photograph by - Charles H. Sternberg.) -] - -=The Ctenothrissidæ.=—A related family, _Ctenothrissidæ_, is represented -solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group the body is robust -with large scales, ctenoid in _Ctenothrissa_, cycloid in _Aulolepis_. -The fins are large, the belly not serrated, and the teeth feeble. -_Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ is from Mount Lebanon. Other species occur in -the European chalk. In the small family of _Phractolæmidæ_ the -interopercle, according to Boulenger, is enormously developed. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 37.—_Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ Pictet, restored. Mt. Lebanon - Cretaceous. (After Woodward.) -] - -=The Notopteridæ.=—The _Notopteridæ_ is another small family in the -rivers of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in a long and -tapering fin, and, as usual in fishes which swim by body undulations, -the ventral fins are lost. The belly is doubly serrate. The air-bladder -is highly complex in structure, being divided into several compartments -and terminating in two horns anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior -horns being in direct communication with the auditory organ. A fossil -_Notopterus_, _N. primævus_, is found in the same region. - -=The Clupeidæ.=—The great herring family, or _Clupeidæ_, comprises -fishes with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales, and feeble -dentition. From related families it is separated by the absence of -lateral line and the division of the maxillary into three pieces. In -most of the genera the belly ends in a serrated edge, though in the true -herring this is not very evident, and in some the belly has a blunt -edge. Some of the species live in rivers, some ascend from the sea for -the purpose of spawning. The majority are confined to the ocean. Among -all the genera, the one most abundant in individuals is that of -_Clupea_, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are immense schools -of _Clupea harengus_. In the North Pacific on both shores another -herring, _Clupea pallasi_, is equally abundant, and with the same market -it would be equally valuable. As salted, dried, or smoked fish the -herring is found throughout the civilized world, and its spawning and -feeding-grounds have determined the location of cities. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 38.—Herring, _Clupea harengus_ L. New York. -] - -The genus _Clupea_, of northern distribution, has the vertebræ in -increased number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer. Several -other genera are very closely related, but ranging farther south they -have, with other characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebræ. The alewife, or -branch-herring (_Pomolobus pseudoharengus_), ascends the rivers to spawn -and has become landlocked in the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the -Gulf of Mexico, _Pomolobus chrysochloris_, becomes very fat in the sea. -The species becomes landlocked in the Ohio River, where it thrives as to -numbers, but remains lean and almost useless as food. The glut-herring, -_Pomolobus æstivalis_, and the sprat, _Pomolobus sprattus_, of Europe -are related forms. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 39.—Alewife, _Pomolobus pseudoharengus_ (Wilson). Potomac River. -] - -Very near also to the herring is the shad (_Alosa sapidissima_) of the -eastern coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the shad of the -Gulf of Mexico (_Alosa alabamæ_), the Ohio River shad (_Alosa -ohiensis_), very lately discovered, the Allice shad (_Alosa alosa_) of -Europe, and the Thwaite shad (_Alosa finta_). In the genus _Alosa_ the -cheek region is very deep, giving the head a form different from that -seen in the herring. - -The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, peculiarly -delicate in flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree than occurs in -any other good food-fish, its flesh is crowded with small bones. The -shad has been successfully introduced into the waters of California, -where it abounds from Puget Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the -rivers to spawn in May as in its native region, the Atlantic coast. - -The genus _Sardinella_ includes species of rich flesh and feeble -skeleton, excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones and all. -This condition favors their preservation in oil as "sardines." All the -species are alike excellent for this purpose. The sardine of Europe is -the _Sardinella pilchardus_, known in England as the pilchard. The -"Sardina de España" of Cuba is _Sardinella pseudohispanica_, the sardine -of California, _Sardinella cærulea_. _Sardinella sagax_ abounds in -Chile, and _Sardinella melanosticta_ is the valued sardine of Japan. - -In the tropical Pacific occur other valued species, largely belonging to -the genus _Kowala_. The genus _Harengula_ contains small species with -very large, firm scales which do not fall when touched, as is generally -the case with the sardines. Most common of these is _Harengula sardina_ -of the West Indies. Similar species occur in southern Europe and in -Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 40.—Menhaden, _Brevoortia tyrannus_ (Latrobe). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -In _Opisthonema_, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is much -produced, as in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The two species known -are abundant, but of little commercial importance. Of greater value are -the menhaden, or the moss-bunker, _Brevoortia tyrannus_, inhabiting the -sandy coasts from New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish, -rarely eaten when adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable -sardines. It is used chiefly for oil, the annual yield exceeding in -value that of whale-oil. The refuse is used as manure, a purpose for -which the fishes are often taken without preparation, being carried -directly to the cornfields. From its abundance this species of inferior -flesh exceeds in commercial value almost all other American fishes -excepting the cod, the herring, and the quinnat salmon. - -One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G. Brown -Goode on the "Natural and Economic History of Menhaden." - -Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed bodies, dry -and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the tropics and are -largely salted and dried by the Chinese. Among these are _Ilisha -elongata_ of the Chinese coast. Related forms occur in Mexico and -Brazil. - -The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations on the -belly, are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of _Dussumieriidæ_. These -are mostly small tropical fishes used as food or bait. One of these, the -Kobini-Iwashi of Japan (_Stolephorus japonicus_), with a very bright -silver band on the side, has considerable commercial importance. Very -small herrings of this type in the West Indies constitute the genus -_Jenkinsia_, named for Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins, the first to study -seriously the fishes of Hawaii. Other species constitute the widely -distributed genera _Etrumeus_ and _Dussumieria_. _Etrumeus sardina_ is -the round herring of the Virginia coast. _Etrumeus micropus_ is the -Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 41.—A fossil Herring, _Diplomystus humilis_ Leidy. (From a - specimen obtained at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back - lost in the specimen. Family _Clupeidæ_. -] - -Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety, even -among the _Clupeidæ_ as at present restricted. _Histiothrissa_ of the -Cretaceous seems to be allied to _Dussumieria_ and _Stolephorus_. -Another genus, from the Cretaceous of Palestine, _Pseudoberyx_ -(_syriacus_, etc.), having pectinated scales, should perhaps constitute -a distinct subfamily, but the general structure is like that of the -herring. More evidently herring-like is _Scombroclupea_ -(_macrophthalma_). The genus _Diplomystus_, with enlarged scales along -the back, is abundantly represented in the Eocene shales of Green River, -Wyoming. Species of similar appearance, usually but wrongly referred to -the same genus, occur on the coasts of Peru, Chile, and New South Wales. -A specimen of _Diplomystus humilis_ from Green River is here figured. -Numerous herring, referred to _Clupea_, but belonging rather to -_Pomolobus_, or other non-Arctic genera, have been described from the -Eocene and later rocks. - -Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus _Leptosomus_, -as _Leptosomus percrassus_, are found in the Cretaceous of South Dakota. - -Fossil species doubtfully referred to _Dorosoma_, but perhaps allied -rather to the thread-herring (_Opisthonema_), being herrings with a -prolonged dorsal ray, are recorded from the early Tertiary of Europe. -Among these is _Opisthonema doljeanum_ from Austria. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 42.—Hickory-shad, _Dorosoma cepedianum_ (Le Sueur). Potomac - River. -] - -=The Dorosomatidæ.=—The gizzard-shad, _Dorosomatidæ_, are closely -related to the _Clupeidæ_, differing in the small contracted toothless -mouth and reduced maxillary. The species are deep-bodied, shad-like -fishes of the rivers and estuaries of eastern America and eastern Asia. -They feed on mud, and the stomach is thickened and muscular like that of -a fowl. As the stomach has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the -common American species is often called hickory-shad. The gizzard-shad -are all very poor food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of -small bones. The belly is always serrated. In three of the four genera -of _Dorosomatidæ_ the last dorsal ray is much produced and whip-like. -The long and slender gill-rakers serve as strainers for the mud in which -these fishes find their vegetable and animal food. _Dorosoma -cepedianum_, the common hickory-shad or gizzard-shad, is found in -brackish river-mouths and ponds from Long Island to Texas, and -throughout the Mississippi Valley in all the large rivers. Through the -canals it has entered Lake Michigan. The Konoshiro, _Clupanodon -thrissa_, is equally common in China and Japan. - -=The Engraulididæ.=—The anchovies (_Engraulididæ_) are dwarf herrings -with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. They are small in -size and weak in muscle, found in all warm seas, and making a large part -of the food of the larger fish. The genus _Engraulis_ includes the -anchovy of Europe, _Engraulis encrasicholus_, with similar species in -California, Chile, Japan, and Australia. In this genus the vertebræ are -numerous, the bones feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species -of _Engraulis_ are preserved in oil, often with spices, or are made into -fish-paste, which is valued as a relish. The genus _Anchovia_ replaces -_Engraulis_ in the tropics. The vertebræ are fewer, the bones firm and -stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as food for larger fish, -these have little value, although existing in immense schools. Most of -the species have a bright silvery band along the side. The most familiar -of the very numerous species is the silver anchovy, _Anchovia browni_, -which abounds in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several other -genera occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but _Engraulis_ only -is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called _Engraulis_ are recorded -from the Tertiary of Europe. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 43.—A Silver Anchovy, _Anchovia perthecata_ (Goode & Bean). - Tampa. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 44.—_Notogoneus osculus_ Cope. Green River Eocene. Family - _Gonorhynchidæ_. -] - -=Gonorhynchidæ.=—To the _Isospondyli_ belongs the small primitive family -of _Gonorhynchidæ_, elongate fishes with small mouth, feeble teeth, no -air-bladder, small scales of peculiar structure covering the head, weak -dentition, the dorsal fin small, and posterior without spines. The -mesocoracoid is present as in ordinary _Isospondyli_. _Gonorhynchus -abbreviatus_ occurs in Japan, and _Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus_ is found -in Australia and about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species -occur. _Charitosomus lineolatus_ and other species are found in the -Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without teeth from -the Oligocene of Europe and America are referred to the genus -_Notogoneus_. _Notogoneus osculus_ occurs in the Eocene fresh-water -deposits at Green River, Wyoming. It bears a very strong resemblance in -form to an ordinary sucker (_Catostomus_), for which reason it was once -described by the name of _Protocatostomus_. The living _Gonorhynchidæ_ -are all strictly marine. - -In the small family of _Cromeriidæ_ the head and body are naked. - -=The Osteoglossidæ.=—Still less closely related to the herring is the -family of _Osteoglossidæ_, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical rivers, -armed with hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic. The largest of -all fresh-water fishes is _Arapaima gigas_ of the Amazon region, which -reaches a length of fifteen feet and a weight of 400 pounds. It has -naturally considerable commercial importance, as have species of -_Osteoglossum_, coarse river-fishes which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and -the East Indies. _Heterotis nilotica_ is a large fish of the Nile. In -some or all of these the air-bladder is cellular or lung-like, like that -of a Ganoid. - -Allied to the _Osteoglossidæ_ is _Phareodus_ (_Dapedoglossus_), a group -of large shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of peculiar mosaic -texture and with a bony casque on the head, found in fresh-water -deposits of the Green River Eocene. In the perfect specimens of -_Phareodus_ (or _Dapedoglossus_) _testis_ the first ray of the pectoral -is much enlarged and serrated on its inner edge, a character which may -separate these fishes as a family from the true _Osteoglossidæ_. It does -not, however, appear in Cope's figures, none of his specimens having the -pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very strong and sharp, -the scales are very large and thin, looking like the scales of a -parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal and similar to it, -and the caudal is truncate. The end of the vertebral column is turned -upward. - -Other species are _Phareodus acutus_, known from the jaws; _P. -encaustus_ is known from a mass of thick scales with reticulate or -mosaic-like surface, much as in _Osteoglossum_, and _P. æquipennis_ from -a small example, perhaps immature. _Phareodus testis_ is frequently -found well preserved in the shales at Fossil Station, to the -northwestward of Green River. Whether all these species possess the -peculiar structure of the scales, and whether all belong to one genus, -is uncertain. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 45.—_Phareodus testis_ (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long - collected at Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming. - (Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.) -] - -In Eocene shales of England occurs _Brychætus muelleri_, a species -closely related to _Phareodus_, but the scales smaller and without the -characteristic reticulate or mosaic structure seen in _Phareodus -encaustus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 46.—Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing _Phareodus_, at - Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Wilbur C. Knight.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 47.—A day's catch of Fossil fishes, _Phareodus_, _Diplomystus_, - etc. Green River Eocene Shales, Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by - Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.) -] - -=The Pantodontidæ.=—The bony casque of _Osteoglossum_ is found again in -the _Pantodontidæ_, consisting of one species, _Pantodon buchholzi_, a -small fish of the brooks of West Africa. As in the _Osteoglossidæ_ and -in the _Siluridæ_, the subopercle is wanting in _Pantodon_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 48.—_Alepocephalus agassizii_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. -] - -The _Alepocephalidæ_ are deep-sea herring-like fishes very soft in -texture and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses. Some species -may be found in almost all seas below the depth of half a mile. -_Alepocephalus rostratus_ of the Mediterranean has been long known, but -most of the other genera, _Talismania_, _Mitchillina_, _Conocara_, etc., -are of very recent discovery, having been brought to the surface by the -deep-sea dredging of the _Challenger_, the _Albatross_, the _Blake_, the -_Travailleur_, the _Talisman_, the _Investigator_, the _Hirondelle_, and -the _Violante_. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - SALMONIDÆ - - -=THE Salmon Family.=—The series or suborder _Salmonoidea_, or allies of -the salmon and trout, are characterized as a whole by the presence of -the adipose fin, a structure also retained in Characins and catfishes, -which have no evident affinity with the trout, and in the -lantern-fishes, lizard-fishes, and trout-perches, in which the affinity -is very remote. Probably these groups all have a common descent from -some primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at least a fleshy fold on -the back. - -Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from almost -every point of view is that of the _Salmonidæ_, the salmon family. As -now restricted, it is not one of the largest families, as it comprises -less than a hundred species; but in beauty, activity, gaminess, quality -as food, and even in size of individuals, different members of the group -stand easily with the first among fishes. The following are the chief -external characteristics which are common to the members of the family: - -Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in scales of -varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or somewhat inferior, varying -considerably among the different species, those having the mouth largest -usually having also the strongest teeth. Maxillary provided with a -supplemental bone, and forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw. -Pseudobranchiæ present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula -complete. No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed near the -middle of the length of the body. Adipose fin well developed. Caudal fin -forked. Anal fin moderate or rather long. Ventral fins nearly median in -position. Pectoral fins inserted low. Lateral line present. Outline of -belly rounded. Vertebræ in large number, usually about sixty. - -The stomach in all the _Salmonidæ_ is siphonal, and at the pylorus are -many (15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric cœca. The air-bladder is -large. The eggs are usually much larger than in fishes generally, and -the ovaries are without special duct, the ova falling into the cavity of -the abdomen before exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of -adhesiveness, and the readiness with which they may be impregnated, -render the _Salmonidæ_ peculiarly adapted for artificial culture. - -The _Salmonidæ_ are peculiar to the north temperate and Arctic regions, -and within this range they are almost equally abundant wherever suitable -waters occur. Some of the species, especially the larger ones, are -marine and anadromous, living and growing in the sea, and ascending -fresh waters to spawn. Still others live in running brooks, entering -lakes or the sea when occasion serves, but not habitually doing so. -Still others are lake fishes, approaching the shore or entering brooks -in the spawning season, at other times retiring to waters of -considerable depth. Some of them are active, voracious, and gamy, while -others are comparatively defenseless and will not take the hook. They -are divisible into ten easily recognized genera: _Coregonus_, -_Argyrosomus_, _Brachymystax_, _Stenodus_, _Oncorhynchus_, _Salmo_, -_Hucho_, _Cristivomer_, _Salvelinus_, and _Plecoglossus_. - -Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are recorded chiefly -from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the name of _Rhabdofario -lacustris_. We have also received from Dr. John C. Merriam, from -ferruginous sands of the same region, several fragments of jaws of -salmon, in the hook-nosed condition, with enlarged teeth, showing that -the present salmon-runs have been in operation for many thousands of -years. Most other fragments hitherto referred to _Salmonidæ_ belong to -some other kind of fish. - -=Coregonus, the Whitefish.=—The genus _Coregonus_, which includes the -various species known in America as lake whitefish, is distinguishable -in general by the small size of its mouth, the weakness of its teeth, -and the large size of its scales. The teeth, especially, are either -reduced to slight asperities, or else are altogether wanting. The -species reach a length of one to three feet. With scarcely an exception -they inhabit clear lakes, and rarely enter streams except to spawn. In -far northern regions they often descend to the sea; but in the latitude -of the United States this is never possible for them, as they are unable -to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take the hook, and rarely -feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties characterize the lakes of -Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia and America. Largest and most -desirable of all these as a food-fish is the common whitefish of the -Great Lakes (_Coregonus clupeiformis_), with its allies or variants in -the Mackenzie and Yukon. - -The species of _Coregonus_ differ from each other in the form and size -of the mouth, in the form of the body, and in the development of the -gill-rakers. - -_Coregonus oxyrhynchus_—the _Schnäbel_ of Holland, Germany, and -Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout projecting far -beyond it. No species similar to this is found in America. - -The Rocky Mountain whitefish (_Coregonus williamsoni_) has also a small -mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter and much shorter -than in _C. oxyrhynchus_. This is a small species abounding everywhere -in the clear lakes and streams of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra -Nevada, from Colorado to Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and -excellent as food. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 49.—Rocky Mountain Whitefish, _Coregonus williamsoni_ Girard. -] - -Closely allied to _Coregonus williamsoni_ is the pilot-fish, -shad-waiter, roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (_Coregonus -quadrilateralis_). This species is found in the Great Lakes, the -Adirondack region, the lakes of New Hampshire, and thence northwestward -to the Yukon, abounding in cold deep waters, its range apparently -nowhere coinciding with that of _Coregonus williamsoni_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 50.—Whitefish, _Coregonus clupeiformis_ Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich. -] - -The common whitefish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_) is the largest in size -of the species of _Coregonus_, and is unquestionably the finest as an -article of food. It varies considerably in appearance with age and -condition, but in general it is proportionately much deeper than any of -the other small-mouthed _Coregoni_. The adult fishes develop a -considerable fleshy hump at the shoulders, which causes the head, which -is very small, to appear disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in -November and December, on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food was -ascertained by Dr. P. R. Hoy to consist chiefly of deep-water -crustaceans, with a few mollusks, and larvæ of water insects. "The -whitefish," writes Mr. James W. Milner, "has been known since the time -of the earliest explorers as preeminently a fine-flavored fish. In fact -there are few table-fishes its equal. To be appreciated in its fullest -excellence it should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled. Father -Marquette, Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for months at a -time had to depend upon the whitefish for their staple article of food— -bore testimony to the fact that they never lost their relish for it, and -deemed it a special excellence that the appetite never became cloyed -with it." The range of the whitefish extends from the lakes of New York -and New England northward to the Arctic Circle. The "Otsego bass" of -Otsego Lake in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local form -of the ordinary whitefish. - -Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the Lavaret, -Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (_Coregonus lavaretus_), of the -mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. _Coregonus -kennicotti_, the muksun, and _Coregonus nelsoni_, the humpback -whitefish, are found in northern Alaska and in the Yukon. Several other -related species occur in northern Europe and Siberia. - -Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting or Musquaw -River whitefish (_Coregonus labradoricus_). Its teeth are stronger, -especially on the tongue, than in any of our other species, and its body -is slenderer than that of the whitefish. It is found in the upper Great -Lakes, in the Adirondack region, in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes -of Maine and New Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the -Canadian lakes. This species runs up the St. Mary's River, from Lake -Huron to Lake Superior, in July and August. Great numbers are snared or -speared by the Indians at this season at the Sault Ste. Marie. - -In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened or covered -with small warts, as in the male _Cyprinidæ_. - -=Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.=—In the genus _Argyrosomus_ the mouth is -larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but extending forward on its -lower edge, and the body is more elongate and more evenly elliptical. -The species are more active and predaceous than those of _Coregonus_ and -are, on the whole, inferior as food. - -The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish is the cisco of -Lake Michigan (_Argyrosomus hoyi_). It is a slender fish, rarely -exceeding ten inches in length, and its scales have the brilliant -silvery luster of the mooneye and the ladyfish. - -The lake herring, or cisco (_Argyrosomus artedi_), is, next to the -whitefish, the most important of the American species. It is more -elongate than the others, and has a comparatively large mouth, with -projecting under-jaw. It is correspondingly more voracious, and often -takes the hook. During the spawning season of the whitefish the lake -herring feeds on the ova of the latter, thereby doing a great amount of -mischief. As food this species is fair, but much inferior to the -whitefish. Its geographical distribution is essentially the same, but to -a greater degree it frequents shoal waters. In the small lakes around -Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe, Geneva, Oconomowoc, -etc.), the cisco has long been established; and in these waters its -habits have undergone some change, as has also its external appearance. -It has been recorded as a distinct species, _Argyrosomus sisco_, and its -excellence as a game-fish has been long appreciated by the angler. These -lake ciscoes remain for most of the year in the depths of the lake, -coming to the surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow -water only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance of the -cisco has led to much foolish discussion as to the probability of their -returning by an underground passage to Lake Michigan during the periods -of their absence. One author, confounding "cisco" with "siscowet," has -assumed that this underground passage leads to Lake Superior, and that -the cisco is identical with the fat lake trout which bears the latter -name. The name "lake herring" alludes to the superficial resemblance -which this species possesses to the marine herring, a fish of quite a -different family. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 51.—Bluefin Cisco, _Argyrosomus nigripinnis_ Gill. Sheboygan. -] - -Closely allied to the lake herring is the bluefin of Lake Michigan and -of certain lakes in New York (_Argyrosomus nigripinnis_), a fine large -species inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable by the blue-black color -of its lower fins. In the lakes of central New York are found two other -species, the so-called lake smelt (_Argyrosomus osmeriformis_) and the -long-jaw (_Argyrosomus_ _prognathus_). _Argyrosomus lucidus_ is abundant -in Great Bear Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the -cisco type (_Argyrosomus laurettæ_, _A. pusillus_, _A. alascanus_); and -in Europe very similar species are the Scotch vendace (_Argyrosomus -vandesius_) and the Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as well as -others less perfectly known. - -The Tullibee, or "mongrel whitefish" (_Argyrosomus tullibee_), has a -deep body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the ciscoes. It is -found in the Great Lake region and northward, and very little is known -of its habits. A similar species (_Argyrosomus cyprinoides_) is recorded -from Siberia—a region which is peculiarly suited for the growth of the -_Coregoni_, but in which the species have never received much study. - -=Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.=—Another little-known form, -intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, is _Brachymystax -lenock_, a large fish of the mountain streams of Siberia. Only the skins -brought home by Pallas a century ago are yet known. According to Pallas, -it sometimes reaches a weight of eighty pounds. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 52.—Inconnu, _Stenodus mackenziei_ (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska. -] - -Still another genus, intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, -is _Stenodus_, distinguished by its elongate body, feeble teeth, and -projecting lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mackenzie River salmon, known on -the Yukon as "charr" (_Stenodus mackenziei_), belongs to this genus. It -reaches a weight of twenty pounds or more, and in the far north is a -food-fish of good quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse -Rapids. Not much is recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in -museums. A species of _Stenodus_ called _Stenodus leucichthys_ inhabits -the Volga, Obi, Lena, and other northern rivers; but as yet little is -definitely known of the species. - -=Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.=—The genus _Oncorhynchus_ contains -the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact, as well as in name, the -king salmon. The genus is closely related to _Salmo_, with which it -agrees in general as to the structure of its vomer, and from which it -differs in the increased number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric -cœca, and gill-rakers. The character most convenient for distinguishing -_Oncorhynchus_, young or old, from all the species of _Salmo_, is the -number of developed rays in the anal fin. These in _Oncorhynchus_ are -thirteen to twenty, in _Salmo_ nine to twelve. - -The species of _Oncorhynchus_ have long been known as anadromous salmon, -confined to the North Pacific. The species were first made known nearly -one hundred and fifty years ago by that most exact of early observers, -Steller, who, almost simultaneously with Krascheninnikov, another early -investigator, described and distinguished them with perfect accuracy -under their Russian vernacular names. These Russian names were, in 1792, -adopted by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a -scientific nomenclature. Five species of _Oncorhynchus_ are well known -on both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other in Japan. These -have been greatly misunderstood by early observers on account of the -extraordinary changes due to differences in surroundings, in sex, and in -age, and in conditions connected with the process of reproduction. - -There are five species of salmon (_Oncorhynchus_) in the waters of the -North Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other which is known -only from the waters of Japan. These species may be called: (1) the -quinnat, or king-salmon, (2) the blue-back salmon, or redfish, (3) the -silver salmon, (4) the dog-salmon, (5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the -masu; or (1) _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, (2) _Oncorhynchus nerka_, (3) -_Oncorhynchus milktschitsch_, (4) _Oncorhynchus keta_, (5) _Oncorhynchus -gorbuscha_, (6) _Oncorhynchus masou_. All these species save the last -are now known to occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as well as in those -of Alaska and Oregon. These species, in all their varied conditions, may -usually be distinguished by the characters given below. Other -differences of form, color, and appearance are absolutely valueless for -distinction, unless specimens of the same age, sex, and condition are -compared. - -The quinnat salmon (_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_),[7] called quinnat, -tyee, chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight of 22 pounds, but -individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are occasionally taken. It has -about 16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchiostegals, 23 (9 + 14) gill-rakers on -the anterior gill-arch, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. The scales are -comparatively large, there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal -series. In the spring the body is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and -caudal fin having more or less of round black spots, and the sides of -the head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic luster. In the fall the -color is often black or dirty red, and the species can then be -distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by its -technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red, becoming -suddenly pale as the spawning season draws near. - -Footnote 7: - - For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is - referred to papers by the late Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the - _Albatross_, in the publications of the United States Fish Commission, - the _Popular Science Monthly_, and the _Overland Monthly_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 53.—Quinnat Salmon (female), _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ - (Walbaum). Columbia River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 54.—King-salmon grilse, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ (Walbaum). - (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 55.—Male Red Salmon in September, _Oncorhynchus nerka_ (Walbaum). - Payette Lake, Idaho. -] - -The blue-back salmon (_Oncorhynchus nerka_),[8] also called red salmon, -sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8 pounds. It has about 14 -developed anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, and 75 to 95 pyloric cœca. The -gill-rakers are more numerous than in any other salmon, the number being -usually about 39 (16 + 23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to -140 in the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded, and -the color is a clear bright blue above, silvery below, and everywhere -immaculate. Young fishes often show a few round black spots, which -disappear when they enter the sea. Fall specimens in the lakes are -bright crimson in color, the head clear olive-green, and they become in -a high degree hook-nosed and slab-sided, and bear little resemblance to -the spring run. Young spawning male grilse follow the changes which take -place in the adult, although often not more than half a pound in weight. -These little fishes often appear in mountain lakes, but whether they are -landlocked or have come up from the sea is still unsettled. These dwarf -forms, called kokos by the Indians and benimasu in Japan, form the -subspecies _Oncorhynchus nerka kennerlyi_. The flesh in this species is -firmer than that of any other and very red, of good flavor, though drier -and less rich than the king-salmon. - -Footnote 8: - - For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader - is referred to various papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the - Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission and elsewhere. - -The silver salmon, or coho (_Oncorhynchus milktschitsch_, or _kisutch_), -reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 developed rays in the anal, -13 branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers, and 45 to 80 pyloric cœca. -There are about 127 scales in the lateral line. The scales are thin and -all except those of the lateral line readily fall off. This feature -distinguishes the species readily from the red salmon. In color it is -silvery in spring, greenish above, and with a few faint black spots on -the upper parts only. In the fall the males are mostly of a dirty red. -The flesh in this species is of excellent flavor, but pale in color, and -hence less valued than that of the quinnat and the red salmon. - -The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in Japan -(_Oncorhynchus keta_), reaches an average weight of about 7 to 10 -pounds. It has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, 24 (9 + 15) -gill-rakers, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. There are about 150 scales in -the lateral line. In spring it is dirty silvery, immaculate, or -sprinkled with small black specks, the fins dusky, the sides with faint -traces of gridiron-like bars. In the fall the male is brick-red or -blackish, and its jaws are greatly distorted. The pale flesh is well -flavored when fresh, but pale and mushy in texture and muddy in taste -when canned. It is said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt -dog-salmon are consumed in Japan. - -The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (_Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_), is the -smallest of the American species, weighing from 3 to 5 pounds. It has -usually 15 anal rays, 12 branchiostegals, 28 (13 + 15) gill-rakers, and -about 180 pyloric cœca. Its scales are much smaller than in any other -salmon, there being 180 to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is -bluish above, silvery below, the posterior and upper parts with many -round black spots, the caudal fin always having a few large black spots -oblong in form. The males in fall are dirty red, and are more -extravagantly distorted than in any other of the _Salmonidæ_. The flesh -is softer than in the other species; it is pale in color, and, while of -fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when canned. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 56.—Humpback Salmon (female), _Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_ (Walbaum). - Cook's Inlet. -] - -The masu, or yezomasu (_Oncorhynchus masou_), is very similar to the -humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without black spots, -the back usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller salmon, and is -fairly abundant in the streams of Hokkaido, the island formerly known as -Yezo. - -[Illustration: - - FIG 57.—Masu (female), _Oncorhynchus masou_ (Brevoort). Aomori, Japan. -] - -Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates in Frazer -River and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, including all those -which flow from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers of the world are the -Nushegak and Karluk in Alaska, with the Columbia River, Frazer River, -and Sacramento River farther south. The red and the silver salmon -predominate in Puget Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the -Sacramento, and the silver salmon in most of the smaller streams along -the coast. All the species occur, however, from the Columbia northward; -but the blue-back is not found in the Sacramento. Only the quinnat and -the dog-salmon have been noticed south of San Francisco. In Japan _keta_ -is by far the most abundant species of salmon. It is known as saké, and -largely salted and sold in the markets. _Nerka_ is known in Japan only -as landlocked in Lake Akan in northern Hokkaido. _Milktschitsch_ is -generally common, and with _masou_ is known as masu, or small salmon, as -distinguished from the large salmon, or saké. _Tschawytscha_ and -_gorbuscha_ are unknown in Japan. _Masou_ has not been found elsewhere. - -The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the "noble salmon," habitually "run" -in the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of running in the -rivers is as follows: _tschawytscha_, _nerka_, _milktschitsch_, -_gorbuscha_, _keta_. Those which run first go farthest. In the Yukon the -quinnat runs as far as Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. -The red salmon runs to "Forty-Mile," which is nearly 1800 miles. Both -ascend to the head of the Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and -Taku rivers. The quinnat runs practically only in the streams of large -size, fed with melting snows; the red salmon only in streams which pass -through lakes. It spawns only in small streams at the head of a lake. -The other species spawn in almost any fresh water and only close to the -sea. - -The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far greater than that -of the other species, because they can be captured in numbers when at -their best, while the others are usually taken only after deterioration. - -The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. Quinnat -and silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine at almost any -season in Puget Sound and among the islands of Alaska. This would -indicate that these species do not go far from the shore. The silver -salmon certainly does not. The quinnat pursues the schools of herring. -It takes the hook freely in Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a -distance of six to eight miles out. We have reason to believe that these -two species do not necessarily seek great depths, but probably remain -not very far from the mouth of the rivers in which they were spawned. -The blue-back or red salmon certainly seeks deeper water, as it is -seldom or never taken with the seine along shore, and it is known to -enter the Strait of Fuca in July, just before the running season, -therefore coming in from the open sea. The great majority of the quinnat -salmon, and probably all the blue-back salmon, enter the rivers in the -spring. The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of March; it -lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until the actual -spawning season in November, the greatest run being in early June in -Alaska, in July in the Columbia. The run begins earliest in the -northernmost rivers, and in the longest streams, the time of running and -the proportionate amount in each of the subordinate runs varying with -each different river. In general the runs are slack in the summer and -increase with the first high water of autumn. By the last of August only -straggling blue-backs can be found in the lower course of any stream; -but both in the Columbia and in the Sacramento the quinnat runs in -considerable numbers at least till October. In the Sacramento the run is -greatest in the fall, and more run in the summer than in spring. In the -Sacramento and the smaller rivers southward there is a winter run, -beginning in December. The spring quinnat salmon ascends only those -rivers which are fed by the melting snows from the mountains and which -have sufficient volume to send their waters well out to sea. Those -salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults (supposed to be at -least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no more developed than -at the same time in others of the same species which have not yet -entered the rivers. It would appear that the contact with cold fresh -water, when in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and -to run before there is any special influence to that end exerted by the -development of the organs of generation. High water on any of these -rivers in the spring is always followed by an increased run of salmon. -The salmon-canners think—and this is probably true—that salmon which -would not have run till later are brought up by the contact with the -cold water. The cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not -understood. We may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another -way of expressing our ignorance. In general it seems to be true that in -those rivers and during those years when the spring run is greatest the -fall run is least to be depended on. - -The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August, beginning in -late June in Chilcoot River, where some were found actually spawning -July 15; beginning after the middle of July in Frazer River. - -As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these species -(quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in the fall these -young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far failed to notice any -gradations in size or appearance of these young fish by which their ages -could be ascertained. It is, however, probable that some of both sexes -reproduce at the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat -male grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, the -milt fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark -colors of the older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length -were not seen. All of either sex, large and small, then in the river had -the ovaries or milt developed. Little blue-backs of every size, down to -six inches, are also found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their -organs of generation fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young -fish are males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of -the old males. Apparently all these young fishes, like the old ones, die -after spawning. - -The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia, in the spring, -is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about sixteen. Individuals -weighing from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both rivers, -and some as high as eighty or even one hundred pounds are recorded, -especially in Alaska, where the species tends to run larger. It is -questionable whether these large fishes are those which, of the same -age, have grown more rapidly; those which are older, but have for some -reason failed to spawn; or those which have survived one or more -spawning seasons. All these origins may be possible in individual cases. -There is, however, no positive evidence that any salmon of the Pacific -survives the spawning season. - -Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their ascent -till death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubtless not one of -them ever returns to the ocean, and a large proportion fail to spawn. -They are known to ascend the Sacramento to its extreme head-waters, -about four hundred miles. In the Columbia they ascend as far as the -Bitter Root and Sawtooth mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is -not known. This is a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon a -few ascend to Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. At these -great distances, when the fish have reached the spawning grounds, -besides the usual changes of the breeding season their bodies are -covered with bruises, on which patches of white fungus (_Saprolegnia_) -develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes are often injured or -destroyed, parasitic worms gather in their gills, they become extremely -emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the loss of oil; and as soon -as the spawning act is accomplished, and sometimes before, _all_ of them -die. The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia causes -the injury or death of a great many salmon. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 58.—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male, after spawning), - _Oncorhynchus nerka_ (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho. -] - -When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait, and their -stomachs are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they do -not feed; and when they reach the spawning grounds their stomachs, -pyloric cœca and all, are said to be no larger than one's finger. They -will sometimes take the fly, or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the -clear waters of the upper tributaries, but this is apparently solely out -of annoyance, snapping at the meddling line. Only the quinnat and -blue-back (there called redfish) have been found at any great distance -from the sea, and these (as adult fishes) only in late summer and fall. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 59.—Young Male Quinnat Salmon, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, dying - after spawning. Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -The spawning season is probably about the same for all the species. It -varies for each of the different rivers, and for different parts of the -same river. It doubtless extends from July to December, and takes place -usually as soon as the temperature of the water falls to 54°. The manner -of spawning is probably similar for all the species. In the quinnat the -fishes pair off; the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad, -shallow "nest" in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a -depth of one to four feet and the female deposits her eggs in it. They -then float down the stream tail foremost, the only fashion in which -salmon descend to the sea. As already stated, in the head-waters of the -large streams, unquestionably, all die; it is the belief of the writer -that none ever survive. The young hatch in sixty days, and most of them -return to the ocean during the high water of the spring. They enter the -river as adults at the age of about four years. - -The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or not -according to the species, and with the mouth about equally symmetrical -in both sexes. As the spawning season approaches the female loses her -silvery color, becomes more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink -into the skin, and the flesh changes from salmon-red and becomes -variously paler, from the loss of oil; the degree of paleness varying -much with individuals and with inhabitants of different rivers. In the -Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat, in either spring or fall, is rarely -pale. In the Columbia a few with pale flesh are sometimes taken in -spring, and an increasing number from July on. In Frazer River the fall -run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning purposes, because so -many are "white-meated." In the spring very few are "white-meated"; but -the number increases towards fall, when there is every variation, some -having red streaks running through them, others being red toward the -head and pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be -distinguished externally, and the color is dependent on neither age nor -sex. There is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is little -market for canned salmon not of the conventional orange-color. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 60.—Quinnat Salmon, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ (Walbaum). - Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.) -] - -As the season advances the difference between the males and females -becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace with the development of the -milt, as is shown by dissection. The males have (1) the premaxillaries -and the tip of the lower jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws -becoming finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either -they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth -cannot be closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and canine-like, -their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they are often half an inch -long. (3) The teeth on the vomer and tongue often disappear. (4) The -body grows more compressed and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very -distinct hump is formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon, -but is found in all. (5) The scales disappear, especially on the back, -by the growth of spongy skin. (6) The color changes from silvery to -various shades of black and red, or blotchy, according to the species. -The blue-back turns rosy-red, the head bright olive; the dog-salmon a -dull red with blackish bars, and the quinnat generally blackish. The -distorted males are commonly considered worthless, rejected by the -canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the Indians. These changes -are due solely to influences connected with the growth of the -reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the action of fresh -water. They take place at about the same time in the adult males of all -species, whether in the ocean or in the rivers. At the time of the -spring runs all are symmetrical. In the fall all males, of whatever -species, are more or less distorted. Among the dog-salmon, which run -only in the fall, the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they -first enter the Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback, taken in -salt water about Seattle, have the same peculiarities. The male is -slab-sided, hook-billed, and distorted, and is rejected by the canners. -No hook-jawed females of any species have been seen. - -On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing. They -always head towards the current, and this appearance of playing may be -simply due to facing the moving tide. Afterwards they enter the deepest -parts of the stream and swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their -rate of travel at Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles -per day; on the Columbia at about three miles per day. Those which enter -the Columbia in the spring and ascend to the mountain rivers of Idaho -must go at a more rapid rate than this, as they must make an average of -nearly four miles per day. - -As already stated, the economic value of any species depends in great -part on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally possible to -capture salmon of any species in large numbers until they have entered -the estuaries or rivers, and the spring salmon enter the large rivers -long before the growth of the organs of reproduction has reduced the -richness of the flesh. The fall salmon cannot be taken in quantity until -their flesh has deteriorated; hence the dog-salmon is practically almost -worthless except to the Indians, and the humpback salmon was regarded as -little better until comparatively recently, when it has been placed on -the market in cans as "Pink Salmon." It sells for about half the price -of the red salmon and one-third that of the quinnat. The red salmon is -smaller than the quinnat but, outside the Sacramento and the Columbia, -far more abundant, and at present it exceeds the quinnat in economic -value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted in 1902 to over two -million cases (48 pounds each), worth wholesale about $4.00 per case, or -about $8,000,000. The other species in Alaska yield about one million -cases, the total wholesale value of the pack for 1902 being $8,667,673. -The aggregate value of the quinnat is considerably less, but either -species far exceed in value all other fishes of the Pacific taken -together. The silver salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound -for a considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and -it may be taken in large numbers with seines before the season for -entering the rivers. - -The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog-salmon, ascend -streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to be in great -anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work their way up little -brooks only a few inches deep, where they perish miserably, floundering -about on the stones. Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco -to Bering Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon. - -The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of Japan is the -cause of the relative unimportance of the river fisheries of the -northern island of Japan, Hokkaido. It is not likely that either the -quinnat or the red salmon can be introduced into these rivers, as they -have no snow-fed streams, and few of them pass through lakes which are -not shut off by waterfalls. For the same reason neither of these species -is likely to become naturalized in the waters of our Eastern States, -though it is worth while to bring the red salmon to the St. Lawrence. -The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan, should thrive in the -rivers and bays of New England. - -=The Parent-stream Theory.=—It has been generally accepted as -unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return to spawn to the -very stream in which they were hatched. As early as 1880 the present -writer placed on record his opinion that this theory was unsound. In a -general way most salmon return to the parent stream, because when in the -sea the parent stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and -runways which directed their course to the sea may influence their -return trip in the same fashion. When the salmon is mature it seeks -fresh water. Other things being equal, about the same number will run -each year in the same channel. With all this, we find some curious -facts. Certain streams will have a run of exceptionally large or -exceptionally small red salmon. The time of the run bears some relation -to the length of the stream: those who have farthest to go start -earliest. The time of running bears also a relation to the temperature -of the spawning grounds: where the waters cool off earliest the fish run -soonest. - -The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory may be -considered under three heads:[9] (1) Distinctive runs in various -streams. (2) Return of marked salmon. (3) Introduction of salmon into -new streams followed by their return. - -Footnote 9: - - See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the _Pacific Fisherman_ for - July, 1903. - -Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that they can -distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the Lynn Canal red -salmon are larger than those in most waters, and it is claimed that -those of Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those of the sister stream at -Chilcat. The red salmon of Red Fish Bay on Baranof Island are said to be -much smaller than usual, and those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not -more than one-third the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream -near Nass River are more wiry than those of the neighboring large -stream. The same claim is made for the different streams of Puget Sound, -each one having its characteristic run. In all this there is some truth -and perhaps some exaggeration. I have noticed that the Chilcoot fish -seem deeper in body than those at Chilcat. The red salmon becomes -compressed before spawning, and the Chilcoot fishes having a short run -spawn earlier than the Chilcat fishes, which have many miles to go, the -water being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river. Perhaps some -localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes, while not -attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well observes that "until a -constant difference has been demonstrated by a careful examination of -large numbers of fish from each stream taken _at the same time_, but -little weight can be attached to arguments of this nature." - -It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly all salmon -return to the region in which they were spawned. Most of them apparently -never go far away from the mouth of the stream or the bay into which it -flows. It is true that salmon are occasionally taken well out at sea, -and it is certain that the red salmon runs of Puget Sound come from -outside the Straits of Fuca. There is, however, evidence that they -rarely go so far as that. When seeking shore they do not reach the -original channels. - -In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia, used the -following words, which he has not had occasion to change: - -"It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some special -instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the same spawning -grounds where they were originally hatched. We fail to find any evidence -of this in the case of the Pacific-coast salmon, and we do not believe -it to be true. It seems more probable that the young salmon hatched in -any river mostly remain in the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty, -or forty miles of its mouth. These, in their movements about in the -ocean, may come into contact with the cold waters of their parent -rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a considerable distance from -the shore. In the case of the quinnat and the blue-back their 'instinct' -seems to lead them to ascend these fresh waters, and in a majority of -cases these waters will be those in which the fishes in question were -originally spawned. Later in the season the growth of the reproductive -organs leads them to approach the shore and search for fresh waters, and -still the chances are that they may find the original stream. But -undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams in which -no salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks about Puget Sound, where -the water is not three inches deep, are often found dead or dying salmon -which have entered them for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the -Russian River and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time -of low water in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand-bars, -and that the salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling -themselves entirely out of water on the beach. But this does not prove -that the salmon are guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which -leads them to their parent river in spite of the fact that the river -cannot be found. The waters of Russian River soak through these -sand-bars, and the salmon instinct, we think, leads them merely to -search for fresh waters. This matter is much in need of further -investigation; at present, however, we find no reason to believe that -the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were spawned there, -or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas River is more likely, on that -account, to return to the Clackamas than to go up the Cowlitz or the Des -Chûtes." - -Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking the fry. But -this is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost the only structure which -can be safely mutilated is the adipose fin, and this is often nipped off -by sticklebacks and other meddling fish. The following experiments have -been tried, according to Mr. Davis: - -In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by cutting off the -adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River. Nearly 400 of these -marked fish are said to have been taken in the Columbia in 1898, and a -few more in 1899. In addition a few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900 -in the Sacramento River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia. -In the Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where nearly -all of the fishing was done, but a few were in the original stream, the -Clackamas. It is stated that the fry thus set free in the Clackamas came -from eggs obtained in the Sacramento—a matter which has, however, no -bearing on the present case. - -In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washington, 2000 fry of -the quinnat or king-salmon were marked in 1899 by a V-shaped notch in -the caudal fin. Numerous fishes thus marked were taken in the lower -Columbia in 1901 and 1902. A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but -some also at the hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the -hatchery on Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream not being -a tributary of the Columbia, but flowing into Shoalwater Bay. None were -noticed in the Sacramento. The evidence shows that the most who are -hatched in a large stream tend to return to it, and that in general most -salmon return to the parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon -hatched in one branch of a river tends to return there rather than to -any other. Experiments of Messrs. Rutter and Spaulding in marking adult -fish at Karluk would indicate that they roam rather widely about the -island before spawning. An adult spawning fish, marked and set free at -Karluk, was taken soon after on the opposite side of the island of -Kadiak. - -The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw some light on this -question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young quinnat-salmon fry were set -free in Papermill Creek near Olema, California. This is a small stream -flowing into the head of Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a -run of salmon. In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon -appeared in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weighing -about sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for identification. -These fishes certainly returned to the parent stream, although this -stream was one not at all fitted for their purpose. - -But this may be accounted for by the topography of the bay. Tomales Bay -is a long and narrow channel, about twenty miles long and from one to -five in width, isolated from other rivers and with but one tributary -stream. Probably the salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not -have left it at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to -the same place. - -That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools of -king-salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring about in the -channels of southeastern Alaska. A few years since Captain J. F. Moser, -in charge of the _Albatross_, set gill-nets for salmon at various places -in the sea off the Oregon and Washington coast, catching none except in -the bays. - -Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in Chinook River, -which flows into the Columbia at Baker's Bay: - -"It is a small, sluggish stream and has never been frequented by Chinook -salmon, although considerable numbers of silver and dog salmon enter it -late in the fall. A few years ago the State established a hatchery on -this stream, and since 1898 between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Chinook fry -have been turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the -pound-nets in Baker's Bay, towed into the river in crates and then -liberated above the dike, which prevents their return to the Columbia. -When ripe the salmon ascend to the hatchery, some two or three miles -farther up the river, where they are spawned. - -"The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs me that in -1902, during November and December, quite a number of Chinook salmon -ascended the Chinook River. About 150 salmon of both sexes were taken in -a trap located in the river about four miles from its mouth. At first -thought it would appear that these were probably fish which, when fry, -had been liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof -that this was the case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season of 1902 was -remarkable in that the salmon ran inshore in large schools, a thing -which they had not done before for years. It is possible that the fish, -being forced in close to the shore, came in contact with the current -from the Chinook River, which, since the stream is small and sluggish, -would not be felt far from shore. Once brought under the influence of -the current from the river, the salmon would naturally ascend that -stream, whether they had been hatched there or not." - -The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts at hand, is -that salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great distance from the -stream in which they are hatched, that most of them return to the -streams of the same region, a majority to the parent stream, but that -there is no evidence that they choose the parental spawning grounds in -preference to any other, and none that they will prefer an undesirable -stream to a favorable one for the reason that they happen to have been -hatched in the former. - -=The Jadgeska Hatchery.=—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel, Alaska, has -long conducted a very interesting but very costly experiment in this -line. About 1890 he established himself in a small stream called -Jadgeska on the west coast of Etolin Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet, -Clarence Straits. This stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand -red salmon spawned, besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and -humpback salmon. Making a dam across the stream, he helped the red -salmon over it, destroying all of the inferior kinds which entered the -stream. He also established a hatchery for the red salmon, turning loose -many fry yearly for ten or twelve years. This was done in the -expectation that all the salmon hatched would return to Jadgeska in -about four years. By destroying all individuals of other species -attempting to run, it was expected that they would become extinct so far -as the stream is concerned. - -The result of this experiment has been disappointment. After twelve -years or more there has been no increase of red salmon in the stream, -and no decrease of humpbacks and other humbler forms of salmon. Mr. -Callbreath draws the conclusion that salmon run at a much greater age -than has been supposed—at the age of sixteen years, perhaps, instead of -four. A far more probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined -other bands bound for more suitable streams. It is indeed claimed that -since the establishment of Callbreath's hatchery on Etolin Island there -has been a notable increase of the salmon run in the various streams of -Prince of Wales Island on the opposite side of Clarence Straits. But -this statement, while largely current among the cannerymen, and not -improbable, needs verification. - -We shall await with much interest the return of the thousands of salmon -hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may venture the prophecy that while a -large percentage will return to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay, -Karta Bay, Moira Sound, and other red salmon waters along the line of -their return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea. - -=Salmon-packing.=—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing of the -flesh in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was begun on the -Columbia River by the Hume Brothers in 1866. In 1874 canneries were -established on the Sacramento River, in 1876 on Puget Sound and on -Frazer River, and in 1878 in Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon -was packed; afterwards the red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally -the humpback, known commercially as pink salmon. In most cases the flesh -is packed in one-pound tins, forty-eight of which constitute a case. The -wholesale price in 1903 was for quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red -salmon $4.00, silver salmon $2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon -$1.50. It costs in round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The -very low price of the inferior brands is due to overproduction. - -The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts to about -fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting seven to nine -millions of this amount. Of this amount the red salmon constitutes -somewhat more than half, the quinnat about four-fifths of the rest. - -In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable -diminution in numbers, although the evidence is sometimes conflicting. -In Alaska this has been due to the vicious custom, now done away with, -of barricading the streams so that the fish could not reach the spawning -grounds, but might be all taken with the net. In the Columbia River the -reduction in numbers is mainly due to stationary traps and -salmon-wheels, which leave the fish relatively little chance to reach -the spawning grounds. In years of high water doubtless many salmon run -in the spring which might otherwise have waited until fall. - -The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of salmon by -means of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the fisheries of the -Sacramento have been fully restored, those of the Columbia approximately -maintained, and a hopeful beginning has been made in hatching red salmon -in Alaska. - - - - - CHAPTER V - SALMONIDÆ—(_Continued_) - - -=SALMO, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.=—The genus _Salmo_ comprises -those forms of salmon which have been longest known. As in related -genera, the mouth is large, and the jaws, palatines, and tongue are -armed with strong teeth. The vomer is flat, its shaft not depressed -below the level of the head or chevron (the anterior end). There are a -few teeth on the chevron; and behind it, on the shaft, there is either a -double series of teeth or an irregular single series. These teeth in the -true salmon disappear with age, but in the others (the black-spotted -trout) they are persistent. The scales are silvery and moderate or small -in size. There are 9 to 11 developed rays in the anal fin. The caudal -fin is truncate, or variously concave or forked. There are usually 40 to -70 pyloric cœca, 11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8 + 12) -gill-rakers. The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked than in -_Oncorhynchus_; they are also greater in the anadromous species than in -those which inhabit fresh waters. In general the male in the breeding -season is redder, its jaws are prolonged, the front teeth enlarged, the -lower jaw turned upwards at the end, and the upper jaw notched, or -sometimes even perforated, by the tip of the lower. All the species of -_Salmo_ (like those of _Oncorhynchus_) are more or less spotted with -black. Unlike the species of _Oncorhynchus_, the species of _Salmo_ feed -more or less while in fresh water, and the individuals for the most part -do not die after spawning, although many old males do thus perish. - -=The Atlantic Salmon.=—The large species of _Salmo_, called salmon by -English-speaking people (_Salmo salar_, _Salmo trutta_), are marine and -anadromous, taking the place in the North Atlantic occupied in the North -Pacific by the species of _Oncorhynchus_. Two others more or less -similar in character occur in Japan and Kamchatka. The others (trout), -forming the subgenus _Salar_, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly -or imperfectly anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout abound in all -streams of northern Europe, northern Asia, and in that part of North -America which lies _west_ of the Mississippi Valley. The black-spotted -trout are entirely wanting in eastern America—a remarkable fact in -geographical distribution, perhaps explained only on the hypothesis of -the comparatively recent and Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we -may suppose, has not yet had opportunity to extend its range across the -plains, unsuitable for salmon life, which separate the upper Missouri -from the Great Lakes. - -The salmon (_Salmo salar_) is the only black-spotted salmonoid found in -American waters tributary to the Atlantic. In Europe, where other -species similarly colored occur, the species may be best distinguished -by the fact that the teeth on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear -with age. From the only other species positively known, the salmon trout -(_Salmo trutta_), which shares this character, the true salmon may be -distinguished by the presence of but eleven scales between the adipose -fin and the lateral line, while _Salmo trutta_ has about fourteen. The -scales are comparatively large in the salmon, there being about one -hundred and twenty-five in the lateral line. The caudal fin, which is -forked in the young, becomes, as in other species of salmon, more or -less truncate with age. The pyloric cœca are fifty to sixty in number. - -The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is "superiorly of a -steel-blue, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly a few -rounded or X-shaped spots scattered above the lateral line and upper -half of the head, being more numerous in the female than in the male. -Dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins dusky; ventrals and anal white, the -former grayish internally. Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are -of a brilliant steel-blue along the back, which becomes changed to a -muddy tinge when they enter rivers. After these fish have passed into -the fresh waters for the purpose of breeding, numerous orange streaks -appear in the cheeks of the male, and also spots or even marks of the -same, and likewise of a red color, on the body. It is now termed a -'redfish.' The female, however, is dark in color and known as -'blackfish.' 'Smolts' (young river fish) are bluish along the upper half -of the body, silvery along the sides, due to a layer of silvery scales -being formed over the trout-like colors, while they have darker fins -than the yearling 'ping,' but similar bands and spots, which can be seen -(as in the parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light. -'Parr' (fishes of the year) have two or three black spots only on the -opercle, and black spots and also orange ones along the upper half of -the body, and no dark ones below the lateral line, although there may be -orange ones which can be seen in its course. Along the side of the body -are a series (12 to 15) of transverse bluish bands, wider than the -ground color and crossing the lateral line, while in the upper half of -the body the darker color of the back forms an arch over each of these -bands, a row of spots along the middle of the rayed dorsal fin, and the -adipose orange-tipped." - -The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr are -characteristic of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and nearly all -the other _Salmonidæ_. - -The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadromous fish, -spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the streams in the -fall for the purpose of reproduction. The time of running varies much in -different streams and also in different countries. As with the Pacific -species, these salmon are not easily discouraged in their progress, -leaping cascades and other obstructions, or, if these prove impassable, -dying after repeated fruitless attempts. - -The young salmon, known as the "parr," is hatched in the spring. It -usually remains about two years in the rivers, descending at about the -third spring to the sea, when it is known as "smolt." In the sea it -grows much more rapidly, and becomes more silvery in color, and is known -as "grilse." The grilse rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some -of them, as in the case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are -capable of reproduction. - -After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome in appearance, -as in fact. They are then known as "kelts." The Atlantic salmon does not -ascend rivers to any such distances as those traversed by the quinnat -and the blue-back. Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the -act of spawning. Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in -the rivers, and that, therefore, the destruction of the kelts might -increase the supply of salmon. - -As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the quinnat -salmon, neither better nor worse, so far as I can see, when equally -fresh. In both the flesh is rich and finely flavored; but the appetite -of man becomes cloyed with salmon-flesh sooner than with that of -whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size the Atlantic salmon does not fall -far short of the quinnat. The average weight of the adult is probably -less than fifteen pounds. The largest one of which I find a record was -taken on the coast of Ireland in 1881, and weighed 84¾ pounds. - -The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45° and 75°. In -the United States it is now rarely seen south of Cape Cod, although -formerly the Hudson and numerous other rivers were salmon-streams. -Overfishing, obstructions in the rivers, and pollution of the water by -manufactories and by city sewage are agencies against which the salmon -cannot cope. - -Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are recognized by -Dr. Günther in Europe, and three in America. The landlocked forms, -abundant in Norway, Sweden, and Maine, which cannot, or at least do not, -descend to the sea, are regarded by him as distinct species. "The -question," observes Dr Günther, "whether any of the migratory species -can be retained by artificial means in fresh water, and finally -accommodate themselves to a permanent sojourn therein, must be negatived -for the present." On this point I think that the balance of evidence -leads to a different conclusion. These fresh-water forms (_Sebago_ and -_Ouananiche_) are actually salmon which have become landlocked. I have -compared numerous specimens of the common landlocked salmon (_Salmo -salar sebago_) of the lakes of Maine and New Brunswick with landlocked -salmon (_Salmo salar hardini_) from the lakes of Sweden, and with -numerous migratory salmon, both from America and Europe. I see no reason -for regarding them as specifically distinct. The differences are very -trivial in kind, and not greater than would be expected on the -hypothesis of recent adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have -therefore on our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, _Salmo -salar_. The landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is _Salmo salar -sebago_. The _Ouananiche_ of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of -anglers, is _Salmo salar ouananiche_. - -=The Ouananiche.=—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the _Ouananiche_: -"But the prince of the pool was the fighting _Ouananiche_, the little -salmon of St. John. Here let me chant thy praise, thou noblest and most -high-minded fish, the cleanest feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest -leaper, and the bravest warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin, -the trout, in his purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more -splendid armor than thy russet and silver mottled with black, but thine -is the kinglier nature. - -"The old salmon of the sea who begat thee long ago in these inland -waters became a backslider, descending again to the ocean, and grew -gross and heavy with coarse feeding. But thou, unsalted salmon of the -foaming floods, not landlocked as men call thee, but choosing of thine -own free will to dwell on a loftier level in the pure, swift current of -a living stream, hath grown in grace and risen to a better life. - -"Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality, and thy five -pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of pounds of flesh less -vitalized by spirit. Thou feedest on the flies of the air, and thy food -is transformed into an aerial passion for flight, as thou springest -across the pool, vaulting toward the sky. Thine eyes have grown large -and keen by piercing through the foam, and the feathered hook that can -deceive thee must be deftly tied and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins, -by ceaseless conflict with the rapids, have broadened and strengthened, -so that they can flash thy slender body like a living arrow up the fall. -As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou among the fish, the -plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all the water-folk." - -Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these fishes, takes, in -his memoir on "The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland," and in other -papers, a similar view in regard to the European species. Omitting the -species with permanent teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus -_Salar_), he finds among the salmon proper only two species, _Salmo -salar_ and _Salmo trutta_. The latter species, the sea-trout or -salmon-trout of England and the estuaries of northern Europe, is similar -to the salmon in many respects, but has rather smaller scales, there -being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose fin and the -lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon, nor does it -reach so large a size. Although naturally anadromous, like the true -salmon, landlocked forms of the salmon-trout are not uncommon. These -have been usually regarded as different species, while aberrant or -intermediate individuals are usually regarded as hybrids. The -salmon-trout of Europe have many analogies with the steelhead of the -Pacific. - -The present writer has examined many thousands of American _Salmonidæ_, -both of _Oncorhynchus_ and _Salmo_. While many variations have come to -his attention, and he has been compelled more than once to modify his -views as to specific distinctions, he has never yet seen an individual -which he had the slightest reason to regard as a "hybrid." It is -certainly illogical to conclude that every specimen which does not -correspond to our closet-formed definition of its species must therefore -be a "hybrid" with some other. There is no evidence worth mentioning, -known to me, of extensive hybridization in a state of nature in any -group of fishes. This matter is much in need of further study; for what -is true of the species in one region, in this regard, may not be true of -others. Dr. Günther observes: - -"Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already expressed his belief -that the different salmonoids interbreed; and this view has since been -shared by many who have observed these fishes in nature. Hybrids between -the sewin (_Salmo trutta cambricus_) and the river-trout (_Salmo fario_) -were numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales before -salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions allowed to pass -into these streams, and so variable in their characters that the passage -from one species to the other could be demonstrated in an almost -unbroken series, which might induce some naturalists to regard both -species as identical. Abundant evidence of a similar character has -accumulated, showing the frequent occurrence of hybrids between _Salmo -fario_ and _S. trutta_.... In some rivers the conditions appear to be -more favorable to hybridism than in others in which hybrids are of -comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids between the salmon and other -species are very scarce everywhere." - -Very similar to the European _Salmo trutta_ is the trout of Japan -(_Salmo perryi_), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu, or -river-salmon. This species abounds everywhere in Japan, the young being -the common trout of the brooks, black-spotted and crossed by parr-marks, -the adult reaching a weight of ten or twelve pounds in the larger rivers -and descending to the sea. In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted, -salmon-like species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is _Salmo -mykiss_, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of the -Columbia. - -The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus _Salar_, differ from -_Salmo salar_ and _Salmo trutta_ in the greater development of the -vomerine teeth, which are persistent throughout life, in a long double -series on the shaft of the vomer. About seven species are laboriously -distinguished by Dr. Günther in the waters of western Europe. Most of -these are regarded by Dr. Day as varieties of _Salmo fario_. The latter -species, the common river-trout or lake-trout of Europe, is found -throughout northern and central Europe, wherever suitable waters occur. -It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily, and is excellent as food. -It is more hardy than the different species of charr, although from an -æsthetic point of view it must be regarded as inferior to all of the -_Salvelini_. The largest river-trout recorded by Dr. Day weighed -twenty-one pounds. Such large individuals are usually found in lakes in -the north, well stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed. -Farther south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout-life, -they become mature at a length of less than a foot, and a weight of a -few ounces. These excessive variations in the size of individuals have -received too little notice from students of _Salmonidæ_. Similar -variations occur in all the non-migratory species of _Salmo_ and of -_Salvelinus_. Numerous river-trout have been recorded from northern -Asia, but as yet nothing can be definitely stated as to the number of -species actually existing. - -=The Black-spotted Trout.=—In North America only the region west of the -Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern Alaska, and the valley -of Mackenzie River have species of black-spotted trout. There are few of -these north of Sitka in Alaska, although black-spotted trout are -occasionally taken on Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the -Rocky Mountain region. If we are to follow the usage of the names -"salmon" and "trout" which prevails in England, we should say that, in -America, it is only these western regions which have any trout at all. -Of the number of species (about twenty-five in all) which have been -indicated by authors, certainly not more than about 8 to 10 can possibly -be regarded as distinct species. The other names are either useless -synonyms, or else they have been applied to local varieties which pass -by degrees into the ordinary types. - -=The Trout of Western America.=—In the western part of America are found -more than a score of forms of trout of the genus _Salmo_, all closely -related and difficult to distinguish. There are representatives in the -head-waters of the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South Platte, Missouri, and -Colorado rivers; also in the Great Salt Lake basin, throughout the -Columbia basin, in all suitable waters from southern California and -Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol Bay, similar forms again -appearing in Kamchatka and Japan. - -Among the various more or less tangible species that may be recognized, -three distinct series appear. These have been termed the cutthroat-trout -series (allies of _Salmo clarkii_), the rainbow-trout series (allies of -_Salmo irideus_), and the steelhead series (allies of _Salmo rivularis_, -a species more usually but wrongly called _Salmo gairdneri_). - -The steelhead, or _rivularis_ series, is found in the coastwise streams -of California and in the streams of Oregon and Washington, below the -great Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and northward in Alaska along the -mainland as far as Skaguay. The steelhead-trout reach a large size (10 -to 20 pounds). They spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all -the true steelheads the head is relatively very short, its length being -contained about five times in the distance from tip of snout to base of -caudal fin. The scales in the steelhead are always rather small, about -150 in a linear series, and there is no red under the throat. The spots -on the dorsal fin are fewer in the steelhead (4 to 6 rows) than in the -other American trout. - -The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of California and -Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135 in a lengthwise series) -and the head is relatively large, forming nearly one-fourth of the -length to base of caudal. These enter the sea only when in the small -coastwise streams. Usually they have no red under the throat. The -cutthroat forms are found from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka, -in the coastwise streams of northern California, Oregon, Washington, and -Alaska, and all the clear streams on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, -and in the Great Basin and the head-waters of the Colorado. The -cutthroat-trout have the scales small, about 180, and there is always a -bright dash of orange-red on each side concealed beneath the branches of -the lower jaw. Along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada there are -also forms of trout with the general appearance of rainbow-trout and -evidently belonging to that species, but with scales intermediate in -number (in McCloud River), var. _shasta_, or with scales as small as in -the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var. _gilberti_. In these -small-scaled forms more or less red appears below the lower jaw, and -they are doubtless what they appear to be, really intermediate between -_clarkii_ and _irideus_, although certainly nearest the latter. A -similar series of forms occurs in the Columbia basin, the upper Snake -being inhabited by _clarkii_ and the lower Snake by _clarkii_ and -_rivularis_, together with a medley of forms apparently intermediate. - -It seems probable that the American trout originated in Asia, extended -its range to southeast Alaska, thence southward to the Fraser and -Columbia, thence to the Yellowstone and the Missouri _via_ Two-Ocean -Pass; from the Snake River to the Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from -the Missouri southward to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the -Platte to the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and then from Oregon -southward coastwise and along the Sierras to northern Mexico, thence -northward and coastwise, the sea-running forms passing from stream to -stream. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 61.—Rainbow Trout (male), _Salmo irideus shasta_ Jordan. - (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -Of the American species the rainbow trout of California (_Salmo -irideus_) most nearly approaches the European _Salmo fario_. It has the -scales comparatively large, although rather smaller than in _Salmo -fario_, the usual number in a longitudinal series being about 135. The -mouth is smaller than in other American trout; the maxillary, except in -old males, rarely extending beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well -forked, becoming in very old fishes more nearly truncate. The head is -relatively large, about four times in the total length. The size of the -head forms the best distinctive character. The color, as in all the -other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in the males, with a red -lateral band, and reddish and dusky blotches. The head, back, and upper -fins are sprinkled with round black spots, which are very variable in -number, those on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens -taken in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar -conditions, is bright silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This species is -especially characteristic of the waters of California. It abounds in -every clear brook, from the Mexican line northward to Mount Shasta, or -beyond, the species passing in the Columbia region by degrees into the -species or form known as _Salmo masoni_, the Oregon rainbow trout, a -small rainbow trout common in the forest streams of Oregon, with smaller -mouth and fewer spots on the dorsal. No true rainbow trout have been -anywhere obtained to the eastward of the Cascade Range or of the Sierra -Nevada, except as artificially planted in the Truckee River. The species -varies much in size; specimens from northern California often reach a -weight of six pounds, while in the streams above Tia Juana in Lower -California the southernmost locality from which I have obtained trout, -they seldom exceed a length of six inches. Although not usually an -anadromous species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in the -rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens being often -taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been made to introduce it in -Eastern streams, but it appears to seek the sea when it is lost. It is -apparently more hardy and less greedy than the American charr, or -brook-trout (_Salvelinus fontinalis_). On the other hand, it is -distinctly inferior to the latter in beauty and in gaminess. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 62.—Rainbow Trout (female), _Salmo irideus shasta_ Jordan. - (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -Three varieties of some importance have been indicated, _Salmo irideus -stonei_, the Nissui trout of the Klamath, with spots on the posterior -parts only, _Salmo irideus shasta_ of the upper Sacramento, and the -small-scaled _Salmo irideus gilberti_ of the Kings and Kern rivers. In -the head-waters of the Kern, in a stream called Volcano Creek or Whitney -Creek, the waterfall sometimes called Agua-Bonita shuts off the -movements of the trout. Above this fall is a dwarf form with bright -golden fins, and the scales scarcely imbricated. This is the "golden -trout of Mount Whitney," _Salmo irideus agua-bonita_. It will possibly -be found to change back to the original type if propagated in different -waters. - -In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement, sprightliness -when in the water, reckless dash with which it springs from the water to -meet the descending fly ere it strikes the surface, and the mad and -repeated leaps from the water when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever -hold a very high rank. "The gamest fish we have ever seen," writes Dr. -Evermann, "was a 16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch -tributary of Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a broad and -deep pool of exceedingly clear water. As the angler from behind a clump -of willows made the cast the trout bounded from the water and met the -fly in the air a foot or more above the surface; missing it, he dropped -upon the water, only to turn about and strike viciously a second time at -the fly just as it touched the surface; though he again missed the fly, -the hook caught him in the lower jaw from the outside, and then began a -fight which would delight the heart of any angler. His first effort was -to reach the bottom of the pool, then, doubling upon the line, he made -three jumps from the water in quick succession, clearing the surface in -each instance from one to four feet, and every time doing his utmost to -free himself from the hook by shaking his head as vigorously as a dog -shakes a rat. Then he would rush wildly about in the large pool, now -attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool, now trying the -opposite direction, and often striving to hide under one or the other of -the banks. It was easy to handle the fish when the dash was made up or -down stream or for the opposite side, but when he turned about and made -a rush for the protection of the overhanging bank upon which the angler -stood it was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these -were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But finally he -was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever made." - -"The rainbow takes the fly so readily that there is no reason for -resorting to grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is a fish -whose gaminess will satisfy the most exacting of expert anglers and -whose readiness to take any proper line will please the most impatient -of inexperienced amateurs." - -The steelhead (_Salmo rivularis_) is a large trout, reaching twelve to -twenty pounds in weight, found abundantly in river estuaries and -sometimes in lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa Barbara. The spent fish -abound in the rivers in spring at the time of the salmon-run. The -species is rarely canned, but is valued for shipment in cold storage. -Its bones are much more firm than those of the salmon—a trait -unfavorable for canning purposes. The flesh when not spent after -spawning is excellent. The steelhead does not die after spawning, as all -the Pacific salmon do. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 63.—Steelhead Trout, _Salmo rivularis_ Ayres. Columbia River. -] - -It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched in the brooks -from eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain streams from six to -thirty-six months, going down to the sea with the high waters of spring, -after which they return to spawn as typical steelhead trout. I now -regard this view as unfounded. In my experience the rainbow and the -steelhead are always distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the -rainbow trout is unknown; the scales in the steelhead are always smaller -(about 155) than in typical rainbow trout; finally, the small size of -the head in the steelhead is always distinctive. - -The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper Columbia, -seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the rivers away from -the sea. Derived from the steelhead, but apparently quite distinct from -it, are three very noble trout, all confined so far as yet known to Lake -Crescent in northwestern Washington. These are the crescent trout, -_Salmo crescentis_, the Beardslee trout, _Salmo beardsleei_, and the -long-headed trout, _Salmo bathæcetor_. The first two, discovered by -Admiral L. A. Beardslee, are trout of peculiar attractiveness and -excellence. The third is a deep-water form, never rising to the surface, -and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still uncertain, and it may -be derived from some type other than the steelhead. - -=Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.=—This species has much smaller scales -than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual number in a longitudinal -series being 160 to 170. Its head is longer (about four times in length -to base of caudal). Its mouth is proportionately larger, and there is -always a narrow band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the -tongue. These teeth are always wanting in _Salmo irideus_ and -_rivularis_ in which species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The -color in _Salmo clarkii_ is, as in other species, exceedingly variable. -In life there is always a deep-red blotch on the throat, between the -branches of the lower jaw and the membrane connecting them. This is not -found in other species, or is reduced to a narrow strip or pinkish -shade. It seems to be constant in all varieties of _Salmo clarkii_, at -all ages, thus furnishing a good distinctive character. It is the sign -manual of the Sioux Indians, and the anglers have already accepted from -this mark the name of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some -species is found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of -Utah, in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on both sides of -the Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout Oregon, Washington, -Idaho, British Columbia, the coastwise islands of southeastern Alaska -(Baranof, etc.), to Kadiak and Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake -suitable for trout-life being without it. In California the species -seems to be comparatively rare, and its range rarely extending south of -Cape Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads -are sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Washington and -Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget Sound it is a -common fish. These sea-run individuals are more silvery and less spotted -than those found in the mountain streams and lakes. The size of _Salmo -clarkii_ is subject to much variation. Ordinarily four to six pounds is -a large size; but in certain favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the -fjords of southeastern Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds -are occasionally taken. - -Those species or individuals dwelling in lakes of considerable size, -where the water is of such temperature and depth as insures an ample -food-supply, will reach a large size, while those in a restricted -environment, where both the water and food are limited, will be small -directly in proportion to these environing restrictions. The trout of -the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach a weight of at least 17 pounds, -while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature trout do not exceed 8 to 9¼ inches in -total length or one-fourth pound in weight. In small creeks in the -Sawtooth Mountains and elsewhere they reach maturity at a length of 5 or -6 inches, and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with the impression -that they are a species different from the larger ones found in the -lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations between these -extreme forms may be found in the intervening and connecting waters, the -differences are not even of sub-specific significance. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 64.—Head of adult Trout-worm, _Dibothrium cordiceps_ Leidy, a - parasite of _Salmo clarkii_. From intestine of white pelican, - Yellowstone Lake. (After Linton.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 65.—Median segments of _Dibothrium cordiceps_. -] - -Dr. Evermann observes: "The various forms of cutthroat-trout vary -greatly in game qualities; even the same subspecies in different waters, -in different parts of its habitat, or at different seasons, will vary -greatly in this regard. In general, however, it is perhaps a fair -statement to say that the cutthroat-trout are regarded by anglers as -being inferior in gaminess to the Eastern brook-trout. But while this is -true, it must not by any means be inferred that it is without game -qualities, for it is really a fish which possesses those qualities in a -very high degree. Its vigor and voraciousness are determined largely, of -course, by the character of the stream or lake in which it lives. The -individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades and seething -rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a fight which is -rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in warmer and larger streams -and lakes they may be very sluggish and show but little fight. Yet this -is by no means always true. In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow -very large and where they are often very logy, one is occasionally -hooked which tries to the utmost the skill of the angler to prevent his -tackle from being smashed and at the same time save the fish." - -Of the various forms derived from _Salmo clarkii_ some mere varieties, -some distinct species, the following are among the most marked: - -_Salmo henshawi_, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries and -outlet, Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt and the Carson -and throughout the basin of the former glacial lake called Lake -Lahontan. This is a distinct species from _Salmo clarkii_ and must be -regarded as the finest of all the cutthroat-trout. It is readily known -by its spotted belly, the black spots being evenly scattered over the -whole surface of the body, above and below. This is an excellent -game-fish, and from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake it is brought in large -numbers to the markets of San Francisco. In the depths of Lake Tahoe, -which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra Nevada, occurs a very -large variety which spawns in the lake, _Salmo henshawi tahoensis_. This -reaches a weight of twenty-eight pounds. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 66.—Tahoe Trout, _Salmo henshawi_ Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe, - California. -] - -In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close to the -ordinary cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is derived. This is -known as _Salmo clarkii virginalis_. In Utah Lake it reaches a large -size. - -In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found a small -trout with peculiar markings called _Salmo clarkii bouvieri_. - -In the head-waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is the small -green-back trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch and large black -spots. This is _Salmo clarkii stomias_, and it is especially fine in St. -Vrain's River and the streams of Estes Park. In Twin Lakes, a pair of -glacial lakes tributary of the Arkansas near Leadville, is found _Salmo -clarkii macdonaldi_, the yellow-finned trout, a large and very handsome -species living in deep water, and with the fins golden yellow. This -approaches the Colorado trout, _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, and it may -be derived from the latter, although it occurs in the same waters as the -very different green-back trout, or _Salmo clarkii stomias_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 67.—Green-back Trout, _Salmo stomias_ Cope. Arkansas River, - Leadville, Colo. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 68.—Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, _Salmo macdonaldi_ Jordan & - Evermann. Twin Lakes, Colo. -] - -Two fine trout derived from _Salmo clarkii_ have been lately discovered -by Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a mountain lake near Lake -Crescent, but not connected with it, the two separated from the sea by -high waterfalls. These have been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as _Salmo -jordani_, the "spotted trout" of Lake Southerland, and _Salmo -declivifrons_, the "salmon-trout." These seem to be distinct forms or -subspecies produced through isolation. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 69.—Rio Grande Trout, _Salmo clarkii spilurus_ Cope. Del Norte, - Colo. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 70.—Colorado River Trout, _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_ Cope. - Trapper's Lake, Colo. -] - -The Rio Grande trout (_Salmo clarkii spilurus_) is a large and profusely -spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio Grande, the mountain -streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and as far south as the northern -part of Chihuahua. Its scales are still smaller than those of the -ordinary cutthroat-trout, and the black spots are chiefly confined to -the tail. Closely related to it is the trout of the Colorado Basin, -_Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, a large and handsome trout with very small -scales, much sought by anglers in western Colorado, and abounding in all -suitable streams throughout the Colorado Basin. - -=Hucho, the Huchen.=—The genus _Hucho_ has been framed for the Huchen or -Rothfisch (_Hucho hucho_) of the Danube, a very large trout, differing -from the genus _Salmo_ in having no teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and -from the _Salvelini_ at least in form and coloration. The huchen is a -long and slender, somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and -strong teeth. The color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It -reaches a size little inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to -be an excellent food-fish. In northern Japan is a similar species, -_Hucho blackistoni_, locally known as Ito, a large and handsome trout -with very slender body, reaching a length of 2½ feet. It is well worthy -of introduction into American and European waters. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 71.—Ito, _Hucho blackistoni_ (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan. -] - -=Salvelinus, the Charr.=—The genus _Salvelinus_ comprises the finest of -the _Salmonidæ_, from the point of view of the angler or the artist. In -England the species are known as charr or char, in contradistinction to -the black-spotted species of _Salmo_, which are called trout. The former -name has unfortunately been lost in America, where the name "trout" is -given indiscriminately to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous -other fishes (_Micropterus_, _Hexagrammos_, _Cynoscion_, _Agonostomus_) -wholly unlike the _Salmonidæ_ in all respects. It is sometimes said that -"the American brook-trout is no trout, nothing but a charr," almost as -though "charr" were a word of reproach. Nothing higher, however, can be -said of a salmonoid than that it is a "charr." The technical character -of the genus _Salvelinus_ lies in the form of its vomer. This is deeper -than in _Salmo_; and when the flesh is removed the bone is found to be -somewhat boat-shaped above, and with the shaft depressed and out of the -line of the head of the vomer. Only the head or chevron is armed with -teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin. - -In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout. The body in -all is covered with round spots which are paler than the ground color, -and crimson or gray. The lower fins are usually edged with bright -colors. The sexual differences are not great. The scales, in general, -are smaller than in other _Salmonidæ_, and they are imbedded in the skin -to such a degree as to escape the notice of casual observers and even of -most anglers. - - "One trout scale in the scales I'd lay - (If trout had scales), and 'twill outweigh - The wrong side of the balances."—LOWELL. - -The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest of -mountain streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature. They are not -migratory, or only to a limited extent. In northern regions they descend -to the sea, where they grow much more rapidly and assume a nearly -uniform silvery-gray color. The different species are found in all -suitable waters throughout the northern parts of both continents, except -in the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin, where only the black-spotted -trout occur. The number of species of charr is very uncertain, as, both -in America and Europe, trivial variations and individual peculiarities -have been raised to the rank of species. More types, however, seem to be -represented in America than in Europe. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 72.—Rangeley Trout, _Salvelinus oquassa_ (Girard). Lake Oquassa, - Maine. -] - -The only really well-authenticated species of charr in European waters -is the red charr, sälbling, or ombre chevalier (_Salvelinus alpinus_). -This species is found in cold, clear streams in Switzerland, Germany, -and throughout Scandinavia and the British Islands. Compared with the -American charr or brook-trout, it is a slenderer fish, with smaller -mouth, longer fins, and smaller red spots, which are confined to the -sides of the body. It is a "gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of -taking the bait and feeding largely at night-time. It appears to require -very pure and mostly deep water for its residence." It is less tenacious -of life than the trout. It reaches a weight of from one to five pounds, -probably rarely exceeding the latter in size. The various charr -described from Siberia are far too little known to be enumerated here. - -Of the American charr the one most resembling the European species is -the Rangeley Lake trout (_Salvelinus oquassa_). The exquisite little -fish is known in the United States only from the Rangeley chain of lakes -in western Maine. This is very close to the Greenland charr, _Salvelinus -stagnalis_, a beautiful species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is -much slenderer than the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and -smaller mouth. In life it is dark blue above, and the deep-red spots are -confined to the sides of the body. The species rarely exceeds the length -of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes, but in some other waters it reaches a -much larger size. So far as is known it keeps itself in the depths of -the lake until its spawning season approaches, in October, when it -ascends the stream to spawn. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 73.—Sunapee Trout, _Salvelinus aureolus_ Bean. Sunapee Lake, N. - H. -] - -Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout, _Salvelinus -aureolus_, a beautiful charr almost identical with the European species, -found in numerous ponds and lakes of eastern New Hampshire and -neighboring parts of Maine. Mr. Garman regards this trout as the -offspring of an importation of the ombre chevalier and not as a native -species, and in this view he may be correct. _Salvelinus alipes_ of the -far north may be the same species. Another remarkable form is the Lac de -Marbre trout of Canada, _Salvelinus marstoni_ of Garman. - -In Arctic regions another species, called _Salvelinus naresi_, is very -close to _Salvelinus oquassa_ and may be the same. - -Another beautiful little charr, allied to _Salvelinus stagnalis_, is the -Floeberg charr (_Salvelinus arcturus_). This species has been brought -from Victoria Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the extreme northern part of -Arctic America, the northernmost point whence any salmonoid has been -obtained. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 74.—Speckled Trout (male), _Salvelinus fontinalis_ (Mitchill). - New York. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 75.—Brook Trout, _Salvelinus fontinalis_ (Mitchill), natural - size. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -The American charr, or, as it is usually called, the brook-trout -(_Salvelinus fontinalis_), although one of the most beautiful of fishes, -is perhaps the least graceful of all the genuine charrs. It is -technically distinguished by the somewhat heavy head and large mouth, -the maxillary bone reaching more or less beyond the eye. There are no -teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least of such teeth being found in -nearly all other species. Its color is somewhat different from that of -the others, the red spots being large and the black more or less mottled -and barred with darker olive. The dorsal and caudal fins are likewise -barred or mottled, while in the other species they are generally uniform -in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of the -Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams of the -Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the Chattahoochee River -in northern Georgia northward at least to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the -northern limits of its range being as yet not well ascertained. It -varies greatly in size, according to its surroundings, those found in -lakes being larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found -farthest south, in the head-waters of the Chattahoochee, Savannah, -Catawba, and French Broad, rarely pass the dimensions of fingerlings. -The largest specimens are recorded from the sea along the Canadian -coast. These frequently reach a weight of ten pounds; and from their -marine and migratory habits, they have been regarded as forming a -distinct variety (_Salvelinus fontinalis immaculatus_), but this form is -merely a sea-run brook-trout. The largest fresh-water specimens rarely -exceed seven pounds in weight. Some unusually large brook-trout have -been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the largest known to me having a -reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook-trout is the favorite -game-fish of American waters, preëminent in wariness, in beauty, and in -delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all clear and cold waters within its -range, the large lakes and the smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks and -the largest rivers; and when it can do so without soiling its -aristocratic gills on the way, it descends to the sea and grows large -and fat on the animals of the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary -fish, and it often requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught, -too, with artificial or natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms, -grasshoppers, grubs, the spawn of other fish, or even the eyes or cut -pieces of other trout. It spawns in the fall, from September to late in -November. It begins to reproduce at the age of two years, then having a -length of about six inches. In spring-time the trout delight in rapids -and swiftly running water; and in the hot months of midsummer they -resort to deep, cool, and shaded pools. Later, at the approach of the -spawning season, they gather around the mouths of cool, gravelly brooks, -whither they resort to make their beds.[10] - -Footnote 10: - - Hallock. - -The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through the agency -of the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In the words of an excellent -angler, the late Myron W. Reed of Denver: "This is the last generation -of trout-fishers. The children will not be able to find any. Already -there are well-trodden paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and -in Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the side of -which you will find no paper collar or other evidence of civilization. -It is the Nameless River. Not that trout will cease to be. They will be -hatched by machinery and raised in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver, -and grow flabby and lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will -not cease to be. He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the -fat and songless reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding and easy -pond-life enervate and deprave him. The trout that the children will -know only by legend is the gold-sprinkled, living arrow of the white -water; able to zigzag up the cataract; able to loiter in the rapids; -whose dainty meat is the glancing butterfly." - -The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in artificial -ponds. It has been successfully transported to Europe, and it is already -abundant in certain streams in England, in California, and elsewhere. - -In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without red spots, -called _Salvelinus agassizi_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 76.—Malma Trout, or "Dolly Varden," _Salvelinus malma_ (Walbaum). - Cook Inlet, Alaska. -] - -The "Dolly Varden" trout, or malma (_Salvelinus malma_), is very similar -to the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form, color, and -habits. It is found always to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, in -the streams of northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British -Columbia, Alaska, and Kamchatka, as far as the Kurile Islands. It -abounds in the sea in the northward, and specimens of ten to twelve -pounds weight are not uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska. -The Dolly Varden trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed -than the Eastern brook-trout. The red spots are found on the back of the -fish as well as on the sides, and the back and upper fins are without -the blackish marblings and blotches seen in _Salvelinus fontinalis_. In -value as food, in beauty, and in gaminess _Salvelinus malma_ is very -similar to its Eastern cousin. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 77.—The Dolly Varden Trout, _Salvelinus malma_ (Walbaum). Lake - Pend d'Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.) -] - -In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout, is very -destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless numbers are taken -in the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away as useless by the canners. -In every coastwise stream of Alaska the water fairly "boils" with these -trout. They are, however, not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan -occurs _Salvelinus pluvius_, the iwana, a species very similar to the -Dolly Varden, but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile -region and Kamchatka is another large charr, _Salvelinus kundscha_, with -the spots large and cream-color instead of crimson. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 78.—Great Lake Trout, _Cristivomer namaycush_ (Walbaum). Lake - Michigan. -] - -=Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.=—Allied to the true charrs, but now -placed by us in a different genus, _Cristivomer_, is the Great Lake -trout, otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe, or togue (_Cristivomer -namaycush_). Technically this fish differs from the true charrs in -having on its vomer a raised crest behind the chevron and free from the -shaft. This crest is armed with strong teeth. There are also large -hooked teeth on the hyoid bone, and the teeth generally are -proportionately stronger than in most of the other species. The Great -Lake trout is grayish in color, light or dark according to its -surroundings; and the body is covered with round paler spots, which are -gray instead of red. The dorsal and caudal fins are marked with darker -reticulations, somewhat as in the brook-trout. This noble species is -found in all the larger lakes from New England and New York to -Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes tributary -to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples from Lake Bennett, Lake -Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass), and have seen specimens from Lake La -Hache in British Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than any -_Salvelinus_, specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being -not uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to eighty -pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be regarded as -somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish. Compared with -other salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a sluggish, heavy, and -ravenous fish. It has been known to eat raw potato, liver, and -corn-cobs,—refuse thrown from passing steamers. According to Herbert, "a -coarse, heavy, stiff rod, and a powerful oiled hempen or flaxen line, on -a winch, with a heavy sinker; a cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh, -fish, or fowl,—is the most successful, if not the most orthodox or -scientific, mode of capturing him. His great size and immense strength -alone give him value as a fish of game; but when hooked he pulls -strongly and fights hard, though he is a boring, deep fighter, and -seldom if ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon or -brook-trout." - -In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake trout -known as the Siscowet (_Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz_), remarkable -for its extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of this difference -lies probably in some peculiarity of food as yet unascertained. - -=The Ayu, or Sweetfish.=—The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan, _Plecoglossus -altivelis_, resembles a small trout in form, habits, and scaling. Its -teeth are, however, totally different, being arranged on serrated plates -on the sides of the jaws, and the tongue marked with similar folds. The -ayu abounds in all clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from -the sea like a salmon. It reaches the length of about a foot. The flesh -is very fine and delicate, scarcely surpassed by that of any other fish -whatsoever. It should be introduced into clear short streams throughout -the temperate zones. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 79.—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, _Plecoglossus altivelis_ Schlegel. - Tamagawa, Tokyo, Japan. -] - -In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams the ayu is -fished for on a large scale by means of tamed cormorants. This is -usually done from boats in the night by the light of torches. - -=Cormorant-fishing.=—The following account of cormorant-fishing is -taken, by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whitney, from an article -contributed by the writer to _Outing_, April, 1902: - -Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer. It rises -somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward of Musashi, -among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees, and it flows -across the plains bordered by rice-fields and mulberry orchards to the -misty bay of Tokyo. It is, therefore, a river of Japan, and along its -shores are quaint old temples, each guarding its section of primitive -forest, picturesque bridges, huddling villages, and torii, or gates -through which the gods may pass. - -The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but it runs on a -wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the snow melts in the -mountains. And this broad flood-bed is filled with gravel, with -straggling willows, showy day-lilies, orange amaryllis, and the little -sky-blue spider-flower, which the Japanese call chocho, or -butterfly-weed. - -In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the white ripples, -dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little sculpins and gobies -lurking under the stones. Trout dart through its upper waters, and at -times salmon run up from the sea. - -But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort of dwarf -salmon, running in the spring and spawning in the rivers just as a -salmon does. But it is smaller than any salmon, not larger than a smelt, -and its flesh is white and tender, and so very delicate in its taste and -odor that one who tastes it crisply fried or broiled feels that he has -never tasted real fish before. In all its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a -dwarf of its kind, one which our ancestors in England would have called -a "samlet." Its scientific name is _Plecoglossus altivelis_. -_Plecoglossus_ means plaited tongue, and _altivelis_, having a high -sail; for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious way, -and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poetically -inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the ayu are -very peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged folds or plaits -along the sides of the jaws, quite different from those of any other -fish whatsoever. - -In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches long. It is -like a trout in build, and its scales are just as small. It is light -yellowish or olive in color, growing silvery below. Behind its gills is -a bar of bright shining yellow, and its adipose fin is edged with -scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the dorsal fin shaded with black, -while the anal fin is dashed with pale red. - -So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go afishing. It -is easy enough to find the place, for it is not more than ten miles out -of Tokyo, on a fine old farm just by the ancient Temple of Tachikawa, -with its famous inscribed stone, given by the emperor of China. - -At the farmhouse, commodious and hospitable, likewise clean and charming -after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy who brings our -fishing-tackle. - -They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which we are to -do our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with a white spot behind -its eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing in the water, with which -it says _y-eugh_ whenever a stranger makes a friendly overture. The -cormorants answer to the name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like -the only word the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box -together and we set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa. -Arrived at the stream, the boy takes the three cormorants out of the box -and adjusts their fishing-harness. This consists of a tight ring about -the bottom of the neck, of a loop under each wing, and a directing line. - -Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the stream, driving the -little fishes—ayu, zakko, haë, and all the rest—before it. The boy with -the cormorants goes in advance. The three birds are eager as pointer -dogs, and apparently full of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left -they plunge with lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish. -When the bird's neck is full of fishes down to the level of the -shoulders, the boy draws him in, grabs him by the leg, and shakes him -unceremoniously over a basket until all the fishes have flopped out. - -The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager eyes and much -repeating of _y-eugh_, the only word they know. The ayu are not for -them, and some of the kajikas and hazés were prizes of science. But -zakko (the dace) and haë (the minnow) were made for the cormorant. The -boy picks out the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then -another. Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one gulp, for -the ring is off his neck by this time, and then says _y-eugh_, which -means that he likes the fun, and when we are ready will be glad to try -again. And no doubt they have tried it many times since, for there are -plenty of fishes in the Jewel River, zakko and haë as well as ayu. - -=Fossil Salmonidæ.=—Fossil salmonidæ are rare and known chiefly from -detached scales, the bones in this family being very brittle and easily -destroyed. Nothing is added to our knowledge of the origin of these -fishes from such fossils. - -A large fossil trout or salmon, called _Rhabdofario lacustris_, has been -brought from the Pliocene at Catherine's Creek, Idaho. It is known from -the skull only. _Thaumaturus luxatus_, from the Miocene of Bohemia, -shows the print of the adipose fin. As already stated (p. 62), fragments -of the hooked jaws of salmon, from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in -the museum of the University of California. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT - - -=THE Grayling, or Thymallidæ.=—The small family of _Thymallidæ_, or -grayling, is composed of finely organized fishes allied to the trout, -but differing in having the frontal bones meeting on the middle line of -the skull, thus excluding the frontals from contact with the -supraoccipital. The anterior half of the very high dorsal is made up of -unbranched simple rays. There is but one genus, _Thymallus_, comprising -very noble game-fishes characteristic of subarctic streams. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 80.—Alaska Grayling, _Thymallus signifer_ Richardson. Nulato, - Alaska. -] - -The grayling, _Thymallus_, of Europe, is termed by Saint Ambrose "the -flower of fishes." The teeth on the tongue, found in all the trout and -salmon, are obsolete in the grayling. The chief distinctive peculiarity -of the genus _Thymallus_ is the great development of the dorsal fin, -which has more rays (20 to 24) than are found in any of the _Salmonidæ_, -and the fin is also higher. All the species are gaily colored, the -dorsal fin especially being marked with purplish or greenish bands and -bright rose-colored spots; while the body is mostly purplish gray, often -with spots of black. Most of the species rarely exceed a foot in length, -but northward they grow larger. Grayling weighing five pounds have been -taken in England; and according to Dr. Day they are said in Lapland to -reach a weight of eight or nine pounds. The grayling in all countries -frequent clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter the sea, or even -the larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the streams, and -prefer those which have a succession of pools and shallows, with a sandy -or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The grayling spawns on the -shallows in April or May (in England). It is non-migratory in its -habits, depositing its ova in the neighborhood of its usual haunts. The -ova are far more delicate and easily killed than those of the trout or -charr. The grayling and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not -altogether in harmony. It is said that the grayling devours the eggs of -the trout. It is certain that the trout feed on the young grayling. As a -food-fish, the grayling of course ranks high; and it is beloved by the -sportsman. They are considered gamy fishes, although less strong than -the brook-trout, and perhaps less wary. The five or six known species of -grayling are very closely related, and are doubtless comparatively -recent offshoots from a common stock, which has now spread itself widely -through the northern regions. - -The common grayling of Europe (_Thymallus thymallus_) is found -throughout northern Europe, and as far south as the mountains of Hungary -and northern Italy. The name _Thymallus_ was given by the ancients, -because the fish, when fresh, was said to have the odor of water-thyme. -Grayling belonging to this or other species are found in the waters of -Russia and Siberia. - -The American grayling (_Thymallus signifer_) is widely distributed in -British America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is very abundant, rising -readily to the fly. In several streams in northern Michigan, Au Sable -River, and Jordan River in the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near -Keweenaw in the northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species -with shorter and lower dorsal fins, known to anglers as the Michigan -grayling (_Thymallus tricolor_). This form has a longer head, rather -smaller scales, and the dorsal fin rather lower than in the northern -form (_signifer_); but the constancy of these characters in specimens -from intermediate localities is yet to be proved. Another very similar -form, called _Thymallus montanus_, occurs in the Gallatin, Madison, and -other rivers of Western Montana tributary to the Missouri. It is locally -still abundant and one of the finest of game-fishes. It is probable that -the grayling once had a wider range to the southward than now, and that -so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is tending -toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being accelerated in -Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The colonies of grayling in Michigan -and Montana are probably remains of a post-glacial fauna. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 81.—Michigan Grayling, _Thymallus tricolor_ Cope. Au Sable River, - Mich. -] - -=The Argentinidæ.=—The family of _Argentinidæ_, or smelt, is very -closely related to the _Salmonidæ_, representing a dwarf series of -similar type. The chief essential difference lies in the form of the -stomach, which is a blind sac, the two openings near together, and about -the second or pyloric opening there are few if any pyloric cæca. In all -the _Salmonidæ_ the stomach has the form of a siphon, and about the -pylorus there are very many pyloric cæca. The smelt have the adipose fin -and the general structure of the salmon. All the species are small in -size, and most of them are strictly marine, though some of them ascend -the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do, but not going very far. A few -kinds become landlocked in ponds. Most of the species are confined to -the north temperate zone, and a few sink into the deep seas. All that -are sufficiently abundant furnish excellent food, the flesh being -extremely delicate and often charged with a fragrant oil easy of -digestion. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 82.—Smelt, _Osmerus mordux_ (Mitchill). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -The best-known genus, _Osmerus_, includes the smelt, or spirling -(éperlan), of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food-fishes, -although quickly spoiling in warm weather. _Osmerus eperlanus_ is the -European species; _Osmerus mordax_ of our eastern coast is very much -like it, as is also the rainbow-smelt, _Osmerus dentex_ of Japan and -Alaska. A larger smelt, _Osmerus albatrossis_, occurs on the coast of -Alaska, and a small and feeble one, _Osmerus thaleichthys_, mixed with -other small or delicate fishes, is the whitebait of the San Francisco -restaurants. The whitebait of the London epicure is made up of the young -of herrings and sprats of different species. The still more delicate -whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish, _Salanx chinensis_. -_Retropinna retropinna_, so called from the backward insertion of its -dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand. All the -other species belong to northern waters. _Mesopus_, the surf-smelt, has -a smaller mouth than _Osmerus_ and inhabits the North Pacific. The -California species, _Mesopus pretiosus_, of Neah Bay has, according to -James G. Swan, "the belly covered with a coating of yellow fat which -imparts an oily appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed -or washed and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish." This species -spawns in late summer along the surf-line. According to Mr. Swan the -water seems to be filled with them. "They come in with the flood-tide, -and when a wave breaks upon the beach they crowd up into the very foam, -and as the surf recedes many will be seen flapping on the sand and -shingle, but invariably returning with the undertow to deeper water." -The Quilliute Indians of Washington believe that "the first surf-smelts -that appear must not be sold or given away to be taken to another place, -nor must they be cut transversely, but split open with a mussel-shell." - -The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, _Mesopus -japonicus_, in Japan. _Mesopus olidus_, the pond-smelt of Alaska, -Kamchatka, and Northern Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 83.—Eulachon, or Ulchen. _Thaleichthys pretiosus_ Girard. - Columbia River. Family _Argentinidæ_. -] - -Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite species is -the famous eulachon, or candle-fish (_Thaleichthys pacificus_). The -Chinook name, usually written eulachon, is perhaps more accurately -represented as ulchen. This little fish has the form of a smelt and -reaches the length of nearly a foot. In the spring it ascends in -enormous numbers all the rivers north of the Columbia, as far as -Skaguay, for a short distance for the purpose of spawning. These runs -take place usually in advance of the salmon-runs. Various predatory -fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon during its runs, and even -the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full of the little fishes, -which they have taken in by their sucker-like mouths. At the time of the -runs the eulachon are extremely fat, so much so that it is said that -when dried and a wick drawn through the body they may be used as -candles. On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their run -is greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eulachon-oil from -them. This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute for cod-liver oil in -medicine. Whatever may be its merits in this regard, it has the -disadvantage in respect to salability of being semi-solid or lard-like -at ordinary temperatures, requiring melting to make it flow as oil. The -eulachon is a favorite pan-fish in British Columbia. The writer has had -considerable experience with it, broiled and fried, in its native -region, and has no hesitation in declaring it to be the best-flavored -food-fish in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy, and richly -flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does not, -however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska bury the -eulachon in the ground in great masses. After the fish are well decayed -they are taken out and the oil pressed from them. The odor of the fish -and the oil is then very offensive, less so, however, than that of some -forms of cheese eaten by civilized people. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 84.—Page of William Clark's handwriting with sketch of the - Eulachon (_Thaleichthys pacificus_), the first notice of the - species. Columbia River, 1805. (Expedition of Lewis & Clark.) - (Reproduced from the original in the possession of his granddaughter - Mrs. Julia Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of Messrs. Dodd, Mead - & Company, publishers of the "Original Journals of the Lewis and - Clark Expedition.") -] - -The capelin (_Mallotus villosus_) closely resembles the eulachon, -differing mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar scales of -the males. In the male fish a band of scales above the lateral line and -along each side of the belly become elongate, closely imbricated, with -the free points projecting, giving the body a villous appearance. It is -very abundant on the coasts of Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and -the Pacific, and is an important source of food for the natives of those -regions. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 85.—Capelin, _Mallotus villosus_ L. Crosswater Bay. -] - -This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen them in August -cast on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at Metlakahtla in 1897), -living and dead, in numbers which seem incredible. The males are then -distorted, and it seems likely that all of them perish after spawning. -The young are abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate -numbers are reported from the shores of Greenland. - -The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food-fish, but to -the natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it is a very important -article of food. Fossil capelin are found in abundance in recent shales -in Greenland enveloped in nodules of clay. In the open waters about the -Aleutian Islands a small smelt, _Therobromus callorhini_, occurs in very -great abundance and forms the chief part of the summer food of the -fur-seal. Strangely enough, no complete specimen of this fish has yet -been seen by man, although thousands of fragments have been taken from -seals' stomachs. From these fragments Mr. Frederick A. Lucas has -reconstructed the fish, which must be an ally of the surf-smelt, -probably spawning in the open ocean of the north. - -The silvery species called _Argentina_ live in deeper water and have no -commercial importance. _Argentina silus_, with prickly scales, occurs in -the North Sea. Several fossils have been doubtfully referred to -_Osmerus_. - -=The Microstomidæ.=—The small family of _Microstomidæ_ consists of a few -degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth and but three or four -branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep seas. _Nansenia grœnlandica_ -was found by Reinhardt off the coast of Greenland, and six or eight -other species of _Microstoma_ and _Bathylagus_ have been brought in by -the deep-sea explorations. - -=The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.=—Still more feeble and insignificant are -the species of _Salangidæ_, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait, which may -be described as _Salmonidæ_ reduced to the lowest terms. The body is -long and slender, perfectly translucent, almost naked, and with the -skeleton scarcely ossified. The fins are like those of the salmon, the -head is depressed, the jaws long and broad, somewhat like the bill of a -duck, and within there are a few disproportionately strong canine teeth, -those of the lower jaw somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary canal -is straight for its whole length, without pyloric cæca. These little -fishes, two to five inches long, live in the sea in enormous numbers and -ascend the rivers of eastern Asia for the purpose of spawning. It is -thought by some that they are annual fishes, all dying in the fall after -reproduction, the species living through the winter only within its -eggs. But this is only suspected, not proved, and the species will repay -the careful study which some of the excellent naturalists of Japan are -sure before long to give to it. The species of _Salanx_ are known as -whitebait, in Japan as _Shiro-uwo_, which means exactly the same thing. -They are also sometimes called icefish (_Hingio_), which, being used for -no other fish, may be adopted as a group name for _Salanx_. - -The species are _Salanx chinensis_ from Canton, _Salanx hyalo cranius_ -from Korea and northern China, _Salanx microdon_ from northern Japan, -and _Salanx ariakensis_ from the southern island of Kiusiu. The Japanese -fishes are species still smaller and feebler than their relatives from -the mainland. - -=The Haplochitonidæ.=—The _Haplochitonidæ_ are trout-like fishes of the -south temperate zone, differing from the _Salmonidæ_ mainly in the -extension of the premaxillary until, as in the perch-like fishes, it -forms the outer border of the upper jaw. The adipose fin is present as -in all the salmon and smelt. _Haplochiton_ of Tierra del Fuego and the -Falkland Islands is naked, while in _Prototroctes_ of Australia and New -Zealand the body, as in all salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with -scales. _Prototroctes maræna_ is the yarra herring of Australia. The -closely related family of _Galaxiidæ_, also Australian, but lacking the -adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 86.—Icefish, _Salanx hyalocranius_ Abbott. Family _Salangidæ_. - Tientsin, China. -] - -=Stomiatidæ.=—The _Stomiatidæ_, with elongate bodies, have the mouth -enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of the several species -_Stomias ferox_ is best known. According to Dr. Boulenger, these fishes -are true _Isospondyli_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 87.—_Stomias ferox_ Reinhardt. Banquereau. -] - -_Astronesthidæ_ is another small group of small fishes naked and black, -with long canines, found in the deep sea. - -The _Malacosteidæ_ is a related group with extremely distensible mouth, -the species capable of swallowing fishes much larger than themselves. - -The viper-fishes (_Chauliodontidæ_) are very feeble and very voracious -little fishes occasionally brought up from the depths. _Chauliodus -sloanei_ is notable for the length of the fangs. - -Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely related family -of _Gonostomidæ_. _Gonostoma_ and _Cyclothone_ dwell in oceanic abysses. -One species, _Cyclothone elongata_, occurs at the depth of from half a -mile to nearly four miles almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is -probably the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and -most fragile, of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 88.—_Chauliodus sloanei_ Schneider. Grand Banks. -] - -=Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.=—The suborder _Iniomi_ (ἰνίον, -nape; ὤμος, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in which the -shoulder-girdle has more or less lost its completeness of structure as -part of the degradation consequent on life in the abysses of the sea. -These features distinguish these forms from the true _Isospondyli_, but -only in a very few of the species have these characters been verified by -actual examination of the skeleton. The mesocoracoid arch is wanting or -atrophied in all of the species examined, and the orbitosphenoid is -lacking, so far as known. The group thus agrees in most technical -characters with the _Haplomi_, in which group they are placed by Dr. -Boulenger. On the other hand the relationships to the _Isospondyli_ are -very close, and the _Iniomi_ have many traits suggesting degenerate -_Isospondyli_. The post-temporal has lost its usual hold on the skull -and may touch the occiput on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the -species are soft in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all -that live in the deep sea are provided with luminous spots or glands -giving light in the abysmal depths. These spots are wanting in the few -shore species, as also in those which approach most nearly to the -_Salmonidæ_, these being presumably the most primitive of the group. In -these also the post-temporal touches the back of the cranium near the -side. In the majority of the _Iniomi_ the adipose fin of the _Salmonidæ_ -is retained. From the phosphorescent spots is derived the general name -of lantern-fishes applied of late years to many of the species. Most of -these are of recent discovery, results of the remarkable work in -deep-sea dredging begun by the _Albatross_ and the _Challenger_. All of -the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble muscles, -are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed with veritable daggers -and spears. - -=Aulopidæ.=—Most primitive of the _Iniomi_ is the family of _Aulopidæ_, -having an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no luminous spots. The -rough firm scales suggest those of the berycoid fishes. The few species -of _Aulopus_ and _Chlorophthalmus_ are found in moderate depths. -_Aulopus purpurissatus_ is the "Sergeant Baker" of the Australian -fishermen. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 89.—Lizard-fish, _Synodus fætens_ L. Charleston, S. C. -] - -=The Lizard-fishes.=—The _Synodontidæ_, or lizard-fishes, have -lizard-like heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a character -rare among the soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxillary is grown fast to -the premaxillary, and the color is not black. Most of the species are -shore-fishes and some are brightly colored. _Synodus fætens_ is the -common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of our Atlantic coast. _Synodus -varius_ of the Pacific is brightly colored, olive-green and orange-red -types of coloration existing at different depths. Most of the species -lie close to the bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A few -occur in oceanic depths. The "Bombay duck" of the fishermen of India is -a species of _Harpodon_, _H. nehereus_, with large mouth and -arrow-shaped teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish. - -The _Benthosauridæ_ are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but with -distinct maxillaries. The _Bathypteroidæ_, of the deep seas, resemble -_Aulopus_, but have the upper and lower pectoral rays filiform, -developed as organs of touch in the depths in which the small eyes -become practically useless. - -=Ipnopidæ.=—In the _Ipnopidæ_ the head is depressed above and the two -eyes are flattened and widened so as to occupy most of its upper -surface. These structures were at first supposed to be luminous organs, -but Professor Moseley has shown them to be eyes. "They show a flattened -cornea extending along the median line of the snout, with a large retina -composed of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus destined -undoubtedly to produce an image and to receive especial luminous rays." -The single species, _Ipnops murrayi_, is black in color and found at the -depth of 2½ miles in various seas. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 90.—_Ipnops murrayi_ Günther. -] - -The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes destined to live in -the dark abysses of the ocean seems at first contradictory, but we must -remember that these singular forms are descendants of immigrants from -the shore and from the surface. "In some cases the eyes have not been -specially modified, but in others there have been modifications of a -luminous mucous membrane leading on the one hand to phosphorescent -organs more or less specialized, or on the other to such remarkable -structures as the eyes of _Ipnops_, intermediate between true eyes and -phosphorescent plates. In fishes which cannot see, and which retain for -their guidance only the general sensibility of the integuments and the -lateral line, these parts soon acquire a very great delicacy. The same -is the case with tactile organs (as in _Bathypterois_ and -_Benthosaurus_), and experiments show that barbels may become organs of -touch adapted to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest movements or -the slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded fishes full -cognizance of the medium in which they live." - -=Rondeletiidæ.=—The _Rondeletiidæ_ are naked black fishes with small -eyes, without adipose fin and without luminous spots, taken at great -depths in the Atlantic. The relationship of these fishes is wholly -uncertain. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 91.—_Cetomimus gillii_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. -] - -The _Cetomimidæ_ are near allies of the _Rondeletiidæ_, having the mouth -excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the right whales, -which these little fishes curiously resemble. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 92.—Headlight Fish, _Diaphus lucidus_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. -] - -=Myctophidæ.=—The large family of _Myctophidæ_, or lantern-fishes, is -made up of small fishes allied to the _Aulopidæ_, but with the body -covered with luminous dots, highly specialized and symmetrically -arranged. Most of them belong to the deep sea, but others come to the -surface in the night or during storms when the sunlight is absent. -Through this habit they are often thrown by the waves on the decks of -small vessels. Largely from Danish merchant-vessels, Dr. Lütken has -obtained the unrivaled collection of these sea-waifs preserved in the -Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The species are all small in -size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger fishes of the -depths, from which their lantern-like spots and large eyes help them to -escape. The numerous species are now ranged in about fifteen genera, -although earlier writers placed them all in a single genus _Myctophum_ -(_Scopelus_). - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 93.—Lantern-fish, _Myctophum opalinum_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. -] - -In the genus _Diaphus_ (_Æthoprora_) there is a large luminous gland on -the end of the short snout, like the headlight of an engine. In -_Dasyscopelus_ the scales are spinescent, but in most of the genera, as -in _Myctophum_, the scales are cycloid and caducous, falling at the -touch. In _Diaphus_ the luminous spots are crossed by a septum giving -them the form of the Greek letter θ (theta). One of the commonest -species is _Myctophum humboldti_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 94.—Lantern-fish, _Ceratoscopelus madeirensis_ (Lowe). Gulf - Stream. -] - -=Chirothricidæ.=—The remarkable extinct family of _Chirothricidæ_ may be -related to the _Synodontidæ_, or _Myctophidæ_. In this group the teeth -are feeble, the paired fins much enlarged, and the ventrals are well -forward. The dorsal fin, inserted well forward, has stout basal bones. -_Chirothrix libanicus_ of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable -for its excessively large ventral fins. _Telepholis_ is a related genus. -_Exocœtoides_ with rounded caudal fin is probably the type of a distinct -family, _Exocœtoididæ_, the caudal fin being strongly forked in -_Chirothrix_. The small extinct group of _Rhinellidæ_ is usually placed -near the _Myctophidæ_. They are distinguished by the very long gar-like -jaws; whether they possessed adipose fins or luminous spots cannot be -determined. _Rhinellus furcatus_ and other species occur in the -Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly -related to the _Myctophidæ_ are numerous. _Osmeroides monasterii_ -(wrongly called _Sardinioides_), from the German Cretaceous, seems -allied to _Myctophum_, although, of course, luminous spots leave no -trace among fossils. _Acrognathus boops_ is remarkable for the large -size of the eyes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 95.—_Rhinellus furcatus_ Agassiz. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. - Lebanon. (After Woodward.) -] - -=Maurolicidæ.=—The _Maurolicidæ_ are similar in form and habit, but -scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly specialized. _Maurolicus -pennanti_, the "Sleppy Argentine," is occasionally taken on either side -of the Atlantic. Other genera are _Zalarges_, _Vinciguerria_, and -_Valenciennellus_. - -=The Lancet-fishes.=—The _Plagyodontidæ_ (_Alepisauridæ_) contains the -lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean depths with -very high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with knife-like teeth. These -large fish are occasionally cast up by storms or are driven to the -shores by the torments of a parasite, _Tetrarhynchus_, found imbedded in -the flesh. - -It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced above -their level by fishes which they have swallowed. In such cases they are -destroyed through the reduction of pressure. - -Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens are rare. -The dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very feebly ossified, and -the ligaments connecting the vertebræ are very loose and extensible, so -that the body can be considerably stretched. "This loose connection of -the parts of the body is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is -merely the consequence of their withdrawal from the pressure of the -water to which they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When -within the limits of their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular, and -fibrous parts of the body will have that solidity which is required for -the rapid and powerful movements of a predatory fish. That the fishes of -this genus (_Plagyodus_) belong to the most ferocious of the class is -proved by their dentition and the contents of their stomach." (Günther.) -Dr. Günther elsewhere observes: "From the stomach of one example have -been taken several octopods, crustaceans, ascidians, a young _Brama_, -twelve young boarfishes (_Capros_), a horse-mackerel, and one young of -its own species." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 96.—Lancet-fish, _Plagyodus ferox_ (Lowe). New York. -] - -The lancet-fish, _Plagyodus ferox_, is occasionally taken on either side -of the Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish, called _Plagyodus -æsculapius_, has been taken at Unalaska, off San Luis Obispo, and in -Humboldt Bay. It does not seem to differ at all from _Plagyodus ferox_. -The original type from Unalaska had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes -(_Eumicrotremus spinosus_). This is the species described from Steller's -manuscripts by Pallas under the name of _Plagyodus_. Another species, -_Plagyodus borcalis_, is occasionally taken in the North Pacific. - -The _Evermannellidæ_ is a small family of small deep-sea fishes with -large teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary power of -swallowing other fishes, scarcely surpassed by _Chiasmodon_ or -_Saccopharynx_. _Evermannella_ (_Odontostomus_, the latter name -preoccupied) and _Omosudis_ are the principal genera. - -The _Paralepidæ_ are reduced allies of _Plagyodus_, slender, silvery, -with small fins and fang-like jaws. As in _Plagyodus_, the adipose fin -is developed and there are small luminous dots. The species are few and -mostly northern; one of them, _Sudis ringens_, is known only from a -single specimen taken by the present writer from the stomach of a hake -(_Merluccius productus_), the hake in turn swallowed whole by an -albacore in the Santa Barbara Channel. The _Sudis_ had been devoured by -the hake, the hake by the albacore, and the albacore taken on the hook -before the feeble _Sudis_ had been digested. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 97.—_Eurypholis sulcidens_ Pictet, restored. Family - _Enchodontidæ_. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as - _E. boissieri_.) -] - -Perhaps allied to the _Plagyodontidæ_ is also the large family of -_Enchodontidæ_, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of Syria, -Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate, the teeth very -strong, and the dorsal fin short. _Enchodus lewesiensis_ is found in -Mount Lebanon, _Halec sternbergi_ in the German Cretaceous, and many -species of _Enchodus_ in Kansas; _Cimolichthys dirus_ in North Dakota. - -Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of _Dercetidæ_ -from the Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These are elongate fishes, the -scales small or wanting, but with two or more series of bony scutes -along the flanks. In _Dercetis scutatus_ the scutes are large and the -dorsal fin is very long. Other genera are _Leptotrachelus_ and -_Pelargorhynchus_. Dr. Boulenger places the _Dercetidæ_ in the order -_Heteromi_. This is an expression of the fact that their relations are -still unknown. Probably related to the _Dercetidæ_ is the American -family of _Stratodontidæ_ with its two genera, _Stradodus_ and _Empo_ -from the Cretaceous (Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. _Empo nepaholica_ is -one of the best-known species. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 98.—_Eurypholis freyeri_ Heckel. Family _Enchodontidæ_. - Cretaceous. (After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 99.—_Argyropelecus olfersi_ Cuvier. Gulf Stream. -] - -=The Sternoptychidæ.=—The _Sternoptychidæ_ differ materially from all -these forms in the short, compressed, deep body and distorted form. The -teeth are small, the body bright silvery, with luminous spots. The -species live in the deep seas, rising in dark or stormy weather. -_Sternoptyx diaphana_ is found in almost all seas, and species of -_Argyropelecus_ are almost as widely distributed. After the earthquakes -in 1896, which engulfed the fishing villages of Rikuzen, in northern -Japan, numerous specimens of this species were found dead, floating on -the water, by the steamer _Albatross_. - -The _Idiacanthidæ_ are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and without -pectorals, related to the _Iniomi_. - -=Order Lyopomi.=—Other deep-sea fishes constitute the order or suborder -_Lyopomi_ (λυός, loose; πῶμα, opercle). These are elongate fishes having -no mesocoracoid, and the preopercle rudimentary and connected only with -the lower jaw, the large subopercle usurping its place. The group, which -is perhaps to be regarded as a degenerate type of _Isospondyli_, -contains the single family of _Halosauridæ_, with several species, black -in color, soft in substance, with small teeth and long tapering tail, -found in all seas. The principal genera are _Halosaurus_ and -_Aldrovandia_ (_Halosauropsis_). _Aldrovandia macrochira_ is the -commonest species on our Atlantic coast. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 100.—_Aldrovandia gracilis_ (Goode & Bean). Guadaloupe Island, - West Indies. Family _Halosauridæ_. -] - -Several fossil _Halosauridæ_ are described from the Cretaceous of Europe -and Syria, referred to the genera _Echidnocephalus_ and _Enchelurus_. -Boulenger refers the _Lyopomi_ to the suborder _Heteromi_. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES - - -=THE Eels.=—We may here break the sequence from the _Isospondyli_ to the -other soft-rayed fishes, to interpolate a large group of uncertain -origin, the series or subclass of eels. - -The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually regarded as -constituting a single order, the Apodes (ἄ, without; ποῦς, foot). The -group as a whole is characterized by the almost universal separation of -the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by the absence of the mesocoracoid -arch on the shoulder-girdle, by the presence of more than five pectoral -actinosts, as in the Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of -undifferentiated vertebræ, giving the body a snake-like form, by the -absence in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living -forms, by the absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures -indicate a low organization. Some of them are certainly results of -degeneration, and others are perhaps indications of primitive -simplicity. Within the limits of the group are seen other features of -degeneration, notably shown in the progressive loss of the bones of the -upper jaw and the membrane-bones of the head and the degradation of the -various fins. The symplectic bone is wanting, the notochord is more or -less persistent, the vertebral centra always complete constricted -cylinders, none coalesced. But, notwithstanding great differences in -these regards, the forms have been usually left in a single order, the -more degraded forms being regarded as descended from the types which -approach nearest to the ordinary fishes. From this view Professor Cope -dissents. He recognizes several orders of eels, claiming that we should -not unite all these various fishes into a single order on account of the -eel-like form. If we do so, we should place in another order those with -the fish-like form. It is probable, though not absolutely certain, that -the _Apodes_ are related to each other. The loss among them, first, of -the connection of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of the -separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct -maxillary and premaxillary; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must be -regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation. The -large number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord, the absence -of spines, and the large numbers of vertebræ seem to be traits of -primitive simplicity. Special lines of degeneration are further shown by -deep-sea forms. What the origin of the _Apodes_ may have been is not -known with any certainty. They are soft-rayed fishes, with the -air-bladder connected by a tube with the œsophagus, and with the -anterior vertebræ not modified. In so far they agree with the -_Isospondyli_. In some other respects they resemble the lower -_Ostariophysi_, especially the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes. -But these resemblances, mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we -have no links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes with any -of the other orders. Probably Woodward's suggestion that they may form a -series parallel with the _Isospondyli_ and independently descended from -Tertiary Ganoids deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most -satisfactory arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as -constituting four distinct orders for which we may use the names -_Symbranchia_ (including _Ichthyocephali_ and _Holostomi_), _Apodes_ -(including _Enchelycephali_ and _Colocephali_), _Carencheli_, and -_Lyomeri_. - -=Order Symbranchia.=—The _Symbranchia_ are distinguished by the -development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and premaxillary -being well developed. The gill-openings are very small, and usually -confluent below. These fresh-water forms of the tropics, however -eel-like in form, may have no real affinity with the true eels. In any -event, they should not be placed in the same order with the latter. - -The eels of the suborder _Ichthyocephali_ (ιχθύς, fish; κεφαλή, head) -have the head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, premaxillary, and -palatines are well developed, and the shoulder-girdle is joined by a -post-temporal to the skull. The body is distinctly eel-like, the tail -being very short and the fins inconspicuous. The number of vertebræ is -unusually large. The order contains the single family _Monopteridæ_, the -rice-field eels, one species, _Monopterus albus_, being excessively -common in pools and ditches from China and southern Japan to India. - -The eels of the suborder _Holostomi_ (ὀλός, complete; στόμα, mouth) -differ from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder-girdle from -the skull, a step in the direction of the true eels. The _Symbranchidæ_ -are very close to the _Monopteridæ_ in external appearance, small, -dusky, eel-like inhabitants of sluggish ponds and rivers of tropical -America and the East Indies. The gill-openings are confluent under the -throat. _Symbranchus marmoratus_ ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz, -having much the habit of the rice-field eel of Japan and China. The -_Amphipnoidæ_, with peculiar respiratory structures, abound in India. -_Amphipnous cuchia_, according to Günther, has but three gill-arches, -with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To supplement this -insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like sac is developed on each -side of the body behind the head, opening between the hyoid and the -first branchial arch. The interior of the sac is abundantly provided -with blood-vessels, the arterial coming from the branchial arch, whilst -those issuing from it unite to form the aorta. _Amphipnous_ has -rudimentary scales. The other _Holostomi_ and _Ichthyocephali_ are naked -and all lack the pectoral fin. - -The _Chilobranchidæ_ are small sea-fishes from Australia, with the tail -longer than the rest of the body, instead of much shorter as in the -others. - -No forms allied to _Symbranchus_ or _Monopterus_ are recorded as -fossils. - -=Order Apodes, or True Eels.=—In this group the shoulder-girdle is free -from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced in number, through -coalescence of the parts. - -Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups perhaps worthy of -still higher rank: _Archencheli_, _Enchelycephali_, and _Colocephali_. - -=Suborder Archencheli.=—The _Archencheli_, now entirely extinct, are -apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain traits -characteristic of the _Isospondyli_. They retain the separate caudal -fin, with the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor Hay has recently -found, in an example from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, remains of -distinct ventral fins. These traits seem to indicate an almost perfect -transition from the _Isospondyli_ to the _Archencheli_. - -One family may be recognized at present, _Urenchelyidæ_. - -The earliest known eel, _Urenchelys avus_, occurs in the upper -Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. It represents the family _Urenchelyidæ_, -apparently allied to the _Anguillidæ_, but having a separate caudal fin. -Its teeth are small, conical, blunt, in many series. There are more than -100 vertebræ, the last expanded in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales -rudimentary; dorsal arising at the occiput. Branchiostegals slender, not -curved around the opercle. _Urenchelys anglicus_ is another species, -found in the chalk of England. - -=Suborder Enchelycephali.=—The suborder _Enchelycephali_ (ἔγχελυς, eel; -κεφαλή, head) contains the typical eels, in which the shoulder-girdle is -free from the skull, the palatopterygoid arch relatively complete, the -premaxillaries wanting or rudimentary, the ethmoid and vomer coalesced, -forming the front of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the -cranium with a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are -present, and the cranium lacks the combined degradation and -specialization shown by the morays (_Colocephali_). - -=Family Anguillidæ.=—The most primitive existing family is that of the -typical eels, _Anguillidæ_, which have rudimentary scales oblong in -form, and set separately in groups at right angles with one another. -These fishes are found in the fresh and brackish waters of all parts of -the world, excepting the Pacific coast of North America and the islands -of the Pacific. In the upper Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi they -are also absent unless introduced. The species usually spawn in the sea -and ascend the rivers to feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in -fresh water, and none go far into the sea, or where the water is -entirely salt. The young eels sometimes ascend the brooks near the sea -in incredible numbers, constituting what is known in England as -"eel-fairs." They will pass through wet grass to surmount ordinary -obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and according to Professor -Baird "in the spring and summer the visitor who enters under the sheet -of water at the foot of the falls will be astonished at the enormous -numbers of young eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in -the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads, as seen -in the course of the perilous journey referred to, would hardly be -considered excessive by those who have visited the spot at a suitable -season of the year." "At other times large eels may be seen on their way -down-stream, although naturally they are not as conspicuous then as are -the hosts of the young on their way upstream. Nevertheless it is now a -well-assured fact that the eels are catadromous, that is, that the old -descend the watercourses to the salt water to spawn, and the young, at -least of the female sex, ascend them to enjoy life in the fresh water." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 101.—Common Eel, _Anguilla chrisypa_ Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass. -] - -=Reproduction of the Eel.=—Dr. Gill ("Riverside Natural History," p. -103) gives the following account of the reproduction of _Anguilla_: - -"The generation of the eel was long involved in great mystery, and the -knowledge thereof is one of the recent acquisitions of scientific -investigation. So late, indeed, as 1880 it was declared that 'their mode -of propagation is still unknown.' In want of positive knowledge the rein -has been given to loose hypothesis and conjecture. It has been variously -asserted that eels were generated from slime, from dew, and from the -skins of old eels or of snakes. The statement that they come from -horse-hairs is familiar to many country boys, and the origin of this -belief is due simply to the fact that there are certain aquatic worms, -known under the generic name _Gordius_, which are elongated and -apparently smooth like the eel, and which may be found in the same -waters. It was one of the ideas of the Greek to attribute their -paternity, as of many other doubtful offspring, to the convenient -Jupiter. The statement that they are viviparous has arisen from two -causes: one the existence of intestinal worms, and the other from the -confusion of the eel with an elongated and consequently eel-like but -otherwise very different form, the _Zoarces viviparus_. The _Zoarces_ is -indeed, in Germany as well as in the Scandinavian countries, generally -known as the Aal-mutter, or eel-mother, and thus in its name perpetuates -the fancy. Even where eels are to be found in extreme abundance, and -where they are the objects of a special culture, like erroneous opinions -prevail. Thus, according to Jacoby, about the lagoon of Comacchio there -is an 'ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the eel is born of -other fishes; they point to special differences in color and especially -in the common mullet, _Mugil cephalus_, as the causes of variation in -color and form among eels. It is a very ancient belief, widely prevalent -to the present day, that eels pair with water-snakes. In Sardinia the -fishermen cling to the belief that a certain beetle, the so-called -water-beetle, _Dytiscus ræselii_, is the progenitor of eels, and they -therefore call this "mother of eels."' The assignment of such maternity -to the water-beetle is doubtless due to the detection of the hair-worm, -or Gordius, in the insect by sharp-sighted but unscientific observers, -and, inasmuch as the beetle inhabits the same waters as the eel, a very -illogical deduction has led to connect the two together. - -"All such beliefs as have been thus recounted are due to the -inconspicuous nature of the generative organs in eels found in fresh -waters and at most seasons—a characteristic which is in strong contrast -to the development of corresponding parts in fishes generally. -Nevertheless the ovaries of the eel were discovered, as long ago as -1707, by Dr. Sancassini of Comacchio, and described by the celebrated -Valisneri (after whom the plant _Valisneria_ was named) in 1710, again -by Mondini in 1777, and almost contemporaneously by O. J. Müller of -Denmark. Later the illustrious Rathke (in 1824, 1838, and 1850) and also -Hornbaum-Hornschuch published the results of special investigations, and -figured the eggs. But it was only in 1873 (after several futile -endeavors by others) that the male organ of the eel was recognized, also -by an Italian naturalist, Dr. Syrski, in small individuals of the -species, and a previous idea that the eel was hermaphroditic thereby -dispelled. The sexual differences are correlated with external ones, and -generally the males and females, when adult, can be told apart. Jacoby -testifies that he examined large numbers with a view to solve this -question. The most important differences relate to (1) size; (2) form of -the snout; (3) color; (4) dorsal fin; and (5) size of the eyes. (1) The -males rarely attain a length of more than seventeen to nineteen inches, -while adult females are generally much larger; (2) the snout in the male -is attenuated and rather pointed, while in the female it is -comparatively broad and blunt; (3) the male is of a deep darkish green, -or often a deep black with a shining luster and a whitish belly, while -the female has a clearer color, usually of a greenish hue on the back -and yellowish on the belly; (4) the dorsal fin is lower and less -developed in the male than in the female; and (5) the eye of the male is -large and that of the female, as a rule, comparatively small. These -characters, however, do not always hold good. Jacoby remarked that -'special reference having been paid to the height and narrowness of the -dorsal fin, much success has been met with in picking out, in the -fish-market of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski -(that is, the male organ); absolute certainty, however, in recognizing -them cannot be guaranteed. If one is searching among living eels with no -characters in mind,—with the exception of the first, that of length,—he -will find in every ten eels, on an average, eight females and two with -the supposed male organ; but if the selection is made with a careful -reference to all these marks of difference, the proportion changes, and -out of every ten examples about eight will be found with the supposed -male organ.' - -"According to Herr Benecke, 'it may be assumed with the greatest safety -that the eel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the -lamprey, it spawns only once and then dies. All the eggs of a female -show the same degree of maturity, while in the fish which spawn every -year, besides the large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next -spawning period, there exist very many of much smaller size, which are -destined to mature hereafter and be deposited in other years. It is very -hard to understand how young eels could find room in the body of their -mother if they were retained until they had gained any considerable -size. The eel embryo can live and grow for a long time supported by the -little yolk, but, when this is done, it can only obtain food outside of -the body of its mother. The following circumstances lead us to believe -that the spawning of the eel takes place only in the sea: (1) that the -male eel is found only in the sea or brackish water, while female eels -yearly undertake a pilgrimage from the inland waters to the sea, a -circumstance which has been known since the time of Aristotle, and upon -the knowledge of which the principal capture of eels by the use of fixed -apparatus is dependent; (2) that the young eels, with the greatest -regularity, ascend from the sea into the rivers and lakes.'" - -All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the -young eels never find their way into landlocked ponds in the course of -their wanderings, while eels planted in such isolated bodies of water -thrive and grow rapidly, but never increase in numbers. Another still -more convincing argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly -contained many eels, but which, by the erection of impassable weirs, -have been cut off from the sea, the supply of eels has diminished, and -after a time only scattering individuals, old and of great size, are -taken in them. An instance of this sort occurred in Lake Muskengorf in -West Prussia. If an instance of the reproduction of the eel in fresh -water could be found, such occurrences as these would be quite -inexplicable. - -In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the eels begins -in April or in May; in their lower stretches and shorter streams, later -in the season. In all running waters the eel-fishery depends upon the -downward migrations; the eels press up the streams with occasional -halts, remaining here and there for short periods, but always make their -way above. They appear to make the most progress during dark nights, -when the water is troubled and stormy, for at this time they are -captured in the greatest numbers. It is probable that after the eels -have once returned to the sea and there deposited their spawn, they -never can return into fresh water, but remain there to die. A great -migration of grown eels in spring or summer has never been reported, and -it appears certain that all the female eels which have once found their -way to the sea are lost to the fisherman. - -=Food of the Eel.=—Eels, in the words of Mr. W. H. Ballou, are "among -the most voracious of carnivorous fishes. They eat most inland fishes, -except the garfish and the chub. Investigation of six hundred stomachs -by Oswego fishermen showed that the latter bony fish never had a place -in their bill of fare. They are particularly fond of game-fishes, and -show the delicate taste of a connoisseur in their selection from choice -trout, bass, pickerel, and shad. They fear not to attack any object when -disposed, and their bite in human flesh shows even a vicious attitude -towards man. On their hunting excursions they overturn huge and small -stones alike, working for hours if necessary, beneath which they find -species of shrimp and crayfish, of which they are exceedingly fond. Of -shrimps they devour vast numbers. Their noses are poked into every -imaginable hole in their search for food, to the terror of innumerable -small fishes." - -In the opinion of Mr. Ballou, too, "eels are to the water what the -fishhawk is to the air. They are, perhaps, the most powerful and rapid -of natatorians. Again, they hide in the mud beneath some log or -overhanging rock, and dart out with tremendous fury at the unsuspecting -prey. They attack the spawn of other fishes open-mouthed, and are even -said to suck the eggs from an impaled female. They fearlessly and -rapidly dive head-foremost in the mud, disappearing from view in the -twinkling of a star. They are owl-like in their habits, committing many -of their depredations at night. - -"No fish is yet reported to utilize a full-grown eel as food. Pickerel, -garfish, and bass, which are particularly numerous in these lakes, are -supposed to literally devour the young fry. Mr. Sawyer describes the -operation of the pickerel darting through a long column of young eels -open-mouthed and devouring vast numbers of them." - -=Larva of the Eel.=—The translucent band-shaped larva of the common eel -has been very recently identified and described by Dr. Eigenmann. It is -probable that all true eels, _Enchelycephali_, pass through a -band-shaped or leptocephalous stage, as is the case with _Albula_ and -other _Isospondyli_. In the continued growth the body becomes firmer, -and at the same time much shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the -normal form of the species in question. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 102.—Larva of Common Eel, _Anguilla chrisypa_ (Rafinesque), - called _Leptocephalus grassii_. (After Eigenmann.) -] - -In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully reviewed the -life-history of the eel. The common species live in fresh waters, -migrating to the sea in the winter. They deposit in deep water minute -eggs that float at the surface. The next year they develop into the -band-shaped larva. The young eels enter the streams two years after -their parents drop down to the sea. It is doubtful whether eels breed in -fresh water. The male eel is much smaller than the female. - -The eel is an excellent food-fish, the flesh being tender and oily, of -agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its relatives. Eels often -reach a large size, old individuals of five or six feet in length being -sometimes taken. - -=Species of Eels.=—The different species are very closely related. Not -more than four or five of them are sharply defined, and these mostly in -the South Seas and in the East Indies. The three abundant species of the -north temperate zone, _Anguilla anguilla_ of Europe, _Anguilla chrisypa_ -of the eastern United States, and _Anguilla japonica_ of Japan, are -scarcely distinguishable. In color, size, form, and value as food they -are all alike. - -Fossil species referred to the _Anguillidæ_ are known from the early -Tertiary. _Anguilla leptoptera_ occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolea, and -_Anguilla elegans_ in the Miocene of Œningen in Baden. Other fossil eels -seem to belong to the _Nettastomidæ_ and _Myridæ_. - -=Pug-nosed Eels.=—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel, -_Simenchelys parasiticus_, constituting the family of _Simenchelyidæ_. -This species is scaled like a true eel, has a short, blunt nose, and -burrows its way into the bodies of halibut and other large fishes. It -has been found in Newfoundland and Madeira. Another family possessing -rudimentary scales is that of the _Synaphobranchidæ_, slender eels of -the ocean depths, widely distributed. In these forms the gill-openings -are confluent. _Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ is the best-known species. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 103.—Pug-nosed Eel, _Simenchelys parasiticus_ Gill. Sable Island - Bank. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 104.—_Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ (Gronow). Le Have Bank. -] - -=Conger-eels.=—The _Leptocephalidæ_, or conger-eels, are very similar to -the fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with a somewhat -different mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the head. - -The principal genus is _Leptocephalus_, including the common conger-eel -(_Leptocephalus conger_) of eastern America and Europe and numerous very -similar species in the tropics of both continents. These fishes are -strictly marine and, reaching the length of five or six feet, are much -valued as food. The eggs are much larger than those of the eel and are -produced in great numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their -numbers. Dr. Hermes calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female in -an aquarium. - -These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with very small -heads formerly known as _Leptocephalus_, an ancient name which is now -taken for the genus of congers, having been first used for the larva of -the common conger-eel. The loose watery tissues of these "ghost-fishes" -grow more and more compact and they are finally transformed into young -congers. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 105.—Conger-eel, _Leptocephalus conger_ (L.). Noank, Conn. -] - -The _Murænesocidæ_ are large eels remarkable for their strong knife-like -teeth. _Murænesox savanna_ occurs in the West Indies and in the -Mediterranean, _Murænesox cinereus_ in Japan, and _Murænesox coniceps_ -on the west coast of Mexico, all large and fierce, with teeth like -shears. The _Myridæ_ are small and worm-like eels closely allied to the -congers, having the tail surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial. -_Myrus myrus_ is found in the Mediterranean. Species of _Eomyrus_, -_Rhynchorhinus_, and _Paranguilla_ apparently allied to _Myrus_ occur in -the Eocene. Other related families, mostly rare or living in the deep -seas, are the _Ilyophidæ_, _Heterocongridæ_, and _Dysommidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 106.—Larva of Conger-eel (_Leptocephalus conger_), called - _Leptocephalus morrissi_. (After Eigenmann.) -] - -=The Snake-eels.=—Most varied of the families of eels is the -_Ophichthyidæ_, snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the tail, -which protrudes beyond the fins. Of the many genera found in tropical -waters several are remarkable for the sharply defined coloration, -suggesting that of the snake. Characteristic species are _Chlevastes -colubrinus_ and _Leiuranus semicinctus_, two beautifully banded species -of Polynesia, living in the same holes in the reefs and colored in the -same fashion. Another is _Callechelys melanotænia_. The commonest -species on the Atlantic coast is the plainly colored _Ophichthus -gomesi_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG 107.—_Xyrias revulsus_ Jordan & Snyder. Family _Ophichthyidæ_. - Misaki, Japan. -] - -In the genus _Sphagebranchus_, very slender eels of the reefs, the fins -are almost wanting. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 108.—_Myrichthys pantostigmius_ Jordan & McGregor. Clarion - Island. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 109.—_Ophichthus ocellatus_ (Le Sueur). Pensacola. -] - -Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels -(_Nettastomidæ_) inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. _Nettastoma -bolcense_ occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. The produced snout forms -a transition to the really extraordinary type of thread-eels or -snipe-eels (_Nemichthyidæ_), of which numerous genera and species live -in the oceanic depths. In _Nemichthys_ the long, very slender, -needle-like jaws are each curved backward so that the mouth cannot by -any possibility be shut. The body is excessively slender and the fish -swims with swift undulations, often near the surface, and when seen is -usually taken for a snake. The best-known species is _Nemichthys -scolopaceus_ of the Atlantic and Pacific. _Nemichthys avocetta_, very -much like it, has been twice taken in Puget Sound. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 110.—Thread-eel, _Nemichthys avocetta_ Jordan & Gilbert. - Vancouver Island. -] - -=Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.=—In the suborder _Colocephali_ (κολός, -deficient; κεφαλή, head) the palatopterygoid arch and the membrane-bones -generally are very rudimentary. The skull is thus very narrow, the -gill-structures are not well developed, and in the chief family there -are no pectoral fins. This group is very closely related to the -_Enchelycephali_, from which it is probably derived. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 111.—Jaws of _Nemichthys avocetta_ Jordan & Gilbert. -] - -In the great family of morays (_Murænidæ_) the teeth are often very -highly developed. The muscles are always very strong and the spines bite -savagely, a live moray being often able to drive men out of a boat. The -skin is thick and leathery, and the coloration is highly specialized, -the pattern of color being often elaborate and brilliant. In _Echidna -zebra_ for example the body is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden -yellow. In _Muræna_ each nostril has a barbel. _Muræna helena_, the -oldest moray known, is found in Europe. In _Gymnothorax_, the largest -genus, only the anterior nostrils are thus provided. _Gymnothorax -mordax_ of California is a large food-fish, as are also the brown -_Gymnothorax funebris_ and the spotted _Gymnothorax moringa_ in the West -Indies. These and many other species may coil themselves in crevices in -the reefs, whence they strike out at their prey like snakes, taking -perhaps the head of a duck or the finger of a man. - -In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the mouth so filled -with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be closed. This fact, -however, renders no assistance to their prey, as the teeth are adapted -for holding as well as for cutting. - -In _Enchelynassa bleekeri_, a huge wine-colored eel of the South Seas, -the teeth are larger than in any other species. _Evenchelys_ -(_macrurus_) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail, -_Echidna_ for its blunt teeth, and _Scuticaria_, _Uropterygius_, and -_Channomuræna_ for the almost complete absence of fins. In _Anarchias_ -(_allardicei_; _knighti_), the anal fin is absent. The flesh of the -morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and not readily -digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 112.—_Muræna retifera_ Garman. Charleston, S. C. -] - -The _Myrocongridæ_ are small morays with developed pectoral fins. The -species are few and little known. - -=Family Moringuidæ.=—Structurally one of the most peculiar of the groups -of eels is the small family of _Moringuidæ_ of the East and West Indies. -In these very slender, almost worm-like fishes the heart is placed very -far behind the gills and the tail is very short. The fins are very -little developed, and some forms, as _Gordiichthys irretitus_ of the -Gulf of Mexico, the body as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great -number of vertebræ. _Moringua hawaiiensis_ occurs in Hawaii, _M. -edwardsi_ in the Bahamas. This family probably belongs with the morays -to the group of _Colocephali_, although its real relationships are not -wholly certain. - -=Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.=—Certain offshoots from the -Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must apparently be -considered as distinct orders occur sparingly in the deep seas. One of -these, _Derichthys serpentinus_, the long-necked eel, constitutes the -sole known species of the suborder _Carencheli_ (καρά, head; ἔγχελυς, -eel). In this group the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in -ordinary fishes, but united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As in -true eels, the shoulder-girdle is remote from the skull. The head is set -on a snake-like neck. The single species representing the family -_Derichthyidæ_ was found in the abysmal depths of the Gulf Stream. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 113.—_Gymnothorax berndti_ Snyder. Hawaii. Family _Murænidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 114.—_Gymnothorax jordani_ (Evermann & Marsh). Family _Murænidæ_. - Puerto Rico. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 115.—Moray, _Gymnothorax moringa_ Bloch. Family _Murænidæ_. - Tortugas. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 116.—_Derichthys serpentinus_ Gill. Gulf Stream. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 117.—Gulper-eel, _Gastrostomus bairdi_ Gill & Ryder. Gulf Stream. -] - -=Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.=—Still more aberrent and in many respects -extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder _Lyomeri_ (λυός, -loose; μέρος, part), known as "Gulpers." These are degenerate forms, -possibly degraded from some conger-like type, but characterized by an -extreme looseness of structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are -reduced to five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the -palatopterygoid arch is wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are wanting, -as in all true eels, and the maxillaries loosely joined to the skull. -The symplectic bone is wanting, and the lower jaw is so hinged to the -skull that it swings freely in various directions. In place of the -lateral line are singular appendages. Dr. Gill says of these fishes: -"The entire organization is peculiar to the extent of anomaly, and our -old conceptions of the characteristics of a fish require to be modified -in the light of our knowledge of such strange beings." Special features -are the extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger than -that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small eye at the -tip of the snout, and the relative length of the tail. The whole -substance is excessively fragile as usual with animals living in great -depths and the color is jet black. Three species have been described, -and these have been placed in two families, _Saccopharyngidæ_, with the -trunk (gill-opening to the vent) much longer than the head, and -_Eurypharyngidæ_, with the trunk very short, much shorter than the head. -The best-known species is the pelican eel (_Eurypharynx pelacanoides_), -of the coast of Morocco, described by Vaillant in 1882. _Gastrostomus -bairdi_, very much like it, occurs in the great depths under the Gulf -Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes that it is -possible that all three are really the same species, for which the -oldest name would be _Saccopharynx ampullaceus_. Of this form four -specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of them six feet long, -carried to the surface through having swallowed fishes too large to be -controlled. To be carried above its depth in a struggle with its prey is -one of the greatest dangers to which the abysmal fishes are subject. - -=Order Heteromi.=—The order of _Heteromi_ (ἑτερός, different; ὤμος, -shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of a better -place, as its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers have regarded -it as allied to the eels; some have placed it among the Ganoids. Others -have found affinities with the sticklebacks, and still others with the -singular fresh-water fishes called _Mastacembelus_. The _Heteromi_ agree -with the eels, as well as with _Mastacembelus_, in having the scapular -arch separate from the cranium. Unlike all the true eels, most of the -species have true dorsal and anal spines, as in the _Percesoces_ and -_Hemibranchii_. The ventral fins, when present, are abdominal and each -with several spines in front, a character not found among the -_Acanthopteri_. There is no mesocoracoid. - -The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in the _Xenomi_, -are reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate. The two groups have -little else in common, however, and this trait is possibly primitive in -both cases, more likely to have arisen through independent degeneration. -The separation of the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity -with the eels, as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families -are known, both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in which -spines are not developed. - -The _Notacanthidæ_ are elongate, compressed, ending in a band-shaped, -tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and few or no soft -rays, and the mouth is normal, provided with teeth. The species of -_Notacanthus_ are few and scantily preserved. Those of _Macdonaldia_ are -more abundant. _Macdonaldia challengeri_ is from the North Pacific, -being once taken off Tokio. The extinct family of _Protonotacanthidæ_ -differs in the total absence of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single -species, _Pronotocanthus sahel-almæ_, originally described as a -primitive eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. - -The _Lipogenyidæ_ have a round, sucker-like mouth, with imperfect lower -jaw, but are otherwise similar. _Lipogenys gilli_ was dredged in the -Gulf Stream. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 118.—_Notacanthus phasganorus_ Goode & Bean. Grand Banks. -] - -Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of _Heteromi_ by the -addition of the _Dercetidæ_, _Halosauridæ_ (_Lyopomi_), and the -_Fierasferidæ_. We can hardly suppose that all these forms are really -allied to _Notacanthus_. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI - - -=OSTARIOPHYSI.=—A large group of orders, certainly of common descent, -may be brought together under the general name of _Ostariophysi_ -(ὀσταρίον, a small bone; θυσός, inflated). These are in many ways allied -to the _Isospondyli_, but they have undergone great changes of -structure, some of the species being highly specialized, others -variously degenerate. A chief character is shared by all the species. -The anterior vertebræ are enlarged, interlocked, considerably modified, -and through them a series of small bones connect the air-bladder with -the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently an organ of hearing -through a form of connection which is lost in all the higher fishes. - -In all the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded eel-like -forms called _Gymnonoti_, the mesocoracoid arch persists, a trait found -in all the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the _Teleost_ order of -_Isospondyli_. Other traits of the Ostariophysan fishes are shared by -the _Isospondyli_ (herring, salmon) and other soft-rayed fishes. The -air-bladder is large, but not cellular. It leads through life by an open -duct to the œsophagus. The ventral fins are abdominal in position. The -pectorals are inserted low. A mesocoracoid arch is developed on the -inner side of the shoulder-girdle. (See Fig. 119.) There are no spines -on the fins, except in many cases a single one, a modified soft ray at -front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if present, are cycloid or -replaced by bony plates. - -Many of the species have an armature much like that of the sturgeon, but -here the resemblance ends, the bony plates in the two cases being -without doubt independently evolved. According to Cope, the affinities -of the catfishes to the sturgeon are "seen in the absence of symplectic, -the rudimentary maxillary bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the -interclavicles. There is also a superficial resemblance in the dermal -bones." But it is not likely that any real affinity exists. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 119.—Inner view of shoulder-girdle of the Buffalo-fish. _Ictiobus - bubalus_ Rafinesque, showing the mesocoracoid (59). (After Starks.) -] - -The sturgeons lack the characteristic auditory ossicles, or "Weberian -apparatus," which the catfishes possess in common with the carp family, -the _Characins_, and the _Gymnonoti_. These orders must at least have a -common origin, although this origin is obscure, and fossil remains give -little help to the solution of the problem. Probably the ancestors of -the _Ostariophysi_ are to be found among the allies of the -_Osteoglossidæ_. Gill has called attention to the resemblance of -_Erythrinus_ to _Amia_. In any event, all the _Ostariophysi_ must be -considered together, as it is not conceivable that so complex a -structure as the Weberian apparatus should have been more than once -independently evolved. The branchiostegals, numerous among the -_Isospondyli_, are mostly few among the _Ostariophysi_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 120.—Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Günther, - after Weber.) -] - -To the _Ostariophysi_ belong the vast majority of the fresh-water fishes -of the world. Their primitive structure is shown in many ways; among -others by the large number of vertebræ instead of the usual twenty-four -among the more highly specialized families of fishes. We may group the -_Ostariophysi_ under four orders: _Heterognathi_, _Eventognathi_ -(_Plectospondyli_), _Nematognathi_, and _Gymnonoti_. - -=The Heterognathi.=—Of these the order of _Heterognathi_ seems to be the -most primitive, but in some ways the most highly developed, showing -fewer traits of degeneration than any of the others. The presence of the -adipose fin in this group and in the catfishes seems to indicate some -sort of real affinity with the salmon-like forms, although there has -been great change in other regards. - -The order _Heterognathi_, or _Characini_ (ἕτερος, different; γνάθος, -jaw), contains those _Ostariophysi_ which retain the mesocoracoid and -are not eel-like, and which have the lower pharyngeals developed as in -ordinary fishes. In most cases an adipose fin is present and there are -strong teeth in the jaws. There are no pseudobranchiæ, and, as in the -_Cyprinidæ_, usually but three branchiostegals. The _Characidæ_ -constitute the majority of the fresh-water fishes in those regions which -have neither _Cyprinidæ_ nor _Salmonidæ_. Nearly four hundred species -are known from the rivers of South America and Africa. A single species, -_Tetragonopterus argentatus_, extends its range northward to the Rio -Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or, with this single -exception, in the United States. Most of them are small fishes with deep -bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor-like teeth. Some are as -innocuous as minnows, which they very much resemble, but others are -extremely voracious and destructive in the highest degree. Of the -caribe, belonging to the genus _Serrasalmo_, known by its serrated -belly, Dr. Günther observes: - -"Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a perfect pest in -many rivers of tropical America. In all the teeth are strong, short, -sharp, sometimes lobed incisors, arranged in one or more series; by -means of them they cut off a mouthful of flesh as with a pair of -scissors; and any animal falling into the water where these fish abound -is immediately attacked and cut to pieces in an incredibly short time. -They assail persons entering the water, inflicting dangerous wounds -before the victims are able to make their escape. In some localities it -is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the hook and line, as the fish -hooked is immediately attacked by the 'caribe' (as these fish are -called), and torn to pieces before it can be withdrawn from the water. -The caribes themselves are rarely hooked, as they snap the hook or cut -the line. The smell of blood is said to attract at once thousands of -these fishes to the spot." - -Two families of _Heterognathi_ are recognized: the _Erythrinidæ_, which -lack the adipose fin, and the _Characidæ_, in which this fin is -developed. The _Erythrinidæ_ are large pike-like fishes of the South -American rivers, robust and tenacious of life, with large mouths armed -with strong unequal teeth. The best-known species is the _Trahira_ -(_Hoplias malabaricus_). - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 121.—_Brycon dentex_ Günther. Family _Characidæ_. Nicaragua. -] - -Among the _Characidæ_, _Serrasalmo_ has been already noticed. -_Citharinus_ in Africa has very few teeth, and _Curimatus_ in South -America none at all. _Nannocharax_ in Africa is composed of very -diminutive fishes, _Hydrocyon_ exceedingly voracious ones, reaching a -length of four feet, with savage teeth. Many of the species are allies -of _Tetragonopterus_, small, silvery, bream-like fishes with flat bodies -and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these are American. A related genus -is _Brycon_, found in the streams about the Isthmus of Panama. - -Extinct _Characins_ are very rare. Two species from the Tertiary lignite -of São Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to _Tetragonopterus_—_T. avus_ -and _T. ligniticus_. - -=The Eventognathi.=—The _Eventognathi_ (ἔυ, well; ἔν, within; γνάθος, -jaw) are characterized by the absence of teeth in the jaws and by the -high degree of specialization of the lower pharyngeals, which are -scythe-shaped and in typical forms are armed with a relatively small -number of highly specialized teeth of peculiar shape and arranged in -one, two, or three rows. In all the species the gill-openings are -restricted to the sides; there is no adipose fin, and the broad, flat -branchiostegals are but three in number. In all the species the scales, -if present, are cycloid, and the ventral fins, of course, abdominal. The -modification of the four anterior vertebræ and their connection with the -air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes. - -The name _Plectospondyli_ is often used for this group (πλεκτός, -interwoven; σπόνδυλος, vertebra), but that term originally included the -_Characins_ as well. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 122.—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, _Leuciscus - cephalus_ (Linnæus). (After Seelye.) -] - -=The Cyprinidæ.=—The chief family of the _Eventognathi_ and the largest -of all the families of fishes is that of _Cyprinidæ_, comprising 200 -genera and over 2000 species, found throughout the north temperate zone -but not extending to the Arctic Circle on the north, nor much beyond the -Tropic of Cancer on the south. In this family belong all the fishes -known as carp, dace, chub, roach, bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The -essential character of the family lies in the presence of one, two, or -three rows of highly specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the -main row containing 4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of -the main row differ in form according to the food of the fish. They may -be coarse and blunt, molar-like in those which feed on shells; they may -be hooked at tip in those which eat smaller fishes; they may be serrated -or not; they may have an excavated "grinding surface," which is most -developed in the species which feed on mud and have long intestines. In -the _Cyprinidæ_, or carp family, the barbels are small or wanting, the -head is naked, the caudal fin forked, the mouth is toothless and without -sucking lips, and the premaxillaries form its entire margin. With a few -exceptions the _Cyprinidæ_ are small and feeble fishes. They form most -of the food of the predatory river fishes, and their great abundance in -competition with these is due to their fecundity and their -insignificance. They spawn profusely and find everywhere an abundance of -food. Often they check the increase of predatory fish by the destruction -of their eggs. - -In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is very brilliant, -rendering these little creatures for a time the most beautifully colored -of fishes. In spring and early summer the fins, sides, and head in the -males are often charged with pigment, the prevailing color of which is -rosy, though often satin-white, orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or -jet black. Among American genera _Chrosomus_, _Notropis_, and -_Rhinichthys_ are most highly colored. _Rhodeus_, _Rutilus_, and _Zacco_ -in the Old World are also often very brilliant. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 123.—Black-nosed Dace, _Rhinichthys dulcis_ Girard. Yellowstone - River. -] - -In very many species, especially in America, the male in the breeding -season is often more or less covered with small, grayish tubercles or -pearly bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis. These are most numerous on -the head and fall off after the breeding season. They are most developed -in _Campostoma_. - -The _Cyprinidæ_ are little valued as food-fishes. The carp, largely -domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and tasteless. Most of -the others are flavorless and full of small bones. One species, -_Opsariichthys uncirostris_, of Japan is an exception in this regard, -being a fish of very delicate flavor. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 124.—White Chub, _Notropis hudsonius_ (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake, - Minn. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 125.—Silver-jaw Minnow, _Ericymba buccata_ Cope. Defiance, Ohio. -] - -In America 225 species of _Cyprinidæ_ are known. One hundred of these -are now usually held to form the single genus _Notropis_. This includes -the smaller and weaker species, from two to seven inches in length, -characterized by the loss, mostly through degeneration, of special -peculiarities of mouth, fins, and teeth. These have no barbels and never -more than four teeth in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have -so small a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its -rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (_Orthodon_) has more than -five teeth in the main row and none have more than two rows or more than -two teeth in the lower row. By these and other peculiarities it would -seem that the American species are at once less primitive and less -complex than the Old World forms. There is some evidence that the group -is derived from Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms -being much nearer the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the -Mississippi Valley. Not many _Cyprinidæ_ are found in Mexico, none in -Cuba, South America, Australia, Africa, or the islands to the eastward -of Borneo. Many species are very widely distributed, many others -extremely local. In the genus _Notropis_, each river basin in the -Southern States has its series of different and mostly highly colored -species. The presence of _Notropis niveus_ in the Neuse, _Notropis -pyrrhomelas_ in the Santee, _Notropis zonistius_ in the Chattahoochee, -_Notropis callistius_, _trichroistius_, and _stigmaturus_ in the -Alabama, _Notropis whipplei_ in the Mississippi, _Notropis galacturus_ -in the Tennessee, and _Notropis cercostigma_ in the Sabine forms an -instructive series in this regard. These fishes and the darters -(_Etheostominæ_) are, among American fishes, the groups best suited for -the study of local problems in distribution. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 126.—Silverfin, _Notropis whipplei_ (Girard). White River, - Indiana. Family _Cyprinidæ_. -] - -=Species of Dace and Shiner.=—Noteworthy species in other genera are the -following: - -Largest and best known of the species of _Notropis_ is the familiar -shiner or redfin, _Notropis cornutus_, found in almost every brook -throughout the region east of the Missouri River. - -_Campostoma anomalum_, the stone-roller, has the very long intestines -six times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen coils around the -air-bladder. This species feeds on mud and spawns in little brooks, -swarming in early spring throughout the Mississippi Valley, and is -notable for its nuptial tubercles and the black and orange fins. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 127.—Stone-roller, _Campostoma anomalum_ (Rafinesque). Family - _Cyprinidæ_. Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about - the air-bladder. -] - -In the negro-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ of the Pennsylvanian -district, the rami of the lower jaw are united for their whole length, -looking like a projecting tongue. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 128.—Head of Day-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ (Le Sueur). - Shenandoah River. -] - -The fallfish, _Semotilus corporalis_, is the largest chub of the Eastern -rivers, 18 inches long, living in swift, clear rivers. It is a soft -fish, and according to Thoreau "it tastes like brown paper salted" when -it is cooked. Close to this is the horned dace, _Semotilus -atromaculatus_, and the horny head, _Hybopsis kentuckiensis_, both among -the most widely distributed of our river fishes. These are all allied to -the gudgeon (_Gobio gobio_), a common boys' fish of the rivers of -Europe, and much sought by anglers who can get nothing better. The -bream, _Abramis_, represented by numerous species in Europe, has a deep -compressed body and a very long anal fin. It is also well represented in -America, the golden shiner, common in Eastern and Southern streams, -being _Abramis chrysoleucus_. The bleak of Europe (_Alburnus alburnus_) -is a "shiner" close to some of our species of _Notropis_, while the -minnow of Europe, _Phoxinus phoxinus_, resembles our gorgeously colored -_Chrosomus erythrogaster_. Other European forms are the roach (_Rutilus -rutilus_), the chub (_Leuciscus cephalus_), the dace (_Leuciscus -leuciscus_), the id (_Idus idus_), the redeye (_Scardinius -erythropthalmus_), and the tench (_Tinca tinca_). The tench is the -largest of the European species, and its virtues with those of its more -or less insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton. -All of these receive more attention from anglers in England than their -relatives receive in America. All the American _Cyprinidæ_ are ranked as -"boys' fish," and those who seek the trout or black bass or even the -perch or crappie will not notice them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who -treasures the yellow perch as a real fish: "So many unquestionable fish -he counts, then so many chubs which he counts, then throws away." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 129.—Horned Dace, _Semotilus atromaculatus_ (Mitchill). Aux - Plaines River, Ill. Family _Cyprinidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 130.—Shiner, _Abramis chrysoleucus_ (Mitchill). Hackensack River, - N. J. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 131.—The Squawfish, _Ptychocheilus grandis_ Agassiz. (Photograph - by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -=Chubs of the Pacific Slope.=—In the Western waters are numerous genera, -some of the species reaching a large size. The species of squawfish -(_Ptychocheilus lucius_ in the Colorado, _Ptychocheilus grandis_ in the -Sacramento, and _Ptychocheilus oregonensis_ in the Columbia) reach a -length of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These fishes are long and slender, -with large toothless mouths and the aspect of a pike. - -Allied to these are the "hard tails" (_Gila elegans_ and _Gila robusta_) -of the Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely eatable, with -lean bodies, flat heads, and expanded tails. The split-tail, -_Pogonichthys macrolepidotus_, is found in the Sacramento. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 132.—Chub of the Great Basin, _Leuciscus lineatus_ (Girard). - Heart Lake, Yellowstone Park. Family _Cyprinidæ_. -] - -In the chisel-mouth, _Acrocheilus alutaceus_, of the Columbia the lips -have a hard cutting edge. In _Meda_, very small fishes of the Colorado -Basin, the dorsal has a compound spine of peculiar structure. Many of -the species of Western waters belong to the genus _Leuciscus_, which -includes also many species of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace -(_Leuciscus hakuensis_) is often found out in the sea, but, in general, -_Cyprinidæ_ are only found in fresh waters. The genus of barbels -(_Barbus_) contains many large species in Europe and Asia. In these the -barbel is better developed than in most other genera, a character which -seems to indicate a primitive organization. _Barbus mosal_ of the -mountains of India is said to reach a length of more than six feet and -to have "scales as large as the palm of the hand." - -=The Carp and Goldfish.=—In the American and European _Cyprinidæ_ the -dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species it is longer, -having 15 to 20 rays and is often preceded by a serrated spine like that -of a catfish. Of the species with long dorsal the one most celebrated is -the carp (_Cyprinus carpio_). This fish is a native of the rivers of -China, where it has been domesticated for centuries. Nearly three -hundred years ago it was brought to northern Europe, where it has -multiplied in domestication and become naturalized in many streams and -ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the carp has attracted much -attention in America. It has been generally satisfactory where the -nature of the fish is understood and where expectations have not been -too high. - -The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tranquil, and -weedy waters with muddy bottoms. Its food consists of water insects and -other small animals, and vegetable matter, such as the leaves of aquatic -plants. They can be fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens, -and they bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and -chickens do to wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very hardy fish, -grows rapidly, and has immense fecundity, 700,000 eggs having been found -in the ovaries of a single individual. It reaches sometimes a weight of -30 to 40 pounds. As a food-fish the carp cannot be said to hold a high -place. It is tolerated in the absence of better fish. - -The carp, either native or in domestication, has many enemies. In -America, catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs or its young, as -well as water-snakes, turtles, kingfishes, crayfishes, and many other -creatures which live about our ponds and in sluggish streams. In -domestication numerous varieties of carp have been formed, the -"leather-carp" (Lederkarpfen) being scaleless, others, "mirror-carp" -(Spiegelkarpfen), having rows of large scales only along the lateral -line or the bases of the fins. - -Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (_Carassius auratus_). This -is also a common Chinese fish introduced in domestication into Europe -and America. The golden-yellow color is found only in domesticated -specimens, and is retained by artificial selection. The native goldfish -is olivaceous in color, and where the species has become naturalized (as -in the Potomac River, where it has escaped from fountains in Washington) -it reverts to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the -rivers of Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright colors as -an ornamental fish. It has no beauty of form nor any interesting habits, -and many of our native fishes (_Percidæ_, _Cyprinidæ_) far excel it in -attractiveness as aquarium fishes. Unfortunately they are less hardy. -Many varieties and monstrosities of the goldfish have been produced by -domestication. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 133.—Lower pharyngeal of _Placopharynx duquesnii_ (Le Sueur). -] - -=The Catostomidæ.=—The suckers, or _Catostomidæ_, are an offshoot from -the _Cyprinidæ_, differing chiefly in the structure of the mouth and of -the lower pharyngeal bones. The border of the mouth above is formed -mesially by the small premaxillaries and laterally by the maxillaries. -The teeth of the lower pharyngeals are small and very numerous, arranged -in one series like the teeth of a comb. The lips are usually thick and -fleshy, and the dorsal fin is more or less elongate (its rays eleven to -fifty in number), characters which distinguish the suckers from the -American _Cyprinidæ_ generally, but not from those of the Old World. - -About sixty species of suckers are known, all of them found in the -rivers of North America except two, which have been recorded on rather -uncertain authority from Siberia and China. Only two or three of the -species extend their range south of the Tropic of Cancer into Mexico or -Central America, and none occur in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring -islands. The majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of -the Rocky Mountains, although species of _Catostomus_, _Chasmistes_, -_Deltistes_, _Xyrauchen_, and _Pantosteus_ are found in abundance in the -Great Basin and the Pacific slope. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 134.—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, _Erimyzon sucetta_ (Lacépède). - Nipisink Lake, Illinois. Family _Catostomidæ_. -] - -In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about three feet. -As food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh of all being -flavorless and excessively full of small bones. Most of them are -sluggish fishes; they inhabit all sorts of streams, lakes, and ponds, -but even when in mountain brooks they gather in the eddies and places of -greatest depth and least current. They feed on insects and small aquatic -animals, and also on mud, taking in their food by suction. They are not -very tenacious of life. Most of the species swarm in the spring in -shallow waters. In the spawning season they migrate up smaller streams -than those otherwise inhabited by them. The large species move from the -large rivers into smaller ones; the small brook species go into smaller -brooks. In some cases the males in spring develop black or red pigment -on the body or fins, and in many cases tubercles similar to those found -in the _Cyprinidæ_ appear on the head, body, and anal and caudal fins. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 135.—Buffalo-fish, _Ictiobus cyprinella_ (Cuv. & Val.). Normal, - Ill. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 136.—Carp-sucker, _Carpiodes cyprinus_ (Le Sueur). Havre de - Grace. -] - -The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera _Ictiobus_ -and _Carpiodes_, are the largest of the _Catostomidæ_, and bear a -considerable resemblance to the carp. They have the dorsal fin many -rayed and the scales large and coarse. They abound in the large rivers -and lakes between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, one species -being found in Central America and a species of a closely related genus -(_Myxocyprinus asiaticus_) being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely -ascend the smaller rivers except for the purpose of spawning. Although -so abundant in the Mississippi Valley as to be of importance -commercially, they are very inferior as food-fishes, being coarse and -bony. The genus _Cycleptu_s contains the black-horse, or Missouri -sucker, a peculiar species with a small head, elongate body, and -jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller rivers tributary to the -Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers in the spring. Most of the other -suckers belong to the genera _Catostomus_ and _Moxostoma_, the latter -with the large-toothed _Placopharynx_ being known, from the red color of -the fins, as red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are -very widely distributed, two of them (_Catostomus commersoni_, _Erimyzon -sucetta_) being found in almost every stream east of the Rocky Mountains -and _Catostomus catostomus_ throughout Canada to the Arctic Sea. The -most peculiar of the suckers in appearance is the harelip sucker -(_Quassilabia lacera_) of the Western rivers. Very singular in form is -the humpback or razor-back sucker of the Colorado, _Xyrauchen cypho_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 137.—Common Sucker, _Catostomus commersoni_ (Le Sueur). Ecorse, - Mich. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 138.—California Sucker, _Catostomus occidentalis_ Agassiz. - (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -=Fossil Cyprinidæ.=—Fossil _Cyprinidæ_, closely related to existing -forms, are found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the Tertiary, -but rarely if ever earlier than the Miocene. _Cyprinus_ _priscus_ occurs -in the Miocene of Germany, perhaps showing that Germany was the original -home of the so-called "German carp," afterwards actually imported to -Germany from China. Some specimens referred to _Barbus_, _Tinca_, -_Rhodeus_, _Aspius_, and _Gobio_ are found in regions now inhabited by -these genera, and many species are referred to the great genus -_Leuciscus_, _Leuciscus œningensis_ from the Miocene of Germany being -perhaps the best known. Several species of _Leuciscus_ or related genera -are found in the Rocky Mountain region. Among these is the recently -described _Leuciscus turneri_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 139.—Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, _Catostomus - macrocheilus_. -] - -Fossil _Catostomidæ_ are very few and chiefly referred to the genus -_Amyzon_, supposed to be allied to _Erimyzon_, but with a longer dorsal. -_Amyzon commune_ and other species are found in the Rocky Mountains, -especially in the Miocene of the South Park in Colorado and the Eocene -of Wyoming. Two or three species of _Catostomus_, known by their skulls, -are found in the Pliocene of Idaho. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 140.—Razor-back Sucker, _Xyrauchen cypho_ (Lockington). Green - River, Utah. -] - -=The Loaches.=—The _Cobitidæ_, or loaches, are small fishes, all less -than a foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of Europe and Asia. -In structure they are not very different from minnows, but they are -rather eel-like in form, and the numerous long barbels about the mouth -strongly suggest affinity with the catfishes. The scales are small, the -pharyngeal teeth few, and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes, -enclosed in a capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors, -tenacious of life, feeding on insects and worms. The species often bury -themselves in mud and sand. They lie quiet on the bottom and move very -quickly when disturbed much after the manner of darters and gobies. -Species of _Cobitis_ and _Misgurnus_ are widely distributed from England -to Japan. _Nemachilus barbatulus_ is the commonest European species. -_Cobitis tænia_ is found, almost unchanged, from England to the streams -of Japan. - -Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from _Cobitis_, -occur in the Miocene and more recent rocks. - -From ancestors of loaches or other degraded _Cyprinidæ_ we may trace the -descent of the catfishes. - -The _Homalopteridæ_ are small loaches in the mountain streams of the -East Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number of pharyngeal teeth -(10 to 16) is greater than in the loaches, carp, or minnows. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES - - -=THE Nematognathi.=—The _Nematognathi_ (νῆμα, thread; γνάθος, jaw), -known collectively as catfishes, are recognized at once by the fact that -the rudimentary and usually toothless maxillary is developed as the bony -base of a long barbel or feeler. Usually other feelers are found around -the head, suggesting the "smellers" of a cat. The body is never scaly, -being either naked and smooth or else more or less completely mailed -with bony plates which often resemble superficially those of a sturgeon. -Other distinctive characters are found in the skeleton, notably the -absence of the subopercle, but the peculiar development of the maxillary -and its barbel with the absence of scales is always distinctive. The -symplectic is usually absent, and in some the air-bladder is reduced to -a rudiment inclosed in a bony capsule. In almost all cases a stout spine -exists in the front of the dorsal fin and in the front of each pectoral -fin. This spine, made of modified or coalescent soft rays, is often a -strong weapon with serrated edges and capable of inflicting a severe -wound. When the fish is alarmed, it sets this spine by a rotary motion -in its socket joint. It can then be depressed only by breaking it. By a -rotary motion upward and toward the body the spine is again lowered. The -wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this fact is due not to -a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the slime of the -spine. - -In two genera, _Noturus_ and _Schilbeodes_, a poison-gland exists at the -base of the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp pain like the -sting of a hornet and almost exactly like the sting of a scorpion-fish. -Most of the _Nematognathi_ possess a fleshy or adipose fin behind the -dorsal, exactly as in the salmon. In a few cases the adipose fin -develops an anterior spine and occasionally supporting rays. - -All the _Nematognathi_ are carnivorous bottom feeders, devouring any -prey they can swallow. Only a few enter the sea, and they occur in the -greatest abundance in the Amazon region. Upward of 1200 species, -arranged in 150 genera, are recorded. They vary greatly in size, from -two inches to six feet in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but -the species in the sea have very tough and flavorless flesh. Some of the -others are extremely delicate, with finely flavored flesh and a grateful -absence of small bones. - -=Families of Nematognathi.=—According to Dr. Eigenmann's scheme of -classification,[11] the most primitive family of Nematognathi is that of -_Diplomystidæ_, characterized by the presence of a well-developed -maxillary, as in other soft-rayed fishes. The single species, -_Diplomystes papillosus_, is found in the waters of Chile. - -Footnote 11: - - A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7. - -Similar to the _Diplomystidæ_ in all other respects is the great central -family of _Siluridæ_, by far the most numerous and important of all the -divisions of _Nematognathi_. - -=The Siluridæ.=—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly mailed, the -barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short, inserted forward, -the adipose fin without spine, and the lower pharyngeals separate. All -the marine catfishes and most of the fresh-water species belong to this -group, and its members, some 700 species, abound in all parts of the -world where catfishes are known—"a bloodthirsty and bullying race of -rangers inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready -to do battle with their nearest neighbor." - -=The Sea Catfish.=—In the tropical seas are numerous species of -catfishes belonging to _Tachysurus_, _Arius_, _Galeichthys_, -_Felichthys_, and other related genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes -covered with smooth skin, the head usually with a coat of mail, pierced -by a central fontanelle. Some of them reach a considerable size, -swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as food, being always tough and -coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the pelican, which devour these -catfishes are often destroyed by the sudden erection of the pectoral -spines. None of these are found in Europe or in Japan. Of the very many -American species the gaff-topsail catfish (_Felichthys felis_), noted -for its very high spines, extends farthest north and is one of the very -largest species. This genus has two barbels at the chin. Most others -have four. The commonest sea catfish of the Carolina coast is -_Galeichthys milberti_. In _Tachysurus_ the teeth on the palate are -rounded, in most of the others they are in villiform bands. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 141.—Gaff-topsail Cat, _Felichthys felis_ (L.). Wood's Hole. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 142.—Sea Catfish, _Galeichthys milberti_ (Cuv. & Val.). - Pensacola. -] - -In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small peas, are -taken into the mouth of the male and there cared for until hatched. - -=The Channel Cats.=—In all the rivers of North America east of the Rocky -Mountains are found catfishes in great variety. The channel cats, -_Ictalurus_, known most readily by the forked tails, are the largest in -size and most valued as food. The technical character of the genus is -the backward continuation of the supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge -to the base of the dorsal. The great blue cat, _Ictalurus furcatus_, -abounds throughout the large rivers of the Southern States and reaches a -weight of 150 pounds or more. It is an excellent food and its firm flesh -is readily cut into steaks. In the Great Lakes and northward is a very -similar species, also of large size, which has been called _Ictalurus -lacustris_. Another similar species is the willow cat, _Ictalurus -anguilla_. The white channel-cat, _Ictalurus punctatus_, reaches a much -smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift streams of the -Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama, and the Gasconade. It is -a very delicate food-fish, with tender white flesh of excellent flavor. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 143.—Channel Catfish, _Ictalurus punctatus_ (Rafinesque). - Illinois River. Family _Siluridæ_. -] - -=Horned Pout.=—The genus _Ameiurus_ includes the smaller brown catfish, -horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and the caudal fin is -usually but not always rounded. The many species are widely diffused, -abounding in brooks, lakes, and ponds. _Ameiurus nebulosus_ is the -best-known species, ranging from New England to Texas, known in the East -as horned pout. It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento, -where it abounds, as well as its congener, _Ameiurus catus_ (see Fig. -229, Vol. I), the white bullhead, brought with it from the Potomac. The -latter species has a broader head and concave or notched tail. All the -species are good food-fishes. All are extremely tenacious of life, and -all are alike valued by the urchin, for they will bite vigorously at any -sort of bait. All must be handled with care, for the sharp pectoral -spines make an ugly cut, a species of wound from which few boys' hands -in the catfish region are often free. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 144.—Horned pout, _Ameiurus nebulosus_ (Le Sueur). (From life by - Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, is -a partly blind catfish, evidently derived from local species outside the -cave. It has been named _Gronias nigrilabris_. - -A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, _Ictalurus_ -_meridionalis_, as far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of -Guatemala. - -Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition, known as -_Istlarius balsanus_, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas. In Mexico all -catfishes are known as Bagre, this species as Bagre de Rio. - -The genus _Leptops_ includes the great yellow catfish, or goujon, known -at once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a mottled olive and yellow -fish of repulsive exterior, and it reaches a very great size. It is, -however, a good food-fish. - -=The Mad-toms.=—The genera _Noturus_ and _Schilbeodes_ are composed of -diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine armed at base, with a -poison sac which renders its sting extremely painful though not -dangerous. The numerous species of this genus, known as "mad-toms" and -"stone cats," live among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of -them rarely exceed three inches in length, and their varied colors make -them attractive in the aquarium. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 145.—Mad-tom, _Schilbeodes furiosus_ Jordan & Meek. Showing the - poisoned pectoral spine. Family _Siluridæ_. Neuse River. -] - -=The Old World Catfishes.=—In the catfishes of the Old World and their -relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting. The chief species -found in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels, _Silurus glanis_. This, -next to the sturgeon, is the largest river fish in Europe, weighing 300 -to 400 pounds. It is not found in England, France, or Italy, but abounds -in the Danube. It is a lazy fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping -from nets. It is very voracious, and many stories are told of the -contents of its stomach. A small child swallowed whole is recorded from -Thorn, and there are still more remarkable stories, but not properly -vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in color, naked, sleek, and much -like an American _Ameiurus_ save that its tail is much longer and more -eel-like. Another large catfish, known to the ancients, but only -recently rediscovered by Agassiz and Garman, is _Parasilurus -aristotelis_ of the rivers of Greece. In China and Japan is the very -similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish, _Parasilurus asotus_, often found -in ponds and used as food. Numerous smaller related catfishes, _Porcus_ -(_Bagrus_), _Pseudobagrus_, and related genera swarm in the brooks and -ponds of the Orient. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 146.—Electric Catfish, _Torpedo electricus_ (Gmelin). Congo - River. (After Boulenger.) -] - -In the genus _Torpedo_ (_Malapterurus_) the dorsal fin is wanting. -_Torpedo electricus_, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species of -much interest to anatomists. The shock is like that of a Leyden jar. The -structures concerned are noticed on p. 186, Vol. I. The generic name -_Torpedo_ was applied to the electric catfish before its use for the -electric ray. - -In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster around the -genus _Pimelodus_. Some of them have the snout very long and spatulate. -Most of them possess a very long adipose fin. The species are generally -small in size and with smooth skin like the North American catfishes. -Still other species in great numbers are grouped around the genus -_Doras_. In this group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at -its end, and the lateral line is armed behind with spinous shields. All -but one of the genera belong to the Amazon district, _Synodontis_ being -found in Africa. - -Concerning _Doras_, Dr. Günther observes: "These fishes have excited -attention by their habit of traveling during the dry season from a piece -of water about to dry up in quest of a pond of greater capacity. These -journeys are occasionally of such a length that the fish spends whole -nights on the way, and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so -large that the Indians who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the -prey thus placed in their hands. The Indians suppose that the fish carry -a supply of water with them, but they have no special organs and can -only do so by closing the gill-openings or by retaining a little water -between the plates of their bodies, as Hancock supposes. The same -naturalist adds that they make regular nests, in which they cover up -their eggs with care and defend them, male and female uniting in this -parental duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed, at -the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is sometimes placed in -a hole scooped out of the beach." - -=The Sisoridæ.=—The _Sisoridæ_ are small catfishes found in swift -mountain streams of northern India. In some of the genera -(_Pseudecheneis_) in swift streams a sucking-disk formed of longitudinal -plates of skin is formed on the breast. This enables these fishes to -resist the force of the water. In one genus, _Exostoma_, plates of skin -about the mouth serve the same purpose. - -The _Bunocephalidæ_ are South American catfishes with the dorsal fin -undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In _Platystacus_ (_Aspredo_), -the eggs are carried on the belly of the female, which is provided with -spongy tentacles to which the eggs are attached. After the breeding -season the ventral surface becomes again smooth. - -=The Plotosidæ.=—The _Plotosidæ_ are naked catfishes, largely marine, -found along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the second dorsal is -very long. _Plotosus anguillaris_, the sea catfish of Japan, is a small -species striped with yellow and armed with sharp pectoral spines which -render it a very disagreeable object to the fishermen. In sandy bays -like that of Nagasaki it is very abundant. Allied to this is the small -Asiatic family of _Chacidæ_. - -=The Chlariidæ.=—The _Chlariidæ_ are eel-like, with a soft skeleton and -a peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps and muddy streams -of India, where some species reach a length of six feet. One species, -_Chlarias magur_, has been brought by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it -flourishes in the same waters as _Ameiurus nebulosus_, brought from the -Potomac and by Chinese carried from San Francisco. - -=The Hypophthalmidæ and Pygidiidæ.=—The _Hypophthalmidæ_ have the minute -air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule. The eyes are placed very -low and the skin is smooth. The statement that this family lacks the -auditory apparatus is not correct. The few species belong to northern -South America. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 147.—An African Catfish, _Chlarias breviceps_ Boulenger. Congo - River. Family _Chlariidæ_. (After Boulenger.) -] - -Allied to this group is the family _Pygidiidæ_ with a differently formed -bony capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous species are all South -American, mostly of mountain streams of high altitude. Some are very -small. Certain species are said to flee for protection into the -gill-cavity of larger catfishes. Some are reported to enter the urethra -of bathers, causing severe injuries. The resemblance of certain species -to the loaches, or _Cobitidæ_, is very striking. This similarity is due -to the results of similar environment and necessarily parallel habits. -The _Argidæ_ have the capsule of the air-bladder formed in a still -different fashion. The few species are very small, inhabitants of the -streams of the high Andes. - -=The Loricariidæ.=—In the family of _Loricariidæ_ the sides and back are -armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder is still in a bony -capsule, and the mouth is small with thick fringed lips. The numerous -species are all small fishes of the South American waters, bearing a -strong external resemblance to _Agonidæ_, but wholly different in -anatomy. - -=The Callichthyidæ.=—The _Callichthyidæ_ are also small fishes armed -with a bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely allied to the -_Pygidiidæ_. The body is more robust than in the _Callichthyidæ_ and the -coat of mail is differently formed. The species swarm in the rivers of -northern South America, where with the mailed _Loricariidæ_ they form a -conspicuous part of the fish fauna. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 148.—_Loricaria aurea_ Steindachner, a mailed Catfish from Rio - Meta, Venezuela. Family _Loricariidæ_. (After Steindachner.) -] - -=Fossil Catfishes.=—Fossil catfishes are very few in number. _Siluridæ_, -allied to _Chlarias_, _Bagarius_, _Heterobranchus_, and other -fresh-water forms of India, are found in the late Tertiary rocks of -Sumatra, and catfish spines exist in the Tertiary rocks of the United -States. Vertebræ in the Canadian Oligocene have been referred by Cope to -species of _Ameiurus_ (_A. cancellatus_ and _A. maconnelli_). -_Rhineastes peltatus_ and six other species, perhaps allied to -_Pimelodus_, have been described by Cope from Eocene of Wyoming and -Colorado. _Bucklandium diluvii_ is found in the Eocene London clays, and -several species apparently marine, referred to the neighborhood of -_Tachysurus_ or _Arius_, are found in Eocene rocks of England. - -There is no evidence that the group of catfishes has any great -antiquity, or that its members were ever so numerous and varied as at -the present time. The group is evidently derived from scaly ancestors, -and its peculiarities are due to specialization of certain parts and -degeneration of others. - -There is not the slightest reason for regarding the catfishes as direct -descendants of the sturgeon or other Ganoid type. They should rather be -looked upon as a degenerate and highly modified offshoot from the -primitive Characins. - -=Order Gymnonoti.=—At the end of the series of _Ostariophysans_ we may -place the _Gymnonoti_ (γυμνός, bare; νῶτος, back). This group contains -about thirty species of fishes from the rivers of South America and -Central America. All are eel-like in form, though the skeleton with the -shoulder-girdle suspended from the cranium is quite unlike that of a -true eel. There is no dorsal fin. The vent is at the throat and the anal -is excessively long. The gill-opening is small as in the eel, and as in -most elongate fishes, the ventral fins are undeveloped. The body is -naked or covered with small scales. - -Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance. The -_Electrophoridæ_ constitutes by itself Cope's order of _Glanencheli_ -(γλανίς, catfish; ἔγχελυς, eel). This group he regards as intermediate -between the eel-like catfishes (_Chlarias_) and the true eels. It is -naked and eel-shaped, with a short head and projecting lower jaw like -that of the true eel. The single species, _Electrophorus electricus_, -inhabits the rivers of Brazil, reaching a length of six feet, and is the -most powerful of all electric fishes. Its electric organs on the tail -are derived from modified muscular tissue. They are described on p. 170, -Vol. I. - -The _Gymnotidæ_ are much smaller in size, with compressed scaly bodies -and the mouth at the end of a long snout. The numerous species are all -fishes without electric organs. _Eigenmannia humboldti_ of the Panama -region is a characteristic species. No fossil _Gymnonoti_ are recorded. - - - - - CHAPTER X - THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI - - -=ORDER Scyphophori.=—The _Scyphophori_ (σκύφος, cup; φορέω, to bear) -constitutes a small order which lies apparently between the _Gymnonoti_ -and the _Isospondyli_. Boulenger unites it with the _Isospondyli_. The -species, about seventy-five in number, inhabit the rivers of Africa, -where they are important as food-fishes. In all there is a deep cavity -on each side of the cranium covered by a thin bony plate, the -supertemporal bone. There is no symplectic bone, and the subopercle is -very small or concealed. The gill-openings are narrow and there are no -pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder connects with the ear, but not -apparently in the same way as with the _Ostariophysan_ fishes, to which, -however, the _Scyphophori_ are most nearly related. In all the -_Scyphophori_ the body is oblong, covered with cycloid scales, the head -is naked, there are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the end of a -long snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail, which -with reference to a similar structure in _Torpedo_ and _Electrophorus_ -is held to be a degenerate electric organ. According to Günther, "it is -without electric functions, but evidently representing a transitional -condition from muscular substance to an electric organ. It is an oblong -capsule divided into numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa -and containing a gelatinous substance." - -=The Mormyridæ.=—There are two families of _Scyphophori_. The -_Mormyridæ_ have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the -_Gymnarchidæ_ are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting. -_Gymnarchus miloticus_ of the Nile reaches a length of six feet, and it -is remarkable as retaining the cellular structure of the air-bladder as -seen in the garpike and bowfin. It doubtless serves as an imperfect -lung. - -The best-known genus of _Scyphophori_ is _Mormyrus_. Species of this -genus found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by the ancient -Egyptians and pictures of _Mormyrus_ are often seen among the emblematic -inscriptions. The Egyptians did not eat the _Mormyrus_ because with two -other fishes it was accused of having devoured a limb from the body of -Osiris, so that Isis was unable to recover it when she gathered the -scattered remains of her husband. - -In _Mormyrus_ the bones of the head are covered by skin, the snout is -more or less elongated, and the tail is generally short and -insignificant. One of the most characteristically eccentric species is -_Gnathonemus curvirostris_, lately discovered by Dr. Boulenger from the -Congo. Fossil _Mormyridæ_ are unknown. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 149.—_Gnathonemus curvirostris_ Boulenger. Family _Mormyridæ_. - Congo River. (After Boulenger.) -] - -=The Haplomi.=—In the groups called _Iniomi_ and _Lyopomi_, the -mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition which in some -cases may be due to the degeneration produced by deep-sea life. In the -eels a similar condition obtains. In the group called _Haplomi_ (ἁπλοός, -simple; ὤμος, shoulder), as in all the groups of fishes yet to be -discussed, this arch is wholly wanting at all stages of development. In -common with the _Isospondyli_ and with soft-rayed fishes in general the -air-bladder has a persistent air-duct, all the fins are without true -spines, the ventral fins are abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The -group is a transitional one, lying almost equidistant between the -_Isospondyli_ and the _Acanthopterygii_. Gill unites it with the latter -and Woodward with the former. We may regard it for the present as a -distinct order, although no character of high importance separates it -from either. Hay unites the _Haplom_i with the _Synentognathi_ to form -the order of _Mesichthyes_, or transitional fishes, but the affinities -of either with other groups are quite as well marked as their relation -to each other. Boulenger unites the _Iniomi_ with the _Haplomi_, an -arrangement which apparently has merit, for the most primitive and -non-degenerate _Iniomi_, as _Aulopus_ and _Synodus_, lack both -mesocoracoid and orbitosphenoid. These bones are characteristic of the -_Isospondyli_, but are wanting in _Haplomi_. - -There is no adipose dorsal in the typical _Haplomi_, the dorsal is -inserted far back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but not all of -the species are of small size, living in fresh or brackish water, and -they are found in almost all warm regions, though scantily represented -in California, Japan, and Polynesia. The four families of typical -_Haplomi_ differ considerably from one another and are easily -distinguished, although obviously related. Several other families are -provisionally added to this group on account of agreement in technical -characters, but their actual relationships are uncertain. - -=The Pikes.=—The _Esocidæ_ have the body long and slender and the mouth -large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp teeth of different sizes, -some of them being movable. The upper jaw is not projectile, and its -margin, as in the _Salmonidæ_, is formed by the maxillary. The scales -are small, and the dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the -stomach is without pyloric cæca. There is but a single genus, _Esox_ -(_Lucius_ of Rafinesque), with about five or six living species. Four of -these are North American, the other one being found in Europe, Asia, and -North America. - -All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destructive to other -species which may happen to be their neighbors; "mere machines for the -assimilation of other organisms." Thoreau describes the pike as "the -swiftest, wariest, and most ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the -river-wolf. It is a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the -shadow of a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye; -motionless as a jewel set in water, or moving slowly along to take up -its position; darting from time to time at such unlucky fish or frog or -insect as comes within its range, and swallowing it at one gulp. -Sometimes a striped snake, bound for greener meadows across the stream, -ends its undulatory progress in the same receptacle." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 150.—The Pike, _Esox-lucius_ L. (From life by R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -As food-fishes, all the _Esocidæ_ rank high. Their flesh is white, -fine-grained, disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor. - -The finest of the _Esocidæ_, a species to be compared, as a grand game -fish, with the salmon, is the muskallunge (_Esox masquinongy_). -Technically this species may be known by the fact that its cheeks and -opercles are both naked on the lower half. It may be known also by its -great size and by its color, young and old being spotted with black on a -golden-olive ground. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 151.—Muskallunge, _Esox masquinongy_ Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich. -] - -The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region, where it -inhabits the deeper waters, except for a short time in the spring, when -it enters the streams to spawn. It often reaches a length of six feet -and a weight of sixty to eighty pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare, -for no small locality would furnish food for more than one such giant. -It is, says Hallock, "a long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way -formed for the life it leads, that of a dauntless marauder." - -A second species of muskallunge, _Esox ohiensis_, unspotted but vaguely -cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River and the upper -Mississippi Valley. It is especially abundant in Chautauqua Lake. - -The pike (_Esox lucius_) is smaller than the muskallunge, and is -technically best distinguished by the fact that the opercles are naked -below, while the cheeks are entirely scaly. The spots and cross-bars in -the pike are whitish or yellowish, and always paler than the olive-gray -ground color. It is the most widely distributed of all fresh-water -fishes, being found from the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes, -and New England to Alaska and throughout northern Asia and Europe. It -reaches a weight of ten to twenty pounds or more, being a large strong -fish in its way, inferior only to the muskallunge. In England _Esox -lucius_ is known as the pike, while its young are called by the -diminutive term pickerel. In America the name pickerel is usually given -to the smaller species, and sometimes even to _Esox lucius_ itself, the -word being with us a synonym for pike, not a diminutive. - -Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the eastern -United States. They are greenish in color and banded or reticulated, -rather than spotted, and, in all, the opercles as well as the cheeks are -fully covered with scales. One of these (_Esox reticulatus_) is the -common pickerel of the Eastern States, which reaches a respectable size -and is excellent as food. The others, _Esox americanus_ along the -Atlantic seaboard and _Esox vermiculatus_ in the middle West, seldom -exceed a foot in length and are of no economic importance. - -Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe, _Esox -lepidotus_ from the Miocene of Baden being one of the earliest and the -best known; in this species the scales are much larger than in the -recent species. The fossil remains would seem to indicate that the -origin of the family was in southern Europe, although most of the living -species are American. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 152.—Mud-minnow, _Umbra pygmæa_ (De Kay). New Jersey. -] - -=The Mud-minnows.=—Close to the pike is the family of _Umbridæ_, or -mud-minnows, which technically differ from the pikes only in the short -snout, small mouth, and weak dentition. The mud-minnows are small, -sluggish, carnivorous fishes living in the mud at the bottom of cold, -clear streams and ponds. They are extremely tenacious of life, though -soon suffocated in warm waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of -the middle West (_Umbra limi_) often remains in dried sloughs and -bog-holes, and has been sometimes plowed up alive. _Umbra pygmæa_, a -striped species, is found in the Eastern States and _Umbra crameri_ in -bogs and brooks along the Danube. This wide break in distribution seems -to indicate a former wide extension of the range of _Umbridæ_, perhaps -coextensive with _Esox_. Fossil _Umbridæ_ are, however, not yet -recognized. - -=The Killifishes.=—Most of the recent _Haplomi_ belong to the family of -_Pœciliidæ_ (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this group the small -mouth is extremely protractile, its margin formed by the premaxillaries -alone much as in the spiny-rayed fishes. The teeth are small and of -various forms according to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms -they are incisor-like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the -species that eat insects or worms they are more firmly fixed. The head -is scaly, the stomach without cæca, and the intestines are long in the -plant-eating species and short in the others. There are nearly 200 -species, very abundant from New England and California southward to -Argentina, and in Asia and Africa also. In regions where rice is -produced, they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some of them enter -the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some are brilliantly -colored, and in many species the males are quite unlike the females, -being smaller and more showy. The largest species (_Fundulus_, -_Anableps_) rarely reach the length of a foot, while _Heterandria -formosa_, a diminutive inhabitant of the Florida rivers, scarcely -reaches an inch. Some species are oviparous, but in most of the -herbivorous forms, and some of the others, the eggs are hatched within -the body, and the anal in the male is modified into a long sword-shaped -intromittent organ, placed farther forward than the anal in the female. -The young when born closely resemble the parent. Most of the -insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving slowly with the eyes -partly out of water. This habit in the genus _Anableps_ (four-eyed fish, -or _Cuatro ojos_) is associated with an extraordinary structure of the -eye. This organ is prominent and is divided by a horizontal partition -into two parts, the upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air, -the lower in the water. The few species of _Anableps_ are found in -tropical America. The species of some genera swim near the bottom, but -always in very shallow waters. All are very tenacious of life, and none -have any commercial value although the flesh is good. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 152_a_.—Four-eyed Fish, _Anableps dovii_ Gill. Tehuantepec, - Mexico. -] - -The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been carefully -studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S. Fish Commission, -who furnishes the following notes published by Evermann & Goldsborough: - -"The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, and -parallel with the length of the body. This bar is darker than the other -external portions of the eyeball and has its edges darker still. -Dividing the external aspect of the eye equally, it has its lower edge -on the same level as the back of the fish, which is flat and straight -from snout to dorsal, or nearly the whole length of the fish; so that -when the body of the fish is just submerged the level of the water -reaches to this bar, and the lower half of the eye is in water, the -upper half in the air. Upon dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it -appears nearly round. A membranous sheath covers the external part and -invests most of the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the -external portion of the eye is seen to be upon this membrane, which may -correspond to the conjunctiva. The back portion of the eyeball being cut -off, one lens is found. The lining of the ball consists, in front, of -one black layer, evidently choroid. Behind there is a retinal layer. The -choroid layer turns up anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an -iris. The free edge is chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A -large pupil is left, but is divided by two flaps, continuations of the -choroid coat, projecting from either side and overlapping. There are -properly then two pupils, an upper and lower, separated by a band -consisting of the two flaps, which may probably, by moving upward and -downward, increase or diminish the size of either pupil; an upward -motion of the flaps increasing the lower pupil at the expense of the -other, and vice versa." - -This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, when -swimming at the surface of the water, as is its usual custom, to see in -the air with the upper portion and in the water with the lower. It is -thus able to see not only such insects as are upon the surface of the -water or flying in the air above, but also any that may be swimming -beneath the surface. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 153.—Round Minnow, _Cyprinodon variegatus_ Lacépède. St. George - Island, Maryland. -] - -According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, "the individuals of this species swim -always at the surface and in little schools arranged in platoons or -abreast. They always swim headed upstream against the current, and feed -upon floating matter which the current brings them. A platoon may be -seen in regular formation breasting the current, either making slight -headway upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui -vive for any suitable food the current may bring. Now and then one may -be seen to dart forward, seize a floating food particle, and then resume -its place in the platoon. And thus they may be observed feeding for long -periods. They are almost invariably found in running water well out in -the stream, or at least where the current is strongest and where -floating matter is most abundant, for it is upon floating matter that -they seem chiefly to depend. They are not known to jump out of the water -to catch insects flying in the air or resting upon vegetation above the -water surface, nor do they seem to feed to any extent upon all small -crustaceans or other portions of the plankton beneath the surface. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 154.—Everglade Minnow, _Jordanella floridæ_ Goode & Bean. - Everglades of Florida. -] - -"When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily frightened—they escape -by skipping or jumping over the water, 2 or 3 feet at a skip. They rise -entirely out of the water, and at a considerable angle, the head -pointing upward. In descending the tail strikes the water first and -apparently by a sculling motion new impetus is acquired for another -leap. This skipping may continue until the school is widely scattered. -When a school has become scattered, and after the cause of their fright -has disappeared, the individuals soon rejoin each other. First two will -join each other and one by one the others will join them until the whole -school is together again. Rarely do they attempt to dive or get beneath -the surface; when they do they have great difficulty in keeping under -and soon come to the surface again." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 155.—Mayfish, _Fundulus majalis_ (L.) (male). Wood's Hole. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 156.—Mayfish, _Fundulus majalis_ (female). Wood's Hole. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 157.—Top-minnow, _Zygonectes notatus_ (Rafinesque). Eureka - Springs, Ark. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 158.—Death Valley Fish, _Empetrichthys merriami_ Gilbert. - Amargosa Desert, Cal. Family _Pœciliidæ_. (After Gilbert.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 159.—Sword-tail Minnow, male, _Xiphophorus helleri_ Heckel. The - anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz. -] - -Of the many genera of _Pœciliidæ_, top-minnows, and killifishes we may -mention the following: _Cyprinodon_ is made up of chubby little fishes -of eastern America with tricuspid, incisor teeth, oviparous and -omnivorous. Very similar to these but smaller are the species of -_Lebias_ in southern Europe. _Jordanella floridæ_ of the Florida -everglades is similar, but with the dorsal fin long and its first ray -enlarged and spine-like. It strongly resembles a young sunfish. Most of -the larger forms belong to _Fundulus_, a genus widely distributed from -Maine to Guatemala and north to Kansas and southern California. -_Fundulus majalis_, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is the largest of -the genus. _Fundulus heteroclitus_, the killifish, the most abundant. -_Fundulus diaphanus_ inhabits sea and lake indiscriminately. _Fundulus -stellifer_ of the Alabama is beautifully colored, as is _Fundulus -zebrinus_ of the Rio Grande. The genus _Zygonectes_ includes dwarf -species similar to _Fundulus_, and _Adinia_ includes those with short, -deep body. _Goodea atripinnis_ with tricuspid teeth lives in warm -springs in Mexico, and several species of _Goodea_, _Gambusia_, -_Pœcilia_, and other genera inhabit hot springs of Mexico, Central -America, and Africa. The genus _Gambusia_, the top-minnows, includes -numerous species with dwarf males having the anal modified. _Gambusia -affinis_ abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in the southern -lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It brings forth its brood in -early spring. Viviparous and herbivorous with modified anal fin are the -species of _Pœcilia_, abundant throughout Mexico and southward to -Brazil; _Mollienesia_ very similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin, -showily marked, occurs from Louisiana southward, and _Xiphophorus_, with -a sword-shaped lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; _Characodon_ and -_Goodea_ (see Fig. 53, Vol. I) in Mexico have notched teeth, and -finally, _Heterandria_ contains some of the least of fishes, the -handsomely colored males barely half an inch long. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 160.—_Goodea luitpoldi_ (Steindachner). A viviparous fish from - Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico. Family _Pœciliidæ_. (After Meek.) -] - -In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (_Orestias_) -without ventral fins. Still more peculiar is _Empetrichthys merriami_ of -the desert springs of the hot and rainless Death Valley in California, -similar to _Orestias_, but with enormously enlarged pharyngeals and -pharyngeal teeth, an adaptation to some unknown purpose. Fossil -Cyprinodonts are not rare from the Miocene in southern Europe. The -numerous species are allied to _Lebias_ and _Cyprinodon_, and are -referred to _Prolebias_ and _Pachylebias_. None are American, although -two American extinct genera, _Gephyrura_ and _Proballostomus_, are -probably allied to this group. - -=Amblyopsidæ.=—The cavefishes, _Amblyopsidæ_, are the most remarkable of -the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is placed at the throat. -The form is that of the _Pœciliidæ_, but the mouth is larger and not -protractile. The species are viviparous, the young being born at about -the length of a quarter of an inch. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 161.—Dismal Swamp Fish, _Chologaster cornutus_ Agassiz. Supposed - ancestor of _Typhlichthys_. Virginia. -] - -In the primitive genus _Chologaster_, the fish of the Dismal Swamp, the -eyes are small but normally developed. _Chologaster cornutus_ abounds in -the black waters of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, thence southward -through swamps and rice-fields to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida. -It is a small fish, less than two inches long, striped with black, and -with the habit of a top-minnow. Other species of _Chologaster_, -possessing eyes and color, but provided also with tactile papillæ, are -found in cave springs in Tennessee and southern Illinois. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 162.—Blind Cave-fish, _Typhlichthys subterraneus_ Girard. Mammoth - Cave, Kentucky. -] - -From _Chologaster_ is directly descended the small blindfish -_Typhlichthys subterraneus_ of the caves of the Subcarboniferous -limestone rocks of southern Indiana and southward to northern Alabama. -As in _Chologaster_, the ventral fins are wanting. The eyes, present in -the young, become defective and useless in the adult, when they are -almost hidden by other tissues. The different parts of the eye are all -more or less incomplete, being without function. The structure of the -eye has been described in much detail in several papers by Dr. Carl H. -Eigenmann. As to the cause of the loss of eyesight two chief theories -exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance in the species of the -results of disuse in the individual and the Weissmannian doctrine that -the loss of sight is a result of panmixia or cessation of selection. -This may be extended to cover reversal of selection, as in the depths of -the great caves the fish without eyes would be at some slight advantage. -Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but the evidence -brought forward fails to convince the present writer that results of -individual use or disuse ever become hereditary or that they are ever -incorporated in the characters of a species. In the caves of southern -Missouri is an independent case of similar degradation. _Troglichthys -rosæ_, the blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of -degeneration. It is thought to be separately descended from some other -species of _Chologaster_. Of this species Mr. Garman and Mr. Eigenmann -have given detailed accounts from somewhat different points of view. - -Concerning the habits of the blindfish (_Troglichthys rosæ_), Mr. Garman -quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth Hoppin, of Jasper County, -Missouri: "For about two weeks I have been watching a fish taken from a -well. I gave him considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in -an uninhabited place subject to as few changes of temperature as -possible. He seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when first taken -from the well. If not capable of long fasts, he must live on small -organisms my eye cannot discern. He is hardly ever still, but moves -about the sides of the vessel constantly, down and up, as if needing the -air. He never swims through the body of the water away from the sides -unless disturbed. Passing the finger over the sides of the vessel under -water I find it slippery. I am careful not to disturb this slimy coating -when the water is changed.... Numerous tests convince me that it is -through the sense of touch, and not through hearing, that the fish is -disturbed; I may scream or strike metal bodies together over him as near -as possible, yet he seems to take no notice whatever. If I strike the -vessel so that the water is set in motion, he darts away from that side -through the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I stir -the water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his actions are the -same." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 163.—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, _Amblyopsis spelæus_ (De - Kay). Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. -] - -The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, _Amblyopsis spelæus_, -reaches a length of five inches. It possesses ventral fins. From this -fact we may infer its descent from some extinct genus which, unlike -_Chologaster_, retains these fins. The translucent body, as in the other -blindfishes, is covered with very delicate tactile papillæ, which form a -very delicate organ of touch. - -The anomalous position of the vent in _Amblyopsidæ_ occurs again in an -equally singular fish, _Aphredoderus sayanus_, which is found in the -same waters throughout the same region in which _Chologaster_ occurs. It -would seem as if these lowland fishes of the southern swamps were -remains of a once much more extensive fauna. - -No fossil allies of _Chologaster_ are known. - -=Kneriidæ, etc.=—The members of the order of _Haplomi_, recorded above, -differ widely among themselves in various details of osteology. There -are other families, probably belonging here, which are still more -aberrant. Among these are the _Kneriidæ_, and perhaps the entire series -of forms called _Iniomi_, most of which possess the osteological traits -of the _Haplomi_. - -The family of _Kneriidæ_ includes a few very small fishes of the rivers -of Africa. - -=The Galaxiidæ.=—The _Galaxiidæ_ are trout-like fishes of the southern -rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the northern zones. -The species lack the adipose fins and have the dorsal inserted well -backward. According to Boulenger these fishes, having no mesocoraoid, -should be placed among the _Haplomi_. Yet their relation to the -_Haplochitonidæ_ is very close and both families may really belong to -the _Isospondyli_. _Galaxias truttaceus_ is the kokopu, or "trout," of -New Zealand. _Galaxias ocellatus_ is the yarra trout of Australia. -Several other species are found in southern Australia, Tasmania, -Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands, and even in South Africa. This very -wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has given rise to -the suggestion of a former land connection between Australia and -Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some geologists to believe in -the existence of a former great continent called Antarctica, now -submerged except that part which constitutes the present unknown land of -the Antarctic. - -As intimated on p. 253, Vol. I, this distribution of _Galaxias_ with -similar anomalies in other groups could not if unsupported by geological -evidence be held to prove the former extension of the Antarctic -continent. Dr. Boulenger[12] has recently shown that _Galaxias_ lives -freely in salt water, a fact sufficient to account for its wide -distribution in the rivers of the southern hemisphere. - -Footnote 12: - - Dr. Boulenger (_Nature_, Nov. 27, 1902) has the following note on - _Galaxias_: "Most text-books and papers discussing geographical - distribution have made much of the range of a genus of small fishes, - somewhat resembling trout, the _Galaxias_, commonly described as true - fresh-water forms, which have long been known from the extreme south - of South America, New Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Australia. The - discovery, within the last few years, of a species of the same genus - in fresh water near Cape Town, whence it had previously been described - as a loach by F. de Castelnau, has added to the interest, and has been - adduced as a further argument in support of the former existence of an - Antarctic continent. In alluding to this discovery when discussing the - distribution of African fresh-water fishes in the introduction to my - work 'Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo,' in 1901, I observed that, - contrary to the prevailing notion, all species of _Galaxias_ are not - confined to fresh water, and that the fact of some living both in the - sea and in rivers suffices to explain the curious distribution of the - genus; pointing out that in all probability these fishes were formerly - more widely distributed in the seas south of the tropic of Capricorn, - and that certain species, adapting themselves entirely to fresh-water - life, have become localized at the distant points where they are now - known to exist. Although as recently as October last the distinguished - American ichthyologist D. S. Jordan wrote (_Science_, xiv, p. 20): 'We - know nothing of the power of _Galaxias_ to survive submergence in salt - water, if carried in a marine current': it is an established fact, - ascertained some years ago by F. E. Clarke in New Zealand and by R. - Vallentin in the Falkland Islands, that _Galaxias attenuatus_ lives - also in the sea. In New Zealand it periodically descends to the sea, - where it spawns, from January to March, and returns from March to May. - In accordance with these marine habits, this species has a much wider - range than any of the others, being known from Chile, Patagonia, - Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, New Zealand, Tasmania, and - southern Australia. - - "I now wish to draw attention to a communication made by Captain F. W. - Hutton in the last number of the Transactions of the New Zealand - Institute (xxxiv, p. 198), 'On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland - Islands.' This fish, named _Galaxias bollansi_, was taken out of the - mouth of a specimen of _Merganser australis_ during the collection - excursion to the southern islands of New Zealand made in January, - 1901, by His Excellency the Earl of Ranfurly. - - "It is hoped that by giving greater publicity to these discoveries the - family _Galaxiidæ_ will no longer be included among those strictly - confined to fresh waters, and that students of the geographical - distribution of animals will be furnished with a clue to a problem - that has so often been discussed on insufficient data. As observed by - Jordan (_l. c._), all anomalies in distribution cease to be such when - the facts necessary to understand them are at hand.' - - "Of the fresh-water species of _Galaxias_, eight are known from New - Zealand and the neighboring islands, seven from New South Wales, three - or four from south Australia, one from west Australia, two from - Tasmania, seven from South America, from Chile southwards, and one - from the Cape of Good Hope." - -_Neochanna_ is an ally of _Galaxias_ living in burrows in the clay or -mud like a crayfish, often at a distance from water. As in various other -mud-living types, the ventral fins are obsolete. - -=Order Xenomi.=—We must place near the _Haplomi_ the singular group of -_Xenomi_ (ξενός, strange; ὤμος, shoulder), regarded by Dr. Gill as a -distinct order. Externally these fish much resemble the mud-minnows, -differing mainly in the very broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin -and papery, the two coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate -imperfectly divided. The pectorals are attached directly to this without -the intervention of actinosts, but in the distal third, according to Dr. -Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate begins to break up into a fringe -of narrow cartilaginous strips. These about equal the very large number -(33 to 36) of pectoral rays, the basal part of each ray being slightly -forked to receive the tip of the cartilaginous strip. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 164.—Alaska Blackfish, _Dallia pectoralis_ (Bean). St. Michaels, - Alaska. -] - -"In the deep-sea eels of the order _Heteromi_ there is a somewhat -similar condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as the hypercoracoid -and hypocoracoid though present are merely membranous elements -surrounded by cartilage and the actinosts are greatly reduced. It seems -probable that we are dealing in the two cases with independent -degeneration of the shoulder-girdle and that the two groups (_Xenomi_ -and _Heteromi_) are not really related." (Gilbert.) - -Of the single family _Dalliidæ_, one species is known, the Alaska -blackfish, _Dallia pectoralis_. - -This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length of eight inches -and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of northwestern Alaska and -westward through Siberia. It is found in countless numbers according to -its discoverer, Mr. L. M. Turner, "wherever there is water enough to wet -the skin of a fish," and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of -the natives. Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will remain -frozen in baskets for weeks and when thawed out are as lively as ever. -Turner gives an account of a frozen individual swallowed by a dog which -escaped in safety after being thawed out by the heat of the dog's -stomach. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI - - -=ORDER Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.=—The most of the -remaining bony fishes constitute a natural group for which the name -_Acanthopterygii_ (ἄκανθα, spine; πτερύξ, πτερόν, fin or wing) may be -used. This name is often written _Actinopteri_, a form equally correct -and more euphonious and convenient. These fishes are characterized, with -numerous exceptions, by the presence of fin spines, by the connection of -the ventral fins with the shoulder-girdle, by the presence in general of -more than one spine in the anterior part of dorsal and anal fins, and as -a rule of one spine and five rays in the ventral fins, and by the -absence in the adult of a duct to the air-bladder. Minor characters are -these: the pectoral fins are inserted high on the shoulder-girdle, the -scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper jaw is formed by the -premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always toothless. - -But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any single -character or group of characters. It is connected with the -_Malacopterygii_ through the _Haplomi_ on the one hand by transitional -groups of genera which may lack any one of these characters. On the -other hand, in the extreme forms, each of these distinctive characters -may be lost through degeneration. Thus fin spines, ctenoid scales, and -the homocercal tail are lost in the codfishes, the connection of -ventrals with shoulder-girdle fails in the _Percesoces_, etc., and the -development of the air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In -one family even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and -modifications the species have undergone. - -The various transitional forms between the _Haplomi_ and the perch-like -fishes have been from time to time regarded as separate orders. Some of -them are more related to the perch, others rather to ancestors of salmon -or pike, while still others are degenerate offshoots, far enough from -either. - -On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and transitional, may -well be placed in one order, which would include the primitive -flying-fishes and mullets, the degraded globefishes, and the specialized -flounders. As for the most part these are spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier's -name _Acanthopterygii_, or _Acanthopteri_, will serve us as well as any. -The _Physoclysti_ of Müller, the _Thoracices_ of older authors, and the -_Ctenoidei_ of Agassiz include substantially the same series of forms. -The order _Teleocephali_ of Gill (τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head) has -been lately so restricted as to cover nearly the same ground. In Gill's -most recent catalogue of families, the order _Teleocephali_ includes the -_Haplomi_ and rejects the _Hemibranchii_, _Lophobranchii_, -_Plectognathi_, and _Pediculati_, all of these being groups -characterized by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters not -of the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order -_Teleocephali_ included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the -_Ostariophysi_ were first detached, and still later the _Isospondyli_ -were regarded by Dr. Gill as a separate order. - -We may first take up serially as suborders the principal groups which -serve to effect the transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes. - -=Suborder Synentognathi.=—Among the transitional forms between the -soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most important groups -is that known as _Synentognathi_ (σύν, together; ἔν, within; γνάθος, -jaw). These have, in brief, the fins and shoulder-girdle of _Haplomi_, -the ventral fins abdominal, the dorsal and anal without spines. At the -same time, as in the spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct -and the pectoral fins are inserted high on the side of the body. With -these traits are two others which characterize the group as a suborder. -The lower pharyngeal bones are solidly united into one bone and the -lateral line forms a raised ridge along the lower side of the body. -These forms are structurally allied to the pikes (_Haplomi_), on the one -hand, and to the mullets (_Percesoces_), on the other, and this -relationship accords with their general appearance. In this group as in -all the remaining families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in -very nearly all of these families the duct to the air-bladder disappears -at an early stage of development. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 165.—Needle-fish, _Tylosurus acus_ (Lacépède). New York. -] - -=The Garfishes: Belonidæ.=—There are two principal groups or families -among the _Synentognathi_, the _Belonidæ_, with strong jaws and teeth, -and the _Exocœtidæ_, in which these structures are feeble. Much more -important characters appear in the anatomy. In the _Belonidæ_ the third -upper pharyngeal is small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly -soldered to the premaxillary. The vertebræ are provided with -zygapophyses. The species of _Belonidæ_ are known as garfishes, or -needle-fishes. They resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing else -in common. The body is long and slender, covered with small scales. -Sharp, unequal teeth fill the long jaws and the dorsal is opposite the -anal, on the hinder part of the body. These fishes are green in color, -even the bones being often bright green, while the scales on the sides -have a silvery luster. The species are excellent as food, the green -color being associated with nothing deleterious. All are very voracious -and some of the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be dangerous even -to man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the thrust of the sharp -snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes swim near the -surface of the water and often move with great swiftness, frequently -leaping from the water. The genus _Belone_ is characterized by the -presence of gill-rakers. _Belone belone_ is a small garfish common in -southern Europe. _Belone platura_ occurs in Polynesia. The American -species (_Tylosurus_) lack gill-rakers. _Tylosurus marinus_, the common -garfish of the eastern United States, often ascends the rivers. -_Tylosurus raphidoma_, _Tylosurus fodiator_, _Tylosurus acus_, and other -species are very robust, with short strong jaws. _Athlennes hians_ is a -very large fish with the body strongly compressed, almost ribbon-like. -It is found in the West Indies and across the Isthmus as far as Hawaii. -Many other species, mostly belonging to _Tylosurus_, abound in the warm -seas of all regions. _Tylosurus ferox_ is the long tom of the Australian -markets. _Potamorrhaphis_ with the dorsal fin low is found in Brazilian -rivers. A few fossil species are referred to _Belone_, _Belone flava_ -from the lower Eocene being the earliest. - -=The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.=—The family of _Exocœtidæ_ includes the -flying-fishes and several related forms more or less intermediate -between these and the garfishes. In these fishes the teeth are small and -nearly equal and the maxillary is separate from the premaxillary. The -third upper pharyngeal is much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to -the vertebræ. - -The skippers (_Scombresox_) have slender bodies, pointed jaws, and, like -the mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind dorsal and anal, -although in other respects they show no affinity to the mackerel. The -common skipper, or saury (_Scombresox saurus_), is found on both shores -of the North Atlantic swimming in large schools at the surface of the -water, frequently leaping for a little distance like the flying-fish. -They are pursued by the mackerel-like fishes, as the tunny or bonito, -and sometimes by porpoises. According to Mr. Couch, the skippers, when -pursued, "mount to the surface in multitudes and crowd on each other as -they press forward. When still more closely pursued, they spring to the -height of several feet, leap over each other in singular confusion, and -again sink beneath. Still further urged, they mount again and rush along -the surface, by repeated starts, for more than one hundred feet, without -once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch the water. At last the -pursuer springs after them, usually across their course, and again they -all disappear together. Amidst such multitudes—for more than twenty -thousand have been judged to be out of the water together—some must fall -a prey to the enemy; but so many hunting in company, it must be long -before the pursuers abandon. From inspection we could scarcely judge the -fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though numerous, are -small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle of their -articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the direction of their -motions to the surface." - -A similar species, _Cololabis saira_, with the snout very much shorter -than in the Atlantic skipper, is the _Samma_ of the fishermen of Japan. - -The hard-head (_Chriodorus atherinoides_) has no beak at all and its -tricuspid incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In this genus, as -in the flying-fishes, there are no finlets. The hard-head is an -excellent food-fish abundant about the Florida Keys but not yet seen -elsewhere. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 166.—Saury, _Scombresox saurus_ (L.). Wood's Hole. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 167.—Halfbeak, _Hyporhamphus unifasciatus_ (Ranzani). Chesapeake - Bay. -] - -Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that of the -halfbeaks, or balaos, _Hemirhamphus_, etc. These are also vegetable -feeders, but with much smaller teeth, and the lower jaw with a -spear-like prolongation to which a bright-red membrane is usually -attached. Of the halfbeaks there are several genera, all of the species -swimming near the surface in schools and sometimes very swiftly. Some of -them leap into the air and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes, -with which group the halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The -commonest species along our Atlantic coast is _Hyporhamphus -unifasciatus_; a larger species, _Hemirhamphus brasiliensis_, abounds -about the Florida Keys. _Euleptorhamphus longirostris_, a ribbon-shaped -elongate fish, with long jaw and long pectorals, is taken in the open -sea, both in the Atlantic and Pacific, being common in Hawaii. The -Asiatic genus _Zenarchopterus_ is viviparous, having the anal fin much -modified in the male, forming an intromittent organ, as in the -_Pœciliidæ_. One species occurs in the river mouths in Samoa. - -The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the pectoral fins -much enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air for a longer or -shorter distance. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 168.—Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, _Fodiator acutus_ (Val.). Panama. -] - -The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach more nearly -to the halfbeaks. _Fodiator acutus_, with sharp jaws, and -_Hemiexocœtus_, with a short beak on the lower jaw, are especially -intermediate. The flight of the flying-fishes is described in detail on -p. 157, Vol. I. - -The Catalina flying-fish, _Cypselurus californicus_, of the shore of -southern California is perhaps the largest of the known species, -reaching a length of 18 inches. To this genus, _Cypselurus_, having a -long dorsal and short anal, and with ventrals enlarged as well as -pectorals, belong all the species strongest in flight, _Cypselurus -heterurus_ and _furcatus_ of the Atlantic, _Cypselurus simus_ of Hawaii -and _Cypselurus agoo_ in Japan. The very young of most of these species -have a long barbel at the chin which is lost with age. - -In the genus _Exonautes_ the base of anal fin is long, as long as that -of the dorsal. The species of this group, also strong in flight, are -widely distributed. Most of the European flying-fishes, as _Exonautes -rondeleti_, _Exonautes speculiger_, and _Exonautes vinciguerræ_, belong -to this group, while those of _Cypselurus_ mostly inhabit the Pacific. -The large Australian species _Exonautes unicolor_, Fig. 226, Vol. I, -belongs to this group. In the restricted genus _Exocœtus_ the ventral -fins are short and not used in flight. _Exocœtus volitans_ (_evolans_) -is a small flying-fish, with short ventral fins not used for flight. It -is perhaps the most widely distributed of all, ranging through almost -all warm seas. _Parexocœtus brachypterus_, still smaller, and with -shorter, grasshopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An -excellent account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given by -Dr. C. F. Lütken (1876), the University of Copenhagen, which institution -has received a remarkably fine series from trading-ships returning to -that port. Later accounts have been given by Jordan and Meek, and by -Jordan and Evermann. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 169.—Catalina Flying-fish, _Cypselurus californicus_ (Cooper). - Santa Barbara. -] - -Very few fossil _Exocœtidæ_ are found. Species of _Scombresox_ and -_Hemirhamphus_ are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being -_Hemirhamphus edwardsi_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil -flying-fishes are known, and the genera, _Exocœtus_, _Exonautes_, and -_Cypselurus_ are doubtless all of very recent origin. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI - - -=SUBORDER Percesoces.=—In the line of direct ascending transition from -the _Haplomi_ and _Synentognathi_, the pike and flying-fish, towards the -typical perch-like forms, we find a number of families, perch-like in -essential regards but having the ventral fins abdominal. - -These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and the -barracuda, have been segregated by Cope as an order called _Percesoces_ -(Perca, perch; Esox, pike), a name which correctly describes their real -affinities. In these typical forms, mullet, silverside, and barracuda, -the affinities are plain, but in other transitional forms, as the -threadfin and the stickleback, the relationships are less clear. Cope -adds to the series of _Percesoces_ the _Ophiocephalidæ_, which Gill -leaves with the _Anabantidæ_ among the spiny-rayed forms. Boulenger adds -also the sand-lances (_Ammodytidæ_) and the threadfins (_Polynemidæ_), -while Woodward places here the _Crossognathidæ_. In the present work we -define the _Percesoces_ so as to include all spiny-rayed fishes in which -the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, excepting those having a -reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts, or other peculiarities of -the shoulder-girdle. The _Ammodytidæ_ have no real affinities with the -_Percesoces_. The _Crossognathidæ_ and other families with abdominal -ventrals and the dorsal spines wholly obsolete may belong with the -_Haplomi_. Boulenger places the _Chiasmodontidæ_, the _Stromateidæ_, and -the _Tetragonuridæ_ among the _Percesoces_, an arrangement of very -doubtful validity. In most of the _Percesoces_ the scales are cycloid, -the spinous dorsal forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct -is wanting. - -=The Silversides: Atherinidæ.=—The most primitive of living _Percesoces_ -constitute the large family of silversides (_Atherinidæ_), known as -"fishes of the King," Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or Peixe Re, wherever -the Spanish or Portuguese languages are spoken. The species are, in -general, small and slender fishes of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on -small animals. The mouth is small, with feeble teeth. There is no -lateral line, the color is translucent green, with usually a broad -lateral band of silver. Sometimes this is wanting, and sometimes it is -replaced by burnished black. Some of the species live in lakes or -rivers, others in bays or arms of the sea, but never at a distance from -the shore or in water of more than a few feet in depth. The larger -species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally delicate, are -fried in numbers as "whitebait," but the bones are firmer and more -troublesome than in the smelts and young herring. The species of the -genus _Atherina_, known as "friars," or "brit," are chiefly European, -although some occur in almost all warm or temperate seas. These are -small fishes, with the mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales -rather large and firm. _Atherina hepsetus_ and _A. presbyter_ are common -in Europe, _Atherina stipes_ in the West Indies, _Atherina bleekeri_ in -Japan, and _Atherina insularum_ and _A. lacunosa_ in Polynesia. The -genus _Chirostoma_ contains larger species, with projecting lower jaw, -abounding in the lakes of Mexico. _Chirostoma humboldtianum_ is very -abundant about Mexico City. Like all the other species of this genus it -is remarkably excellent as food, the different species constituting the -famous "Pescados Blancos" of the great lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of -the western slope of Mexico. A very unusual circumstance is this: that -numerous very closely related species occupy the same waters and are -taken in the same nets. In zoology, generally, it is an almost universal -rule that very closely related species occupy different geographical -areas, their separation being due to barriers which prevent -interbreeding. But in the lake of Chapala, near Guadalajara, Prof. John -O. Snyder and the present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E. Meek, found -ten distinct species of _Chirostoma_, all living together, taken in the -same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful examination. -Most of these species are very abundant throughout the lake, and all -reach a length of twelve to fifteen inches. These species are -_Chirostoma estor_, _Ch. lucius_, _Ch. sphyræna_, _Ch. ocotlane_, _Ch. -lermæ_, _Ch. chapalæ_, _Ch. grandocule_, _Ch. labarcæ_, _Ch. promelas_, -and _Ch. bartoni_. A similar assemblage of species nearly all different -from these was obtained by Dr. Seth E. Meek in the lake of Patzcuaro, -farther south. In this lake were found _Ch. attenuatum_, _Ch. -patzcuaro_, _Ch. humboldtianum_, _Ch. grandocule_, and _Ch. estor_. The -lake of Zirahuen, near Chapala, contains _Ch. estor_ and _Ch. zirahuen_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 170.—Pescado blanco, _Chirostoma humboldtianum_ (Val.). Lake - Chalco, City of Mexico. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 171.—Silverside or Brit, _Kirtlandia vagrans_ (Goode & Bean). - Pensacola. -] - -Still another species, _Ch. jordani_, is found about the city of Mexico, -where it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts of Peru, Chile, -and Argentina is found still another assemblage of fishes of the king, -with very small scales, constituting the genera _Basilichthys_ and -_Gastropterus_ (_Pisciregia_). _Basilichthys microlepidotus_ is the -common Pesca del Rey of Chile. The small silversides, or "brit," of our -Atlantic coast belong to numerous species of _Menidia_, _Menidia notata_ -to the northward and _Menidia menidia_ to the southward being most -abundant. _Kirtlandia laciniata_, with ragged scales, is common along -the Virginia coast, and _K. vagrans_ farther south. Another small -species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook silverside -_Labidesthes sicculus_, which swarms in clear streams from Lake Ontario -to Texas. This species, three to four inches long, has the snout -produced and a very bright silvery stripe along the side. Large and -small species of silversides occur in the sea along the California -coast, where they are known familiarly as "blue smelt" or "Peixe Re." -The most important of these and the largest member of the family, -reaching a length of eighteen inches, is _Atherinopsis californiensis_, -an important food-fish throughout California, everywhere wrongly known -as smelt. _Atherinops affinis_ is much like it, but has Y-shaped teeth. -_Iso flos-maris_, called Nami-no-hana, or flower of the surf, is a -shining little fish with belly shape like that of a herring. It lives in -the surf on the coast of Japan. _Melanotænia nigrans_ of Australia -(family _Melanotæniidæ_) has the lateral band jet-black, as has also -_Melaniris balsanus_ of the rivers of southern Mexico. _Atherinosoma -vorax_ of Australia has strong teeth like those of a barracuda. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 172.—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, _Atherinopsis californiensis_ - Girard. San Diego. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 173.—Flower of the waves, _Iso flos-maxis_, Jordan & Starks. - Enoshima, Japan. -] - -Fossil species of _Atherina_ occur in the Italian Eocene, the best known -being _Atherina macrocephala_. Another species, _Rhamphognathus -paralepoides_, allied to _Menidia_, occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -=The Mullets: Mugilidæ.=—The mullets (_Mugilidæ_) are more clumsy in -form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads and stouter -fin-spines. The ventral fins are abdominal but well forward, the pelvis -barely touching the clavicle, a condition to be defined as -"subabdominal." The small mouth is armed with very feeble teeth, often -reduced to mere fringes. The stomach is muscular like the gizzard of a -fowl and the species feed largely on the vegetation contained in mud. -There are numerous species, mostly living in shallow bays and estuaries, -but some of them are confined to fresh waters. All are valued as food -and some of them under favorable conditions are especially excellent. - -Most of the species belong to the genera _Mugil_, the mullet of all -English-speaking people, although not at all related to the red mullet -or surmullet of the ancient Romans, _Mullus barbatus_. - -The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long, with blunt -heads, small mouths almost toothless, large scales, and a general -bluish-silvery color often varied by faint blue stripes. The most -important species is _Mugil cephalus_, the common striped mullet. This -is found throughout southern Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from -Monterey, California, to Chile, and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, -and the Red Sea. Among specimens from all these regions we can detect no -difference. - -Professor Goode gives the following account of its habits: - -"The large mullets begin to assemble along the Florida coast in schools -in the height of summer, probably preparatory to spawning, and at this -time the eggs commence to mature. In this season they swim at the -surface, and are then pursued by enemies in the water and the air, and -also fall an easy prey to the fishermen. They appear to prefer to swim -against the wind, and school best with a northeast wind. They also run -against the tide. In Florida the spawning season seems to extend from -the middle of November to the middle of January. Some of the fishermen -say that they go on the mud-flats and oyster-beds at the mouth of the -river to deposit their eggs. What becomes of them after this no one -seems to know, but it is probable that they spread themselves over the -whole surface of water-covered country in such a manner as not to be -perceptible to the fisherman, who makes no effort at this time to secure -the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find their way to the lakes -and others remain wherever they find good feeding-ground, gathering -flesh and recruiting strength for the great strain of the next spawning -season." - -Professor Goode informs us that the fishermen recognize "three distinct -periods of schooling and separate runs of mullet. To what extent these -are founded on tradition, or upon the necessity of change in the size of -the mesh of their nets, it is impossible to say. The 'June mullet' -average about five to the pound; the 'fat mullet,' which are taken from -August 20 to October 1, weigh about two pounds; these have, the -fishermen say, a 'roe of fat' on each side as thick as a man's thumb. -The 'roe mullet' weigh about two and a half pounds and are caught in -November and until Christmas. Between the seasons of 'fat mullet' and -'roe mullet' there is an intermission of two or three weeks in the -fishing." Professor Goode hazards the suggestion that "the 'fat mullet' -of September are the breeding fish of November, with roes in an immature -state, the ova not having become fully differentiated." - -The mullet feed on the bottom in quiet water, swimming head downward. -The food is sifted over in the mouth, the mud rejected, and the plants, -chiefly microscopic, retained. Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of -mullets to barnyard fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich -spot the others flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a -sort of filter, stopping the sand and mud, the coarse parts being -ejected through the mouth. Dr. Günther thus describes this apparatus: - -"The upper pharyngeals have a rather irregular form: they are slightly -arched, the convexity being directed toward the pharyngeal cavity, -tapering anteriorly and broad posteriorly. They are coated with a thick, -soft membrane, which reaches far beyond the margin of the bone and is -studded all over with minute horny cilia. Each branchial arch is -provided with a series of long gill-rakers, which are laterally bent -downward, each series closely fitting to the sides of the adjoining -arch; they constitute together a sieve admirably adapted to permit a -transit for the water, retaining at the same time every solid substance -in the cavity of the pharynx." - -The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the head at the -surface of the water. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 174.—Striped Mullet, _Mugil cephalus_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -We are not able to distinguish from the common striped mullet of Europe -and America the mullet of Hawaii, the famous Ama-ama, the most valued of -Hawaiian fishes. This species is reared in mullet ponds, made by -extending a stone wall across an arm of the sea. Through openings in the -wall the young mullet enter, and in its protection they grow very fat on -the abundant algæ and other vegetation. They thus become the most -plentiful and most esteemed of the market fishes of Honolulu. The Awa -(_Chanos_) and the Awa-awa (_Elops_) also enter these ponds and are -reared with the mullet, being similarly but less valued. Unfortunately -the kaku, or small barracuda (_Sphyræna helleri_), also enters with -these helpless fishes and destroys many of the smaller individuals. -Another striped species, also very similar to _Mugil cephalus_ in -appearance and value, in fact indistinguishable from the Hawaiian -mullet, abounds in Japan and India. - -The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but otherwise -differ little. _Mugil curema_ is the white mullet of tropical America, -ranging occasionally northward, and several other species occur in the -West Indies and the Mediterranean. The genus _Mugil_ has the eye covered -by thick transparent tissue called the adipose eyelid. In _Liza_ the -adipose eyelid is wanting. _Liza capito_, the big-headed mullet of the -Mediterranean, is a well-known species. Most of the mullets of the south -seas belong to the genus _Liza_. _Liza melinoptera_ and _Liza_ -_cæruleomaculata_ are common in Samoa. The genus _Querimana_ includes -dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long, known as whirligig-mullets. -These little fishes gather in small schools and swim round and round on -the surface like the whirligig-beetles, or _Gyrinidæ_, their habits -being like those of the young mullets; some young mullets having been, -in fact, described as species of _Querimana_. The genus _Agonostomus_ -includes fresh-water mullets of the mountain rivers of the East and West -Indies and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout. _Agonostomus -nasutus_ of Mexico is the best-known species. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 175.—Joturo or Bobo, _Joturus pichardi_ Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama. -] - -The Joturo, or Bobo, _Joturus pichardi_, is a very large robust and -vigorous mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls in the mountain -torrents of Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central America. It is a good -food-fish, frequently taken about Jalapa, Havana, and on the Isthmus of -Panama. Its lips are very thick and its teeth are broad, serrated, -loosely inserted incisors. - -Fossil mullets are few. _Mugil radobojanus_ is the earliest from the -Miocene of Croatia. - -=The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.=—The _Sphyrænidæ_, or barracudas, differ -from the mullets in the presence of very strong teeth in the bones of -the large mouth. The lateral line is also developed, there is no -gizzard, and there are numerous minor modifications connected with the -food and habits. The species are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in -swimming and voracious to the last degree. Some of the species reach a -length of six feet or more, and these are almost as dangerous to bathers -as sharks would be. The long, knife-like teeth render them very -destructive to nets. The numerous species are placed in the single genus -_Sphyræna_, and some of them are found in all warm seas, where they feed -freely on all smaller fishes, their habits in the sea being much like -those of the pike in the lakes. The flesh is firm, delicate, and -excellent in flavor. In the larger species, especially in the West -Indies, it may be difficult of digestion and sometimes causes serious -illness, or "ichthyosism." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 176.—Barracuda, _Sphyræna barracuda_ Walbaum. Florida. -] - -_Sphyræna sphyræna_ is the spet, or sennet, a rather small barracuda -common in southern Europe. _Sphyræna borealis_ of our eastern coast is a -similar but still feebler species rarely exceeding a foot in length. -These and other small species are feeble folk as compared with the great -barracuda (_Sphyræna barracuda_) of the West Indies, a robust savage -fish, also known as picuda or becuna. _Sphyræna commersoni_ of Polynesia -is a similar large species, while numerous lesser ones occur through the -tropical seas. On the California coast _Sphyræna argentea_ is an -excellent food-fish, slenderer than the great barracuda but reaching a -length of five feet. - -Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian Eocene, -_Sphyræna bolcensis_ being the earliest. - -=Stephanoberycidæ.=—We may append to the _Percesoces_, for want of a -better place, a small family of the deep sea, its affinities at present -unknown. The _Stephanoberycidæ_ have the ventrals I, 5, subabdominal, a -single dorsal without spine, and the scales cycloid, scarcely -imbricated, each with one or two central spines. The mouth is large, -with small teeth, the skull cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which -group the normally formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to -exclude it. _Stephanoberyx monæ_ and _S. gilli_ are found at the depth -of a mile and a half below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed them -with the _Percesoces_, but more recently suggests their relationship -with the _Haplomi_. Perhaps, as supposed by Gill, they may prove to be -degenerate berycoids in which the ventral fins have lost their normal -connection. - -=Crossognathidæ.=—A peculiar primitive group referred by Woodward to the -_Percesoces_ is the family of _Crossognathidæ_ of the Cretaceous period. -As in these fishes there are no fin-spines, they may be perhaps better -placed with the _Haplomi_. The dorsal fin is long, without distinct -spines, and the abdominal ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is -small, with feeble teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed. -_Crossognathus sabandianum_ occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzerland and -Germany, _Syllæmus latifrons_ and other species in the Colorado -Cretaceous, and _Syllæmus anglicus_ in England. The _Crossognathidæ_ -have probably the lower pharyngeals separate, else they would be placed -among the _Synentognathi_, a group attached by Woodward, not without -reason, to the _Percesoces_. - -=Cobitopsidæ.=—Near the _Crossognathidæ_ may be placed the extinct -_Cobitopsidæ_, _Cobitopsis acuta_ being recorded from the Oligocene of -Puy-de-Dôme in France. In this species there is a short dorsal fin of -about seventeen rays, no teeth, and the well-developed ventral fins are -not far in front of the anal. This little fish bears a strong -resemblance to _Ammodytes_, but the affinities of the latter genus are -certainly with the ophidioid fishes, while the real relationship of -_Cobitopsis_ is uncertain. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 177.—_Cobitopsis acuta_ Gervais, restored. Oligocene of - Puy-de-Dôme. (After Woodward.) -] - -=Suborder Rhegnopteri.=—The threadfins (_Polynemidæ_) are allied to the -mullets, but differ from them and from all other fishes in the structure -of the pectoral fin and its basal bones, or actinosts. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 178.—Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, _Polydactylus approximans_ - (Lay & Bennett). -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 179.—Threadfin, _Polydactylus octonemus_ (Girard). Pensacola. -] - -The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower composed of free -or separate rays very slender and thread-like, sometimes longer than the -body. Two of the actinosts of the pectoral support the fin, one is -slender and has no rays, while the fourth is plate-like and attached to -the coracoids, supporting the pectoral filaments. The body is rather -robust, covered with large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The -lateral line extends on the caudal fin as in the _Sciænidæ_ which group -these fishes resemble in many ways. The mouth is large, inferior, with -small teeth. The species are carnivorous fishes of excellent flesh, -abounding on sandy shores in the warm seas. They are not very active and -not at all voracious. The coloration is bluish and silvery, sometimes -striped with black. Most of the species belong to the genus -_Polydactylus_. _Polydactylus virginicus_, the barbudo, with seven -filaments, is common in the West Indies and Florida. _Polydactylus -octonemus_ with eight filaments is more rare, but ranges further north. -_Polydactylus approximans_, the raton of western Mexico, with six -filaments, reaches San Diego. _Polydactylus plebejus_ is common in Japan -and other species range through Polynesia. In India isinglass is made -from the large air-bladder of species of _Polydactylus_. The rare -_Polynemus quinquarius_ of the West Indies have five pectoral filaments, -these being greatly elongate, much longer than the body. - -No extinct _Polynemidæ_ are recorded. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII, - AND HYPOSTOMIDES - - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 180.—Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ - Linnæus. (After Parker.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 181.—Shoulder-girdle of _Fistularia petimba_ Lacépède, showing - greatly extended interclavicle, the surface ossified. -] - -=SUBORDER Hemibranchii.=—Still another transitional group, the -_Hemibranchii_, is composed of spiny-rayed fishes with abdominal -ventrals. In this suborder there are other points of divergence, though -none of high importance. In these fishes the bones of the -shoulder-girdle are somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced or -wanting, and the gill structures somewhat degenerate. The presence of -bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles, below and behind the -clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order of _Hemibranchii_. -But this character has very slight importance. In two families, -_Macrorhamphosidæ_ and _Centriscidæ_, the interclavicles are absent -altogether. In the _Fistulariidæ_ they are very large. According to the -studies of Mr. Edwin C. Starks, the bone in question is not a true -infraclavicle. It is not identical with the infraclavicle of the -Ganoids, but it is only a backward extension of the hypocoracoid, there -being no suture between the two bones. In those species which have bony -plates instead of scales, this bone has a deposit of bony substance or -ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives it an apparent prominence as -compared with other bones of the skeleton, but it has no great taxonomic -importance. Dr. Hay unites the suborders _Hemibranchii_, -_Lophobranchii_, and _Hypostomides_ to form the order _Phthinobranchii_ -(φθινάς, waning; βράγχος, gill), characterized by the reduction of the -gill-arches. These forms are really nearly related, but their affinities -with the _Percesoces_ are so close that it may not be necessary to form -a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites the -_Hemibranchii_ with _Lampris_ to form a group, _Catosteomi_, -characterized by the development of infraclavicles; but we cannot see -that _Lampris_ bears any affinity to the sticklebacks, or that the -presence of infraclavicle has any high significance, nor is it the -supposed infraclavicle of _Lampris_ homologous with that of the -_Hemibranchii_. The dorsal fin in the _Hemibranchii_ has more or less -developed spines; spines are also present in the ventral fins. The lower -pharyngeals are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small and -the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle and -symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived from some -transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the _Percesoces_. The -Lophobranchs, another supposed order, represent simply a still further -phase of degradation of gills and ventral fins. Dr. Gill separates these -two groups as distinct orders and places them, as aberrant offshoots, -near the end of his series of bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with -the other transitional forms, not regarding their traits of divergence -as of any great importance in the systematic arrangement of families. - -=The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.=—The sticklebacks (_Gasterosteidæ_) -are small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the _Fistulariidæ_ so -far as anatomy is concerned, but with very different appearance and -habits. The body often mailed, the dorsal is preceded by free spines and -the ventrals are each reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray. -The jaws are short, bristling with sharp teeth, and these little -creatures are among the most active, voracious, and persistent of all -fishes. They attack the fins of larger fishes, biting off pieces, and at -the same time they devour the eggs of all species accessible to them. In -almost all fresh and brackish waters of the north temperate zone these -little fishes abound. "It is scarcely to be conceived," Dr. Günther -observes, "what damage these little fishes do, and how greatly -detrimental they are to the increase of all the fishes among which they -live, for it is with the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness that -they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come their way." - -The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the northern -hemisphere, species essentially alike being found throughout northern -Europe, Asia, and America. The same species is subject to great -variation. The degree of development of spines and bony plates is -greatest in individuals living in the sea and least in clear streams of -the interior. Each of the mailed species has its series of half-mailed -or even naked varieties found in the fresh waters. This is true in -Europe, New England, California, and Japan. The farther the individuals -are from the sea, the less perfect is their armature. Thus, -_Gasterosteus cataphractus_, which in the sea has a full armature of -bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will have in river mouths -from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh water only 2 or 3 or even none -at all. - -The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building habits. The -male performs this operation, and he is provided with a special gland -for secretion of the necessary cement. Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A. -Ryder an account of this process. The secretory gland is a "large -vesicle filled with a clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon -contact with water. It appears to open directly in front of the vent. As -soon as it is ruptured, it loses its transparency, and whatever -secretion escapes becomes whitish after being in contact with water for -a short time. This has the same tough, elastic qualities as when spun by -the animal itself, and is also composed of numerous fibers, as when a -portion is taken that has been recently spun upon the nest. Thus -provided, when the nuptial season has arrived the male stickleback -prepares to build his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her eggs. How -this nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the sticklebacks, -have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K. Lord, from -observations on _Gasterosteus cataphractus_ on Vancouver Island, -although the source of his secretion was misunderstood: - -"The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants, where the -water always flows but not too swiftly. He first begins by carrying -small bits of green material which he nips off the stalks and tugs from -out the bottom and sides of the bank; these he attaches by some -glutinous material, that he clearly has the power of secreting, to the -different stems destined as pillars for his building. During this -operation he swims against the work already done, splashes about, and -seems to test its durability and strength; rubs himself against the tiny -kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his sides to mix with and -act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then he thrusts his nose into -the sand at the bottom, and, bringing a mouthful, scatters it over the -foundation; this is repeated until enough has been thrown on to weight -the slender fabric down and give it substance and stability. Then more -twists, turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the -materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of the house -that has yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery, when completed -is a hollow, somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped structure worked together -much in the same way as the platform fastened to the water-plants; the -whole firmly glued together by the viscous secretion scraped from off -the body. The inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of -plastering system; the little architect continually goes in, then, -turning round and round, works the mucus from his body on to the inner -sides of the nest, where it hardens like tough varnish. There are two -apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole leading into a wren's -nest, and not unlike it. - -"All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish, and when -completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he swims towards a group of the -fair sex enjoying themselves amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best -and brightest livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the -most approved style of stickleback love-making this young and wealthy -bachelor approaches the object of his affections, most likely tells her -all about his house and its comforts, hints delicately at his readiness -and ability to defend her children against every enemy, vows unfailing -fidelity, and in lover fashion promises as much in a few minutes as -would take a lifetime to fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit; -personal beauty, indomitable courage, backed by the substantial -recommendations of a house ready built and fitted for immediate -occupation, are gifts not to be lightly regarded. - -"Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her appreciation, -and by sundry queer contortions declares herself his true and devoted -spouse. Then the twain return to the nest, into which the female at once -betakes herself and therein deposits her eggs, emerging, when the -operation is completed, by the opposite hole. During the time she is in -the nest (about six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and -rubs his nose against it, and altogether appears to be in a state of -defiant excitement. On the female leaving, he immediately enters, -deposits the milt on the eggs, taking his departure through the back -door. So far his conduct is strictly pure; but I am afraid morality in -stickleback society is of rather a lax order. No sooner has this lady, -his first love, taken her departure, than he at once seeks another, -introduces her as he did the first, and so on, wife after wife, until -the nest is filled with eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully -deposited betwixt each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should -be two holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished, -so it is equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize -fish-eggs, running water is the first necessity; and, as the holes are -invariably placed in the direction of the current, a steady stream of -water is thus directed over them." - -To the genus _Gasterosteus_ the largest species belong, those having -three dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered with bony -plates. _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ inhabits both shores of the Atlantic -and the scarcely different _Gasterosteus cataphractus_ swarms in the -inlets from southern California to Alaska, Siberia, and northern Japan. -Half-naked forms have been called by various names and one entirely -naked in streams of southern California is named _Gasterosteus -williamsoni_. Its traits are, however, clearly related to its life in -fresh waters. - -In _Pygosteus pungitius_, a type of almost equally wide range, there are -nine or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender. All kinds of -waters of the north on both continents may yield this species or its -allies and variations, mailed or naked. The naked, _Apeltes quadracus_, -is found in the sea only, along the New England coast. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 182.—Three-spined Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ L. Wood's - Hole, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 183.—Four-spined Stickleback, _Apeltes quadracus_ Mitchill. - Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -_Eucalia inconstans_ is the stickleback of the clear brook from New York -to Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet black in spring with the sheen -of burnished copper and he is intensely active in his work of protecting -the eggs of his own species and destroying the eggs and fry of others. -_Spinachia spinachia_ is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many -dorsal spines. - -No fossil _Gasterosteidæ_ are recorded, and the family, while the least -specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most primitive of the -suborder. - -=The Aulorhynchidæ.=—Closely related to the sticklebacks is the small -family of _Aulorhynchidæ_, with four soft rays in the ventral fins. -_Aulorhynchus_, like _Spinachia_, has many dorsal spines and an elongate -snout approaching that of a trumpet-fish. _Aulorhynchus flavidus_ lives -on the coast of California and _Aulichthys japonicus_ in Japan. The -extinct family of _Protosyngnathidæ_ is near _Aulorhynchus_, with the -snout tubular, the ribs free, not anchylosed as in _Aulorhynchus_, and -with the first vertebræ fused, forming one large one as in _Aulostomus_. -_Protosyngnathus sumatrensis_ occurs in Sumatra. _Protaulopsis -bolcensis_ of the Eocene of Italy has the ventral fins farther back, and -is probably more primitive than the sticklebacks. - -=Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.=—Closely related to the sticklebacks so -far as structure is concerned is a family of very different habit, the -cornet-fishes, or cornetas (_Fistulariidæ_). In these fishes the body is -very long and slender, like that of a garfish. The snout is produced -into a very long tube, which bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth -are very small. There are no scales, but bony plates are sunk in the -skin. The ventrals are abdominal, each with a spine and four rays. The -four anterior vertebræ are very much elongate. There are no spines in -the dorsal and the back-bone extends through the forked caudal, ending -in a long filament. The cornet-fishes are dull red or dull green in -color. They reach a length of two or three feet, and the four or five -known species are widely distributed through the warm seas, where they -swim in shallow water near the surface. _Fistularia tabaccaria_, the -tobacco-pipe fish, is common in the West Indies, _Fistularia petimba_, -_F. serrata_, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very -small size, _Fistularia longirostris_, is known from the Eocene of Monte -Bolca, near Verona. _Fistularia kœnigi_ is recorded from the Oligocene -of Glarus. - -=The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.=—The _Aulostomidæ_, or trumpet-fishes -are in structure entirely similar to the _Fistulariidæ_, but the body is -band-shaped, compressed, and scaly, the long snout bearing the feeble -jaws at the end. There are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the -tail. _Aulostomus chinensis_ (_maculatus_) is common in the West Indies, -_Aulostomus valentini_ abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where it is a -food-fish of moderate importance. A species of _Aulostomus_ -(_bolcensis_) is found in the Italian Eocene. Allied to it is the -extinct family _Urosphenidæ_, scaleless, but otherwise similar. -_Urosphen dubia_ occurs in the Eocene at Monte Bolca. _Urosphen_ is -perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of -_Hemibranchii_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 184.—Trumpet-fish, _Aulostomus chinensis_ (L.) Virginia. -] - -=The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.=—Very remarkable fishes are the -snipefishes, or _Macrorhamphosidæ_. In these forms the snout is still -tubular, with the short jaws at the end. The body is short and deep, -partly covered with bony plates. The dorsal has a very long serrated -spine, besides several shorter ones, and the ventral fins have one spine -and five rays. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 185.—Japanese Snipefish, _Macrorhamphosus sagifue_ Jordan & - Starks. Misaki, Japan. -] - -The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, _Macrorhamphosus scolopax_, is rather -common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar species (_M. -sagifue_) occurs in Japan. The _Rhamphosidæ_, represented by -_Rhamphosus_, an extinct genus with the ventrals further forward, are -found in the Eocene rocks of Monte Bolca. _Rhamphosus vastrum_ has -minute scales, short dorsal, and the snout greatly attenuate. - -=The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.=—One of the most extraordinary types of -fishes is the small family of _Centriscidæ_, found in the East Indies. -The back is covered by a transparent bony cuirass which extends far -beyond the short tail, on which the two dorsal fins are crowded. -Anteriorly this cuirass is composed of plates which are soldered to the -ribs. The small toothless mouth is at the end of a long snout. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 186.—Shrimp-fish, _Æoliscus strigatus_ (Günther). Riu Kiu - Islands, Japan. -] - -These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very much like -shrimps. _Centriscus scutatus_ (_Amphisile_) with the terminal spine -fixed is found in the East Indies, and _Æoliscus strigatus_ with the -terminal spine movable is found in southern Japan and southwards. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 187.—_Æoliscus heinrichi_ Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family - _Centriscidæ_. (After Heckel.) -] - -A fossil species, _Æoliscus heinrichi_, is found in the Oligocene of -various parts of Europe, and _Centriscus longirostris_ occurs in the -Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -In the _Centriscidæ_ and _Macrorhamphosidæ_ the expansions of the -hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed. - -=The Lophobranchs.=—The suborder _Lophobranchii_ (λοφός, tuft; βραγχός, -gill) is certainly an offshoot from the _Hemibranchii_ and belongs -likewise among the forms transitional from soft to spiny-rayed fishes. -At the same time it is a degenerate group, and in its modifications it -turns directly away from the general line of specialization. - -The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills to small -lobate tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The so-called -infraclavicles are present, as in most of the _Hemibranchii_. Bony -plates united to form rings take the place of scales. The long tubular -snout bears the short toothless jaws at the end. The preopercle is -absent, and the ventrals are seven-rayed or wanting. The species known -as pipefishes and sea-horses are all very small and none have any -economic value. They are numerous in all warm seas, mostly living in -shallow bays among seaweed and eel-grass. The muscular system is little -developed and all the species have the curious habit of carrying the -eggs until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or tail; this -structure is usually found in the male. - -=The Solenostomidæ.=—The _Solenostomidæ_ of the East Indies are the most -primitive of these fishes. They have the body rather short and provided -with spinous dorsal, and ventral fins. The pretty species are -occasionally swept northward to Japan in the Black Current. -_Solenostomus cyanopterus_ is a characteristic species. _Solenorhynchus -elegans_, now extinct (with the trunk more elongate), preceded -_Solenostomus_ in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -=The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.=—The _Syngnathidæ_ are very long and -slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventral fins, the body -covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish, _Syngnathus_, there are very -many species on all northern coasts. _Syngnathus acus_ is common in -Europe, _Syngnathus fuscum_ along the New England coast, _Syngnathus -californiense_ in California, and _Syngnathus schlegeli_ in Japan. -Numerous other species of _Syngnathus_ and other genera are found -further south in the same regions. _Corythroichthys_ is characteristic -of coral reefs and _Microphis_ of the streams of the islands of -Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the greater -number of vertebræ and of bony rings. _Tiphle tiphle_ is a large -pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was preceded by _Tiphle -albyi_ (_Siphonostoma_) in the Miocene of Sicily. Other pipefishes, -referred to as _Syngnathus_ and _Calamostoma_, are found as fossils in -Tertiary rocks. - -=The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.=—Both fossil and recent forms constitute a -direct line of connection from the pipefishes to the sea-horses. In the -latter the head has the form of the head of a horse. It is bent at right -angles to the body like the head of a knight at chess. There is no -caudal fin, and the tail in typical species is coiled and can hardly be -straightened out. _Calamostoma_ of the Eocene, _Gasterotokeus_ of -Polynesia, and _Acentronura_ of Japan are forms which connect the true -sea-horses with the pipefish. _Gasterotokeus_ has the long head and -slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile finless tail of a -sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse belong to the -genus _Hippocampus_. These little creatures have the egg-sac of the male -under the abdomen. They range from two inches to a foot in length and -some of the many species may be found in abundance in every warm sea. -Some cling by the tails to floating seaweed and are swept to great -distances; others cling to eel-grass and live very near the shore. The -commonest European species is _Hippocampus hippocampus_. Most abundant -on our Atlantic coast is _Hippocampus hudsonius_. _Hippocampus -coronatus_ is most common in Japan. The largest species are _Hippocampus -ingens_ of Lower California and _Hippocampus kelloggi_ in Japan. Many -species, especially of the smaller ones, have the spines of the bony -plates of the body ending in fleshy flaps. These are sometimes so -enlarged as to simulate leaves of seaweed, thus serving for the -efficient protection of the species. These flaps are developed to an -extreme degree in _Phyllopteryx eques_, a pipefish of the East Indies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 188.—_Solenostomus cyanopterus_ Bleeker. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 189.—Sea-horse, _Hippocampus hudsonius_ Dekay. Virginia. -] - -No fossil sea-horses are known. - -The following account of the breeding-habits of our smallest sea-horse -(_Hippocampus zosteræ_) was prepared by the writer for a book of -children's stories: - -"He was a little bit of a sea-horse and his name was Hippocampus. He was -not more than an inch long, and he had a red stripe on the fin on his -back, and his head was made of bone and it had a shape just like a -horse's head, but he ran out to a point at his tail, and his head and -his tail were all covered with bone. He lived in the Grand Lagoon at -Pensacola in Florida, where the water is shallow and warm and there are -lots of seaweeds. So he wound his tail around a stem of seaweed and hung -with his head down, waiting to see what would happen next, and then he -saw another little sea-horse hanging on another seaweed. And the other -sea-horse put out a lot of little eggs, and the little eggs all lay on -the bottom of the sea at the foot of the seaweed. So Hippocampus crawled -down from the seaweed where he was and gathered up all those little -eggs, and down on the under side of his tail where the skin is soft he -made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all the eggs into -this pocket and fastened it together and stuck it with some slime. So he -had all the other sea-horse's eggs in his own pocket. - -"Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his tail around it, -and hung there with his head down to see what would happen next. The sun -shone down on him, and by and by all the little eggs began to hatch out, -and each one of the eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a -sea-horse. And when he hung there with his head down he could feel all -the little sea-ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by they -squirmed so much that they pushed the pocket open, and then every one -crawled away from him, and he couldn't get them back, and so he went -along with them and watched to see that nothing should hurt them. And by -and by they hung themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging -there yet. And so he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and -twisted his tail around it, and waited to see what would happen next. -And what happened next was just the same thing over again." - -=Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.=—The small suborder of -_Hypostomides_ (ὑπό, below; στόμα, mouth) consists of the family of -_Pegasidæ_. These "sea-moths" are fantastic little fishes, probably -allied to the sticklebacks, but wholly unique in form. The slender body -is covered with bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single -plate. The small mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The -preopercle and the symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals are -abdominal, formed of two rays, and the very large pectoral fin is placed -horizontally like a great wing. - -[Illustration: - - FIG 190.—Sea-moth, _Zalises umitengu_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. - (View from below.) -] - -The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea-dragons, rarely -exceed four inches in length. They are found in the East Indies and -drift with the currents northward to Japan. The genera are _Pegasus_, -_Parapegasus_, and _Zalises_. The best-known species are _Zalises -draconis_ and _Pegasus volitans_. - -No fossil species of _Pegasidæ_ are known. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL - GROUPS - - -=SUBORDER Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.=—More ancient than -the _Hemibranchii_, and still more distinctly in the line of transition -from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes, is the small suborder of -_Salmopercæ_. This is characterized by the presence of the adipose fin -of the salmon, in connection with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a -perch. The premaxillary forms the entire edge of the upper jaw, the -maxillary being without teeth. The air-bladder retains a rudimentary -duct. The bones of the head are full of mucous cavities, as in the -European perch called _Gymnocephalus_ and _Acerina_. There are two -spines in the dorsal and one or two in the anal, while the abdominal -ventrals have each a spine and eight rays. Two species only are known -among living fishes, these emphasizing more perfectly than any other -known forms the close relation really existing between spinous and -soft-rayed forms. The single family of _Percopsidæ_ would seem to find -its place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of to-day. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 191.—Sand-roller, _Pecropsis guttatus_ Agassiz. Okoboji Lake, Ia. -] - -_Percopsis guttata_, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great Lakes, -is a pale translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a length of six -inches. It abounds in the Great Lakes and their tributaries and is -occasionally found in the Delaware, Ohio, Kansas, and other rivers and -northwestward as far as Medicine Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily -taken with a hook from the piers at Chicago. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 192.—Oregon Trout-perch, _Columbia transmontana_ Eigenmann. - Umatilla River, Oregon. -] - -_Columbia transmontana_ is another little fish of similar type, but -rougher and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in sandy or weedy -lagoons throughout the lower basin of the Columbia, where it was first -noticed by Dr. Eigenmann in 1892. From the point of view of structure -and classification, this left-over form is one of the most remarkable of -American fishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 193.—_Erismatopterus endlicheri_ Cope. Green River Eocene. (After - Cope.) -] - -=Erismatopteridæ.=—Here should perhaps be placed the family of -_Erismatopteridæ_, represented by _Erismatopterus levatus_ and other -species of the Green River Eocene shales. In _Erismatopterus_ the short -dorsal has two or three spines, there are two or three spines in the -anal, and the abdominal ventrals are opposite the dorsal. Allied to -_Erismatopterus_ is _Amphiplaga_ of the same deposits. - -We cannot, however, feel sure that these extinct fragments, however well -preserved, belonged to fishes having an adipose fin. Among spiny-rayed -fishes the _Percopsidæ_ alone retain this character, and the real -affinities of _Erismatopterus_ may be with _Aphredoderidæ_ and other -percoid forms. - -The relations of the extinct family of _Asineopidæ_ are also still -uncertain. This group comprises fresh-water fishes said to be allied to -the _Aphredoderidæ_, but with the pelvic bones not forked. _Asineops -pauciradiata_, _squamifrons_ and _viridensis_ are described from the -Green River shales. With _Erismatopterus_ all these fishes may belong to -the suborder of _Salmopercæ_, but, as above stated, the possession of -the adipose fin, the most characteristic trait of the _Salmopercæ_, -cannot be verified in the fossil remains. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 194.—Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, _Lampris guttatus_ (Brünnich), - showing the enlarged infraclavicle. (After Boulenger.) -] - -=Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.=—We may bring together -as constituting another suborder certain forms of uncertain -relationship, but which seem to be transitional between deep-bodied -extinct Ganoids and the forms allied to _Platax_, _Zeus_, and -_Antigonia_. The name of _Selenichthyes_ (σηλήνη, moon; ἰχθύς, fish) is -suggested by Boulenger for the group of opahs, or moonfishes. These are -characterized by the highly compressed body, the great development of a -large hypocoracoid, and especially by the structure of the ventral fins, -which are composed of about fifteen rays instead of the one spine and -five rays characteristic of the specialized perch-like fishes. The -living forms of this type are further characterized by the partial or -total absence of the spinous dorsal, by the small oblique mouth, and the -prominence of the ventral curve of the body. A thorough study of the -osteology of these forms living and fossil will be necessary before the -group can be properly defined. The large bone above mentioned was at -first considered by Boulenger as the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the -hypocoracoid being regarded by him as displaced, lying with the -actinosts. But it is certain, from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this -bone is the real hypocoracoid, which in this case is simply exaggerated -in size, but placed as in ordinary fishes. - -The single living family, _Lamprididæ_, contains but one species, -_Lampris guttatus_, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo, Jerusalem -haddock, or San Pedro fish. This species reaches a length of six feet -and a weight of 500 to 600 pounds. Fig. 199 (Vol. I) is taken from a -photograph of an example weighing 317½ pounds taken near Honolulu by Mr. -E. L. Berndt. The body is almost as deep as long, plump and smooth, -without scales or bony plates. The vertebræ are forty-five in number, -and the large ventrals contain about fifteen rays. The dorsal is without -spines, the small mouth without teeth. The color is a "rich brocade of -silver and lilac, rosy on the belly, everywhere with round silvery -spots." The head and back have ultramarine tints, the jaws and fins are -vermilion. On a drawing of this fish made at Sable Island in 1856, Mr. -James Farquhar wrote (to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin): "Just imagine the body, -a beautiful silver interspersed with spots of a lighter color about the -size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a golden ring -around them. You will then have some idea of the splendid appearance of -the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen them I might have realized a -fortune." - -The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The flesh is of varying -shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of a rich, exquisite flavor -scarcely surpassed by any other fish whatsoever. - -The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and ranging -very widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed in Norway by -Gunner, the good bishop of Throndhjem, about 1780. It was soon after -recorded from Elsinore, Torbay, and Madeira, and is occasionally taken -in various places in Europe. It is also recorded from Newfoundland, -Sable Island, Cuba, Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco), -Santa Catalina, Honolulu, and Japan. - -The specimen studied by the writer came ashore at Monterey in an injured -condition, having been worsted in a struggle with some better-armed -fish. - -Allied to _Lampris_ is the imposing extinct species known as -_Semiophorus velifer_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Verona, the -type of the extinct family of _Semiophoridæ_. This is a deep compressed -fish, with very high spinous dorsal and very long, many-rayed ventrals. -Other related species are known also from the Eocene. There is no -evidence of any close relation between these fishes with _Caranx_ or -_Platax_, with which Woodward associates _Semiophorus_. - -The _Semiophoridæ_ differ from the _Lamprididæ_ chiefly in the -development of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of many slender -rays. - -=Suborder Zeoidea.=—Not far from the _Selenichthyes_ and the -_Berycoidei_ we may place the singular group of John Dories, or zeoid -fishes. These have the ventral fins thoracic and many-rayed, the dorsal -fin provided with spines, and the post-temporal, as in the -_Chætodontidæ_, fused with the skull. Dr. Boulenger calls attention to -the close relation of these fishes to the flounders, and suggests the -possible derivation of both from a synthetic type, the _Amphistiidæ_, -found in the European Eocene. The _Amphistiidæ_, _Zeidæ_, and flounders -are united by him to form the group or suborder _Zeorhombi_, -characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays not I, 5 in -number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin-spines and the -progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing the two eyes to the same -side of the head. It is not certain that the flounders are really -derived from Zeus-like fishes, but no other guess as to their origin has -more elements of probability. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 195.—_Semiophorus velifer_ Volta. Eocene. (After Agassiz, per - Zittel.) -] - -We may, however, regard the _Zeoidea_ on the one hand and the -_Heterosomata_ on the other as distinct suborders. This is certain, that -the flounders are descended from spiny-rayed forms and that they have no -affinities with the codfishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 196.—_Amphistium paradoxum_ Agassiz. Upper Eocene. (Supposed - ancestor of the flounders). (After Boulenger.) -] - -=Amphistiidæ.=—The _Amphistiidæ_, now extinct, are deep-bodied, -compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal fins in which a -few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely -differentiated from the soft rays. The form of body and the structure of -the fins are essentially as in the flounders, from which they differ -chiefly by the symmetry of the head, the eyes being normally placed. -_Amphistium paradoxum_ is described by Agassiz from the upper Eocene. It -occurs in Italy and France. In its dorsal and anal fins there are about -twenty-two rays, the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute -or absent and there is a high supraoccipital crest. - -=The John Dories: Zeidæ.=—The singular family of _Zeidæ_, or John -Dories, agrees with Chætodonts in the single character of the fusion of -the post-temporal with the skull. The species, however, diverge widely -in other regards, and their ventral fins are essentially those of the -Berycoids. In all the species there are seven to nine soft rays in the -ventral fins, as in the Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the -fused post-temporal has been independently derived. The anterior -vertebræ in _Zeus_, as in _Chætodon_, are closely crowded together. In -the _Zeidæ_ the spinous dorsal is well developed, the body naked or with -very thin scales, and provided with bony warts at least around the bases -of dorsal and anal fins. The species are mostly of small size, silvery -in color, living in moderate depths in warm seas. The best-known genus -is _Zeus_, which is a group of shore-fishes of the waters of Asia and -Europe. The common John Dory (called in Germany Härings-König, or king -of the herrings), _Zeus faber_, abounds in shallow bays on the coasts of -Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, and is a striking feature -of the markets of southern Europe. The dorsal spines are high, the mouth -large, and on the sides is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of -the thumb of St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the -mouth of this species. A black spot on several other species is -associated with the same legend. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 197.—The John Dory, _Zeus faber_. Linnæus. Devon, England. -] - -On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish (_Zeus -japonicus_), very similar to the European species and like it in form -and color. _Zenopsis nebulosa_ and _Zen itea_ also occur on the coasts -of Japan. The remaining _Zeidæ_ (_Cyttus_, _Zenopsis_, _Zenion_, etc.) -are all rare species occasionally dredged especially in the Australian -region. _Zeus priscus_ is recorded from the Tertiary, and _Cyttoides -glaronensis_ from the upper Eocene of Glavus. - -=Grammicolepidæ.=—The _Grammicolepidæ_, represented by a single species, -_Grammicolepis brachiusculus_, rarely taken off the coast of Cuba, is -related to the _Zeidæ_. It has rough, ridged, parchment-like scales -deeper than long. The ventrals are thoracic, with the rays in increased -number, as in _Zeus_ and _Beryx_, with each of which it suggests -affinity. - - - - - CHAPTER XV - BERYCOIDEI - - -=THE Berycoid Fishes.=—We may place in a separate order a group of -fishes, mostly spiny-rayed, which appeared earlier in geological time -than any other of the spinous forms, and which in several ways represent -the transition from the isospondylous fishes to those of the type of the -mackerel and perch. In the berycoid fishes the ventral fins are always -thoracic, the number of rays almost always greater than I, 5, and in all -cases an orbitosphenoid bone is developed in connection with the septum -between the orbits above. This bone is found in the _Isospondyli_ and -other primitive fishes, but according to the investigations of Mr. E. C. -Starks it is wanting in all percoid and scombroid forms, as well as in -the _Haplomi_ and in all the higher fishes. This trait may therefore, -among thoracic fishes, be held to define the section or suborder of -_Berycoidei_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 198.—Skull of a Berycoid fish, _Beryx splendens_ Cuv. & Val., - showing the orbitosphenoid (OS), characteristic of all Berycoid - fishes. -] - -These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic types, were more abundant -in Cretaceous and Eocene times than now. The possession of an increased -number of soft rays in the ventral fins is archaic, although in one -family, the _Monocentridæ_, the number is reduced to three. Most of the -living _Berycoidei_ retain through life the archaic duct to the -air-bladder characteristic of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In -some however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the fish series -the number of twenty-four vertebræ appears. In most spiny-rayed fishes -of the tropics, of whatever family, this number is retained. - -In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin, and in certain cases -the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses that of the most extreme -perch-like forms. In geological times the Berycoids preceded all other -perch-like fishes. They are probably ancestral to all the latter. All -the recent species, in spite of high specialization, retain some archaic -characters. - -=The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.=—The typical family, _Berycidæ_, is composed -of fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or black in color, with -the body short and compressed, the scales varying in the different -genera. The single dorsal fin has a few spines in front, and there are -no barbels. The suborbitals are not greatly developed. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 199.—_Beryx splendens_ Lowe. Gulf Stream. -] - -The species of _Beryx_, called in Spanish _Alfonsino_, _Beryx elegans_ -and _Beryx decadactylus_, are widely distributed at moderate depths, the -same species being recorded from Portugal, Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf -Stream, and Japan. The colors are very handsome, being scarlet with -streaks of white or golden. These fishes reach the length of a foot or -more and are valued as food where sufficiently common. - -Numerous species of _Beryx_ and closely allied genera are found in all -rocks since Cretaceous times; _Beryx dalmaticus_, from the Cretaceous of -Dalmatia, is perhaps the earliest. _Beryx insculptus_ is found in New -Jersey, but no other Berycoids are yet known as fossils from North -America. _Sphenocephalus_, with four anal spines, is found in the chalk, -as are also species of _Acrogaster_ and _Pycnosterinx_, these being the -earliest of fishes with distinctly spiny fins. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 200.—_Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_ (Mantell), restored. English - Cretaceous Family _Berycidæ_. (After Woodward.) -] - -The _Trachichthyidæ_ are deep-sea fishes with short bodies, cavernous -skulls, and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with a few spines in -front. The suborbitals are very broad, often covering the cheeks, and -the anal fin is shorter than the dorsal, a character which separates -these fishes from the _Berycidæ_, in which group the anal fin is very -long. The belly has often a serrated edge, and the coloration is red or -black, the black species being softer in body and living in deeper -water. Species of _Hoplostethus_, notably _Hoplostethus mediterraneus_, -are found in most seas at a considerable depth. _Trachichthys_, a genus -scarcely distinguishable from _Hoplostethus_, is found in various seas. -The genus _Paratrachichthys_ is remarkable for the anterior position of -the vent, much as in _Aphredoderus_. Species occur in Japan and -Australia. _Gephyroberyx_, with the dorsal fin notched, is known from -Japan (_G. japonicus_) and Madeira (_G. darwini_). - -We may also refer to the _Trachichthyidæ_ certain species of still -deeper waters, black in color and still softer in texture, with smaller -scales which are often peculiar in form. These constitute the genera -_Caulolepis_, _Anoplogaster_, _Melamphaës_, and _Plectromus_. In -_Caulolepis_ the jaws are armed with very strong canines. - -Allied to the _Trachichthyidæ_ are also the fossil genera _Hoplopteryx_ -and _Homonotus_. _Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_, from the English chalk, is -one of the earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 201.—_Paratrachichthys prosthemius_ Jordan & Fowler, Misaki, - Japan. Family _Trachichthyidæ_. -] - -=The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.=—The soldier-fishes (_Holocentridæ_), -also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados, matajuelos, malau, -alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic of rocky banks in the -tropical seas. In this family the flesh is firm and the large scales -very hard and with very rough edges. There are eleven spines in the -dorsal and four in the anal, the third being usually very long. The -ventral fins have one spine and seven soft rays. The whole head and body -are rough with prickles. The coloration is always brilliant, the ground -hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines or stripes of white, -black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and they furnish a -large part of the beauty of coloration so characteristic of the fishes -of the coral reefs. The species are active, pugnacious, carnivorous, but -not especially voracious, the mouth being usually small. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 202.—Soldier-fish, _Holocentrus ascenscionis_ (Osbeck). -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 203.—Soldier-fish, _Holocentrus ittodai_ Jordan & Fowler. Riu Kiu - Islands, Japan. -] - -The genus _Holocentrus_ is characterized by the presence of a large -spine on the angle of the preopercle. Its species are especially -numerous, _Holocentrus ascenscionis_, abundant in Cuba, ranges northward -in the Gulf Stream. _Holocentrus suborbitalis_, the mojarra cardenal, is -a small, relatively dull species swarming about the rocks of western -Mexico. _Holocentrus spinosissimus_ is a characteristic fish of Japan. -Many other species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies, as -well as in tropical America. _Holocentrus ruber_ and _Holocentrus -diadema_ are common species of Polynesia and the East Indies. Other -abundant species are _H. spinifer_, _H. microstomus_, and _H. -violascens_. - -_Holocentrus marianus_ is the marian of the French West Indies. -_Holocentrus sammara_, and related large-mouthed species occur in -Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 204.—_Ostichthys japonicus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Giran, Formosa. -] - -In _Myripristis_ the preopercular spine is wanting and the air-bladder -is divided into two parts, the anterior extending to the ear. -_Myripristis jacobus_ is the brilliantly colored candil, or "Frère -Jacques," of the West Indies. Species of _Myripristis_ are known in -Hawaii as _u-u_. A curious method of catching _Myripristis murdjan_ is -pursued on the Island of Hawaii. A living fish is suspended by a cord in -front of a reef inhabited by this species. It remains with scarlet fins -spread and glistening red scales. Its presence is a challenge to other -individuals, who rush out to attack it. These are then drawn out by a -concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a decoy. -_Myripristis pralinius_, _M. multiradiatus_, and other species occur in -Polynesia. _Ostichthys_ is allied to _Myripristis_ but with very large -rough scales. _Ostichthys japonicus_ is a large and showy fish of the -waters of Japan. _Ostichthys pillwaxi_ occurs at Honolulu. _Holotrachys -lima_ is a small, brick-red fish with small very rough scales found -throughout Polynesia. - -Fossil species of _Holocentrus_, _Myripristis_, and related extinct -genera occur in the Eocene and Miocene. _Holocentrus macrocephalus_, -from Monte Bolca Eocene, is one of the best known. _Myricanthus -leptacanthus_ from the same region, has very slender spines in the fins. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 205.—Pine-cone Fish, _Monocentris japonicus_ (Houttuyn). Waka, - Japan. -] - -=The Polymixiidæ.=—The family of _Polymixiidæ_, or barbudos, is one of -the most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewildering combination of -characters belonging to different groups. With the general aspect of a -Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7, and the single dorsal fin with a few -spines, _Polymixia_ has the scales rather smooth and at the chin are two -long barbels which look remarkably like those of the family of _Mullidæ_ -or _Surmullets_. As in the _Mullidæ_, there are but four -branchiostegals. In other regards the two groups seem to have little in -common. According to Starks, the specialized feelers at the chin are -different in structure and must have been independently developed in the -two groups. In _Polymixia_, each barbel is suspended from the hypohyal; -three rudimentary branchiostegals forming its thickened base. In -_Mullus_, each barbel is suspended from the trip of a slender projection -of the ceratohyal, having no connection with the branchiostegals. -_Polymixia_ possesses the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true berycoid, -while the _Mullidæ_ are genuine percoid fishes. - -Four species of _Polymixia_ are recorded from rather deep water: -_Polymixia nobilis_ from Madeira, _Polymixia lowei_ from the West -Indies, _Polymixia berndti_ from Hawaii, and _Polymixia japonica_ from -Japan. All are plainly colored, without red. - -=The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.=—Among the most extraordinary of -all fishes is the little family of _Monocentridæ_, or pine-cone fishes. -_Monocentris japonicus_, the best-known species, is common on the coasts -of Japan. It reaches the length of five inches. The body is covered with -a coat of mail, made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put -together. The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral fin is -replaced by a very strong rough spine. The animal fully justifies the -remark of its discoverer, Houttuyn (1782), that it is "the most -remarkable fish which exists." It is dull golden brown in color, and in -movement as sluggish as a trunkfish. A similar species, called -knightfish, _Monocentris gloriæ-maris_, is found in Australia. No -fossils allied to _Monocentris_ are known. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI - PERCOMORPHI - - -=SUBORDER Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.=—We may place in a -single suborder the various groups of fishes which cluster about the -perches, and the mackerels. The group is not easily definable and may -contain heterogeneous elements. We may, however, arrange in it, for our -present purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes having the ventral fins -thoracic, of one spine and five rays (the ventral fin occasionally -wanting or defective, having a reduced number of rays), the lower -pharyngeal bones separate, the suborbital chain without backward -extension or bony stay, the post-temporal normally developed and -separate from the cranium, the premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the -cranium itself without orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure not -greatly unlike that of perch or mackerel, and the back-bone primitively -of twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased in arctic, pelagic, or -fresh-water offshoots. - -The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed forms, group -themselves chiefly about two central families, the _Scombridæ_, or -mackerels, and the _Serranidæ_, the sea-bass, with their fresh-water -allies, the _Percidæ_, or perch. - -=The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.=—The two groups of _Percomorphi_, the -mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no exact definition, as the -one fully grades into the other. The mackerel-like forms, or -_Scombroidea_, as a whole are defined by their adaptation for swift -movement. The profile is sharp anteriorly, the tail slender, with widely -forked caudal; the scales are usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a -character as not to produce friction in the water. - -In general the external surface is smooth, the skeleton light and -strong, the muscles firm, and the species are carnivorous and -predaceous. But among the multitude of forms are many variations, and -some of these will seem to be exceptions to any definition of -mackerel-like fishes which could possibly be framed. - -The mackerels, or _Scombroidea_, have usually the tail very slender, -composed of very strong bones, with widely forked fin. In the perch and -bass the tail is stout, composed largely of flesh, the supporting -vertebræ relatively small and spread out fan-fashion behind. Neither -mackerels nor perch nor any of their near allies ever have more than -five soft rays in the ventral fins, and the persistence of this number -throughout the _Percomorphi_, _Squamipinnes_, _Pharyngognathi_, and -spiny fishes generally must be attributed to inheritance from the -primitive perch-like or mackerel-like forms. In almost all the groups to -be considered in this work, after the _Berycoidea_ the ventral rays are -I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration, never more. In the central or -primitive members of most of these groups there are twenty-four -vertebræ, the number increased in certain forms, probably through -repetitive degeneration. - -=The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.=—We may first consider the great central -family of _Scombridæ_, or true mackerels, distinguished among related -families by their swift forms, smooth scales, metallic coloration, and -technically by the presence of a number of detached finlets behind the -dorsal and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines in -the fins are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong, the flesh -oily, and the air-bladder reduced in size or altogether wanting. As in -most swift-swimming fishes and fishes of pelagic habit, the vertebræ are -numerous and relatively small, an arrangement which promotes flexibility -of body. It is not likely that this group is the most primitive of the -scombroid fishes. In some respects the _Stromateidæ_ stand nearer the -primitive stock. The true mackerels, however, furnish the most -convenient point of departure in reviewing the great group. - -In the genus of true mackerels, _Scomber_, the dorsal fins are well -separated, the first being rather short, and the scales of the shoulders -are not modified to form a corselet. There are numerous species, two of -them of general interest. The common mackerel, _Scomber scombrus_, is -one of the best known of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the -Atlantic, where on both shores it runs in vast schools, the movements -varying greatly from season to season, the preference being for cool -waters. The female mackerel produces about 500,000 eggs each year, -according to Professor Goode. These are very minute and each is provided -with an oil-globule, which causes it to float on the surface. About -400,000 barrels of mackerel are salted yearly by the mackerel fleet of -Massachusetts. Single schools of mackerel, estimated to contain a -million barrels, have been recorded. Captain Harding describes such a -school as "a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles long." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 206.—Mackerel, _Scomber scombrus_ L. New York. -] - -Professor Goode writes: - -"Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of many thousands of -the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine. The success of the -mackerel-fishery is much more uncertain than that of the cod-fishery, -for instance, for the supply of cod is quite uniform from year to year. -The prospects of each season are eagerly discussed from week to week in -thousands of little circles along the coast, and are chronicled by the -local press. The story of each successful trip is passed from mouth to -mouth, and is a matter of general congratulation in each fishing -community. A review of the results of the American mackerel-fishery, and -of the movements of the fish in each part of the season, would be an -important contribution to the literature of the American fisheries. - -"The mackerel-fishery is peculiarly American, and its history is full of -romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the American -mackerel-schooners—yachts of great speed and unsurpassed for -seaworthiness. The modern instruments of capture are marvels of -inventive skill, and require the highest degree of energy and -intelligence on the part of the fishermen. The crews of the -mackerel-schooners are still for the most part Americans of the old -colonial stock, although the cod and halibut fisheries are to a great -extent given up to foreigners. - -"When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheepshead cannot -vanquish him in a gastronomic tournament. In Holland, to be sure, the -mackerel is not prized, and is accused of tasting like rancid fish-oil, -and in England, even, they are usually lean and dry, like the wretched -skeletons which are brought to market in April and May by the southern -fleet, which goes forth in the early spring from Massachusetts to -intercept the schools as they approach the coasts of Carolina and -Virginia. They are not worthy of the name of mackerel. _Scomber -Scombrus_ is not properly in season until the spawning time is over, -when the schools begin to feed at the surface in the Gulf of Maine and -the 'North Bay.' - -"Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drippings, or -slightly corned in strong brine, caught at night and eaten in the -morning, a mackerel or a bluefish is unsurpassable. A well-cured autumn -mackerel is perhaps the finest of all salted fish, but in these days of -wholesale capture by the purse-seine, hasty dressing and careless -handling, it is very difficult to obtain a sweet and sound salt -mackerel. Salt mackerel may be boiled as well as broiled, and a fresh -mackerel may be cooked in the same manner. Americans will usually prefer -to do without the sauce of fennel and gooseberry which transatlantic -cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and lean, new or stale, mackerel -are consumed by Americans in immense quantities, as the statistics show, -and whatever their state, always find ready sale." - -Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely distributed is -the chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel, _Scomber japonicus_ -(Houttuyn, 1782), usually known by the later name of _Scomber colias_ -(Gmelin, 1788). In this species the air-bladder (absent in the common -mackerel) is moderately developed. It very much resembles the true -mackerel, but is of smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and -keeps nearer to the shore. It may be usually distinguished by the -presence of vague, dull-gray spots on the sides, where the true mackerel -is lustrous silvery. - -This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic coast, on -the coast of California, and everywhere in Japan. - -_Scomber antarcticus_ is the familiar mackerel of Australia. _Scomber -loo_, silvery, with round black spots, is the common mackerel of the -South Seas, locally known as _Ga_. - -_Scomber priscus_ is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene. - -_Auxis thazard_, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the shoulders -enlarged and somewhat coalescent, forming what is called a corselet. The -species ranges widely through the seas of the world in great numbers, -but very erratic, sometimes myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then -none seen for years. It is more constant in its visits to Japan and -Hawaii. Fossil species of _Auxis_ are found in the Miocene. - -The genus _Gymnosarda_ has the corselet as in _Auxis_, but the first -dorsal fin is long, extending backward to the base of the second. Its -two species, _Gymnosarda pelamis_, the Oceanic bonito, and _Gymnosarda -alleterata_, the little tunny, are found in all warm seas, being -especially abundant in the Mediterranean, about Hawaii and Japan. These -are plump fish of moderate size, with very red and very oily flesh. - -Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (_Thunnus thynnus_) -found in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight of 1500 pounds. -These enormous fishes are much valued by anglers, a popular "Tuna Club" -devoted to the sport of catching them with a hook having its -headquarters at Avalon, on Santa Catalina Island, in California. They -are good food, although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The -name horse-mackerel is often given to these monsters on the New England -coast. In California, the Spanish name of tuna has become current among -fisherman. - -Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore (_Germo -alalonga_). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty pounds, and is -known by its very long, almost ribbon-like pectoral fins. This species -is common in the Mediterranean, and about the Santa Barbara Islands, -where it runs in great schools in March. The flesh of the albacore is of -little value, unless, as in Japan, it is eaten raw. The Japanese shibi -(_Germo germo_) is another large albacore, having the finlets bright -yellow. It is found also at Hawaii. - -The bonito (_Sarda sarda_) wanders far throughout the Atlantic, -abounding on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean, coming inshore -in summer to spawn or feed. Its flesh is red and not very delicate, -though it may be reckoned as a fair food-fish. It is often served under -the name of "Spanish mackerel" to the injury of the reputation of the -better fish. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 207.—The Long-fin Albacore, _Germo alalunga_ (Gmelin). Gulf - Stream. -] - -Professor Goode writes: - -"One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength. Every line in -its contour is suggestive of swift motion. The head is shaped like a -minie bullet, the jaws fit together so tightly that a knife-edge could -scarcely pass between, the eyes are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a -perfect level with the adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and -strong, the contours of the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly -merging into the straighter lines in which the contour of the body -slopes back to the tail. The dorsal fin is placed in a groove into which -it is received, like the blade of a clasp-knife in its handle. The -pectoral and ventral fins also fit into depressions in the sides of the -fish. Above and below, on the posterior third of the body, are placed -the little finlets, each a little rudder with independent motions of its -own, by which the course of the fish may be readily steered. The tail -itself is a crescent-shaped oar, without flesh, almost without scales, -composed of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory. A -single sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel the -bonito a hundred yards, for the polished surfaces of its body can offer -little resistance to the water. I have seen a common dolphin swimming -round and round a steamship, advancing at the rate of twelve knots an -hour, the effort being hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly -seventy miles in an hour. Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It -might be done by the aid of the electrical contrivances by which is -calculated the initial velocity of a projectile. The bonitoes in our -sounds to-day may have been passing Cape Colony or the Land of Fire day -before yesterday." - -Another bonito, _Sarda chilensis_, is common in California; in Chile, -and in Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines than the bonito of -the Atlantic, but the same size, coloration, and flesh. Both are blue, -with undulating black stripes along the side of the back. - -The genus _Scomberomorus_ includes mackerels slenderer in form, with -larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively pale and free -from oil. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 208.—The Spanish Mackerel, _Scomberomorus maculatus_ (Mitchill). - New York. -] - -_Scomberomorus maculatus_, the Spanish mackerel of the West Indies, is -one of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography was written by Mitchill -almost a century ago in these words: - -"A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July." - -Goode thus writes of it: - -"The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful of fishes. It -appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of beauty, when we look -upon it, as shown in Kilbourn's well-known painting, darting like an -arrow just shot from the bow, its burnished sides, silver flecked with -gold, thrown into bold relief by the cool green background of the -rippled sea; the transparent grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks -of its trembling fins enhance the metallic splendor of its body, until -it seems to rival the most brilliant of tropical birds. Kilbourn made -copies of his large painting on the pearly linings of seashells and -produced some wonderful effects by allowing the natural luster of the -mother-of-pearl to show through his transparent pigments and simulate -the brilliancy of the life-inspired hues of the quivering, darting -sea-sprite, whose charms even his potent brush could not properly -depict. - -"It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which comes to us -only in midsummer, and which disappears with the approach of cold, to -some region not yet explored by ichthyologists. It is doubtless very -familiar in winter to the inhabitants of some region adjacent to the -waters of the Caribbean or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place -shall have been discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with -the bluefish and the mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical winter -resort to which we send the migratory fishes whose habits we do not -understand—the middle strata of the ocean, the floating beds of -Sargassum, which drift hither and thither under the alternate promptings -of the Gulf-stream currents and the winter winds." - -The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate schools and is -caught in abundance from Cape May southward. Its white flesh is most -delicious, when properly grilled, and Spanish mackerel, like pampano, -should be cooked in no other way. - -A very similar species, _Scomberomorus sierra_, occurs on the west coast -of Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as food by the Mexicans. -In California, the Monterey Spanish mackerel (_Scomberomorus concolor_) -is equally excellent as a food-fish. This fish lacks the spots -characteristic of most of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay -of Monterey, especially at Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the -autumn of 1879 and 1880. It has not, so far as is known, been seen -since, nor is the species recorded from any other coast. - -The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots upon its sides. -Almost exactly like it in appearance is the pintado, or sierra -(_Scomberomorus regalis_), but in this species the spots are oblong in -form. The pintado abounds in the West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate -than that of the more true Spanish mackerel. The name _sierra_, saw, -commonly applied to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been -corrupted into _cero_ in some books on angling. - -Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on the coasts of -India, Chile, and Japan. - -The great kingfish, or cavalla (_Scomberomorus cavalla_), is a huge -Spanish mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100 -pounds. It is dark iron-gray in color, one of the best of food-fishes, -and is unspotted, and its firm, rich flesh resembles that of the -barracuda. - -Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp-nosed, -swift-swimming mackerel found in the East and West Indies, as well as in -Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet and a weight of more than a -hundred pounds. Its large knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and -the color is almost black. _Acanthocybium solandri_ is the species found -in Hawaii and Japan. The American _Acanthocybium petus_, occasionally -also taken in the Mediterranean, may be the same species. - -Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well as -representatives of related genera now extinct, abound in the Eocene and -Miocene, especially in northern Italy. Among them are _Scomber antiquus_ -from the Miocene, _Scombrinus macropomus_ from the Eocene London clays, -much like _Scomber_, but with stronger teeth, _Sphyrænodus priscus_ from -the same deposits, the teeth still larger, _Scombramphodon crossidens_, -from the same deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of -_Scomberomorus_. _Scomberomorus_ is the best represented of all the -genera as fossil, _Scomberomorus speciosus_ and numerous other species -occurring in the Eocene. A fossil species of _Germo_, _G. lanceolatus_, -occurs at Monte Bolca in Eocene rocks. Another tunny, with very small -teeth is _Eothynnus salmonens_, from the lower Eocene near London. -Several other tunny-like fishes occur in the lower Tertiary. - -=The Escolars: Gempylidæ.=—More predaceous than the mackerels and -tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, _Gempylidæ_, known as _escolars_ -("scholars"), with the body almost band-shaped and the teeth very large -and sharp. Some of these, from the ocean depths, are violet-black in -color, those near the surface being silvery. _Escolar violaceus_ lives -in the abysses of the Gulf Stream. _Ruvettus pretiosus_, the black -escolar, lives in more moderate depths and is often taken in Cuba, -Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very large fish, black, with very -rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of oil; sometimes rated -very high, and at other times too rank to be edible. The name _escolar_ -means _scholar_ in Spanish, but its root meaning, as applied to this -fish, comes from a word meaning _to scour_, in allusion to the very -rough scales. - -_Promethichthys prometheus_, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so-called from -its wariness, is caught in the same regions, being especially common -about Madeira and Hawaii. _Gempylus serpens_, the snake-mackerel, is a -still slenderer and more voracious fish of the open seas. _Thyrsites -atun_ is the Australian "barracuda," a valued food-fish, voracious and -predaceous. - -=Scabbard-and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.=—The family of -_Lepidopidæ_, or scabbard-fishes, includes degenerate mackerels, -band-shaped, with continuous dorsal fin, and the long jaws armed with -very small teeth. These are found in the open sea, _Lepidopus candatus_ -being the most common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet -and comes to different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn. It -lives in warm water and is at once chilled by the least cold; hence the -name of frostfish occasionally applied to it. Several species of -_Lepidopus_ are fossil in the later Tertiary. _Lepidopus glarisianus_ -occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it _Thyrsitocephalus alpinus_, -which approaches more nearly to the _Gempylidæ_. - -Still more degenerate are the _Trichiuridæ_, or cutlass-fishes, in which -the caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like filament. The -species are bright silvery in color, very slender, and very voracious, -reaching a length of three to five feet. _Trichiurus lepturus_ is rather -common on our Atlantic coast. The names hairfish and silver-eel, among -others, are often given to it. _Trichiurus japonicas_, a very similar -species, is common in Japan, and other species inhabit the tropical -seas. _Trichiurichthys_, a fossil genus with well-developed scales, -precedes _Trichiurus_ in the Miocene. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 209.—Cutlass-fish, _Trichiurus lepturus_ Linnæus. St. Augustine, - Fla. -] - -=The Palæorhynchidæ.=—The extinct family of _Palæorhynchidæ_ is found -from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very long and slender -fishes, with long jaws and small teeth, the dorsal fin long and -continuous. The species resembles the _Escolar_ on the one hand and the -sailfishes on the other, and they may prove to be ancestral to the -_Istiophoridæ_. _Hemirhynchus deshayesi_ with the upper jaw twice as -long as the lower, sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris; -_Palæorhynchum glarisianum_, with the jaws both elongate, the lower -longest, is in the Oligocene of Glarus. Several other species of both -genera are recorded. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 210.—_Palæorhynchus glarisianus_ Blainville. Oligocene. (After - Woodward.) -] - -=The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.=—Remotely allied to the cutlass-fishes -and still nearer to the _Palæorhynchidæ_ is the family of sailfishes, -_Istiophoridæ_, having the upper jaw prolonged into a sword made of -consolidated bones. The teeth are very feeble and the ventral fins -reduced to two or three rays. The species are few in number, of large -size, and very brilliant metallic coloration, inhabiting the warm seas, -moving northward in summer. They are excellent as food, similar to the -swordfish in this as in many other respects. The species are not well -known, being too large for museum purposes, and no one having critically -studied them in the field. _Istiophorus_ has the dorsal fin very high, -like a great sail, and undivided; _Istiophorus nigricans_ is rather -common about the Florida Keys, where it reaches a length of six feet. -Its great sail, blue with black spots, is a very striking object. -Closely related to this is _Istiophorus orientalis_ of Japan and other -less known species of the East Indies. - -_Tetrapturus_, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided into -two parts. Its species are taken in most warm seas, _Tetrapturus -imperator_ throughout the Atlantic, _Tetrapturus amplus_ in Cuba, -_Tetrapturus mitsukurii_ and _Tetrapturus mazara_ in Japan. These much -resemble swordfish in form and habits, and they have been known to -strike boats in the same way. - -Fossil _Istiophoridæ_ are known only from fragments of the snout, in -Europe and America, referred provisionally to _Istiophorus_. The genus -_Xiphiorhynchus_, fossil swordfishes from the Eocene, known from the -skull only, may be referred to this family, as minute teeth are present -in the jaws. _Xiphiorhynchus priscus_ is found in the London Eocene. - -=The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.=—The family of swordfishes, _Xiphiidæ_, -consists of a single species, _Xiphias gladius_, of worldwide -distribution in the warm seas. The snout in the swordfish is still -longer, more perfectly consolidated, and a still more effective weapon -of attack. The teeth are wholly wanting, and there are no ventral fins, -while the second of the two fins on the back is reduced to a slight -finlet. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 211.—Young Swordfish, _Xiphias gladius_ (Linnæus). (After - Lütken.) -] - -The swordfish follows the schools of mackerel to the New England coasts. -"Where you see swordfish, you may know that mackerel are about," Goode -quotes from an old fisherman. The swordfish swims near the surface, -allowing its dorsal fin to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal. -It often leaps out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea -can swim more swiftly. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 212.—Swordfish, _Xiphias gladius_ (Linnæus). (After Day.) -] - -"The pointed head," says Goode, "the fins of the back and abdomen snugly -fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals, the long, lithe, muscular -body, sloping slowly to the tail, fit it for the most rapid and forcible -movement through the water. Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England -court in regard to its power, said: - -"'It strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed -hammers. Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot, and is as -dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile.' - -"Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters of this -fish with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships. What can be the -inducement for it to attack objects so much larger than itself it is -hard to surmise. - -"It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes possession -of the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned, it should retaliate -by attacking its assailant. An old swordfish fisherman told Mr. -Blackford that his vessel had been struck twenty times. There are, -however, many instances of entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at -sea. Many of these are recounted in a later portion of this memoir. -Their movements when feeding are discussed below, as well as their -alleged peculiarities of movement during the breeding season. - -"It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two are never seen -swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says that they are always distant -from each other at least thirty or forty feet. - -"The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword. Without any special -effort on my part numerous instances of their attacks upon vessels have -in the last ten years found their way into the pigeon-hole labeled -'Swordfish.'" - -Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic wherever mackerel -run. They do not breed on our shores, but probably do so in the -Mediterranean and other warm seas. They are rare off the California -coast, but five records existing (Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa -Catalina, San Diego, off Cerros Island). The writer has seen two large -individuals in the market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in -Japan. As a food-fish, the swordfish is one of the best, its -dark-colored oily flesh, though a little coarse, making most excellent -steaks. Its average weight on our coast is about 300 pounds, the maximum -625. - -The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of development, the -very young having the head armed with rough spines and in nowise -resembling the adult. - -Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be distinguished from -remains of _Istiophoridæ_. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII - CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS - - -=THE Pampanos: Carangidæ.=—We next take up the great family of Pampanos, -_Carangidæ_, distinguished from the _Scombridæ_ as a whole by the -shorter, deeper body, the fewer and larger vertebræ, and by the loss of -the provision for swift movement in the open sea characteristic of the -mackerels and their immediate allies. A simple mark of the _Carangidæ_ -is the presence of two separate spines in front of the anal fin. These -spines are joined to the fin in the young. All of the species undergo -considerable changes with age, and almost all are silvery in color with -metallic blue on the back. - -Most like the true mackerel are the "leather-jackets," or "runners," -forming the genera _Scomberoides_ and _Oligoplites_. _Scomberoides_ of -the Old World has the body scaly, long, slender, and fitted for swift -motion; _Scomberoides sancti-petri_ is a widely diffused species, and -others are found in Polynesia. In the New World genus _Oligoplites_ the -scales are reduced to linear ridges imbedded in the skin at different -angles. _Oligoplites saurus_ is a common dry and bony fish abounding in -the West Indies and ranging north in summer to Cape Cod. - -_Naucrates ductor_, the pilot-fish, or romero, inhabits the open sea, -being taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the West Indies, Hawaii, and -Japan. It is marked by six black cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and -it reaches a length of about two feet. In its development it undergoes -considerable change, its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to -disconnected spines. - -The amber-fishes, forming the genus _Seriola_, are rather robust fishes, -with the anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal. The sides of the -tail have a low, smooth keel. From a yellow streak obliquely across the -head in some species they receive their Spanish name of coronado. The -species are numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food, -and range in length from two to six feet. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 213.—Pilot-fish, _Naucrates ductor_ (Linnæus). New Bedford, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 214.—Amber-fish, _Seriola lalandi_ (Cuv. & Val.). Family - _Carangidæ_. Wood's Hole. -] - -_Seriola dorsalis_ is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued by -anglers for its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Barbara Islands in -early summer. _Seriola zonata_ is the rudder-fish, or shark's pilot, -common on our New England coast. The banded young, abundant off Cape -Cod, lose their marks with age. _Seriola hippos_ is the "samson-fish" of -Australia. _Seriola lalandi_ is the great amber-fish of the West Indies, -occasionally venturing farther northward, and _Seriola dumerili_ the -amber-jack, or coronado, of the Mediterranean. The deep-bodied medregal -(_Seriola fasciata_) is also taken in the West Indies, as is also the -high-finned _Seriola rivoliana_. Species very similar to these occur in -Hawaii and Japan, where they are known as _Ao_, or bluefishes. _Seriola -lata_ is fossil in the mountains of Tuscany. - -The runner, _Elegatis bipinnulatus_, differs from _Seriola_ in having a -finlet behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost all warm seas, -ranging north once in a while to Long Island. - -The mackerel scads (_Decapterus_) have also a finlet, and on the -posterior part of the body the lateral line is shielded with bony -plates. In size and form these little fishes much resemble small -mackerel, and they are much valued as food wherever abundant. -_Decapterus punclatus_, known also as cigar-fish and round-robin, -frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the West Indies, where it is -abundant. _Decapterus russelli_ is the _Maruaji_, highly valued in Japan -for its abundance, while _Decapterus muroadsi_ is the Japanese muroaji. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 215.—The Saurel, _Trachurus trachurus_ (Linnæus). Newport, R. I. -] - -_Megalaspis cordyla_ abounds in the East Indies and Polynesia. It has -many finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral line are developed to -an extraordinary degree. - -In _Trachurus_ the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend the whole -length of the lateral line. The species known as saurel and wrongly -called horse-mackerel are closely related and some of them very widely -distributed. - -_Trachurus trachurus_ common in Europe, extends to Japan where it is the -abundant maaji. _Trachurus mediterraneus_ is common in southern Europe -and _Trachurus symmetricus_ in California. _Trachurus picturatus_ of -Madeira is much the same as the last named, and there is much question -as to the right names and proper limits of all these species. - -In _Trachurops_ the bony plates are lacking on the anterior half of the -body, and there is a peculiar nick and projection on the lower part of -the anterior edge of the shoulder-girdle. _Trachurops crumenophthalma_, -the goggler, or big-eyed scad, ranges widely in the open sea and at -Hawaii, as the _Akule_, is the most highly valued because most abundant -of the migratory fishes. At Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being -here _Atule_. _Trachurops torva_ is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of the -Japanese, always abundant. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 216.—Yellow Mackerel, _Carangus chrysos_ (Mitchill). Wood's Hole. -] - -To _Caranx_, _Carangus_, and a number of related genera, characterized -by the bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a host of species -may be referred. These fishes, known as cavallas, hard-tails, jacks, -etc., are broad-bodied, silvery or metallic black in color, and are -found in all warm seas. They usually move from the tropics northward in -the fall in search of food and are especially abundant on our Atlantic -coast, in Polynesia, and in Japan. About the Oceanic Islands they are -resident, these being their chosen spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa -they form a large part of the food-supply, the ulua (_Carangus -forsteri_) and the malauli (_Carangus melampygus_) being among the most -valuable food-fishes, large in size and excellent in flesh, unsurpassed -in fish chowders. Of the American species _Carangus chrysos_, called -yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging from Cape Cod southward. -This is an elongate species of moderate size. The cavalla, or jiguagua, -_Carangus hippos_, known by the black spot on the opercle, with another -on the pectoral fin, is a widely distributed species and one of the -largest of the tribe. Another important food-fish is the horse-eye-jack, -or jurel, _Carangus latus_, which is very similar to the species called -ulua in the Pacific. The black jack, or tiñosa, of Cuba, _Carangus -funebris_, is said to be often poisonous. This is a very large species, -black in color, the sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets -of Havana. The young of different species of _Carangus_ are often found -taking refuge under the disk of jelly-fishes protected by the stinging -feelers. The species of the genus _Carangus_ have well-developed teeth. -In the restricted genus of _Caranx_ proper, the jaws are toothless. -_Caranx speciosus_, golden with dark cross-bands, is a large food-fish -of the Pacific. _Citula armata_ is another widely distributed species, -with some of the dorsal rays produced in long filaments. - -In _Alectis ciliaris_, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the armature of -the tail is very slight and each fin has some of its rays drawn out into -long threads. In the young these are very much longer than the body, but -with age they wear off and grow shorter, while the body becomes more -elongate. In _Vomer_, _Selene_, and _Chloroscombrus_ the bony armature -of the tail, feeble in _Alectis_, by degrees entirely disappears. - -_Vomer setipinnis_, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has the body -greatly elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the fins, growing -shorter with age, become finally very low. _Selene vomer_, the -horse-head-fish, or look-down (see Fig. 113, Vol. I), is similarly but -even more distorted. The fins, filamentous in the young, grow shorter -with age, as in _Vomer_ and _Alectis_. The skeleton in these fishes is -essentially like that of _Carangus_, the only difference lying in the -compression and distortion of the bones. _Chloroscombrus_ contains the -casabes, or bumpers, thin, dry, compressed fish, of little value as -food, the bony armature of the tail being wholly lost. - -To the genus _Trachinotus_ belong the pampanos, broad-bodied, silvery -fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered with small scales and -with no bony plates. - -The true pampano, _Trachinotus carolinus_, is one of the finest of all -food-fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and to be cooked in the -same way, only by broiling. The flesh is white, firm, and flaky, with a -moderate amount of delicate oil. It has no especial interest to the -angler and it is not abundant enough to be of great commercial -importance, yet few fish bring or deserve to bring higher prices in the -markets of the epicures. The species is most common along our Gulf -coast, ranging northward along the Carolinas as far as Cape Cod. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 217.—The Pampano, _Trachinotus carolinus_ (Linnæus). Wood's Hole. -] - -Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the broad body of -the fish. The spelling "pompano" should therefore be discouraged. - -The other pampanos, of which there are several in tropical America and -Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and relatively -flavorless. _Trachinotus palometa_, the gaff-topsail pampano, has very -high fins and its sides have four black bands like the marks of a grill. -The round pampano, _Trachinotus falcatus_, is common southward, as is -also the great pampano, _Trachinotus goodei_, which reaches a length of -three feet. _Trachinotus ovatus_, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common -in Polynesia and the East Indies. No pampanos are found in Europe, but a -related genus, _Lichia_, contains species which much resemble them, but -in which the body is more elongate and the mouth larger. - -Numerous fossils are referred to the _Carangidæ_ with more or less -certainty. _Aipichthys pretiosus_ and other species occur in the -Cretaceous. These are deep-bodied fishes resembling _Seriola_, having -the falcate dorsal twice as long as the anal and the ventral ridge with -thickened scales. _Vomeropsis_ (_longispina elongata_, etc.), also from -the Eocene, with rounded caudal, the anterior dorsal rays greatly -elongate, and the supraoccipital crest highly developed, probably -constitutes with it a distinct family, _Vomeropsidæ_. Several species -referable to _Carangus_ are found in the Miocene. _Archæus glarisianus_, -resembling _Carangus_, but without scales so far as known, is found in -the Oligocene of Glarus; _Seriola prisca_ and other species of _Seriola_ -occur in the Eocene; _Carangopsis brevis_, etc., allied to _Caranx_, but -with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene of France and -Italy. - -_Ductor leptosomus_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca resembles -_Naucrates_; _Trachinotus tenuiceps_ is recorded from Monte Bolca, and a -species of uncertain relationship, called _Pseudovomer minutus_, with -sixteen caudal vertebræ is taken from the Miocene of Licata. - -=The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.=—Very close to the _Carangidæ_, and -especially to the genus _Seriola_, is the small family of -_Nematistiidæ_, containing the papagallo, _Nematistius pectoralis_ of -the west coast of Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has the general -appearance of an amber-fish, but the dorsal spines are produced in long -filaments. The chief character of the family is found in the excessive -division of the rays of the pectoral fins. - -=The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.=—Allied to the _Carangidæ_ is the -family of bluefishes (_Cheilodipteridæ_, or _Pomatomidæ_). The single -species _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_, or _Pomatomus saltatrix_, known as -the bluefish, is a large, swift, extremely voracious fish, common -throughout most of the warmer parts of the Atlantic, but very -irregularly distributed on the various coasts. Its distribution is -doubtless related to its food. It is more abundant on our Eastern coast -than anywhere else, and its chief food here is the menhaden. The -bluefish differs from the _Carangidæ_ mainly in its larger scales, and -in a slight serration of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender and -easily torn. As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few -superiors. Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but most -of those taken are much smaller. It is one of the most voracious of all -fish. Concerning this, Professor Baird observes: - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 218.—Bluefish, _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_ (L.). New York. -] - -"There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the bluefish among -the marine species on our coast, whatever may be the case among some of -the carnivorous fish of the South American waters. The bluefish has been -well likened to an animated chopping-machine the business of which is to -cut to pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a given -space of time. All writers are unanimous in regard to the -destructiveness of the bluefish. Going in large schools in pursuit of -fish not much inferior to themselves in size, they move along like a -pack of hungry wolves, destroying everything before them. Their trail is -marked by fragments of fish and by the stain of blood in the sea, as, -where the fish is too large to be swallowed entire, the hinder portion -will be bitten off and the anterior part allowed to float away or sink. -It is even maintained with great earnestness that such is the gluttony -of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the contents are -disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that it kills many more -fish than it requires for its own support. - -"The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this function of -destruction, and although they occasionally devour crabs, worms, etc., -the bulk of their sustenance throughout the greater part of the year is -derived from other fish. Nothing is more common than to find a small -bluefish of six or eight inches in length under a school of minnows -making continual dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the -bluefish of all sizes, with rare exceptions, are found loaded with the -other fish, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty, either entire or -in fragments. - -"As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that it is not -merely the small fry that are thus devoured, and which it is expected -will fall a prey to other animals, but that the food of the bluefish -consists very largely of individuals which have already passed a large -percentage of the chances against their reaching maturity, many of them, -indeed, having arrived at the period of spawning. To make the case more -clear, let us realize for a moment the number of bluefish that exist on -our coast in the summer season. As far as I can ascertain by the -statistics obtained at the fishing-stations on the New England coast, as -also from the records of the New York markets, kindly furnished by -Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton Market, the capture of bluefish from -New Jersey to Monomoy during the season amounts to no less than one -million individuals, averaging five or six pounds each. Those, however, -who have seen the bluefish in his native waters and realized the immense -numbers there existing will be quite willing to admit that probably not -one fish in a thousand is ever taken by man. If, therefore, we have an -actual capture of one million, we may allow one thousand millions as -occurring in the extent of our coasts referred to, even neglecting the -smaller ones, which, perhaps, should also be taken into account. - -"An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not excessive, -according to the testimony elicited from the fishermen and substantiated -by the stomachs of those examined; this gives ten thousand millions of -fish destroyed per day. And as the period of the stay of the bluefish on -the New England coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have -in round numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured in the -course of a season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging five pounds, -devours or destroys even half its own weight of other fish per day (and -I am not sure that the estimate of some witnesses of twice this weight -is not more nearly correct), we will have, during the same period, a -daily loss of twenty-five hundred million pounds, equal to three hundred -thousand millions for the season. - -"This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at least three -to five pounds in weight. We must, however, allow for those of smaller -size, and a hundred-fold or more in number, all engaged simultaneously -in the butchery referred to. - -"We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however much we may -diminish, within reason, the estimate of the number of bluefish and the -average of their capture, there still remains an appalling aggregate of -destruction. While the smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry, -those of which we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of -them, if not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or two -years of that period. - -"It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn deposited by -any fish at a given time not more than 30 per cent. are hatched, and -that less than 10 per cent. attain an age when they are able to take -care of themselves. As their age increases the chances of reaching -maturity become greater and greater. It is among the small residuum of -this class that the agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever -reasonable reduction may be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that -they exert a material influence. - -"The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of the immense -amount of food they must consume. The young fish which first appear -along the shores of Vineyard Sound, about the middle of August, are -about five inches in length. By the beginning of September, however, -they have reached six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the -second year they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this they -increase in a still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes eastward from -Vineyard Sound in the spring weighing five pounds is represented, -according to the general impression, by the ten to fifteen-pound fish of -the autumn. If this be the fact, the fish of three or four pounds which -pass along the coast of North Carolina in March return to it in October -weighing ten to fifteen pounds. - -"As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the other -inhabitants of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher; and it is able -to contend successfully with any other species not superior to itself in -size. It is not known whether an entire school ever unite in an attack -upon a particular object of prey, as is said to be the case with the -ferocious fishes of the South American rivers; should they do so, no -animal, however large, could withstand their onslaught. - -"They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish of all -kinds, but perhaps more especially the menhaden, which they seem to -follow along the coast, and which they attack with such ferocity as to -drive them on the shore, where they are sometimes piled up in windrows -to the depth of a foot or more." - -=The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.=—The _Rachycentridæ_, or -sergeant-fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes, with -large mouths and small teeth, ranging northward from the warm seas. The -dorsal spines are short and stout, separate from the fin, and the body -is almost cylindrical, somewhat like that of the pike. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 219.—Sergeant-fish, _Rachycentron canadum_ (Linnæus). Virginia. -] - -_Rachycentron canadum_, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or -sergeant-fish, reaches a length of about five feet. The last name is -supposed to allude to the black stripe along its side, like the stripe -on a sergeant's trousers. It is rather common in summer along our -Atlantic coast as far as Cape Cod, especially in Chesapeake Bay. -_Rachycentron pondicerrianum_, equally voracious, extends its summer -depredations as far as Japan. The more familiar name for these fishes, -_Elacate_, is of later date than _Rachycentron_. - -Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish: - -"In shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern pike, with a -similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is dark green on the back, -growing lighter on the sides, but the distinguishing characteristic is a -broad, dark collar over the neck, from which two black stripes or -straps, parting on the shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail. -He looks as if harnessed with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a -fly-rod is that of a wild horse. The first one that I struck, in the -brackish water of Hillsborough River at Tampa, gave me a hitherto -unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was not unfamiliar, but when the -fierce fellow took the top of the water and went along lashing it with -his tail, swift as a bullet, then descended, and with a short, sharp, -electric shock left the line to come home free, I was for an instant -confounded. It was all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that I -struck after this behaved in the same way, and after I had got 'the hang -of them' I took a great many." - -=The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.=—The butter-fishes (_Stromateidæ_) form -a large group of small fishes with short, compressed bodies, smooth -scales, feeble spines, the vertebræ in increased number and especially -characterized by the presence of a series of tooth-like processes in the -œsophagus behind the pharyngeals. The ventral fins present in the young -are often lost in the process of development. - -According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely attached to -the shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera _Platycormus_ and -_Homosoma_. This is perhaps a primitive feature, indicating the line of -descent of these fishes from berycoid forms. - -We unite with the _Stromateidæ_ the groups or families of -_Centrolophidæ_ and _Nomeidæ_, knowing no characters by which to -separate them. - -_Stromateus fiatola_, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an -excellent food-fish of the Mediterranean. _Poronotus triacanthus_, the -harvest-fish, or dollar-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a common little -silvery fish six to ten inches, as bright and almost as round as a -dollar. Its tender oily flesh has an excellent flavor. Very similar to -it is the poppy-fish (_Palometa simillima_) of the sandy shores of -California, miscalled the "California pampano," valued by the San -Francisco epicure, who pays large prices for it supposing it to be -pampano, although admitting that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer -flesh and better flavor. The harvest-fish, _Peprilus paru_, frequently -taken on our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins. -_Stromateoides argenteus_, a much larger fish than any of these, is a -very important species on the coasts of China. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 220.—Harvest-fish, _Peprilus paru_ (Linnæus). Virginia. -] - -_Psenopsis anomala_ takes the place of our butter-fishes in Japan, and -much resembles them in appearance as in flavor. - -To the _Stromateidæ_ we also refer the black ruff of Europe, -_Centrolophus niger_, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying to -our coast. Allied to it is the black rudder-fish, _Palinurichthys -perciformis_, common on the Massachusetts coast, where it is of some -value as a food-fish. A specimen in a live-box once drifted to the coast -of Cornwall, where it was taken uninjured, though doubtless hungry. -Other species of ruff-and rudder-fish are recorded from various coasts. - -Allied to the _Stromateidæ_ are numerous fossil forms. _Omosoma -sachelalmæ_ and other species occur in the Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. -_Platycormus germanus_, with ctenoid scales resembling a berycoid, but -with the ventral rays I, 5, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely -related to this is _Berycopsis elegans_, with smoother scales, from the -English Chalk. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 221.—Portuguese Man-of-war Fish, _Gobiomorus gronovii_. Family - _Stromateidæ_. -] - -_Gobiomorus gronovii_ (usually called _Nomeus gronovii_), the Portuguese -man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three inches long, common -in the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf Stream, where it hides from its -enemies among the poisoned tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war. Under -the Portuguese man-of-war and also in or under large jelly-fishes -several other species are found, notably _Carangus medusicola_ and -_Peprilus paru_. Many small species of _Psenes_, a related genus, also -abound in the warm currents from tropical seas. - -=The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.=—Allied to the butter-fishes are the -deep-water _Icosteidæ_, fishes of soft, limp bodies as unresistant as a -wet rag, _Icosteus ænigmaticus_ of the California coast being known as -ragfish. _Schedophilus medusophagus_ feeds on medusæ and salpa, living -on the surface in the deep seas. Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a specimen -taken in Ireland: - -"It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within twenty-four -hours after its capture the skin of the belly and the intestines fell -off when it was lifted, and it felt in the hand quite soft and -boneless." A related species (_S. heathi_) has been lately taken by Dr. -Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in California. - -The family of _Acrotidæ_ contains a single species of large size. -_Acrotus willoughbyi_, allied to _Icosteus_, but without ventral fins -and with the vertebræ very numerous. The type, five and one-quarter feet -long, was thrown by a storm on the coast of Washington, near the -Quinnault agency. - -The family of _Zaproridæ_ contains also a single large species, _Zaprora -silenus_, without ventrals, but scaly and firm in substance. One -specimen 2½ feet long was taken at Nanaimo on Vancouver Island and a -smaller one at Victoria. - -=The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.=—The _Bramidæ_ are broad-bodied fishes of the -open seas, covered with firm adherent scales. The flesh is firm and the -skeleton heavy, the hypercoracoid especially much dilated. Of the -various species the pomfret, or black bream (_Brama raii_), is the best -known and most widely diffused. It reaches a length of two to four feet -and is sooty black in color. It is not rare in Europe and has been -occasionally taken at Grand Bank off Newfoundland, at the Bermudas, off -the coast of Washington, on Santa Catalina Island, and in Japan. It is -an excellent food-fish, but is seldom seen unless driven ashore by -storms. - -_Steinegeria rubescens_ of the Gulf of Mexico is a little-known deep-sea -fish allied to _Brama_, but placed by Jordan and Evermann in a distinct -family, _Steinegeriidæ_. - -Closely related to the _Bramidæ_ is the small family of _Pteraclidæ_, -silvery fishes with large firm scales, living near the surface in the -ocean currents. In these fishes the ventral fins are placed well -forward, fairly to be called jugular, and the rays of the dorsal and -anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are excessively prolonged. The -species, none of them well known, are referred to four genera— -_Pteraclis_, _Bentenia_, _Centropholis_, and _Velifer_. They are -occasionally taken in ocean currents, chiefly about Japan and Madeira. - -Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the _Bramidæ_ are recorded -from the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are _Acanthonemus_, and perhaps -_Pseudovomer_. - -=The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.=—The dolphins, or dorados (_Coryphænidæ_), -are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, compressed bodies, elevated -heads, sharp like the cut-water of a boat, and with the caudal fin very -strong. The long dorsal fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is -without spines. The high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is -developed only in the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as -food. Its colors, golden-blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at -death, though the extent of this change has been much exaggerated. -Similar changes of color occur at death in most bright-colored fishes, -especially in those with thin scales. The common dolphin, or dorado -(_Coryphæna hippurus_), is found in all warm seas swimming near the -surface, as usual in predatory fishes, and reaches a length of about six -feet. The small dolphin, _Coryphæna equisetis_, rarely exceeds 2½ feet, -and is much more rare than the preceding, from which the smaller number -of dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young dolphins -of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the head not -elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very different from that of the -adult. _Goniognathus coryphænoides_ is an extinct dolphin of the Eocene. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 222.—Dolphin or Dorado, _Coryphæna hippurus_ Linnæus. New York. -] - -The name dolphin, belonging properly to a group of small whales or -porpoises, the genus _Delphinus_, has been unfortunately used in -connection with this very different animal, which bears no resemblance -to the mammal of the same name. - -Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these occur in the -warm seas. The _Leiognathidæ_ are small, silvery fishes of the East -Indies. _Leiognathus argentatus_ (_Equula_) is very common in the bays -of Japan, a small silvery fish of moderate value as food. _Gazza -minuta_, similar, with strong teeth, abounds farther south. _Leiognathus -fasciatum_ is common in Polynesia. A fossil species called _Parequula -albyi_ occurs in the Miocene of Licata. - -The _Kurtidæ_ are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian seas, with -some of the ribs immovably fixed between rings formed by the ossified -cover of the air-bladder and with the hypocoracoid obsolete. _Kurtus -indicus_ is the principal species. - -=The Menidæ.=—Near the _Kurtidæ_ we may perhaps place the family of -_Menidæ_, of one species, _Mene maculata_, the moonfish of the open seas -of the East Indies and Japan. This is a small fish, about a foot long, -with the body very closely compressed, the fins low and the belly, -through the extension of the pelvic bone, a good deal more prominent -than the back. The ventral fins have the usual number of one spine and -five soft rays, a character which separates _Mene_ widely from -_Lampris_, which in some ways seems allied to it. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 223.—_Mene maculata_ (Bloch & Schneider). Family Menidæ. Japan. -] - -Another species of _Menidæ_ is the extinct _Gasteronemus rhombeus_ of -the Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same form, with long pubic -bones. The very long ventral fins are, however, made of one spine and -one or two rays. A second species, _Gasteronemus oblongus_, is recorded -from the same rocks. - -=The Pempheridæ.=—The _Pempheridæ_, "deep-water catalufas," or "magifi," -are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in color, with very short -dorsal, containing a few graduated spines, and with a very long anal -fin. These inhabit tropical seas at moderate depths. _Pempheris_ bears a -superficial resemblance to _Beryx_, but, according to Starks, this -resemblance is not borne out by the anatomy. _Pempheris mulleri_ and _P. -poeyi_ are found in the West Indies. _Pempheris otaitensis_ and _P. -mangula_ range through Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 224.—_Gasteronemus rhombeus_ Agassiz. (After Woodward.) Menidæ. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 225.—Catalufa de lo Alto, _Pempheris mulleri_ Poey. Havana. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 226.—_Pempheris nyctereutes_ Jordan & Evermann. Giran, Formosa. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 227.—The Louvar, _Luvarus imperialis_ Rafinesque. Family - Luvaridæ. (After Day.) -] - -Very close to the _Pempheridæ_ is the small family of _Bathyclupeidæ_. -These are herring-like fishes, much compressed and with a duct to the -air-bladder. There are but one or two dorsal spines. The ventrals are of -one spine and five rays as in perch-like fishes, but placed behind the -pectoral fins. This feature, due to the shortening of the belly, is -regarded by Alcock, the discoverer, as a result of degeneration, and the -family was placed by him among the herrings. The persistent air-duct -excludes it from the _Percesoces_, the normally formed ventrals from the -_Berycoidei_. If we trust the indications of the skeleton, we must place -the family with _Pempheris_, near the scombroid fishes. - -=Luvaridæ.=—Another singular family is the group of _Louvars_, -_Luvaridæ_. _Luvaris imperialis._ The single known species is a large, -plump, voracious fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all unbranched, and -the scales scurf-life over the smooth skin. It is frequently taken in -the Mediterranean, and was found on the island of Santa Catalina, -California, by Mr. C. F. Holden. - -=The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.=—The _Tetragonuridæ_ are long-bodied -fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered with hard, firm, very -adherent scales. _Tetragonurus cuvieri_, the single species, called -square-tail, or escolar de natura, is a curious fish, looking as if -whittled out of wood, covered with a compact armor of bony scales, and -swimming very slowly in deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic -and Mediterranean and has been once taken at Wood's Hole in -Massachusetts. According to Mr. C. T. Regan the relations of this -eccentric fish are with the _Stromateidæ_ and _Bramidæ_, the skeleton -being essentially that of _Stromateus_, and Boulenger places both -_Tetragonurus_ and _Stromateus_ among the _Percesoces_. - -=The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.=—The family of _Lophotidæ_ consists -of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped, naked, with the dorsal -of flexible spines beginning as a high crest on the elevated occiput. -The first spine is very strong. The ventrals are thoracic with the -normal number, I, 5, of fin-rays. _Lophotes cepedianus_, the crested -bandfish, is occasionally taken in the Mediterranean in rather deep -water. _Lophotes capellei_ is rarely taken in the deep waters of Japan. - -It is thought that the _Lophotidæ_ may be related to the ribbon-fishes, -_Tæniosomi_, but on the whole they seem nearer to the highly modified -_Scombroidei_, the _Pteraclidæ_ for example. - -In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the _Bramidæ_ to the -_Antigoniidæ_ and the _Ilarchidæ_, then passing over the series which -leads through _Chætodontidæ_ and _Teuthidæ_ to the _Plectognaths_. It -is, however, necessary to include here, alongside the mackerels, though -not closely related to them, the parallel series of perch-like fishes, -which at the end become also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant -forms, with other series of which the origin and relations are -imperfectly understood. As the relations of forms cannot be expressed in -a linear series, many pages must intervene before we can take up the -supposed line of development from the Scombroid fishes to those called -_Squamipinnes_. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII - PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES - - -=PERCOID Fishes.=—We may now take up the long series of the _Percoidea_, -the fishes built on the type of the perch or bass. This is a group of -fishes of diverse habits and forms, but on the whole representing better -than any other the typical _Acanthopterygian_ fish. The group is -incapable of concise definition, or, in general, of any definition at -all; still, most of its members are definitely related to each other and -bear in one way or another a resemblance to the typical form, the perch, -or more strictly to its marine relatives, the sea-bass, or _Serranidæ_. -The following analysis gives most of the common characters of the group: - -Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are typically ctenoid, -not smooth nor spinous, and of moderate size. Lateral line typically -present and concurrent with the back. Head usually compressed laterally -and with the cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal -and with lateral cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed, -arranged in bands on the jaws, and in several families on the vomer and -palatine bones also, as well as on the pharyngeals; gill-rakers usually -sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but sometimes short or feeble; lower -pharyngeals almost always separate, usually armed with cardiform teeth; -third upper pharyngeal moderately enlarged, elongate, not articulated to -the cranium, the fourth typically present; gills four, a slit behind the -fourth; gill membranes free from the isthmus, and usually not connected -with each other; pseudobranchiæ typically well developed. -Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No bony stay connecting the -suborbital chain to the preopercle. Opercular bones all well developed, -normal in position; the preopercle typically serrate. No cranial spines. -Dorsal fin variously developed, but always with some spines in front, -these typically stiff and pungent; anal fin typically short, usually -with three spines, sometimes with a larger number, rarely with none; -caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral fins well developed, -inserted high; ventral fins always present, thoracic, separate, almost -always with one spine and five rays, the _Aphredoderidæ_ having more, a -few _Serranidæ_ having fewer. Air-bladder usually present, without -air-duct in adult; simple and generally adherent to the walls of the -abdomen. Stomach cæcal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in -most species, long in the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well -developed, none of the vertebræ especially modified, the number 10 + 14 -= 24, except in certain extratropical and fresh-water forms, which -retain primitive higher numbers. Shoulder-girdle normally developed, the -post-temporal bifurcate attached to the skull, but not coossified with -it; none of the epipleural bones attached to the center of the vertebræ; -coracoids normal, the hypercoracoid always with a median foramen, the -basal bones of the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials) normally -developed, three or four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer than -broad; premaxillary forming the border of the mouth usually protractile; -bones of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting. - -The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently some of those of -the fresh waters. Among these the process of evolution has been less -rapid. In some groups, as the _Percidæ_, the great variability of -species is doubtless due to the recent origin, the characters not being -well fixed. - -=The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.=—Among the most remarkable of the -living percoid fishes and probably the most primitive of all, showing -affinities with the _Salmopercæ_, is the pirate-perch, _Aphredoderus -sayanus_, a little fish of the lowland streams of the Mississippi -Valley. The family of _Aphredoderidæ_ agrees with the berycoid fishes in -scales and structure of the fins, and Boulenger places it with the -Berycidæ. Starks has shown, however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid, -and the general osteology is that of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal -and anal have a few spines. The thoracic ventrals have one spine and -eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably no duct to the -air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the position of the vent. In -the adult this is in front of the ventral fins, at the throat. In the -young it is behind the ventral fins as in ordinary fishes. With age it -moves forward by the prolongation of the horizontal part of the -intestine or rectum. The same peculiar position of the vent is found in -the berycoid genus _Paratrachichthys_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 228.—Pirate Perch, _Aphredoderus sayanus_ (Gilliams). Illinois - River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 229.—Everglade Pigmy Perch, _Elassoma evergladei_ Jordan. - Everglades of Florida. -] - -In the family _Aphredoderidæ_ but one species is known, _Aphredoderus -sayanus_, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length of five inches and lives -in sluggish lowland streams with muddy bottom from New Jersey and -Minnesota to Louisiana. It is dull green in color and feeds on insects -and worms. It has no economic value, although extremely interesting in -its anatomy and relationship. - -Whether the _Asineopidæ_, fresh-water fishes of the American Eocene, and -the _Erismatopteridæ_, of the same deposits (see page 235) are related -to _Aphredoderus_ or to _Percopsis_ is still uncertain. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 230.—Skull of the Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_. -] - -=The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.=—One of the most primitive groups is -that of _Elassomidæ_, or pigmy sunfishes. These are very small fishes, -less than two inches long, living in the swamps of the South, resembling -the sunfishes, but with the number of dorsal spines reduced to from -three to five. _Elassoma zonatum_ occurs from southern Illinois to -Louisiana. _Elassoma evergladei_ abounds in the Everglades of Florida. -In both the body is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green -crossed by black bars or blotches. - -=The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.=—The large family of _Centrarchidæ_, or -sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of the eastern -United States, where the various species are inordinately abundant. The -body is relatively short and deep, and the axis passes through the -middle so that the back has much the same outline as the belly. The -pseudobranchiæ are imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the -head is feebly armed, the bones being usually without spines or -serratures. The colors are often brilliant, the sexes alike, and all are -carnivorous, voracious, and gamy, being excellent as food. The origin of -the group is probably Asiatic, the fresh-water serranoid of Japan, -_Bryttosus_, resembling in many ways an American sunfish, and the genus -_Kuhlia_ of the Pacific showing many homologies with the black bass, -_Micropterus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 231.—Crappie, _Pomoxis annularis_ Rafinesque. Ohio River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 232.—Crappie, _Pomoxis annularis_ (Raf.). (From life by Dr. R. W. - Shufeldt.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 233.—Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_ (Rafinesque.) Ecorse, - Mich. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 234.—Banded Sunfish, _Mesogonistius chætodon_ (Baird). Delaware - River. -] - -=Crappies and Rock Bass.=—_Pomoxis annularis_, the crappie, and _Pomoxis -sparoides_, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes, valued by the angler. -These are perhaps the most primitive of the family, and in these species -the anal fin is larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass, -_Centrarchus macropterus_, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps -and lowland ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish, -attractive in the aquarium. _Acantharchus pomotis_ is the mud-bass of -the Delaware, and _Archoplites interruptus_, the "perch" of the -Sacramento. The latter is a large and gamy fish, valued as food and -interesting as being the only fresh-water fish of the nature of perch or -bass native to the west of the Rocky Mountains. The numbers of this -species, according to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa, California, have been -greatly reduced by the introduction of the catfish (_Ameiurus -nebulosus_) into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young catfish, and -its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another species of -this type is the warmouth (_Chænobryttus gulosus_) of the ponds of the -South, and still more familiar rock-bass or redeye (_Ambloplites -rupestris_) of the more northern lakes and rivers valued as a game-and -food-fish. A very pretty aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish, -_Mesogonistius chætodon_, of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined -sunfish, _Enneacanthus gloriosus_, of the coast streams southward. -_Apomotis cyanellus_, the blue-green sunfish or little redeye, is very -widely distributed from Ohio westward, living in every brook. The -dissection of this species is given on page 26, Vol. I. To _Lepomis_ -belong numerous species having the opercle prolonged in a long flap -which is always black in color, often with a border of scarlet or blue. -The yellowbelly of the South (_Lepomis auritus_), ear-like the showily -colored long-eared sunfish (_Lepomis megalotis_) of the southwest, -figured on page 2, Vol. I, the bluegill (_Lepomis pallidus_), abundant -everywhere south and west of New York, are members of this genus. The -genus _Eupomotis_ differs in its larger pharyngeals, which are armed -with blunt teeth. The common sunfish, or pumpkinseed, _Eupomotis -gibbosus_, is the most familiar representative of the family, abounding -everywhere from Minnesota to New England, then south to Carolina on the -east slope of the Alleghanies, breeding everywhere in ponds and in the -eddies of the clear brooks. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 235.—Blue-Gill, _Lepomis pallidus_ (Mitchill). Potomac River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 236.—Long-eared Sunfish, _Lepomis megalotis_ (Rafinesque). From - Clear Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family _Centrarchidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 237.—Common Sunfish, _Eupomotis gibbosus_ (Linnæus). Root River, - Wis. -] - -=The Black Bass.=—The black bass (_Micropterus_) belong to the same -family as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more elongate form, -and more voracious habit. The two species are among the most important -of American game-fishes, abounding in all clear waters east of the -Alleghanies and resisting the evils of civilization far better than the -trout. - -The small-mouthed black bass, _Micropterus dolomieu_, is the most -valuable of the species. Its mouth, although large, is relatively small, -the cleft not extending beyond the eye. The green coloration is broken -in the young by bronze cross-bands. The species frequents only running -streams, preferring clear and cold waters, and it extends its range from -Canada as far to the southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James -A. Henshall, an accomplished angler, author of the "Book of the Black -Bass," says: "The black bass is eminently an American fish; he has the -faculty of asserting himself and of making himself completely at home -wherever placed. He is plucky, game, brave, unyielding to the last when -hooked. He has the arrowy rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring -strength and bold leap of a salmon, while he has a system of fighting -tactics peculiarly his own. I consider him inch for inch and pound for -pound the gamest fish that swims." - -In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: "No doubt the bass is the -appointed successor of the trout; not through heritage, nor selection, -nor by interloping, but by foreordination. Truly, it is sad to -contemplate, in the not distant future, the extinction of a beautiful -race of creatures, whose attributes have been sung by all the poets; but -we regard the inevitable with the same calm philosophy with which the -astronomer watches the burning out of a world, knowing that it will be -succeeded by a new creation. As we mark the soft varitinted flush of the -trout disappear in the eventide, behold the sparkle of the coming bass, -as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We hardly know which to admire -the most—the velvet livery and the charming graces of the departing -courtier, or the flash of the armor-plates of the advancing warrior. The -bass will unquestionably prove himself a worthy substitute for his -predecessor and a candidate for a full legacy of honors. - -"No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become as densely -settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects of the -crowded domain resemble the suburban surroundings of our Boston; when -every feature of the pastoral landscape shall wear the finished -appearance of European lands, and every verdant field be closely cropped -by lawn-mowers and guarded by hedges, and every purling stream which -meanders through it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled -trout from which the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to -catch at a dollar a pound (as we already have on Long Island), and all -the appurtenances and appointments of a genuine English trouting -privilege and a genuine English 'outing.' - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 238.—Small Mouth Black Bass, _Micropterus dolomieu_ Lacépède. -] - -"In those future days, not long hence to come, some venerable piscator, -in whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing, the brawling stream -which tumbled over the rocks in the tangled wildwood, and moistened the -arbutus and the bunchberries which garnished its banks, will totter -forth to the velvet edge of some peacefully flowing stream, and having -seated himself on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed -there by his careful attendant, cast right and left for the semblance of -sport long dead. - -"Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early morning -meal, and from the center of the boil which follows the fall of the -handfuls thrown in my piscator of the ancient days will hook a two-pound -trout, and play him hither and yon, from surface to bottom, without -disturbing the pampered gourmands which are gorging themselves upon the -disgusting viands; and when he has leisurely brought him to land at -last, and the gillie has scooped him with his landing-net, he will feel -in his capacious pocket for his last trade dollar, and giving his friend -the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay aside his rod forever." - -The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe and -California. There is little danger that it will work injury to the -trout, for the black bass prefers limestone streams, and the trout -rarely does well in waters which do not flow over granite rock or else -glacial gravel. - -The large-mouth black bass (_Micropterus salmoides_) is very much like -the other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in the adult cleft beyond -the eye; the scales are larger, and in the young there is always a broad -black stripe along the sides and no cross-bands. The two are found in -the same region, but almost never in the same waters, for the -large-mouth bass is a fish of the lakes, ponds, and bayous, always -avoiding the swift currents. The young like to hide among weeds or -beneath lily-pads. From its preference for sluggish waters, its range -extends farther to the southward, as far as the Mexican State of -Tamaulipas. - -_Plioplarchus_ is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene of South -Dakota and Oregon. _Plioplarchus sexspinosus_, _septemspinosus_, and -_whitei_ are imperfectly known species. - -=The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.=—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy, though more -like the white perch in appearance and habit, are the members of the -little family of _Kuhliidæ_. These are active silvery perches of the -tropical seas, ponds, and river-mouths, especially abundant in -Polynesia. _Kuhlia malo_ is the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery -fish living in great numbers in brackish waters. _Kuhlia rupestris_, the -salele of the Samoan rivers, is a large swift fish of the rock pools, in -form, color, and habits remarkably like the black bass. It is silvery -bronze in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green. The sesele, _Kuhlia -marginata_, lives with it in the rivers, but is less abundant. The -saboti, _Kuhlia tæniura_, a large silvery fish with cross-bands on the -caudal fin, lives about lava-rooks in Polynesia from the Galapagos to -Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers. Still other species -are found in the rock pools and streams of Japan and southward. - -The skeleton in _Kuhlia_ is essentially like that of the black bass, and -Dr. Boulenger places the genus with the _Centrarchidæ_. - -=The True Perches: Percidæ.=—The great family of _Percidæ_ includes -fresh-water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elongate in body, with -the vertebræ in increased number and with only two spines in the anal -fin. About ninety species are recorded, the vast majority being -American. The dwarf perches, called darters (_Etheostominæ_), are -especially characteristic of the clear streams to the eastward of the -plains of the Missouri. These constitute one of the greatest attractions -of our American river fauna. They differ from the perch and its European -allies in their small size, bright colors, and large fins, and more -technically in the rudimentary condition of the pseudobranchiæ and the -air-bladder, both of which organs are almost inappreciable. The -preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the branchiostegals is six. The -anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the _Gobiidæ_, to which group -the darters bear a considerable superficial resemblance, which, however, -indicates no real affinity. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 239.—Large-mouthed Black Bass, _Micropterus salmoides_ (Lac.). - (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -=Relations of Darters to Perches.=—The colors of the _Etheostominæ_, or -darters, are usually very brilliant, species of _Etheostoma_ especially -being among the most brilliantly colored fishes known; the sexual -differences are often great, the females being, as a rule, dull in color -and more speckled or barred than the males. Most of them prefer clear -running water, where they lie on the bottom concealed under stones, -darting, when frightened or hungry, with great velocity for a short -distance, by a powerful movement of the fan-shaped pectorals, then -stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the caudal fin in swimming, and -they are seldom seen floating or moving freely in the water like most -fishes. When at rest they support themselves on their expanded ventrals -and anal fin. All of them can turn the head from side to side, and they -frequently lie with the head in a curved position or partly on one side -of the body. The species of _Ammocrypta_, and perhaps some of the -others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge, the fish -buries itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for hours at a time -with only its eyes and snout visible. The others lurk in stony places, -under rocks and weeds. Although more than usually tenacious of vitality, -the darters, from their bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by -impurities in the water. All the darters are carnivorous, feeding -chiefly on the larvæ of _Diptera_, and in their way voracious. All are -of small size; the largest (_Percina rex_) reaches a length of ten -inches, while the smallest (_Microperca punctulata_) is, one of the -smallest spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of an -inch and a half. In Europe no _Etheostominæ_ are found, their place -being filled by the genera _Zingel_ and _Aspro_, which bear a strong -resemblance to the American forms, a resemblance which may be a clue to -the origin of the latter. - -=The Perches.=—The European perch, _Perca fluviatilis_, is placed by -Cuvier at the head of the fish series, as representing in a high degree -the traits of a fish without sign of incomplete development on the one -hand or of degradation on the other. Doubtless the increased number of -the vertebræ is the chief character which would lead us to call in -question this time-honored arrangement. Because, however, the perch has -a relatively degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied form, -the striped bass, as a fairer type of the perfected spiny-rayed fish. -Certainly the bass represents this type better than the perch. - -But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically perfect -fish, it is far from being one of the most highly specialized, for, as -we have seen in several cases, a high degree of specialization of a -particular structure is a first step toward its degradation. - -The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers. The yellow -perch of America (_Perca flavescens_) is very much like it, a little -brighter in color, olive and golden with dusky cross-bands. It frequents -quiet streams and ponds from Minnesota eastward, then southward east of -the Alleghanies. "As a still-pond fish," says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, -"if there is a fair supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but -the largest specimens come either from the river or from the inflowing -creeks. Deep water of the temperature of ordinary spring-water, with -some current and the bed of the stream at least partly covered with -vegetation, best suits this fish." The perch is a food-fish of moderate -quality. In spite of its beauty and gaminess, it is little sought for by -our anglers, and is much less valued with us than is the European perch -in England. But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that "before many years -the perch will have as many followers as the black bass among those who -fish for pleasure" in the region it inhabits. "A fish for the people it -is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from among the people who have -neither time nor patience for long trips nor complicated tackle who will -prove its steadfast friends." The boy values it, according to Thoreau. -When he returns from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as "real -fishes." "So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs, -which he counts, then throws away." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 240.—Yellow Perch, _Perca flavescens_ Mitchill. Potomac River. -] - -In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes, are -well developed. These structures recently investigated by Evelyn G. -Mitchill, form a fold of connective tissue just behind the premaxillary -and before the vomer. They are used in respiration, preventing the -forward flow of water as the mouth closes. - -Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the Miocene. - -Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and voracious, is -the group of pike perches, found in eastern America and Europe. The -wall-eye, or glass-eye (_Stizostedion vitreum_), is the largest of this -tribe, reaching a weight of ten to twenty pounds. It is found throughout -the region east of the Missouri in the large streams and ponds, an -excellent food-fish, with white, flaky flesh and in the north a game -fish of high rank. The common names refer to the large glassy eye, -concerning which Dr. Goode quotes from some "ardent admirer" these -words: "Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in form as the -salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale disturbed, every fin -perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big wall-eyes stand out with -that life-like glare so characteristic of the fish." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 241.—Sauger, _Stizostedion canadense_ (Smith). Ecorse, Mich. -] - -Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more translucent in color, -is the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and Northern rivers, -_Stizostedion canadense_. This fish rarely exceeds fifteen inches in -length, and as a food-fish it is of correspondingly less importance. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 242.—The Aspron, _Aspro asper_ (Linnæus). Rhone River. Family - _Percidæ_. (After Seelye.) -] - -The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, _Centropomus_ (or -_Sandrus_) _lucioperca_, is an excellent game-fish, similar to the -sauger, but larger, characterized technically by having the ventral fins -closer together. Another species, _Centropomus volgensis_, in Russia, -looks more like a perch than the other species do. _Sandroserrus_, a -fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene. Another European fish related -to the perch is the river ruff, or pope, _Acerina cernua_, which is a -small fish with the form of a perch and with conspicuous mucous cavities -in the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe and especially -abundant at the confluence of rivers. _Gymnocephalus schrætzer_ of the -Danube has the head still more cavernous. _Percarina demidoffi_ of -southern Russia is another dainty little fish of the general type of the -perch. A fossil genus of this type called _Smerdis_ is numerously -represented in the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, _Aspro asper_, -is a species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers, -especially the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired fins highly -developed. _Zingel zingel_ is found in the Danube, as is also a third -species called _Aspro streber_. In form and coloration these species -greatly resemble the American darters, and the genus _Zingel_ is, -perhaps, the ancestor of the entire group. _Zingel_ differs from -_Percina_ mainly in having seven instead of six branchiostegals and the -pseudobranchiæ better developed. The differences in these and other -regards which distinguish the darters are features of degradation, and -they are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To this fact we -may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic characters within the -group. Sharply defined genera occur where the intervening types are -lost. The darter is one of the very latest products in the evolution of -fishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 243.—The Zingel, _Zingel zingel_ (Linnæus). Danube River. (After - Seelye.) -] - -=The Darters: Etheostominæ.=—Of the darters, or etheostomine perches, -over fifty species are known, all confined to the streams of the region -bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colorado, and Nuevo Leon. All are small -fishes and some of them minute, and some are the most brilliantly -colored of all fresh-water fishes of any region, the most ornate -belonging to the large genus called _Etheostoma_. The largest species, -the most primitive because most like the perch, belong to the genus -_Percina_. - -First among the darters because largest in size, most perch-like in -structure, and least degenerate, we place the king darter, _Percina rex_ -of the Roanoke River in Virginia. This species reaches a length of six -inches, is handsomely colored, and looks like a young wall-eye. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 244.—Log-perch, _Percina caprodes_ (Rafinesque). Licking Co., - Ohio. -] - -The log-perch, _Percina caprodes_, is near to this, but a little -smaller, with the body surrounded by black rings alternately large and -small. In this widely distributed species, large enough to take the -hook, the air-bladder is present although small. In the smaller species -it vanishes by degrees, and in proportion as in their habits they cling -to the bottom of the stream. The air-bladder is least developed in those -species which cling closest to the bottom of the stream. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 245.—Black-sided Darter, _Hadropterus aspro_ (Cope & Jordan). - Chickamauga River. -] - -The genus _Hadropterus_ includes many handsome species, most of them -with a black lateral band widened at intervals. The black-sided darter, -_Hadropterus aspro_, is the best-known species and one of the most -elegant of all fishes, abounding in the clear gravelly streams of the -Ohio basin and northwestward. - -_Hadropterus evides_ of the Ohio region is still more brilliant, with -alternate bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most exquisite in -their arrangement. In the South, _Hadropterus nigrofasciatus_, the -crawl-a-bottom of the Georgia rivers, is a heavily built darter, which -Vaillant has considered the ancestral species of the group. Still more -swift in movement and bright in color are the species of _Hypohomus_, -which flash their showy hues in the sparkling brooks of the Ozark and -the Great Smoky Mountains. _Hypohomus aurantiacus_ is the best-known -species. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 246.—Green-sided Darter, _Diplesion blennioides_ Rafinesque. - Clinch River. Family _Percidæ_. -] - -_Diplesion blennioides_, the green-sided darter, is the type of numerous -species with short heads, large fins, and coloration of speckled green -and golden. It abounds in the streams of the Ohio Valley. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 247.—Tessellated Darter, _Boleosoma olmstedi_ (Storer). Potomac - River. -] - -The tessellated darters, _Boleosoma_, are the most plainly colored of -the group and among the smallest; yet in the delicacy, wariness, and -quaintness of motion they are among the most interesting, especially in -the aquarium. _Boleosoma_ _nigrum_, the Johnny darter in the West, and -_Boleosoma olmstedi_ in the East are among the commonest species, found -half hidden in the weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors, -although the male in the spring has the head, and often the whole body, -jet black. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 248.—Crystal Darter, _Crystallaria asprella_ (Jordan). Wabash - River. -] - -_Crystallaria asprella_, a large species almost transparent, is -occasionally taken in swift currents along the limestone banks of the -Mississippi. Still more transparent is the small sand-darter, -_Ammocrypta pellucida_, which lives in the clearest of waters, -concealing itself by plunging into the sand. Its scales are scantily -developed, as befits a fish that chooses this method of protection, and -in the related _Ammocrypta beani_ of the streams of the Louisiana -pine-woods, the body is almost naked, as also in _Ioa vitrea_, the -glassy darter of the pine-woods of North Carolina. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 249.—Sand-darter, _Ammocrypta clara_ (Jordan & Meek). Des Moines - River. -] - -In the other darters the body is more compressed, the movements less -active, the coloration even more brilliant in the males, which are far -more showy than their dull olivaceous mates. - -To _Etheostoma_ nearly half of the species belong, and they form indeed -a royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be noticed here, but all -of them are described in detail and many are figured by Jordan and -Evermann ("Fishes of North and Middle America," Vol. I). - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 250.—_Etheostoma jordani_ Gilbert. Chestnut Creek, Verbena, Ala. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 251.—Blue-breasted Darter, _Etheostoma camurum_ (Cope), the most - brilliantly colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn. -] - -Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted darter, -_Etheostoma camurum_, red-blue and olive, with red spots, like a trout. -This species lives in clear streams of the Ohio valley, a region perhaps -to be regarded as the center of abundance of these fishes. - -Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, _Etheostoma maculatum_, dusky -and red, with round crimson spots. _Etheostoma rufilineatum_ of the -French Broad is one of the most gaudy of fishes. _Etheostoma australe_ -of Chihuahua ranges farthest south of all the darters, and _Etheostoma -boreale_ of Quebec perhaps farthest north, though _Etheostoma iowæ_, -found from Iowa to the Saskatchewan, may dispute this honor. _Etheostoma -cæruleum_, the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique -bands of blue and scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the -brilliantly colored species, as it is the most abundant throughout the -Ohio valley. - -_Etheostoma flabellare_, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by Rafinesque -in Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series made known to -science. It has no bright colors, but its movements in water are more -active than any of the others, and it is the most hardy in the aquarium. - -_Psychromaster tuscumbia_ abounds in the great limestone springs of -northern Alabama, while _Copelandellus quiescens_ swarms in the -black-water brooks which flow into the Dismal Swamp and thence southward -to the Suwanee. It is a little fish not very active, its range going -farther into the southern lowlands than any other. Finally, _Microperca -punctulata_, the least darter, is the smallest of all, with fewest -spines and dullest colors, most specialized in the sense of being least -primitive, but at the same time the most degraded of all the darters. - -No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record. The nearest -is perhaps _Mioplosus labracoides_ from the Eocene at Green River, -Wyoming. This elongate fish, a foot long, has the dorsal rays IX-1, 13, -and the anal rays II, 13, its scales finely serrated, and the preopercle -coarsely serrated on the lower limb only. This species, with its -numerous congeners from the Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true -perch than the darters. Several species related to Perca are also -recorded from the Eocene of England and Germany. A species called -_Lucioperca skorpili_, allied to _Centropomus_, is described from the -Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms imperfectly -preserved, of still more doubtful affinities. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX - THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES - - -=THE Cardinal-fishes. Apogonidæ.=—The _Apogonidæ_ or cardinal-fishes are -perch-like fishes, mostly of small size, with two distinct short dorsal -fins. They are found in the warm seas, and many of them enter rivers, -some even inhabiting hot springs. Many of the shore species are bright -red in color, usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others, -however, are olive or silvery, and a few in deeper water are -violet-black. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 252.—Cardinal-fish, _Apogon retrosella_ Gill. Mazatlan. -] - -The species of _Apogon_ are especially numerous, and in regions where -they are abundant, as in Japan, they are much valued as food. _Apogon -imberbis_, the "king of the mullet," is a common red species of southern -Europe. _Apogon maculatus_ is found in the West Indies. _Apogon -retrosella_ is the pretty "cardenal" of the west coast of Mexico. -_Apogon lineatus_, _semilineatus_ and other species abound in Japan, and -many species occur about the islands of Polynesia. _Epigonus -telescopium_ is a deep-sea fish of the Mediterranean and _Telescopias_ -and _Synagrops_ are genera of the depths of the Pacific. _Paramia_ with -strong canines is allied to _Apogon_, and similar in color and habit. - -Allied to _Apogon_ are several small groups often taken as distinct -families. The species of _Ambassis_ (_Ambassidæ_) are little fishes of -the rivers and bays of India and Polynesia, resembling small silvery -perch or bass. All these have three anal spines instead of two as in -_Apogon_. Some of these enter rivers and several are recorded from hot -springs. _Scombrops boops_, the mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish -found in rather deep water. It is remarkable for its very strong teeth, -although its flesh is feeble and easily torn. A still larger species in -Cuba, _Scombrops oculata_, known as _Escolar chino_, resembles a -barracuda. These fishes with fragile bodies and very strong teeth are -placed by Gill in a separate family (_Scombropidæ_). _Acropoma -japonicum_ is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with the vent -placed farther forward than in _Apogon_. It is the type of the -_Acropomidæ_, a small family of the Pacific. _Enoplosus armatus_ is an -Australian fish with high back and fins, with a rather stately -appearance, type of the _Enoplosidæ_. In his last catalogue of families -of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes _Scombropidæ_ and _Acropomidæ_ as distinct -families, but their relationships with _Apogon_ are certainly very -close. Many genera allied to _Apogon_ and _Ambassis_ occur in Australian -rivers. Several fossils referred to _Apogon_ (_Apogon spinosus_, etc.) -occur in the Eocene of Italy and Germany. - -=The Anomalopidæ.=—The family of _Anomalopidæ_ is a small group of -deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but perhaps remotely related -to _Apogon_. _Anomalops palpebrata_ is found in Polynesia and has -beneath the eye a large luminous organ unlike anything seen elsewhere -among fishes. - -=The Asineopidæ.=—Another family of doubtful relationship is that of -_Asineopidæ_, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of extinct fresh-water -fishes found in the Green River shales. In _Asineops squamifrons_ the -opercles are unarmed, the teeth villiform, and the dorsal fin undivided, -composed of eight or nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The -anal spines, as in _Apogon_, are two only, and the scales are cycloid. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 253.—Kuromutsu, _Telescopias gilberti_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, - Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 254.—_Apogon semilineatus_ Schlegel. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 255.—Robalo, _Oxylabrax undecimalis_ (Bloch). Florida. -] - -=The Robalos:[13] Oxylabracidæ.=—The family of Robalos (_Oxylabracidæ_ -or _Centropomidæ_) is closely related to the _Serranidæ_, differing -among other things in having the conspicuous lateral line extended on -the caudal fin. These are silvery fishes with elongate bodies, large -scales, a pike-like appearance, the first dorsal composed of strong -spines and the second spine of the anal especially large. They are found -in tropical America only, where they are highly valued as food, the -flesh being like that of the striped bass, white, flaky, and of fine -flavor. The common robalo, or snook, _Oxylabrax_ (or _Centropomus_) -_undecimalis_, reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty pounds. It ranges -north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line is black. The -smaller species, of which several are described, are known as _Robalito_ -or _Constantino_. - -Footnote 13: - - The European zander is the type of Lacépède's genus _Centropomus_. The - name _Centropomus_ has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most - authors. - -=The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.=—The central family of the percoid fishes is -that of the _Serranidæ_, or sea-bass. Of these about 400 species are -recorded, carnivorous fishes found in all warm seas, a few ascending the -fresh waters. In general, the species are characterized by the presence -of twenty-four vertebræ and three anal spines, never more than three. -The fresh-water species are all more or less archaic and show traits -suggesting the _Oxylabracidæ_, _Percidæ_, or _Centrarchidæ_, all of -which are doubtless derived from ancestors of _Serranidæ_. Among the -connecting forms are the perch-like genera _Percichthys_ and _Percilia_ -of the rivers of Chile. These species look much like perch, but have -three anal spines, the number of vertebræ being thirty-five. -_Percichthys trucha_ is the common trucha, or trout, of Chilean waters. - -_Lateolabrax japonicus_, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one of the -most valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to the robalo, -which it much resembles. This genus and the East Indian _Centrogenys -waigiensis_ approach _Oxylabrax_ in appearance and structure. _Niphon -spinosus_, the ara of Japan, is a very large sea-bass, also of this -type. Close to these bass, marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus -_Siniperca_ and the Korean genus _Coreoperca_, several species of which -abound in Oriental rivers. In southern Japan is the rare _Bryttosus -kawamebari_, a bass in structure, but very closely resembling the -American sunfish, even to the presence of the bright-edged black -ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some such form the -_Centrarchidæ_ were derived. - -Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (_Lates_), Australia -(_Percalates_, etc.), and southern Africa. _Oligorus macquariensis_ is -the great cod of the Australian rivers and _Ctenolates ambiguus_ is the -yellow belly, while _Percalates colonorum_ is everywhere the "perch" in -Australian rivers. The most important member of these transitional types -between perch and sea-bass is the striped bass, or rockfish (_Roccus -lineatus_), of the Atlantic coast of the United States. This large fish, -reaching in extreme cases a weight of 112 pounds, lives in shallow -waters in the sea and ascends the rivers in spring to spawn. It is -olivaceous in color, the sides golden silvery, with narrow black -stripes. About 1880 it was introduced by the United States Fish -Commission into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a fish -of large commercial importance. To the angler the striped bass is always -"a gallant fish and a bold biter," and Genio Scott places it first among -the game-fishes of America. - -The white bass (_Roccus chrysops_) is very similar to it, but shorter -and more compressed, reaching a smaller size. This fish is abundant in -the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi as far south as Arkansas. - -The yellow bass (_Morone interrupta_), a coarser and more brassy fish, -replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above Cincinnati and St. -Louis. The white perch (_Morone americana_) is a little fish of the -Atlantic seaboard, entering the sea, but running up all the rivers, -remaining contentedly landlocked in ponds. It is one of the most -characteristic fishes of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a -good pan fish, takes the hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves -the good-will of the angler who cannot stray far into the mountains. -Very close to these American bass is the bass, bars, or robalo, of -southern Europe, _Dicentrarchus labrax_, a large olive-colored fish, -excellent as food, living in the sea about the mouths of rivers. - -=The Jewfishes.=—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense size, -reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust in form, a -weight of 500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky green in color, -thick-headed, rough-scaled, with low fins, voracious disposition, and -sluggish movements. In almost all parts of the world these great bass -are called jewfish, but no reason for this name has ever been suggested. -In habit and value the species are much alike, and the jewfish of -California, _Stereolepis gigas_, the prize of the Santa Catalina -anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely related to this -is the Japanese ishinagi, _Megaperca ischinagi_, the jewfish, or -stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the Abura bodzu, or -"fat priest," _Ebisus sagamius_. In the West Indies, as also on the west -coast of Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa, is _Promicrops itaiara_. The -black grouper, _Garrupa nigrita_, is the jewfish of Florida. The -European jewfish, more often called _wreckfish_, or stone-bass, is -_Polyprion americanus_, and the equally large _Polyprion oxygeneios_ is -found in Australia, as is also another jewfish, _Glaucosoma hebraicum_, -the last belonging to the _Lutianidæ_. Largest of all these jewfishes is -_Promicrops lanceolata_ of the South Pacific. This huge bass, according -to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of twelve feet. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 256.—White Perch, _Morone americana_ Gmelin. (From life by Dr. R. - W. Shufeldt; one half natural size.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 257.—Florida Jewfish, _Promicrops itaiara_ (Lichtenstein). St. - John's River, Fla. -] - -Related to the jewfishes are numerous smaller fishes. One of these, the -Spanish-flag of Cuba, _Gonioplectrus hispanus_, is rose-colored, with -golden bands like the flag of Spain itself. Other species referred to -_Acanthistius_ and _Plectropoma_ have, like this, hooked spines on the -lower border of the preopercle. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 258.—_Epinephelus striatus_ (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: _Cherna - criolla_. Family _Serranidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 259.—John Paw or Speckled Hind, _Epinephelus drummond-hayi_ Goode - Pensacola. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 260.—_Epinephelus morio_ (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or - Mero. Family _Serranidæ_. -] - -=The Groupers.=—In all warm seas abound species of _Epinephelus_ and -related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous. They are mostly -large voracious fishes with small scales, pale flesh of fair quality, -and from their abundance they are of large commercial importance. To -English-speaking people these fishes are usually known as grouper, a -corruption of the Portuguese name garrupa. In the West Indies and about -Panama there are very many species, and still others abound in the -Mediterranean, in southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and the West -Indies. They have very much in common, but differ in size and color, -some being bright red, some gaudily spotted with red or blue, but most -of them are merely mottled green or brown. In many cases individuals -living near shore are olivaceous, and those of the same species in the -depths are bright crimson or scarlet. We name below a few of the most -prominent species. Even a bare list of all of them would take many -pages. _Cephalopholis cruentatus_, the red hind of the Florida Keys, is -one of the smallest and brightest of all of them. _Cephalopholis -fulvus_, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans, is called negro-fish, -butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, according to its color, which -varies with the depth. It is red, yellow, or olive, with many round blue -spots. _Epinephelus adscenscionis_, the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere -with orange. _Epinephelus guaza_ is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe, -a large food-fish of value, rather dull in color. _Epinephelus striatus_ -is the Nassau grouper, or _Cherna criolla_, common in the West Indies. -_Epinephelus maculosus_ is the cabrilla of Cuba. _Epinephelus -drummond-hayi_, the speckled hind, umber brown, spotted with lavender, -is one of the handsomest of all the groupers. _Epinephelus morio_, the -red grouper, is the commonest of all these fishes in the American -markets. In Asia the species are equally numerous, _Epinephelus quernus_ -of Hawaii and the red _Epinephelus fasciatus_ of Japan and southward -being food-fishes of importance. _Epinephelus merra_, _Epinephelus -gilberti_, and _Epinephelus tauvina_ are among the more common species -of Polynesia. _Epinephelus corallicola_, a species profusely spotted, -abounds in the crevices of coral reefs, while _Cepholopholis argus_ and -_C. leopardus_ are showy fishes of the deeper channels. _Mycteroperca -venenosa_, the yellow-finned grouper, is a large and handsome fish of -the coast of Cuba, the flesh sometimes poisonous; when red in deep water -it is known as the bonaci cardenal. _Mycteroperca bonaci_; the bonaci -arará sells in our markets as black grouper. _Mycteroperca microlepis_ -is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not reaching the West -Indies, and _Mycteroperca rubra_, which is never red, enters the -Mediterranean. _Mycteroperca falcata_ is known in the markets as scamp, -and _Mycteroperca venadorum_ is a giant species from the Venados -Islands, near Mazatlan. _Diploprion bifasciatus_ is a handsome -grouper-like fish with two black cross-bands, found in Japan and India. -_Variola louti_, red, with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one -of the most showy fishes of the equatorial Pacific. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 261.—Red Hind, _Epinephelus adscensionis_ (Osbeck). Puerto Rico. - (After Evermann.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 262.—Yellow-fin Grouper, _Mycteroperca venenosa_ (Linnæus). - Havana. -] - -The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus _Hypoplectrus_. -Their extraordinary and unexplained variations in color have been -noticed on page 235, Vol. I. The common species—blue, orange, green, -plain, striated, checkered, or striped—bears the name of _Hypoplectrus -unicolor_. (Fig. 264). - -=The Serranos.=—In all the species known as jewfish and grouper, as also -in the _Oxylabracidæ_ and most _Centrarchidæ_, the maxillary bone is -divided by a lengthwise suture which sets off a distinct supplemental -maxillary. This bone is wanting in the remaining species of _Serranidæ_, -as it is also in those forms already noticed which are familiarly known -as bass. The species without the supplemental maxillary are in general -smaller in size, the canines are on the sides of the jaws instead of in -front, and there are none of the hinged depressible teeth which are -conspicuous in the groupers. The species are abundant in the Atlantic, -but scarcely any are found in Polynesia, and few in Japan or India. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 263.—_Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans_ (Poey). Tortugas, Fla. -] - -_Serranus cabrilla_ is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a well-known -and excellent food-fish, the original type of the family of _Serranidæ_. -_Serranellus scriba_ is the serran, a very pretty shore-fish of southern -Europe, longer known than any other of the tribe. On the coast of -southern California are also species called Cabrillas, fine, large, -food-fish, bass-like in form, _Paralabrax clathratus_, and other less -common species. The _Cabrillas_ and their relatives are almost all -American, a few straying across to Europe. One of the most important in -the number is the black sea-bass, or black will, of our Atlantic coast, -_Centropristes striatus_. This is a common food-and game-fish, dusky in -color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel-fishes (_Diplectrum_) and -the many serranos (_Prionodes_) of the tropics, small bright-colored -fishes of the rocks and reefs, must be passed with a word, as also the -small _Paracentropristis_ of the Mediterranean and the fine red -creole-fish of the West Indies, _Paranthias furcifer_. In one species, -_Anyperodon leucogrammicus_ of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the -palatines. - -The barber-fish (_Anthias anthias_) of southern Europe, bright red and -with the lateral line running very high, is the type of a numerous group -found at the lowest fishing level in all warm seas. All the species of -this group are bright red, very handsome, and excellent as food. -_Hemianthias vivanus_, known only from the spewings of the red snapper -(_Lutianus aya_) at Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species, -red, with golden streaks. The genus _Plesiops_ consists of small fishes -almost black in color, with blue spots and other markings, abounding -about the coral reefs. In this genus the lateral line is interrupted and -there is some indication of affinity with the _Opisthognathidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 264.—Snowy Grouper, _Epinephelus niveatus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Natural - size: young. (Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 265.—Soapfish, _Rypticus bistrispinus_ (Mitchill). Virginia. -] - -In the soapfishes (_Rypticus_) the supplemental maxillary appears again, -but in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to two or three spines and -there are none in the anal. _Rypticus saponaceus_, so called from the -smooth or soapy scales, is the best known of the numerous species, which -all belong to tropical America. _Grammistes_, with eight dorsal spines, -is a related form in Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black -stripes. Numerous species referred to the _Serranidæ_ occur in the -Eocene and Miocene rocks. Some are related to _Epinephelus_, others to -_Roccus_ and _Lates_. In the Tertiary lignite of Brazil is a species of -_Percichthys_, _Percichthys antiquus_, with _Properca beaumonti_, which -seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to _Dicentrarchus_. -_Prolates heberti_ of the Cretaceous, one of the earliest of the series, -has the caudal rounded and is apparently allied to _Lates_, as is also -the heavily armed _Acanus regleysianus_ of the Oligocene. _Smerdis -minutus_, a small fish from the Oligocene, is also related to _Lates_, -which genus with _Roccus_ and _Dicentrarchus_ must represent the most -primitive of existing members of this family. Of both _Smerdis_ and -_Dicentrarchus_ (_Labrax_) numerous species are recorded, mostly from -the Miocene of Europe. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 266.—Flasher, _Lobotes surinamensis_ (Bloch). Virginia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 267.—Catalufa, _Priacanthus arenatus_ Cuv. & Val. Wood's Hole, - Mass. -] - -=The Flashers: Lobotidæ.=—The small family of _Lobotidæ_, flashers, or -triple-tails, closely resembles the _Serranidæ_, but there are no teeth -on vomer or palatines. The three species are robust fishes, of a large -size, of a dark-green color, the front part of the head very short. They -reach a length of about three feet and are good food-fishes. _Lobotes -surinamensis_ comes northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod. -_Lobotes pacificus_ is found about Panama. _Lobotes erate_, common in -India, was taken by the writer at Misaki, Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 268.—Bigeye, _Pseudopriacanthus altus_ Gill. Young specimen. - (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -=The Bigeyes: Priacanthidæ.=—The _Catalufas_ or bigeyes (_Priacanthidæ_) -are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short, flattened bodies, rough -scales, large eyes, and bright-red coloration. The mouth is very -oblique, and the anal fin about as large as the dorsal. The commonest -species is _Priacanthus cruentatus_, widely diffused through the Pacific -and also in the West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians, -which used to come into the bays in myriads at the period of death of -royalty. It is still abundant, even after Hawaiian royalty has passed -away. - -_Pseudopriacanthus altus_ is a short, very deep-bodied, and very rough -fish, scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our coast, driven -northward by the Gulf Stream. The young fishes are quite unlike the -adult in appearance. Numerous other species of _Priacanthus_ occur in -the Indies and Polynesia. - -=The Pentacerotidæ.=—Another family with strong spines and rough scales -is the group of _Pentacerotidæ_. _Histiopterus typus_, the Matodai, is -found in Japan, and is remarkable for its very deep body and very high -spines. Equally remarkable is the Tengudai, _Histiopterus acutirostris_, -also Japanese. _Anoplus banjos_ is a third Japanese species, more common -than the others, and largely taken in the Inland Sea. All these are -eccentric variations from the perch-like type. - -=The Snappers: Lutianidæ.=—Scarcely less numerous and varied than the -sea-bass is the great family of _Lutianidæ_, known in America as -snappers or pargos. In these fishes the maxillary slips along its edge -into a sheath formed by the broad preorbital. In the _Serranidæ_ there -is no such sheath. In the _Lutianidæ_ there is no supplemental -maxillary, teeth are present on the vomer and palatines, and in the jaws -there are distinct canines. These fishes of the warm seas are all -carnivorous, voracious, gamy, excellent as food though seldom of fine -grain, the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250 species are known, -and in all warm seas they are abundant. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 269.—Gray Snapper, _Lutianus griseus_ L. Puerto Rico. (After - Evermann.) -] - -To the great genus _Lutianus_ most of the species belong. These are the -snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish-speaking -fishermen. The shore species are green in color, mostly banded, spotted, -or streaked. In deeper water bright-red species are found. One of these, -_Lutianus aya_, the red snapper or pargo guachinango of the Gulf of -Mexico, is, economically speaking, the most important of all these -fishes in the United States. It is a large, rather coarse fish, bright -red in color, and it is taken on long lines on rocky reefs chiefly about -Pensacola and Tampa in Florida, although similar fisheries exist on the -shores of Yucatan and Brazil. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 270.—_Lutianus apodus_ (Walbaum), Schoolmaster or Cají. Family - _Lutianidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 271.—_Hoplopagrus guntheri_ Gill. Mazatlan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 272.—Lane Snapper or Biajaiba, _Lutianus synagris_ (Linnæus). Key - West. -] - -A related species is the _Lutianus analis_, the mutton snapper or pargo -criollo of the West Indies. This is one of the staple fishes of the -Havana market, always in demand for banquets and festivals, because its -flesh is never unwholesome. The mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper, -_Lutianus griseus_, called in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest -species on our coasts. The common name arises from the fact that the -young hide in the mangrove bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally -out in pursuit of sardines and other small fishes. It is a very wary -fish, to be sought with care, hence the name "lawyer," sometimes heard -in Florida. The cubero (_Lutianus cyanopterus_) is a very large snapper, -often rejected as unwholesome, being said to cause the disease known as -ciguatera. Certain snappers in Polynesia have a similar reputation. The -large red mumea, _Lutianus bohar_, is regarded as always poisonous in -Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. _L. leioglossus_ is also -held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of this type are -regarded as always safe. Other common snappers of Florida and Cuba are -the dog snapper or jocu (_Lutianus jocu_), the schoolmaster or cají -(_Lutianus apodus_), the black-fin snapper or sese de lo alto (_Lutianus -buccanella_), the silk snapper or pargo de lo alto (_Lutianus vivanus_), -the abundant lane snapper or biajaiba (_Lutianus synagris_), and the -mahogany snapper or ojanco (_Lutianus mahogani_). Numerous other species -occur on both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assemblage -is found in the East Indies, some of them ranging northward to Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 273.—Yellow-tail Snapper, _Ocyurus chrysurus_ (Linnæus). Key - West. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 274.—Cachucho, _Etelis oculatus_ (Linnæus). Havana. -] - -_Hoplopagrus guntheri_ is a large snapper of the west coast of Mexico, -having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit-like nostrils and -other notable peculiarities. From the standpoint of structure this -species, with its eccentric characters—is especially interesting. The -yellow-tail snapper or rabirubia (_Ocyurus chrysurus_) is a handsome and -common fish of the West Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which -makes it a swifter fish than the others. Another red species is the -diamond snapper or cagon de lo alto, _Rhomboplites aurorubens_. All -these true snappers have the soft fins more or less scaly. In certain -species that swim more freely in deep waters, these fins are naked. -Among them is the Arnillo, _Apsilus dentatus_, a pretty brown fish of -the West Indies, and its analogue in Hawaii, _Apsilus brighami_, red, -with golden cross-bands. _Aprion virescens_, the Uku of Hawaii, is a -large fish of a greenish color and elongate body, widely diffused -throughout Polynesia and one of the best of food-fishes. A related -species is the red voraz (_Aprion macrophthalmus_) of the West Indies. - -Most beautiful of all the group are the species of _Etelis_, with the -dorsal fin deeply divided and the head flattened above. These live in -rather deep water about rocky reefs and are fiery red in color. Best -known is the Cuban species, _Etelis oculatus_, the cachucho of the -markets. Equally abundant and equally beautiful is _Etelis carbunculus_ -of Polynesia, _Etelis evurus_ of Hawaii, and other species of the -Pacific islands. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 275.—_Xenocys jessiæ_ Jordan & Bollman. Family _Lutianidæ_. - Galapagos Islands. -] - -_Verilus sordidus_, the black escolar of Cuba, has the form of _Etelis_, -but the flesh is very soft and the color violet-black, indicating its -life in very deep water. Numerous small silvery snappers living near the -shore along the coast of western Mexico belong to the genera called -_Xenichthys_, _Xenistius_, and _Xenocys_. _Xenistius californiensis_ is -the commonest of these species, _Xenocys jessiæ_, the largest in size, -with black lines like a striped bass. To the genus _Dentex_ belongs a -large snapper-like fish of the Mediterranean, _Dentex dentex_. Very many -related species occur in the old world, the prettily colored _Nemipterus -virgatus_, the _Itoyori_ of Japan being one of the best known. Another -interesting fish is _Aphareus furcatus_, a handsome, swift fish of the -open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies. _Glaucosoma -burgeri_ is a large snapper of Japan, and a related species, _Glaucosoma -hebraicum_, is one of the "jewfishes" of Australia. Numerous fossil -forms referred to _Dentex_ occur in the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also a -fish called _Ctenodentex lackeniensis_ from the Eocene of Belgium. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 276.—_Aphareus furcatus_ (Lacépède). Odawara, Japan. Family - _Lutianidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 277.—Grunt, _Hæmulon plumieri_ (Bloch). Charleston, S. C. -] - -=The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.=—The large family of _Hæmulidæ_, known in America -as grunters or roncos, is represented with the snappers in all tropical -seas. The common names (Spanish, _roncar_, to grunt or snore) refer to -the noise made either with their large pharyngeal teeth or with the -complex air-bladder. These fishes differ from the _Lutianidæ_ mainly in -the feebler detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer. -Most of the American species belong to the genus _Hæmulon_ or red-mouth -grunts, so called from the dash of scarlet at the corner of the mouth. -_Hæmulon plumieri_, the common grunt, or ronco arará, is the most -abundant species, known by the narrow blue stripes across the head. In -the yellow grunt, ronco amarillo (_Hæmulon sciurus_), these stripes -cross the whole body. In the margate-fish, or Jallao (_Hæmulon album_), -the largest of the grunts, there are no stripes at all. Another common -grunt is the black spotted sailor's choice, _Ronco prieto_ (_Hæmulon -parra_), very abundant from Florida southward. Numerous other grunts and -"Tom Tates" are found on both shores of Mexico, all the species of -_Hæmulon_ being confined to America. _Anisotremus_ includes numerous -deep-bodied species with smaller mouth, also all American. _Anisotremus -surinamensis_, the pompon, abundant from Louisiana southward is the -commonest species. _Anisotremus virginicus_, the porkfish or Catalineta, -beautifully striped with black and golden, is very common in the West -Indies. _Plectorhynchus_ of Polynesia and the coasts of Asia contains -numerous large species closely resembling _Anisotremus_, but lacking the -groove at the chin characteristic of _Anisotremus_ and _Hæmulon_. Some -of these are striped or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion. -_Pomadasis_, a genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains -silvery species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and the -spines generally stronger. _Pomadasis crocro_ is the commonest West -Indian species, _Pomadasis hasta_ the best known of the Asiatic forms. -_Gnathodentex aurolineatus_ with golden stripes is common in Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 278.—Porkfish, _Anisotremus virginicus_ (Linnæus). Key West. -] - -The pigfishes, _Orthopristis_, have the spines feebler and the anal fin -more elongate. Of the many species, American and Mediterranean, -_Orthopristis chrysopterus_ is most familiar, ranging northward to Long -Island, and excellent as a pan fish. _Parapristipoma trilineatum_, the -Isaki of Japan, is equally abundant and very similar to it. Many related -species belong to the Asiatic genera, _Terapon_, _Scolopsis_, _Cæsio_, -etc., sometimes placed in a distinct family as _Teraponidæ_. _Terapon -servus_ enters the streams of Polynesia, and is a very common fish of -the river mouths, taken in Samoa by the boys. _Terapon theraps_ is found -throughout the East Indies. _Terapon richardsoni_ is the Australian -silver perch. _Cæsio_ contains numerous small species, elongate and -brightly colored, largely blue and golden. _Scolopsis_, having a spine -on the preorbital, contains numerous species in the East Indies and -Polynesia. These are often handsomely colored. Among them is the taiva, -_Scolopsis trilineatus_ of Samoa, gray with white streaks and markings -of delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related to -_Pomadasis_ is _Pomadasis furcatus_. Another, perhaps allied to -_Terapon_, is called _Pelates quindecimalis_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 279.—The Red Tai of Japan, _Pagrus major_ Schlegel. Family - _Sparidæ_. (After Kishinouye.) -] - -=The Porgies: Sparidæ.=—The great family of _Sparidæ_ or porgies is also -closely related to the _Hæmulidæ_. The most tangible difference rests in -the teeth, which are stronger, and some of those along the side of the -jaw are transformed into large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small -crabs and shells. The name porgy, in Spanish pargo, comes from the Latin -_Pagrus_ and Greek πάγρος, the name from time immemorial of the red -porgy of the Mediterranean, _Pagrus pagrus_. In this species the front -teeth are canine-like, the side teeth molar. It is a fine food-fish, -very handsome, being crimson with blue spots, and in the Mediterranean -it is much esteemed. It also breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and -Gulf coasts. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 280.—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai. (Sketch by - Kako Morita.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 281.—Scup, _Stenotomus chrysops_ (Linnæus). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 282.—_Calamus bajonado_ (Bloch & Schneider), Jolt-head Porgy. Pez - de Pluma. Family _Sparidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 283.—Little-head Porgy, _Calamus proridens_ Jordan & Gilbert. Key - West. -] - -Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai of Japan -(_Pagrus major_), a fish so highly esteemed as to be, with the rising -sun and the chrysanthemum, a sort of national emblem. In all prints and -images the fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 280), beloved of the Japanese people, -appears with a red tai under his arm. This species, everywhere abundant, -is crimson in color, and the flesh is always tender and excellent. A -similar species is the well-known and abundant "schnapper" of Australia, -_Pagrus unicolor_. Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled -with blue spots, _Pagrus cardinalis_, occurs in Japan in great -abundance, as also two species similar in character but without red, -known as _Kurodai_ or black tai. These are _Sparus latus_ and _Sparus -berda_. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, _Sparus aurata_, is very -similar to these Japanese species. _Sparus sarba_ in Australia is the -tarwhine, and _Sparus australis_ the black bream. The numerous species -of _Pagellus_ abound in the Mediterranean. These are smaller in size -than the species of _Pagrus_, red in color and with feebler teeth. -_Monotaxis grandoculis_, known as the "mu," is a widely diffused and -valuable food-fish of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale -cross-bands. Very closely related is also the American scup or fair maid -(_Stenotomus chrysops_), one of our commonest pan fishes. In this genus -and in _Calamus_ the second interhæmal spine is very greatly enlarged, -its concave end formed like a quill-pen and including the posterior end -of the large air-bladder. This arrangement presumably assists in -hearing. Of the penfishes, or pez de pluma, numerous species abound in -tropical America, where they are valued as food. Of these the bajonado -or jolt-head porgy (_Calamus bajonado_) is largest, most common and -dullest in color. _Calamus calamus_ is the saucer-eye porgy, and -_Calamus proridens_, the little-head porgy. _Calamus leucosteus_ is -called white-bone porgy, and the small _Calamus arctifrons_ the -grass-porgy. - -The Chopa spina, or pinfish, _Lagodon rhomboides_, is a little porgy -with notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South Atlantic coast. - -In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine-like are -compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human incisors. These -species are known as sheepshead, or sargos. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 284.—_Diplodus holbrooki_ Bean. Pensacola. -] - -_Diplodus sargus_ and _Diplodus annularis_ are common sargos of the -Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of the tail. -_Diplodus argenteus_ of the West Indies and _Diplodus holbrooki_ of the -Carolina coast are very close to these. - -The sheepshead, _Archosargus probatocephalus_, is much the most valuable -fish of this group. The broad body is crossed by about seven black -cross-bands. It is common from Cape Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching -rarely a weight of fifteen pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and -tender. The sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook -readily and with some spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller -species known as Salema (_Archosargus unimaculatus_), with blue and -golden stripes and a black spot at the shoulder. It abounds in the West -Indies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 285.—_Archosargus unimaculatus_ (Bloch), Salema, Striped - Sheepshead. Family _Sparidæ_. -] - -On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are numerous species of -_Lethrinus_ and related genera, formed and colored like snappers, but -with molar teeth and the cheek without scales. A common species in Japan -is _Lethrinus richardsoni_. - -Fossil species of _Diplodus_, _Sparus_, _Pagrus_, and _Pagellus_ occur -in the Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera, _Sparnodus_ and -_Trigonodon_, of similar type. _Sparnodus macrophthalmus_ is abundant in -the Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -=The Picarels: Mænidæ.=—The _Mænidæ_, or _Picarels_, are elongate, -gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protractility of -the upper jaw. _Spicara smaris_ and several other small species are -found in the Mediterranean. _Emmelichthys_ contains species of larger -size occurring in the West Indies and various parts of the Pacific, -chiefly red and very graceful in form and color. _Emmelichthys -vittatus_, the boga, is occasionally taken in Cuba, _Erythrichthys -schlegeli_ is found in Japan and Hawaii. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 286.—Mojarra, _Xystæma cinereum_ (Walbaum). Key West. -] - -=The Mojarras: Gerridæ.=—The _Gerridæ_, or _Mojarras_, have the mouth -equally protractile, but the form of the body is different, being broad, -compressed, and covered with large silvery scales. In some species the -dorsal spines and the third anal spine are very strong, and in some the -second interhæmal is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder, -as in _Calamus_. Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones, -are American. The smallest, _Eucinostomus_, have the quill-shaped -interhæmal and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest -species is the silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, _Eucinostomus gula_, -which ranges from Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf along sandy -shores. Equally common is _Eucinostomus californiensis_ of the Pacific -Coast of Mexico, while _Eucinostomus harengulus_ of the West Indies is -also very abundant. _Ulæma lefroyi_ has but two anal spines and the -interhæmal very small. It is common through the West Indies. _Xystæma_, -with the interhæmal spear-shaped and normally formed, is found in Asia -and Polynesia more abundantly than in America, although one species, -_Xystæma cinereum_, the broad shad, or Mojarra blanca, is common on both -shores of tropical America. _Xystæma gigas_ is found in Polynesia, _X. -oyena_ in Japan, and _X. filamentosum_ in Formosa and India. _Xystæma -massalongoi_ is also fossil in the Miocene of Austria. The species of -_Gerres_ have very strong dorsal and anal spines and the back much -elevated. _Gerres plumieri_, the striped mojarra, _Gerres brasiliensis_, -the patao, _Gerres olisthostomus_, the Irish pampano, and _Gerres -rhombeus_ are some of the numerous species found on the Florida coast -and in the West Indies. The family of _Leiognathidæ_, already noticed -(page 287), should stand next to the _Gerridæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 287.—Irish Pampano, _Gerres olisthostomus_ Goode & Bean. Indian - River, Fla. -] - -=The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.=—The _Kyphosidæ_, called rudder-fishes, -have no molars, the front of the jaws being occupied by incisors, which -are often serrated, loosely attached, and movable. The numerous species -are found in the warm seas and are chiefly herbivorous. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 288.—Chopa or Rudder-fish, _Kyphosus sectatrix_ (Linnæus). Wood's - Hole, Mass. -] - -_Boops boops_ and _Boops salpa_, known as boga and salpa, are elongate -fishes common in the Mediterranean. Other Mediterranean forms are -_Spondyliosoma cantharus_, _Oblata melanura_, etc. _Girella nigricans_ -is the greenfish of California, everywhere abundant about rocks to the -south of San Francisco, and of considerable value as food. Almost -exactly like it is the Mejinadai (_Girella punctata_) of Japan. The -best-known members of this group belong to the genus _Kyphosus_. -_Kyphosus sectatrix_ is the rudder-fish, or Chopa blanca, common in the -West Indies and following ships to the northward even as far as Cape -Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is supposed that it is enticed by -the waste thrown overboard. _Kyphosus elegans_ is found on the west -coast of Mexico, _Kyphosus tahmel_ in the East Indies and Polynesia, and -numerous other species occur in tropical America and along the coasts of -southern Asia. _Sectator ocyurus_ is a more elongate form of -rudder-fish, striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the Pacific. -_Medialuna californiensis_ is the half-moon fish, or medialuna, of -southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken on rocky -shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian seas. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 288_a_.—Blue-green Sunfish, _Apomotis cyanellus_ (Rafinesque). - Kansas River. (After Kellogg.) -] - -Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to _Boops_, -_Spondyliosoma_, and other genera. - - - - - CHAPTER XX - THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR - RELATIVES - - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 289.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, _Pseudupeneus maculatus_ Bloch. - Family _Mullidæ_ (Surmullets.) -] - -=THE Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.=—The _Mullidæ_ (Surmullets) are -shore-fishes of the warm seas, of moderate size, with small mouth, large -scales, and possessing the notable character of two long, unbranched -barbels of firm substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short, well -separated, the first of six to eight firm spines. There are two anal -spines and the ventral fins, thoracic, are formed of one spine and five -rays. The flesh is white and tender, often of very superior flavor. The -species are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on small animals. They are not -voracious, and predaceous fishes feed freely on them. The coloration is -generally bright, largely red or golden, in nearly all cases with an -under layer, below the scales, of red, which appears when the fish is -scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are often bright yellow, and -when the fish swims along the bottom these are carried in advance, -feeling the way. Testing the bottom with their feelers, these fishes -creep over the floor of shallow waters, seeking their food. - -The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and the current -genera are separated by details of the arrangement of the teeth. But few -are found outside the tropics. - -The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, _Mullus barbatus_, is the most -famous species, placed by the Romans above all other fishes unless it be -the scarus, _Sparisoma cretense_. From the satirical poets we learn that -"enormous prices were paid for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to -bring the fish into the dining-room and exhibit it alive before the -assembled guests, so that they might gloat over the brilliant and -changing colors during the death-agonies." It is red in life, and when -the scales are removed, the color is much brighter. - -It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extravagantly -valued to-day as was formerly the case in Rome. _Mullus surmuletus_ is a -second European species, scarcely different from _Mullus barbatus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 290.—Golden Surmullet, _Mullus auratus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Wood's - Hole, Mass. -] - -Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polynesian species -known as kumu and munu (_Pseudupeneus porphyreus_ and _Pseudupeneus -bifasciatus_). _Mullus auratus_ is a small surmullet occasionally taken -off our Atlantic coast, but in deeper water than that frequented by the -European species. _Pseudupeneus maculatus_ is the red goatfish or -salmonete, common from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow -goatfish, _Pseudupeneus martinicus_, equally valued. Many other species -are found in tropical America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan. -Perhaps the most notable are _Upeneus vittatus_, striped with yellow and -with the caudal fin cross-barred and the belly sulphur-yellow, and -_Upeneus arge_, similar, the belly white. The common red and -black-banded "moana" or goatfish of Hawaii is _Pseudupeneus -multifasciatus_. - -No fossil _Mullidæ_ are recorded, so far as known to us. - -=The Croakers: Sciænidæ.=—The family of _Sciænidæ_ (croakers, roncadors) -is another of the great groups of food-fishes. The species are found on -every sandy shore in warm regions and all of them are large enough to -have value as food, while many have flesh of superior quality. None are -brightly colored, most of the species being nearly plain silvery. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 291.—Spotted Weakfish, _Cynoscion nebulosus_. Virginia. -] - -Special characters are the cavernous structure of the bones of the head, -which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization (and occasional -absence) of the air-bladder, and the presence of never more than two -anal spines, one of these being sometimes very large. Most of the -species are marine, all are carnivorous; none inhabit rocky places and -none descend to depths in the sea. At the least specialized extreme of -the family, the mouth is large with strong canines and the species are -slender, swift, and predaceous. - -The weakfish or squeteague (_Cynoscion regalis_) is a type of a -multitude of species, large, swift, voracious, but with tender flesh, -which is easily torn. The common weakfish, abundant on our Atlantic -coast, suffers much at the hands of its enemy and associate, the -bluefish. It is one of the best of all our food-fishes. Farther south -the spotted weakfish (_Cynoscion nebulosus_), very incorrectly known as -sea-trout, takes its place, and about New Orleans is especially and -justly prized. - -The California "bluefish," _Cynoscion parvipinnis_, is very similar to -these Atlantic species, and there are many other species of _Cynoscion_ -on both coasts of tropical America, forming a large part of the best -fish-supply of the various markets of the mainland. On the rocky -islands, as Cuba, and about coral reefs, _Sciænidæ_ are practically -unknown. In the Gulf of California, the totuava, _Cynoscion macdonaldi_, -reaches a weight of 172 pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great -"white sea-bass" of California, _Cynoscion nobilis_, reaches 100 pounds. -In these large species the flesh is much more firm than in the weakfish -and thus bears shipment better. _Cynoscion_ has canines in the upper jaw -only and its species are all American. In the East Indies the genus -_Otolithes_ has strong canines in both jaws. Its numerous species are -very similar in form, habits, and value to those of _Cynoscion_. The -queenfish, _Seriphus politus_, of the California coast, is much like the -others of this series, but smaller and with no canines at all. It is a -very choice fish, as are also the species of _Macrodon_ (_Ancylodon_) -known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores of South -America. - -_Plagioscion squamosissimus_ and numerous species of _Plagioscion_ and -other genera live in the rivers of South America. A single species, the -river-drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or thunder-pumper (_Aplodinotus -grunniens_), is found in streams in North America. This is a large fish -reaching a length of nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed, -from the Great Lakes to Rio Usumacinta in Guatemala, whence it has been -lately received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in lakes and -sluggish rivers. The flesh is coarse, and in the Great Lakes it is -rarely eaten, having a rank odor. In Louisiana and Texas it is, however, -regarded as a good food-fish. In this species the lower pharyngeals are -very large and firmly united, while, as in all other _Sciænidæ_, except -the genus _Pogonias_, these bones are separated. In all members of the -family the ear-bones or otoliths are largely developed, often finely -sculptured. The otoliths of the river-drum are known to Wisconsin boys -as "lucky-stones," each having a rude impress of the letter L. The names -roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the like refer to the -grunting noise made by most _Sciænidæ_ in the water, a noise at least -connected with the large and divided air-bladder. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 292.—Mademoiselle, _Bairdiella chrysura_ (Linnæus). Virginia. -] - -Numerous silvery species belong to _Larimus_, _Corvula_, _Odontoscion_, -and especially to _Bairdiella_, a genus in which the second anal spine -is unusually strong. The mademoiselle, _Bairdiella chrysura_ is a pretty -fish of our Atlantic coast, excellent as a pan fish. In _Bairdiella -ensifera_ of Panama the second anal spine is enormously large, much as -in a robalo (_Oxylabrax_). - -In _Stellifer_ and _Nebris_, the head is soft and spongy. _Stellifer -lanceolatus_ is occasionally taken off South Carolina, and numerous -other species of this and related genera are found farther South. - -_Sciænops ocellata_ is the red-drum or channel bass of our South -Atlantic coast, a most important food-fish reaching a weight of -seventy-five pounds. It is well marked by a black ocellus on the base of -the tail. On the coast of Texas, this species, locally called redfish, -exceeds in economic value all other species found in that State. - -_Pseudosciæna aquila_, the maigre of southern Europe, is another large -fish, similar in value to the red drum. _Pseudosciæna antarctica_ is the -kingfish of Australia. To _Sciæna_ belong many species, largely Asiatic, -with the mouth inferior, without barbels, the teeth small, and the -convex snout marked with mucous pores. _Sciæna umbra_, the ombre, is the -common European species, _Sciæna saturna_, the black roncador of -California, is much like it. _Sciæna deliciosa_ is one of the most -valued food-fishes of Peru, and _Sciæna argentata_ is valued in Japan. -Species of _Sciæna_ are especially numerous on the coasts of India. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 293.—Red Drum, _Sciænops ocellata_ Linnæus. Texas. -] - -_Roncador stearnsi_, the California roncador, is a large fish with a -black ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance in the -Los Angeles market. The goody, spot, or lafayette (_Leiostomus -xanthurus_) is a small, finely flavored species abundant from Cape Cod -to Texas. Similar to it but inferior is the little roncador (_Genyonemus -lineatus_) of California. The common croaker, _Micropogon undulatus_, is -very abundant on our Eastern coast, and other species known as -verrugatos or white-mouthed drummers replace it farther South. - -In _Umbrina_ the chin has a short thick barbel. The species abound in -the tropics, _Umbrina cirrosa_ in the Mediterranean; _Umbrina coroides_ -in California, and the handsome _Umbrina roncador_, the yellow-tailed -roncador, in southern California. The kingfish, _Menticirrhus_, differs -in lacking the air-bladder, and lying on the bottom in shallow water the -lower fins are enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the -species are American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food. -_Menticirrhus saxatilis_ is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant -from Cape Ann southward, _Menticirrhus americanus_ is the equally common -sand-whiting of Carolina, and _Menticirrhus littoralis_ the -surf-whiting. The California whiting or sand-sucker is _Menticirrhus -undulatus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 294.—Yellow-fin Roncador, _Umbrina sinaloæ_ Scofield. Mazatlan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 295.—Kingfish, _Menticirrhus americanus_ (Linnæus). Pensacola. -] - -_Pogonias chromis_, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and the lower -pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river-drum, _Aplodinotus_. -It is a coarse fish common on our Atlantic coasts, a large specimen -taken at St. Augustine weighing 146 pounds. Other species of this -family, belonging to the genus _Eques_, are marked with ribbon-like -stripes of black. _Eques lanceolatus_, known in Cuba as serrana, is the -most ornate of these species, looking like a butterfly-fish or Chætodon. - -Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to _Sciæna_, -_Umbrina_, _Pogonias_, and other genera. Otoliths or ear-bones not -clearly identifiable are found from the Miocene on. These structures are -more highly specialized in this group than in any other. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 296.—Drum, _Pogonias chromis_ (Linnæus). Matanzas, Fla. -] - -=The Sillaginidæ, etc.=—Allied to the _Sciænidæ_ is the small family of -Kisugos, _Sillaginidæ_, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender, -cylindrical fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance to -small _Sciænas_. - -_Sillago japonicas_, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant species, -valued as food. _Sillago sihama_ ranges from Japan to Abyssinia. - -A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended to the -percoid series, with which they agree in general characters, especially -in the normal structure of the shoulder-girdle and in the insertion of -the pectoral and ventral fins. - -The _Lactariidæ_ constitute a small family of the East Indies, allied to -the _Sciænidæ_, but with three anal spines. The mouth is armed with -strong teeth. _Lactarius lactarius_ is a food-fish of India. - -The _Nandidæ_ are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian streams, -without pseudobranchiæ. - -The _Polycentridæ_ are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of the -streams of South America, without lateral line and with many anal -spines. - -=The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.=—The _Pseudochromipidæ_ are -marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line interrupted, and with -a single dorsal. They bear some resemblance to _Plesiops_ and other -aberrant _Serranidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 297.—_Gnathypops evermanni_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 298.—Jawfish, _Opisthognathus macrognathus_ Poey. Tortugas, Fla. -] - -Very close to these are the _Opisthognathidæ_ or jawfishes with a single -lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain species of -_Opisthognathus_, the maxillary, long and curved, extends far behind the -head. The few species are found in warm seas, but always very sparingly. -Some of them are handsomely colored. - -=The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.=—A singular group evidently allied -to the _Hæmulidæ_ is the family of _Oplegnathidæ_. In these fishes the -teeth are grown together to form a bony beak like the jaw of a turtle. -Except for this character, the species are very similar to ordinary -grunts. While the mouth resembles that of the parrot-fish, it is -structurally different and must have been independently developed. -_Oplegnathus punctatus_, the "stonewall perch" (ishigakidai), is common -in Japan, as is also the banded _Oplegnathus fasciatus_. Other species -are found in Australia and Chile. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 299.—_Opisthognathus nigromarginatus._ India. (After Day.) -] - -=The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.=—The family of swallowers -_Chiasmodontidæ_, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft flesh and -feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced. The ventrals are -post-thoracic, the rays I, 5, facts which point to some affinity with -the _Opisthognathidæ_, although Boulenger places these fishes among the -_Percesoces_. _Chiasmodon niger_, the black swallower of the -mid-Atlantic, has exceedingly long teeth and the whole body so -distensible that it can swallow fishes of many times its own size. -According to Gill: - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 300.—Black Swallower, _Chiasmodon niger_ Johnson, containing a - fish larger than itself. Le Have Bank. -] - -"It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which, -nevertheless, may be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by the tail -and gradually climbs over it with its jaws, first using one and then the -other; as the captive is taken in the stomach and integuments stretch -out, and at last the entire fish is passed through the mouth and into -the stomach, and the distended belly appears as a great bag, projecting -out far backwards and forwards, over which is the swallower with the -ventrals dislocated and far away from their normal place. The walls of -the stomach and belly have been so stretched that they are transparent, -and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But such rapacity -is more than the captor itself can stand. At length decomposition sets -in, the swallower is forced belly upwards, and the imprisoned gas, as in -a balloon, takes it upwards from the depths to the surface of the ocean, -and there, perchance, it may be found and picked up, to be taken home -for a wonder, as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found -their way into museums—one being in the United States National Museum— -and in each the fish in the stomach has been about twice as long, and -stouter in proportion, than the swallower—six to twelve times bulkier! -Its true habitat seems to be at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms." - -Allied to this family is the little group of _Champsodontidæ_ of Japan -and the East Indies. _Champsodon vorax_ looks like a young -_Uranoscopus_. The body is covered with numerous lateral lines and -cross-lines. - -=The Malacanthidæ.=—The _Malacanthidæ_ are elongate fishes, rather -handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxillary behind. -_Malacanthus plumieri_, the matajuelo blanco, a slender fish of a -creamy-brown color, is common in the West Indies. Other species are -found in Polynesia, the most notable being _Malacanthus_ (or _Oceanops_) -_lativittatus_, a large fish of a brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black -lateral band. In Samoa this species is called gatasami, the "eye of the -sea." - -=The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.=—The _Latilidæ_, or blanquillos, have also -an enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the flesh more -firm. The species reach a considerable size and are valued as food. -_Lopholotilus chamæleonticeps_ is the famous tilefish dredged in the -depths under the Gulf Stream. It is a fish of remarkable beauty, red and -golden. This species, Professor Gill writes, "was unknown until 1879, -when specimens were brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously -unexplored bank about eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land, Mass. In -the fall of 1880 it was found to be extremely abundant everywhere off -the coast of southern New England at a depth of from seventy-five to two -hundred and fifty fathoms. The form of the species is more compressed, -and higher, than in most of the family, and what especially -distinguishes it is the development of a compressed, 'fleshy, fin-like -appendage over the back part of the head and nape, reminding one of the -adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.' It is especially notable, -too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size, being by -far larger than any other member of its family. A weight of fifty pounds -or more is, or rather, one might say, was frequently attained by it, -although such was very far above the average, that being little over ten -pounds. In the reach of water referred to, it could once be found -abundantly at any time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale -in March, 1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for, -on the surface of the water for a distance of about three hundred miles -from north to south, and fifty miles from east to west. It has been -calculated by Capt. Collins that as many as one thousand four hundred -and thirty-eight millions were scattered over the surface. This would -have allowed about two hundred and twenty-eight pounds to every man, -woman and child of the fifty million inhabitants of the United States! -On trying at their former habitat the next fall, as well as all -successive years to the present time, not a single specimen could be -found where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus a case of a -catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused complete -annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited period. Whether the -grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied subsequently by the progeny -of a protected colony remains to be seen, but it is scarcely probable -that the entire species has been exterminated." It is now certain that -the species is not extinct. - -_Caulolatilus princeps_ is the blanquillo or "whitefish" of southern -California, a large handsome fish formed like a dolphin, of purplish, -olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other species of _Caulolatilus_ -are found in the West Indies. _Latilus_ _japonicus_ is the amadai or -sweet perch of Japan, an excellent food-fish of a bright crimson color. - -The _Pinguipedidæ_ of Chile resemble the _Latilidæ_, having also the -enlarged premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, however, thickened and -placed farther forward. - -=The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.=—The small family of _Cepolidæ_, or -bandfishes, resemble the _Latilidæ_ somewhat and are probably related to -them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins are thoracic, with a -spine and five rays, but the body is drawn out into a long eel-like -form, the many-rayed dorsal and anal fins meeting around the tail. The -few species are crimson in color with small scales. They are used as -food, but the flesh is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. _Cepola -tænia_ is common in the Mediterranean, and _Acanthocepola krusensterni_ -abounds in the bays of southern Japan. - -=The Cirrhitidæ.=—The species of the family _Cirrhitidæ_ strongly -resemble the smaller _Serranidæ_ and even _Serranus_ itself, but the -lower rays of the pectoral fins are enlarged and are undivided, as in -the sea-scorpions and some sculpins. In these fishes, however, the bony -stay, which characterizes _Scorpænidæ_ and _Cottidæ_, is wholly absent. -It is, however, considered possible that this interesting family -represents the point of separation at which the mail-cheeked fishes -become differentiated from the typical perch-like forms. _Goniistius -zonatus_, the _takanohadai_, is a valuable food-fish of Japan, marked by -black cross-bands. _Paracirrhites forsteri_ and other species of -_Cirrhitus_ and _Paracirrhites_ are very pretty fishes of the coral -reefs, abundant in the markets of Honolulu, the spotted _Cirrhitus -marmoratus_ being the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of -this family, _Cirrhitus rivulatus_, a large fish, green, with blue -markings, is found in American waters. It frequents the rocky shores of -the west coast of Mexico. - -Allied to the _Cirrhitidæ_ is the small family of _Latrididæ_, with a -long dorsal fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of the pectoral -similarly modified. _Latris hecateia_ is called the "trumpeter" in -Australian waters. It is one of the best food-fishes of Australia, -reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds. - -Another small family showing the same peculiar structure of the pectoral -fin is that of the _Aplodactylidæ_. The species of _Aplodactylus_ live -on the coasts of Chile and Australia. They are herbivorous fishes, with -flat, tricuspid teeth, and except for their pectoral fins are very -similar to the _Kyphosidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 301.—_Cirrhitus rivulatus_ Valenciennes. Mazatlan. -] - -=The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.=—In the neighborhood of the _Latrididæ_, -Dr. Boulenger places the _Trichodontidæ_ or sandfishes, small, -scaleless, silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These are much -compressed in body, with very oblique mouths, with fringed lips and, as -befits their northern habitat, with a much increased number of vertebræ. -They bury themselves in sand under the surf, and the two species, -_Trichodon trichodon_ and _Arctoscopus japonicus_, range very widely in -the regions washed by the Japan current. These species bear a strong -resemblance to the star-gazers (_Uranoscopus_), but this likeness seems -to be superficial only. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 302.—Sandfish, _Trichodon trichodon_ (Tilesius). Shumagin - Islands, Alaska. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XXI - LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI - - -=THE Labyrinthine Fishes.=—An offshoot of the _Percomorphi_ is the group -of _Labyrinthici_, composed of perch-like fishes which have a very -peculiar structure to the pharyngeal bones and respiratory apparatus. -This feature is thus described by Dr. Gill: - -"The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing arches are -peculiarly modified. The elements in question (called branchihyal) of -each side, instead of being straight and solid, as in most fishes, are -excessively developed and provided with several thin plates or folds, -erect from the surface of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which -the bones are attached. These plates, by their intersection, form -chambers, and are lined with a vascular membrane, which is supplied with -large blood-vessels. It was formerly supposed that the chambers referred -to had the office of receiving and retaining supplies of water which -should trickle down and keep the gills moist; such was supposed to be an -adaptation for the sustentation of life out of the water. The -experiments of Surgeon Day, however, throw doubt upon this alleged -function, and tend to show: (1) that these fishes died when deprived of -access to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either in -the water or in the apparatus used, but from being unable to subsist on -air obtained solely from the water, aerial respiration being -indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture out of the water for -lengthened periods, and for a short, but variable period in water only; -and (3) that the cavity or receptacle does not contain water, but has a -moist secreting surface, in which air is retained for the purpose of -respiration. It seems probable that the air, after having been supplied -for aerial respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be -discharged per anum. In fine, the two respiratory factors of the -branchial apparatus have independent functions: (1) the labyrinthiform, -or branchihyal portion, being a special modification for the respiration -of atmospheric air, and (2) the gill filaments discharging their normal -function. If, however, the fish is kept in water and prevented from -coming to the surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform -apparatus becomes filled with water which cannot be discharged, owing to -its almost non-contractile powers. There is thus no means of emptying -it, and the water probably becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing -the blood, so that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the -branchiæ. This will account for the fact that when the fish is in a -state of quiescence, it lives much longer than when excited, whilst the -sluggishness sometimes evinced may be due to poisoned or carbonized -blood." - -Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by Professor -Gill; and to these we may append a fifth, which, however, lacks the -elaborate structures mentioned above and which shows other evidences of -degeneration. - -=The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.=—The family of _Anabantidæ_, -according to Gill, "includes those species which have the mouth of -moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the vomer alone, or on -both the vomer and palatine bones). To the family belongs the celebrated -climbing-fish. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 303.—The Climbing Perch, _Anabas scandens_ Linnæus. Opercle cut - away to show the gill-labyrinth. -] - -"The climbing-fish (_Anabas scandens_) is especially noteworthy for the -movability of the suboperculum. The operculum is serrated. The color is -reddish olive, with a blackish spot at the base of the caudal fin; the -head, below the level of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band -running from the angle of the mouth to the angle of the preoperculum, -and with a black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost spines of -the operculum. - -"The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir, printed in 1797, by -Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the Danish East India Company at -Tranquebar. Daldorf called it _Perca scandens_, and affirmed that he -himself had taken one of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its -operculum in a slit in the bark of a palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_) -which grew near a pond. He also described its mode of progression; and -his observations were substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John, a -missionary resident in the same country. His positive evidence was, -however, called into question by those who doubted on account of -hypothetical considerations. Even in popular works not generally prone -to even a judicious skepticism, the accounts were stigmatized as -unworthy of belief. We have, however, in answer to such doubts, too -specific information to longer distrust the reliability of the previous -reports. - -"Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt. Jesse Mitchell of -the Madras Government Central Museum, communicated to his superior the -statement that 'this fish inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is -called _Panai feri_, i.e., the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When -there are palmyra-trees growing by the side of a tank or pool, when -heavy rain falls and the water runs profusely down their trunks, this -fish, by means of its opercula, which move unlike those of other fishes, -crawls up the tree sideways (i.e., inclining to the sides considerably -from the vertical) to a height of from five to seven feet, and then -drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon the ground, it runs or -proceeds rapidly along in the same manner (sideways) as long as the -mucus on it remains.' - -"These movements are effected by the opercula, which, it will be -remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they can, according to -Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the statement), be raised or -turned outwards to nearly a right angle with the body, and when in that -position, the suboperculum distends a little, and it appears that it is -chiefly by the spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a -purchase on the tree or ground. 'I have,' says Captain Mitchell, -'ascertained by experiment that the mere closing of the operculum, when -the spines are in contact with any surface, even common glass, pulls an -ordinary-sized fish forwards about half an inch,' but it is probable -that additional force is supplied by the caudal and anal fins, both of -which, it is said, are put in use when climbing or advancing on the -ground; the motion, in fact, is described as a wriggling one. - -"The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to ascend streams -against the current, and we can now understand how, during rain, the -water will flow down the trunk of a tree, and the climbing-fish, taking -advantage of this, will ascend against the down-flow by means of the -mechanism already described, and by which it is enabled to reach a -considerable distance up the trunk." (Gill.) - -=The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.=—"The _Osphromenidæ_ are fishes with a -mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the palate. To this -family belongs the gourami, whose praises have been so often sung, and -which has been the subject of many efforts for acclimatization in France -and elsewhere by the French. - -"The gourami (_Osphromenus goramy_) has an oblong, oval form, and, when -mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the young there are black -bands across the body, and also a blackish spot at the base of the -pectoral fin. The gourami, if we can credit reports, occasionally -reaches a gigantic size, for it is claimed that it sometimes attains a -length of 6 feet, and weighs 150 pounds, but if this is true, the size -is at least exceptional, and one of 20 pounds is a very large fish; -indeed, they are considered very large if they weigh as much as 12 or 14 -pounds, in which case they measure about 2 feet in length. - -"The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie in the -intertropical belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of its young, and -prepares a nest for the reception of eggs. The bottom selected is muddy, -the depth variable within a narrow area, that is, in one place about a -yard, and near by several yards deep. - -"They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass (_Panicum -jumentorum_) which grows on the surface of the water, and whose floating -roots, rising and falling with the movements of the water, form natural -galleries, under which the fish can conceal themselves. In one of the -corners of the pond, among the plants which grow there, the gouramis -attach their nest, which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of -plants and mud, and considerably resembles in form those of some birds. - -"The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs, insects, -worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account of its omnivorous -habit, it has been called by the French colonists of Mauritius _porc des -rivières_, or 'water-pig.' It is, however, essentially a vegetarian, and -its adaptation for this diet is indicated by the extremely elongated -intestinal canal, which is many times folded upon itself. It is said to -be especially fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh -is, according to several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm -and easy of digestion. They vary in quality with the nature of the -waters inhabited, those taken from a rocky river being much superior to -those from muddy ponds; but those dwelling at the mouth of rivers, where -the water is to some extent brackish, are the best of all. Again, they -vary with age; and the large, overgrown fishes are much less esteemed -than the small ones. They are in their prime when three years old. Dr. -Vinson says the flavor is somewhat like that of carp; and, if this is -so, we may entertain some skepticism as to its superiority; but the -unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence naturally leads to the -belief that the comparison is unfair to the gourami. - -"Numerous attempts have been made by the French to introduce the gourami -into their country, as well as into several of their provinces; and for -a number of years consignments of the eggs, or the young, or adult fish, -were made. Although at least partially successful, the fish has never -been domiciliated in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be -reasonably expected that it would be, knowing, as we do, its -sensitiveness to cold and the climates under which it thrives. - -"The fish of paradise (_Macropodus viridi-auratus_) is a species -remarkable for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and especially -of the ventrals, which has obtained for it the generic name -_Macropodus_. To some extent this species has also been made the subject -of fish-culture, but with reference to its beauty and exhibition in -aquaria and ponds, like the goldfish, rather than for its food -qualities. - -"The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the -fighting-fish (_Betta pugnax_). It is cultivated by the natives of Siam, -and a special race seems to have been the result of such cultivation. -The fishes are kept in glasses of water and fed, among other things, -with the larvæ of mosquitoes or other aquatic insects. 'The Siamese are -as infatuated with the combats of these fishes as the Malays are with -their cock-fights, and stake on the issue considerable sums, and -sometimes their own persons and families. The license to exhibit -fish-fights is farmed, and brings a considerable annual revenue to the -king of Siam. The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the -hills of Penang. The inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the -'fighting-fish.'" - -The _Helostomidæ_ are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the lips and -with long intestines. _Helostoma temmincki_ lives in the rivers of Java, -Borneo, and Sumatra. - -The _Luciocephalidæ_ of East Indian rivers have the suprabranchial organ -small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a membrane. In these species -there are no spines in the dorsal and anal, while in the _Anabantidæ_ -and _Osphromenidæ_ numerous spines are developed both in the dorsal and -anal. _Luciocephalus pulcher_ indicates a transition toward the -_Ophicephalidæ_. - -=The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.=—The family of _Ophicephalidæ_, -snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among the _Percesoces_ by -Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer the Labyrinthine fishes, of which -it is perhaps a degenerate descendant. The body is long, cylindrical, -covered with firm scales which on the head are often larger and -shield-like. The mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit -carnivorous and voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but -the thoracic position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like -forms and the absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of -degradation, the more so as in one genus (_Channa_) the ventrals are -wanting altogether. The numerous species are found in the rivers of -southern China and India, crossing to Formosa and to Africa. They are -extremely tenacious of life, and are carried alive by the Chinese to San -Francisco and to Hawaii, where they are now naturalized, being known as -"China-fishes." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 304.—_Channa formosana_ Jordan & Evermann. Streams of Formosa. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 305.—Snake-headed China-fish, _Ophicephalus barca_. India. (After - Day.) -] - -These fishes have no special organ for holding water on the gills, but -the gill space may be partly closed by a membrane. According to Dr. -Günther, these fishes are "able to survive drought living in semi-fluid -mud or lying in a torpid state below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom -of a tank from which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is -probably entirely suspended during the state of torpidity, but whilst -the mud is still soft enough to allow them to come to the surface, they -rise at intervals to take in a quantity of air, by means of which their -blood is oxygenized. This habit has been observed in some species to -continue also to the period of the year in which the fish lives in -normal water, and individuals which are kept in a basin and prevented -from coming to the surface and renewing the air for respiratory purposes -are suffocated. The particular manner in which the accessory branchial -cavity participates in respiratory functions is not known. It is a -simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the opening of -which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane." - -_Ophicephalus striatus_ is the most widely diffused species in China, -India, and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and biting at any -bait from a live frog to an artificial salmon-fly. It has been -introduced into Hawaii. _Ophicephalus marulius_ is another very common -species, as is also _Channa orientalis_, known by the absence of ventral -fins. - -=Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.=—Another offshoot from the -perch-like forms is the small suborder of _Holconoti_ (ὅλκος, furrow; -νῶτος, back). It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much in -common with the _Gerridæ_ and _Sparidæ_, but with certain striking -characteristics not possessed by any perch or bass. All the species are -viviparous, bringing forth their young alive, these being in small -number and born at an advanced stage of development. The lower -pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the _Labridæ_, a group which these -fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects. The soft dorsal and anal -are formed of many fine rays, the anal being peculiarly modified in the -male sex. The nostrils, ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle have the -structure normal among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow, which -suggested to Agassiz the name of _Holconoti_, is also found among -various perch-like forms. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 306.—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, _Cymatogaster - aggregatus_ Gibbons. San Francisco. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 307.—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, _Hysterocarpus traski_ - Gibbons. Sacramento River. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 308.—_Hypsurus caryi_ (Agassiz). Monterey. -] - -=The Embiotocidæ.=—The group contains a single family, the -_Embiotocidæ_, or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined -to California, these two living in Japan. The species are relatively -small fishes, from five inches to eighteen inches in length, with rather -large, usually silvery scales, small mouths and small teeth. They feed -mainly on crustaceans, two or three species being herbivorous. With two -exceptions, they inhabit the shallow waters on sandy beaches, where they -bring forth their young. They can be readily taken in nets in the surf. -As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the flesh being somewhat watery -and with little flavor. Many are dried by the Chinese. The two -exceptions in distribution are _Hysterocarpus traski_, which lives -exclusively in fresh waters, being confined to the lowlands of the -Sacramento Basin, and _Zalembius rosaceus_, which descends to -considerable depths in the sea. In _Hysterocarpus_ the spinous dorsal is -very greatly developed, seventeen stout spines being present, the others -having but eight to eleven and these very slender. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 309.—White Surf-fish, _Damalichthys argyrosomus_ (Girard). - British Columbia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 310.—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, _Rhacochilus toxotes_ Agassiz. - Monterey, Cal. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 311.—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), _Hypocritichthys analis_ - (Agassiz). Monterey. -] - -The details of structure vary greatly among the different species, for -which reason almost every species has been properly made the type of a -distinct genus. The two species found in Japan are _Ditrema temmincki_ -and _Neoditrema ransonneti_. In the latter species the female is always -toothless. Close to _Ditrema_ is the blue surf-fish of California, -_Embiotoca jacksoni_, the first discovered and perhaps the commonest -species. _Tæniotoca lateralis_ is remarkable for its bright coloration, -greenish, with orange stripes. _Hypsurus caryi_, still brighter in -color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal region very long. -_Phanerodon furcatus_ and _P. atripes_ are dull silvery in color, as in -_Damalichthys argyrosomus_, the white surf-fish, which ranges northward -to Vancouver Island, and is remarkable for the extraordinary size of its -lower pharyngeals. _Holconotus rhodoterus_ is a large, rosy species, and -_Amphistichus argenteus_ a large species with dull yellowish -cross-bands. _Rhachochilus toxotes_ is the largest species in the family -and the one most valued as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping, -ragged lips. _Hyperprosopon arcuatus_, the wall-eye surf-fish, is -brilliantly silvery, with very large eyes. _H. agassizi_ closely -resembles it, as does also the dwarf species, _Hypocritichthys analis_, -to which the Japanese _Neoditrema ransonneti_ is very nearly related. -The other species are all small. _Abeona minima_ and _A. aurora_ feed on -seaweed. _Brachyistius frenatus_ is the smallest of all, orange-red in -color, while its relative, _Zalembius rosaceus_, is handsomest of all, -rose-red with a black lateral spot. _Cymatogaster aggregatus_, the -surf-shiner, is a little fish, excessively common along the California -coast, and from its abundance it has been selected by Dr. Eigenmann as -the basis of his studies of these fishes. In this species the male shows -golden and black markings, which are wanting in the silvery female, and -the anterior rays of the anal are thickened or otherwise modified. - -No fossil embiotocoids are recorded. - -The viviparity of the Embiotocidæ was first made known by Dr. A. C. -Jackson in 1863 in a letter to Professor Agassiz. From this letter we -make the following extracts: - -"A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on the _7th of -June_, I rose early in the morning for the purpose of taking a mess of -fish for breakfast, pulled to the usual place, baited with crabs, and -commenced fishing, the wind blowing too strong for profitable angling; -nevertheless on the first and second casts I fastened the two fishes, -male and female, that I write about, and such were their liveliness and -strength that they endangered my slight trout rod. I, however, succeeded -in bagging both, though in half an hour's subsequent work I got not even -a nibble from either this or any other species of fish. I determined to -change the bait, to put upon my hook a portion of the fish already -caught, and cut for that purpose into the larger of the two fish caught. -I intended to take a piece from the thin part of the belly, when what -was my surprise to see coming from the opening thus made _a small live -fish_. This I at first supposed to be prey which this fish had -swallowed, but on further opening the fish I was vastly astonished to -find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached to it _a long -very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent that I could already -distinguish through it the shape, color, and formation of a multitude_ -of small fish (_all facsimiles of each other_), with which it was well -filled. I took it on board (we were occupying a small vessel which we -had purchased for surveying purposes). When I opened the bag, I took -therefrom _eighteen_ more of the young fish, precisely like in size, -shape, and color the first I had accidentally extracted. The _mother was -very large round her center and of a very dark-brown color, approaching -about the back and on the fins a black color, and a remarkably vigorous -fish_. The young which I took from her were in shape, save as to -rotundity, perfect miniatures of the mother, formed like her, and of the -same general proportions, except that the old one was (probably owing to -her pregnancy) much broader and wider between the top of the dorsal and -the ventral fins in proportion to her length than the young were. _As to -color, they were in all respects like the mother, though the shades were -many degrees lighter._ Indeed, they were in all respects like their -mother and like each other, the same peculiar mouth, the same position -and shape of the fins, and the same eyes and gills, and there cannot -remain in the mind of any one who sees the fish in the same state that I -did a single doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from -whose body I took them, and _that this species of fish gives birth to -her young alive and perfectly formed, and adapted to seeking its own -livelihood in the water. The number of young in the bag was nineteen_ (I -fear I misstated the number in my former letter), _and every one as -brisk and lively and as much at home in a bucket of salt water as if -they had been for months accustomed to the water_. The male fish that -was caught was not quite as large as the female, either in length or -circumference, and altogether a more slim fish. I think we may -reasonably expect to receive the specimens by the first of December. But -I can hardly hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as I found -it, with young well grown, before the return of the same season, viz., -June. By that time I trust the facts will be fully decided, and the -results, as important as they may be, fully appreciated." - -Dr. Jackson's specimens came from Sausalito Bay, near San Francisco. -Soon after the publication of this letter a similar discovery was made -independently by Dr. William P. Gibbons, of Alameda. Still other -specimens were made known in 1854 by Dr. Charles Girard, these having -been collected in connection with the United States Pacific Railroad -Surveys. The species first examined by Dr. Jackson was named by Agassiz -_Embiotoca jacksoni_. - -In Professor Agassiz's comments on Dr. Jackson's discovery he makes the -following observations (_Amer. Jour. Science and Arts_, 1854): - -"The female genital apparatus in the state of pregnancy consists of a -large bag the appearance of which in the living animal has been -described by Mr. Jackson. Upon the surface of it large vascular -ramifications are seen, and it is subdivided internally into a number of -distinct pouches, opening by wide slits into the lower part of the sac. -This sac seems to be nothing but the widened lower end of the ovary, and -the pouches within it to be formed by the folds of the ovary itself. In -each of these pouches a young is wrapped up as in a sheet, and all are -packed in the most economical manner as far as saving space is -concerned, some having their head turned forwards and others backwards. -_This is, therefore, a normal ovarian gestation._ The external genital -opening is situated behind the anus, upon the summit and in the center -of a conical protuberance formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in its -place by two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls. -The number of young contained in this sac seems to vary. Mr. Jackson -counted nineteen; I have seen only eight or nine in the specimens sent -by Mr. Cary, but since these were open when received it is possible that -some had been taken out. However, their size is most remarkable in -proportion to the mother. In a specimen of _Emb. jacksoni_ 10½ inches -long and 4½ high the young were nearly 3 inches long and 1 inch high; -and in an _Emb. caryi_ 8 inches long and 3¼ high the young were 2¾ -inches long and ⅞ of an inch high. Judging from their size, I suspected -for some time that the young could move in and out of this sac like -young opossums, but on carefully examining the position of the young in -the pouches, and also the contracted condition of the sphincter at the -external orifice of the sexual organs, I remained satisfied that this -could not be the case, and that the young which Mr. Jackson found so -lively after putting them in a bucket of salt water had then for the -first time come into free contact with the element in which they were -soon to live; but at the same time it can hardly be doubted that the -water penetrates into the marsupial sac, since these young have fully -developed gills. The size of the young compared with that of the mother -is very remarkable, being full one-third its length in the one, and -nearly so in the other species. Indeed these young Embiotocæ, not yet -hatched, are three or four times larger than the young of a Pomotis (of -the same size) a full year old. In this respect these fishes differ from -all the other viviparous species known to us. There is another feature -about them of considerable interest, that while the two adults differ -markedly in coloration, the young have the same dress, light yellowish -olive with deeper and brighter transverse bands, something like the -young trout and salmon in their parr dress." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 312.—Viviparous Perch (male), _Hysterocarpus traski_ Gibbons. - Battle Creek, Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - - - - - CHAPTER XXII - CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI - - -=SUBORDER Chromides.=—The suborder _Chromides_ contains spiny-rayed -fishes similar to the perch-like forms in most regards, but strikingly -distinguished by the complete union of the lower pharyngeal bones, as in -the _Holconoti_ and _Pharyngognathi_, and still more remarkably by the -presence of but one nasal opening on each side. In all the perch-like -fishes and in nearly all others there are two nasal openings or nostrils -on each side, these two entering into the same nasal sac. In all the -_Chromides_ the lateral line is incomplete or interrupted, and the -scales are usually large and ctenoid. - -=The Cichlidæ.=—The suborder _Chromides_ includes two families, -_Cichlidæ_, and _Pomacentridæ_. The _Cichlidæ_ are fresh-water fishes of -the tropics, characterized by the presence of three to ten spines in the -anal fin. In size, color, appearance, habits, and food value they bear a -striking resemblance to the fresh-water sunfishes, or _Centrarchidæ_, of -the eastern United States. This resemblance is one of analogy only, for -in structure the _Cichlidæ_ have no more in common with the -_Centrarchidæ_ than with other families of perch or bass. The numerous -species of _Cichlidæ_ are confined to tropical America and to -corresponding districts in Africa and western Asia. _Tilapia nilotica_ -abounds in the Nile. _Tilapia galilæa_ is found in the river Jordan and -the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to form part of the great -draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels, and a black spot on the side -is held to commemorate the touch of Simon Peter. Numerous other species -of _Cichlidæ_, large and small, abound in central Africa, even in the -salt ditches of the Sahara. - -The species of _Cichla_, especially _Cichla ocellaris_, of the rivers of -South America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong analogy to the -black bass of farther north. A vast number of species belonging to -_Heros_, _Acara_, _Cichlasoma_, _Geophagus_, _Chætobranchus_, and -related genera swarm in the Amazon region. Each of the large rivers of -Mexico has one or more species; one of these, _Heros cyanoguttatus_, -occurs in the Rio Grande and the rivers of southern Texas, its range -corresponding with that of _Tetragonopterus argentatus_, just as the -range of the whole family of _Cichlidæ_ corresponds with that of the -_Characinidæ_. No other species of either family enters the United -States. A similar species, _Heros tetracanthus_, abounds in the rivers -of Cuba, and another, _Heros beani_, called the mojarra verde, in the -streams of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America -_Cichlidæ_ and _Characinidæ_ are very abundant. One fossil genus is -known, called _Priscacara_ by Cope. _Priscacara clivosa_ and other -species occur in the Eocene of Green River and the Great Basin of Utah. -In this genus vomerine teeth are said to be present, and there are three -anal spines. None of the living _Cichlidæ_ have vomerine teeth. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 313.—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), _Hypsypops rubicunda_ - (Girard). La Jolla, San Diego, Cal. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 314.—_Pomacentrus leucostictus_ (Müller & Troschel), Damsel-fish. - Family _Pomacentridæ_. -] - -=The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.=—The _Pomacentridæ_, called -rock-pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in all -cases but two anal spines. The species are often very brilliantly -colored, lustrous metallic blue and orange or scarlet being the -prevailing shades among the bright-colored species. Their habits in the -reef pools correspond very closely with those of the _Chætodontidæ_. -With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly-fishes, the exceeding -alertness and quickness of movement make up for lack of protective -colors. With both groups the choice of rocky basins, crevices in the -coral, and holes in coral reefs preserves them from attacks of enemies -large enough to destroy them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of -living coral are often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The -_Pomacentridæ_ are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to -the northward of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored -differently from the adult, having sky-blue spots and often ocelli on -the fins, which disappear with age. But one species _Chromis chromis_, -is found in the Mediterranean. _Chromis punctipinnis_, the blacksmith, -is found in southern California, and _Chromis notatus_ is the common -dogoro of Japan. One of the largest species, reaching the length of a -foot, is the Garibaldi, _Hypsypops rubicundus_, of the rocky shores of -southern California. This fish, when full grown, is of a pure bright -scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue spots. Species of -_Pomacentrus_, locally known as pescado azul, abound in the West Indies -and on the west coast of Mexico. _Pomacentrus fuscus_ is the commonest -West Indian species, and _Pomacentrus rectifrenum_ the most abundant on -the west coast of Mexico, the young, of an exquisite sky-blue, crowding -the rock pools. _Pomacentrus_ of many species, blue, scarlet, black, and -golden, abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is -without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest -development in the south seas. About forty different species of -_Pomacentrus_ and _Glyphisodon_ occur in the corals of the harbor of -Apia in Samoa. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 315.—Cockeye Pilot, _Glyphisodon marginatus_ (Bloch). Cuba. -] - -Almost equally abundant are the species of _Glyphisodon_. The "cockeye -pilot," or jaqueta, _Glyphisodon marginatus_, green with black bands, -swarms in the West Indies, occasionally ranging northward, and is -equally common on the west coast of Mexico. _Glyphisodon abdominalis_ -replaces it in Hawaii, and the Asiatic _Glyphisodon saxatilis_ is -perhaps the parent of both. _Glyphisodon sordidus_ banded with pale and -with a black ocellus below the soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to -the Red Sea, and is a food-fish of some importance. _Glyphisodon -cœlestinus_ blue, with black bands, abounds in the south seas. - -The many species of _Amphiprion_ are always brilliant, red or orange, -usually marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy blue. _Amphiprion -melanopus_ abounds in the south seas. _Azurina hirundo_ is a slender -species of lower California of a brilliant metallic blue. All these -species are carnivorous, feeding on shrimps, worms, and the like. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 316.—Indigo Damsel fish, _Microspathodon dorsalis_ (Gill). - Mazatlan, Mex. -] - -_Microspathodon_ is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being loosely -implanted in the jaws. _Microspathodon dorsalis_, of the west coast of -Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer-like fins. -_Microspathodon chrysurus_, of the West Indian coral reefs, black with -round blue spots and the tail yellow. This family is probably of recent -origin, as few fossils are referred to it. _Odonteus pygmæus_ of the -Eocene perhaps belongs to it. - -=Suborder Pharyngognathi.=—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, constituting -the group called _Pharyngognathi_ (φαρύγξ, gullet; γνάθος, jaw), by -Johannes Müller, have the lower pharyngeal bones much enlarged and -solidly united, their teeth being either rounded or else flat and paved. -The nostrils, ventral fins, pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the -ordinary perch-like type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized, -usually large and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills -are reduced in number, 3½ instead of 4, with no slit behind the last -half gill. The scales are always cycloid and are usually large. In the -tropical forms the vertebræ are always twenty-four in number (10 + 14), -but in northern forms the number is largely increased with a -proportionate increase in the number and strength of the dorsal spines. -All the species are strictly marine, and the coloration is often the -most highly specialized and brilliant known among fishes, the -predominant shade being blue. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 317.—Tautog, _Tautoga onitis_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and snails, which -they crush with their strong teeth, there being often a strong canine at -the posterior end of the premaxillary, which holds the snail while the -lower jaw acts upon it. The species are very numerous and form the most -conspicuous feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They -abound especially in the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are -good for food, though all are relatively flavorless, the flesh being -rather soft and not oily. - -=The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.=—The principal family is that of the -_Labridæ_, characterized by the presence of separate teeth in the front -of the jaws. Numerous fossil species are known from the Eocene and -Miocene. Most of these are known only from the lower pharyngeal bones. -_Labrodon_ is the most widely diffused genus, probably allied to -_Labrus_, but with a pile of successional teeth beneath each functional -tooth. The species are mostly from the Miocene. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 318.—Tautog, _Tautoga onitis_ (L.). (From life by Dr. R. W. - Shufeldt.) -] - -The northern forms of _Labridæ_ are known as wrasse on the coasts of -England. Among these are _Labrus bergylta_, the ballan wrasse; _Labrus -viridis_, the green wrasse; _Labrus ossiphagus_, the red wrasse; and -_Labrus merula_, the black wrasse. _Acantholabrus palloni_ and -_Centrolabrus exoletus_ have more than three anal spines. The latter -species, known as rock cook, is abundant in western Norway, as far north -as Throndhjem, its range extending to the northward beyond that of any -other Labroid. Allied to these, on the American coast, is the tautog or -blackfish, _Tautoga onitis_, a common food-fish, dusky in color with -excellent white flesh, especially abundant on the coast of New England. -With this, and still more abundant, is the cunner or chogset, -_Tautogolabrus adspersus_, greenish-blue in color, the flesh being also -more or less blue. This fish is too small to have much value as food, -but it readily takes the hook set for better fishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 319.—Capitaine or Hogfish, _Lachnolaimus falcatus_. Florida. -] - -In the Mediterranean are found many species of _Crenilabrus_, gaily -colored, each species having its own peculiar pattern and its own -arrangement of inky spots. Among these are _Crenilabrus mediterraneus_, -_Crenilabrus pavo_, and _Crenilabrus griseus_. With these are the small -species called _Ctenolabrus rupestris_, the goldsinny, much like the -American cunner, and the long-nosed _Symphodus scina_. - -Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capitaine or hogfish, -_Lachnolaimus maximus_, a great fish, crimson in color, with its fin -spines ending in long streamers; _Bodianus rufus_, the Spanish ladyfish -or pudiano, half crimson, half golden. _Halichæres radiatus_, the -pudding-wife (a mysterious word derived from "oldwife" and the -Portuguese name, pudiano), a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked. -Of the smaller species, _Clepticus parræ_, the janissary, with very -small teeth, _Halichœres bivittatus_, the slippery-dick, ranging -northward to Cape Hatteras, and _Doratonotus megalepis_, of an intense -grass-green color, are among the most notable. The razor-fish, -_Xyrichthys psittacus_, red, with the forehead compressed to a sharp -edge, is found in the Mediterranean as well as throughout the West -Indies, where several other species of razor-fish also occur. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 320.—Razor-fish, _Xyrichthys psittacus_ (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 321.—Redfish (male), _Pimelometopon pulcher_ (Ayres). San Diego. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 322.—_Lepidaplois perditio_ (Quoy & Gaimard). Wakanoura, Japan. -] - -Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast of America. -_Pimelometopon pulcher_, the redfish or fathead of southern California, -reaches a length of two feet or more. It abounds in the broad band of -giant kelp which lines the California coast and is a food-fish of much -importance. The female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail -are black and on the top of the head is developed with age a great -adipose hump. A similar hump is found on the adult of several other -large labroids. Similar species on the coast of South America, differing -in color and size of scales, are _Pimelometopon darwini_, _Trochocopus -opercularis_, and _Bodianus diplotænia_. The señorita, _Oxyjulis -californica_, is a dainty cream-colored little fish of the California -coast, _Halichœres semicinctus_, the kelpfish, light olive, the male -with a blue shoulder bar, is found in southern California. On the west -coast of Mexico are numerous species of _Thalassoma_, _Halichœres_, -_Pseudojulis_, _Xyrichthys_ and _Iniistius_, all different from the -corresponding species in the West Indies, and equally different from the -much greater variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian -and West Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of every -shade and pattern of bright colors—blue, green, golden, scarlet, -crimson, purple—as if painted on with lavish hand and often in the most -gaudy pattern, although at times laid on with the greatest delicacy. The -most brilliant species belong to _Thalassoma_ and _Julis_, the most -delicately colored to _Stethojulis_ and _Cirrhilabrus_. In _Gomphosus_ -the snout is prolonged on a long slender tube. In _Cheilio_ the whole -body is elongate. In _Iniistius_ the first two dorsal spines form a -separate fin, the forehead being sharp as in _Xyrichthys_. Other widely -distributed genera are _Anampses_, _Lepidaplois_, _Semicossyphus_, -_Duymæria_, _Platyglossus_, _Pseudolabrus_, _Hologymnosus_, -_Macropharyngodon_, _Coris_, _Julis_, _Hemipteronotus_, -_Novaculichthys_, _Cheilinus_, _Hemigymnus_, and _Cymolutes_. -_Halichœres_ is as abundant in the East Indies as in the West, one of -its species _Halichœres pæcilopterus_ being common as far north as -Hakodate in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes are very -different in color, although in most species no external sexual -differences of any sort appear. In the East Indian genus, -_Pseudocheilinus_, the eye is very greatly modified. The cornea is -thickened, forming two additional lens-like structures. - -The small family of _Odacidæ_ differs from the Labridæ in having in each -jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth anteriorly, the -pharyngeal teeth being pavement-like. The scales are small, very much -smaller than in the _Scaridæ_, the body more elongate, and the structure -of the teeth different. The species are mostly Australian, _Odax -balteatus_ being the most abundant. It is locally known as kelpfish. - -In the _Siphonognathidæ_ the teeth are much as in the _Odacidæ_, but the -body is very elongate, the snout produced as in the cornet-fishes -(_Fistularia_), and the upper jaw ends in a long skinny appendage. -_Siphonognathus argyrophanes_, from Australia, reaches a length of -sixteen inches. - -=The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.=—The parrot-fishes, or _Scaridæ_, are very -similar to the _Labridæ_ in form, color, and scales, but differ in the -more or less complete fusion of the teeth, a character which varies in -the different genera. - -Of these the most primitive is _Calotomus_, confined to the East Indies -and Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united at base, their tips -free and imbricated over the surface of the jaw. - -The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. _Calotomus -japonicus_ is the Budai or Igami of Japan. _Calotomus sandwichensis_ and -_Calotomus irradians_ are found in Hawaii, and _Calotomus xenodon_ on -the off-shore islands of Mexico. In _Calotomus_ the dorsal spines are -slender. In _Scaridea_ (_balia_) of the Hawaiian Islands the first -dorsal is formed of pungent spines as in _Sparisoma_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 323.—Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, _Sparisoma cretense_ - (L.). _a_, upper; _b_, lower. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 324.—Jaws of a Parrot-fish, _Calotomus xenodon_ Gilbert. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 325.—_Cryptotomus beryllinus_ Jordan & Swain. Key West, Florida. -] - -_Cryptotomus_ of the Atlantic is also a transitional group having the -general characters of _Sparisoma_, but the anterior teeth more separate. -The several species are all small and characteristic of the West Indian -fauna, one species, _Cryptotomus beryllinus_, ranging northward to Long -Island. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 326.—_Sparisoma hoplomystax_ (Cope). Key West. -] - -In the large genus _Sparisoma_ the teeth are more completely joined. In -this group, which is found only in the tropical Atlantic, the lower -pharyngeals are broader than long and hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws -are not completely united, the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral -line not interrupted, and the gill membranes broadly united to the -isthmus. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 327.—_Sparisoma abildgaardi_ (Bloch), Red Parrot-fish. Loro, - Colorado. Family _Scaridæ_. -] - -Of the numerous species the dull-colored _Sparisoma flavescens_ is most -abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther north than any other. -_Sparisoma cretense_, the _Scarus_ of the ancients, is found in the -Mediterranean, being the only member of the family known in Europe and -the only _Sparisoma_ known from outside the West Indian fauna. - -Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, _Sparisoma -abildgaardi_, _Sparisoma xystrodon_, _Sparisoma hoplomystax_, the last -two being small species about the Florida Keys, and the handsome -_Sparisoma viride_ from the West Indies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 328.—Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, _Scarus cæruleus_ (Bloch). -] - -_Scarus_ is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its members are -especially abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies, the center of -distribution of the group, although some extend their range to western -Mexico, Japan, the Red Sea, and Australia, and a large number are found -in the West Indies. Most of them are fishes of large size, but a few, as -the West Indian _Scarus croicensis_, reach the length of less than a -foot, and other still smaller species (_Scarus evermanni_, _Scarus -bollmani_) are found only in water of considerable depth (200 fathoms). - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 329.—Upper pharyngeals of an Indian Parrot-fish, _Scarus - strongylocephalus_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 330.—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus - strongylocephalus_ (Bleeker). -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 331.—_Scarus emblematicus_ Jordan & Rutter. Jamaica. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 332.—_Scarus cœruleus_ (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul. - Family _Scaridæ_. -] - -The genus _Scarus_ is characterized by not only the almost complete -fusion of its teeth, but by numerous other characters. Its lower -pharyngeals are oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth appearing as a mosaic -on the concave surface. The gill-membranes are scarcely united to the -narrow isthmus, the lateral line is interrupted, the dorsal spines are -flexible, and there are but few scales on the head. These, as well as -the scales of the body, are always large. The most highly specialized of -its species have the teeth deep blue in color, a character which marks -the genus or subgenus _Pseudoscarus_. Of the species of this type, the -loro, _Pseudoscarus cœlestinus_, and the more abundant guacamaia, -_Pseudoscarus guacamaia_ (fig. 215 vol. I) of the West Indies, are -characteristic forms. The perrico, _Pseudoscarus perrico_ of the west -coast of Mexico, and the great blue parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and -Samoa, _Pseudoscarus jordani_, belong to this type. _Pseudoscarus -jordani_ was formerly tabu to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant -colors and toothsome flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly -valued fish at the royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily -at a dollar or more per pound. To this type belong also the blue -parrot-fish, _Pseudoscarus ovifrons_, of Japan. In the restricted genus -_Scarus_ proper the teeth are pale. The great blue parrot-fish, of the -West Indies, _Scarus cœruleus_, belongs to this group. This species, -deep blue in color, reaches a large size, and the adult has a large -fleshy hump on the forehead. Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and with -showy coloration are the West Indian species _Scarus tæniopterus_, -_Scarus vetula_, _Scarus croicensis_, etc. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 333.—_Scarus vetula_ Bloch & Schneider, Parrot-fish. Family - _Scaridæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 334.—Slippery-dick or Doncella, _Halichœres bivittatus_ (Bloch), - a fish of the coral reefs. Key West. Family _Labridæ_. -] - -Very many species of both _Scarus_ and _Pseudoscarus_, green, blue, -red-brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs of Polynesia. -About twenty-five species occur in Samoa. _Pseudoscarus latax_ and _P. -ultramarinus_ being large and showy species, chiefly blue. _Pseudoscarus -prasiognathus_ is deep red with the jaws bright blue. - -Fossil species referred to _Scarus_ but belonging rather to _Sparisoma_ -are found in the later Tertiary. The genera _Phyllodus_, _Egertonia_, -and _Paraphyllodus_ of the Eocene perhaps form a transition from -_Labridæ_ to _Scaridæ_. In _Paraphyllodus medius_ the three median teeth -of the lower pharyngeals are greatly widened, extending across the -surface of the bone. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII - THE SQUAMIPINNES - - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 335.—_Monodactylus argenteus_ (Linnæus). From Apia, Samoa. Family - _Scorpididæ_. -] - -=The Squamipinnes.=—Very closely allied to the _Percomorphi_ is the -great group called _Squamipinnes_ (_squama_, scale; _pinna_, fin) by -Cuvier and _Epelasmia_ by Cope. With a general agreement with the -_Percomorphi_, it is distinguished by the more or less complete -soldering of the post-temporal with the cranium. In the more specialized -forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the upper jaw, and a -progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening. The ventral fin -retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the perch mackerel-like -forms, it has one spine and five rays, never any more. The ventral fins -are occasionally lost in the adult, as in the _Stromateidæ_, or they may -lose part of their rays. The name _Squamipinnes_ refers to the scaly -fins, the typical species having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and -caudal, and sometimes of other fins densely covered with small scales. -In various aberrant forms these scales are absent. The name _Epelasmia_ -(ἔπι, above; ἐλάσμος, plate) refers to the thin upper pharyngeals -characteristic of certain forms. The transition from this group to the -_Sclerodermi_ is very clear and very gradual. The _Squamipinnes_, -_Sclerodermi_, _Ostracodermi_, and _Gymnodontes_ form a continuous -degenerating series. On the other hand the less specialized -_Squamipinnes_ approach very closely to forms already considered. The -_Antigoniidæ_ are of uncertain affinities, possibly derived from such -forms as _Histiopteridæ_, while _Platax_ show considerable resemblance -to scaly-finned fishes like the _Kyphosidæ_ and _Stromateidæ_. The -_Scorpididæ_ seem intermediate between _Stromateidæ_ and _Platacidæ_. In -such offshoots from _Scombroidei_ or _Percoidei_ the group doubtless had -its origin. - -We may begin the series with some forms which are of doubtful affinity -and more or less intermediate between the _Squamipinnes_ and the more -primitive _Percomorphi_. - -=The Scorpididæ.=—This family has the general appearance of _Platax_ and -_Ilarches_, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the post-temporal is -free from the skull as in perch-like fishes. The species inhabit the -Pacific. _Scorpis georgianus_ is a food-fish of Australia, with the body -oblong. _Monodactylus argenteus_, the toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular -in form, while _Psettus sebæ_ is twice as deep as long, the -deepest-bodied of all fishes in proportion to its length. - -=The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.=—The boarfishes (_Antigoniidæ_) are -characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales, the -post-temporal, as in the _Chætodontidæ_ and the _Zeidæ_, being adnate to -the skull. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 336.—_Psettus sebæ_ Cuv. & Val. East Indies. -] - -These fishes bear some resemblance to _Zeus_, but there is no evidence -of close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to the -_Chætodontidæ_. _Capros aper_, the boarfish, is common in southern -Europe, reaching a length of less than a foot, the protractile mouth -suggesting that of a pig. The diamond-fishes, _Antigonia_, are deeper -than long and strongly compressed, the body being covered with roughish -scales. The color is salmon-red and the species live just below the -depths ordinarily explored by fishermen. _Antigonia capros_ is found at -Madeira and in the West Indies, _Antigonia steindachneri_ about Hawaii -and in Japan, while the smaller _Antigonia rubescens_ is abundant in the -Japanese bays at a depth reached by the dredge. An extinct genus, -_Proantigonia_ from the Miocene is said to connect _Antigonia_ with -_Capros_. - -=The Arches: Toxotidæ.=—The archers, _Toxotidæ_, have the body -compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five spines. -The skeleton differs widely from that of _Chætodon_ and the family -should perhaps rather find its place among the percoids. _Toxotes -jaculatrix_ is found in the East Indies. The name alludes to its -supposed habit of catching insects by shooting drops of water at them -through its long mouth. - -=The Ephippidæ.=—With the typical _Squamipinnes_, the teeth become very -slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least specialized family is -that of _Ephippidæ_, characterized by the presence of four anal spines -and a recumbent spine before the dorsal. The principal genus, _Ephippus_ -(_Scatophagus_), is represented by _Ephippus argus_, a small, bass-like -fish, spotted with black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging -northward to Formosa. Species referred to _Ephippus_ (_Scatophagus_) are -recorded from the Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of -_Toxotes_ has been also found. - -=The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.=—In the _Ilarchidæ_ the dorsal is divided -into two fins, the spinous part being free from scales. In various -regards the species are intermediate between ordinary perch-like forms -and the chætodonts. In these fishes the body is very deep and, with the -soft fins, closely covered with roughish scales. In _Ilarches_ -(_Ephippus_), represented by _Ilarches orbis_ of the Indian seas, these -scales are relatively large. This species is a common food-fish from -India to Formosa. - -In the American genus, _Chætodipterus_, the scales are quite small. The -spadefish (_Chætodipterus faber_), sometimes called also moonfish or -angel-fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a length of two feet. -It is rather common from Cape Cod to Cuba, and is an excellent pan fish, -with finely flavored white flesh. The young are marked by black -cross-bands which disappear with age, and in the adult the -supraoccipital crest is greatly thickened and the skull otherwise -modified. A very similar species, _Chætodipterus zonatus_, occurs on the -west coast of Mexico. Species allied to _Chætodipterus_ are fossil in -the Italian Eocene. The _Drepanidæ_ of the East Indies are close to the -_Ilarchidæ_. _Drepane punctata_ is a large, deep-bodied fish resembling -the spadefish but with larger scales. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 337.—Spadefish, _Chætodipterus faber_ (L.). Virginia. -] - -=The Platacidæ.=—Closely related to the _Ilarchidæ_ is also the East -Indian family of _Platacidæ_, remarkable for the very great depth and -compression of the body, which is much deeper than long, and the highly -elevated dorsal and anal still further emphasize this peculiarity of -form. In this group the few dorsal spines are closely attached to the -soft rays and the general color is dusky. In the young the body is -deeper than in the adult and the ventral fins much more produced. The -best-known species is the tsuzume or batfish (_Platax orbicularis_), -which ranges from India through the warm current to northern Japan. -_Platax teira_, farther south, is very similar. _Platax_ _altissimus_, -with a very high dorsal, is a fossil in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 338.—Butterfly-fish, _Chætodon capistratus_ Linnæus. Jamaica. -] - -=The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.=—The central family of -_Squamipinnes_ is that of the butterfly-fishes or _Chætodontidæ_. In -this group the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth small, the -dorsal fin continuous and closely scaly, and the ventral fins with one -spine and five rays. The species are mostly of small size and brilliant -and varied coloration, yellow and black being the leading colors. They -vary considerably with age, the young having the posterior free edges of -the bones of the head produced, forming a sort of collar. These forms -have received the name of _Tholichthys_, but that supposed genus is -merely the young of _Chætodon_. The species of _Chætodontidæ_ abound in -rock pools and about coral reefs in clear water. They are among the most -characteristic forms of these waters and their excessive quickness of -movement compensates for their conspicuous coloration. In these confined -localities they have, however, few enemies. The broad bodies and spinous -fins make them rather difficult for a large fish to swallow. They feed -on small crustaceans, worms, and the like. The analogy to the butterfly -is a striking one, giving rise to the English name, butterfly-fish, the -Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chochouwo, all having the same -meaning. Fossil chætodonts are rather few, _Chætodon pseudorhombus_ of -the Pliocene of France, _Holocanthus microcephalus_ and _Pomacanthus -subarcuatus_ of the Eocene, being the only species recorded by Zittel. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 339.—Black Angel-fish, _Pomacanthus arcuatus_ (Linnæus). - Barnegat, New Jersey. -] - -In the principal genus, _Chætodon_, the colors are especially bright. -There is almost always a black bar across the eye, and often black -ocelli adorn the fins. This genus is wanting in Europe. _Chætodon -capistratus_, _striatus_, and numerous other species are found in the -West Indies; _Chætodon humeralis_ and _nigrirostris_ are common on the -coast of Mexico. The center of their distribution is in Polynesia and -the East Indian Archipelago. _Chætodon reticulatus_, _lineolatus_, -_ulietensis_, _ornatissimus_, _ephippion_, _setifer_, and _auriga_ are -among the most showy species. Numerous closely related genera are -described. In some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube, -bearing the jaws at its end. Of this type are _Chelmo_ in India, -_Forcipiger_ in Polynesia, and _Prognathodes_ in the West Indies. -_Heniochus_ (_macrolepidotus_) has one dorsal spine greatly elongated. -_Microcanthus strigatus_, one of the most widely distributed species, is -known by its small scales. _Megaprotodon_ (_triangularis_) has four anal -spines instead of three as in the others. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 340.—Angel-fish or Isabelita, _Holacanthus ciliaris_ (Linnæus). - Jamaica. Family _Chætodontidæ_. -] - -The species of _Holacanthus_, known as angel-fishes, are larger in size, -and their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet or blue. In -this genus the preopercle is armed with a strong spine, and there are -fourteen or more strong spines in the dorsal. This genus has also its -center of distribution in the East Indies, whence two species -(_septentrionalis_ and _ronin_) with concentric stripes of blue range -northward to Japan. _Holacanthus tibicen_, jet-black with one yellow -cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu Islands southward. The angel-fish -or isabelita (_Holacanthus ciliaris_), orange-red, sky-blue, and golden, -as though gaudily painted, is the best-known species. The vaqueta de dos -colores or rock beauty (_Holacanthus bicolor_), half jet-black, half -golden, is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-fishes of -the West Indies. _Holacanthus passer_ is a showy inhabitant of the west -coast of Mexico. _Holacanthus diacanthus_, orange, barred with blue, is -one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral reefs of Polynesia. -_Holacanthus flavissimus_, golden with some deep-blue markings, and -_Holacanthus nicobariensis_, blackish with white circles, are found with -other species in the same waters. - -The genus _Pomacanthus_ (_Pomacanthodes_) includes American species -only, still larger in size and differing from _Holacanthus_ in having -nine to eleven spines only in the dorsal fin. The young of _Pomacanthus_ -are blackish, crossed by many curved yellow cross-bands, which disappear -entirely with age. Three species are known, _Pomacanthus arcuatus_, the -black angel, chirivita or portugais, _Pomacanthus paru_, the Indian-fish -or paru of the West Indies, and _Pomacanthus zonipectus_, "Mojarra de -las Piedras," of the west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes, but -lacking the brilliant colors of _Holacanthus_ and the fine pattern usual -in _Chætodon_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 341.—Rock Beauty, _Holacanthus tricolor_ (L.). Puerto Rico. -] - -=The Pygæidæ.=—Between the _Chætodontidæ_ and the _Acanthuridæ_ we would -place the extinct family of _Pygæidæ_, of the Eocene. In _Pygæus gigas_ -and other species the dorsal spines are strong and numerous; there are 5 -to 8 species in the anal fin, the scales are shagreen-like, and the -teeth seem coarser than in the _Chætodontidæ_. The tail is apparently -unarmed, and the soft dorsal, as in _Chætodon_, is much shorter than the -spinous. To this family the Eocene genera, _Aulorhamphus_ (_bolceusis_), -with produced snout, and _Apostasis_ (_croaticus_), with long spinous -dorsal, probably belong. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 342.—The Moorish Idol, _Zanclus canescens_ (Linnæus). From - Hawaii. Family _Zanclidæ_. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.) -] - -=The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.=—The family of _Zanclidæ_ includes a -single species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, _Zanclus canescens_. In -this family the scales are reduced to a fine shagreen, and in the adult -two bony horns grow out over the eye. The dorsal spines are prolonged in -filaments and the color is yellow crossed by bars of black. _Zanclus -canescens_ is a very handsome fish with the general appearance and habit -of a _Chætodon_, but the form is more exaggerated. It is found -throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-shore islands of Mexico, and -is generally common, though rarely entering rock pools. - -_Zanclus eocænus_ is recorded from the Italian Eocene. - -=The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.=—In the next family, _Acanthuridæ_, the -surgeon-fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen-like, the -body is more elongate, the gill-openings still more restricted, and the -teeth are flattened and incisor-like. The pubic bone is more elongate, -and in all the species some sort of armature is developed on the side of -the tail. The spinous dorsal in all is less developed than the soft -dorsal. The species abound in the warm seas, especially about the tide -pools, and are used as food. They undergo considerable changes with age, -the caudal armature being developed by degrees. Nearly all are dull -brown in color, but in some a vivid ornamentation is added. Fossil forms -are found from the Eocene and later. Most of these are referable to -_Teuthis_ and _Acanthurus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 343.—_Teuthis cœruleus_ (Bloch & Schneider), Blue Tang. Mexico. - Family _Teuthididæ_. -] - -The principal genus is _Teuthis_, characterized by the presence on each -side of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine with the point -turned forwards and dropping into a sheath. This spine gives these -fishes their name of surgeon-fish, doctor-fish, lancet-fish, tang, -barbero, etc., and it forms a very effective weapon against fish or man -who would seize one of these creatures by the tail. The species have the -center of distribution in the East Indies and have not reached Europe. -Three species are found in the West Indies. The blue tang (_Teuthis -cœruleus_) is chiefly bright blue. The common tang, _Teuthis chirurgus_, -is brown with bluish streaks, while a third species, _Teuthis bahianus_, -has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species is _Teuthis -crestonis_, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are closely related to -_Teuthis matoides_, found from India to Hawaii. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 344.—Brown Tang, _Teuthis bahianus_ (Ranzani). Tortugas, Fla. -] - -_Teuthis triostegus_, of Japan and Polynesia and the East Indies, is -covered with cross-bands alternately black and pale. In Hawaii this is -replaced by the very similar _Teuthis sandwichensis_. Many species are -found about Hawaii and the other Polynesian Islands. _Teuthis achilles_ -has a large blotch of brilliant scarlet on the tail, and _Teuthis -olivaceus_ a bright-colored mark on the shoulder. _Teuthis lineatus_, -yellow with blue stripes, a showily colored fish of the coral reefs, is -often poisonous, its flesh producing ciguatera. - -_Zebrasoma_ differs from _Teuthis_ in having but 4 or 5 dorsal spines -instead of 10 or 11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very high. -_Zebrasoma flavescens_, sometimes brown, sometimes bright yellow, is -common in Polynesia; _Zebrasoma veliferum_, cross-barred with black, is -also common. - -_Ctenochætus_ (_strigosus_), unlike the others, is herbivorous and has -its teeth loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black with dull -orange streaks, was once tabu to the king of Hawaii, who ate it raw, and -common people who appropriated it were put to death. - -In _Xesurus_ the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four bony -tubercles which have no sharp edge. _Xesurus scalprum_ is common in -Japan, and there are three species or more on the west coast of Mexico, -_Xesurus punctatus_ and _Xesurus laticlavius_ being most abundant. - -In _Prionurus_ (_microlepidotus_) of the tropical Pacific the armature -is still more degraded, about six small plates being developed. - -In _Acanthurus_ (_Monoceros_, _Naseus_), the unicorn-fish and its -relatives, the ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays, the -caudal spines are very large, blunt, immovable, one placed in front of -the other. In most of the species of _Acanthurus_ a long, bony horn -grows forward from the cranium above the eye. This is wanting in the -young and has various degrees of development in the different species, -in some of which it is wholly wanting. The species of _Acanthurus_ reach -a large size, and in some the caudal spines are bright scarlet, in -others blue. _Acanthurus unicornis_, the unicorn-fish, is the commonest -species and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in Japan, in -Hawaii, and in the East Indies. - -_Axinurus thynnoides_ of the East Indies has a long, slim body, with -slender tail like a mackerel. - -=Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.=—The _Amphacanthi_ (ἄμφϊ, -everywhere; ἄκανθα, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes certainly related to -the _Teuthididæ_, but differing from all other fishes in having the last -ray of the ventrals spinous as well as the first, the formula being I. -4, I. The anal fin has also six or seven spines; and the maxillary is -soldered to the premaxillary. The skeleton is essentially like that of -the _Acanthuridæ_. - -The single family, _Siganidæ_, contains fishes of moderate size, valued -as food, and abounding about rocks in shallow water from the Red Sea to -Tahiti. The coloration is rather plain olive or brown, sometimes with -white spots, sometimes with bluish lines. The species are very much -alike and all belong to the single genus _Siganus_. One species, -_Siganus fuscescens_, dusky with small, pale dots, is a common food-fish -of Japan. Others, as _Siganus oramin_ and _Siganus vermiculatus_, occur -in India, and _Siganus punctatus_, known as lo, abounds about the coral -reefs of Samoa. _Siganus vulpinus_ differs from the others in the -elongate snout. - -A fossil genus, _Archoteuthis_ (_glaronensis_), is found in the Tertiary -of Glarus. It differs from _Siganus_ in the deeper body and in the -presence of six instead of seven spines in the anal fin. - -The real relationship of the _Siganidæ_ is still uncertain, but the -family is probably most nearly allied to the _Acanthuridæ_, with which -the species were first combined by Linnæus, who included both in his -genus _Teuthis_. In the structure of the vertical fins the _Siganidæ_ -resemble the extinct genus _Pygæus_. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV - SERIES PLECTOGNATHI - - -=THE Plectognaths.=—Derived directly from the _Acanthuridæ_, from which -they differ by progressive steps of degeneration, are the three -suborders of _Sclerodermi_, _Ostracodermi_, and _Gymnodontes_, forming -together the series or suborder of _Plectognathi_. As the members of -this group differ from one another more widely than the highest or most -generalized forms differ from the _Acanthuridæ_, we do not regard it as -a distinct order. The forms included in it differ from the _Acanthuridæ_ -much as the swordfishes differ from ordinary mackerel. The -_Plectognathi_ (πλεϡτός, woven together; γνάθος, jaw) agree in the union -of the maxillary and premaxillary, in the union of the post-temporal -with the skull, in the great reduction of the gill-opening, and in the -elongation of the pelvic bones. All these characters in less degree are -shown in the _Squamipinnes_. We have also the reduction and final entire -loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dorsal, the -compression and final partial or total fusion of the teeth of the upper -jaw, the specialization of the scales, which change from bony scutes -into a solid coat of mail on the one hand, and on the other are reduced -to thorns or prickles and are finally altogether lost. The number of -vertebræ is also progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the -caudal fin seems attached to the head, the body being apparently -wanting. Throughout the group poisonous alkaloids are developed in the -flesh. These may produce the violent disease known as ciguatera, -directly attacking the nervous system. See p. 182, vol. I. - -The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized by external -characters. In the _Sclerodermi_ (σκλερός, hard; δέρμα, skin) the -spinous dorsal is present and the body is more or less distinctly scaly. -The teeth are separate and incisor-like and the form is compressed. In -the _Ostracodermi_ (ὀστράκος, a box; δέρμα, skin) there is no spinous -dorsal, the teeth are slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable, -bony box. In the _Gymnodontes_ (γυμνός, naked; ὀδούς, tooth) the teeth -are fused into a beak like that of a turtle, either continuous or -divided by a median suture in each jaw, the spinous dorsal is lost, and -the body is covered with thorns or prickles or else is naked. - -=The Scleroderms.=—The _Sclerodermi_ include three recent and one -extinct families. Of the recent forms, _Triacanthidæ_ is the most -primitive, having the ventral fins each represented by a stout spine and -the skin covered with small, rough scales. The dorsal has from four to -six stiff spines. - -_Triacanthodes anomalus_ is found in Japan, _Hollardia hollardi_ in -Cuba. _Triacanthus brevirostris_, with the first spine very large, is -the common hornfish of the East Indies ranging northward to Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 345.—The Trigger-fish, _Balistes carolinensis_ Gmelin. New York. -] - -=The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.=—The _Balistidæ_, or trigger-fishes, -have the body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged. The -first dorsal fin is composed of a short stout rough spine, with a -smaller one behind it and usually a third so placed that by touching it -the first spine may be set or released. This peculiarity gives the name -of trigger-fish as well as the older name of _Balistes_, or cross-bow -shooter. There are no ventral fins, the long pelvis ending in a single -blunt spine. The numerous species of trigger-fishes are large coarse -fishes of the tropical seas occasionally ranging northward. The center -of distribution is in the East Indies, where many of the species are -most fantastically marked. _Balistes carolinensis_, the leather-jacket, -or cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the American coast. -_Balistes vetula_, the oldwife, oldwench, or cochino, marked with blue, -is common in the West Indies, as are several other species, as -_Canthidermis sufflamen_, the sobaco, and the jet-black _Melichthys -piceus_, the black oldwife, or galafata. Several species occur on the -Pacific Coast of Mexico, the Pez Puerco, _Balistes verres_, being -commonest. Still others are abundant about the Hawaiian Islands and -Japan. The genus _Balistapus_, having spinous plates on the tail, -contains the largest number of species, these being at the same time the -smallest in size and the most oddly colored. _Balistapus aculeatus_ and -_Balistapus undulatus_ are common through Polynesia to Japan. Most of -the tropical species of _Balistidæ_ are more or less poisonous, causing -ciguatera, the offensive alkaloids becoming weaker in the northern -species. _Melichthys radula_ abounds in Polynesia. In this species great -changes take place at death, the colors changing from blue and mottled -golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian species are -_Xanthichthys lineopunctatus_, _Balistes vidua_, _Balistes bursa_, and -_Balistes flavomarginatus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 346.—File-fish, _Osbeckia lævis_ (_scripta_). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 347.—The Needle-bearing File-fish, _Amanses scopas_ of Samoa. -] - -=The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.=—Closely related to the _Balistidæ_ are -the _Monacanthidæ_, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In these the -body is very lean and meager, the scales being reduced to shagreen-like -prickles. The ventral fins are replaced by a single movable or immovable -spine, which is often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a -single spine with sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in -general smaller than the _Balistidæ_ and usually but not always dull in -color. They have no economic value and are rarely used as food, the dry -flesh being bitter and offensive. The species are numerous in tropical -and temperate seas, although none are found in Europe. On our Atlantic -coast, _Stephanolepis hispidus_ and _Ceratacanthus schœpfi_ are common -species. In the West Indies are numerous others, _Osbeckia lævis_ and -_Alutera güntheriana_, largest in size, among the commonest. Both of -these are large fishes without ventral spine. _Monacanthus chinensis_, -with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the ventral spine, is found -on the coast of China. Of the numerous Japanese species, the most -abundant and largest is _Pseudomonacanthus modestus_, with deep-blue -fins and the ventral spine immovable. Another is _Stephanolepis -cirrhifer_, known as _Kawamuki_, or skin-peeler. _Alutera monoceros_, -and _Osbeckia scripta_, the unicorn fish, abound in the East Indies, -with numerous others of less size and note. In the male of the -Polynesian _Amanses scopas_ (Fig. 347) the tail is armed with a brush of -extraordinarily long needle-like spines. - -In _Stephanolepis spilosomus_ the caudal fin is of a brilliant scarlet -color, contrasting with the usual dull colors of these fishes. In -_Oxymonacanthus longirostris_ the body is blue with orange checker-like -spots and the snout is produced in a long tube. About the islands of -Polynesia, filefishes are relatively few, but some of them are very -curious in form or color. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 348.—Common File fish, _Stephanolepis hispidus_ (Linnæus). - Virginia. -] - -=The Spinacanthidæ.=—In the extinct family _Spinacanthidæ_ the body is -elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The first dorsal has six or -seven spines, and there are rough spines in the pectoral. The teeth are -bluntly conical. _Spinacanthus blennioides_ and _S. imperalis_ are found -in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. These are probably the nearest to the -original ancestor among known scleroderms. - -=The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.=—The group _Ostracodermi_ contains the -single family of _Ostraciidæ_, the trunkfishes or cuckolds. In this -group, the body is enveloped in a bony box, made of six-sided scutes -connected by sutures, leaving only the jaws, fins and tail free. The -spinous dorsal fin is wholly wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the -outer fins are short and small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in -the tropical seas. They are slow of motion, though often brightly -colored. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 349.—Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold, _Lactophrys - tricornis_ (Linnæus). Charleston, S. C. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 350.—Horned Trunkfish, _Ostracion cornutum_ (Linnæus). East - Indies. (After Bleeker.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 351.—Spotted Trunkfish, _Lactophrys bicaudalis_ (Linnæus). - Cozumel Island, Yucatan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 352.—Spotted Trunkfish (face view), _Lactophrys bicaudalis_ - (Linnæus). -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 353.—Spineless Trunkfish, _Lactophrys triqueter_ (Linnæus). - Tortugas. -] - -Against most of their enemies they are protected by the bony case. The -species range from four inches to a foot in length, so far as known. -They are not poisonous, and are often baked in the shell. Three genera -are recognized: _Lactophrys_ with the _carapace_, three-angled; -_Ostracion_ with four angles; and _Aracana_, resembling _Ostracion_, but -with the carapace not closed behind the anal fin. In each of these -genera there is considerable minor variation due to the presence or -absence of spines on the bony shell. In some species, called cuckolds, -or cowfishes, long horns are developed over the eye. Others have spines -on some other part of the shield and some have no spines at all. No -species are found in Europe, and none on the Pacific coast of America. -The three-angled species, called _Lactophrys_, are native chiefly to the -West Indies, sometimes carried by currents to Guinea, and one is -described from Australia. _Lactophrys tricornis_ of the West Indies has -long horns over the eye; _Lactophrys trigonus_ has spines on the lower -parts only. _Lactophrys triqueter_ is without spines, and the fourth -American species, _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, is marked by large black -spots. The species of _Ostracion_ radiate from the East Indies. One of -them, _Ostracion gibbosum_, has a turret-like spine on the middle of the -back, causing the carapace to appear five-angled; _Ostracion diaphanum_ -has short horns over the eye, and _Ostracion cornutum_ very long ones; -_Ostracion_ _immaculatus_, the common species of Japan, is without -spines; _Ostracion sebæ_ of Hawaii and Samoa is deep, rich blue with -spots of golden. _Aracana_ is also of East Indian origin; _Aracana -aculeata_, with numerous species, is common in Japan. A fossil species -of _Ostracion_ (_O. micrurum_) is known from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 354.—Hornless Trunkfish, _Lactophrys trigonus_ (Linnæus). - Tortugas, Fla. -] - -=The Gymnodontes.=—The group of _Gymnodontes_, having the teeth united -in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degeneration of scales -and fins. There is no trace of spinous dorsal, or ventral. The scales -are reduced to thorns or prickles, or are lost altogether. All the -species have the habit of inflating themselves with air when disturbed, -thus floating, belly upward, on the surface of the water. Very few, and -these only northern species, are used as food, the flesh of the tropical -forms being generally poisonous, and that often in a higher degree than -any other fishes whatever. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 355.—Skeleton of the Cowfish, _Lactophrys tricornis_ (Linnæus). -] - -=The Triodontidæ.=—The most generalized family is that of the -_Triodontidæ_. These fishes approach the _Balistidæ_ in several regards, -having the body compressed and covered with rough scales. The teeth form -a single plate in the lower jaw, but are divided on the median line -above. The compressed, fan-like, ventral flap is greatly distensible. -_Triodon bursarius_, of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the -sole species of the family. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 356.—Silvery Puffer, _Lagocephalus lævigatus_ (Linnæus). - Virginia. -] - -=The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.=—In the _Tetraodontidæ_ (globefishes, -or puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture. The dorsal and anal -are short, and the ventrals are reduced in number, usually fifteen to -twenty (7 + 13 to 7 + 9). The walls of the belly are capable of -extraordinary distension, so that when inflated, the fish appears like a -globe with a beak and a short tail attached. The principal genus -_Spheroides_ contains a great variety of forms, forming a closely -intergrading series. In some of these the body is smooth, in others more -or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted. In some the form is -elongate, the color silvery, and the side of the belly with a -conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal is lunate and the -other fins falcate, and with numerous rays. But these forms (called -_Lagocephalus_) pass by degrees into the short-bodied forms with small -rounded fins, and no clear line has yet been drawn separating the group -into genera. In these species each nostril has a double opening. -_Lagocephalus lagocephalus_, large and silvery, is found in Europe. -_Lagocephalus lævigatus_ replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North -America. In Japan are numerous forms of this type, the venomous -_Lagocephalus sceleratus_ being one of the best known. Numerous other -Japanese species, _Spheroides xanthopterus_, _rubripes_, _pardalis_, -_ocellatus_, _vermiculatus_, _chrysops_, etc., mark the transition to -typical _Spheroides_. _Spheroides maculatus_ is common on our Atlantic -coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the coastwise boys who tease it to -cause it to swell. _Spheroides spengleri_ and _S. testudineus_ abound in -the West Indies. _Spheroides politus_ on the west coast of Mexico. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 357.—Puffer, inflated, _Spheroides spengleri_ (Bloch). Wood's - Hole, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 358.—Puffer, _Spheroides maculatus_ (Schneider). Noank, Conn. -] - -In _Tetraodon_ the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening, its tip -being merely spongy. The species of this genus are even more inflatable -and are often strikingly colored, the young sometimes having the belly -marked by concentric stripes of black which disappear with age. -_Tetraodon hispidus_ abounds in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii -to India. In Hawaii, it is regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes -(muki-muki) and it is said that its gall was once used to poison arrows. -_Tetraodon fahaka_ is a related species, the first known of the family. -It is found in the Nile. _Tetraodon lacrymatus_, black with white spots, -is common in Polynesia. _Tetraodon aërostaticus_, with black spots, is -frequently taken in Japan, and _Tetraodon setosus_ is frequent on the -west coast of Mexico. This species is subject to peculiar changes of -color. Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is sometimes deep blue, -sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed shades. Specimens showing -these traits were obtained about Clarion Island of the Revillagigedos. -No _Tetraodon_ occurs in the West Indies. _Colomesus psittacus_, a river -fish of the northern part of South America, resembles _Spheroides_, but -shows considerable difference in the skull. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 359.—_Tetraodon meleagris_ (Lacépède). Riu Kiu Islands. -] - -But few fossil _Tetraodontidæ_ have been recognized. These are referred -to _Tetraodon_. The earliest is _Tetraodon pygmæus_ from Monte Bolca. - -The _Chonerhinidæ_ of the East Indies are globefishes having the dorsal -and anal fins very long, the vertebræ more numerous (12 + 17), -twenty-nine in number. _Chonerhinus naritus_ inhabits the rivers of -Sumatra and Java. - -The little family of _Tropidichthyidæ_ is composed of small globefishes, -with a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost, or quite, wanting. -The teeth are as in the _Tetraodontidæ_. The skeleton differs -considerably from that of _Spheroides_, apparently justifying their -separation as a family. The species are all very small, three to six -inches in length, and prettily colored. In the West Indies -_Tropidichthys rostratus_ is found. _Tropidichthys solandri_ abounds in -the South Seas, dull orange with blue spots. _Tropidichthys rivulatus_ -is common in Japan and several ether species are found in Hawaii. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 360.—Bristly Globefish, _Tetraodon setosus_ Rosa Smith. Clarion - Island, Mex. -] - -Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Polynesia, and in -the East Indies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 361.—Porcupine-fish, _Diodon hystrix_ (Linnæus). Tortugas - Islands. -] - -=The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.=—In the remaining families of -_Gymnodontes_, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth forming an -undivided beak. The _Diodontidæ_, or porcupine-fishes, have the body -spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp thorns, the bases of which -are so broad as to form a continuous coat of mail. In some of them, part -of the spines are movable, these being usually two-rooted; in others, -all are immovable and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous, -especially in the equatorial seas. - -In _Diodon_ the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at least, -movable. The common porcupine-fish, _Diodon hystrix_, is found in all -seas, and often in abundance. It is a sluggish fish, olive and spotted -with black. It reaches a length of two feet or more, and by its long -spines it is thoroughly protected from all enemies. A second species, -equally common, is the lesser porcupine-fish, _Diodon holacanthus_. In -this species, the frontal spines are longer than those behind the -pectoral, instead of the reverse, as in _Diodon hystrix_. Many species -of _Diodon_ are recorded from the Eocene, besides numerous species from -later deposits. One of these, as _Heptadiodon heptadiodon_ from the -Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly represents a -distinct family. _Diodon erinaceus_ is found in the Eocene of Monte -Bolca and _Progymnodon hilgendorfi_ in the Eocene of Egypt. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 362.—Rabbit-fish, _Chilomycterus schœpfi_ (Walbaum). Noank, Conn. -] - -In the rabbit-fishes (_Chilomycterus_) the body is box-shaped, covered -with triangular spines, much shorter and broader at base than those of -_Diodon_. Numerous species are known. - -_Chilomycterus schœpfi_ is the common rabbit-fish, or swell-toad of our -Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black lines. The -larger, _Chilomycterus affinis_, with the pectoral fin spotted with -black, is widely diffused through the Pacific. It is rather common in -Japan, where it is the torabuku, or tiger puffer. It is found also in -Hawaii, and it is once recorded by Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro, -California, and once by Snodgrass and Heller, from the Galapagos. - -=The Head-fishes: Molidæ.=—The headfishes, or _Molidæ_, also called -sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the dorsal, anal, -and caudal fins seem to be attached to the posterior outline of the -head. This feature, constituting the so-called gephyrocercal tail is a -trait of specialized degradation. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 363.—Headfish (adult), _Mola mola_ (Linnæus). Virginia. -] - -_Mola mola_, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occasionally in -all tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost circular, having -been compared by Linnæus to a mill-wheel (mola), and its surface is -covered with a rough, leathery skin. It swims very lazily at the surface -of the water, its high dorsal often rising above the surface. It is -rarely used as food, though not known to be poisonous. The largest -example known to the writer was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by -Mr. Thomas Shooter, of Los Angeles. This specimen was 8 feet 2 inches in -length, and weighed 1200 pounds. Another, almost as large, was taken at -San Diego, in April, 1904. No difference has been noticed among -specimens from California, Cape Cod, Japan, and the Mediterranean. The -young, however, differ considerably from the adult, as might be expected -in a fish of such great size and extraordinary form. (See Figs. 109 and -110, Vol. I.) - -Fragments named _Chelonopsis_, and doubtfully referred to _Mola_, are -found in the Pliocene of Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age, -attributed to _Mola_, probably belong, according to Woodward, to a -turtle. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 364.—The King of the Mackerel, _Ranzania makua_ Jenkins, from - Honolulu. (After Jenkins.) -] - -In the genus _Ranzania_, the body is more elongate, twice as long as -deep, but as in _Mola_, the body appears as if bitten off and then -provided with a fringe of tail. The species are rarely taken. _Ranzania -truncata_ is found in the Mediterranean and once at Madeira. _Ranzania -makua_, known as the king of the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully -colored brown and silvery. This species has been taken once in Japan. - -In Hawaii it is believed that all the Scombroid fishes are subject to -the rule of the makua and that they will disappear if this fish be -killed. By a similar superstition, _Regalecus glesne_ is "king of the -herrings" in Norway and about Cape Flattery, _Trachypterus rex -salmonorum_ is "king of the salmon." - - - - - CHAPTER XXV - PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES - - -=THE Mailed-cheek Fishes.=—The vast group of _Pareioplitæ_ (_Loricati_) -or mailed-cheek fishes is characterized by the presence of a "bony stay" -or backward-directed process from the third suborbital. This extends -backward across the cheek toward the preopercle. In the most generalized -forms this bony stay is small and hidden under the skin. In more -specialized forms it grows larger, articulates with the preopercle, and -becomes rough or spinous at its surface. Finally, it joins the other -bones to form a coat of mail which covers the whole head. In degenerate -forms it is again reduced in size, finally becoming insignificant. - -The more primitive _Pareioplitæ_ (παρεία, cheek; ὁπλιτής, armed) closely -resemble the _Percomorphi_, having the same fins, the same type of -shoulder-girdle, and the same insertion of the ventral fins. In the more -specialized forms the ventral fins remain thoracic, but almost all other -parts of the anatomy are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as -known to the writer, the hypercoracoid is perforate as in the -_Percomorphi_. There are numerous points of resemblance between the -_Cirrhitidæ_ and the _Scorpænidæ_, and it is probable that the -_Scorpænidæ_ with all the other _Pareioplitæ_ sprang from some perciform -stock allied to _Cirrhitidæ_ and _Latrididæ_. - -Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little light on -the origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the _Cottidæ_. -_Lepidocottus_, recorded from the Miocene and Oligocene, seems to be the -earliest genus. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 365.—Rosefish, _Sebastes marinus_ Linnæus. Cape Cod. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 366.—Skull of _Scorpænichthys marmoratus_ Girard, showing the - suborbital stay (_a_). -] - -=The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.=—The vast family of _Scorpænidæ_, or -scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms as almost to defy -diagnosis. The more primitive types are percoid in almost all respects, -save in the presence of the subocular stay. Their scales are ctenoid and -well developed. The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral -fins are complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong -spines. The cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and the five -spines on the preoperculum are not very different from those seen in -some species of bass. The gill-arches are, however, different, there -being but 3½ gills and no slit behind the last. Otherwise the mouth and -pharanx show no unusual characters. In the extremes of the group, -however, great changes take place, the head becomes greatly distorted -with ridges and grooves, the anal spines are lost, and the dorsal spines -variously modified. The scales may be lost or replaced by warts or -prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced. Still the changes -are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the group into smaller -families. - -The most primitive existing genus is doubtless _Sebastes_. The familiar -rosefish, _Sebastes marinus_, is found on both shores of the north -Atlantic. It is bright red in color and is valued as food. As befits a -northern fish, it has an increased number of vertebræ (31) and the -dorsal spines number 15. From its large haddock-like eye it has been -called the Norway haddock. It is an important food-fish in New England -as well as in northern Europe. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 367.—_Sebastolobus altivelis_ Gilbert. Alaska. -] - -In the north Pacific _Sebastes_ gives place to _Sebastolobus_, with -three species (_macrochir_, _altivelis_, and _alascanus_), all -bright-red fishes of soft substance and living in rather deep water. -_Sebastolobus_ is characterized by its two-lobed pectoral fin, the lower -rays being enlarged. - -The genus _Sebastodes_, with its rougher-headed ally _Sebastichthys_, -with 13 dorsal spines and the vertebræ 27, ranges farther south than -_Sebastes_ and forms one of the most characteristic features of the -fauna of California and Japan, 50 species occurring about California and -25 being already known from Japan. One species (_Sebastichthys -capensis_) is recorded from the Cape of Good Hope, and two, -_Sebastichthys oculatus_ and _S. darwini_, from the coast of Chile. - -Within the limits of _Sebastodes_ and _Sebastichthys_ is a very large -range of form and color, far more than should exist within the range of -a natural genus. On the other hand, all attempts at generic subdivision -have failed because the species form a number of almost perfectly -continuous series. At one extreme are species with large mouths, small -scales, relatively smooth cranium, and long gill-rakers. At the other -extreme are robust species, with the head very rough, the mouth -moderate, the scales larger, and the gill-rakers short and thick. Still -other species have slender cranial spines and spots of bright pink in -certain specialized localities. These approach the genus _Helicolenus_ -as other species approach _Scorpæna_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 368.—Priest-fish, _Sebastodes mystinus_ Jordan & Gilbert. - Monterey, Cal. -] - -The various species are known in California as rockfish, or rock-cod, in -Japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they form a large part of the -bulk of food-fishes, the flesh being rather coarse and of moderate -flavor. All the species so far as known are ovoviviparous, the young -being brought forth in summer in very great number, born at the length -of about ¼ of an inch. The species living close to shore are brown, -black, or green. Those living in deeper waters are bright red, and in -still deeper waters often creamy or gray, with the lining of the mouth -and the peritoneum black. The largest species reach a length of two or -three feet, the smallest eight or ten inches. None are found between -Lower California and Peru and none south of Nagasaki in Japan. Of the -California species the following are of most note: _Sebastodes -paucispinis_, the Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an -elongate fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In -deeper waters are _Sebastodes jordani_ and _Sebastodes goodei_, the -former elongate and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright -crimson color. _Sebastodes ovalis_, the viuva, and _Sebastodes -entomelas_ are grayish in hue, and the related _Sebastodes proriger_ is -red. The green rockfish _Sebastodes flavidus_ is common along the shore, -as also the black rockfish, known as pêche prêtre or priestfish, -_Sebastodes mystinus_. Less common is _Sebastodes melanops_. Similar to -this but more orange in color is the large _Sebastodes miniatus_. -Somewhat rougher-headed is the small grass rockfish, _Sebastodes -atrovirens_. On the large red rockfish, _Sebastichthys ruberrimus_, the -spinous ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large -_Sebastichthys levis_ these ridges are smooth. Both these species are -bright red in color. _Sebastichthys rubrovinctus_, called the -Spanish-flag, is covered with broad alternating bands of deep crimson -and creamy pink. It is the most handsomely colored of our marine fishes -and is often taken in southern California. _Sebastichthys elongatus_ is -a red species with very large mouth. Several other species small in size -are red, with three or four spots of bright pink. The commonest of these -is the corsair, _Sebastichthys rosaceus_, plain red and golden. Another -species is the green and red flyfish, _Sebastichthys rhodochloris_. -_Sebastichthys constellatus_ is spotted with pink and _Sebastichthys -chlorostictus_ with green. To this group with pink spots the South -American and African species belong, but none of the Japanese. -_Sebastodes aleutianus_ is a large red species common in Alaska and -_Sebastodes ciliatus_ a green one. About the wharves in California and -northward the brown species called _Sebastichthys auriculatus_ is -abundant. In the remaining species the spinous ridges are progressively -higher, though not so sharp as in some of those already named. -_Sebastichthys maliger_ has very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch -on the back. In _Sebastichthys caurinus_ and especially _Sebastichthys -vexillaris_ the spines are very high, but the coloration is different, -being reddish brown. _Sebastichthys nebulosus_ is blue-black with golden -spots. _Sebastichthys chrysomelas_ is mottled black and yellow. -_Sebastichthys carnatus_ is flesh-color and green. _Sebastichthys -rastrelliger_ is a small, blackish-green species looking like -_Sebastodes atrovirens_, but with short gill-rakers. _Sebastichthys -hopkinsi_ and _Sebastichthys gilberti_ are small species allied to it. -The treefish, _Sebastichthys serriceps_, has very high spines on the -head, and the olive body is crowned by broad black bands. Still more -striking is the black-banded rockfish, _Sebastichthys nigrofasciatus_, -with very rough head and bright red body with broad cross-bands of -black. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 369.—_Sebastichthys serriceps_ Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey, Cal. -] - -Of the Japanese species the commonest, _Sebastodes inermis_, the Mebaru, -much resembles _Sebastodes flavidus_. _Sebastodes fuscescens_ looks like -_Sebastodes melanops_, as does also _Sebastodes taczanowskii_. -_Sebastodes matsubaræ_ and _S. flammeus_ and _S. iracundus_, bright-red -off-shore species, run close to _Sebastodes aleutianus_. _Sebastichthys -pachycephalus_ suggests _Sebastichthys chrysomelas_. _Sebastodes -steindachneri_ and _S. itinus_ are brighter-colored allies of -_Sebastodes ovalis_ and _Sebastodes scythropus_ and _Sebastodes joyneri_ -represent _Sebastodes proriger_. _Sebastichthys trivittatus_, green, -striped with bright golden, bears some resemblance to _Sebastichthys -maliger_. _Sebastichthys elegans_, _Sebastichthys oblongus_, and -_Sebastichthys mitsukurii_, dwarf species, profusely spotted, have no -analogues among the American forms. _Sebastodes glaucus_ of the Kurile -Islands has 14 dorsal spines and is not closely related to any other. -Fourteen dorsal spines are occasionally present in _Sebastichthys -elegans_. All the other species show constantly 13. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 370.—Banded Rockfish, _Sebastichthys nigrocinctus_ (Ayres). - Straits of Fuca. -] - -The genus _Sebastiscus_ has the general appearance of _Sebastodes_, and -like the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It however agrees with -_Scorpæna_ in the possession of but 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ. -The two known species are common in Japan. _Sebastiscus marmoratus_, -mottled brown, is everywhere abundant along the coast, and the pretty -_Sebastiscus albofasciatus_, pink, violet, and golden, represents it in -equal abundance in deeper water. - -The genus _Sebastopsis_ differs from _Sebastodes_ only in having no -teeth on the palatines. The species, all of small size and red or varied -coloration, are confined to the Pacific. _Sebastopsis xyris_ occurs in -lower California and _Sebastopsis guamensis_ and _S. scaber_ in -Polynesia. Species of this genus are often found dried in Chinese insect -boxes. - -_Helicolenus_ differs from _Sebastiscus_ only in the total absence of -air-bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very handsome, -and live in deep water. _Helicolenus dactylopterus_ is rather common in -the Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken in the Gulf Stream, and also -in Japan, where two or three other species occur. - -_Neosebastes_ is much like _Sebastodes_, but the suborbital stay bears -strong spines and the dorsal is very high. _Neosebastes panda_ is found -in Australia, and _N. entaxis_ in Japan. _Setarches_ is distinguished by -the cavernous bones of its head. Species are found in both the Atlantic -and Pacific in deep water. Several other peculiar or transitional genera -are found in different parts of the Pacific. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 371.—Florida Lion fish, _Scorpæna grandicornis_ Cuv. & Val. Key - West. -] - -In _Scorpæna_ the head is more uneven in outline than in _Sebastodes_ -and _Sebastichthys_, skinny flaps are often present on head and body, -the air-bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ, -and on each dorsal spine is a small venom-secreting gland. The species -are very numerous, highly varied in color, and found in all warm seas, -being known as scorpion-fishes or _Rascacios_. Two species, _Scorpæna -scrofa_ and _Scorpæna porcus_, are common in the Mediterranean, being -regarded as good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen. - -Of the numerous West Indian species, _Scorpæna plumieri_, _Scorpæna -grandicornis_, and _Scorpæna brasiliensis_ are best known. _Scorpæna -guttata_ is common in southern California and is an excellent food-fish. -_Scorpæna mystes_ is found on the west coast of Mexico. _Scorpæna -onaria_ and _S. izensis_ are found in Japan. Fossil remains referred to -_Scorpæna_ are recorded from the Tertiary rocks. - -In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species less than three -inches long, which have been set apart as a separate genus, -_Sebastapistes_. The longest known of these is _Sebastapistes -strongensis_, named from Strong Island, abundant in crevices in the -corals throughout Polynesia, and much disliked by fishermen. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 372._—Sea-scorpion, _Scorpæna mystes_ Jordan. Mazatlan. -] - -The genus _Scorpænopsis_ differs from _Scorpæna_ in the absence of -palatine teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color. -_Scorpænopsis cirrhosa_, _Scorpænopsis fimbriata_, and other species are -widely distributed through the East Indies and Polynesia. - -The lion-fishes (_Pterois_) of the tropical Pacific are remarkable for -their long pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like -coloration. The numerous species are fantastic and handsomely colored, -but their poisoned, needle-like spines are dreaded by fishermen. They -lurk in crevices in the coral reefs, some of them reaching a foot in -length. - -_Inimicus japonicus_, common in Japan, has a depressed and monstrous -head and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually black in color -but is largely bright red when found among red algæ. A related species, -_Inimicus aurantiacus_, is blackish when near shore, but lemon-yellow in -deep water. (See frontispiece.) A related species in the East Indies is -_Pelor filamentosum_, called _Nohu_ or _Gofu_ in Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 373.—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed), - _Pterois volitans_ (Linnæus). Family _Scorpænidæ_. (From a specimen - from Samoa.) -] - -Still more monstrous are the species of _Synanceia_, short, thick-set, -irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines reach a high -degree of venom. The flesh in all these species is wholesome, and when -the dorsal spines are cut off the fishes sell readily in the markets. -These fishes lie hidden in cavities of the reefs, being scarcely -distinguishable from the rock itself. (See Fig. 168, Vol. I.) - -The black _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_ of Tahiti lies in crevices of lava, -and could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular lump of lava-rock. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 374.—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_ Jordan. - A species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava - among which it lives. Family _Scorpænidæ_. From Tahiti. -] - -A related form, _Erosa erosa_, the daruma-okose of Japan, is monstrous -in form but often beautifully colored with crimson and gray. - -In _Congiopus_ the very strong dorsal spines begin in the head, and the -mouth is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus the type of a distinct -family, _Congiopodidæ_. - -Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison-fishes, -called okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from Tokio to Hindostan -and the Red Sea. Some of these are handsomely colored, others are -fantastically formed. _Paracentropogon rubripinnis_ and _Minous adamsi_ -are the commonest species in Japan. _Trachicephalus uranoscopus_ abounds -in the bays of hina. _Snyderina yamanokami_ occurs in Southern Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 375.—_Snyderina yamanokami_ Jordan & Starks. Family _Scorpænidæ_. - Satsuma, Japan. -] - -But few fossil _Scorpænidæ_ are recorded. _Scorpænopterus siluridens_, a -mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty head, seems to belong -to this group, and _Ampheristus toliapicus_, with a broad, depressed -head, is found in the London Eocene, and various Miocene species have -been referred to _Scorpæna_. _Sebastodes rosæ_ is based on a fragment, -probably Pleistocene, from Port Harford, California. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 376.—_Trachicephalus uranoscopus_. Family _Scorpænidæ_. From - Swatow, China. -] - -The small family of the _Caracanthidæ_ consists of little fishes of the -coral reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form, and the skin -is rough with small prickles, the head being feebly armed. The species -are rare and little known, brown in color with pale spots. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 377.—Skilfish, _Anoplopoma fimbria_ (Pallas). California. -] - -=The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.=—The small family of skilfishes or -_Anoplopomidæ_ consists of two species found on the coast of California -and northward. These resemble the _Scorpænidæ_, having the usual form of -nostrils, and the suborbital stay well developed. The skull is, however, -free from spines, the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek, -dark-colored body has suggested resemblance to the mackerel or hake. -_Anoplopoma fimbria_, known as skilfish, beshow, or coalfish, is rather -common from Unalaska to Monterey, reaching a length of two feet or more. -In the north it becomes very fat and is much valued as food. About San -Francisco it is dry and tasteless. - -=The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.=—The curious family of greenlings, -_Hexagrammidæ_, is confined to the two shores of the North Pacific. The -species vary much in form, but agree in the unarmed cranium and in the -presence of but a single nostril on each side, the posterior opening -being reduced to a minute pore. The vertebræ are numerous, the scales -small, and the coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous -and usually valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks in -California and Japan and along the shores of Siberia and Alaska. The -atka-fish (_Pleurogrammus monopterygius_) is one of the finest of -food-fishes. This species reaches a length of eighteen inches. It is -yellow in color, banded with black, and the flesh is white and tender, -somewhat like that of the Lake whitefish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_), and -is especially fine when salted. This fish is found about the Aleutian -Islands, especially the island of Atka, from which it takes its name. It -is commercially known as Atka mackerel. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 378.—Atka-fish, _Pleurogrammus monopterygius_ (Pallas). Atka - Island. -] - -In this genus there are numerous lateral lines, and the dorsal fin is -continuous. In _Hexagrammos_, the principal genus of the family, the -dorsal is divided into two fins, and there are about five lateral lines -on each side. - -_Hexagrammos decagrammus_ is common on the coast of California, where it -is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout. It is a well-known -food-fish, reaching a length of eighteen inches. The sexes are quite -unlike in color, the males anteriorly with blue spots, the females -speckled with red or brown. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 379.—Greenling, _Hexagrammos decagrammus_ (Pallas). Sitka. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 380.—Cultus Cod, _Ophiodon elongatus_ (Girard). Sitka, Alaska. -] - -_Hexagrammos octogrammus_, the common greenfish of Alaska, and the -greenling _Hexagrammos stelleri_, are also well-known species. Close to -the latter species is the _Abura ainame_, or fat cod, _Hexagrammos -otakii_, common throughout Japan. The red rock-trout, _Hexagrammos -superciliosus_, is beautifully variegated with red, the color being -extremely variable. Other species are found in Japan and Kamchatka. -_Agrammus agrammus_ of Japan differs in the possession of but one -lateral line. _Ophiodon elongatus_, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo -cod of California, is a large fish of moderate value as food, much -resembling a codfish, but with larger mouth and longer teeth. The flesh -and bones are deeply tinged with bluish green. _Cultus_ is the Chinook -name for worthless. _Zaniolepis latipinnis_ is a singular-looking fish, -very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally taken on the California coast. -_Oxylebius pictus_ is a small, handsome, and very active little fish, -whitish with black bands, common among rocks and algæ on the California -coast. It is, however, rarely brought into the markets, as it shows -great skill in escaping the nets. - -No fossil _Hexagrammidæ_ are known. - -=The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.=—The family of _Platycephalidæ_ -consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened, rough heads and the -body covered with small, rough scales. About fifty species occur in the -East Indian region, where the larger ones are much valued as food. The -most abundant species and usually the largest in size is _Platycephalus -insidiator_, the kochi of the Japanese. The genus _Insidiator_ contains -smaller species with larger scales. In all these the head is very much -depressed, a feature which separates them from all the _Scorpænidæ_. -_Hoplichthys langsdorfi_, the nezupo or rat-tail of Japan, is the type -of a separate family, _Hoplichthyidæ_, characterized by a bony armature -of rough plates. _Bembras japonicas_, another little Japanese fish, with -the ventrals advanced in position and the skin with rough plates, is the -type of the family of _Bembradidæ_. - -=The Sculpins: Cottidæ.=—The great family of _Cottidæ_ or sculpins is -one especially characteristic of the northern seas, where a great -variety of species is found. These differ in general from the -_Scorpænidæ_, from which they are perhaps derived, in the greater number -of vertebræ and in the relative feebleness or degeneration of the -spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and the scales. In all these regards great -variation exists. In the most primitive genus, _Jordania_, the body is -well scaled, the spinous dorsal well developed, and the ventral rays I, -5. In _Hemitripterus_ a large number of dorsal spines remains, but the -structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most degraded -types, _Cottunculus_, _Psychrolutes_, _Gilbertidia_, which are also -among the most specialized, there is little trace of spinous dorsal, the -scales are wholly lost, and the ventral fin is incomplete. Most of the -species of _Cottidæ_ live on the bottom in shallow seas. Some are found -in deep water and a few swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or -subarctic, none being found to the south of Italy, Virginia, California, -and Japan. None are valued as food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely any -are found fossil. - -Of the multitude of genera of _Cottidæ_ we notice a few of the most -prominent. _Jordania zonope_, a pretty little fish of Puget Sound, is -the most primitive in its characters, being closely allied to the -_Hexagrammidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 381.—_Jordania zonope_ Starks. Puget Sound. -] - -_Scorpænichthys marmoratus_, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of -California reaches a length of 2½ feet. It has the ventral rays I, 5, -although almost in all the other sculpins the rays are reduced to I, 3 -or I, 4. The flesh has the livid blue color seen in the cultus cod -_Ophiodon elongatus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 382.—_Astrolytes notospilotus_ (Girard). Puget Sound. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 383.—Irish Lord, _Hemilepidotus jordani_ Bean. Unalaska. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 384.—_Triglops pingeli_ Kröyer. Chebucto, Canada. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 335.—Buffalo Sculpin, _Enophrys bison_ (Girard). Puget Sound. -] - -To _Icelinus_, _Artedius_, _Hemilepidotus_, _Astrolytes_, and related -genera belong many species with the body partly scaled. These are -characteristic of the North Pacific, in which they drop to a -considerable depth. _Icelus_, _Triglops_, and _Artediellus_ are found -also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of which is derived almost -entirely from Pacific sources. The genus _Hemilepidotus_ contains coarse -species, with bands of scales. The "Irish lord," _Hemilepidotus -jordani_, a familiar and fantastic inhabitant of Bering Sea, is much -valued by the Aleuts as a food-fish, although the flesh is rather tough -and without much flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is the red -sculpin, _Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus_, and the still rougher -_Ceratocottus diceraus_. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin, -_Enophrys bison_, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the -preopercle, is found about Puget Sound and southward. In all these large -rough species from the North Pacific the preopercle is armed with long -spines which are erected when the fish is disturbed. This makes it -almost impossible for any larger fish to swallow them. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 386.—_Ceratocottus diceraus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Tolstoi Bay, Alaska. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 387.—_Elanura forficata_ Gilbert. Bering Sea. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 388.—Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, _Cottus punctulatus_ (Gill). - Yellowstone River. -] - -The genera _Cottus_ and _Uranidea_ include the miller's thumbs, also -called in America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern rivers. These -little fishes are found in Europe, Asia, and America wherever trout are -found. They lurk under weeds and stones, moving with the greatest -swiftness when disturbed. They are found in every cold stream of the -region north of Virginia, and they vie with the sticklebacks in their -destruction of the eggs and fry of salmon and trout. _Cottus gobio_ is -the commonest species of Europe. _Cottus ictalops_ is the most abundant -of the several species of the eastern United States, and _Cottus asper_ -in streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many other species exist in -each of these regions. The genus _Uranidea_ is found in America. It is -composed of smaller species with fewer teeth and fin-rays, the ventrals -I, 3. _Uranidea gracilis_ is the commonest of these, the miller's thumb -of New England. _Rheopresbe fujiyamæ_ is a large river sculpin in Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 389.—Miller's Thumb, _Uranidea tenuis_ Evermann & Meek. Klamath - Falls. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 390.—_Cottus evermanni_ Gilbert. Lost River, Oregon. -] - -_Trachidermus ansatus_ is another river species, the "mountain-witch" -(yamanokami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet brand on its cheek, -conspicuous in life. - -The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is _Myoxocephalus_, containing -large marine species, in structure much like the species of _Cottus_. -_Myoxocephalus bubalis_ is the European fatherlasher, or proach; the -European sculpin is _Myoxocephalus scorpius_. The very similar daddy -sculpin of New England is _Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus_. This species -swarms everywhere from Cape Cod northward. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 391.—California Miller's Thumb, _Cottus gulosus_ Girard. McCloud - River, Cal. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) -] - -According to Fabricius, _Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus_ is "abundant in all -the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a stony coast clothed with -seaweed. It approaches the shore in spring and departs in winter. It is -very voracious, preying on everything that comes in its way and pursuing -incessantly the smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species, -and devouring crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does -not come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of other -fish. It spawns in December and January and deposits its red-colored roe -on the seaweed. It is easily taken with a bait, and constitutes the -daily food of the Greenlanders, who are very fond of it. They eat the -roe raw." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 392.—Pribilof Sculpin, _Myoxocephalus niger_ (Bean). St. Paul - Island, Bering Sea. -] - -The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is -_Myoxocephalus æneus_, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is -_Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus_. Still more numerous and varied are -the sculpins of the North Pacific, _Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus_ -being the best known and most widely diffused. _Oncocottus quadricornis_ -is the long-horned sculpin of the Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of -Russia and British America. _Triglopsis thompsoni_ of the depths in our -own Great Lakes seems to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of -_Oncocottus_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 393.—18-spined Sculpin, _Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus_ - (Mitchill). Beasley Point, N. J. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 394.—_Oncocottus quadricornis_ (L.). St. Michael, Alaska. -] - -The genus _Zesticelus_ contains small soft-bodied sculpins from the -depths of the North Pacific. _Zesticelus profundorum_ was taken in 664 -fathoms off Bogoslof Island and _Zesticelus bathybius_ off Japan. In -this genus the body is very soft and the skeleton feeble, the result of -deep-sea life. Another deep-water genus less degraded is _Cottunculus_, -from which by gradual loss of fins the still more degraded -_Psychrolutes_ (_paradoxus_) and _Gilbertidia_ (_sigolutes_) are perhaps -descended. In sculpins of this type the liparids, or sea-snails, may -have had their origin. Among the remaining genera _Gymnocanthus_ -(_tricuspis_, etc.) has no vomerine teeth. _Leptocottus_ (_armatus_) and -_Clinocottus_ (_analis_) abound on the coast of California, and -_Pseudoblennius_ (_percoides_) is found everywhere along the shores of -Japan. _Vellitor centropomus_ of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for -its compressed body and long snout. _Dialarchus snyderi_ of the -California rock-pools is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin, -_Blepsias_ (_cirrhosus_), _Nautichthys_ (_oculofasciatus_), and -_Hemitripterus_ (_americanus_), the sea-raven, among the most fantastic. -In the last-named genus the spinous dorsal is many-rayed, as in -_Scorpænidæ_, a fact which has led to its separation by Dr. Gill as a -distinct family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in -_Jordania_, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid series. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 395.—_Blepsias cirrhosus_ Pallas. Straits of Fuca. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 396.—Sea raven, _Hemitripterus americanus_ (Gmelin). Halifax, - Nova Scotia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 397.—_Oligocottus maculosus_ Girard. Sitka. -] - -In _Ascelichthys_ (_rhodorus_), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools of -the Oregon region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. _Ereunias -grallator_, a deep-water sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and with -free rays below its pectorals, should perhaps represent a distinct -family, _Ereuniidæ_. - -The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in _Psychrolutes_ and -_Gilbertidia_ of the North Pacific has been already noticed. These -genera seem to lead directly from _Cottunculus_ to _Liparis_. - -Fossil _Cottidæ_ are few. _Eocottus veronensis_, from the Eocene of -Monte Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays I, 5. It is -apparently related to _Jordania_, but is still more primitive. -_Lepidocottus_ (_aries_ and numerous other species, mostly from the -Miocene) is covered with scales, but apparently has less than five soft -rays in the ventrals. Remains of _Oncocottus_, _Icelus_, and _Cottus_ -are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The family as a whole is -evidently of recent date. - -The _Rhamphocottidæ_ consist of a single little sculpin with a large -bony and singularly formed head, found on the Pacific Coast from Sitka -to Monterey. The species is called _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_. - -=The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.=—The sea-poachers or alligator-fishes, -_Agonidæ_, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by a series of -overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or the catfishes of -the family _Loricariidæ_. So far as structure goes, these singular -fishes are essentially like the _Cottidæ_, but with a different and more -perfect armature. The many species belong chiefly to the North Pacific, -a few in the Atlantic and on the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in -considerable depth of water. All are too small to have value as food and -some have most fantastic forms. Only a few of the most prominent need be -noticed. The largest and most peculiar species is _Percis japonicus_ of -the Kurile Islands. Still more fantastic is the Japanese _Draciscus -sachi_ with sail-like dorsal and anal. _Agonus cataphractus_, the -sea-poacher, is the only European species. _Podothecus acipenserinus_, -the alligator-fish, is the commonest species of the North Pacific. -_Pallasina barbata_ is as slender as a pipefish, with a short beard at -the chin. _Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ of the Atlantic and other -similar species of the Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 398.—_Ereunias grallator_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 399.—Sleek Sculpin, _Psychrolutes paradoxus_ (Günther). Puget - Sound. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 400.—_Gilbertidia sigolutes_ (Jordan). Puget Sound. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 401.—Richardson's Sculpin, _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_ (Günther). - Puget Sound. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 402.—_Stelgis vulsus_ (Jordan & Gilbert). Point Reyes, Cal. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 403.—_Draciscus sachi_ Jordan & Snyder. Family _Agonidæ_. Aomori, - Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 404.—Agonoid-fish, _Pallasina barbata_ (Steindachner). Port - Mulgrave, Alaska. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 405.—_Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ (Bloch). Halifax. -] - -No fossil _Agonidæ_ are known. - -=The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.=—The lump-suckers, _Cyclopteridæ_, are -structurally very similar to the _Cottidæ_, but of very different habit, -the body being clumsy and the movements very slow. The ventral fins are -united to form a sucking disk by which these sluggish fishes hold fast -to rocks. The skeleton is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly -or partly lost, the skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender -suborbital stay indicates the relation of these fishes with the -_Cottidæ_. The species are chiefly Arctic, the common lumpfish or "cock -and hen paddle," _Cyclopterus lumpus_, abounding on both shores of the -North Atlantic. It reaches a length of twenty inches, spawning in -eel-grass where the male is left to watch the eggs. _Cyclopterichthys -ventricosus_ is a large species with smooth skin from the North Pacific. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 406.—Lumpfish, _Cyclopterus lumpus_ (Linnæus). Eastport, Me. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 407.—Liparid, _Crystallias matsushimæ_, (Jordan and Snyder). - Family _Liparididæ_. Matsushima Bay, Japan. -] - -=The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.=—The sea-snails, _Liparididæ_ are closely -related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate, tadpole -shaped, covered with very lax skin, like the "wrinkled skin on scalded -milk." In structure the liparids are still more degenerate than the -lumpfishes. Even the characteristic ventral disk is lost in some species -(_Paraliparis_; _Amitra_) and in numerous others the tail is drawn out -into a point (leptocercal), a character almost always a result of -degradation. The dorsal spines are wanting or imbedded in the loose -skin, and all trace of spines on the head is lost, but the -characteristic suborbital stay is well developed. The numerous species -are all small, three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic -waters, often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very -soft. One genus, _Enantioliparis_, is found in the Antarctic. In the -principal genus, _Liparis_, the ventral disk is well developed, and the -spinous dorsal obsolete. _Liparis liparis_ is found on both shores of -the North Atlantic, and is subject to large variations in color. -_Liparis agassizi_ is abundant in Japan and northward, and _Liparis -pulchellus_ in California. In the most primitive genus, _Neoliparis_, a -notch in the fin indicates the separation of the spinous dorsal. -_Neoliparis montagui_ is common in Europe, replaced in New England by -_Neoliparis atlanticus_. _Careproctus_, with numerous elongate species, -inhabits depths of the North Pacific. In _Paraliparis_ (or -_Hilgendorfia_) _ulochir_, the ventral disk is gone and the lowest stage -of degradation of the Loricate or _Scorpæna-Cottus_ type of fishes is -reached. No fossil lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although -remains of _Cyclopterus lumpus_ are found in nodules of glacial clay in -Canada. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 408.—Snailfish, _Neoliparis mucosus_ (Ayres). San Francisco. -] - -=The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.=—The family of _Comephoridæ_ includes -_Comephorus baikalensis_, a large fresh-water fish of Lake Baikal in -Siberia, having no near affinities with any other existing fish, but now -known to be a mail-cheek fish related to the _Cottidæ_. The body is -elongate, naked, with soft flesh and feeble skeleton. The mouth is -large, with small teeth, and the skull has a cavernous structure. There -are no ventral fins. The spinous dorsal is short and low, the second -dorsal and anal many-rayed, and the pectoral fins are excessively long, -almost wing-like; the vertebræ number 8 + 35 = 43, and unlike most -fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-bladder. Little is known of -the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is recently described -under the name of _Cottocomephorus_. - -=Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.=—A remarkable offshoot from -the _Pareioplitæ_ is the suborder of gurnards, known as _Craniomi_ -(κράνιον, skull; ὤμος, shoulder). In these fishes the suborbital stay is -highly developed, much as in the _Agonidæ_, bony externally and covering -the cheeks. The shoulder-girdle is distorted, the post-temporal being -solidly united to the cranium, while the postero-temporal is crowded out -of place by the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes -resemble the other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps -closest with the _Agonidæ_ or certain aberrant _Cottidæ_ as _Ereunias_. - -In the true gurnards or _Triglidæ_ the head is rough and bony, the body -covered with rough scales and below the pectoral fin are three free rays -used as feelers by the fish as it creeps along the bottom. These free -rays are used in turning over stones, exploring shells and otherwise -searching for food. The numerous species are found in the warm seas. In -Europe, the genus _Trigla_, without palatine teeth and with the lateral -line armed, is represented by numerous well-known species. _Trigla -cuculus_ is a common form of the Mediterranean. _Chelidonichthys_, -similar to _Trigla_ but larger and less fully armed, is found in Asia as -well as in Europe. Several species occur in the Mediterranean. -_Chelidonichthys kumu_ is a common species in Japan, a large fish with -pectorals of a very brilliant variegated blue, like the wings of certain -butterflies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 409.—Sea-robin, _Prionotus evolans_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -_Lepidotrigla_, with larger scales, has many species on the coasts of -Europe as well as in China and Japan. _Lepidotrigla alata_, a red fish -with a peculiar bony, forked snout, is common in Japan. The American -species of gurnards, having teeth on the palatine, belong to the genus -_Prionotus_. Northward these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the -shores in shallow water. In the tropics they descend to deeper water, -assuming a red color. _Prionotus carolinus_ is the commonest species in -New England. _Prionotus strigatus_, the striped sea-robin, and -_Prionotus tribulus_, the rough-headed sea-robin, are common species -along the Carolina coast. None have much value as food, being dry and -bony. Numerous fossil species referred to Trigla are found in the -Miocene. _Podopteryx_, from the Italian Miocene, with small pectorals -and very large ventrals, perhaps belongs also to this family, but its -real affinities are unknown. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 410.—Flying Gurnard, _Cephalacanthus volitans_ (L.). Virginia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 411.—_Peristedion miniatum_ Goode & Bean. Depths of the Gulf - Stream. -] - -=The Peristediidæ.=—The _Peristediidæ_ are deep-water sea-robins, much -depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail, and two free feelers on -the pectoral fin instead of three. The species of _Peristedion_ are -occasionally taken with the dredge. _Peristedion cataphractum_ is rather -common in Europe. The extinct _Peristedion urcianense_ is described from -the Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany. - -=The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.=—The flying gurnards, -_Cephalacanthidæ_, differ in numerous respects and are among the most -fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head is short and bony, the body -covered with firm scales, and the very long, wing-like pectoral fin is -divided into two parts, the posterior and larger almost as long as the -rest of the body. This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish -red. The first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more -or less prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much alike, -ranging widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight power of -flight. The flying robin, or batfish, called in Spanish volador or -murcielago, _Cephalacanthus volitans_, is common on both coasts of the -Atlantic, reaching a length of eighteen inches. _Cephalacanthus -peterseni_ is found in Japan and _Cephalacanthus orientalis_ in the East -Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The immature fishes have the pectoral fins -much shorter than in the adult, and differ in other regards. -_Cephalacanthus pliocenicus_ occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Orciano, -Tuscany. - -_Petalopteryx syriacus_, an extinct flying gurnard found in the -Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, is an ally of _Cephalacanthus_. The body is -covered with four-angled bony plates, and the first (free) spine of the -dorsal is enlarged. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVI - GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI - - -=SUBORDER Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.=—The great family of -_Gobiidæ_, having no near relations among the spiny-rayed fishes, may be -here treated as forming a distinct suborder. - -The chief characteristics of the family are the following: The ventral -fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine and five soft rays, -in some cases reduced to four, but never wanting. The ventral fins are -inserted very close together, the inner rays the longest, and in most -cases the two fins are completely joined, forming a single roundish fin, -which may be used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The -shoulder-girdle is essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is -usually depressed, the bones being without serrature. There is no -lateral line, the gill-openings are restricted to the sides, and the -spinous dorsal is always small, of feeble spines, and is sometimes -altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the preopercle. The small -pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebræ usually in normal number, 10 -+ 14 = 24. - -The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and temperate zones, -being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and bays, never far out in the -sea, and usually in shallow water. Many of them burrow in the mud -between or below tide-marks. Others live in swift waters like the -darters, which they much resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or -two, but most of the species rarely exceed three inches, and some of -them are mature at half an inch. - -The largest species, _Philypnus dormitor_, the guavina de rio, is found -in the rivers of Mexico and the West Indies. It reaches a length of -nearly two feet and is valued as food. Unlike most of the others, in -this species there are teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the -subfamily of _Eleotrinæ_, having the ventral fins separate, are -_Eleotris pisonis_, a common river-fish everywhere in tropical America; -_Eleotris fusca_, a river-fish abounding from Tahiti and Samoa to -Hindostan; _Dormitator maculatus_, the stout-bodied guavina-mapo of the -West Indian regions, with the form of a small carp. _Guavina guavina_ of -Cuba is another species of this type, and numerous other species having -separate ventrals are found in the East Indies, the West Indies, and in -the islands of Polynesia. Some species, as _Valenciennesia strigata_ of -the East Indies and _Vireosa hanæ_ of Japan, are very gracefully -colored. One genus, _Eviota_, is composed of numerous species, all -minute, less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in -coral-heads. _Eviota epiphanes_ is found in Hawaii, the others farther -south. _Hypseleotris guntheri_, of the rivers and springs of Polynesia, -swims freely in the water, like a minnow, never hugging the bottom as -usual among gobies. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 412.—Guavina de Rio, _Philypnus dormitor_ (Bloch & Schneider). - Puerto Rico. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 413.—Dormeur, _Eleotris pisonis_ Gmelin. Tortugas, Fla. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 414.—Guavina mapo, _Dormitator maculatus_ (Schneider). Puerto - Rico. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 415.—_Vireosa hanæ_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 416.—Esmeralda de Mar, _Gobionellus oceanicus_ (Pallas). Puerto - Rico. -] - -Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can mention but a -few of the myriad forms, different species being abundant alike in fresh -and salt waters in all warm regions. In Europe _Gobius jozo_, _Gobius -ophiocephalus_, and many others are common species. The typical genus -_Gobius_ is known by its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken -free rays on the upper part of the pectoral fin. _Mapo soporator_ swarms -about coral reefs in both Indies. _Gobionellus oceanicus_, the esmeralda -or emerald-fish, is notable for its slender body and the green spot over -its tongue. _Gobiosoma alepidotum_ and other species are scaleless. -_Barbulifer ceuthœcus_ lives in the cavities of sponges. _Coryphopterus -similis_, a small goby, swarms in almost every brook of Japan. The -species of _Pterogobius_ are beautifully colored, banded with white or -black, or striped with red or blue. _Pterogobius virgo_ and _Pterogobius -daimio_ of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of -_Cryptocentrus_ are also very prettily colored. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 417.—_Pterogobius daimio_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 418.—Darter Goby, _Aboma etheostoma_ Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex. -] - -Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is the long-jawed -goby, _Gillichthys mirabilis_. In this species the upper jaw is greatly -prolonged, longer than the head, as in _Opisthognathus_ and _Neoclinus_. -In the "American Naturalist" for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says -of the long-jawed goby: - -"I call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity consists in its -tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw, and so has an -alligator, and it is not unlikely that the title will call up in the -minds of some who read this the idea of a terrible mouth, armed with a -bristling row of teeth. This would be a great mistake, for our little -fish has no teeth worth bragging about, and does not open his mouth any -wider than a well-behaved fish should do. The great difference between -his long jaws and those of a garpike is that the latter's project -forward, while those of our goby are prolonged backward immensely. - -"The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Bay of -San Diego, among seaweed growing on small stones at the wharf, and in -such position that it must have been out of the water from three to six -hours daily, though kept moist by the seaweed. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 419.—Long-jawed Goby. _Gillichthys mirabilis_ Cooper. Santa - Barbara. -] - -"On a recent occasion a single _Gillichthys_, much larger than any of -the original types, was presented by a gentleman who said that the fish, -which was new to him, was abundant upon his ranch in Richardson's Bay, -in the northern part of the Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug -them up and ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked, -and found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels. The -twelfth specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest of natural -science. This gentleman had the opportunity of observing something of -the mode of life of these fishes, and informed us that their holes, -excavated in the muddy banks of tidal creeks, increase in size as they -go downward, so that the lower portion is below the water-level, or at -least sufficiently low to be kept wet by the percolation from the -surrounding mud. - -"When the various specimens now acquired were placed side by side, the -difference in the relative length of their jaws was very conspicuous, -for while in the smallest it was about one-fifth of the total length, in -the largest it exceeded one-third. - -"As the fish had now been found in two places in the bay, I thought I -would try to find it also, and to this end sallied out one morning, -armed with a spade, and commenced prospecting in a marsh at Berkeley, -not far from the State University. For a long time I was unsuccessful, -as I did not know by what outward signs their habitations could be -distinguished, and the extent of mud-bank left bare by the retreating -tide was, as compared with my powers of delving, practically limitless. - -"At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a small creek, in -a stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of about a foot below a -small puddle, I found five small fishes, which at first I believed to -belong to an undescribed species, so little did they resemble the -typical _G. mirabilis_, but which proved, upon a closer examination, to -be the young of that species. There was the depressed, broad head, the -funnel-shaped ventral 'disk' formed by the union of the two ventral -fins, and the compressed tail of the long-jawed goby, but where were the -long jaws? The jaws were, of course, in their usual place, but their -prolongations had only just begun to grow along the sides of the head, -and were not noticeable unless looked for. A comparison of the various -specimens proved conclusively that the strange-looking appendage is -developed during the growth of the fish, as will be seen by the -following measurements of four individuals: - -"In the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends beyond the -orbit for a distance about equal to that which intervenes between the -anterior margin of the orbit and the tip of the snout; in No. 2 it -reaches to the posterior margin of the preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends -level with the gill-opening; while in the largest individual it passes -the origin of the pectoral and ventral fins. - -"What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage, which is -not attached to the head except where it joins the mouth, and which, -from its gradual development and ultimate large dimensions, must -certainly serve some useful purpose? - -"Do not understand that I mean that every part of a creature is of use -to it in its present mode of life, for, as all naturalists know, there -are in structural anatomy, just as in social life, cases of _survival_; -remains of organs which were at some former time more developed, -parallel in their nature to such survivals in costume as the two buttons -on the back of a man's coat, once useful for the attachment of a -sword-belt. But in this fish we have no case of survival, but one of -unusual development; the family (_Gobiidæ_) to which it belongs presents -no similar case, although its members have somewhat similar habits, and -the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the subject, that the long -jaws serve some useful purpose in the economy of the creature. In view -of the half-terrestrial life led by this fish, I am inclined to suspect -that the expansion of the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a -small quantity of water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth -and gills, keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a -dry season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several -hours, to reach the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be objected -to this view that, were such an appendage necessary or even useful, -other species of _Gobiidæ_, whose habits are similar, would show traces -of a similar adaptation. This, however, by no means follows. Nature has -many ways of working out the same end; and it must be remembered that -every real species, when thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits -from its congeners, or at least from its family friends. To take an -illustration from the mammalia. The chimpanzee and the spider-monkey are -both quadrumanous and both arboreal, yet the end which is attained in -the former by its more perfect hands is reached in the latter by its -prehensile tail. - -"Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the jaw of this rather -abnormal member of the goby family be another mode of provision for the -requirements of respiration?" - -Of the Asiatic genera, _Periophthalmus_ and _Boleophthalmus_ are -especially notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are raised on a short -stalk, the fins are strong, and the animal has the power of skipping -along over the wet sands and mud, even skimming with great speed over -the surface of the water. It chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves, -and weeds, and out of the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species -of these mud-skippers are known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia, -_Periophthalmus barbarus_ and _Boleophthalmus chinensis_ being the best -known. _Awaous crassilabris_ is the common oopu, or river goby, of the -Hawaiian streams, and _Lentipes stimpsoni_ is the mountain oopu, capable -of clinging to the rocks in the rush of torrents. _Paragobiodon -echinocephalus_ is a short thick-set goby with very large head, found in -crevices of coral reefs of Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 420.—Pond-skipper, _Boleophthalmus chinensis_ (Osbeck). Bay of - Tokyo, Japan. (Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 421.—Mud-skippy, _Periophthalmus oarbarus_ (L.). Mouth of - Vaisigono River, Apia, Samoa. -] - -In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting or much -reduced. The crystal goby, _Crystallogobius nilssoni_, of Europe is one -of this type, with the body translucent. Equally translucent is the -little Japanese shiro-uwo, or whitefish, _Leucopsarion petersi_. -_Mistichthys luzonius_ of the Philippine Islands, another diaphanous -goby, is said to be the smallest of all vertebrates, being mature at -half an inch in length. This minute fish is so very abundant as to -become an important article of food in Luzon. The rank of -"smallest-known vertebrate" has been claimed in turn for the lancelet -(_Asymmetron lucayanum_), the top minnow, _Heterandria formosa_, and the -dwarf sunfish (_Elassoma zonatum_). _Mistichthys luzonius_ is smaller -than any of these, but the diminutive gobies, called _Eviota_, found in -interstices of coral rocks are equally small, and there are several -brilliant but minute forms in the reefs of Samoa. The snake-like -_Eutæniichthys gilli_ of Japanese rivers is scarcely larger, though over -an inch long. _Typhlogobius californiensis_, "the blindfish of Point -Loma," is a small goby, colorless and blind, found clinging in dark -crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead Man's Island in southern -California. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 422.—_Eutæniichthys gillii_ Jordan & Snyder. Tokyo, Japan. -] - -Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being evidently -associated with the peculiar habit of the species, which clings to the -under side of stones in relative darkness, though in very shallow water. -The flesh is also colorless, the animal appearing pink in life. - -In the Japanese species _Luciogobus guttatus_, common under stones and -along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numerous other species, -finally vanishes altogether. Other gobies are band-shaped or eel-shaped, -the dorsal spines being continuous with the soft rays. Among these are -the barreto of Cuba, _Gobioides broussoneti_, and in Japan _Tænioides -lacepedei_ and _Trypauchen wakæ_, the latter species remarkable for its -strong canines. Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few fragments, -otoliths, and partial skeletons in southern Europe have been referred to -_Gobius_, but no other genus is represented. - -The family of _Oxudercidæ_ contains one species, _Oxuderces dentatus_, a -small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate fish, without ventral -fins, and with very short dorsal and anal. - -=Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.=—Next to the -gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the singular group of -_Discocephali_ (δίσκος, disk; κεφαλή, head). In this group the first -dorsal fin is transformed into a peculiar laminated sucking-disk, which -covers the whole top of the head and the nape. In other respects the -structure does not diverge very widely from the percoid type, there -being a remarkable resemblance in external characters to the Scombroid -genus _Rachycentron_. But the skeleton shows no special affinity to -_Rachycentron_ or to any perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is -simple, and in the depression of the head with associated modifications -the _Discocephali_ approach the gobies and blennies rather than the -mackerel-like forms. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 423.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, _Leptecheneis naucrates_ - (Linnæus). Virginia. -] - -The _Discocephali_ comprise the single family of shark-suckers or -remoras, the _Echeneididæ_. All the species of this group are pelagic -fishes, widely diffused in the warm seas. All cling by their cephalic -disks to sharks, barracudas, and other free-swimming fishes, and are -carried about the seas by these. They do not harm the shark except by -slightly impeding its movement. They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on -sardines, young herring, and the like. When a shark, taken on the hook, -is drawn out of the water the sucking-fish leaves it instantly, and is -capable of much speed in swimming on its own account. These fishes are -all dusky in color, the belly as dark as the back, so as to form little -contrast to the color of the shark. - -The commonest species, _Leptecheneis naucrates_, called pegapega or -pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet and is almost -cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively on the larger sharks, -notably on _Carcharias lamia_. It has 20 to 22 plates in its disk, and -the sides are marked by a dusky lateral band. - -Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora, or shark-sucker -(_Echeneis remora_), with a stouter body and about 18 plates in the -cephalic disk. This species is found in Europe, on the coast of New -York, in the West Indies, in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere -abundant. Another widely distributed species is _Remorina albescens_ -with 13 plates in its disk. _Remoropsis brachyptera_, with 15 plates and -a long soft dorsal, is also occasionally taken. _Rhombochirus osteochir_ -is a rare species of the Atlantic with 18 plates, having the pectoral -rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish (_Phtheirichthys lineatus_) -is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates in its disk. It is -found attached, not to sharks, but to barracudas and spearfishes. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 424.—_Rhombochirus osteochir_ (Cuv. & Val.). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in Glarus, -Switzerland, under the name of _Opisthomyzon glaronensis_. It is -characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted. Its vertebræ are -10 + 13 = 24 only. Dr. Storms gives the following account of this -species: - -"A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts of the skeleton -of the fossil _Echeneis_ with those of the living forms, such as -_Echeneis naucrates_ or _Echeneis remora_, shows that the fossil differs -nearly equally from both, and that it was a more normally shaped fish -than either of these forms. The head was narrower and less flattened, -the preoperculum wider, but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The -ribs, as also the neural and hæmal spines, were longer, the tail more -forked, and the soft dorsal fin much longer. In fact it was a more -compressed type, probably a far better swimmer than its living -congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of the adhesive disk is -taken into account." - -Concerning the relations of the _Discocephali_ Dr. Gill has the -following pertinent remarks: - -"The family of _Scomberoides_ was constituted by Cuvier for certain -forms of known organization, among which were fishes evidently related -to _Caranx_, but which had free dorsal spines. Dr. Günther conceived the -idea of disintegrating this family because, _inter alias_, the typical -_Scomberoides_ (family _Scombridæ_) have more than 24 vertebræ and -others (family _Carangidæ_) had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to -the relationship of _Elacate_ (_Rachycentron_) was repeated, but -inasmuch as it had 'more than 24 vertebræ' (it had 25 = 12 + 13) it was -severed from the free-spined _Carangidæ_ and associated with the -_Scombridæ_. _Elacate_ has an elongated body, flattened head, and a -longitudinal lateral band; therefore _Echeneis_ was considered to be -next allied to _Elacate_ and to belong to the same family. The very -numerous differences in structure between the two were entirely ignored, -and the reference of the _Echeneis_ to the _Scombridæ_ is simply due to -assumption piled on assumption. The collocation need not, therefore, -longer detain us. The possession by _Echeneis_ of the anterior oval -cephalic disk in place of a spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate -the isolation of the genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is -associated with almost innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton -and other parts, and in a logical system it must be removed far from the -_Scombridæ_, and probably be endowed with subordinal distinction. In all -essential respects it departs greatly from the type of structure -manifested in the _Scombridæ_ and rather approximates—but very -distantly—the _Gobioidea_ and _Blennioidea_. In those types we have in -some a tendency to flattening of the head, of anterior development of -the dorsal fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there is no -close affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the -spinous dorsal exhibited by _Echeneis_. In view of all these facts -_Echeneis_, with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constituting not -only a family but a suborder.... Who can consistently object to the -proposition to segregate the _Echeneididæ_ as a suborder of -teleocephalous fishes? Not those who consider that the development of -three or four inarticulate rays (or even less) in the front of the -dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differentiate a given form from -another with only one or two such. Certainly the difference between the -constituents of a disk and any rays or spines is much greater than the -mere development or atrophy of articulations. Not those who consider -that the manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the -following, or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal -importance; for such differences, again, are manifestly of less -morphological significance than the factors of a suctorial disk. -Nevertheless there are doubtless many who will passively resist the -proposition because of a conservative spirit, and who will vaguely refer -to the development of the disk as being a 'teleological modification,' -and as if it were not an actual fact and a development correlated with -radical modifications of all parts of the skeleton at least. But -whatever may be the closest relations of _Echeneis_, or the systematic -value of its peculiarities, it is certain that it is not allied to -_Elacate_ any more than to hosts of scombroid, percoid, and kindred -fishes, and that it differs _in toto_ from it notwithstanding the claims -that have been made otherwise. It is true that there is a striking -resemblance, especially between the young—almost as great, for example, -as that between the placental mouse and the marsupial _Antechinomys_—but -the likeness is entirely superficial, and the scientific ichthyologist -should be no more misled than would be the scientific therologist by the -likeness of the marsupial and placental mammals." - -=Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.=—The suborder _Tæniosomi_ -(ταινία, ribbon; σῶμα, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made up of strange -inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant derivatives of the -mackerel stock. The body is greatly elongate, much compressed, extremely -fragile, covered with shining silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in -the open sea, probably at no very great depth, but are almost never -taken by collectors except when thrown on shore in storms or when -attacked by other fishes and dragged above or below their depth. When -found they are usually reported as sea-serpents, and although perfectly -harmless, they are usually at once destroyed by their ignorant captors. -The whole body is exceedingly fragile; the bones are porous, thin, and -light, containing scarcely any calcareous matter. In the _Tæniosomi_ the -ventral fins are thoracic, formed of one or a few soft rays. More -remarkable is the character of the caudal fin, which is always distorted -and usually not in line with the rest of the body. The teeth are small. -The general structure is not very different from that of the -cutlass-fishes, _Trichiuridæ_, and other degraded offshoots from the -scombroid group. The species are few and, from the nature of things, -very imperfectly known. Scarcely any specimens are perfectly preserved. -When dried the body almost disappears, both flesh and bones being -composed chiefly of water. - -=The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.=—The _Regalecidæ_, or oarfishes, have the -caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long filaments, -thickened at the tip. The species reach a length of twenty or thirty -feet, and from their great size, slender forms, and sinuous motion have -been almost everywhere regarded as sea-serpents. The very long anterior -spines of the dorsal fin are tipped with red, and the fish is often and -not untruthfully described as a sea-serpent "having a horse's head with -a flaming red mane." - -The great oarfish, _Regalecus glesne_ (see Fig. 237, Vol. I) was long -known to the common people of Norway as king of the herrings, it being -thought that to harm it would be to drive the herring to some other -coast. The name "king of the herrings" went into science as _Regalecus_, -from _rex_, king, and _halec_, herring. The Japanese fancy, which runs -in a different line, calls the creature "Dugunonuatatori," which means -the "cock of the palace under the sea." - -The Atlantic oarfish is named _Regalecus glesne_, from the Norwegian -farm of Glesnæs, where the first recorded specimen, described by -Ascanius, was taken 130 years ago. Since then the species has been many -times found on the shores of Great Britain and Norway, and once at -Bermuda. - -In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like, light -blue in color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the head has a long -jaw and a high forehead, suggesting the head of a horse. The dorsal fin -begins on the head, and the first few spines are very long, each having -a red tuft on the end. When the animal is alive these spines stand up -like a red mane. - -The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble in mind. It -lives in the deep seas, all over the world. After great storms it -sometimes comes ashore. Perhaps this is because for some reason it has -risen above its depth and so lost control of itself. When a deep-water -fish rises to the surface the change of pressure greatly affects it. -Reduction of pressure bursts its blood-vessels, its swim-bladder swells, -if it has one, and turns its stomach inside out. If a deep-water fish -gets above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a surface fish is -when it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile. - -Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore to escape from -parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft flesh, or sharks that -would tear it. - -Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and to these several -names have been given, but the species are not at all clearly made out. -The oldest name is that of _Regalecus russelli_, for the naturalist -Patrick Russell, who took a specimen at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen -two large examples of _Regalecus_ in the museum at Tokio, and several -young ones have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina -in southern California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately came -ashore at Newport in Orange County, California. The story of its capture -is thus told by Mr. Horatio J. Forgy, of Santa Ana, California: - -"On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported at Newport -Beach that about one mile up the coast he had landed a sea-serpent, and -as proof showed four tentacles and a strip of flesh about six feet long. -A crowd went up to see it, and they said it was about twenty feet long -and like a fish in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr. -Remsberg and I, on the following day, went up to see it, and in a short -time we gathered a crowd and with the assistance of Mr. Peabody prepared -the fish and took the picture you have received. - -"It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length, and weighed -about 500 or 600 pounds. - -"The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was alive and in -the shallow water, and that he had landed it himself. - -"This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it was in a fine -state of preservation and could have easily been shipped to you, but he -had cut it to such an extent that shipment or preservation seemed out of -the question when we first saw it. - -"At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar fishes and -sharks were found. Among others, I found a small oarfish about three -feet long in a bad state of preservation in a piece of kelp. One side of -it was nearly torn off and the other side was decayed." - -Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oarfishes in -southern California: - -"From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Catalina, which -lies eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles County, southern -California, is very interesting, many rare animals being found there. -Every winter the dwellers of the island find numbers of argonaut-shells, -and several living specimens have been secured, one for a time living in -the aquarium which is maintained here for the benefit of students and -the entertainment of visitors. A number of rare and interesting fishes -wander inshore from time to time. Several years ago I found various -Scopeloid fishes, which up to that time had been considered rare, and -during the past few years I have seen one oarfish (_Regalecus russelli_) -alive, while another was brought to me dead. From reports I judge that a -number of these very rare fishes have been observed here. The first was -of small size, not over two feet in length, and was discovered swimming -in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay. I had an opportunity to -observe the radiant creature before it died. Its 'topknot'—it can be -compared to nothing else—was a vivid red or scarlet mass of seeming -plumes—the dorsal fins, which merged into a long dorsal fin, extending -to the tail. The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen splashed -with equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a most -striking appearance. - -"The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost of a fish, -which swam along where the water gently lapped the sands with an -undulatory motion, looking like one of its names—the ribbon-fish. The -fortunate finder of this specimen could not be persuaded to give it up -or sell it, and it was its fate to be pasted upon a piece of board, -dried in the sun as a 'curio,' where, as if in retaliation at the -desecration of so rare a specimen, it soon disappeared. - -"This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United States, -so at least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time that it had not been -reported. In 1899 another oarfish was brought to me, evidently having -been washed in after a storm and found within a few yards of the former -at Avalon. The discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to -be properly preserved, or to donate or sell it to any one who would have -sent it to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a 'curio,' also -impaled it, the delicate creature evaporating under the strong heat of -the semitropic sun. - -"This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during the past -winter (1900) a fine large specimen came in at Newport Beach, being -reported by H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The newspapers announced that a -Mexican had found a young sea-serpent at Newport, and investigation -showed that, as in hundreds of similar instances, the man had found a -valuable prize without being aware of it. According to the account, the -discoverer first saw the fish alive in the surf and hauled it ashore. -Being ignorant of its value, he cut it up, bringing in a part of the -scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he showed to some men, and -led the way to where lay the mutilated remains of one of the finest -oar-or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The specimen was twenty-one feet in -length, and its weight estimated at five hundred pounds. The finder had -so mutilated it that the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If he -had packed it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the -equivalent of several months' labor. Apparently the man had cut it up in -wanton amusement. - -"This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion excavating at -San Clemente Island, and had remarked that it was a singular fact that -all the fine stone ollas were broken. 'Nothing strange about that,' said -a half-breed, one of the party. 'I used to herd sheep here, and we -smashed mortars and ollas to pass away time.'" - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 425.—Oarfish, _Regalecus russelli_, on the beach at Newport, - Orange Co., Cal. (Photograph by C. P. Remsberg.) -] - -=The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.=—The family of _Trachypteridæ_ comprises -the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery coloration, -smaller than the oarfishes and more common, but of similar habit. - -Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be the king of -the herrings and cherished as such, so among the Indians of Puget Sound -another freak fish is held sacred as the king of the salmon. The people -about Cape Flattery believe that if one does any harm to this fish the -salmon will at once leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who -first discovered this fish to give it its name of _Trachypterus -rex-salmonorum_. - -In Europe a similar species (_Trachypterus atlanticus_) has long been -known by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither of these names having -any evident propriety. - -The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange creatures of -the sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet. Its body is thin as -a knife and would be transparent were it not covered over with a shining -white pigment which gives to the animal the luster of burnished silver. -On this white surface is a large black blotch or two, but no other -colors. The head is something like that of the oarfish, to which animal -the dealfish bears a close relationship. Both have small teeth and -neither could bite if it would, and neither wants to, for they are -creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the head of the dealfish, -where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like fin. At the end -of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin, is a long, slim fin -which projects directly upwards at right angles to the direction of the -back-bone. No other fish shows this strange peculiarity. - -The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of the water. It -does not often come near shore, but it is occasionally blown on the -beach by storms. _Trachypterus rex-salmonorum_ has been recorded two or -three times from Puget Sound and twice from California. The finest -specimen known, the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off -the Farallones in 1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him sent -to Stanford University. The specimen is perfect in all its parts, a -condition rare with these fragile creatures, and its picture gives a -good idea of the mysterious king of the salmon. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 426.—Dealfish, or King of the Salmon, _Trachypterus - rex-salmonorum_ Jordan & Gilbert. Family _Trachypteridæ_. (From a - specimen taken off the Farallones.) -] - -Four of these fishes have been obtained on the coast of Japan, and have -been described and figured by the present writer in the annals of the -Imperial University of Tokyo. These are different from the California -species and are named _Trachypterus ishikawæ_, but they show the same -bright silver color and the same streamers on the head and tail. -Probably they, too, in Japan are kings of something or other, or perhaps -silver swans from the submarine palace, for along such lines the -Japanese fancy is more likely to run. - -The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and the dorsal -spines and ventral rays produced in very long streamers. - -According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are "true deep-sea fishes, -which live at very great depths, and are only found when floating dead -on the surface or washed ashore by the waves. Almost nothing is known of -their habits except through Nilsson's observations in the far north. -This naturalist, as well as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity -of observing them in life. They say that they approach the shore at -flood-tide on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the -retreating waves. Nilsson's opinion is that its habits resemble those of -the flatfishes, and that they move with one side turned obliquely -upward, the other toward the ground; and he says that they have been -seen on the bottom in two or three fathoms of water, where the fishermen -hook them up with the implements employed to raise dead seals, and that -they are slow swimmers. This is not necessarily the case, however, for -the removal of pressure and the rough treatment by which they were -probably washed ashore would be demoralizing, to say the least. -_Trichiurus_, a fish similar in form, is a very strong, swift swimmer, -and so is _Regalecus_. Whether or not the habits of _Trachypterus -arcticus_, on which these observations were made, are a safe guide in -regard to the other forms is a matter of some doubt, but it is certain -that they live far from the surface, except near the Arctic Circle, and -that they only come ashore accidentally. They have never been taken by -the deep-sea dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very -rare, the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin-rays -exceedingly fragile. A considerable number of species have been -described, but in most instances each was based on one or two specimens. -It is probable that future studies may be as fruitful as that of Emery, -who, by means of a series of twenty-three specimens, succeeded in -uniting at least three of the Mediterranean species which for half a -century or more had been regarded as distinct. The common species of the -eastern Atlantic, _Trachypterus atlanticus_, is not rare, one or more -specimens, according to Günther, being secured along the coast of -northern Europe after almost every severe gale. We desire to quote the -recommendation of Dr. Günther, and to strongly urge upon any one who may -be so fortunate as to secure one of these fishes that no attempt should -be made to keep it entire, but that it should be cut into short lengths -and preserved in the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped separately in -muslin." - -The family of _Stylephoridæ_ is known from a single specimen of the -species, _Stylephorus chordatus_, taken off Cuba in 1790. In this form -the tail ends in a long, whip-like appendage, twice as long as the head. - -No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVII - SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA - - -=THE Flatfishes.=—Perhaps the most remarkable offshoot from the order of -spiny-rayed fishes is the great group of flounders and soles, called by -Bonaparte _Heterosomata_ (ἔτερός, differing; σῶμα, body). The essential -character of this group is found in the twisting of the anterior part of -the cranium, an arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side of -the head. This is accompanied by a great compression of the body, as a -result of which the flounders swim horizontally or lie flat on the sand. -On the side which is uppermost both eyes are placed, this side being -colored, brown or gray or mottled. The lower side is usually plain -white. In certain genera the right side is uppermost, in others the -left. In a very few, confined to the coast of California, the eyes are -on the right or left side indifferently. - -The process of the twisting of the head has been already described (see -p. 174, Vol. I). The very young have the body translucent and -symmetrical, standing upright in the water. Soon the tendency to rest on -the bottom sets in, the body leans to left or right, and the lower eye -gradually traverses the front of the head to the other side. This -movement is best seen in the species of _Platophrys_, in which the final -arrangement of the eyes is a highly specialized one. - -In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye turns over -and pierces the cranium instead of passing across it. This opinion needs -verification, and the process should be studied in detail in as many -species as possible. The present writer has seen it in species of -_Platophrys_ only, the same genus in which it was carefully studied by -Dr. Carlo F. Emery of Bologna. In the halibut, and in the more primitive -flounders generally, the process takes place at an earlier stage than in -_Platophrys_. - -=Optic Nerves of Flounders.=—In the Bulletin of the Museum of -Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H. Parker -discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group of flounders or -flatfishes. - -In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes of the -brain, the one passing to the lobes of the opposite side simply lying -over the other, without intermingling of fibers, such as takes place in -the higher vertebrates and in the more primitive fishes. - -According to Parker's observations, in ordinary bony fishes the right -nerve may be indifferently above or below the other. In 1000 specimens -of ten common species, 486 have the left nerve uppermost and 514 the -right nerve. In most individual species the numbers are practically -equal. Thus, in the haddock, 48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the -right nerve. - -In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this condition no -longer obtains. In those species of flounder with the eyes on the right -side 236 individuals, representing sixteen species, had the left nerve -uppermost in all cases. - -Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals, -representing nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 427.—Young Flounder, just hatched, with symmetrical eyes. (After - S. R. Williams.) -] - -There are a few species of flounders in which reversed examples are so -common that the species may be described as having the eyes on the right -or left side indifferently. In all these species, however, whether -dextral or sinistral, the relation of the nerves conforms to the type -and is not influenced by the individual deviation. Thus the starry -flounder (_Platichthys_) belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal -specimens, the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the -left nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes on the -left. In 15 examples of the California bastard halibut (_Paralichthys -californicus_), normally sinistral, the right eye is always uppermost. -It is uppermost in 11 reversed examples. - -Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no longer obtains. In 49 -individuals of four species of dextral soles, the left nerve is -uppermost in 24, the right nerve in 25. Among sinistral soles, or -tongue-fishes, in 18 individuals of two species, the left nerve is -uppermost in 13, the right nerve in 5. - -Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles are not -degenerate flounders, but rather descended from primitive flounders -which still retain the dimorphic condition as to the position of the -optic nerves, a condition prevalent in all bony fishes except the -flounders. - -The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore, deeper than -the matter of the migration of the eye. The asymmetry of the mouth is an -independent trait, but, like the migration of the eye, is an adaptation -to swimming on the side. Each of the various traits of asymmetry may -appear independently of the others. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 428.—Larval Flounder, _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_. (After S. - R. Williams.) -] - -The development of the monomorphic arrangement in flounders Professor -Parker thinks can be accounted for by the principle of natural -selection. In a side-swimming fish the fixity of this trait has a -mechanical advantage. The unmetamorphosed young of the flounder are not -strictly symmetrical, for they possess the monomorphic position of the -optic nerve. The reversed examples of various species of flounders -(these, by the way, chiefly confined to the California fauna) afford -"striking examples of discontinuous variation." - -A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession in nine of -the California-Alaskan species of an accessory half-lateral line. This -is found in two different groups, while near relatives in other waters -lack the character. One species in Japan has this trait, which is not -found in any Atlantic species, or in any other flounders outside the -fauna of northern California, Oregon, and Alaska. - -=Ancestry of Flounders.=—The ancestry of the flounders is wholly -uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders lack all -fin-spines, they have been placed by some authors after the -_Anacanthini_, or codfishes, and a common descent has been assumed. Some -writers declare that the flounder is only a codfish with distorted -cranium. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 429. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 429 and 430.—Larval stages of _Platophrys podas_, a flounder of - the Mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.) -] - -A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that this -supposition is without foundation. The flounders have thoracic ventrals, -not jugular as in the cod. The tail is homocercal, ending in a large -hypural plate, never isocercal, except in degraded soles, in which it is -rather leptocercal. The shoulder-girdle, with its perforate -hypercoracoid, has the normal perch-like form. The ventral fins have -about six rays, as in the perch, although the first ray is never -spinous. Pseudobranchiæ are developed, these structures being obsolete -in the codfishes. The gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the -perch. - -It is fairly certain that the _Heterosomata_ have diverged from the -early spiny-rayed forms, _Zeoidei_, _Berycoidei_, or _Scombroidei_ of -the Jurassic or Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to the -development of the great perch stock. - -If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group, it would -be to regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel-like forms, as -the _Stromateidæ_, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid forms, as -_Platycormus_, having the ventral fins wider than in the mackerel. Still -more plausible is the recent suggestion of Dr. Boulenger that the -extinct genus _Amphistium_ resembles the primitive flounder. But there -is little direct proof of such relation, and the resemblance of larval -flounders to the ribbon-fishes may have equal significance. But the -ribbon-fishes themselves may be degenerate Scombroids. In any case both -ribbon-fishes and flounders find their nearest living relatives among -the _Berycoidei_ or _Zeoidei_, and have no affinity whatever with the -isocercal codfish or with other members of the group called -_Anacanthini_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 431.—_Platophrys lunatus_ (Linnæus), the Peacock Flounder. Family - _Pleuronectidæ_. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.) -] - -The _Heterosomata_ are found in all seas, always close to the bottom and -swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They are usually placed in a -single family, but the degraded types known as soles may be regarded as -forming a second family. - -=The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.=—In the flounders, or _Pleuronectidæ_, -the membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large and well -separated, the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws always -provided with teeth. Among the 500 species of flounders is found the -greatest variation in size, ranging in weight from an ounce to 500 -pounds. The species found in arctic regions are most degenerate and -these have the largest number of vertebræ and of fin-rays. The halibut -has 50 vertebræ (16 + 34), the craig-flounder 58, while in _Etropus_ and -other tropical forms the number is but 34 (10 + 24). The common -flounders of intermediate geographical range (_Paralichthys dentatus_, -etc.) show intermediate numbers as 40 (10 + 30). The apparent -significance of this peculiar series of fact is given on page 212, Vol. -I. It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection -in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the -bones and consequently smaller number of the vertebræ. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 432.—Heterocercal tail of young Trout, _Salmo fario_ Linnæus. - (After Parker & Haswell.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 433.—Homocercal tail of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_.] -] - -Fossil flounders are very few and give no clue as to the origin of the -group. In the Eocene and Miocene are remains which have been referred to -_Bothus (Rhombus)_. _Bothus minimus_ is the oldest species known, -described by Agassiz from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. In the Miocene are -numerous other species of _Bothus_, as also tubercles referable to -_Scophthalmus_. - -On the testimony of fossils alone the genus _Bothus_, or one of its -allies, would be the most primitive of the group. If it be so, the -simpler structure of the halibut and its relatives is due to -degeneration, which is probable, although their structure has the -suggestion of primitive simplicity, especially in the greater approach -to symmetry in the head and the symmetry in the insertion of the ventral -fins. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 434.—Window-pane, _Lophopsetta maculata_. Virginia. -] - -Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. _Solea kirchbergiana_ -of the Miocene is not very different from species now extant in southern -Europe. No remains referable to allies of the halibut or plaice are -found in Tertiary rocks, and these relatively simple types must be -regarded as of recent origin. - -=The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.=—The turbot tribe have the mouth large, the -eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral fins unlike, that of -the left side being extended along the ridge of the abdomen. The species -are found in the warm seas only. They are deeper in body than the -halibut and plaice, and some of them are the smallest of all flounders. -It is probable that these approach most nearly of existing flounders to -the original ancestors of the group. - -Perhaps the most primitive genus is _Bothus_, species of which genus are -found in Italian Miocene. The European brill, _Bothus rhombus_, is a -common fish of southern Europe, deep-bodied and covered with smooth -scales. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 435.—Wide-eyed Flounder, _Syacium papillosum_ Linnæus. Pensacola, - Fla. -] - -Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translucent speckled -flounder of our Atlantic coast (_Lophopsetta maculata_), popularly known -as window-pane. This species is too small to have much value as food. -Another species, similar to the brill in technical characters but very -different in appearance, is the turbot, _Scophthalmus maximus_, of -Europe. This large flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered -with warty tubercles. It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and has a -high value as a food-fish. There is but one species of turbot and it is -found in Europe only, on sandy bottoms from Norway to Italy. In a turbot -of twenty-three pounds weight Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine -ounces, with 14,311,260 eggs. The young retains its symmetrical -condition for a relatively long period. No true turbot is found in -America and none in the Pacific. Other European flounders allied to the -turbot and brill are _Zeugopterus punctatus_; the European whiff, -_Lepidorhombus whiff-jagonis_; the topknot, _Phrynorhombus regius_; the -lantern-flounder, _Arnoglossus laterna_, and the tongue-fish, -_Eucitharus linguatula_, the last two of small size and feeble flesh. - -In the wide-eyed or peacock flounders, _Platophrys podas_ in Europe, -_Platophrys lunatus_, etc., in America, _Platophrys mancus_ in -Polynesia, the eyes in the old males are very far apart, and the changes -due to age and sex are greater than in any other genera. The species of -this group are highly variegated and lie on the sand in the tropical -seas. Numerous small species allied to these abound in the West Indies, -known in a general way as whiffs. The most widely distributed of these -are _Citharichthys spilopterus_ of the West Indies, _Citharichthys -gilberti_ and _Azevia panamensis_ of Panama, _Orthopsetta sordida_ of -California, and especially the common small-mouthed _Etropus crossotus_ -found throughout tropical America. Numerous other genera and species of -the turbot tribe are found on the coasts of tropical Asia and Africa, -most of them of small size and weak structure. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 436.—_Etropus crossotus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla. -] - -_Samaris cristatus_ of Asia is the type of another tribe of flounders -and the peculiar hook-jawed _Oncopterus darwini_ of Patagonia represents -still another tribe. - -=The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.=—In the great halibut tribe the mouth -is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The arctic and subarctic -species have the eyes and color on the right. Those of the warmer -regions (bastard halibut) have the eyes and color on the left. These -grow progressively smaller in size to the southward, the mouth being -smaller and more feebly armed in southern species. - -The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far greatest -importance, is the halibut (_Hippoglossus hippoglossus_). This species -is found on both shores of both oceans, north of about the latitude of -Paris, Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Matsushima Bay in Japan. Its -preference is for off-shore banks of no great depth, and in very many -localities it exists in great abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8 -feet and a weight of 600 pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and -enters deeper waters than the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good -quality, although none of the flatfishes have much flavor, the muscles -being mostly destitute of oil. Small halibut, called "chicken halibut," -are highly esteemed. - -Dr. Goode states that the "history of the halibut fishery has been a -peculiar one. At the beginning of the present century these fishes were -exceedingly abundant on George's Banks; since 1850 they have partially -disappeared from this region, and the fishermen have since been -following them to other banks, and since 1874 out into deeper and deeper -water, and the fisheries are now carried on almost exclusively in the -gullies between the off-shore banks and on the outer edges of the banks, -in water 100 to 350 fathoms in depth. - -"The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious fish, and -probably would disdain few objects in the way of fresh meat it would -come across. It is said, however, to feed more especially upon crabs and -mollusks in addition to fish. These fish 'they waylay lying upon the -bottom, invisible by reason of their flat bodies, colored to correspond -to the general color of the sand or mud upon which they rest. When in -pursuit of their prey they are active and often come quite to the -surface, especially when in summer they follow the capelin to the shoal -water near the land. They feed upon skates, cod, haddock, menhaden, -mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins, grenadiers, turbot, -Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything else that is eatable and can be -found in the same waters.' Frequently halibut may be seen chasing -flatfish over the bottom of the water. About Cape Sable their favorite -food seems to be haddock and cusk. A very singular mode of attacking a -cod has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced fisherman and -good observer. They often kill their prey by blows of the tail, a fact -which is quite novel and interesting. He has described an instance which -occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island in 1877: 'The man at the -wheel sang out that he saw a halibut flapping its tail about a quarter -of a mile off our starboard quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and -his statement was soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We -hove out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a pair of -gaff-hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the halibut, which was -a fine one of about seventy pounds weight, but a small codfish which it -had been trying to kill by striking it with its tail. The codfish was -quite exhausted by the repeated blows and did not attempt to escape -after its enemy had been captured. The halibut was so completely engaged -in the pursuit of the codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and -was easily captured.' - -"The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the year, and -about July and August are ready to spawn, although 'some fishermen say -that they spawn at Christmas' or 'in the month of January, when they are -on the shoals.' The roe of a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds -weighed 44 pounds, and indeed the 'ovaries of a large fish are too heavy -to be lifted by a man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet -or more in length.' A portion of the roe 'representing a fair average of -the eggs, was weighed and found to contain 2185 eggs,' and the entire -number would be 2,182,773." - -Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms with more -elongate body. The Greenland halibut, _Reinhardtius hippoglossoides_, -and the closely related species in Japan, _Reinhardtius matsuuræ_, -differ from the halibut most obviously in the straight lateral line. The -arrow-toothed halibut, _Atheresthes stomias_, lives in deeper waters in -the North Pacific. Its flesh is soft, the mouth very large, armed with -arrow-shaped teeth. The head in this species is less distorted than in -any of the others, the upper eye being on the edge of the disk in front -of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been supposed to be the most -primitive of the living species, but these traits are doubtless elusive -and a result of degeneration. - -_Eopsetta jordani_ is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on the coast -of California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white flesh, sold in -San Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous name of "English -sole." Large numbers are dried by the Chinese for export to China. A -similar species, _Hippoglossoides platessoides_, known as the -"sand-dab," is common on both shores of the North Atlantic, and several -related species are found in the North Pacific. _Verasper variegatus_ of -Japan is notable for its bright coloration, the lower side being largely -orange-red. - -In the bastard halibuts, _Paralichthys_, the eyes and color are on the -left side. These much resemble the true halibut, but are smaller and -inferior as food, besides differing in details of structure. The -Monterey halibut (_Paralichthys californicus_) is the largest of these, -reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This species and one other from -California (_Xystreurys liolepis_), normally left-sided, differ from all -the other flounders in having the eyes almost as often on the right side -as on the left side, as usual or normal in their type. The summer -flounder (_Paralichthys dentatus_) replaces the Monterey halibut on the -Atlantic Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives -way to the Southern flounder (_Paralichthys lethostigma_) and the Gulf -flounder, _Paralichthys albigutta_. In Japan _Paralichthys olivaceus_ is -equally common, and in western Mexico _Paralichthys sinaloæ_. The -four-spotted flounder of New England, _Paralichthys oblongus_, belongs -to this group. Similar species constituting the genus _Pseudorhombus_ -abound in India and Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 437.—Halibut, _Hippoglossus hippoglossus_ Linnæus. Marmot I., - Alaska. -] - -=The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.=—The plaice tribe pass gradually into -the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the small mouth, in which -the blunt teeth are mostly on the blind side. The eyes are on the right -side, the vertebræ are numerous, and the species live only in the cold -seas, none being found in the tropics. In most of the Pacific species -the lateral line has an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus -_Pleuronichthys_, or frog-flounders, has the teeth in bands. -_Pleuronichthys cornutus_ is common in Japan and three species, -_Pleuronichthys cœnosus_ being the most abundant, are found on the coast -of California. Closely related to these is the diamond-flounder, -_Hypsopsetta guttulata_ of California. _Parophrys vetulus_ is a small -flounder of California, so abundant as to have considerable economic -value. _Lepidopsetta bilineata_, larger and rougher, is almost equally -common. It is similar to the mud-dab (_Limanda limanda_) of northern -Europe and the rusty-dab (_Limanda ferruginea_) of New England. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 438.—Wide mouthed Flounder, _Paralichthys dentatus_ (L.). St. - George I., Md. -] - -The plaice, _Pleuronectes platessa_, is the best known of the European -species of this type, being common in most parts of Europe and valued as -food. Closely related to the plaice is a second species of southern -Europe also of small size, _Flesus flesus_, to which the name flounder -is in England especially applied. The common winter flounder of New -England, _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, is also very much like the -plaice, but with more uniform scales. It is an important food-fish, the -most abundant of the family about Cape Cod. The eel-back flounder, -_Liopsetta putnami_, also of New England, is frequently seen in the -markets. The males of this species have scattered rough scales, while -the females are smooth. The great starry flounder of Alaska, -_Platichthys stellatus_, is the largest of the small-mouthed flounders -and in its region the most abundant. On the Pacific coast from Monterey -to Alaska and across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch of -flounders. The body is covered with rough scattered scales, the fins are -barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty pounds. Living in -shallow waters, it ascends all the larger rivers. - -An allied species in Japan is _Kareius bicoloratus_, with scattered -scales. _Clidoderma asperrimum_, also of northern Japan, has the body -covered with series of warts. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 439.—Eel-back Flounder, _Liopsetta putnami_ (Gill). Salem, Mass. -] - -In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as smear-dab and -flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (_Microstomus kitt_) is rather common in -deep water. Its skin is very slimy, but the flesh is excellent. The same -is true of the slippery sole, _Microstomus pacificus_, of California and -Alaska, and of other species found in Japan. _Glyptocephalus -cynoglossus_, the craig-fluke, or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic, -is taken in great numbers in rather deep water on both coasts. Its flesh -is much like that of the sole. A similar species (_Glyptocephalus -zachirus_) with a very long pectoral on the right scale is found in -California, and _Microstomus kitaharæ_ in Japan. - -=The Soles: Soleidæ.=—The soles (_Soleidæ_) are degraded flounders, the -typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe, from which -they may be derived. There are three very different groups or tribes of -soles, and some writers have thought that these are independently -derived from different groups of flounders. This fact has been urged as -an argument against the recognition of the _Soleidæ_ as a family -separate from the flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either -be joined with the flounders in one family or else they should be -divided into two or three, according to their supposed origin. - -The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the bones of -the head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by scales. The -gill-openings are much reduced, the eyes small and close together, the -ventral fins often much reduced, and sometimes the pectoral or caudal -also. The mouth is very small, much twisted, and with few teeth. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 440.—Starry Flounder, _Platichthys stellatus_ (Pallas). Alaska. -] - -The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy bottoms in the -warm seas along the continents, very few being found about the Oceanic -Islands. The three subfamilies, or tribes, may be designated as broad -soles, true soles, and tongue-fishes. - -=The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.=—The American soles (_Achirinæ_), or broad -soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe of flounders, -having the ventral fin of the eyed side extended along the ridge of the -abdomen. The eyes and color are, however, on the right side. The eyes -are separated by a narrow interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the -body is broad and covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less -than six inches long, and nearly all are confined to the warmer parts of -America, many of them ascending the rivers. A very few (_Aseraggodes_, -_Pardachirus_) are found in Japan and China. Some are scaleless and some -have but a single small gill-opening on the blind side. The principal -genus is _Achirus_. _Achirus fasciatus_, the common American sole, or -hog-choker, is abundant from Boston to Galveston. _Achirus lineatus_ and -other species are found in the West Indies and on the west coast of -Mexico. Almost all the species of _Achirus_ are banded with black and -the pectorals are very small or wanting altogether. All these species -are practically useless as food from their very small size. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 441.—Hog-choker Sole, _Achirus lineatus_ (L.). Potomac River. -] - -=The European Soles (Soleinæ).=—The European soles are more elongate in -form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended along the ridge of -the abdomen. The eyes are on the right side with no bony ridge between -them. No species of this type is certainly known from American waters, -although numerous in Europe and Asia. The species have much in common -with the plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same -stock. One species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene. - -The common sole of Europe, _Solea solea_, is one of the best of -food-fishes, reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty-six -inches and a weight of nine pounds. As usually seen in the markets it -rarely exceeds a pound. It is found from Norway to Italy, and when -properly cooked is very tender and delicate, superior to any of the -flounders. According to Dr. Francis Day, it appears to prefer sandy or -gravelly shores, but is rather uncertain in its migrations, for, -although mostly appearing at certain spots almost at a given time, and -usually decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they -disappear at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British -seacoast they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the -shallows about May if the weather is warm, their migrations being -influenced by temperature. The food of the sole is to a considerable -extent molluscous, but it is also said to eat the eggs and fry of other -fishes and sea-urchins. - -The spawning season is late in the year and during the spring months. -The ova are in moderate number; a sole of one pound weight has, -according to Buckland, about 134,000 eggs. The newly hatched, according -to Dr. Day, do not appear to be commonly found so far out at sea as some -other species. They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and -are very numerous in favorable localities. - -As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed of European -fishes. In the words of Dr. Day, "the flesh of this fish is white, firm, -and of excellent flavor, those from the deepest waters being generally -preferred. Those on the west coast and to the south are larger, as a -rule, than those towards the north of the British islands. In addition -to its use as food, it is available for another purpose. The skin is -used for fining coffee, being a good substitute for isinglass, and also -as a material for artificial baits. - -"The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The principal English -trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. They may be taken by -spillers, but are not commonly captured with hooks; it is suggested that -one reason may be that spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole -is a night feeder. They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited -with crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing is -at night, after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land breeze -answers better than a sea breeze." - -Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In Japan _Zebrias -zebra_, black-banded, and _Usinosita japonica_, known as _Usinóshita_, -or cow's tongue, are common. Farther south are numerous species of -_Synaptura_ and other genera peculiar to the Indian and Australian -regions. - -=The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.=—The tongue-fishes are soles having -the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge, the two being -very small and apparently in the same socket. The body is lanceolate, -covered usually with rough scales, and as often with two or three -lateral lines as with one. The species are mostly Asiatic. _Cynoglossus -robustus_ and other species are found in Japan, and in India are many -others belonging to _Cynoglossus_ and related genera. The larger species -are valued as food. The single European species _Symphurus nigrescens_, -common in the Mediterranean, is too small to have any value. _Symphurus -plagiusa_, the tongue-fish of our coast, is common on our sandy shores -from Cape Hatteras southward. _Symphurus plagusia_, scarcely different, -replaces it in the West Indies. _Symphurus atricandus_ is found in San -Diego Bay, and numerous other species of no economic importance find -their place farther south. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 442.—_Symphurus plagiusa_ (L.). Beaufort, N. C. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XXVIII - SUBORDER JUGULARES - - -=THE Jugular-fishes.=—In all the families of spiny-rayed fishes, as -ranged in order in the present work, from the _Berycidæ_ to the -_Soleidæ_, the ventrals are thoracic in position, the pelvis, if -present, being joined to the shoulder-girdle behind the symphysis of the -clavicles so that the ventral fin falls below or behind the pectoral -fin. To this arrangement the families of _Bembradidæ_ and _Pinguipedidæ_ -offer perhaps the only exceptions. - -In all the families which precede the _Berycidæ_ in the linear series -adopted in this work, the ventral fins when present are abdominal, the -pelvis lying behind the clavicles and free from them as in the sharks, -the reptiles, and all higher vertebrates. - -In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals are brought -still farther forward to a point distinctly before the pectorals. This -position is called jugular (Lat. _jugulum_, throat). - -The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six groups, orders, -and suborders: _Jugulares_, _Haplodoci_, _Xenopterygii_, _Anacanthini_, -_Opisthomi_, and _Pediculati_. The last two groups, and perhaps the -_Anacanthini_ also, may well be considered as distinct orders, being -more aberrant than the others. - -For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely defined of -these groups we may retain the term applied by Linnæus to all of them, -the name _Jugulares_. This group includes those jugular-fishes in which -the position of the gills, the structure of the skull, and the form of -the tail are essentially as in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely -diversified and perhaps unnatural group, some of its members resembling -_Opisthognathidæ_ and _Malacanthidæ_, others suggesting the mailed-cheek -fishes, and still others more degenerate. The fishes having the fins -thus placed were long ago set apart by Linnæus, under the name of -"Jugulares," _Callionymus_ being the genus first placed by him in this -group. Besides their anterior insertion, the ventrals in the _Jugulares_ -are more or less reduced in size, the rays being usually but not always -less than I, 5 in number and more often reduced to one or two, or even -wholly lost. - -In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared with the -perch-like forms, but in certain regards they are often highly -specialized. The groups showing this character are probably related one -to another, but in some cases this fact is not clearly shown. In most of -the jugular-fishes the shoulder-girdle shows some change or distortion. -The usual foramen in the hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to -the interspace between the coracoids, and the arrangement of the -actinosts often deviates from that seen in the perciform fishes. - -=The Weevers: Trachinidæ.=—Of the various families the group of weevers, -_Trachinidæ_, most approaches the type of ordinary fishes. In the words -of Dr. Gill, these fishes are known by "an elongated body attenuated -backward from the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very -short, a deeply cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting -backward from each operculum and strengthened by extension on the -surface of the operculum, as a keel. The dorsal fins are distinct, the -first composed of strong, pungent spines radiating from a short base and -about six or seven in number. The second dorsal and anal are very long. -The pectorals have the lower rays unbranched, and the ventrals are in -advance of the pectorals, and have each a spine and five rays. The -species of this family are mostly found along the European and western -African coast; but singularly enough a species closely related to the -Old World form is found on the coast of Chile. None have been obtained -from the intermediate regions or from the American coast. Two species -are found in England, and are known under the name of the greater weever -(_Trachinus draco_), about twelve inches long, and the lesser weever -(_Trachinus vipera_), about six inches long. They are perhaps the most -dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formidable opercular spines -are weapons of defense, and when seized by the fisherman the fish is apt -to throw its head in the direction of the hand and lance a spine into -it. The pungent dorsal spines are also defensive. Although without a -poison gland, such as some fishes distantly related have at the base of -the spines, they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur from -tetanus. They are therefore divested of both opercular and dorsal spines -before being exposed for sale. The various popular names which the -weevers enjoy, in addition to their general designation, mostly refer to -the armature of the spines, or are the result of the armature; such are -adder-fish, stingfish, and sting-bull." - -No species of _Trachinidæ_ is known from North America or from Asia. In -these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown, the hypercoracoid is -without foramen, the usual perforation lying between this bone and the -hypercoracoid. A similar condition exists in the _Anacanthini_, or -codfishes, but it seems to have been developed independently in the two -groups. In the relatives of the _Trachinidæ_ the position of this -foramen changes gradually, moving by degrees from its usual place to the -lower margin of the hypercoracoid. Species referred to _Trachinus_ are -recorded from the Miocene as well as _Trachinus_. - -The extinct group of _Callipterygidæ_ found in the Eocene of Monte Bolca -seems allied to the _Trachinidæ_. It has the dorsal fin continuous, the -spines small, the soft rays high; the scales are very small or wanting. -_Callipteryx speciosus_ and _C. recticandus_ are the known species. - -=The Nototheniidæ.=—In the family of _Nototheniidæ_ the foramen is also -wanting or confluent with the suture between the coracoids. To this -family belong many species of the Antarctic region. These are elongate -fishes with ctenoid scales and a general resemblance to small -_Hexagrammidæ_. In most of the genera there is more than one lateral -line. These species are the antipodes of the _Cottidæ_ and -_Hexagrammidæ_; although lacking the bony stay of the latter, they show -several analogical resemblances and have very similar habits. - -The _Harpagiferidæ_, naked, with the opercle armed with spines, and -resemble sculpins even more closely than do the _Nototheniidæ_. -_Harpagifer_ is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of -_Draconetta_ in the deeper waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific. -These little fishes resemble _Callionymus_, but the opercle, instead of -the preopercle, bears spines. The _Bovichthyidæ_ of New Zealand are also -sculpin-like and perhaps belong to the same family. Dr. Boulenger places -all these Antarctic forms with the foramen outside the hypercoracoid in -one family, _Nototheniidæ_. Several deep-sea fishes of this type have -been lately described by Dr. Louis Dollo and others from the Patagonian -region. One of these forms, _Macrias amissus_, lately named by Gill and -Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the largest deep-sea fish known. -The family of _Percophidæ_, from Chile, is also closely allied to these -forms, the single species differing in slight respects of osteology. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 443.—_Pteropsaron evolans_ Jordan & Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan. -] - -Closely related to the family of _Nototheniidæ_ and perhaps scarcely -distinct from it is the small family of _Pteropsaridæ_, which differs in -having but one lateral line and the foramen just above the lower edge of -the hypercoracoid. The numerous species inhabit the middle Pacific, and -are prettily colored fishes, looking like gobies. _Pteropsaron_ is a -Japanese genus, with high dorsal and anal fins; _Parapercis_ is more -widely diffused. _Osurus schauinslandi_ is one of the neatest of the -small fishes of Hawaii. Several species of _Parapercis_ and _Neopercis_ -occur in Japan and numerous others in the waters of Polynesia. -_Pseudeleginus majori_ of the Italian Miocene must belong near -_Parapercis_. - -The _Bathymasteridæ_, or ronquils, are perhaps allied to the -_Nototheniidæ_; they resemble the _Opisthognathidæ_, but the jaws are -shorter and they have a large number of vertebræ as befits their -northern distribution. _Ronquilus jordani_ is found in Puget Sound and -_Bathymaster signatus_ in Alaska. The ventral rays are I, 5, and the -many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in front. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 444.—_Bathymaster signatus_ Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska. -] - -=The Leptoscopidæ.=—The _Leptoscopidæ_ of New Zealand resemble the -weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed, covered by thin skin. - -=The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.=—The _Uranoscopidæ_, or star-gazers, -have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth almost vertical, the -lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the flat upper surface of the -head. The spinous dorsal is short and may be wanting. The hypercoracoid -has a foramen, and the body is naked or covered with small scales. The -appearance is eccentric, like that of some of the _Scorpænidæ_, but the -anatomy differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes. - -The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food-fishes of -some importance. One species, _Uranoscopus scaber_, abounds in the -Mediterranean. _Uranoscopus japonicus_ and other species are found in -Japan. _Astroscopus y-græcum_ is the commonest species on our Atlantic -coast. The bare spaces on the top of the head in this species yield -vigorous electric shocks. Another American species is _Astroscopus -guttatus_. In Japan and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and -varied. _Ichthyscopus lebeck_, with a single dorsal, is a fantastic -inhabitant of the seas of Japan, and _Anema monopterygium_ in New -Zealand. - -_Uranoscopus peruzzii_, an extinct star-gazer, has been described from -the Pliocene of Tuscany. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 445.—A Star-gazer _Ariscopus iburius_ Jordan & Snyder. Iburi, - Japan. -] - -=The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.=—Remotely allied to the _Uranoscopidæ_ is -the interesting family of dragonets, or _Callionymidæ_. These are small -scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle armed with a strong -spine, the body bearing a general resemblance to the smaller and -smoother _Cottidæ_. The gill-openings are very small, the ventral fins -wide apart. The colors are highly variegated, the fins are high, often -filamentous, and the sexes differ much in coloration and in the -development of the fins. The species are especially numerous on the -shores of Japan, where _Callionymus valenciennesi_, _Callionymus -beniteguri_, and _Calliurichthys japonicus_ are food-fishes of some -slight importance. Others are found in the East Indies, and several -large and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean. _Callionymus -draco_, the dragonet, or "sculpin," reaches the coast of England. In -America but three species have been taken. These are dredged in deep -water in the East Indies. In other parts of the world these fantastic -little creatures are shore-fishes, creeping about in the shallow bays. -Species of _Synchiropus_, colored like the coral sands, abound in the -Polynesian coral reefs. - -A fossil species of _Callionymus_ (_C. macrocephalus_) are found in the -Miocene of Croatia. - -The family of _Rhyacichthyidæ_ is a small group of Asiatic fishes allied -to the _Callionymidæ_, but less elongate and differing in minor details. -They are found not in the sea, but in mountain streams. _Rhyacichthys_ -(formerly called by the preoccupied name _Platyptera_) is the principal -genus. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 446.—Star-gazer, _Astroscopus guttatus_ Abbott. (From life by Dr. - R. W. Shufeldt.) -] - -The _Trichonontidæ_, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales, are -also related to the _Callionymidæ_. The species are few, small, and -confined to the Indian and Australian seas. Another small family closely -related to this is the group of _Hemerocœtidæ_ of the same region. - -=The Dactyloscopidæ.=—In this and the preceding families of jugular -fishes the ventral rays remain I, 5, as in the typical thoracic forms. -In most of the families yet to be described the number is I, 3, a -character which separates the little fishes of the family of -_Dactyloscopidæ_ from the _Uranoscopidæ_ and _Leptoscopidæ_. -_Dactyloscopus tridigitatus_ is a small fish of the coral sands of Cuba. -The other species of this family are found mostly in the West Indies and -on the west coast of Mexico. Several genera, _Myxodagnus_, _Gillellus_, -_Dactylagnus_, etc., are recognized. In the structure of the -shoulder-girdle these species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching -the blennies, and their position is intermediate between _Trachinidæ_ -and _Blenniidæ_. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIX - THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ - - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 447.—Sarcastic Blenny, _Neoclinus satiricus_ Girard. Monterey. -] - -THE great family of blennies, _Blenniidæ_, contains a vast number of -species with elongate body, numerous dorsal spines, without suborbital -stay or sucking-disk, and the ventrals jugular, where present, and of -one spine and less than five soft rays. Most of them are of small size, -living about rocks on the sea-shores of all regions. In general they are -active fishes, of handsome but dark coloration, and in the different -parts of the group is found great variety of structure. The tropical -forms differ from those of arctic regions in the much shorter bodies and -fewer vertebræ. These forms are most like ordinary fishes in appearance -and structure and are doubtless the most primitive. Of the five hundred -known species of blennies, we can note only a few of the most prominent. -To _Clinus_ and related genera belong many species of the warm seas, -scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most part. The largest of -these is the great kelpfish of the coast of California, _Heterostichus -rostratus_, a food-fish of importance, reaching the length of two feet. -Others of this type scarcely exceed two inches. _Neoclinus satiricus_, -also of California, is remarkable for the great length of the upper jaw, -which is formed as in _Opisthognathus_. Its membranes are brightly -colored, being edged with bright yellow. _Gibbonsia elegans_ is the -pretty "señorita" of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California. -_Lepisoma nuchipinne_, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very -abundant in rock-pools of the West Indies. The species of -_Auchenopterus_ abound in the rock-pools of tropical America. These are -very small neatly colored fishes with but one soft ray in the long -dorsal fin. Species of _Tripterygion_, _Myxodes_, _Cristiceps_, and -other genera abound in the South Pacific. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 448.—Kelp Blenny, _Gibbonsia evides_ Jordan & Gilbert. San Diego. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 449.—_Blennius cristatus_ L. Florida. -] - -In _Blennius_ and its relatives the body is scaleless and the slender -teeth are arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most species long, -fang-like posterior canines are developed in the jaws. _Blennius_ is -represented in Europe by many species, _Blennius galerita_, _ocellaris_, -and _basiliscus_ being among the most common. Certain species inhabit -Italian lakes, having assumed a fresh-water habit. The numerous American -species mostly belong to other related genera, _Chasmodes bosquianus_ -being most common. _Blennius yatabei_ abounds in Japan. In -_Petroscirtes_ and its allies the gill-openings are much restricted. The -species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very prettily colored. -_Petroscirtes elegans_ and _P. trossulus_ adorn the Japanese rock-pools -and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the coral reefs of -Polynesia. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 450.—Rock-skipper, _Alticus atlanticus_. San Cristobal, Lower - Cal. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 451.—Lizard-skipper, _Alticus saliens_ (Forster). A blenny which - lies out of water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with - great agility. From nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila - Island, Samoa. (About one-half size.) -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 452.—_Emblemaria atlantica_ Jordan. Pensacola, Fla. -] - -The rock-skippers (Salarias, Alticus, etc.) are herbivorous, with -serrated teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live in the rock-pools of -the tropics and leap from rock to rock when disturbed with the agility -of lizards. They are dusky or gray in color with handsome markings. One -of them, _Erpichthys_ or _Alticus saliens_ in Samoa, lives about lava -rocks between tide-marks, and at low tide remains on the rocks, over -which it runs with the greatest ease and with much speed, its movements -being precisely like those of _Periophthalmus_. As in the species of the -latter genus, otherwise wholly different, this _Alticus_ has short -ventral fins padded with muscle. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 453.—_Scartichthys enosimæ_ Jordan & Snyder, a fish of the - rock-pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family - _Blenniidæ_. -] - -_Erpichthys atlanticus_ is found in abundance on both coasts of tropical -America. Many species abound in Polynesia and in both Indies. _Salarias -enosimæ_ lives in the clefts of lava rocks on the shores of Japan. -_Ophioblennius_ (_webbi_) is remarkable for its strong teeth, -_Emblemaria_ (_nivipes_, _Atlantica_) for its very high dorsal. Many -other genera allied to _Blennius_, _Clinus_, and _Salarias_ abound in -the warm seas. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 454.—_Zacalles bryope_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 455.—_Bryostemma tarsodes_ Jordan & Snyder. Unalaska. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 456.—_Exerpes asper_ Jenkins & Evermann. Guaymas, Mexico. Family - _Blenniidæ_. -] - -=The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.=—The blennies of -the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal fin more elongate, -the dorsal fin usually but not always composed entirely of spines. The -scales are small and the ventral fins generally reduced in size. These -are divided by Dr. Gill into several distinct families, but the groups -recognized by him are subject to intergradations. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 457.—Gunnel, _Pholis gunnellus_ (L.). Gloucester, Mass. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 458.—_Xiphistes chirus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Amchitka I., Alaska. -] - -_Chirolophis_ (_ascanii_) of north Europe is remarkable for the tufted -filaments on the head. These are still more developed in _Bryostemma_ of -the North Pacific, _Bryostemma polyactocephalum_ and several other -species being common from Puget Sound to Japan. _Apodichthys_ -(_flavidus_) of California is remarkable for a large quill-shaped anal -spine and for the great variation in color, the hue being yellow, -grass-green, or crimson, according to the color of the algæ about it. -There is no evidence, however, that the individual fish can change its -color, and these color forms seem to be distinct races within the -species. _Xererpes fucorum_ of California lies quiescent in the seaweed -(_Fucus_) after the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming -to correspond exactly with those of the stems of algæ. _Pholis -gunnellus_ is the common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both -shores of the North Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific. -Of these, _Enedrias nebulosus_, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially -common in Japan. _Xiphidion_ and _Xiphistes_ of the California coast, -and _Dictyosoma_ of Japan, among others, are remarkable for the great -number of lateral lines, these extending crosswise as well as -lengthwise. _Cebedichthys violaceus_, a large blenny of California, has -the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays. _Opisthocentrus_ of -Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines flexible, only the -posterior ones being short and stiff. The snake-blennies (_Lumpenus_), -numerous in the far North, are extremely slender, with well-developed -pectorals and ventrals. _Lumpenus lampetræformis_ is found on both -shores of the Atlantic. In _Stichæus_ a lateral line is present. There -is none in _Lumpenus_, and in _Ernogrammus_ and _Ozorthe_ there are -three. All these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and -especially characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are -almost unknown. _Pterygocephalus paradoxus_ of the Eocene resembles the -living _Cristiceps_, a genus which differs from _Clinus_ in having the -first few dorsal spines detached, inserted on the head. The first spine -alone in _Pterygocephalus_ is detached and is very strong. A species -called _Clinus gracilis_ is described from the Miocene near Vienna, -_Blennius fossilis_ from the Miocene of Croatia, and an uncertain -_Oncolepis isseli_ from Monte Bolca. The family is certainly one of the -most recent in geologic times. The family of _Blenniidæ_, as here -recognized, includes a very great variety of forms and should perhaps be -subdivided into several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At present -there is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 459.—_Ozorthe dictyogramma_ (Hertzenstein), a Japanese blenny - from Hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait - characteristic of many fishes of the north Pacific. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 460.—_Stichæus punctatus_ Fabricius. St. Michael, Alaska. -] - -=The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.=—The _Ptilichthyidæ_, or quillfishes, -are small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with very numerous -fin-rays. _Ptilichthys goodei_ has 90 dorsal spines and 145 soft rays. -Another group of very slender naked blennies is the small family of -_Xiphasiidæ_ from the South Pacific. The jaws have excessively long -canines; there are no ventral fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the -caudal ends in a long thread. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 461.—_Bryostemma otohime_ Jordan & Snyder. Hakodate, Japan. - Family _Blenniidæ_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 462.—Quillfish, _Ptilichthys goodei_ Bean. Unalaska. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 463.—_Blochius longirostris_ Volta, restored. Upper Eocene of - Monte Bolca. (After Woodward.) -] - -=The Blochiidæ.=—Of doubtful relationship is the extinct family of -_Blochiidæ_. In this group the body is elongate, covered with keeled -plates imbricated like shingles. The dorsal is composed of many slender -spines, and the vertebræ much elongate. In _Blochius longirostris_ -(Monte Bolca Eocene) has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel -regards the family as allied to the _Belonorhynchidæ_, but the -prolongation of the jaws may be a character of analogy merely. Woodward -places it next to the _Blenniidæ_, supposing it to have small and -jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of ventral fins is uncertain, -the position of the family cannot be ascertained and it may really -belong in the neighborhood of _Ammodytes_. The dorsal rays are figured -by Woodward as simple. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 464.—_Xiphasia setifera_ Swainson. India. (After Day.) -] - -=The Patæcidæ etc.=—The _Patæcidæ_ are blenny-like fishes of Australia, -having the form of _Congriopus_, the spinous dorsal being very high and -inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. _Patæcus fronto_ is not rare -in South Australia. The _Gnathanacanthidæ_ is another small group of -peculiar blennies from the Pacific. The _Acanthoclinidæ_ are small -blennies of New Zealand with numerous spines in the anal fin. -_Acanthoclinus littoreus_ is the only known species. - -=The Gadopsidæ, etc.=—The family of _Gadopsidæ_ of the rivers of New -Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single species, _Gadopsis -marmoratus_, resembling the scaly blennies called _Clinus_, but with -long ventrals of a single ray, and three spines in the anal fin besides -other peculiarities. The species is locally very common and with various -other fishes in regions where true trout are unknown, it is called -"trout." - -The _Cerdalidæ_ are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific coast of -Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually into soft rays. Three -species are known. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 465.—Wrymouth, _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_. New York. -] - -The wrymouths, or _Cryptacanthodidæ_, are large blennies of the northern -seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the head cuboid. The wrymouth -or ghostfish, _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_, is frequently taken from Long -Island northward. It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure -white. Other genera are found in the north Pacific. - -=The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.=—The wolf-fishes (_Anarhichadidæ_) are -large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for their strong teeth. -Those in front are conical canines. Those behind are coarse molars. The -dorsal is high, of flexible spines. The species are large, powerful, -voracious fishes, known as wolf-fishes. _Anarhichas lupus_ is the common -wolf-fish of the north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet, -the body marked by dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found -both in the north Pacific and north Atlantic. _Anarhichas lepturus_, -plain brown in color, is common about the Aleutian Islands. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 466.—Wolf-fish, _Anarhichas lupus_ (L.). Georges Bank. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 467.—Skull of _Anarrhichthys ocellatus_ Ayres. -] - -In the wolf-eel (_Anarrhichthys ocellatus_) of the coast of California, -the head is formed as in _Anarhichas_ but the body is band-shaped, being -drawn out into a very long and tapering tail. This species, which is -often supposed to be a "sea-serpent," sometimes reaches a length of -eight feet. It is used for food. It feeds on sea-urchins and -sand-dollars (_Echinarachinius_) which it readily crushes with its -tremendous teeth. - -The skull of a fossil genus, _Laparus_ (_alticeps_), with a resemblance -to _Anarhichas_, is recorded from the Eocene of England. - -=The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.=—The remaining blenny-like forms lack fin -spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and their allies. In -all of the latter, however, the hypercoracoid is imperforate, the -pseudobranchiæ are obsolete, and the tail isocercal. The forms allied to -_Zoarces_ and _Ophidion_, and which we may regard as degraded blennies, -have homocercal (rarely leptocercal) tails, generally but not always -well-developed pseudobranchiæ and the usual foramen in the -hypercoracoid. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 463._—Eel-pout, _Zoarces anguillaris_ Peck. Eastport, Me. -] - -The _Zoarcidæ_, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked, or covered -with small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft rays and the -gill-openings confined to the side. Most of the species live in rather -deep water in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. _Zoarces viviparus_, the -"mother of eels," is a common fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In -the genus _Zoarces_, the last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff, -like spines. The species are viviparous; the young being eel-like in -form, the name "mother of eels" has naturally arisen in popular -language. The American eel-pout, sometimes called mutton-fish, _Zoarces -anguillaris_, is rather common north of Cape Cod, and a similar species, -_Zoarces elongatus_, is found in northern Japan. _Lycodopsis pacifica_, -without spines in the dorsal, replaces _Zoarces_ in California. The -species of _Lycodes_, without spines in the dorsal, and with teeth on -the vomer and palatines, are very abundant in the northern seas, -extending into deep waters farther south. _Lycodes reticulatus_ is the -most abundant of these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux -and other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are recorded -from deep-sea explorations, and several others occur about Tierra del -Fuego. _Gymnelis_, small, naked species brightly colored, is represented -by _Gymnelis viridis_ in the Arctic and by _Gymnelis pictus_ about Cape -Horn. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 469.—Eel-pout, _Lycodes reticulatus_ Reinhardt. Banquereau. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 470.—_Lycenchelys verrilli_ (Goode & Bean). Chebucto, Nova - Scotia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 471.—_Scytalina cerdale_ Jordan & Gilbert. Straits of Fuca. -] - -The family of _Scytalinidæ_ contains a single species, _Scytalina -cerdale_, a small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel between -tide-marks, on Waada Island near Cape Flattery in Washington, not having -yet been found elsewhere. It dives among the wet stones with great -celerity, and can only be taken by active digging. - -To the family of _Congrogadidæ_ belong several species of eel-shaped -blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia. Another small -family, _Derepodichthyidæ_, is represented by one species, a scaleless -little fish from the shores of British Columbia. - -The _Xenocephalidæ_ consist of a single peculiar species, _Xenocephalus -armatus_, from the island of New Ireland. The head is very large, -helmeted with bony plates and armed with spines. The body is short and -slender, the ventrals with five rays, the dorsal and anal short. - -=The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.=—The more important family of _Ophidiidæ_, or -cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely anterior position of the -ventral fins, which are inserted at the throat, each one appearing as a -long forked barbel. The tail is leptocercal, attenuate, the dorsal and -anal confluent around it. _Ophidion barbatum_ and _Rissola rochei_ are -common in southern Europe. _Rissola marginata_ is the commonest species -on our Atlantic coast, and _Chilara taylori_ in California. Other -species are found farther south, and still others in deep water. -_Genypterus_ contains numerous species of the south Pacific, some of -which reach the length of five feet, forming a commercial substitute for -cod. _Genypterus capensis_ is the klipvisch of the Cape of Good Hope, -and _Genypterus australis_ the "Cloudy Bay cod" or "rock ling" of New -England. Another large species, _Genypterus maculatus_, occurs in Chile. -A few fragments doubtfully referred to _Ophidion_ and _Fierasfer_ occur -in the Eocene and later rocks. The _Lycodapodidæ_ contain a few small, -scaleless fishes (_Lycodapus_) dredged in the north Pacific. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 472.—Cusk-eel, _Rissola marginata_ (De Kay). Virginia. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 473.—_Lycodapus dermatinus_ Gilbert. Lower California. -] - -=Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.=—Near the _Ophidiidæ_ are placed the small -family of sand-lances (_Ammodytidæ_). This family comprises small, -slender, silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical seas, living along -shore and having the habit of burying themselves in the sand under the -surf in shallow water. The jaws are toothless, the body scarcely scaly -and crossed by many cross-folds of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is -without spines, and the ventral fins when present are jugular. The -species of the family are very much alike. From their great abundance -they have sometimes much value as food, more perhaps as bait, still more -as food for salmon and other fishes, from which they escape by plunging -into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide leaves a sandy beach fairly -covered with living "lants" looking like a moving foam of silver. -_Ammodytes tobianus_ is the sand-lance or lant of northern Europe. -_Ammodytes americanus_, scarcely distinguishable, replaces it in -America; and _Ammodytes personatus_ in California, Alaska, and Japan. -This is a most excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little -things, value it highly. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 474.—Sand-lance, _Ammodytes americanus_ De Kay. Nantucket. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 475.—_Embolichthys mitsukurii_ (Jordan & Evermann). Formosa. -] - -In the genus _Hyperoplus_ there is a large tooth on the vomer. In the -tropical genera there is a much smaller number of vertebræ and the body -is covered with ordinary scales instead of delicate, oblique cross-folds -of skin. These tropical species must probably be detached from the -_Ammodytidæ_ to form a distinct family, _Bleekeriidæ_. _Bleekeria -kallolepis_ is found in India, _Bleekeria gilli_ is from an unknown -locality, and the most primitive species of sand-lance, _Embolichthys -mitsukurii_, occurs in Formosa. In this species, alone of the -sand-lances, the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in -position, as in the _Zoarcidæ_, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of -this species makes it necessary to separate the _Ammodytidæ_ and -_Bleekeriidæ_ widely from the _Percesoces_, and especially from the -extinct families of _Crossognathidæ_ and _Cobitopsidæ_ with which its -structure in other regards has led Woodward, Boulenger, and the present -writer to associate it. - -Although an alleged sand-lance, _Rhynchias septipinnis_, with ventral -fins abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas, no one has since -seen it, and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it may belong among the -_Percesoces_. The relation of _Ammodytes_ to _Embolichthys_ is too close -to doubt their close relationship. According to Dr. Gill the -_Ammodytidæ_ belong near the _Hemerocœtidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 476.—Pearlfish, _Fierasfer dubius_ Putnam, embedded in a layer of - mother-of-pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M. - Castro.) -] - -=The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.=—In the little group of pearlfishes, -called _Fierasferidæ_ or _Carapidæ_, the body is eel-shaped with a -rather large head, and the vent is at the throat. Numerous species of -_Fierasfer_ (_Carapus_) are found in the warm seas. These little fishes -enter the cavities of sea-cucumbers (Holothurians) and other animals -which offer shelter, being frequently taken from the pearl-oyster. In -the Museum of Comparative Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is -"one valve of a pearl-oyster in which a specimen of _Fierasfer dubius_ -is beautifully inclosed in a pearly covering deposited on it by the -oyster." A photograph of a similar specimen is given above. The species -found in Holothurians are transparent in texture, with a bright pearly -luster. Species living among lava rocks, as _Jordanicus umbratilis_ of -the south seas, are mottled black. Since this was written a specimen of -this black species has been obtained from a Holothurian in Hilo, Hawaii, -by Mr. H. W. Henshaw. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 477.—Pearlfish, _Fierasfer acus_ (Linnæus), issuing from a - Holothurian. Coast of Italy. (After Emery.) -] - -=The Brotulidæ.=—The _Brotulidæ_ constitute a large family of fishes, -resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of the -hypercoracoid, as well as in the form of the tail. The resemblance -between the two groups is largely superficial. We may look upon the -_Brotulidæ_ as degraded blennies, but the _Gadidæ_ have an earlier and -different origin which has not yet been clearly made out. Most of the -_Brotulidæ_ live in deep water and are without common name or economic -relations. Two species have been landlocked in cave streams in Cuba, -where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their sight, a phenomenon -which richly deserves careful study, and which has been recently -investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind Brotulids, called Pez -Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves in the county of San -Antonio, where they reach a length of about five inches. As in other -blindfishes, the body is translucent and colorless. These species are -known as _Lucifuga subterranea_ and _Stygicola dentata_. They are -descended from allies of the genera called _Brotula_ and -_Dinematichthys_. _Brotula barbata_ is a cusk-like fish, occasionally -found in the markets of Havana. Similar species, _Brotula multibarbata_ -and _Sirembo inermis_, are common in Japan, and _Brosmophycis -marginatus_, beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen on the coast -of California. Many other genera and species abound in the depths of the -sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much variety in form and -structure. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 478.—_Brotula barbata_ Schneider. Cuba. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 479.—Blind Brotula. _Lucifuga subterranea_ (Poey), showing - viviparous habit. Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by - Dr. Eigenmann.) -] - -The _Bregmacerotidæ_ are small fishes, closely related to the Brotulids, -having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with several minor -peculiarities, the first ray of the dorsal being free and much elongate. -They live near the surface in the open sea. _Bregmaceros macclellandi_ -is widely diffused in the Pacific. - -=Ateleopodidæ.=—The small family of _Ateleopodidæ_ includes long-bodied, -deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling _Macrourus_, but with -smooth scales. The group has the coracoids as in _Brotulidæ_, and the -actinosts are united in an undivided plate. _Ateleopus japonicus_ is the -species taken in Japan. - -=Suborder Haplodoci.=—We may here place the peculiar family of -_Batrachoididæ_, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder of -_Haplodoci_ (ἁπλόος, simple; δόκος, shaft) from the simple form of the -post-temporal. This order is characterized by the undivided -post-temporal bone and by the reduction of the gill-arches to three. A -second bone behind the post-temporal connects the shoulder-girdle above -to the vertebral column. The coracoid bones are more or less elongate, -suggesting the arm seen in pediculate fishes. - -The single family has the general form of the _Cottidæ_, the body -robust, with large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and short spinous -dorsal fin. The shoulder-girdle and its structures differ little from -the blennioid type. There are no pseudobranchiæ and the tail is -homocercal. The species are relatively few, chiefly confined to the warm -seas and mostly American, none being found in Europe or Asia. Some of -them ascend rivers, and all are carnivorous and voracious. None are -valued as food, being coarse-grained in flesh. The group is probably -nearest allied to the _Trachinidæ_ or _Uranoscopidæ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 480.—Leopard Toadfish, _Opsanus pardus_ (Goode & Bean). - Pensacola. -] - -_Opsanus tau_, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our Atlantic -coast, is very common in rocky places, the young clinging to stones by a -sucking-disk on the belly, a structure which is early lost. It reaches a -length of about fifteen inches. _Opsanus pardus_, the leopard toadfish, -or sapo, of the Gulf coast, lives in deeper water and is prettily marked -with dark-brown spots on a light yellowish ground. - -In _Opsanus_ the body is naked and there is a large foramen, or mucous -pore, in the axil of the pectoral. In the _Marcgravia cryptocentra_, a -large Brazilian toadfish, this foramen is absent. In _Batrachoides_, a -South American genus, the body is covered with cycloid scales. -_Batrachoides surinamensis_ is a common species of the West Indies. -_Batrachoides pacifici_ occurs at Panama. The genus _Porichthys_ is -remarkable for the development of series of mucous pores and luminous -spots in several different lateral lines which cover the body. These -luminous spots are quite unlike those found in the lantern-fishes -(_Myctophidæ_) and other _Iniomi_. Their structure has been worked out -in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, a summary of whose conclusions -are given on page 191, Vol. I. - -The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of California is -_Porichthys notatus_. This species, named midshipman from its rows of -shining spots like brass buttons, is found among rocks and kelp and -makes a peculiar quivering or humming noise with its large air-bladder. - -_Porichthys porosissimus_, the bagre sapo, is common on all coasts of -the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. _Porichthys margaritatus_ is -found about Panama and _Porichthys porosus_ in Chile. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 481.—Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, _Porichthys porosissimus_ (Cuv. - & Val.). Galveston. -] - -The species of _Thalassophryne_ and _Thalassothia_, the poison -toadfishes, are found along the coasts of South America, where they -sometimes ascend the rivers. In these species there is an elaborate -series of venom glands connected with the hollow spines of the opercle -and the dorsal spines. Dr. Günther gives the following account of this -structure as shown in _Thalassophryne reticulata_, a species from -Panama: - -"In this species I first observed and closely examined the poison organ -with which the fishes of this genus are provided. Its structure is as -follows: (1) The opercular part: The operculum is very narrow, -vertically styliform and very mobile; it is armed behind with a spine, -eight lines long in a specimen of 10½ inches, and of the same form as -the venom fang of a snake; it is, however, somewhat less curved, being -only slightly bent upward. It has a longish slit at the outer side of -its extremity which leads into a canal perfectly closed and running -along the whole length of its interior; a bristle introduced into the -canal reappears through another opening at the base of the spine, -entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the basal half of -the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and about double the size -of an oat grain. Though the specimen had been preserved in spirits for -about nine months it still contained a whitish substance of the -consistency of thick cream, which on the slightest pressure freely -flowed from the opening in the extremity of the spine. On the other -hand, the sac could be easily filled with air or fluid from the foramen -of the spine. No gland could be discovered in the immediate neighborhood -of the sac; but on a more careful inspection I found a minute tube -floating free in the sac, whilst on the left-hand side there is only a -small opening instead of the tube. The attempts to introduce a bristle -into this opening for any distance failed, as it appears to lead into -the interior of the basal portion of the operculum, to which the sac -firmly adheres at this spot. (2) The dorsal part is composed of the two -dorsal spines, each of which is ten lines long. The whole arrangement is -the same as in the opercular spines; their slit is at the front side of -the point; each has a separate sac, which occupies the front of the -basal portion; the contents were the same as in the opercular sacs, but -in somewhat greater quantity. A strong branch of the lateral line -ascends to the immediate neighborhood of their base. Thus we have four -poison spines, each with a sac at its base; the walls of the sacs are -thin, composed of a fibrous membrane, the interior of which is coated -over with mucus. There are no secretory glands embedded between these -membranes, and these sacs are probably merely the reservoirs in which -the fluid secreted accumulates. The absence of a secretory organ in the -immediate neighborhood of the reservoirs (an organ the size of which -would be in accordance with the quantity of fluid secreted), the -diversity of the osseous spines which have been modified into poison -organs, and the actual communication indicated by the foramen in the sac -lead me to the opinion that the organ of secretion is either that system -of muciferous channels which is found in nearly the whole class of -fishes, and the secretion of which has poisonous qualities in a few of -them, or at least an independent portion of it. This description was -made from the first example; through the kindness of Captain Dow I -received two other specimens, and in the hope of proving the connection -of the poison bags with the lateral-line system, I asked Dr. Pettigrew, -of the Royal College of Surgeons, a gentleman whose great skill has -enriched that collection with a series of the most admirable anatomical -preparations, to lend me his assistance in injecting the canals. The -injection of the bags through the opening of the spine was easily -accomplished; but we failed to drive the fluid beyond the bag or to fill -with it any other part of the system of muciferous channels. This, -however, does not disprove the connection of the poison bags with that -system, inasmuch as it became apparent that if there be minute openings -they are so contracted by the action of the spirit in which the -specimens were preserved as to be impassable to the fluid of injection. -A great part of the lateral-line system consists of open canals; -however, on some parts of the body, these canals are entirely covered by -the skin; thus, for instance, the open lateral line ceases apparently in -the suprascapular region, being continued in the parietal region. We -could not discover any trace of an opening by which the open canal leads -to below the skin; yet we could distinctly trace the existence of the -continuation of the canal by a depressed line, so that it is quite -evident that such openings do exist, although they may be passable only -in fresh specimens. Thus likewise the existence of openings in the bags, -as I believed to have found in the first specimen dissected, may be -proved by examination of fresh examples. The sacs are without an -external muscular layer and situated immediately below the loose thick -skin which envelops their spines to their extremity. The injection of -the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected by the -pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine enters -another body. Nobody will suppose that a complicated apparatus like the -one described can be intended for conveying an innocuous substance, and -therefore I have not hesitated to designate it as poisonous; and, -Captain Dow informs me in a letter lately received, 'the natives of -Panama seemed quite familiar with the existence of the spines and of the -emission from them of a poison which, when introduced into a wound, -caused fever, an effect somewhat similar to that produced by the sting -of a scorpion; but in no case was a wound caused by one of them known to -result seriously. The slightest pressure of the finger at the base of -the spine caused the poison to jet a foot or more from the opening of -the spine.' The greatest importance must be attached to this fact, -inasmuch as it assists us in our inquiries into the nature of the -functions of the muciferous system, the idea of its being a secretory -organ having lately been superseded by the notion that it serves merely -as a stratum for the distribution of peripheric nerves. Also the -objection that the sting-rays and many Siluroid fishes are not poisonous -because they have no poison organ cannot be maintained, although the -organs conveying their poison are neither so well adapted for this -purpose nor in such a perfect connection with the secretory mucous -system as in _Thalassophryne_. The poison organ serves merely as a -weapon of defense. All the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth on the palate -and in the lower jaw feed on Mollusca and Crustaceans." - -No fossil _Batrachoididæ_ are known. - -=Suborder Xenopterygii.=—The clingfishes, forming the suborder -_Xenopterygii_ (ξενός, strange; πτερύξ, fin), are, perhaps, allied to -the toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays I, 4 or I, 5, and -between them is developed an elaborate sucking-disk, not derived from -modified fins, but from folds of the skin and underlying muscles. - -The structure of this disk in _Gobiesox sanguineus_ is thus described by -Dr. Günther: - -"The whole disk is exceedingly large, subcircular, longer than broad, -its length being (often) one-third of the whole length of the fish. The -central portion is formed merely by skin, which is separated from the -pelvic or pubic bones by several layers of muscles. The peripheric -portion is divided into an anterior and posterior part by a deep notch -behind the ventrals. The anterior peripheric portion is formed by the -ventral rays, the membrane between them and a broad fringe which extends -anteriorly from one ventral to the other. This fringe is a fold of the -skin, containing on one side the rudimentary ventral spine, but no -cartilage. The posterior peripheric portion is suspended on each side on -the coracoid, the upper bone of which is exceedingly broad, becoming a -free, movable plate behind the pectoral. The lower bone of the coracoid -is of a triangular form, and supports a very broad fold of the skin, -extending from one side to the other, and containing a cartilage which -runs through the whole of that fold. Fine processes of the cartilage are -continued into the soft striated margin, in which the disk terminates -posteriorly. The face of the disk is coated with a thick epidermis, like -the sole of the foot in higher animals. The epidermis is divided into -many polygonal plates. There are no such plates between the roots of the -ventral fins." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 482.—_Aspasma ciconiæ_ Jordan & Snyder. Wakanoura, Japan. -] - -The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin is naked and -there is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows several -peculiarities; there is no suborbital ring, the palatine arcade is -reduced, as are the gill-arches, the opercle is reduced to a spine-like -projection, and the vertebræ are numerous. The species are found in -tide-pools in the warm seas, where they cling tightly to the rocks with -their large ventral disks. - -Several species of _Lepadogaster_ and _Mirbelia_ are found in the -Mediterranean. _Lepadogaster gouani_ is the best-known European species. -_Aspasma ciconiæ_ and _minima_ occur about the rocks in the bays of -Japan. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 483.—Clingfish, _Caularchus mæandricus_ (Girard). Monterey, Cal. -] - -Most of the West Indian species belong to _Gobiesox_, with entire teeth, -and to _Arbaciosa_, with serrated teeth. Some of these species are deep -crimson in color, but most of them are dull olive. _Gobiesox virgatulus_ -is common on the Gulf Coast. _Caularchus mæandricus_, a very large -species, reaching a length of six inches, abounds along the coast of -California. Other genera are found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially -about New Zealand. _Chorisochismus dentex_, from the Cape of Good Hope, -reaches the length of a foot. - - - - - CHAPTER XXX - OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI - - -=ORDER Opisthomi.=—The order _Opisthomi_ (ὄπισθη, behind; ὤμος, -shoulder) is characterized by the general traits of the blennies and -other elongate, spiny-rayed fishes, but the shoulder-girdle, as in the -Apodes and the _Heteromi_, is inserted on the vertebral column well -behind the skull. - -The single family, _Mastacembelidæ_, is composed of eel-shaped fishes -with a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting the waters of -India, Africa, and the East Indies. They are small in size and of no -economic importance. The dorsal is long, with free spines in front and -there are no ventral fins. Were these fins developed, they should in -theory be jugular in position. There is no air-duct in _Mastacembelus_ -and it seems to be a true spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation -to either _Notacanthus_ or to the eels. Except for the separation of the -shoulder-girdle from the skull, there seems to be no reason for -separating them far from the Blennioid forms, and the resemblance to -_Notacanthus_ seems wholly fallacious. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 484.—_Mastacembelus ellipsifer_ Boulenger. Congo River. (After - Boulenger.) -] - -_Mastacembelus armatus_ is a common species of India and China. In -_Rhynchobdella_ the nasal appendage or proboscis, conspicuous in -_Mastacembelus_, is still more developed. _Rhynchobdella aculeata_ is -common in India. - -=Order Anacanthini.=—We may separate from the other jugular fishes the -great group of codfishes and their allies, retaining the name -Anacanthini (ἄνακανθος, without spine) suggested by Johannes Müller. In -this group the hypercoracoid is without foramen, the fenestra lying -between this bone and the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal, -the vertebræ in a right line and progressively smaller backward, -sometimes degenerate or whip-like (leptocercal) at tip. Other characters -are shown in the structure of the skull. There are no spines in any of -the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales generally small, and the -coloration dull or brownish. The numerous species live chiefly in the -northern seas, some of them descending to great depths. The resemblance -of these fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very strongly marked, -but these likenesses seem analogical only and not indicative of true -affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early offshoot from the -ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of evolution is -unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. Among recent fishes there is -nothing structurally nearer than the _Nototheniidæ_ and _Brotulidæ_, but -the line of descent must branch off much farther back than either of -these. For the present, therefore, we may regard the codfishes and their -allies (_Anacanthini_) as a distinct order. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 485.—Codfish, _Gadus callarias_ L. Eastport, Me. -] - -=The Codfishes: Gadidæ.=—The chief family is that of the _Gadidæ_, or -codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance to the -common codfish, _Gadus callarias_. This is one of the best known of -fishes, found everywhere on the shores of the North Atlantic, and the -subject of economic fisheries of the greatest importance. Its flesh is -white, flaky, rather tasteless, but takes salt readily, and is -peculiarly well adapted for drying. The average size of the codfish is -about ten pounds, but Captain Nathaniel Atwood of Provincetown records -one with the weight of 160 pounds. - -According to Dr. Goode: - -"In the western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in -considerable abundance as far south as the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, -latitude 37°, and stragglers have been observed about Ocracoke Inlet. -The southern limits of the species may be safely considered to be Cape -Hatteras, in latitude 35° 10´. Along the coast of New England, the -Middle States, and British North America, and upon all the off-shore -banks of this region, cod are found usually in great abundance, during -part of the year at least. They have been observed also in the Gulf of -Bothnia, latitude 70° to 75°, and in the southeastern part of Baffin's -Land to the northward of Cumberland Sound, and it is more than probable -that they occur in the waters of the Arctic Sea to the north of the -American continent, or away around to Bering Strait." - -Dr. Gill says: - -"The ocean banks of moderate depths are the favorite resorts of the cod, -but it is by no means confined to those localities. The fish, indeed, -occasionally enters into fresh, or at least brackish, water. According -to Canadian authorities, it is found 'well up the estuary of the St. -Lawrence, though how far up is not definitely stated, probably not -beyond the limits of brackish water.' Even as far south as the Delaware -River it has been known to enter the streams. Dr. C. C. Abbott records -that in January, 1876, 'a healthy, strong, active codfish, weighing -nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-net in the Delaware River near -Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach of the fish showed that it had been in -river-water several days. Many of them had been taken about Philadelphia -between 1856 and 1869.' - -"The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary fishes, and almost -everything that is eatable, and some that is not, may find its way into -its capacious maw. Years ago, before naturalists had the facilities that -the dredge now affords, cods' stomachs were the favorite resort for rare -shells, and some species had never been obtained otherwise than through -such a medium, while many filled the cabinet that would not otherwise -have been represented. In the words of Mr. Goode, 'codfish swallow -bivalve fish of the largest size, like the great sea-clams, which are a -favorite article of food on certain portions of the coast'; further, -'these shells are nested, the smaller inside of the larger, sometimes -six or seven in a set, having been packed together in this compact -manner in the stomachs of the codfish after the soft parts have been -digested out. Some of them had shreds of the muscles remaining in them -and were quite fresh, having evidently been but recently ejected by the -fish.' Even banks of dead shells have been found in various regions, -which are supposed to be the remains of mollusks taken by the cod. -Shell-fishes, however, form probably but the smaller portion of its -diet, and fishes of its own class contribute materially to its food,— -such as the herring family, the capelin, etc. - -"The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some interesting -peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to spawn, as was once -supposed, but its eggs are deposited in mid-sea and float to the -surface, although it does really, in many cases, approach the land to do -so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who has discovered its peculiarities, 'found cod -at a distance of twenty to thirty Norwegian miles from the shore and at -a depth of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty fathoms.' The eggs -thus confided to the mercy of the waves are very numerous; as many as -9,100,000 have been calculated in a seventy-five-pound fish. 'When the -eggs are first seen in the fish they are so small as to be hardly -distinguishable; but they continue to increase in size until maturity, -and after impregnation have a diameter depending upon the size of the -parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch. A -five- to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a -twenty-five-pound one has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.' -There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to a pound avoirdupois. -They are matured and ejected from September to November." - -Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait also found -in the salmon family. - -The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great value in the -medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation. - -The Alaska cod, _Gadus macrocephalus_, is equally abundant with the -Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly, the air-bladder -or sounds being smaller, according to the fishermen, and the head being -somewhat larger. This species is found from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in -Japan, and is very abundant about the Aleutian Islands and especially in -the Okhotsk Sea. With equal markets it would be as important -commercially as the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (_Gadus_) and related -genera there are three dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the -lateral line is pale and the lower jaw shorter than the upper. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 486.—Skull of Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 487.—Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_ (L.). Eastport, Me. -] - -The haddock (_Melanogrammus æglifinus_) closely resembles the cod and is -of similar quality as food. It is known at sight by the black lateral -line. It is found on both shores of the Atlantic and when smoked is the -"finnan haddie" of commerce. - -The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (_Pollachius carbonarius_) is also -common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker than the cod -and more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer, with a smaller barbel at -tip. It is especially excellent when fresh. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 488.—Pollock, _Theragra chalcogramma_ (Pallas). Shumagin I., - Alaska. -] - -The whiting (_Merlangus merlangus_) is a pollack-like fish common on the -British coasts, but not reaching the American shores. It is found in -large schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack (_Theragra -chalcogramma_) is a large fish with projecting lower jaw, widely -diffused in the north Pacific and useful as a food-fish to the Aleutian -peoples. It furnishes a large part of the food of the fur-seal -(_Callorhinus alascanus_ and _C. ursinus_) during its migrations. The -fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which swims near the bottom. -The wall-eyed pollack (_Theragra fucensis_) is found about Puget Sound. -Smaller codfishes of this type are the wachna cod (_Eleginus navaga_) of -Siberia and the Arctic codling (_Boreogadus saida_), both common about -Kamchatka, the latter crossing to Greenland. - -Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dorsal fins and -a barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among these are the tomcod, or -frostfish, of the Atlantic (_Microgadus tomcod_), the California tomcod -(_Microgadus proximus_), and _Micromesistius poutassou_ of the -Mediterranean. These little cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh -is soft and without much flavor. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 489.—Tomcod, _Microgadus tomcod_ (Walbaum). Wood's Hole, Mass. -] - -Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin. Many of -these occur in deep water. Among those living near shore, and therefore -having economic value, we may mention a few of the more prominent. The -codlings (_Urophycis_) are represented by numerous species on both -shores of the Atlantic. _Urophycis blennoides_ is common in the -Mediterranean. _Urophycis regius_, on our South Atlantic coast, is said -to exhibit electric powers in life, a statement that needs verification. -In the Gulf of Mexico _Urophycis floridanus_ is common. Farther north -are the more important species _Urophycis tenuis_, called the white -hake, and _Urophycis chuss_, the squirrel-hake. The ling (_Molva molva_) -is found in deep water about the North Sea. - -A related genus, _Lota_, the burbot, called also ling and, in America, -the lawyer, is found in fresh waters. This genus contains the only -fresh-water members of the group of _Anacanthini_. - -The European burbot, _Lota lota_, is common in the streams and lakes of -northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish, coarse in flesh and -rather tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled and soaked in vinegar or -made into salad. It is dark olive in color, thickly marbled with -blackish. - -The American burbot, or lawyer (_Lota maculosa_), is very much like the -European species. It is found from New England throughout the Great -Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a length of usually two or three feet and -is little valued as food in the United States, but rises much in esteem -farther north. The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia -its skin is used instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to -Dr. Dall, it reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty pounds. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 490.—Burbot, _Lota maculosa_ (Le Sueur). New York. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 491.—Four-bearded Rockling, _Enchelyopus cimbrius_ (Linnæus). - Nahant, Mass. -] - -The rocklings (_Gaidropsarus_ and _Enchelyopus_) have the first dorsal -composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single ray. The species are -small and slender, abounding chiefly in the Mediterranean and the North -Atlantic. The young have been called "mackerel-midges." Our commonest -species is _Enchelyopus cimbrius_, found also in Great Britain. - -The cusk, or torsk, _Brosme brosme_, has a single dorsal fin only. It is -a large fish found on both shores of the North Atlantic, but rather rare -on our coasts. - -Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to belong to this -family are found in English Eocene rocks. - -_Nemopteryx troscheli_, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three dorsal -fins and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been referred with more -or less doubt to _Gadus_, _Brosmius_, _Strinsia_, and _Melanogrammus_. - -Gill separates the "three-forked hake" (_Raniceps trifurcus_) of -northern Europe as a distinct family, _Ranicipitidæ_. In this species -the head is very large, broad and depressed, differing in this regard -from the codlings and hakes, which have also two dorsal fins. The -deep-water genus, _Bathyonus_, is also regarded as a distinct family, -_Bathyonidæ_. - -=The Hakes: Merluciidæ.=—Better defined than these families is the -family of hakes, _Merluciidæ_. These pike-like codfishes have the skull -peculiarly formed, the frontal bones being paired, excavated above, with -diverging crests continuous forward from the forked occipital crest. The -species are large fishes, very voracious, without barbels, with the -skeleton papery and the flesh generally soft. The various species are -all very much alike, large, ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a -ragged appearance, the flesh of fair quality. _Merluccius merluccius_, -the hake or stock-fish, is common in Europe; _Merluccius bilinearis_, -the silver hake, is common in New England, _Merluccius productus_ in -California, and _Merluccius gayi_ in Chile. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 492.—California Hake, _Merluccius productus_ (Ayres). Seattle. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 493.—_Coryphænoides carapinus_ (Goode & Bean), showing leptoceral - tail. Gulf Stream. -] - -=The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.=—The large family of grenadiers, or -rat-tails, _Macrouridæ_, is confined entirely to the oceanic depths, -especially of the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is formed much as -in the codfishes, with usually a barbel at the chin. There are two -dorsals, the second like the anal being low, but the leptocercal tail is -very long and tapering, ending in a filament without caudal fin. The -scales are usually rough and spinous. The species are usually large in -size, and dull gray or black in color. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 494.—Grenadier, _Cœlorhynchus carminatus_ Goode & Bean. Martha's - Vineyard. -] - -The best-known genus is _Macrourus_. _Macrourus berglax_ is found on -both shores of the north Atlantic. _Macrourus bairdi_ is abundant in -off-shore dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba. _Macrourus cinereus_, the -pop-eye grenadier, outnumbers all other fishes in the depths of Bering -Sea. _Cœlorhynchus japonicus_ is often taken by fishermen in Japan. -_Coryphænoides rupestris_ is common in the north Atlantic. _Bogoslovius -clarki_ and _Albatrossia pectoralis_ were dredged by the _Albatross_ -about the volcanic island of Bogoslof. _Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus_ -is characteristic of the Mediterranean. _Nematonurus goodei_ is common -in the Gulf Stream, and _Dolloa longifilis_ is found off Japan. Other -prominent genera are _Bathygadus_, _Gadomus_, _Regania_, and -_Steindachnerella_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 495.—_Steindachnerella argentea_ (Goode & Bean). Gulf Stream. -] - -The _Murænolepidæ_ are deep-sea fishes, with minute eel-like scales, and -no caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there are 10 pterygials. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXI - ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS - - -=THE Angler-fishes.=—The few remaining fishes possess also jugular -ventral fins, but in other regards they show so many peculiarities of -structure that we may well consider them as forming a distinct order, -_Pediculati_ (_pedicula_, a foot-stalk), although the relation of these -forms to the _Batrachoididæ_ seems a very close one. - -The most salient character of the group is the reduction and backward -insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the pectoral fins, not in -front of them as in all other fishes. The hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid -are much elongate and greatly changed in form, so that the pectoral fin -is borne on the end of a sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly -more or less exserted. The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first -spine being modified to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over -the mouth with a fleshy pad, lure, or bait at its tip. The form of the -body varies much in the different families. The scales are lost or -changed to prickles and the whole aspect is very singular, and in many -cases distinctly frog-like. The species are mostly tropical, some living -in tide-pools and about coral reefs, some on sandy shores, others in the -oceanic abysses. - -The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes are probably -the _Batrachoididæ_. One species of _Lophiidæ_ is recorded among the -fossils, _Lophius brachysomus_, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No -fossil _Antennariidæ_ are known. Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of -Patagonia are doubtfully named "_Lophius patagonicus_." - -=The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.=—In the most generalized family, that of -the fishing-frogs (_Lophiidæ_), the body is very much depressed, the -head the largest part of it. The mouth is excessively wide, with strong -jaw-muscles, and strong sharp teeth. The skin is smooth, with dermal -flaps about the head. Over the mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the -first dorsal spine with a lure at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the -bottom with sluggish movements except for the convulsive snap of the -jaws. It has been denied that the bait serves to attract small fishes to -their destruction, but the current belief that it does so is certainly -plausible. As to this Dr. Gill observes: - -"The name 'angler' is derived from the supposition that by means of the -foremost dorsal spine, which bears leaf-like tags, or appendages, at the -end, it angles for fishes itself, lying upon the ground with its head -somewhat upraised. According to Mr. S. Kent, however, this is at most -only partly the case: 'That the fish deliberately uses this structure as -a fisherman does his rod and line for the alluring and capture of other -fish is a matter of tradition handed down to us from the time of Pliny -and Aristotle, and which scarcely any authority since their time has -ventured to gainsay. Nevertheless, like many of the delightful -natural-history romances bequeathed to us by the ancient philosophers, -this one of the angler-fish will have to be relegated to the limbo of -disproved fiction. The plain and certain ground of facts, all the same, -has frequently more startling revelations in store for us than the most -fervid imaginations of philosophers, and that this assertion holds good -in the case now under consideration must undoubtedly be admitted. It is -here proposed to show, in fact, that the angler is one of the most -interesting examples upon which Nature has exercised her handicraft, in -the direction of concealing the identity of her protégé, such ingenuity -being sometimes utilized with the object of protecting the organism from -the attacks of other animals, or, as illustrated in the present -instance, for the purpose of enabling it by stealth to obtain prey which -it lacks the agility to hunt down after the manner of ordinary -carnivorous fishes. To recognize the several details here described, it -will not suffice to refer to examples simply, and usually most -atrociously stuffed, nor even to those preserved in spirit, in which all -the life colors are more or less completely obliterated and the various -membranous appendages shrunk up and distorted. In place of this, a -healthy, living example fresh from the sea, or, better still, -acclimatized in the tanks of an aquarium, must be attentively examined, -and whereupon it will be found that this singular fish, throughout the -whole extent of its superficies, may be appropriately designated a -living sham." - -It was, in the first place, observed by Mr. Kent "that the fish while -quietly reclining upon the bottom of its tank presented a most -astonishing resemblance to a piece of inert rock, the rugose prominences -in the neighborhood of the head lending additional strength to this -likeness. This resemblance being recognized, it was next found, on a -little closer inspection, that the fish constituted, in connection with -its color, ornamentations, and manifold organs and appendages, the most -perfect facsimile of a submerged rock, with that natural clothing of -sedentary animal and vegetable growths common to boulders lying beneath -the water in what is known as the laminarian zone. In this manner the -numerous simple or lobulated membranous structures dependent from the -lower jaw and developed as a fringe along the lateral line of the body -imitate with great fidelity the little flat calcareous sponges -(_Grantia_), small compound ascidians, and other low organized zoophytic -growths that hang in profusion from favorably situated submarine stones. -That famous structure known as the angler's 'rod and bait' finds its -precise counterpart in the early growing phase of certain sea-plants, -such as the oarweed (_Laminaria_), while the more posterior dorsal -fin-rays, having short lateral branchlets, counterfeit in a like manner -the plant-like hydroid zoophytes known as _Sertulariæ_. One of the most -extraordinary mimetic adaptations was, however, found in connection with -the eyes, structures which, however perfectly the surrounding details -may be concealed, serve, as a rule, to betray the animal's presence to a -close observer. In the case of the angler, the eyes during life are -raised on conical elevations the sides of which are separated by darker -longitudinal stripes into symmetrical regions, the structure, as a -whole, with its truncated summit upon which the pupil opens, reproducing -with the most wonderful minuteness the multivalve shell of a rook -barnacle (_Balanus_). To complete the simile the entire exposed surface -of the body of the fish is mapped out by darker punctated lines into -irregular polygonal areas, whose pattern is at once recognized by the -student of marine zoology as corresponding with that of the flat, -cushion-like expansions of the compound tunicate _Botryllus violaceus_. -Thus disguised at every point, the angler has merely to lie prone, as is -its wont, among the stones and débris at the bottom of the sea and to -wait for the advent of its unsuspecting prey, which, approaching to -browse from what it takes to be a flat rock—differing in no respect from -that off which it obtained the last appetizing morsel of weed or worm— -finds itself suddenly engulfed beyond recall within the merciless jaws -of this marine impostor." - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 496.—Anko or Fishing-frog, _Lophius litulon_ (Jordan). Matsushima - Bay, Japan. -] - -The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, _Lophius piscatorius_, is -also known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth, wide-gape, -kettleman, and bellows-fish. It is common in shallow water both in -America and Europe, ranging southward to Cape Hatteras and to the -Mediterranean. It reaches a length of three feet or more. A fisherman -told Mr. Goode that "he once saw a struggle in the water, and found that -a goosefish had swallowed the head and neck of a large loon, which had -pulled it to the surface and was trying to escape. There is authentic -record of seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach of one of -them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize birds as they float upon -the surface." - -"The angler, or goosefish, spawns in summer along the eastern Atlantic -coast, and the result of its labor is quite remarkable. 'The eggs are -very numerous, inclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous mass, about a foot -in width and thirty or forty feet long, which floats near the surface. -One of these ribbons will weigh perhaps forty pounds, and is usually -partially folded together and visible a foot or eighteen inches from the -top of the water, its color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in -one of these has been estimated to be from forty to fifty thousand.' The -growth of the young after exclusion from the egg is rather rapid, and -Professor Goode saw 'young fish two or three inches long' while others -were yet spawning, and these young fish were presumably the fry of those -that had spawned the same year, only somewhat earlier. In a few days -after hatching they present a striking appearance on account of the -enormous development of the pectoral and ventral fins." - -Aristotle gives, according to Professor Horace A. Hoffman, this account -of the angler: "'Inasmuch as the flat, front part is not fleshy, nature -has compensated for this by adding to the rear and the tail as much -fleshy substance as has been subtracted from the front.' The βάτραχος is -called the angler. He fishes with the hair-like filaments hung before -his eyes. On the end of each filament is a little knob, just as if it -had been placed there for a bait. He makes a disturbance in sandy or -muddy places, hides himself and raises these filaments. When the little -fish strikes at them he leads them down with the filaments until he -brings them to his mouth. The βάτραχος is one of the σελάχη. All the -σελάχη are viviparous or ovoviviparous except the βάτραχος. The other -flat σελάχη have their gills uncovered and underneath them, but the -βάτραχος has its gills on the side and covered with skinny opercula, not -with horny opercula like the fish which are not σελαχώδη. Some fishes -have the gall-bladder upon the liver, others have it upon the intestine, -more or less remote from the liver and attached to it by a duct. Such -are βάτραχος, ἔλλοψ, συνάγρίς, σμύραινα, and ξιφίας. The βάτραχος is the -only one of the σελάχη which is oviparous. This is on account of the -nature of its body, for it has a head many times as large as the rest of -its body, and spiny and very rough. For this same reason it does not -afterwards admit its young into itself. The size and roughness of the -head prevent them both from coming out (i.e., being born alive) and from -going in (being taken into the mouth of the parent). The βάτραχος is the -most prolific of the σελάχη, but it is scarce because the eggs are -easily destroyed, for it lays them in a bunch near the shore." - -The genus _Lophius_ of northern range has a vertebral column of about -thirty vertebræ. _Lophius litulon_ occurs in Japan. In the North Pacific -is found _Lophiomus_, similar in appearance but smaller in size, ranging -southward to the equator, a southern fish having but eighteen vertebræ. -_Lophiomus setigerus_ is the common anko of Japan, and other species are -recorded from Hawaii, and the Galapagos. - -=The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.=—The sea-devils, or _Ceratiidæ_, are -degenerate anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the arctic -seas. The body is compressed, the mouth vertical; the substance is very -soft, and the color uniform black. Dr. Günther thus speaks of them: - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 497.—_Cryptopsaras couesi_ Gill. Gulf Stream. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 498.—Deep-sea Angler, _Ceratias holbolli_ Kröyer. Greenland. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 499.—_Caulophryne jordani_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. Family - _Ceratiidæ_. -] - -"The bathybial sea-devils are degraded forms of _Lophius_; they descend -to the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones are of an extremely -light and thin texture, and frequently other parts of their -organization, their integuments, muscles, and intestines are equally -loose in texture when the specimens are brought to the surface. In their -habits they probably do not differ in any degree from their surface -representative, _Lophius_. The number of the dorsal spines is always -reduced, and at the end of the series of these species only one spine -remains, with a simple, very small lamella at the extremity -(_Melanocetus johnsonii_, _Melanocetus murrayi_). In other forms -sometimes a second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the -trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains the -original function of a lure for other marine creatures, but to render it -more effective a special luminous organ is sometimes developed in -connection with the filaments with which its extremity is provided -(_Ceratias bispinosus_, _Oneirodes eschrichtii_). So far as known at -present these complicated tentacles attain to the highest degree of -development in _Himantolophus_ and _Ægæonichthys_. In other species very -peculiar dermal appendages are developed, either accompanying the spine -on the back or replacing it. They may be paired or form a group of -three, are pear-shaped, covered with common skin, and perforated at the -top, a delicate tentacle sometimes issuing from the foramen." - -Of the fifteen or twenty species of _Ceratiidæ_ described, none are -common and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge. _Caulophryne -jordani_ is remarkable for its large fins and the luminous filaments, -_Linophryne lucifer_ for its large head, and _Corynolophus reinhardti_ -(Fig. 143, Vol. I) for its luminous fishing-bulb. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 500.—Sargassum-fish, _Pterophryne tumida_ (Osbeck). Florida. - Family _Antennariidæ_. -] - -=The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.=—The frogfishes, _Antennariidæ_, belong -to the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the surface. Most of -them abound about sand-banks or coral reefs, especially along the shores -of the East and West Indies, where they creep along the rocks like -toads. Some are pelagic, drifting about in floating masses of seaweed. -All are fantastic in form and color, usually closely imitating the -objects about them. The body is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical, -and the skin either prickly or provided with fleshy slips. - -The species of _Pterophryne_ live in the open sea, drifting with the -currents in masses of sargassum. Two species, _Pterophryne tumida_ and -_Pterophryne gibba_, are found in the West Indies and Gulf Stream. Two -others very similar, _Pterophryne histrio_ and _Pterophryne ranina_, -live in the East Indies and drift in the Kuro Shiwo of Japan. All these -are light olive-brown with fantastic black markings. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 501.—Fishing-frog, _Antennarius nox_ Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan. -] - -The genus _Antennarius_ contains species of the shoals and reefs, with -markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks. These fishes are -firm in texture with a velvety skin, and the prevailing color is brown -and red. There are many species wherever reefs are found. _Antennarius -ocellatus_, the pescador, is the commonest West Indian species. -_Antennarius multiocellatus_, with many ocellated spots, is the Martin -Pescador of Cuba, also common. - -On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is _Antennarius -strigatus_. In Japan, _Antennarius tridens_ abounds everywhere on the -muddy bottoms of the bays. _Antennarius_ _nox_ is a jet-black species of -the Japanese reefs, and _Antennarius sanguifluus_ is spotted with -blood-red in imitation of coralline patches. Many other species abound -in the East Indies and in Polynesia. The genus _Chaunax_ is represented -by several deep-water species of the West Indies, Japan, etc. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 502.—Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_ - (Mitchill). -] - -The _Gigactinidæ_ of the deep seas differ from the _Ogcocephalidæ_, -according to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 503.—Frogfish, _Antennarus scaber_ (Cuvier). Puerto Rico. -] - -=The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.=—The batfishes, _Ogcocephalidæ_, are -anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard bony warts. The -mouth is small and the bony bases of the pectoral and ventral fins are -longer than in any other of the anglers. The species live in the warm -seas, some in very shallow water, others descending to great depths, the -deep-sea forms being small and more or less degenerate. These walk along -like toads on the sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore -legs and the pectorals extend behind them as hind legs. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 504.—_Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (L.). Florida. -] - -The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, _Ogcocephalus -vespertilio_, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red. It reaches -the length of a foot. The angling spine is very short, hidden under the -long stiff process of the snout. Farther north occurs the short-nosed -batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_, very similar, but with the nostril -process, or snout, blunt and short. _Zalieutes elater_, with a large -black eye-like spot on each side of the back, is found on the west coast -of Mexico. In deeper water are species of _Halieutichthys_ in the West -Indies and of _Halieutæa_ in Japan. _Dibranchus atlanticus_ has the -gills reduced to two pairs. _Malthopsis_ consists of small species, with -the rostrum prominent, like a bishop's miter. Two species are found in -the Pacific, _Malthopsis mitrata_ in Hawaii and _Malthopsis tiarella_ in -Japan. - - * * * * * - -And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of centuries on -centuries of specialization, degeneration, and adaptation, we close the -long roll-call of the fishes, living and dead. And in their long -genealogy is enfolded the genealogy of men and beasts and birds and -reptiles and of all other back-boned animals of whom the fish-like forms -are at once the ancestors, the cousins, and the younger brothers. When -the fishes of the Devonian age came out upon the land, the potentiality -of the higher methods of life first became manifest. With the new -conditions, more varied and more exacting, higher and more varied -specialization was demanded, and, in response to these new conditions, -from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds and beasts and men that -have dwelt upon the earth. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 505.—Batfish, _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (L.). Florida. -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 506.—Batfish, _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (Linnæus). Carolina - Coast. -] - - THE END. - - - - - INDEX - - - aal-mutter, ii, 144 - - Abbott, i, 415, 419, 422; ii, 307, 534 - on perch, ii, 307 - - abdominal fishes, ii, 39 - - Abdominales, i, 393; ii, 38, 39 - - Abeona, ii, 375 - - Abramis, ii, 167 - figure of, ii, 168 - - Aboma, - figure of, ii, 462 - - abundance of food-fish, i, 329 - - abura-ainame, ii, 440 - - abura-bodzu, ii, 323 - - aburazame, i, 524 - - Acantharchus, ii, 297 - - Acanthistius, ii, 323 - - Acanthobatis, i, 553 - - Acanthocephala, i, 344, 351 - - Acanthocepola, ii, 363 - - Acanthoclinidæ, ii, 516 - - Acanthoclinus, ii, 516 - - Acanthocybium, ii, 266 - - Acanthodei, i, 65, 437, 447, 513, 519, 545, 561 - Dean on, i, 517 - families of, i, 516 - order of, i, 514 - Woodward on, i, 514 - - Acanthoëssidæ, i, 515, 516 - - Acanthoëssus, i, 446, 510-513 - figure of, i, 515 - scales of, figured, i, 521 - - Acantholabrus, ii, 387 - - Acanthonemus, ii, 286 - - Acanthopteri, ii, 157 - - Acanthopterygian, ii, 39, 293 - - Acanthopterygii, i, 391; ii, 189, 208-214 - - Acanthostracion, i, 377 - - Acanthuridæ, i, 206; ii, 405, 407, 410, 411 - family of, ii, 407 - - Acanthurus, i, 268, 271; ii, 407, 409 - - Acanus, ii, 330 - - Acara, ii, 381 - - Acentronura, ii, 236 - - Acerina, ii, 241, 309 - - Acentrophorus, ii, 23 - - Achirinæ, ii, 495 - - Achirus, - figure of, ii, 496 - - Acipenser, i, 291, 332, 391, 452; ii, 18, 19, 20, 22 - figure of, ii, 19, 20 - larva of, figured, i, 141 - - Acipenseridæ, i, 290; ii, 18 - - Acipenseroidei, i, 382 - - Acraniata, i, 484 - - Acrocheilus, ii, 169 - - Acrogaster, ii, 252 - - Acrognathus, ii, 34 - - Acropoma, ii, 317 - - Acropomidæ, ii, 317 - - Acrotidæ, ii, 285 - - Acrotus, ii, 285 - - Actinistia, i, 602 - order of, i, 604 - - Actinopteri, i, 451, 507, 599, 610; ii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 208 - - Actinopterygii, i, 462; ii, 1 - - Actinosts, ii, 1, 33 - - actinotrichia, i, 80 - - Adaptation of fishes, i, 177-225 - - adaptive radiation, - law of, i, 296 - - adder-fish, ii, 501 - - Adelfisch, ii, 65 - - Adelochorda, i, 461 - - Adinia, ii, 199 - - adipose fin, i, 25 - - Ægæonichthys, ii, 549 - - Æoliscus, - figure of, ii, 235 - - Ærolepis, ii, 14 - - Æthalion, ii, 41 - - Ætheospondyli, ii, 24, 29 - - Æthoprora, - figure of, i, 188 - - Aëtobatis, i, 557 - figure of, i, 558 - - African catfish, - figure of, i, 457; ii, 185 - - Agassiz, A., i, 405 - - Agassiz, L., i, 419, 428, 614; ii, 1, 39, 183, 486 - on dispersion, i, 284 - on Embiotocidæ, ii, 378, 379 - on embryology of garpike, ii, 31 - on fish fauna of N. E., i, 302 - on fossil fishes, i, 404 - on ganoids, ii, 9 - on high and low forms, i, 381 - on Lepidosteus, ii, 5 - on Onchus, i, 530 - portrait of, i, 399 - pupils of, i, 405 - questions raised by, i, 284 - sketch of, i, 404 - - Age of fishes, i, 144-146 - - agency of ocean currents, i, 243 - - Agnatha, i, 508 - - Agonidæ, i, 208; ii, 3, 185, 452, 453, 456 - family of, ii, 449 - - Agonoid fish, - figure of, i, 221; ii, 453 - - Agonostomus, ii, 107, 222 - - Agonus, i, 219; ii, 453 - - Agrammus, ii, 440 - - Ahl, i, 394 - - aholehole, ii, 304 - - air-bladder, i, 11 - air-duct, i, 12 - Aristotle on, 95 - Borelli on, i, 95 - of Carp, i, 93; ii, 159, 160 - in Cœlacanthus, i, 604 - defined, i, 92, 93 - De Fosse on, i, 97 - Delaroche on, i, 95 - figure of, i, 93, 604 - function of, i, 94 - in ganoids, i, 101 - gases in, i, 94 - in Labyrinthici, i, 91 - an organ of hearing, ii, 159 - origin of, i, 98 - position of, i, 35 - Sörensen on, i, 97 - Tower on, i, 95 - use of, i, 12 - wanting in sharks, i, 506 - Weber on, i, 96 - - akadai, ii, 344 - - Alaska blackfish, i, 51, 147, 290 - figure of, i, 149; ii, 206 - - Alaska cod, ii, 536 - - Alaska grayling, - figure of, i, 328; ii, 120 - - Alaskan rivers, - fishes of, i, 304, 305 - - Albacore, i, 210; ii, 136 - figure of, ii, 263 - Goode on, ii, 263 - long fin, ii, 263 - - Albatross, the i, 263, 408; ii, 60, 130, 138 - - Albatrossia, ii, 541 - - Albula, i, 142, 205; ii, 29, 46, 148 - figure of, i, 147; ii, 44 - - Albulidæ, ii, 41, 44 - - Alburnus, ii, 167 - - Alcock, i, 244, 408; ii, 290 - - Aldrich, - photograph by, i, 303 - - Aldrovandi, i, 388 - - Aldrovandia, - figure of, ii, 138 - - Alectis, i, 202; ii, 276 - - aleihi, ii, 253 - - Alepisauridæ, i, 134 - - Alepocephalidæ, ii, 60 - - Alepocephalus, - figure of, ii, 60 - - alewife, ii, 49 - figure of, ii, 50 - - alfonsinos, ii, 251 - - alimentary canal, i, 31 - - alkaloid poisons, i, 182, 184, 185; ii, 411, 412 - - allantiasis, i, 183 - - alligator-fish, ii, 449, 453 - - alligator-gar, - figure of, ii, 31 - - allmouth, ii, 545 - - Alopiidæ, - family of, i, 536 - - Alosa, i, 204, 291; ii, 50 - - Alticus, - figure of, i, 230; ii, 509 - - Alutera, i, 206; ii, 414, 415 - - amadai, ii, 363 - - Amanses, ii, 415 - figure of, ii, 414 - - Amaræcium, i, 477 - - Ambassis, ii, 317 - - Ambassidæ, ii, 317 - - amber-fish, ii, 272 - figure of, i, 458; ii, 273 - - amber-jack, ii, 274 - - Amblodon, i, 302 - - Ambloplites, - figure of, ii, 299 - skull of, figured, ii, 296 - - Amblyopsidæ, 290; ii, 204 - family of, ii, 200 - - Amblyopsis, i, 220, 314 - figure of, i, 221, 222; ii, 203 - - Amblypterus, ii, 14 - - Amblystoma, i, 78 - - Ameiurus, i, 283, 293, 310, 356; ii, 35, 183, 185, 186, 299 - figure of, i, 344, 358; ii, 180, 181 - parasites of, i, 344 - - American charr, ii, 110 - - American fishes, - Goode on, i, 335 - - Amia, i, 33, 101, 102, 204, 291, 344, 391, 612, 623; ii, 8, 9, 11, 31, - 33, 36, 41, 160 - figure of, ii, 33, 35 - lower jaw of, ii, 33 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 86 - tail of, i, 82 - - Amiatus, i, 394 - - Amiidæ, i, 290; ii, 4, 34, 35, 36 - - Amioidei, - Lütken on, ii, 33 - - Amiopsis, ii, 36 - - Amitra, ii, 454 - - Ammocœtes, i, 142 - - Ammocrypta, ii, 306 - figure of, i, 158; ii, 313 - - Ammodytes, ii, 224, 391, 514, 522 - figure of, ii, 521 - - Ammodytidæ, ii, 215, 520, 521 - - Amphacanthi, - suborder of, ii, 409 - - Ampheristus, ii, 436 - - Amphibia, i, 393, 600, 606 - - Amphibians, ii, 9 - origin of, i, 600 - - Amphicœlian, i, 49 - - Amphiodon, i, 394 - - Amphioxides, i, 483 - - Amphioxus, i, 482, 495 - - Amphiplaga, ii, 243 - - Amphipnoidæ, 11, 141 - - Amphipnous, ii, 141 - - Amphiprion, ii, 384 - - Amphisile, ii, 235 - - Amphisticus, ii, 375 - - Amphistiidæ, - family of, ii, 245, 247 - - Amphistium, ii, 485 - figure of, ii, 247 - - Amyzon, ii, 175 - - Anabantidæ, ii, 215, 370 - Gill on, i, 366 - - Anabas, i, 91, 103, 163 - figure of, ii, 366 - - Anableps, i, 117, 391; ii, 131 - eye of, ii, 194 - figure of, i, 117 - Marsh on, ii, 194 - Nelson on, ii, 196 - - Anacanthini, i, 405; ii, 484, 485, 499, 501, 532, 533, 538 - order of, ii, 532, 533 - - anadromous fishes, i, 291 - - anadromous salmon, ii, 68 - - anal fin, i, 10 - in Embiotocidæ, i, 125 - as intromittent organ, i, 124 - in Pœciliidæ, i, 125 - in sword-tail minnow, i, 124 - - analogy and homology, i, 368, 369 - Coues on, i, 369 - - Anampses, ii, 390 - - Anarhichadidæ, ii, 517 - - Anarhichas, i, 208, 391; ii, 518 - figure of, ii, 517 - food of, ii, 518 - - Anarchias, ii, 153 - - Anarrhichthys, i, 208, 364; ii, 518 - skull of, ii, 517 - - Anarthri, i, 509 - - Anarthrodira, i, 584, 585, 590 - - Anaspida, i, 573, 622 - order of, i, 579 - - anatomy of tunicates, - figure showing, i, 472 - - Anchovia, i, 199, 205 - figure of, ii, 54 - - anchovy, - figure of, ii, 54 - - anchovy, silvery, - figure of, ii, 54 - - ancient outlet of Lake Bonneville, - photograph of, i, 303 - - Ancylostylos, ii, 45 - - Andaman Islands, - fishes of, i, 166 - - Andrews, i, 428 - - Anema, ii, 504 - - angel-fishes, i, 547, 549 - figure of, ii, 401, 404 - - angler-fishes, i, 189, 206; ii, 542-553 - carpels of, i, 51 - figure of, i, 52 - Gill on, ii, 543 - habits of, ii, 543-545 - Kent on, ii, 543 - - anglers, - dorsal fin in, i, 202 - - angling, i, 336 - Young on, i, 337-339 - - Anguilla, i, 127, 162, 211; ii, 143 - figure of, ii, 142, 148 - - Anguillidæ, i, 290; ii, 148 - family of, ii, 142 - - angular, i, 606 - - Anisotremus, i, 271; ii, 341 - - Anomalopidæ, - family of, ii, 317 - - anko, - figure of, ii, 545 - - Anomalops, ii, 317 - - Anoplogaster, ii, 252 - - Anoplopoma, - figure of, ii, 438 - - Anoplopomidæ, - family of, ii, 438 - - Anoplus, i, 260; ii, 333 - - Antechinomys, ii, 471 - - Antennariidæ, i, 52; ii, 542, 549, 553 - Aristotle on, ii, 546 - deep-sea, ii, 548 - Goode on, ii, 545 - habits of, ii, 544-546 - Hoffmann on, ii, 546 - spawning of, ii, 546 - - Antennarius, i, 197, 206 - figure of, ii, 550, 553 - - Anthias, ii, 328 - - Antiarcha, i, 573, 581, 590, 622 - order of, i, 576 - - Antigonia, i, 262 - - Anyperodon, ii, 328 - - ao, ii, 274 - - Apeltes, - figure of, ii, 232 - - Aphanopus, i, 210 - - Aphareus, - figure of, ii, 339 - - Aphredoderidæ, i, 290; ii, 243, 294 - - Aphredoderus, ii, 204, 252, 291, 294, 296 - figure of, ii, 295 - - Apia, - coral reef of, figured, i, 234 - - Apichthys, ii, 278 - - Aplidiopsis, - figure of, i, 479 - - Aploactis, i, 202 - - Aplodactylidæ, ii, 363 - - Aplodactylus, ii, 364 - - Aplodinotus, i, 291, 302; ii, 354, 357 - - Apocopodon, i, 558 - - Apodes, i, 393, 611; ii, 40, 139-158, 532 - order of, ii, 141 - - Apodichthys, i, 227; ii, 512 - - Apogon, - figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319 - - Apogonidæ, - family of, ii, 316 - - Apomotis, i, 26, 310; ii, 301 - figure of, i, 27; ii, 350 - - Apostasis, ii, 406 - - Apostolides, i, 412 - - Appendicularia, i, 466 - Brooks on, i, 480 - - Appendiculariidæ, i, 474 - - Aprion, i, 325; ii, 338 - - Apsilus, ii, 338 - - aquatic worms, ii, 143 - - Aracana, ii, 417 - - Arapaima, ii, 11, 56 - - Arbaciosa, - species of, ii, 531 - - Archæomænidæ, ii, 29 - - Archæus, ii, 278 - - Archencheli, - suborder of, ii, 141, 142 - - archers, ii, 400 - - archicercal tail, i, 81, 83 - - archipterygium, i, 59-61, 68, 69, 73, 446, 459, 511, 512, 522, 598, - 600, 601 - Boulenger on, i, 79 - Gegenbaur on, i, 60 - Günther on, i, 60 - - archnoid membrane, i, 109 - - Archoplites, i, 179, 240; ii, 297 - figure of, i, 258 - - Archosargus, i, 324; ii, 346 - figure of, i, 31; ii, 347 - - Archoteuthis, ii, 410 - - Arctic codling, ii, 537 - - Arctic species, - in lakes, i, 316 - Loven on, i, 317 - Malmgren on, i, 317 - Smith on, i, 317 - - Arctoscopus, ii, 364 - - Argentina, i, 391 - - Argentinidæ, ii, 122, 124 - - Argidæ, ii, 185 - - Argyropelecus, - figure of, i, 190; ii, 137 - - Argyrosomus, i, 315; ii, 62, 65, 67 - figure of, ii, 66 - - Ariscopus, i, 257 - figure of, ii, 504 - - Aristotle, ii, 146 - on fishes of Greece, i, 387 - on noises of fish, i, 95 - - Arius, ii, 178, 186 - - arm of frog, i, 601 - figure of, i, 71 - - ama-ama, ii, 221 - - armado, i, 169 - - arnillo, ii, 338 - - Arnoglossus, ii, 488 - - arrow-toothed halibut, ii, 491 - - Artedi, i, 374, 390 - on genera, i, 391 - - Artediellus, ii, 442 - - Artedius, ii, 442 - - Arthrodira, i, 573, 584, 585, 590, 612 - Dean on, i, 581 - Jækel on, i, 591 - - Arthrodires, i, 204, 241, 436, 437, 603, 622; ii, 3 - classification of, i, 584 - figure of, i, 445, 584 - occurrence of, i, 583 - relationships of, i, 588 - - Arthropteridæ, i, 553 - - Arthropterus, i, 553 - - Arthrognathi, i, 581, 584, 585, 589, 590 - Dean on, i, 584 - - Arthrothoraci, i, 584, 586, 587 - - articular, i, 606 - - artificial impregnation, - Jacobian method, i, 150 - - Ascanius, i, 396; ii, 472 - - Ascelichthys, ii, 449 - - Ascidia, - figure of, i, 474 - - Ascidiacea, i, 474 - - ascidians, i, 460, 467 - Kingsley on, i, 474 - Ritter on, i, 474 - - Ascidiiæ, i, 474, 475 - - Ascidina, - figure of, i, 475 - - Aseraggodes, ii, 496 - - Ashmead, - on leprosy transmission, i, 186 - - Asineopidæ, ii, 243, 296, 317 - - Asineops, ii, 243, 317 - - Asmuss, i, 427 - - Aspasma, ii, 531 - figure of, ii, 530 - - Aspidocephali, i, 568, 575 - - Aspidoganoidei, i, 568 - - Aspidophoroides, - figure of, ii, 453 - - Aspidorhini, i, 568 - - Aspidorhynchidæ, ii, 24, 29 - - Aspidorhynchus, ii, 29 - - Aspius, ii, 175 - - Aspredo, ii, 184 - - Aspro, ii, 307, 310 - figure of, ii, 309 - - aspron, ii, 309 - figure of, ii, 310 - - Asterolepidæ, i, 576, 623 - - Asterolepis, i, 577, 591 - - Asterospondyli, i, 447, 510, 513, 532 - order of, i, 525 - - asterospondylous, i, 49 - - Asterosteidæ, i, 584, 585 - - Asterosteus, i, 585 - - Asterropteryx, i, 263 - - Astrodermiidæ, i, 551 - - Astrodermus, i, 551 - - Astrolabe, the, i, 408 - - Astrolytes, - figure of, ii, 442 - - Astronesthidæ, ii, 128 - - Astrape, i, 554 - - Astroscopus, ii, 503 - Gilbert on, i, 187 - electric organs of, i, 187 - - Asymmetron, i, 483; ii, 467 - - Ateleaspis, i, 574 - - Atheresthes, i, 205; ii, 491 - - Atherina, i, 393; ii, 216 - - Atherinidæ, i, 290; ii, 215 - - Atherinops, ii, 218 - - Atherinopsis, - figure of, ii, 218 - - Atherinosoma, ii, 218 - - Athlennes, ii, 211 - - Atka fish, - figure of, i, 328; ii, 439 - - Atka mackerel, ii, 439 - - Atlantic creek, i, 308, 309 - - Atlantic oarfish, ii, 472 - - Atlantic salmon, ii, 89 - - attenuate, i, 19 - - Atthey, i, 426 - - Auchenopterus, ii, 508 - - atule, ii, 275 - - auditory ossicles, ii, 160 - - Aulichthys, ii, 233 - - Aulolepis, ii, 48 - - Aulopidæ, ii, 130, 132 - - Aulopus, i, 259; ii, 190 - - Aulorhamphus, ii, 406 - - Aulorhynchidæ, - family of, ii, 232 - - Aulorhynchus, ii, 233 - - Aulostomidæ, - family of, ii, 233 - - Aulostomus, ii, 233 - figure of, ii, 234 - - Australia, ii, 363 - - Australian flying-fish, - figure of, i, 341 - - Australian lung-fish, i, 100 - - autochthonous, i, 245 - - autostylic skull, i, 561; ii, 8 - - Auxis, ii, 262 - - awa, ii, 45, 221 - - awaawa, ii, 43 - - awaous, i, 254; ii, 465 - - aweoweo, ii, 333 - - Axinurus, ii, 409 - - axonasts, i, 604, 605; ii, 17 - - Ayres, i, 419, 428 - - ayu, i, 256; ii, 115, 117, 118 - figure of, i, 321; ii, 116 - fishing for figured, i, 333, 335 - - Azevia, i, 271; ii, 489 - - d'Azyr, i, 390 - - Azygostei, i, 581 - - azygous, i, 88 - - - Baer, i, 428 - - Bagarius, ii, 186 - - bagonado, ii, 344 - - bagre, ii, 182 - - bagre de Rio, ii, 182 - - Bagrus, ii, 183 - - Baikal cods, ii, 455 - - Baird, i, 419; ii, 142 - on bluefish, ii, 279-282 - on eel migrations, ii, 142 - portrait of, i, 407 - - Bairdiella, ii, 355 - figure of, ii, 355 - - Bakker, i, 428 - - Balanoglossidæ, i, 465 - - Balanglossus, i, 461 - - Balanus, ii, 544 - - balaos, ii, 212 - - Balfour, i, 428, 511, 513; ii, 8 - finfold theory, i, 69, 514 - lateral-fold theory, i, 71-73 - on paired fins, ii, 8 - on sharks, i, 511 - - Balfour and Parker, - on Lepidosteus, ii, 5 - - Balistapus, i, 181; ii, 413 - - Balistes, i, 206, 391, 611; ii, 22 - figure of, i, 184; ii, 412 - - Balistidæ, ii, 413, 418 - family of, ii, 412 - - Ballou, - on eels, ii, 417 - - banded rockfish, - figure of, ii, 432 - - banded sunfish, - figure of, ii, 299 - - bandfishes, ii, 363 - - bandfishes, - the crested, ii, 291 - - Banks, i, 395 - - barbels, i, 115; ii, 170 - organs of touch, i, 122 - - barber-fish, ii, 328 - - barbero, ii, 408 - - barbudos, ii, 256 - - Barbulifer, ii, 462 - - Barbus, ii, 170, 175 - - Barkas, i, 426 - - Barneville, i, 412 - - Barracuda, ii, 34, 39, 215, 266, 317, 469 - - Barracuda, - family of, ii, 222 - figure of, ii, 223 - - Barramunda, i, 116, 614, 615 - Günther on, i, 615 - - barreto, ii, 467 - - barriers, - Alleghanies, i, 311 - artificial dams, i, 300 - Cape of Good Hope, i, 268 - checks to movement, i, 240 - crossing by fishes, i, 302 - to dispersion, i, 297 - Isthmus of Panama, i, 269 - local, i, 298 - mountain chains, i, 310 - Rocky Mountains, i, 305 - the Sierras, i, 310 - silt-bearing streams, i, 301 - species absent from, i, 239 - temperature, i, 298 - waterfalls, i, 300 - watersheds, i, 205 - - basal bone, - of dorsal fin, i, 49 - figure of, i, 49, 56 - of pectoral fin, i, 59 - - baseosts, ii, 17 - - basilar, i, 88 - - Basilevsky, i, 411 - - basking shark, i, 539 - figure of, i, 540 - largest of fishes, i, 539 - - bass, i, 4, 21, 47, 290, 323, 440; ii, 316-350 - black, i, 303, 304 - white, i, 321 - yellow, i, 321 - - bassalian fishes, i, 245, 246; ii, 128 - - Bassani, i, 427 - - Bassozetus, - figure of, i, 456 - - bastard halibut, ii, 489 - - Bateson, i, 463 - - batfish, ii, 402, 458 - figure of, ii, 553 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 88; ii, 551 - - Bathyclupeidæ, ii, 290 - - Bathygadus, ii, 541 - - Bathylagus, ii, 127 - - Bathymaster, ii, 502 - figure of, ii, 503 - - Bathymasteridæ, ii, 502 - - Bathyonidæ, ii, 540 - - Bathyonus, ii, 540 - - Bathypteroidæ, ii, 130 - - Bathypterois, ii, 131 - - Batoidei, i, 519 - suborder of, i, 549 - - Batrachians, i, 85, 87, 88 - - Batrachoides, i, 394; ii, 526 - - Batrachoides, - shoulder-girdle of, i, 59 - - Batrachoididæ, i, 182, 192; ii, 525, 529, 542 - - Batrachoids, ii, 529 - - Batrictius, i, 394 - - Bdellostoma, i, 490 - - Beagle, the, i, 408 - - Bean, i, 408, 419 - - Beardslee, ii, 101 - - Beardslee trout, ii, 101 - - Belemnobatis, i, 551 - - Bellotti, i, 412 - - bellows fish, ii, 545 - - Belon, - on fishes of Mediterranean, i, 388 - - Belone, ii, 210, 211 - - Belonidæ, - family of, ii, 210 - - Belonorhynchidæ, ii, 514 - - Belonorhynchus, ii, 17 - - Belostomus, ii, 29 - - Bembradidæ, ii, 441, 499 - - Bembras, ii, 441 - - Benecke, - on spawning of eels, ii, 146 - - Beneden, i, 427 - - benimasu, ii, 72 - - Bennett, i, 408, 416 - - Bentenia, ii, 286 - - Benthosauridæ, ii, 130 - - Benthosaurus, ii, 131 - - Berg, i, 415 - portrait of, i, 409 - - Berndt, - opah taken by, ii, 244 - photograph by, i, 323 - - Berycidæ, i, 206; ii, 294, 499 - family of, ii, 251 - - Berycoidei, ii, 40, 245, 290, 484, 485 - suborder of, ii, 250-257 - - Berycoid fishes, ii, 250 - figure of, i, 439; ii, 253 - Starks on, ii, 250 - - Berycoids, ii, 247 - - Berycopsis, ii, 285 - - Beryx, i, 259, 263, 438; ii, 249, 289 - figure of, ii, 251 - - beshow, ii, 438 - - Betta, i, 163; ii, 370 - - biajaiba, ii, 336 - - Bianconi, i, 412 - - Bibron, i, 412 - - big-eye, ii, 333 - figure of, ii, 332 - - big-eyed scad, ii, 275 - - Birkenia, i, 580 - figure of, i, 579 - - Birkeniidæ, i, 579 - - bishop-fish, i, 361 - - bishop-fish, - figure of, i, 361 - - Björnson, - on fishing villages of Norway, i, 329 - - black angel, ii, 405 - - black angel-fish, - figure of, ii, 403 - - black bass, i, 209; ii, 168, 301, 328 - Hallock on, ii, 302 - Henshall on, ii, 302 - large-mouthed, ii, 304 - small-mouthed, ii, 303 - - black bream, ii, 206 - - Black Current of Japan, sharks in, i, 536 - - black escolar, 338 - - black-fin snapper, ii, 336 - - blackfish, ii, 387 - - black grouper, ii, 323, 325 - - black-horse, ii, 173 - - Blackiston's line, - relation to fishes, i, 257 - - black-jack, ii, 276 - - black nohu, - figure of, i, 180; ii, 436 - stinging spines of, i, 180 - - black-nosed dace, - figure of, i, 342; ii, 164 - parasites on, i, 342 - - black rockfish, ii, 429 - - black ruff, ii, 284 - - black sea-bass, ii, 329 - - black-sided darter, - figure of, ii, 311 - - blacksmith, ii, 381 - - black-spotted sailor's choice, ii, 341 - - black-spotted trout, ii, 95 - - black swallower, - figure of, i, 29; ii, 360 - - black tai, ii, 344 - - black will, ii, 328 - - black wrasse, ii, 387 - - Blainville, i, 400 - on Palæoniscum, ii, 14 - - Blake, i, 60, 408 - - Blanchard, i, 412 - - blanquillos, ii, 361, 362 - - blastoderm, i, 135 - - blastomeres, i, 135 - - blastopore, i, 138 - - blastula, i, 131, 132 - - bleak, ii, 163, 167 - - Bleeker, i, 376, 412, 414 - - Bleekeria, ii, 521 - - Bleekeriidæ, ii, 522 - - Blenniidæ, i, 208, 276, 290; ii, 506-531 - - Blennioidea, ii, 470 - - Blennius, i, 208, 391; ii, 511, 513 - - Blennius, - figure of, i, 508 - - blenny, i, 209, 230, 290, 429; ii, 507-531 - figure of, ii, 509, 511 - Japanese, i, 9; ii, 513 - kelp, ii, 507 - northern, ii, 511 - sarcastic, ii, 507 - snake, ii, 512 - - Blepsias, - figure of, ii, 448 - - blind Brotula, - figure of, i, 222 - - blind catfish, ii, 181 - - blind cavefish, - figure of, i, 116; ii, 202 - - blindfish, i, 290; ii, 202, 524 - descent of, ii, 202 - Eigenmann on, i, 117; ii, 202 - habits of, ii, 202 - theories regarding origin, ii, 202 - - blindfish of Mammoth Cave, ii, 202, 203 - Eigenmann on, i, 221, 222 - figure of, i, 221 - - blind goby, ii, 467 - - blob, ii, 444 - - Bloch, i, 389, 397 - - Blochiidæ, ii, 514 - - Blochius, - figure of, ii, 514 - - Blossom, the, i, 408 - - blue-back, ii, 71, 73-76 - - blue-back salmon, ii, 68, 69 - - blue-breasted darter, i, 231; ii, 314 - figure of, i, 231 - - blue cod, ii, 440 - - bluefin, ii, 66 - - bluefin cisco, - figure of, ii, 66 - - bluefish, ii, 278, 354 - Baird on, i, 279-282 - destructiveness of, ii, 281 - figure of, i, 324; ii, 279 - food of, ii, 280 - - bluegill, - figure of, ii, 300 - - blue-green sunfish, i, 26 - figure of, i, 27; ii, 350 - - blue parrot-fish, ii, 396 - figure of, ii, 394 - figure of jaws, ii, 393 - - blue sharks, i, 534, 542 - - blue smelt, - figure of, ii, 218 - - blue-spotted guativere, ii, 324 - - blue surf-fish, ii, 375 - - blue tang, ii, 408 - figure of, ii, 407 - - Blyth, i, 396 - - boarfishes, ii, 135, 398 - - bobo, - figure of, ii, 222 - - boccaccio, ii, 429 - - Bocage, i, 414 - - Bocourt, i, 412 - - Bodianus, i, 207, 271; ii, 388 - - boga, ii, 347, 348 - - Bogoslovius, ii, 541 - - Bohr, i, 97 - - Boleophthalmus, ii, 465 - figure of, i, 118; ii, 466 - - Boleosoma, i, 302; ii, 313 - - Bollman, i, 420 - - Boltenia, i, 475 - - Bombay-duck, ii, 131 - - bonaci-arará, ii, 325 - - bonaci-cardenal, ii, 325 - - Bonaparte, i, 412 - - bones of the fish, - actinosts, i, 42 - alisphenoid, i, 38, 39, 40, 53 - anal fin, i, 48 - angular, i, 42, 43, 54 - articular, i, 42, 43, 54 - basibranchial, i, 46 - basihyal, i, 42, 45 - basioccipital, i, 36, 38, 39, 40, 53 - basisphenoid, i, 36, 38, 39, 53 - branchiostegals, i, 42, 45 - carpals, i, 51 - of anglers, i, 51 - caudal fin, i, 48 - caudal vertebræ, i, 48 - ceratobranchial, i, 46 - ceratohyal, i, 42, 45 - clavicle, i, 42, 50, 52 - figured, i, 52 - coracoid, i, 50, 51 - of cranium, i, 39 - dentary, i, 42, 43, 54 - dorsal fin, i, 48 - epihyal, i, 42, 45 - epibranchial, i, 46 - epioccipital, i, 36 - epiotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53 - epipleurals, i, 48 - ethmoid, i, 36, 37, 53 - exoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53 - frontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53 - glossihyal, i, 42 - hæmal spine, i, 48 - hæmaphysis, i, 48 - hyoid arch, i, 42 - hyomandibular, i, 42, 44, 54 - hypercoracoid, i, 42, 52 - hypobranchial, i, 46 - hypocoracoid, i, 42, 43, 52 - hypural, i, 48, 49 - infraclavicle, i, 51 - interclavicle, i, 51 - interhæmals, i, 49 - interhyal, i, 42, 45 - interneural, i, 48 - interopercle, i, 42, 45, 54 - interspinals, i, 49 - isthmus, i, 45 - maxillary, i, 41, 42 - mesopterygoid, i, 41, 42 - metapterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54 - nasal, i, 42, 53 - neural spine, i, 48 - neuropophysis, i, 48 - opercle, i, 42, 54 - opisthotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 - palatine, i, 41, 42, 54 - parapophysis, i, 48 - parietal, i, 36, 37, 39, 40, 53 - parsasphenoid, i, 36, 38, 53 - pectoral fin, i, 42 - pelvic girdle, i, 42 - pharyngeals, i, 46, 47 - figure of, i, 47 - lower, i, 46 - suspensory, i, 46 - upper, i, 46 - postclavicle, i, 42, 51 - figured, i, 52 - postero-temporal, i, 50 - post-temporal, i, 42, 52 - prefrontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53 - premaxillary, i, 42 - preopercle, i, 42, 54 - preorbital, i, 41, 42 - prootic, i, 36, 38, 53 - proscapula, i, 50 - pterotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53 - pterygials, i, 51 - pterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54 - quadrate, i, 42, 43, 54 - ribs, i, 48 - scapula, i, 50 - shoulder-girdle, i, 42, 50, 51, 52 - sphenotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 53 - subopercle, i, 42, 54 - suborbital, i, 42 - supraclavicle, i, 42, 50 - supraoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 53 - suprascapula, i, 50 - supratemporal, i, 42, 50 - figured, i, 51 - symplectic, i, 42, 54 - urohyal, i, 42, 54 - ventral fin, i, 42 - vomer, i, 36, 37, 38, 53 - zygapophysis, i, 48 - - bonito, ii, 264 - - bonnaterre, i, 397 - - bony fish, i, 204, 454, 506; ii, 37 - classification of, ii, 38 - development of, i, 135 - figure of, ii, 438 - specialized, figured, i, 456 - - bony scales, i, 21 - - Boops, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350 - - Borassus, ii, 367 - - Borelli, i, 390 - on air-bladder, i, 95 - - Boreogadus, ii, 537 - - botolism, i, 183 - - Bothinæ, ii, 487 - - Bothriocephalus, i, 345 - - Bothriolepis, i, 577 - - Bothus, ii, 486 - - Botryllidæ, i, 476 - - Botryllus, i, 476; ii, 545 - figure of, i, 477, 478, 479 - - bottle-nosed chimæra, - eggs of, figured, i, 127 - - Bougainville, i, 395 - - Boulenger, i, 360, 364, 370, 414, 428, 513, 600, 601, 606, 608, 609; - ii, 41, 48, 128, 129, 136, 138, 158, 190, 485, 502, 522, 551 - on Archipterygium, i, 79 - on Galaxias, ii, 205 - catalogue of fishes, i, 402 - on opahs, ii, 243 - portrait of, i, 403 - on vertebræ, i, 213 - on zooid fishes, ii, 245 - - Bovichthyidæ, ii, 502 - - bowfin, i, 290, 440; ii, 33, 34 - figure of, ii, 35 - tail of, figured, i, 82 - - Bowring, - on noises by fishes, i, 168 - - Brachydirus, i, 590 - - Brachyistius, ii, 375 - - Brachymystax, ii, 62, 67 - - brain, - of chimæra, i, 410, 411 - figures of, i, 110, 111 - Günther on, i, 109 - in hagfish, i, 112 - of lamprey, i, 112 - of perch, i, 111 - of pike, i, 109 - of primitive fishes, i, 112 - reflex action of, i, 153 - of shark, i, 110, 111 - - Brama, ii, 135, 286 - - Bramidæ, ii, 291 - family of, ii, 286 - - branch herring, ii, 49 - - branchial bones, i, 46 - - Branchiostegi, i, 391 - - Branchiostoma, i, 34, 35, 120, 383, 483 - eggs of, i, 131 - figure of, i, 484 - - Branchiostomidæ, i, 484 - - Brandt, i, 412 - - Branner, i, 415 - - Brayton, i, 420 - - bream, ii, 163, 167 - - Bregmaceros, ii, 524 - - Bregmacerotidæ, ii, 524 - - Brevoort, i, 416 - - Brevoortia, ii, 51 - figure of, i, 340; ii, 51 - - brit, ii, 216, 217 - - broad-shad, ii, 347 - - broad-soles, ii, 495 - - Brongniart, i, 427, 428 - - brook lamprey, - figure of, i, 120, 505 - larva of, figured, i, 492 - mouth of, figured, i, 492 - - Brooks, - on Appendicularia, i, 480 - - brook trout, ii, 99, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115 - figure of, ii, 111 - - Brosme, ii, 539 - - Brosmius, ii, 539 - - Brosmophycis, ii, 524 - - Brotula, - figure of, ii, 524 - blind, figured, ii, 524 - - Brotulidæ, i, 314; ii, 523, 533 - - Brotulids, ii, 39, 524 - - Broussonet, i, 396 - - Brown, i, 426 - - Browne, i, 389 - - brown tang, - figure of, i, 181; ii, 408 - - Brünnich, i, 394 - - Bryactinus, i, 565 - - Brycon, - figure of, ii, 162 - - Bryostemma, - figure of, ii, 511, 514 - - Bryttosus, i, 256; ii, 297, 320 - - buccal cirri, i, 595 - - Buchanan, - on hunting of Chaca, i, 170 - - Buckland, i, 423 - on soles, ii, 497 - on turbot roe, ii, 488 - - Bucklandium, ii, 186 - - budai, ii, 390 - - buffalo-cod, ii, 440 - - Buffalo Creek, i, 309 - - buffalo-fish, ii, 160, 172 - figure of, ii, 173 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 51 - - buffalo sculpin, - figure of, ii, 443 - - bulbus arteriosus, ii, 10, 11 - - bullhead, i, 356 - - bullhead shark, - figure of, i, 526 - - bumpers, ii, 276 - - Bunocephalidæ, ii, 184 - - burbot, i, 209; ii, 538 - figure of, ii, 539 - - Bürger, i, 414 - - butter-fish, ii, 283, 284, 324, 512 - - butterfly fish, i, 440; ii, 381 - figure of, i, 143; ii, 402 - - butterfly ray, i, 556 - - butterfly sculpin, - figure of, i, 288 - - - caballerote, ii, 335 - - cabezon, ii, 442 - - cabra mora, - figure of, i, 20 - - cabrilla, ii, 324, 328, 329 - - cachucho, - figure of, ii, 337 - - Cælorhynchus, - figure of, ii, 541 - - Cæsio, ii, 342 - - cagon de le alto, ii, 337 - - cají, ii, 336 - - Calamoichthys, i, 76, 89, 608 - - Calamostoma, ii, 236 - - Calamus, i, 49, 238; ii, 344 - figure of, ii, 345, 347 - - calico-bass, ii, 297 - - calico-salmon, ii, 72 - - California lancelet, - figure of, i, 484 - - California miller's thumb, - figure of, ii, 446 - - California hake, - figure of, ii, 540 - - California pampano, ii, 283 - - California sucker, - figure of, ii, 174 - - Callbreath, - on running of salmon, ii, 86 - - Callechelys, ii, 150 - - Callichthyidæ, ii, 185 - - Callichthys, i, 290 - - calling the fishes, i, 167, 168 - in Indian temples, i, 167 - in basins of Tuileries, i, 167 - - Callionymidæ, ii, 506 - - Callionymus, i, 246, 257, 259, 263, 393, 500, 504 - - Callipterygidæ, ii, 501 - - Callipteryx, ii, 501 - - Calliurus, i, 302 - - Callorhynchus, i, 565, 566 - egg of figured, i, 127 - - Callorhinus, ii, 537 - - Calotomus, ii, 390, 391 - - Camper, i, 389 - - Campostoma, ii, 164 - figure of, i, 33; ii, 167 - - Campyloprion, i, 529 - - candil, ii, 255 - - candle-fish, ii, 124 - - Canestrini, i, 412 - - Canobius, ii, 14 - - Canthidermis, ii, 413 - - Canthigaster, i, 206 - - Cantor, i, 416 - on fighting-fish, i, 163 - - Cape of Good Hope, - as barrier, i, 269 - - capelin, - figure of, ii, 126 - - capello, i, 414 - - capitaine, - figure of, ii, 387 - - Capros, ii, 135, 398, 400 - - Caracanthidæ, ii, 438 - - Carangidæ, i, 144, 149, 210; ii, 15, 278, 470 - family of, ii, 272 - - Carangopsis, ii, 278 - - Carangus, i, 169, 324; ii, 275, 276, 285 - - Carapidæ, ii, 522 - - Caraproctus, ii, 455 - - Carapus, ii, 520, 522 - - Carassius, ii, 171 - figure of, i, 151 - - Caranx, ii, 245, 275, 470, 542 - - Carboniferous, - fishes, i, 437 - sharks, i, 224 - - Carcharias, i, 447, 534, 543; ii, 468 - figure of, i, 542 - - Carchariidæ, i, 532, 534, 540, 542, 543 - - carcharioid sharks, i, 540 - - Carcharodon, i, 538 - - Carcharopsis, i, 522 - - cardenal, ii, 316 - - cardiform teeth, i, 29 - - cardinal fishes, the, ii, 316 - figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319 - - cardinal vein, i, 108 - - Carencheli, ii, 140, 153, 155 - - caribe, - Günther on, ii, 161 - - carnivorous fishes, i, 29 - - carp, i, 21, 53, 93, 290; ii, 162, 164 - air-bladder of, figured, ii, 160 - native of China, ii, 170 - domestication of, ii, 170 - - Carpiodes, i, 302 - figure of, ii, 173 - - carp-sucker, - figure of, ii, 173 - - carrying eggs in mouth, i, 170-173 - by catfish, i, 170 - - casabe, ii, 276 - - Cassiquiare, - Branner on, i, 307 - crossing by fishes, i, 307 - - Castelnau, i, 415 - - Castour, i, 396 - - Castro, - photograph by, ii, 522 - - catadromous fishes, i, 162, 291; ii, 143 - - Catalina flying-fish, - figure of, ii, 214 - - catalineta, ii, 341 - - Catalogue, - of Panama fishes, i, 272 - - catalufa de lo alto, - figure of, ii, 289 - - catalufa, ii, 288, 333 - figure of, ii, 331 - - Catesby, i, 389 - - catfish, i, 4, 20, 53, 119, 122,128, 169, 290, 440; ii, 159, 160, - 177-187 - African, ii, 185 - channel, ii, 179 - clavicle in, i, 87 - Cope on, i, 180 - descent from, ii, 186 - destroyed by lampreys, i, 357 - electric, ii, 183 - electric, figured, i, 186 - fossil, ii, 186 - of India, ii, 184 - Japanese, ii, 183 - Old World, ii, 182 - poison glands of, i, 180 - poison spine of, i, 179 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 86 - spines of, i, 179 - transfer to Sacramento, i, 310 - - Catopteridæ, ii, 16 - - Catopterus, ii, 16 - - Catostomidæ, i, 46, 290; ii, 172, 175 - family of, ii, 171 - figure of, i, 315 - - Catostomus, i, 198, 283, 302, 304, 316, 346; ii, 56 - figure of, i, 348; ii, 171 - pharyngeal teeth of, ii, 175 - - cat shark, i, 533 - - Catulus, i, 533 - - caudal fin, i, 10 - - caudal lancet, ii, 409 - - Caularchus, - figure of, i, 198, 531 - - Caulolatilus, ii, 362 - - Caulolepis, ii, 252, 253 - - Caulophryne, - figure of, i, 276, 548 - - causes of dispersion, i, 318 - - cavalla, ii, 266, 272-292 - - cavefish, ii, 201, 523, 524 - Eigenmann on, ii, 524 - figure of, i, 117 - - Cebedichthys, ii, 512 - - Centaurus, - larva of figured, i, 143 - - centers of distribution, i, 244 - - Centrarchidæ, i, 209, 232, 290; ii, 304, 320, 327, 380 - family of, ii, 297 - - Centrarchus, i, 302; ii, 297 - - Centriscidæ, ii, 227, 235 - family of, ii, 234 - - Centriscus, i, 393; ii, 235 - - Centrogenys, ii, 320 - - Centrolepis, ii, 14 - - Centrolophiidæ, ii, 283 - - Centrolophius, i, 260; ii, 286 - - Centrophoroides, i, 546 - - Centrophorus, i, 546 - - Centropomidæ, ii, 319 - - Centropomus, i, 271, 273; ii, 309 - figure of, i, 324; ii, 319 - - Centropristes, i, 136; ii, 328, 329 - eggs of, figured, i, 135 - - Centroscymnus, i, 546 - - Centrolabrus, ii, 387 - - Cephalacanthidæ, i, 208 - family of, ii, 458 - - Cephalacanthus, ii, 458 - figure of, ii, 456 - - Cephalaspidæ, i, 576, 623 - - Cephalaspis, i, 444, 569, 571 - figure of, i, 576, 577, 579 - - Cephalopholis, ii, 324, 325 - - Cephaloscyllium, i, 197 - - Cepola, i, 260, 264, 393; ii, 363 - - Cepolidæ, the, ii, 363 - - Ceratacanthus, ii, 414 - - Ceratias, - figure of, ii, 548 - - Ceratiidæ, i, 276 - - Ceratobatis, i, 560 - - Ceratocottus, ii, 443 - - Ceratodontidæ, i, 600, 612 - family of, i, 613 - - Ceratodus, i, 77, 85, 613-616 - - Ceratoscopelus, - figure of, ii, 133 - - Ceratiidæ, ii, 547-549 - - Cerdale, i, 271 - - Cerdalidæ, ii, 516 - - cestodes, i, 344 - - Cestraciont shark, i, 526, 527, 530 - Eastman on, i, 529 - teeth, figured, i, 527 - - Cestraciontes, i, 438, 519, 566 - Eastman on, i, 529 - families of, i, 528 - suborder of, i, 526 - teeth of figured, i, 527, 529 - - Cetomimidæ, ii, 132 - - Cetomimus, - figure of, ii, 132 - - Cetorhinus, - figure of, i, 540 - - Cetorhinidæ, - family of, i, 539 - - Cette, i, 396 - - Chaca, i, 170 - - Chacidæ, ii, 184 - - Chænobryttus, i, 302; ii, 300 - - Chætobranchus, ii, 381 - - Chætodipterus, - figure of, i, 325, 401 - - Chætodon, i, 235, 242, 267, 391; ii, 400, 403, 405, 406 - figure of, i, 143; ii, 402 - - Chætodontidæ, i, 206; ii, 245, 291, 381, 398, 402, 404, 405 - - Chætodonts, ii, 247 - - Chalacodus, i, 566 - - Challenger, the, ii, 60, 130 - - Champsodon, ii, 361 - - Champsodontidæ, ii, 361 - - Chanos, i, 205; ii, 221 - figure of, ii, 45 - - Chanidæ, - family of, ii, 44 - - Channa, - figure of, ii, 370 - - channel bass, ii, 355 - - channel catfish, - figure of, i, 280 - - channel-cats, the, ii, 179, 182 - - Channomuræna, ii, 153 - - Chanoides, ii, 44 - - Chapala Lake, - fishes of, ii, 216 - - Characidæ, ii, 161, 162 - - Characin, i, 290 - - Characinidæ, i, 205, 290; ii, 381 - - Characins, ii, 61, 160-162, 186 - - Characodon, ii, 201 - - characters, - of Elasmobranchs, i, 507 - of species, i, 292 - - Charitosomus, ii, 56 - - charr, ii, 67, 99, 107, 114, 122 - - Charlevoix, ii, 64 - - Chasmistes, i, 304, 316; ii, 172 - - Chasmodes, ii, 509 - - Chauliodontidæ, ii, 129 - - Chauliodus, - figure of, ii, 129 - - Chaunax, ii, 551 - - Cheilio, ii, 390 - - Cheilinus, ii, 390 - - Cheilodipteridæ, - family of, ii, 278 - - Cheilodipterus, ii, 278 - figure of, ii, 279 - - Cheiracanthus, i, 517 - - Cheirodopsis, ii, 15 - - Cheirodus, ii, 14 - - Cheirolepis, ii, 14 - - Chelidonichthys, i, 260; ii, 456 - - Chelmo, ii, 404 - - Chelonichthyidæ, i, 586 - - Chelonopsis, ii, 425 - - Chonerhinus, ii, 419 - - cherna, ii, 324 - - chevron, ii, 89 - - chiasma, ii, 4 - - Chiasmodon, ii, 136 - figure of, i, 29; ii, 360 - - Chiasmodontidæ, ii, 215, 360 - - Chilobranchidæ, ii, 141 - - Chilomycterus, - figure of, ii, 423 - - Chiloscyllium, i, 56, 533 - pectoral fin of, i, 66 - - Chimæra, i, 23, 35, 85, 204, 393, 435, 437, 448, 507, 509, 512-514, - 545, 561-567, 595, 610 - of California, i, 564 - Dean on, i, 563 - figure of, i, 449, 564, 565 - Parker on, i, 563 - - Chimæridæ, - family of, i, 564 - - Chimæroids, i, 224, 583 - - Chimæropsis, i, 566 - - China fish, - snake-headed, ii, 371 - - Chinese whitebait, ii, 127, 128 - - chinook, ii, 69 - - chirivita, ii, 405 - - Chirocentridæ, ii, 46 - - Chirocentrus, ii, 46, 48 - - Chirolophis, ii, 512 - - Chiropterygium, i, 600, 605 - - Chirostoma, - figure of, i, 329; ii, 217 - - Chirothricidæ, ii, 133 - - Chirothrix, - figure of, ii, 46, 134 - - chisel-mouth, ii, 169 - - Chlamydoselachidæ, - family of, i, 525 - - Chlamydoselachus, i, 361, 447, 448, 509, 521, 536 - figure of, i, 523 - - Chlarias, i, 98, 290; ii, 186, 187 - figure of, i, 457; ii, 185 - - Chlariidæ, ii, 184, 185 - - Chlevastes, ii, 150 - figure of, i, 232 - - Chloropthalmus, i, 260; ii, 130 - - Chloroscombrus, ii, 276 - - chochouwo, ii, 403 - - chogset, ii, 387 - - Chologaster, i, 203, 204, 223 - Eigenmann on, ii, 203 - figure of, i, 116; ii, 201 - Garman on, ii, 202 - Hoppin on, ii, 203 - - Chondrenchelys, i, 521 - - Chondropterygians, i, 508 - - Chondropterygii, i, 391 - - Chondrostei, i, 623, 624; ii, 2, 5, 13 - order of, ii, 17 - - Chondrosteidæ, ii, 17, 18 - - Chondrosteus, i, 622 - - Chonerhinidæ, ii, 419 - - Chopa, ii, 344, 350 - figure of, ii, 349 - - Chordata, i, 460 - - Chordate animals, i, 460 - lowest forms figured, i, 465 - - Chordates, i, 508, 584, 597; ii, 1 - - Chorisochismus, ii, 531 - - Chriodorus, ii, 212 - - Chromides, - suborder of, ii, 380 - - Chromis, i, 166; ii, 381 - - Chrondrosteus, - figure of, ii, 18 - - Chrosomus, i, 304; ii, 164, 167 - - chub, ii, 118, 147, 163 - figure of, ii, 169 - of Great Basin, ii, 169 - of Pacific, ii, 169 - - chub of Great Basin, - figure of, i, 287 - - chub-mackerel, i, 94 - - chub-sucker, i, 292 - figure of, i, 315; ii, 172 - - chum, ii, 72 - - cichla, ii, 380 - - Cichlasoma, ii, 381 - - cichlid, i, 290 - - Cichlidæ, i, 209, 290; ii, 380, 381 - organs of smell in, i, 115 - - cigar-fish, ii, 274 - - ciguatera, i, 182-185; ii, 335, 411, 413 - - Cimolichthys, ii, 133 - - Ciona, i, 481 - - Cirrhilabrus, ii, 390 - - Cirrhitidæ, the, ii, 363, 426 - - Cirrhitus, i, 271 - figure of, ii, 364 - - Cirrostomi, i, 482, 595 - - cisco, ii, 65 - - Citharichthys, i, 274; ii, 489 - - Citharinus, ii, 162 - - Citula, i, 202; ii, 276 - - Cladistia, i, 602 - order of, i, 605 - - Cladodontidæ, i, 520, 522 - - Cladodus, i, 65, 80, 437 - pectoral fin of, i, 521 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 521 - teeth of, figured, i, 522 - - Cladoselache, i, 64, 66, 79, 80, 437, 446, 448, 510, 571, 573, 623 - Dean on, i, 518 - figure of, i, 65, 514, 515 - primitive character of, i, 514 - teeth of, figured, i, 515 - ventral view of, i, 515 - - Cladoselachidæ, i, 514 - family of, i, 523 - - clam-cracker, i, 556 - - Clark, - on eulachon, ii, 125 - - Clarke, i, 416 - - claspers, i, 124, 125 - - classification, - Coues on, i, 370 - of Elasmobranchs, i, 509, 510 - of fishes, i, 367-386 - of instincts, i, 154 - morphological, i, 371 - natural, i, 370 - terms used in, i, 462 - - Clastes, - Eastman on, ii, 32 - - Clavellinidæ, i, 475 - - clavicle, - figure of, i, 87 - of sea catfish, i, 87 - - Claypole, i, 426 - portrait of, i, 409 - - cleavages, i, 135 - - Clepticus, ii, 388 - - Clidoderma, ii, 494 - - Climatius, i, 446 - figure of, i, 518 - - climbing-fish, ii, 367 - - climbing-perch, - figure of, ii, 366 - - clingfish, ii, 529 - figure of, i, 198; ii, 531 - Günther on, ii, 529, 530 - sucking-disk in, i, 198 - - Clinocottus, ii, 448 - - Clinton, ii, 64 - - Clinus, i, 208; ii, 507, 511, 513, 516 - - Cloquet, i, 397 - - Cloudy Bay cod, ii, 520 - - Clupanodon, ii, 53 - - Clupea, i, 204, 329, 391 - figure of, i, 331, ii, 49 - - Clupeidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 49, 52, 53 - - clupeiform, ii, 11 - - clupeoid, ii, 10 - - Clupeidea, the, ii, 41 - - coalfish, i, 209; ii; 438, 537 - - Coal measures, - fishes of, i, 223 - teeth found in, i, 65 - - Costa, i, 412 - - coast lines, - effect on distribution, i, 248 - - cobbler-fish, ii, 276 - - cobia, ii, 282 - - Cobitidæ, ii, 175, 185 - - Cobitis, i, 391; ii, 176 - - Cobitopsidæ, - family of, ii, 224 - - Cobitopsis, - figure of, ii, 224 - - Coccoderma, i, 605 - - Coccosteans, i, 581 - - Coccosteidæ, i, 622, 623, 584, 586 - - Coccosteus, i, 583, 584, 587, 590, 593, 596, 623 - figure of, i, 582 - - cochino, ii, 413 - - Cochliodontidæ, i, 530 - family of, i, 531 - - Cochliodus, - lower jaw figured, i, 531 - - cock-and-hen paddle, ii, 453 - - cock-of-palace-under-sea, ii, 472 - - cockeye pilot, - figure of, ii, 382 - - Coccolepis, ii, 14 - - cod, ii, 51 - - codfish, i, 122, 128, 290; ii, 481, 501, 532, 533 - figure of, i, 331; ii, 535 - Gill on, ii, 534 - Goode on, ii, 534 - pectoral fin of, i, 66 - reproduction of, ii, 535 - Sars on, ii, 535 - - codling, ii, 538 - - Cœlacanthidæ, i, 605 - - Cœlacanthus, - figure of, i, 604 - - Cœlolepia, i, 573 - - Cœlodus, ii, 22 - - Cœlolepidæ, i, 573 - - coho, ii, 72 - - collection of fishes, i, 429-434 - by explosives, i, 430 - by poison, i, 430 - tackle for, i, 430 - - Collett, i, 408, 427 - portrait of, i, 403 - - Collie, i, 564 - - Collins, - on catastrophe to tilefishes, ii, 362 - on halibut, ii, 490 - - Cololabis, ii, 212 - - Colocephali, ii, 140-142, 153 - suborder of, ii, 152 - - Colomesus, ii, 421 - - Colorado trout, - figure of, ii, 106 - - colors of fishes, i, 226-236 - of coral-fishes, i, 235 - fading of, in spirits, i, 235 - intensity of, i, 232 - nuptial, i, 230 - protective, i, 226-229 - sexual, i, 230 - variation of, i, 235 - - Columbia, - figure of, ii, 242 - - Comephoridæ, the, ii, 455 - - Comephorus, ii, 524 - - Commerson, i, 395 - - commissure, i, 112 - - common eel, - figure of, ii, 143 - - common skate, - figure of, i, 552 - - common sucker, - figure of, ii, 174 - - common sunfish, - figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301 - - conceptions of genus, i, 375 - - Conchopona, i, 613 - - conclusions, - of Cope on dispersion, i, 286 - of Evermann, i, 274 - of Hill, 277-279 - as to Isthmus of Suez, i, 269 - of Jenkins, i, 274 - - conger eels, ii, 149, 151 - figure of, ii, 150 - - Congiopodidæ, ii, 436 - - Congiopus, ii, 436 - - Congo River, - fishes from, i, 78, 607 - - Congriopus, ii, 514 - - Congrogadidæ, ii, 519 - - Connoly, - on calling fishes, i, 168 - - Conocara, ii, 60 - - Conodontes, i, 487 - figure of, i, 488 - - Conorhynchus, i, 128 - - constantino, ii, 320 - - Cooper, i, 419 - on long-jawed goby, ii, 463 - - Cope, i, 84, 311, 419, 428, 512, 602; ii, 1, 4, 13, 24, 35, 56, 159 - on classification, i, 406 - conclusions of, 286 - on dispersion, i, 286, 287 - on eels, ii, 139 - on fossil forms, ii, 32 - on isocercal tail, i, 84 - on ostracophores, ii, 569 - portrait of, i, 407 - sketch of, i, 406 - - Copeland, i, 420 - portrait of, i, 421 - - Copelandellus, ii, 315 - - Coquille, i, 408 - - coracoid, i, 88, 90 - - coraco-scapular, i, 87 - - coral reefs, - at Apia, figured, i, 234 - fishes of, i, 235, 297 - fish life in, i, 215 - - Corax, - teeth of, figured, i, 543 - - Coregoni, ii, 67 - - Coregonus, i, 291, 305, 316, 322, 391; ii, 62, 65, 439 - figure of, i, 321; ii, 63 - - Coreoperca, ii, 320 - - Coris, ii, 390 - - cormorant-fishing, ii, 116-119 - illustrations of, i, 333, 335 - - cornet-fishes, ii, 390 - family of, ii, 233 - - Cornide, i, 396 - - coronado, ii, 274 - - corpus vestiforme, i, 112 - - corsair, ii, 430 - - Corvula, ii, 355 - - Corynolophus, i, 189; ii, 549 - figure of, i, 188 - luminous bulb in, i, 188 - - Coryphæna, i, 210, 391 - figure of, ii, 287 - - Coryphænidæ, - family of, ii, 286 - - Coryphænoides, - figure of, i, 83; ii, 541 - leptocercal, tail of, i, 83 - - Coryphopterus, ii, 462 - - Corythroichthys, ii, 236 - - Costa, i, 412 - - Cottidæ, i, 208, 290; ii, 363, 442, 449, 453, 455, 501, 504, 525 - family of, i, 441 - fossil forms, i, 449 - - Cottocomephorus, ii, 525 - - Cottogaster, i, 300 - - Cottunculus, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449 - - Cottus, i, 169, 219, 312, 391; ii, 443, 445, 449 - figure of, ii, 444, 445, 446 - - Couch, i, 410 - on fighting-fish, i, 165 - on skippers, ii, 21 - - Coues, - on classification, i, 368 - on meaning of species, i, 379 - on synonymy, i, 374 - - cowfish, - figure of, i, 373; ii, 416 - skeleton of figured, i, 215; ii, 418 - - cow's tongue, ii, 497 - - crab-eater, ii, 282 - - Cragin, i, 171 - - craig-fluke, ii, 494 - - Cramer, i, 408, 420, 422 - - cramp-fishes, i, 554 - - cranial nerves, - figure of, i, 111 - - Craniomi, - suborder of, ii, 456 - - Craniotes, i, 588 - - cranium, - bones of, i, 36-39 - inferior view, i, 38 - lateral view, i, 36 - posterior view, i, 40 - of Roccus, figured, i, 36-39 - of Sebastolobus, i, 53 - superior view, i, 37 - - crappie, ii, 168, 297 - figure of, ii, 297 - photograph of, ii, 298 - - Cratinus, i, 271 - - cravo, ii, 244 - - crawl-a-bottom, ii, 312 - - crayfish, ii, 147 - - creek fish, - figure of, i, 315; ii, 172 - - Crenilabrus, i, 207, 260, 267; ii, 387 - - creole-fish, ii, 328, 329 - - Crescent lake trout, ii, 101 - - Cricodus, i, 603 - - Cristiceps, i, 208; ii, 508, 513 - - Cristivomer, i, 291; ii, 62, 115 - figure of, ii, 114 - - croaker, ii, 353, 355 - - Cromeriidæ, ii, 56 - - cross-bow shooter, ii, 413 - - Crossognathidæ, ii, 215, 521 - family of, ii, 224 - - Crossopholis, ii, 21 - - Crossopterygians, i, 78, 79, 89, 91, 204, 436, 457, 511-515, 591, 602, - 623, 624; ii, 38 - figure of, i, 451 - fins of, i, 601 - - Crossopterygii, i, 382, 462, 599, 600, 601, 608 - - crustacean parasites, i, 340 - - Cryptacanthididæ, ii, 516 - - Cryptacanthodes, - figure of, i, 516 - - Cryptocentrus, i, 264; ii, 462 - - Cryptopsaras, - figure of, ii, 547 - - Cryptotomus, - figure of, ii, 391 - - crystal darter, - figure of, ii, 313 - - crystal goby, ii, 466 - - Crystallias, - figure of, i, 218; ii, 454 - - Crystallogobius, ii, 466 - - Ctenochætus, ii, 409 - - Ctenodentex, ii, 340 - - Ctenodipterini, - order of, i, 612 - - Ctenodontidæ, i, 613 - - Ctenodus, i, 613 - - ctenoid scales, i, 20, 21; ii, 39 - - Ctenoidei, ii, 39, 209 - - Ctenolabrus, ii, 387 - - Ctenolates, ii, 320 - - Ctenoptychius, i, 555 - - Ctenothrissa, - figure of, ii, 48 - - Ctenothrissidæ, - figure of, ii, 48 - - cuatro ojos, ii, 194 - - Cuban fishes, i, 314 - - cubero, ii, 335 - - cuboid, i, 19 - - cub-shark, - figure of, i, 542 - - cuckold, ii, 417 - figure of, i, 373; ii, 416 - - cucugo, ii, 413 - - cultus cod, ii, 442 - figure of, ii, 440 - - Cunias, i, 541 - - cunner, ii, 387 - - Cunningham, - on eye of flounder, i, 176 - - Curimatus, ii, 162 - - cusk-eel, i, 187, 314; ii, 539 - figure of, ii, 520 - - cutlass-fishes, i, 149, 210; ii, 267 - figure of, ii, 268 - species of, ii, 472 - - cutthroat trout, ii, 95-97, 102, 104, 106 - - Cuvier, i, 103, 105, 400, 404, 428; ii, 39, 307 - Günther on, i, 400 - Lyman on, i, 401 - portrait of, i, 399 - - Cycleptus, ii, 173 - - Cycliæ, i, 204, 437, 462, 592, 593 - subclass of, i, 591 - - Cyclobatis, i, 557 - - Cycloganoidei, ii, 34 - - cycloid scales, i, 20, 22; ii, 39 - - Cycloidei, ii, 39 - - Cyclopterichthys, ii, 454 - - Cyclopteridæ, i, 198, 208 - family of, ii, 453 - - Cyclopterus, i, 391; ii, 453, 455 - figure of, i, 220; ii, 454 - - Cyclospondyli, i, 510, 543 - order of, i, 545 - - cyclospondylous, i, 49 - - cyclospondylous sharks, i, 549 - - Cyclostomata, i, 593 - - Cyclostomes, i, 113, 443, 486-505, 570, 596, 592, 617 - extinct forms, i, 487 - - Cyclostomi, i, 462, 584 - - Cyclothone, ii, 129 - - Cyclurus, ii, 36 - - Cymatogaster, ii, 376 - figure of, i, 125; ii, 372 - - Cymolutes, ii, 390 - - Cymothoa, i, 340 - - Cynoglossinæ, ii, 497 - - Cynoglossus, ii, 497 - - Cynoscion, i, 94, 324; ii, 107 - figure of, ii, 353 - - Cynthia, - figure of, i, 476 - - Cynthiidæ, i, 475 - - Cyprinidæ, i, 33, 46, 205, 230, 251, 285, 287, 290, 406; ii, 65, 161, - 162, 164-171 - fossil forms, ii, 174 - species of, ii, 165 - - Cyprinodon, ii, 198, 201 - figure of, ii, 196 - - Cyprinodontes, ii, 194 - - Cyprinodontidæ, i, 290 - - Cyprinus, i, 391; ii, 170, 174 - - Cypselurus, ii, 213 - figure of, i, 157, 440 - - Cyrthaspis, i, 575 - - Cyttoides, ii, 249 - - Cyttus, ii, 249 - - - dabonawa, i, 430 - - dace, i, 251; ii, 118, 162, 166, 168 - - Dactylagnus, ii, 506 - - Dactyloscopidæ, ii, 506 - - Dactyloscopus, ii, 506 - - daddy sculpin, ii, 445 - - Dalatias, i, 546 - - Dalatiidæ, i, 548 - - Daldorf, - on capture of Anabas, i, 163 - on climbing-fish, ii, 367 - - Dale, ii, 539 - - Dallia, i, 51 - figure of, i, 149; ii, 206 - - Dalliidæ, i, 290; ii, 206 - - Damalichthys, - figure of, ii, 374 - - damsel-fish, ii, 381 - figure of, ii, 382 - - Dapediidæ, ii, 25 - - Dapedium, - figure of, ii, 25 - - Dapedoglossus, ii, 56 - - darters, i, 209, 231, 300, 304; ii, 166, 306, 310-315 - - darter goby, - figure of, ii, 462 - - Darwin, i, 408 - on noises of catfish, i, 168 - - daruma-okose, ii, 436 - - Dasyatidæ, - family of, i, 555 - - Dasyatis, - figure of, i, 247, 556 - - Dasyscopelus, ii, 133 - - Davis, H. S., ii, 81, 84 - on chinook salmon, ii, 85 - - Davis, J. W., i, 426 - on fossil teeth, i, 525 - - Dawson, i, 427, 594 - - Day, i, 416; ii, 90, 92, 95 - on calling fishes, i, 168 - on electric eel, i, 170 - on grayling, ii, 121 - on Labyrinthici, ii, 365 - on sole, ii, 496, 497 - - day chub, - head of, figured, ii, 167 - - dealfish, ii, 477, 480 - figure of, ii, 478 - - Dean, i, 512, 591, 594, 595 - on Acanthodei, i, 517, 518 - on Arthrodira, i, 518, 588 - on Chimæras, i, 563 - on fin migration, i, 75 - on fossil forms, i, 422 - on lateral line, i, 23 - on lung-fish, i, 618 - on Ostracophores, i, 571 - portrait of, i, 417 - on sharks, i, 511, 531 - on Teleosts, i, 135 - - Deania, i, 546 - - deathfish, i, 183 - - Death Valley fish, - figure of, ii, 199 - - Decapterus, ii, 274 - - decurrent flounder, - figure of, i, 441 - - deep-sea angler, - figure of, ii, 548 - - deep-sea Chimæra, - figure of, i, 449 - - deep-sea fishes, i, 246, 247, 408; ii, 129 - - degenerate fishes, i, 210, 211, 216, 218 - - degeneration, - of eye, i, 220 - in fishes, i, 54 - in lamprey, i, 217 - of structure, i, 216 - in tunicates, i, 480 - - Delaroche, i, 95 - - Dekay, i, 418 - - Delfin, - on hagfishes, i, 489 - - Deltistes, ii, 172 - - Deltodus, i, 531 - - Dendrodus, i, 603 - - dentary, i, 606 - - Dentex, i, 94; ii, 338, 340 - - Dercetes, ii, 136 - - Dercetidæ, ii, 136, 137, 158 - - Derepodichthyidæ, ii, 520 - - Derichthyidæ, ii, 155 - - Derichthys, ii, 153 - figure of, ii, 156 - - Dermopteri, i, 486 - - Desmarest, i, 396 - - development, i, 217 - of bony fishes, i, 135 - Dean on, i, 135 - embryonic, i, 133 - of flounders, i, 144 - heredity in, i, 134 - of horsehead-fish, i, 148 - of paired fins, i, 66 - - devil ray, - figure of, i, 559 - - De Vis, i, 416 - - Devonian, - fishes, i, 436 - lamprey, i, 563 - sharks from, i, 65 - - Diabasis, i, 375 - - diablo, ii, 552 - - Dialarchus, ii, 448 - - Dialommus, i, 117 - - diamond, - fishes, ii, 398 - flounder, ii, 493 - snapper, ii, 337 - - Diaphus, ii, 133 - figure of, ii, 132 - - Dibothrium, 345 - figure of, ii, 103 - - Dibranchus, i, 207; ii, 552 - - Dicentrodus, i, 522 - - Dicentrarchus, i, 324; ii, 321, 330 - - dichotomous rays, i, 596 - - Dicranodus, i, 521 - - Dictyorhabdidæ, i, 565 - - Dictyorhabdus, i, 435, 565, 578 - - Dictyopyge, ii, 16 - - Dictyopygidæ, ii, 14 - - Dictyosoma, 512 - - Didemnidæ, i, 477 - - Didymaspis, i, 576 - - Didymodus, i, 521, 525 - - Dinematichthys, ii, 524 - - Dinichthyidæ, i, 587 - - Dinichthys, i, 587, 589 - figure of, i, 445, 584 - jaws of figured, i, 583 - - Diodon, i, 273, 393, 394 - figure of, i, 17; ii, 422 - - Diodontidæ, - family of, ii, 422 - - diœcious fishes, i, 124 - - diphycercal tail, i, 49, 81, 83, 84, 507, 513, 516, 598 - Boulenger on, i, 84 - Dollo on, i, 84 - - Diplacanthidæ, i, 517, 518 - - Diplacanthus, - figure of, i, 517 - - Diplectrum, ii, 329 - - Diplesion, - figure of, i, 247; ii, 312 - - Diplodus, ii, 347 - figure of, ii, 346 - - Diplognathus, i, 584, 589 - - Diplomystes, ii, 178 - - Diplomystidæ, ii, 178 - - Diplomystus, - figure of, i, 205, 453; ii, 52 - - Diploneumoni, i, 612, 619 - - Diploprion, ii, 327 - - Diplopterus, i, 82, 604 - - Diplospondyli, i, 509, 523 - - Diplurus, i, 605 - - Dipneusti, i, 405, 462, 582, 599, 601, 605, 607, 622, 624; ii, 4 - relationship of, i, 609, 610 - subclass of, i, 609-622 - - Dipnoans, i, 436, 512, 572, 582, 583; ii, 3, 8 - air-bladder in, i, 101 - classification of, i, 612 - ear sac in, i, 120 - figure of, i, 449 - pectoral fin in, i, 60 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 86, 88 - - Dipnoi, i, 77, 85, 89, 382 - - Diptera, ii, 306 - - Dipteridæ, i, 612 - - Dipterus, i, 612 - figure of, i, 437, 449 - - Discobatis, i, 553 - - Discocephali, ii, 459-480 - Gill on, ii, 470 - suborder of, ii, 468 - - diseases of fishes, i, 340-358 - contagious, i, 340 - parasitic, i, 342 - remedies for, i, 342 - - Dismal Swamp fish, - figure of, i, 116; ii, 201 - - dispersion of fishes, - Agassiz on, i, 284 - barriers to, i, 297, 310, 311 - causes of, i, 318 - Cope on, i, 286 - by floods, i, 301 - of fresh-water fishes, 282-296 - of river fishes, 297-319 - - dissection of the fish, i, 26-33 - - Distomidæ, i, 477 - - distribution of fishes, - affected by coast line, i, 247, 261 - agency of currents in, i, 242 - centers of, i, 243 - determined by temperature, i, 241 - of fresh-water forms, i, 249 - general laws of, i, 238 - of marine forms, i, 245 - Panama, barrier to, i, 266 - of shore fishes, i, 263-265 - Suez, barrier to, i, 266 - zones of, i, 249, 251, 252 - - Ditrema, ii, 375 - - Dittodus, i, 521, 525 - - doctor-fish, ii, 408 - - Döderlein, i, 411, 416 - - dogfishes, i, 519 - figure of, i, 545 - - dogoro, ii, 381 - - dog salmon, ii, 71-73, 80, 81 - - dog snapper, ii, 336 - - Dolichoglossus, i, 463 - - Doliolum, i, 479 - - dollar-fish, ii, 283 - - Dollo, i, 415, 427, 600, 601; ii, 502 - portrait of, i, 413 - on tail forms, i, 84 - - Dolloa, ii, 541 - - Dolly Varden trout, i, 305; ii, 112, 113 - figure of, i, 327; ii, 114 - - dolphins, i, 210; ii, 286, 362 - figure of, ii, 287 - - Doncella, - figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396 - - Donovan, i, 410 - - dorados, ii, 286 - figure of, ii, 287 - - Doras, ii, 183 - - Doratonotus, ii, 388 - - Dormeur, - figure of, ii, 460 - - Dormitator, - figure of, ii, 461 - - dorsal fin, i, 10, 603 - figured, i, 49 - - Dorosoma, i, 32, 300 - figure of, ii, 53 - - Dorosomatidæ, ii, 53 - - Dorosomidæ, i, 290 - - Doryichthys, ii, 236 - - Dorypteridæ, ii, 14-16 - - Dorypterus, ii, 15, 16 - - Draciscus, - figure of, ii, 452 - - Draconetta, ii, 506 - - Draconettidæ, ii, 506 - - dragonets, i, 246; ii, 504 - - drawing net at Milo, - photograph of, i, 281 - - Drepane, ii, 401 - - Drepanaspidæ, i, 574 - - Drepanaspis, i, 570 - figure of, i, 574 - - Drepanidæ, ii, 401 - - Drepaniodus, i, 488 - - drum, i, 290 - figure of, ii, 358 - - duck-billed eels, ii, 150, 151 - - Ductor, ii, 278 - - ducts, i, 28 - - ductus cholidechus, i, 32 - - Dufosse, - on air-bladder, i, 97 - - Dugès, i, 90, 420 - - Dugunonutatatori, ii, 472 - - Duméril, i, 398, 401 - - duodenum, i, 32 - - Dussumieriidæ, ii, 52 - - Dussumieria, ii, 52 - - Duverncy, i, 390 - - Duymæria, i, 260; ii, 390 - - dwarf, - herring, ii, 54 - perch, ii, 306 - salmon, ii, 117 - sunfish, ii, 467 - - Dybowsky, i, 411 - - Dynatobatis, i, 553 - - Dysommidæ, ii, 150 - - Dytiscus, ii, 144 - - - eagle ray, - figure of, i, 558 - - early writers on fishes, i, 272, 422, 423 - - earliest sharks, i, 436, 443 - - ear of fish, i, 119-121 - - ear sac, i, 119, 120 - - ear stones, i, 119 - - earthquakes, - fatal to fishes, i, 356; ii, 137 - - Eastman, i, 427, 428 - on Cestraciont shark, i, 529 - on Clastes, ii, 32 - on Neoceratodus, i, 619 - portrait of, i, 425 - on teeth of Edestus, i, 530 - - Ebisu, the god of fishes, ii, 344 - figure of, ii, 343 - - Ebisus, ii, 323 - - Echeneididæ, ii, 468, 470 - - Echeneis, i, 391; ii, 468, 470, 471 - - Echidna, i, 211; ii, 152, 153 - - Echidnocephalus, ii, 138 - - Echinorhinidæ, - family of, i, 547 - - Echinorhinus, i, 547 - - Echiodon, i, 84 - - economic fishes, i, 333 - - ectoblast, i, 152 - - ectocoracoid, i, 87 - - ectoderm, i, 139 - - ectopterygoid, i, 606 - - Edaphodon, i, 565 - - Edestus, - teeth of, figured, i, 529 - - eel-back flounder, - figure of, ii, 494 - - eel-fairs, ii, 142 - - eel-like fishes, ii, 137-158 - - eel-mother, ii, 144 - - eel-pouts, - figure of, ii, 518, 519 - - eels, i, 21, 210, 217, 268, 290; ii, 40, 44, 147, 153, 157 - Cope on, ii, 139 - Günther on, ii, 141 - larva of, figured, ii, 148 - migration of, ii, 142 - reproduction of, ii, 143 - species of, ii, 148 - shoulder-girdle in, ii, 142 - Woodward on, ii, 140 - - effects on distribution, - of shore line, i, 262 - of temperature, i, 149 - - Egerton, i, 423 - - Egertonia, ii, 396 - - eggs of fish, - artificial impregnation of, i, 150 - of bottle-nosed chimæra, i, 127 - care of, i, 128 - carrying of, i, 128, 171 - of Embiotocidæ, i, 127 - embryo of, i, 128 - fertilization of, i, 125 - figures of, i, 127 - germ disk in, i, 135 - hatching of, i, 125 - of herring, i, 125 - month incubation of, i, 170, 171 - transportation of, i, 171 - - Eichwald, i, 411, 427 - - Eigenmann, i, 415, 420; ii, 147, 148, 376 - on blind fishes, i, 117, 221, 222; ii, 202, 523 - on Nematognathi, ii, 178 - photograph by, i, 222 - portrait of, i, 417 - - Eigenmannia, ii, 187 - - eighteen-spined sculpin, - figure of, ii, 447 - - Ekström, i, 410 - - Elacate, ii, 282, 470, 471 - - Elagatis, ii, 274 - - Elanura, - figure of, ii, 444 - - Elasmobranchiates, i, 384 - - Elasmobranchii, i, 462, 507, 584; ii, 7 - - Elasmobranchs, i, 92, 102, 204, 506-522, 571, 583, 588, 589 - characters of, i, 506-508 - classification of, i, 507-510 - ear sac in, i, 120 - geological distribution of, i, 459 - notochord in, i, 57 - subclass of, i, 507 - - Elassoma, i, 290; ii, 296, 307, 467 - figure of, ii, 295 - - Elassomidæ, i, 290; ii, 296 - family of, ii, 295 - - elastic spring, i, 96 - - Elater, i, 582 - - electric catfish, - figure of, ii, 183 - - electric cells, i, 553 - - electric eel, i, 186; ii, 140 - Day on, i, 170 - - electric organs, i, 25, 186, 187 - - electrophores, ii, 187, 188 - - Electrophoridæ, ii, 187 - - Electrophorus, i, 170, 186 - - Eleotrids, ii, 460 - - Eleotris, i, 254 - figure of, ii, 460 - - Elera, i, 414 - - Eleginus, ii, 537 - - elephant sharks, i, 540 - figure of, i, 565 - - Elliott, - on trout, ii, 105 - - Elonichthys, ii, 14 - - Elopidæ, i, 43; ii, 35, 41-44 - - Elopopsis, ii, 43 - - Elops, i, 205, 393; ii, 43, 221 - figure of, i, 454; ii, 42 - - Embiotoca, i, 404 - - Embiotocidæ, i, 207, 290; ii, 373 - Agassiz on, i, 377-379 - anal fin in, i, 125 - viviparity of, i, 376, 377 - - Emblemaria, - figure of, ii, 510 - - embryo, i, 136, 138, 139 - - embryology and growth, i, 131-151 - - Embolichthys, ii, 522 - figure of, ii, 521 - - emerald-fish, ii, 462 - - Emery, i, 412; ii, 480, 481 - - Emmelichthys, i, 262; ii, 346, 347 - - Emmydrichthys, - figure of, i, 180; ii, 436 - - Empetrichthys, - figure of, ii, 199 - - Empo, ii, 137 - - Enantioliparis, ii, 455 - - Enchelurus, ii, 138 - - Enchelycephali, ii, 140, 141, 147, 152 - suborder of, ii, 142 - - Enchelynassa, ii, 153 - - Enchelyopus, - figure of, ii, 539 - - Enchodontidæ, ii, 136, 137 - - Enchodus, ii, 136 - - Endoskeleton, i, 439 - - Enedrias, ii, 512 - - Engraulididæ, ii, 54 - - Engraulis, i, 205; ii, 54 - - Enneacanthus, ii, 301 - - Enophrys, - figure of, ii, 443 - - Enoplosidæ, ii, 317 - - Enoplosus, i, 268; ii, 317 - - Enteropneusta, i, 457, 461, 462 - classification of, i, 464 - - entoderm, i, 138 - - Entosphenus, i, 490 - - entozoa, i, 348 - - Eocottus, ii, 449 - - Eomyrus, ii, 150 - - Eopsetta, i, 205; 491 - - Eothynnus, ii, 266 - - Epelasmia, ii, 397, 398 - - Eperlanus, ii, 123 - - Ephippidæ, ii, 400 - - Ephippus, i, 268; ii, 400 - - epiblast, ii, 5 - - Epigonichthys, i, 483 - - Epigonus, ii, 317 - - Epinephelus, i, 19; ii, 323, 330 - figure of, i, 20; ii, 324-326, 328 - - Epiphysis, i, 112 - figure of, i, 111 - - Eptatretidæ, i, 489 - - Eptatretus, i, 490 - figure of, i, 198 - - equatorial fishes, - specialization of, i, 248 - - equatorial zone, i, 251 - - Eques, ii, 357 - - Equula, ii, 287 - - Erebus, i, 408 - - Ereunias, - figure of, ii, 450 - - Ereuniidæ, ii, 449 - - Ericymba, - figure of, ii, 165 - - Erimyzon, i, 292; ii, 175 - figure of, i, 315; ii, 172 - - Eriptychius, i, 435, 603, 578 - - Erisichthe, ii, 34 - - Erismatopteridæ, ii, 242, 296 - - Erismatopterus, ii, 243 - figure of, ii, 242 - - Ernogrammus, ii, 513 - - Erosa, ii, 436 - - Erpetichthys, i, 204 - - Erpetoichthys, i, 450 - figure of, i, 608 - - Erpichthys, i, 608; ii, 510 - - Erythrichthys, ii, 347 - - Erythrinidæ, ii, 162 - - Erythrinus, ii, 160 - - escolars, ii, 267, 317 - - Esmarck, i, 410 - - Esmeralda, ii, 462 - - esmeralda de mar, - figure of, ii, 461 - - Esocidæ, i, 290; ii, 190, 192 - - Esox, i, 109, 253, 315, 327, 391; ii, 190, 194 - figure of, i, 328; ii, 192 - - Etelis, i, 262; ii, 338 - figure of, ii, 337 - - Etheostoma, i, 129, 283; ii, 310, 315 - figure of, i, 231; ii, 314 - - Etheostominæ, i, 230, 232; ii, 166, 306, 307, 310 - - ethmoid, ii, 142 - - Etmopterus, - figure of, i, 189, 546 - - etrumei-iwashi, ii, 52 - - Etrumeus, ii, 52 - - Eucalia, ii, 232 - - Eucitharus, - figure of, ii, 488 - - Eucinostomus, ii, 347 - - Eugnathidæ, ii, 26 - - eulachon, i, 321; ii, 19, 125, 126 - figure of, i, 320; ii, 124 - - Euleptorhamphus, ii, 212 - - Eumicrotremus, ii, 135 - - Euphaneropidæ, i, 576 - - Euphrosen, i, 396 - - Eupomotis, i, 283 - figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301 - - European chub, - pharyngeals of, i, 48 - teeth of, figured, ii, 164 - - European lancelet, - figure of, i, 120 - - European sculpin, - figure of, i, 219 - - European soles, ii, 496 - - Eurylepis, ii, 14 - - Eurynotus, - figure of, ii, 15 - - Eurypharyngidæ, ii, 156 - - Eurypharynx, ii, 156 - - Eurypholis, - figure of, ii, 136, 137 - - Euselachii, i, 532 - - Eusthenopteron, i, 603 - - Eutæniichthys, - figure of, ii, 467 - - Euthynotus, ii, 34 - - Evenchelys, ii, 153 - - Eventognathi, i, 405; ii, 160, 162 - - everglade minnow, - figure of, ii, 197 - - everglade pigmy perch, - figure of, ii, 295 - - Evermann, ii, 69, 100, 103, 354 - on Panama fishes, i, 274 - portrait of, i, 421 - on Two Ocean Pass, i, 307-310 - - Evermannellidæ, ii, 135 - - Evermannella, ii, 136 - - Eviota, ii, 460, 467 - - evolution of fishes, i, 223-225, 435-459 - Dean on, i, 223 - - Exerpes, - figure of, i, 276; ii, 511 - - Exocœtidæ, ii, 210, 211, 214 - - Exocœtoididæ, ii, 134 - - Exocœtoides, ii, 133 - - Exocœtus, i, 391; ii, 213 - - Exoglossum, - head of, figured, ii, 167 - - Exonautes, ii, 213 - - exoskeleton, i, 20 - - Exostoma, ii, 184 - - extension of Indian fauna, i, 267 - - exterior of fish, i, 16-25 - - external gills, - figure of, i, 78, 602 - Kerr on, i, 76 - Mauer on, i, 77 - Orr on, i, 77 - Rusconi on, i, 77 - - extinction of species, i, 240 - causes of, i, 241 - - Eyclesheimer, i, 428 - - Eydoux, i, 408 - - eye of fish, i, 119 - - eye of flounder, - in larval stage, i, 174 - migration of, i, 173-176 - Williams on, i, 174-178 - - eye-of-the-sea, ii, 361 - - - Faber, i, 396 - - Fabricius, i, 394 - - Facciola, i, 412 - - factors of extinction, i, 442 - - fading of pigment in spirits, i, 235 - - fair maid, ii, 344 - - fallfish, i, 311; ii, 167 - - fall-salmon, ii, 80 - - family, - definition of, i, 373 - - fan-tailed darter, ii, 315 - - Farquhar, - on Opah, ii, 244 - - fat cod, ii, 440 - - fat head, ii, 388 - - fatherlasher, ii, 445 - - faunal areas, - minor, i, 248 - of Japanese fishes, i, 257 - - faunal resemblances, i, 259, 260 - - faunal differences, i, 260, 261 - - favorable waters have most species, i, 301 - - fear in fishes, i, 163 - expressions of, i, 165 - - Felichthys, - figure of, ii, 179 - - fiatola, ii, 283 - - Fierasfer, i, 84; ii, 520 - figure of, i, 159; ii, 522, 523 - - Fierasferidæ, ii, 158, 522 - - fighting-fish, ii, 370 - of Siam, i, 163 - - filefish, ii, 413-415 - figure of, i, 182 - - filiform, i, 19 - - Filippi, i, 412 - - finfold, i, 63, 64 - Balfour's theory of, i, 69 - - fin migration, - Dean on, i, 75 - of Heterodontus, i, 75 - - finnan haddie, ii, 537 - - fins of fishes, - described, i, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25 - migration of, i, 75 - morphology of, i, 62-90 - origin of, i, 62 - - fin-spines, i, 528, 529; ii, 39 - of Hybodus, i, 528, 529 - of Onchus, figured, i, 509 - - Fischer, - on fishes of Panama, i, 275 - - Fish Commission, - fish stocking by, i, 346 - - fisheries, - economic, i, 337 - salmon, i, 81, 87 - - fishes, - in action, i, 11 - adaptation to environment, i, 156 - affection of, i, 167 - affected by temperature, i, 149 - age of, i, 144, 146 - air-bladder of, i, 12, 92, 93 - alimentary canal in, i, 31 - anadromous, i, 156, 160, 291 - anger of, i, 165 - in aquaria, i, 150, 165 - blood of, i, 11 - body form of, i, 16 - bones of, i, 10 - bony, i, 454, 506 - brain of, i, 12, 14, 109, 112 - breathing of, i, 5, 91, 103 - of British Museum, i, 402 - burrowing of, ii, 463, 465 - care of eggs by, i, 128 - catadromous, i, 162, 291 - catalogues of, i, 402 - channel, i, 291 - circulatory organs of, i, 26 - classification of, i, 367-386 - of Coal Measures, i, 223 - collecting of, i, 429 - color and coloration of, i, 6, 129, 226-236 - conditions of life of, i, 215 - of coral reefs, i, 235 - currents affecting, i, 243, 244 - deep sea, i, 408 - definition of, i, 3 - degeneration in, i, 54, 216, 218-220; ii, 547 - digestion and digestive organs of, i, 11, 26 - diœcious, i, 124 - dispersion of, i, 318 - diseases of, i, 340-358 - dissection of, i, 26, 27 - distortion in, i, 129 - distribution of, i, 237-255, 435 - domestication of, i, 149, 151 - ear of, i, 8, 119-121 - earliest forms of, i, 443 - eggs of, i, 125-135 - electric organs of, i, 25; ii, 187 - embryology of, i, 131-151 - evolution in, i, 223, 435-459 - exterior of, i, 16-25 - extinct, i, 224 - eye of, i, 6, 119 - eye-stalks of, ii, 466 - face of, i, 5 - fins of, i, 9, 10, 24 - flight of, i, 167 - flow of blood in, i, 107 - as food for man, i, 320-339 - food of, i, 11, 29 - form of, i, 4 - fossil, i, 422-428 - fresh-water, i, 250 - gall-bladder in, i, 26 - generalized forms of, i, 224 - gills of, i, 92 - growth of, i, 30, 144 - habits of, i, 152 - hearing of, i, 8, 119 - heart of, i, 11, 28, 106 - herbivorous, i, 30, 155; ii, 364 - hermaphrodite, i, 124 - homologies of bones in, i, 34 - hybridism in, i, 144 - instincts of, i, 154 - intestines of, i, 33 - intromittent organ in, i, 124 - with jugular fins, i, 456 - kidneys of, i, 11, 28 - killed by earthquakes, i, 356 - Labyrinthine, ii, 365 - larval forms, i, 142, 620, 621 - lateral line of, i, 9 - life cycle of, i, 3-5, 152 - lowland, i, 291 - luminous organs of, i, 188-190 - lungs of, i, 98 - measurements of, i, 19 - migration of, i, 160 - monstrosities among, i, 151 - mortality among, i, 357 - mountain, i, 291 - mouth of, i, 29 - muscles of, i, 25 - mythology of, i, 359 - naturalization of, i, 150 - nerves of, i, 12, 14, 109, 113; ii, 368 - nests and nest-building of, i, 15, 167, 128; ii, 184, 229-231 - noises of, i, 121, 168 - nostril of, i, 6 - nuptial colors in, i, 155, 156 - nutrition organs of, i, 29 - organs of, - locomotion, i, 24 - phosphorescence, i, 194 - reproduction, i, 28, 124-130 - sense, i, 115-123 - sight, i, 6, 116 - smell, i, 115 - taste, i, 121 - touch, i, 122 - ovaries, i, 26 - oviparous, i, 125 - ovoviviparous, i, 125 - pain, sense of, in, i, 123 - parasites of, i, 340-344 - parasitic, i, 198 - pectoral limb of, i, 50 - pelagic, i, 156 - pineal eye in, i, 111 - poisonous, i, 180-185, 236; ii, 177, 411, 413, 421, 433,436, 526 - postembryonic development, i, 132 - posterior limbs of, i, 53 - preservation of, i, 431 - problem of highest, i, 383 - protection of young by, i, 128 - pugnacity of, i, 162 - recognition marks in, i, 7, 232, 236 - records of, i, 433 - scales of, i, 20 - sensitiveness to change, i, 150 - sexual modifications in, i, 129 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 50, 52 - skeleton of, i, 10, 214, 215 - specialization in, i, 219, 220, 224, 249; ii, 438 - spinal cord of, i, 112 - spineless, i, 25 - spiral valve in, i, 32 - tail of, i, 49 - teeth of, i, 5, 29 - tenacity of life in, i, 146, 147 - timidity of, i, 166 - tongue of, i, 6, 31 - upland, i, 291 - variety in tropics, i, 333 - viscera of, i, 26 - viviparous, i, 125; ii, 376 - voices of, i, 121 - where found, i, 158, 159 - zeoid, ii, 245 - - fishes as food, i, 320-339 - - fishes of Panama, - Evermann on, i, 274 - Fischer on, i, 275 - Günther on, i, 272, 273 - Hill on, i, 277 - Upham on, i, 276 - Wright on, i, 275 - - fish faunas, - genera in, i, 262, 263 - Indian, i, 267 - of Japan, i, 255, 256, 259 - of Mediterranean, i, 259 - of Panama, i, 267 - separated by barriers, i, 255-281 - - fish fighting, i, 162 - - fish god of Japan, - figure of, ii, 343 - - fish guano, i, 538 - - Fish-Hawk, the, i, 408; ii, 147 - - fishing, - apparatus for, i, 335 - for ayu, i, 333 - for tai, figured, i, 338 - with cormorants, i, 333, 335 - methods of, i, 334 - - fishing-frog, i, 202; ii, 542 - capture of prey by, i, 169 - figure of, i, 18; ii, 545, 550 - - fish-like vertebrates, i, 34 - - fish of Paradise, ii, 369 - - Fistularia, i, 85, 393; ii, 233, 390 - shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227 - - Fistulariidæ, ii, 227 - family of, ii, 233 - - Flammeo, ii, 254 - - flashers, ii, 331 - - flatfish family, i, 177; ii, 48 - - flatheads, ii, 441 - - Flesus, ii, 493 - - Fleurieu's whirlpool, ii, 242 - - flier, ii, 297 - - flight of fishes, i, 157 - - Floeberg, ii, 110 - - Florida jewfish, - figure of, ii, 323 - - Florida lion-fish, - figure of, ii, 433 - - flounder, i, 117, 178, 203, 440; ii, 483-485, 488, 493, 494 - development of, i, 144 - diamond, ii, 493 - eel-back, ii, 493 - eyes of, i, 118, 174-178 - frog, ii, 493 - lantern, ii, 488 - larval form, i, 176; ii, 483, 484 - migration of eye, figured, ii, 484 - newly hatched, figured, i, 177 - osteology of, ii, 484 - peacock, ii, 488 - pole, ii, 494 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2 - starry, ii, 493 - tail of, figured, ii, 486 - vertebræ in, i, 205 - wide-eyed, ii, 488 - wide-eyed, figured, i, 175 - young, figured, i, 175; ii, 482 - - flower of the surf, - figure of, ii, 218 - - flow of blood in fish, i, 107 - - flukes, ii, 494 - - flying-fish, ii, 211-214 - figure of, i, 157, 341, 440 - parasites of, i, 342 - - flyfish, ii, 429 - - flying gurnard, ii, 456, 458 - figure of, i, 457 - - flying robin, ii, 458 - - Fodiator, - figure of, ii, 213 - - food-fishes, - abundance of, i, 329 - relative rank of, i, 320 - - food of lampreys, i, 491 - - foolfishes, i, 206; ii, 413 - - Foot-notes to Evolution, - reference to, i, 302 - - foramen, i, 92 - - forelle, i, 327 - - Forcipiger, ii, 404 - - Forgy, - on oarfish, ii, 473 - - Forbes, i, 419 - on fish epidemics, i, 340 - - formalin, - as preservative, i, 432 - - Forskål, i, 394 - - Forster, i, 395 - - fossil capelin, ii, 126, 127 - - fossil darters, ii, 315 - - fossil fishes, i, 205; ii, 48, 52, 53, 56, 174 - Agassiz on, i, 422, 423 - Dean on, i, 422 - earliest forms, i, 568 - figure of, i, 436, 454; ii, 47, 59 - first period of, i, 423 - from Green River, ii, 59 - morphological work on, i, 427 - second period, i, 424 - study of, i, 424 - third period, i, 427 - - fossil gobies, ii, 467 - - fossil herring, - figure of, i, 453; ii, 52 - - fossil trout, ii, 62, 118 - - four-eyed fish, - figure of, i, 117 - - four-spined stickleback, - figure of, ii, 232 - - Fowler, i, 422 - - fox shark, i, 536 - - Frère Jacques, ii, 255 - - fresh-water eels, ii, 149 - - fresh-water fishes, i, 209; ii, 157, 160, 161 - dispersion of, i, 282-296 - distribution of, i, 249 - Günther on, i, 249 - of Japan, i, 256 - of North America, i, 290 - - fresh-water minnows, i, 33 - - fresh-water perch, - figure of, ii, 373 - - Friar Odoric, - on fear in fishes, i, 166 - - Fries, i, 410 - - frilled shark, i, 361, 516 - figure of, i, 525 - - Fritsch, i, 427, 428, 512 - - frog, - arm of, figured, i, 601 - - frogfish, i, 197; ii, 549 - figure of, ii, 551 - - frog flounder, ii, 493 - - frostfish, ii, 537 - - Fucus, ii, 512 - - Fullarton, i, 177 - - function of lateral line, i, 23 - - Fundulus, ii, 194, 199 - figure of, i, 198 - - fur seal, - food of, ii, 127, 537 - - - Gadidæ, i, 290; ii, 522, 533 - - Gadopsidæ, ii, 516 - - Gadus, i, 209, 391 - figure of, i, 331; ii, 533 - - Gazza, ii, 287 - - gaff-topsail cat, - figure of, ii, 179 - - Gaidropsarus, i, 209; ii, 539 - - Gaimard, i, 406 - - galafata, ii, 413 - - Galaxias, i, 223, 252, 253, 254 - Boulenger on, ii, 204, 205 - - Galaxiidæ, - family of, ii, 204 - - Galei, i, 532 - - Galeidæ, i, 540 - - Galeichthys, i, 128, 242, 271, 273; ii, 178 - figure of, ii, 179 - - Galeocerdo, i, 541, 542 - - Galeoid sharks, i, 519 - - Galeorhinidæ, i, 532, 540 - - Galeorhinus, i, 454 - - Galeus, - figure of, i, 541 - - gall-bladder, i, 26 - - galliwasp, ii, 130 - - galo, ii, 394 - - Gambusia, i, 64, 66, 67; ii, 199 - - Ganocephala, i, 85, 86 - - Ganoidei, i, 444, 599, 616; ii, 2, 3, 13 - - Ganoids, i, 22, 38, 88, 91, 139, 157, 159, 186, 204, 384, 569, 622; ii, - 1-36 - Agassiz on, ii, 9 - air-bladder in, i, 109 - classification of, ii, 13 - Gill on, ii, 9 - as a group, ii, 4, 9 - - ganoid fish, i, 582 - figure of, i, 452, 453 - - Garden, i, 390 - - Garibaldi, - figure of, i, 227; ii, 382 - - garfish, ii, 147, 210, 211 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 59 - - Garman, i, 405, 408, 420; ii, 183 - on blind fish, ii, 202 - on frilled shark, i, 525 - on Sunapee trout, ii, 109 - - garpike, i, 290; ii, 30-32 - figure of, ii, 27 - fossil, ii, 32 - tail of, i, 82 - vertebræ of, i, 48 - - garrupa, ii, 323 - - gaspergou, ii, 354 - - Gasteronemus, ii, 288 - figure of, ii, 289 - - Gasterosteidæ, i, 128, 290 - family of, ii, 228, 232 - - Gasterosteus, i, 161, 172, 391; ii, 229, 231, 236 - Lord on, ii, 230 - figure of, ii, 232 - - Gastrostomus, - figure of, ii, 156 - - gastrula, i, 131, 132 - - Gaudry, - on leptocercal tail, i, 84 - - Gay, i, 415 - - Gegenbaur, i, 428, 511, 512, 591, 594, 601 - on archipterygium, i, 60 - on morphology, i, 68 - on pectoral fin, i, 67 - theory of, i, 73 - - Gempylidæ, - family of, ii, 267 - - Gempylus, ii, 267 - - general laws, - of development, i, 133 - of distribution, i, 239 - - generalization and specialization, i, 380 - - genital organs, i, 124 - - genus, i, 375 - definition of, i, 372 - - Genyonemus, ii, 356 - - Genypterus, ii, 520 - - geographical distribution, i, 237-259 - of sharks, charted, i, 459 - - geological evidence of submergence, i, 268 - - Geophagus, ii, 381 - - Geotria, i, 491 - - Gephyrura, ii, 201 - - Gephyroberyx, ii, 252 - - gephyrocercal tail, i, 84, 604 - figure of, i, 85 - - German carp, ii, 175 - - germ-cells, i, 124 - - Germo, 210; ii, 262, 266 - figure of, ii, 263 - - Gerres, i, 271, 273 - figure of, ii, 349 - - Gerridæ, i, 206; ii, 372 - family of, ii, 347 - - Gervais, i, 408 - - ghost-fishes, ii, 150, 516 - - giant bass, ii, 324 - - Gibbes, i, 426 - - Gibbons, i, 419 - on Embiotocidæ, ii, 377 - - Gibbonsia, - figure of, ii, 508 - - gibbus, ii, 45 - - Gigactinidæ, ii, 551 - - Giglioli, i, 412 - - Gila, i, 304; ii, 169 - - Gilbert, i, 408, 415, 420; ii, 239 - on Astroscopus, i, 187 - on coracoid plate, ii, 206 - on flight of fishes, i, 157 - on island forms, i, 240 - on larval forms, i, 142 - portrait of, i, 421 - - Gilbertidia, ii, 441, 447, 449 - figure of, ii, 451 - - Gill, i, 408, 419, 448, 528, 591, 594, 600; ii, 24, 34, 40, 52, 317, - 365, 366, 502, 511 - on anglers, ii, 543 - on Discocephali, ii, 470, 471 - on eels, ii, 143, 156 - on high and low forms, i, 383 - on work of Lacépède, i, 398 - on New Zealand fauna, i, 252 - on paired limbs, i, 85 - portrait of, i, 407 - on Selachii, i, 509 - on shoulder-girdle, i, 86-89 - sketch of, i, 405 - on soles, ii, 496 - on swallowers, ii, 360, 361 - on tilefish, ii, 361, 362 - - gill, - arches, i, 45, 91, 508 - basket, figured, i, 92, 485 - covers, i, 44 - filaments, i, 107 - offices of, i, 11 - openings, i, 91 - rakers, i, 31, 46 - septum, i, 73 - slits, i, 508 - - Gillellus, ii, 506 - - Gillichthys, ii, 462 - figure of, ii, 463 - - Gillicus, ii, 48 - - Ginglymodi, ii, 24, 30 - - Ginglymostoma, i, 533 - - Ginglymostomidæ, i, 533 - - Girard, i, 405, 419; ii, 378, 379 - - girdle in Dipnoans, i, 86 - - Girella, ii, 348 - - gisu, ii, 46 - - gizzard-shad, i, 290; ii, 51, 53 - - glacial epoch, - effect on dispersion, i, 316 - - Glaucosoma, ii, 323, 340 - - Glandiceps, i, 465 - - Glanencheli, ii, 187 - - glassy darter, ii, 313 - - glenoid, i, 90 - - Glesnæs oarfish, ii, 472 - figure of, i, 363 - - globefishes, i, 197, 440, 455; ii, 419 - figure of, i, 244; ii, 422 - - Globulodus, ii, 15 - - Glossobalanus, - figure of, i, 464 - larva of, figured, i, 463 - - glut-herring, ii, 50 - - Glyphisodon, i, 267 - figure of, ii, 383 - - Glyptocephalus, i, 206; ii, 494 - - Glyptolepis, i, 603 - - Glyptopomus, i, 604 - - Gmelin, i, 395, 397 - - Gnathanacanthidæ, ii, 514 - - Gnathodentex, ii, 341 - - Gnathonemus, - figure of, ii, 189 - - Gnathostomata, i, 78 - - Gnathostomes, i, 35, 572, 573 - - Gnathostomi, i, 508, 570 - - Gnathypops, - figure of, ii, 359 - - goatfish, i, 198; ii, 351, 379 - figure of, i, 122 - - gobies, i, 428; ii, 459 - - Gobiesox, ii, 529, 530, 531 - - Gobiidæ, i, 22, 206, 290; ii, 306 - family of, ii, 459 - - Gobius, i, 208, 273, 391; ii, 461, 467 - - Gobio, ii, 167, 175 - - Gobioides, ii, 467 - - Gobioidea, ii, 470 - - Gobioidei, 11, 459-480 - suborder of, ii, 459 - - Gobiomorus, - figure of, i, 160 - - Gobionellus, i, 208 - figure of, ii, 461 - - Gobiosoma, i, 313; ii, 462 - - goblin sharks, - figures of, i, 535 - - goby, i, 290; ii, 462, 466 - - gofu, ii, 434 - figure of, i, 229 - - goggler, ii, 275 - - golden, - shiner, ii, 167 - goldsinny, ii, 387 - surmullet, - figure of, i, 322; ii, 352 - trout, ii, 99 - - goldfish, ii, 170, 171 - of Japan, i, 151 - - Gomphosus, ii, 390 - - Goniistius, ii, 363 - - Goniognathus, ii, 287 - - Gonioplectrus, ii, 323 - - Gonorhynchidæ, ii, 54-56 - - Gonorhynchus, ii, 56 - - Gonostoma, ii, 129 - - Gonostomidæ, ii, 129 - - Gonzalez, i, 414 - - Goodea, ii, 199, 201 - figure of, i, 126; ii, 200 - with young, figured, i, 126 - - Goodsira, i, 476 - - goody, ii, 356 - - goosefish, ii, 545 - - Gorbuscha, ii, 73 - - Goode, i, 408, 419; ii, 307, 308 - on albacore, ii, 267 - on American fisheries, i, 335 - on codfish, ii, 534 - estimate of herring product, i, 330 - on fishing-frog, ii, 545 - on habits of mullets, ii, 219, 220 - on mackerel, ii, 260, 264, 265 - on menhaden, ii, 51 - portrait of, i, 407 - on swordfish, ii, 270 - - Gordiichthys, i, 211; ii, 153 - - Gordius, ii, 143, 144 - - Gosfordia, i, 613 - - Gosse, i, 415 - - Gouan, i, 397 - - gatasami, ii, 361 - - Gottsche, i, 428 - - goujon, ii, 182 - - gourami, ii, 369 - - gouramy, - nest of, i, 167 - - Grammicolepidæ, - family of, ii, 249 - - Grammicolepis, ii, 249 - - Grammistes, ii, 330 - - grande écaille, - figure of, ii, 43 - - Granodus, i, 565 - - Grantea, ii, 544 - - Graphiurus, i, 605 - - Grassi, i, 428 - - grass rockfish, ii, 429 - - Gray, i, 416 - - grayling, i, 150, 305; ii, 120-138 - - gray snapper, ii, 335 - figure of, ii, 334 - - Great Basin, - chub of, i, 287 - dispersion of fishes in, i, 316 - fishes of, i, 302 - - great blue cat, ii, 180 - - great oarfish, ii, 472 - - Greeley, i, 422 - - Green, - on Sacramento perch, i, 179 - - green-backed trout, ii, 104 - figure of, ii, 105 - - green cod, ii, 537 - - Greene, - on Porichthys, i, 190-197; ii, 526 - - greenfish, ii, 348 - - Greenland char, ii, 109 - - Greenland halibut, ii, 491 - - Greenland shark, i, 547 - - greenling, ii, 439 - figure of, ii, 440 - - green mackerel, - figure of, ii, 275 - - Green River shales, i, 205; ii, 52, 57-59 - - green rockfish, ii, 429 - - green-sided darter, - figure of, i, 247; ii, 312 - - green wrasse, ii, 387 - - Gregarinidia, i, 242 - - grenadier, i, 84; ii, 540 - figure of, ii, 541 - - grilse, ii, 91 - - grindle, ii, 35 - - griset, - figure of, i, 523 - - Gronias, ii, 181 - - Gronovius, i, 390 - - groupers, ii, 323 - - grubby, ii, 446 - - grunt, i, 239 - figure of, ii, 340 - - grunters, ii, 340 - - gruntfishes, i, 121 - - Grystes, i, 302 - - Guacamaia, ii, 394 - figure of, i, 330 - - guahu, ii, 266 - - guasa, ii, 323 - - guavina de rio, ii, 459 - figure of, ii, 460 - - Guaymas, - fishes of, i, 274 - - gudgeon, i, 122; ii, 167 - - Guichenot, i, 412, 415 - - guipo, ii, 512 - - guitar-fishes, i, 550 - figure of, i, 551 - - gular plate, i, 43; ii, 33 - - Güldenstadt, i, 395 - - Gulf Stream, i, 239 - deep-sea fish of, i, 276 - - gulper-eel, ii, 156 - - gulpers, ii, 155 - - gunnel, - figure of, ii, 512 - - Gunner, i, 396; ii, 245 - - Günther, i, 88, 255, 259, 404; ii, 3, 95, 135, 161, 183, 229, 371 - on archipterygium, i, 60 - on Barramunda, i, 615 - catalogue of, i, 402 - on work of Cuvier, i, 400 - on deep-sea fishes, ii, 136 - on dispersion, i, 289 - on eels, ii, 141 - on electrophores, ii, 188 - estimate of eggs by, i, 128 - on fishes of Panama, i, 272, 273 - on Lepidosteus, ii, 5 - on month gestation, i, 173 - on pain in fishes, i, 123 - on poison glands, i, 180; ii, 527-529 - portrait of, i, 403 - on respiration, i, 91 - on salmon, ii, 92 - on sea-devils, ii, 547 - on trout, ii, 94 - on variation in vertebræ, i, 210 - on zones of distribution, i, 249, 251 - - gunwale, ii, 512 - - Gurley, - on parasitic diseases, i, 342 - - gurnard, i, 122, 198, 208, 209; ii, 456 - - gurry shark, i, 547 - - Gymnarchidæ, ii, 188 - - Gymnarchus, ii, 188 - - Gymnelis, i, 209; ii, 519 - - Gymnocanthus, ii, 448 - - Gymnocephalus, ii, 241, 310 - - Gymnodontes, ii, 398, 411, 418, 422 - - Gymnosarda, ii, 262 - - Gymnothorax, i, 211, 274; ii, 152 - figure of, i, 458; ii, 154, 155 - - Gymnonoti, ii, 159-161, 188 - order of, ii, 187 - - Gymnotidæ, ii, 187 - - Gymnotus, i, 391 - - Gyrinidæ, ii, 222 - - Gyrodus, - figure of, ii, 22 - - Gyrolepis, ii, 14 - - Gyrosteus, ii, 18 - - Gyroptychius, i, 82 - figure of, i, 604 - - - habits of fishes, i, 152 - - haddock, ii, 537 - figure of, ii, 536 - skull of, figured, ii, 536 - - Hadrodus, ii, 22 - - Hadropterus, i, 300 - figure of, ii, 311 - - haë, ii, 117, 118 - - Hæckel, i, 411, 511 - on origin of fins, i, 62 - - hæmal arch, ii, 6 - - Hæmapophyres, i, 48 - - Hæmulidæ, i, 206; ii, 340, 342, 359 - family of, ii, 340 - - Hæmulon, i, 121, 238, 271, 274, 375 - figure of, ii, 340 - - hagfishes, i, 28, 488 - Delfin on feeding of, i, 489 - egg of, figured, i, 127 - figure of, i, 199, 489 - and lampreys, i, 189 - - hair-worm, ii, 144 - - hake, ii, 136, 539, 540 - isocercal tail of, i, 83 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 60 - - hakone dace, i, 257 - - Haldeman, i, 419 - - Halec, ii, 33, 136 - - Halecomorphi, ii, 13, 23, 24, 29, 35 - order of, ii, 33 - - half-beak, - figure of, ii, 212 - - half-moon fish, ii, 350 - - halibut, 128; ii, 149, 489, 491 - figure of, i, 332; ii, 492 - fishery, ii, 490 - - Halichœres, i, 207, 257, 297; ii, 180, 388-390 - figure of i, 297; ii, 396 - - Halientichthys, ii, 552 - - Hallock, - on black bass, ii, 302 - on Esox, ii, 192 - - Halosauridæ, ii, 158 - - Halosaurus, ii, 138 - - Hamilton, i, 416 - - hammerhead shark, i, 543 - figure of, i, 544 - - Hancock, i, 415 - - handsaw-fish, ii, 135 - - Hansen, - on Chinook salmon, ii, 85 - - Haplistia, i, 602 - - Haplochiton, ii, 128 - - Haplochitonidæ, ii, 129, 204 - - Haplodoci, ii, 499 - sub order of, ii, 525 - - Haplomi, i, 405; ii, 34, 40, 41, 129, 188-207, 224, 250 - mesocoracoid arch in, ii, 189 - ventral fin, i, 67 - - Haplopagrus, i, 271 - - hard-tails, ii, 169 - - Hardwicke, - on affection in fishes, i, 167 - - harelip-sucker, ii, 174 - - Harengula ii, 51 - - Harpagiferidæ, ii, 501 - - Harpodon, ii, 131 - - Harrimania, - figure of, i, 465 - - Harrimaniidæ, - family of, i, 465 - low organization of, i, 465 - - Harriottia, i, 199, 566 - figure of, i, 449 - - harvest-fish, ii, 283 - figure of, i, 18; ii, 284 - - Hasse, i, 428, 543 - on Elasmobranchs, i, 509 - on ossicles, i, 96 - on sharks, i, 509, 530, 561 - - Hasselquist, i, 389 - - Hatta, i, 418 - - Hauy, i, 397 - - Hawaii, - fish fauna of, i, 243 - - Hay, i, 419, 427, 581; ii, 4 34, 36 - on fossil eels, ii, 22 - on Pycnodonti, ii, 22 - on varieties of sharks, i, 528, 529 - - hazé, ii, 118 - - headfishes, i, 19, 84, 206 - figure of, ii, 424 - larva of, figured, i, 143 - - headlight-fish, - figure of, i, 188; ii, 132 - - Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348 - Linton on, i, 348-350 - - heart of the fish, i, 106 - - Hector, i, 416 - - Helicolemus, i, 259; ii, 429, 432 - - Helicoprion, - teeth of, figured, i, 530 - - Heller, i, 422 - - Helodus, i, 531 - - Helostoma, ii, 370 - - Helostomidæ, ii, 370 - - Hemerocœtidæ, ii, 506 - - Hemianthias, ii, 330 - - Hemibranchii, ii, 40, 157, 209, 227-240 - sub order of, ii, 227 - - Hemichordata, i, 461 - - Hemicyclaspis, i, 576 - - Hemiexocœtus, ii, 213 - - Hemigymnus, ii, 390 - - Hemilepidotus, ii, 442 - figure of, ii, 443 - - Hemipteronotus, ii, 390 - - Hemiramphus, ii, 214, 268 - figure of, ii, 212 - - Hemiscylliidæ, i, 533 - - Hemitripterus, i, 595; ii, 441 - figure of, i, 220; ii, 448 - - Heniochus, ii, 404 - - Henle, i, 405 - - Henshall, - on black bass, ii, 302 - - Henshaw, ii, 523 - photograph by, i, 281 - - hepatic sinus, i, 108 - - Heptadiodon, ii, 423 - - Heptanema, i, 605 - - Heptatrema, i, 490 - - Heptranchias, i, 447, 509, 536 - pectoral fin in, figured, i, 57 - skull of, i, 56 - teeth of, figured, i, 524 - - Herald, i, 408 - - Herbert, - on lake trout-fishing, ii, 115 - - herbivorous fishes, i, 30; ii, 364 - - Herdmania, i, 474 - - hermaphrodite fish, i, 124 - - Heros, i, 314; ii, 381 - - Herpetichthys, i, 608 - - herring, i, 21, 204, 290, 429, 440; ii, 33, 38, 43, 46, 49, 52, 73, - 123, 159 - figure of, i, 331; ii, 48 - Goode on, i, 330 - product of, i, 330 - - Hertwig, i, 112 - - Herzenstein, i, 411 - - Heterandria, i, 314; ii, 194, 201, 467 - - Heterobranchus, ii, 186 - - heterocercal tail, i, 49, 507, 513, 516, 602 - of Acipenser, figured, i, 80 - of Amia, figured, i, 82 - of garpike, figured, i, 82 - of Lepisosteus, figured, i, 82 - of Salmo, i, 83 - of sturgeon, figured, i, 80 - of young trout, i, 83 - - Heterocongridæ, ii, 150 - - Heterodontus, i, 128, 447, 536 - eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527 - figure of, i, 75, 526 - lower jaw, figured, i, 526 - pectoral fin of, figured, i, 57 - - Heterodontidæ, i, 65, 127, 447, 511, 523, 529, 530, 545 - family of, i, 527 - - Heterognathi, ii, 161, 162 - - Heteromi, i, 405, 611; ii, 12 138, 532 - order of, ii, 157 - - Heteropleuron, i, 483 - - Heterostichus, ii, 507 - - Heterosomata, ii, 247, 481-498 - - Heterosteus, i, 586 - - Heterostraci, i, 568, 571, 622; ii, 13 - order of, i, 573 - - Heterotis, ii, 56 - - Hexagrammidæ, ii, 442, 501 - family of, ii, 439 - organs of smell in, i, 115 - - Hexagrammos, i, 257; ii, 107, 439 - figure of, ii, 440 - - Hexanchidæ, i, 509, 528 - family of, i, 524 - - Hexanchus, i, 447, 524 - figure of, i, 523 - - hickory shad, - figure of, ii, 53 - - high and low forms, - Agassiz on, i, 380, 381 - Gill on, i, 383 - Traquair on, i, 381, 382 - - Hilgendorf, i, 411, 416 - portrait of, i, 417 - - Hilgendorfia, ii, 455 - - Hill, i, 415 - conclusions of, i, 277, 279 - - Himantolophus, ii, 549 - - hinalea, i, 158 - - hingio, ii, 128 - - Hiodon, i, 291, 394; ii, 45, 46 - figure of, ii, 45 - - Hiodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 45 - - Hippocampus, i, 19; ii, 236 - figure of, i, 17, 250; ii, 238 - - Hippoglossinæ, ii, 489 - - Hippoglossoides, i, 205; ii, 491 - - Hippoglossus, i, 205, 329; ii, 489 - figure of, i, 332; ii, 492 - - hirondelle, i, 408; ii, 60 - - His, i, 428 - - Histiopteridæ, ii, 398 - - Histiopterus, i, 260; ii, 333 - - Histiothrissa, ii, 52 - - history of ichthyology, i, 387-428 - - Hoffman, i, 412; ii, 546 - - hog-choker, - figure of, ii, 496 - - hogfish, ii, 388 - figure of, ii, 387 - - Holacanthus, ii, 403 - figure of, ii, 404, 405 - skeleton of, figured, i, 214 - - Holbrook, i, 419 - - Holcolepis, - figure of, i, 454; ii, 43 - - Holconoti, ii, 365, 379, 380 - suborder of, ii, 372 - - Holconotus, i, 404; ii, 375 - - Holden, ii, 291 - - Holder, ii, 409, 474 - on oarfish, ii, 474 - - Holostei, i, 624; ii, 24 - - Holotrachys, ii, 256 - - Hollard, i, 412 - - Hollardia, ii, 412 - - Holocentridæ, - family of, ii, 253 - - Holocentrus, i, 267; ii, 253, 255 - figure of, ii, 254 - - Holocephali, i, 448, 508, 519, 520, 561-567 - - Holopterus, ii, 41 - - Holoptychiidæ, i, 602, 603, 624 - - Holoptychius, - basal fin of, figured, i, 603 - dorsal fin of, figured, i, 49 - figure of, i, 451 - - Holostomi, ii, 140, 141 - - Holothurian, ii, 522 - Fierasfer issuing from, i, 159 - - Holurus, ii, 14 - - Homalopteridæ, ii, 176 - - Hombron, i, 408 - - Home, i, 396 - - Homistius, i, 586 - - homocercal tail, i, 49, 81-83, 602 - figure of, i, 84 - of flounder, i, 84 - - homologies, - of bones, i, 34, 35 - of pectoral limb, i, 85 - - Homonotus, ii, 253 - - homoplasy, i, 296 - - Homosoma, ii, 283 - - Hooker, - on fishes prey of birds, i, 166 - - Hoplias, ii, 162 - - Hoplichthyidæ, ii, 441 - - Hoplichthys, ii, 441 - - Hoplopagrus, i, 271 - - Hoplopteryx, - figure of, i, 438; ii, 253 - - Hoplostethus, i, 260, 263; ii, 252 - - Hoppin, - on blind fish, ii, 202, 203 - - Hornbaum-Hornschuch, ii, 144 - - horn-dace, i, 122, 283; ii, 167 - figure of, i, 285; ii, 168 - - horned pout, ii, 35, 180 - figure of, ii, 181 - - horned trunkfish, i, 374 - figure of, i, 373, 376; ii, 416 - - hornfish, ii, 412 - - hornless trunkfish, i, 378; ii, 418 - face view of, i, 379 - figure of, i, 378; ii, 416 - - horse-eye-jack, ii, 276 - - horsehead-fish, ii, 276 - figure of, i, 148 - - horse-mackerel, ii, 135 - figure of, ii, 274 - - horseshoe-crab, - figure of, i, 572 - - Houttuyn, i, 394, 416 - - how fish cross watersheds, i, 306 - - how fishes breathe, i, 91 - - how to secure fish, i, 429 - - Hoy, i, 419; ii, 64 - - huchen, ii, 106 - - Hucho, i, 253; ii, 62, 106 - figure of, ii, 107 - - Humboldt, i, 410 - on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95 - - humpback salmon, ii, 68, 72, 80 - figure of, ii, 70, 72 - - humpback sucker, ii, 174 - - humpback whitefish, ii, 65 - - Hutton, i, 416 - - Huxley, i, 424, 428, 593, 601; ii, 3 - on herring product, i, 330 - on Lepidostei, ii, 23 - - Hybocladodus, i, 522 - - Hybodus, i, 528, 529 - eggs of, figured, i, 527 - fin-spine of, figured, i, 528, 529 - - Hybopsis, ii, 167 - - hybridism, i, 144; ii, 94 - - Hydrocyon, ii, 162 - - Hydrolagus, i, 564 - - Hyodon, i, 302 - - Hyoganoidea, ii, 24 - - Hyoganoids, ii, 11 - - hyomandibular, i, 508, 521, 606 - - hyostylic skull, i, 508, 561; ii, 7 - figure of, i, 56 - - Hypamia, ii, 36 - - hypercoracoid, i, 89; ii, 1, 12 - - Hyperoartia, i, 488, 490, 593 - - Hyperoplus, ii, 521 - - Hyperotreta, i, 488, 593 - - Hyperprosopon, ii, 375 - - hypocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12 - - Hypocritichthys, - figure of, i, 309; ii, 375 - - Hypohomus, ii, 312 - - Hypophthalmidæ, ii, 185 - - Hypoplectrus, i, 235, 271; ii, 237 - figure of, ii, 329 - - Hyporhamphus, ii, 212 - - Hypostomides, ii, 227-240 - suborder of, ii, 239 - - Hypotrema, i, 549 - - hypural, ii, 142 - - Hypseleotris, ii, 460 - - Hypsoblennius, i, 242 - - Hypsopsetta, ii, 493 - - Hypsurus, ii, 375 - figure of, ii, 373 - - Hypsycormus, ii, 34 - - Hypsypops, - figure of, i, 227; ii, 382 - - Hyrtl, i, 428 - - Hysterocarpus, i, 304; ii, 374 - figure of, ii, 373, 379 - - - Icarus, ii, 43 - - icefish, i, 146; ii, 123, 127 - figure of, i, 149; ii, 128 - - Icelinus, ii, 442 - - Icelus, ii, 442, 449 - - Icosteidæ, ii, 285 - - Icosteus, ii, 285 - - Ictalurus, i, 291, 292; ii, 179-181 - figure of, i, 280 - - ichthyized fishes, i, 210 - - Ichthyocephali, ii, 140, 141 - - Ichthyodectes, ii, 48 - - Ichthyodectidæ, ii, 48 - - Ichthyodorolites, i, 516, 529, 566 - - ichthyologists, - portraits of, i, 399, 403, 407, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425, 513, 516, - 525, 545, 561, 599, 601 - - ichthyology, - Aristotle on, i, 387 - history of, i, 387-428 - - Ichthyotomi, i, 437, 446 - order of, i, 519 - Parker & Haswell on, i, 520 - - Ichthyomyzon, i, 491 - - Ichthyopsida, i, 601 - - Ichthyosism, i, 183 - - Ichthysauroides, i, 586 - - Icthyscopus, ii, 503 - - Ictiobus, i, 291; ii, 172 - figure of, ii, 173 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 51; ii, 160 - - id, ii, 168 - - Idiacanthidæ, ii, 138 - - Idus, ii, 168 - - igami, ii, 390 - - Ilarches, ii, 400 - - Ilarchidæ, ii, 291, 400, 401 - - Ilarchus, ii, 398 - - Ilisha, i, 271; ii, 52 - - Ilyophidæ, ii, 150 - - imaginary garpike, i, 364 - - incisor teeth, figured, i, 31 - - inconnu, - figure of, ii, 67 - - Indian fauna, i, 267 - extension of, i, 265 - - Indian fish, ii, 405 - - Indian sawfish, - figure of, i, 200 - - Indian parrot-fish, - figure of pharyngeals, ii, 393 - - Indigo damsel-fish - figure of, ii, 384 - - infraclavicles, ii, 13 - - infundibulum, ii, 6 - - Iniistius, ii, 389, 390 - - Inimicus, i, 236; ii, 434 - figure of, frontispiece, II. Vol. - - Iniomi, i, 405; ii, 38, 40, 41, 138, 189, 190, 204, 526 - suborder of, ii, 129 - - iniomous fishes, - photophores of, i, 189 - - instincts in fishes, - basis of, i, 154 - classification of, i, 154 - of courtship, i, 155 - heredity in, i, 154 - of migration, i, 156 - variability of, i, 155, 156 - Whitman on, i, 156 - - intensity of coloration, i, 232 - - interclavicle, - Starks on, ii, 227 - - interhæmals, i, 49; ii, 348 - - interneurals, i, 49; ii, 15 - - intestine of fish, i, 33 - - intromittent organ, i, 124 - - Investigator, the, i, 408; ii, 60 - - Ioa, ii, 313 - - Ionoscopus, ii, 36 - - Ipnopidæ, ii, 131 - - Ipnops, - figure of, i, 181; ii, 131 - - Irish lord, ii, 442 - figure of, ii, 443 - - Irish Pampano, - figure of, ii, 349 - - isabelita, - figure of, ii, 404 - - Isaciella, i, 270 - - isaki, ii, 342 - - Ischnacanthidæ, i, 517 - - Ischnacanthus, i, 517 - - Ischyodus, i, 565 - - ishigakidai, ii, 360 - - Ishikawa, i, 416 - - ishinagi, ii, 323 - - Iso, - figure of, ii, 218 - - isocercal tail, i, 49, 83, 602 - Cope on, i, 84 - figure of, i, 83 - - Isopholidæ, ii, 26 - - Isopholis, ii, 26 - figure of, ii, 27 - - Isospondyli, i, 204, 406; ii, 26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37-60, 128, 129, - 138, 139, 142, 148, 159, 160, 188-190, 209, 250 - order of, ii, 38 - - Isotœnia, i, 565 - - isthmus, i, 45 - - isthmus barriers, i, 255-281 - - Isthmus of Panama, - as barrier, i, 269 - fish fauna of, i, 266, 271 - species of shores, i, 269 - - Isthmus of Suez, i, 255, 258 - as barrier, i, 266 - submergence of, i, 267 - - Istiæus, - figure of, ii, 46 - - Istiophoridæ, ii, 268 - - Istiophorus, ii, 269 - - Istlarius, ii, 182 - - Isuropsis, - figure of, i, 537 - - Isurus, i, 537, 538 - - Italian parrot-fish, i, 48 - figure of, ii, 391 - - ito, - figure of, ii, 107 - - itoryori, ii, 340 - - iwana, ii, 114 - - - jack mariddle, ii, 43 - - Jackson, - on Embiotocidæ, ii, 375, 393 - - Jacobi, - artificial impregnation by, i, 150 - - Jacoby, - on origin of eels, ii, 144, 145 - - Jacquinot, i, 408 - - Jadgeska hatchery, ii, 86 - - Jækel, i, 427, 428, 591 - - jallao, ii, 341 - - Janassa, - teeth of, i, 554 - - Japan, - Black Current of, i, 255, 256, 258 - fishes of, i, 256 - fresh-water fauna of, i, 256 - - Japan and Mediterranean - fish faunas, i, 259, 260 - - Japanese blenny, - figure of, i, 9; ii, 513 - - Japanese catfish, ii, 183 - - Japanese dace, ii, 170 - - Japanese filefish, - figure of, i, 241 - - Japanese samlet, - figure of, i, 321 - - Japanese sea-horse, - figure of, i, 250 - - jaqueta, ii, 383 - - jara-bakka, i, 171 - - jawfish, - figure of, ii, 359 - - jaws, i, 201 - of Amia, i, 43 - bones of, i, 41, 43 - figured, i, 30, 43, 583; ii, 39 - of parrot-fish, i, 30; ii, 391, 393 - of shark, i, 35 - - Jenkins, i, 420; ii, 52 - on fishes of Panama, i, 274 - - Jenkinsia, ii, 52 - - Jenyns, i, 408 - - Jerdon, i, 416 - - Jerusalem haddock, ii, 244 - - Jeude, i, 414 - - jewfishes, ii, 321, 323 - - jiguagua, ii, 276 - - jocu, ii, 336 - - John, - on climbing-fish, ii, 367 - - John dories, ii, 245, 247 - figure of, ii, 248 - - Johnny darter, ii, 313 - - John Paw, - figure of, ii, 325 - - Johnson, i, 410 - on interbreeding of trout, ii, 94 - - Johnston, i, 428 - - jolt-head porgy, - figure of, ii, 344 - - Jordan, i, 348, 408; ii, 522 - on parent stream theory, ii, 81 - portrait of, i, 421 - on return of salmon to spawning grounds, ii, 83 - - Jordanella, i, 314; ii, 198 - figure of, ii, 197 - - Jordania, ii, 441, 449 - figure of, ii, 442 - - Jordanicus, ii, 522 - - jorobado, ii, 276 - - joturo, ii, 26 - figure of, ii, 28, 222 - - Joturus, - figure of, ii, 222 - - Jugulares, i, 393 - suborder of, i, 499-506; ii, 39, 499, 534 - - Julis, i, 158, 235; ii, 389, 390 - - jurel, ii, 276 - - - kæpra, i, 171 - - kajika, ii, 118 - - kaku, ii, 221 - - Kalm, i, 390 - - Kamchatka lamprey, - figure of, i, 495 - - Kamloops trout, ii, 101 - - Kansas River, - blue-green sunfish from, i, 26 - - Kareius, ii, 494 - - Karpinsky, i, 529 - - Kaup, i, 411 - - kawamasu, ii, 95 - - kawamuki, ii, 415 - - Kellogg's Zoology, i, 26 - - Kelly - on otoliths, i, 120 - - kelpfish, ii, 389, 390, 507 - - kelts, ii, 91 - - Kent, - on anglers, ii, 543, 544 - - Kerr, i, 619 - on Balfour's theory, i, 72 - on fin migration, i, 74 - on Gegenbaur theory, i, 73 - on external gill, i, 76, 78 - on Lepidosiren, i, 61, 620 - on morphology, i, 68 - - Kessler, i, 411 - - Kessleria, i, 252, 452; ii, 18, 20 - - keta, ii, 73 - - Kettleman, ii, 545 - - kihi kihi, ii, 406 - - killer, i, 361 - - killifish, i, 290, 304; ii, 194, 198 - hearing of, i, 121 - - king crab, - figure of, i, 572 - - king darter, - figure of, ii, 311 - - kingfish, ii, 266, 356 - figure of, ii, 357 - - king of salmon, ii, 425 - figure of, ii, 478 - - king of herrings, ii, 425, 472 - - king of mackerels, - figure of, ii, 425 - - king salmon, ii, 68, 69 - anadromous instinct of, i, 160 - grilse, figured, ii, 70, 72 - - Kingsley, - on ascidians, i, 474 - on degeneration, i, 460 - on sense organs, i, 175 - on tunicates, i, 466-468 - - Kirsch, i, 422 - - Kirtland, i, 418; ii, 35 - - Kirtlandia, - figure of, ii, 217 - - Kishinouye, i, 418 - - kisugo, ii, 358 - - Kittlitz, i, 410 - - Klein, i, 390 - - Klunzinger, i, 411 - - Kner, i, 410, 411, 427 - on Ganoids, ii, 10 - - Kneriidæ, - family of, ii, 204 - - knightfish, ii, 257 - - Knox, ii, 477 - - kobini-iwashi, ii, 52 - - kochi, ii, 441 - - Koenen, i, 427 - - Koken, i, 427 - - kokopu, ii, 204 - - kokos, ii, 71 - - Kolliker, i, 428 - - Konwick, i, 427 - - konoshiro, ii, 53 - - Kölreuter, i, 396 - - Kowala, ii, 51 - - Kowalevskia, i, 474 - - Kowalevsky, i, 428 - - Krascheninnikov, i, 395; ii, 68 - - Krefft, i, 614 - - Kröyer, i, 410 - - Kuhlia, ii, 304 - - Kuhliidæ, ii, 297, 354 - - kumu, i, 322; ii, 352 - - Kundscha, ii, 114 - - Kuppfer's vesicle, i, 138 - - kurodai, ii, 343 - - kuromutsu, - figure of, ii, 213 - - Kuro Shiwo, i, 242, 251, 258 - fishes in, i, 239 - goblin shark of, i, 534 - - Kurtidæ, ii, 287 - - Kurtus, ii, 288 - - Kyphosidæ, ii, 349, 364, 398 - - Kyphosus, ii, 350 - figure of, ii, 349 - - - Labidesthes, i, 313; ii, 218 - - Labrodon, ii, 385 - - Labrax, ii, 330 - - Labridæ, i, 207; ii, 372, 385, 390, 396 - - Labrus, i, 207, 260, 267, 391; ii, 385, 387 - - labyrinthine fishes, ii, 365, 370 - - Labyrinthinci, i, 149; ii, 365, 379 - Day on, ii, 365 - Gill on, ii, 365 - - Labyrinthodontidæ, i, 86 - - lac de marbre, ii, 109 - - Lacépède, i, 376, 389 - portrait of, i, 399 - - Lachnolæmus, ii, 388 - figure of, ii, 387 - - Lactariidæ, ii, 356 - - Lactarius, ii, 358 - - Lactophrys, ii, 417 - figure of, i, 214, 373, 377, 378; ii, 416, 417 - skeleton of, figured, ii, 418 - - ladyfish, i, 117, 198; ii, 388 - figure of, i, 147; ii, 44 - transformations in, i, 147 - - La Favorite, the, i, 408 - - Lafayette, ii, 356 - - Lagocephalus, - figure of, ii, 419 - - Lagodon, ii, 344 - - Lake Bonneville, - ancient outlet of, i, 303 - - lake herring, ii, 65-67 - - lake lamprey, - head of, figured, i, 111 - mouth figured, i, 492 - - Lake Nicaragua, - shark from, i, 542 - - Lake Patzcuaro, - viviparous fishes from, i, 126 - - Lake Pontchartrain, - fish fauna of, i, 314 - - lake trout, ii, 66, 115 - figure of, ii, 114 - - lake whiting, ii, 65 - - Lamdodus, i, 522 - - Laminaria, ii, 544 - - Lamnidæ, i, 532, 537, 538, 542 - - Lamna, i, 534, 538 - teeth of, figured, i, 537 - figure of, 447 - - lamnoid sharks, i, 519, 533 - distinguished, i, 534 - families of, i, 534 - - Lampetra, i, 491 - figure of, i, 120, 492 - - lamprey, i, 28, 35, 56, 111, 204, 249, 290, 490, 506 - ascending brook figured, i, 496 - brain of, i, 112 - catfishes destroyed by, i, 358 - extinct forms, i, 487 - fate of, i, 504 - food of, i, 491 - gill-basket of, figured, i, 92, 485 - Kamchatka, i, 495 - method of attack, i, 493 - migration of, i, 494 - orders of, i, 488 - parasites of, i, 354 - Reighard on, i, 491 - spawning of, i, 498, 500 - structure of, i, 486 - Surface on, i, 491 - - Lamprididæ, ii, 16 - family of, ii, 243 - - Lampris, i, 210, 322; ii, 228, 245, 288 - figure of, i, 323 - shoulder-girdle, figured, ii, 243 - - Lanarkia, i, 570, 622 - figure of, i, 574 - - lancelet, i, 28, 31, 121, 204, 482-485, 506; ii, 467 - characteristics of, i, 482 - figure of, i, 484 - habits of, i, 483 - vertebral column of, i, 55 - - lancet-fish, ii, 408 - figure of, ii, 135 - - lancet of surgeon-fish, i, 181 - - lane-snapper, - figure of, ii, 336 - - Lankester, i, 61, 87, 426, 571, 593 - - lantern-fishes, ii, 41, 61, 128, 129, 525 - figure of, ii, 133 - - lantern-flounder, ii, 488 - - laolach, i, 620 - - Laparus, ii, 518 - - large-mouthed black bass, - figure of, ii, 305 - - Larimus, ii, 355 - - Larvacea, i, 470, 473 - figure of, i, 480 - - larval development of fishes, i, 139-141, 143-147, 174-176 - Dean on, i, 139 - in common eel, i, 141 - Gilbert on, i, 142 - figures showing, i, 140-142 - in brook lamprey, i, 140 - in sturgeon, i, 141 - - larval flounder, - figure of, ii, 483 - - larval forms, - of Chætodon, i, 144 - figures of, i, 140-142 - of flounder, figured, i, 147, 175, 176 - of ladyfish, i, 147 - of Lepidosiren, i, 620, 621 - of Mola, i, 143, 145 - of sailfish, i, 140 - of swordfish, i, 139 - - Lasianius, - figure of, i, 580 - - Lateolabrax, i, 324; ii, 320 - - lateral fold, i, 64 - Balfour on, i, 71-73 - Kerr on, i, 72 - Mollier on, i, 71 - - lateral line, i, 9, 22, 23 - a mucous channel, i, 22 - Dean on, i, 23 - function of, i, 23 - relation to touch, i, 122 - in singing-fish, figured, i, 23 - - Lates, ii, 320, 330 - - Latham, i, 396 - - Latilidæ, the, ii, 361, 363 - - Latilus, ii, 362 - - Latrididæ, ii, 363, 364, 426 - - Latris, ii, 363 - - lavaret, ii, 65 - - lawyer, ii, 335, 538 - - Lay, i, 409 - - Leach, i, 396 - - leather-carp, i, 151 - - leather-jackets, ii, 272, 413 - - Lebias, ii, 198, 201 - - lectocephalous condition, - Günther on, i, 142 - - Leidy, i, 426 - - Leiognathidæ, ii, 287, 348 - - Leiognathus, ii, 287 - - Leiostomus, ii, 356 - - Leiuranus, ii, 150 - - length of intestine, i, 33 - - Lentipes, ii, 466 - - leopard toadfish, - figure of, ii, 525 - - Lepadogaster, i, 263; ii, 531 - - Lepechin, i, 396 - - Lepidaplois, ii, 390 - figure of, ii, 389 - - Lepidocottus, ii, 426, 449 - - Lepidopidæ, - family of, ii, 267 - - Lepidopsetta, ii, 493 - - Lepidopus, i, 210; ii, 267 - - Lepidorhombus, i, 206; ii, 488 - - Lepidosiren, i, 60, 73, 85, 89, 100, 149, 450, 619, 621, 622 - adult male, figured, i, 620 - larval forms, figured, i, 620 - at 3 days, i, 620 - at 30 days, i, 621 - at 40 days, i, 621 - at three months, i, 621 - pectoral fin in, i, 60 - - Lepidosirenidæ, i, 88, 612, 619 - - Lepidostei, ii, 13, 26 - Huxley on, ii, 23 - Zittel on, ii, 23, 24 - - Lepidosteids, ii, 32 - - Lepidosteoidei, i, 382 - - Lepidotidæ, ii, 24 - - Lepidotes, ii, 24 - - Lepidotrigla, i, 259; ii, 456 - - Lepisoma, i, 208; ii, 508 - - Lepisosteidæ, i, 290; ii, 11, 29, 30 - - Lepisosteus, i, 32, 66, 85, 101, 102, 291, 314, 357, 604, 623; ii, 5, - 6, 23, 29, 30, 32 - Agassiz on, ii, 5 - Balfour and Parker on, ii, 5 - Eastman on, ii, 32 - figure of, i, 452; ii, 31 - Günther on, ii, 5, 7 - Müller on, ii, 517 - tail of, figured, i, 82 - - Lepomis, i, 302; ii, 301 - figure of, i, 4; ii, 300 - - Leptecheneis, - figure of, i, 197; ii, 468 - - leptocardial tail, i, 81, 83 - - Leptocardians, i, 383 - - Leptocardii, i, 55, 482-485 - - Leptocephalidæ, ii, 149 - - Leptocephalus, i, 211; ii, 148, 149 - figure of, ii, 150 - - leptocercal tail, i, 50, 81, 83, 507, 602 - Agassiz on, i, 81 - figure of, i, 82 - Gaudry on, i, 84 - - Leptocottus, ii, 448 - - Leptolepidæ, ii, 36, 41 - - Leptolepis, ii, 42 - figure of, ii, 41 - - Leptomylus, i, 565 - - Leptops, ii, 182 - - Leptoscopidæ, the, ii, 503, 506 - - Leptosmus, ii, 53 - - Leptotrachelus, ii, 136 - - Lepturus, i, 391 - - lesser-weaver, i, 169 - - Lesson, i, 408 - - Le Sueur, i, 418 - - Lethrinus, i, 268; ii, 347 - - Leuciscus, i, 254, 256, 346; ii, 168, 169 - figure of, i, 287; ii, 169 - pharyngeals of, i, 47 - teeth of, figured, ii, 163, 175 - - Leuckart, i, 609 - - Leucopsarion, ii, 467 - - Lias, ii, 14 - - Libys, i, 605 - - Ligul, a, i, 348 - - Lilljeborg, i, 410 - - Limanda, ii, 493 - - little roncador, ii, 356 - - Limulus, i, 569 - figure of, i, 572 - - Lindström, i, 427 - - ling, ii, 538 - - Linnæus, i, 375, 390; ii, 410, 424, 499 - followers of, i, 394 - Systema Naturæ of, i, 392 - - Linophryne, ii, 549 - - Linton, - on parasitic diseases, i, 343-348 - - Liodesmidæ, ii, 34 - - Liodesmus, ii, 34 - - lion-fish, ii, 434 - figure of, ii, 433, 435 - - Liopsetta, ii, 493 - figure of, ii, 494 - - liparid, ii, 447, 454 - figure of, ii, 413, 454 - - Liparididæ, - family of, ii, 454 - - Liparididæ, i, 189, 208, 218; ii, 313 - - Liparis, i, 202, 217, 219, 375, 380; ii, 449, 455 - figure of, i, 218 - - Lipogenyidæ, ii, 158 - - Lipogenys, ii, 158 - - Lister, i, 373, 375, 376 - - lithographic shales, ii, 42 - - Litholepis, i, 364 - - littoral fishes, - distribution of, i, 247 - - Liuranus, - figure of, i, 233 - - Liza, ii, 221 - - lizard-fishes, ii, 61 - figure of, ii, 130 - - lizard-skipper, - figure of, i, 230; ii, 509 - - loach, i, 290; ii, 185 - fossil, ii, 175, 176 - - Lobotes, - figure of, ii, 331 - - Lobotidæ, - family of, ii, 331 - - local barriers, i, 298 - - Lockington, i, 419 - on long-jawed goby, ii, 462-465 - - log-perch, - figure of, ii, 311 - - Lohest, i, 427 - - lok-sild, ii, 67 - - longe, ii, 114 - - long-eared sunfish, i, 3-15 - figure of, i, 2, 3; ii, 300 - - long-jawed goby, ii, 462, 463 - Cooper on, ii, 463 - figure of, ii, 463 - Lockington on, ii, 462 - - long-horned sculpin, ii, 447 - - long-jaw, ii, 66 - - long-necked eels, ii, 153 - - lophobranchii, ii, 9, 209, 227-240 - - lophobranchs, i, 92 - suborder of, ii, 235 - - Lophogobius, i, 208 - - Lophiidæ, i, 206; ii, 542 - - Lophiomus, i, 207, 271; ii, 547 - - Lophius, i, 169, 202, 206, 391; ii, 542, 545, 547, 548 - figure of, i, 18; ii, 545 - - lophocercal tail, i, 81, 83 - - Lopholatilus, i, 94, 357; ii, 361 - - Lophopsetta, ii, 488 - figure of, ii, 487 - - Lophotes, i, 260, 263; ii, 291 - - Lophotidæ, ii, 292 - family of, ii, 291 - - Loricaria, i, 393 - figure of, ii, 186 - - Loricariidæ, ii, 185, 186, 449 - - Loricati, ii, 426, 455 - - loro, ii, 394, 396 - - Lota, i, 109, 209, 316; ii, 538 - figure of, ii, 539 - - Lotella, i, 259 - - louse-fish, ii, 469 - - louvar, - figure of, ii, 290 - - Loven, - on Arctic species, i, 317 - - Lowe, i, 410 - - Lowell, - on trout, ii, 108 - - lower jaw, - figure of, i, 526 - of Cochliodus figured, i, 531 - of Neoceratodus figured, i, 616 - of Polypterus figured, i, 606 - - lower pharyngeals, - figure of, ii, 171 - - Lower Silurian, - shark teeth from, i, 508 - - lowland fishes, - dispersion of, i, 313 - - Luciæ, i, 477 - - Lucifuga, i, 314; ii, 524 - figure of, i, 222; ii, 524 - - Lucigobius, ii, 467 - - Luciocephalidæ, ii, 370 - - Luciocephalus, ii, 370 - - Lucioperca, ii, 315 - - Lucas, - on Therobromus, ii, 127 - - luminous organs, i, 187 - von Lendenfeld on, i, 189 - of Porichthys, figured, i, 191 - - Lumpenus, i, 209; ii, 513 - - lumpfish, i, 208; ii, 135, 453, 454 - figure of, i, 220; ii, 454 - - lump-sucker, ii, 453, 455 - - lung-fish, i, 100, 458, 609-622 - - lungs of the fish, - origin of, i, 98, 99 - Morris on, i, 98 - - lurking-fishes, - Whitmee on, i, 169 - - Lutianidæ, ii, 323, 335 - family of, i, 333; ii, 340 - - Lutianus, i, 324; ii, 330, 333, 335, 336 - figure of, i, 331; ii, 333, 335, 336 - - Lütken, i, 410; ii, 33, 133 - on Selene, i, 144 - on flying-fish, ii, 214 - - Luvaridæ, ii, 291 - - Luvarus, ii, 291 - figure of, ii, 290 - - Lycenchelys, - figure of, ii, 519 - - Lycodapodidæ, ii, 520 - - Lycodes, ii, 518 - figure of, ii, 519 - - Lycodapus, - figure of, ii, 520 - - Lycodopsis, ii, 518 - - Lycodes, i, 209 - - Lycoptera, ii, 41 - - Lyman, - on the museum at Paris, i, 401 - - Lyomeri, - order of, ii, 140, 155 - - Lyopomi, ii, 138, 158, 189 - - Lyopsetta, i, 205 - - Lyrifera, i, 462, 508 - - Lysopteri, i, 623; ii, 13 - - - maaji, ii, 274 - - maccaroni piatti, i, 351 - - Macleay, i, 416, 428 - - Macdonald, i, 419 - - Macdonaldia, ii, 157 - - Mackenzie salmon, ii, 67 - - mackerel, i, 19, 117, 156, 210; ii, 258, 259 - figure of, i, 332; ii, 260 - fishery, ii, 260, 261 - Goode on, ii, 260 - - mackerel-midges, ii, 539 - - mackerel-scads, ii, 274 - - mackerel-shark, i, 533 - figure of, i, 447, 537 - - Mackinaw trout, ii, 114 - - Macrias, ii, 502 - - Macrodon, ii, 354 - - Macropetalichthyidæ, - family of, i, 585 - - Macropetalichthys, i, 583, 585, 589, 590 - - Macropharyngodon, ii, 390 - - Macrophthalmia, i, 491 - - Macropistius, ii, 26 - - Macropodus, ii, 369, 370 - - Macropoma, i, 605 - - Macrorhamphosidæ, ii, 227, 234, 235 - - Macrorhamphosus, i, 259 - figure of, ii, 234 - - Macrosemiidæ, ii, 26, 28 - - Macrosemius, ii, 26 - - Macrouridæ, i, 84; ii, 541 - vertebræ in, 209; ii, 540 - - mademoiselle, - figure of, ii, 355 - - mad tom, ii, 182 - figure of, i, 179; ii, 182 - - Mænidæ, - family of, ii, 347 - - magifi, ii, 288 - - mahogany snapper, ii, 337 - - maigre, ii, 355 - - mail-cheek fishes, ii, 426 - - makrede, i, 171 - - makua, ii, 425 - - Malacanthidæ, ii, 361, 499 - - Malacanthus, ii, 361 - - Malacopterygii, i, 391; ii, 208 - - Malacopterygium, ii, 39 - - Malacorhinus, i, 553 - - Malacosteidæ, ii, 128, 134 - - Malapterurus, ii, 183 - - malau, ii, 253 - - Mallotus, - figure of, ii, 126 - - Malm, i, 410 - - malma, i, 326 - figure of, ii, 112 - - Malmgren, i, 410 - on Arctic species, i, 317 - - Malpighi, i, 390 - - Malthe, i, 206 - - Malthopsis, ii, 552 - - mandible, - suspensorium of, i, 43, 120 - - mandibular rami, i, 589 - - man-eating shark, i, 538 - - Maner, - on external gill, i, 77 - - mangrove snapper, ii, 335 - - man-of-war fish, ii, 285 - - Manta, i, 448, 560 - figure of, i, 559 - - map of continents, i, 270 - - Mapo, ii, 461 - - Marcgraf, i, 389 - - Marcgravia, ii, 526 - - Marcusen, i, 428 - - marine blenny, i, 118 - - marine fishes, - checked by barriers, i, 241 - distribution of, i, 246 - - Mariposa, ii, 244, 403 - - Marquette, ii, 64 - - Marsh, - on eye of Anableps, ii, 195 - - Marsiobranch, i, 592, 593 - - Marsipobranchi, i, 486 - - Martin pescador, ii, 550 - - Mason, ii, 73 - - Mastacembelidæ, ii, 532 - - Mastacembelus, ii, 157 - figure of, ii, 532 - - Masticura, i, 555 - - masu, ii, 68, 73 - figure of, ii, 71, 72 - - matajuelo, ii, 252, 253 - - matajuelo blanco, ii, 361 - - matao, ii, 249 - - matodai, ii, 333 - - matsubara, i, 418 - - Matthew, i, 427 - - Mauer, - on external gill, i, 77 - - Maurolicidæ, - family of, ii, 134 - - Maurolicus, ii, 134 - - maxillary, - figure of, i, 55 - of Sebastolobus, i, 55 - - mayfish, - figure of, ii, 198 - - McClelland, i, 416 - - McCoy, i, 82, 410, 581 - - McGregor, i, 422 - - McKay, i, 420 - - McMurrich, i, 428 - - meaji, ii, 275 - - meaning of species, i, 293 - Coues on, i, 379 - - measurements of the fish, i, 19 - - mebaru, ii, 429, 431 - - Meckel's cartilage, i, 44, 57, 507, 596, 606 - - Meda, ii, 169 - - Meddagh, - photograph by, i, 164 - - Medialuna, ii, 350 - - medregal, ii, 274 - - Meek, - on trout, ii, 105 - - Megalaspis, ii, 274 - - Megalichthyidæ, i, 602, 603 - - Megalichthys, - figure of, i, 604 - - Megalops, ii, 43 - - Megalurus, - figure of, ii, 36 - - Megaperca, ii, 322 - - Megaprotodon, ii, 404 - - mejenidai, ii, 348 - - Melamphaës, ii, 252 - - Melaniris, ii, 218 - - Melanocetus, ii, 548 - - Melanogrammus, i, 209; ii, 539 - figure of, ii, 536 - skull of, figured, ii, 536 - - Melanotænia, ii, 218 - - Melanotæniidæ, ii, 218 - - Melichthys, ii, 413 - - Melletes, - figure of, i, 288 - - membrane bone of face, i, 44 - - Mene, - figure of, ii, 288 - - menhaden, - figure of, i, 340; ii, 51 - - Menidia, ii, 218 - - Menidæ, - family of, ii, 218 - - Menomonee whitefish, ii, 63 - - Menopneumona, i, 612 - - Menticirrhus, - figure of, ii, 357 - - mergate fish, ii, 341 - - Merlangus, i, 209; ii, 537 - - Merluccius, i, 209; ii, 136 - figure of, ii, 540 - isocercal tail of, i, 83 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 60 - - Merluciidæ, ii, 540 - - mermaid, i, 359 - - merou, ii, 323, 324 - - Merriam, - on fossil trout, ii, 62 - - Mesencephalon, - figured, i, 109, 110 - - mesentary, i, 32 - - Mesichthys, ii, 190 - - mesocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12 - - mesoderm, i, 138 - - Mesodon, ii, 22 - - Mesogonistius, ii, 301 - figure of, ii, 299 - - Mesolepis, ii, 15 - - mesopterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12 - - Mesopus, ii, 124 - Swan on, ii, 123 - - Mesozoic fishes, i, 437 - - metameral characters, i, 23 - - metapterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12 - - metencephalon, figured, i, 109 - - Michigan grayling, - figure of, ii, 122 - - Microbranchium, i, 577 - - Microcanthus, ii, 404 - - Microdesmus, i, 271 - - Microdon, i, 204 - - Microgadus, ii, 537 - figure of, ii, 538 - - Microlepidotus, i, 271 - - Microperca, ii, 307, 315 - - Micropogon, i, 271; ii, 356 - - Micropterus, i, 291, 302; ii, 297, 302, 304 - figure of, i, 325; ii, 303, 305 - - Microspathodon, i, 271; ii, 384, 385 - figure of, ii, 384 - - Microstoma, ii, 127 - - Microstomidæ, ii, 127 - - Microstomus, ii, 494 - - midshipman, i, 121, 189; ii, 526 - luminous organs of, i, 191 - - migratory fishes, i, 160 - - milkfish, - figure of, ii, 45 - - milktschitsch, ii, 73 - - Miller, i, 426 - - miller's thumb, ii, 444 - California, ii, 446 - figure of, ii, 445 - Yellowstone, ii, 444 - - Milner, i, 419 - on whitefish, ii, 64 - - minnow, i, 33, 124, 304; ii, 118, 161, 163, 193, 196-199 - treatment of eggs by, i, 129 - - Minous, ii, 436 - - Mioplosus, ii, 315 - - Mirbelia, ii, 531 - - mirror carp, i, 151; ii, 17 - - Misaki, - tide pools of, i, 161 - - Misgurnus, i, 98; ii, 176 - - Mississippi Valley, - blind fishes of, i, 117, 220 - stone-roller of, i, 33 - - Missouri sucker, ii, 173 - - Mistichthys, ii, 467 - - Mitchill, i, 376, 418 - on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368 - on Spanish mackerel, ii, 264 - - Mitchillina, ii, 60 - - Mitsukurina, i, 199, 536, 566 - figures of, i, 535 - - Mitsukurinidæ, i, 534 - - Mitsukuri, i, 418 - on phosphorescent shark, i, 189 - portrait of, i, 417 - - Mivart, - on paired limbs, i, 70 - - monana, ii, 353 - - Mobula, i, 448 - fœtus of, i, 560 - - Mobulidæ, i, 559 - - mojarra, ii, 348 - figure of, ii, 348 - - mojarra cardenal, ii, 254 - - mojarra de las piedras, ii, 405 - - mojarra de ley, ii, 348 - - mojarra verde, ii, 381 - - Mola, i, 19, 84, 142, 206, 272; ii, 424, 425 - figure of, ii, 424 - larva of, figured, i, 143 - - Molgula, i, 474 - - Molgulidæ, i, 474 - - Molidæ, ii, 424 - - Molina, i, 396 - - Mollier, - on lateral fold, i, 71 - - Mollienesia, ii, 199 - - Mollusca, ii, 529 - - Molva, i, 209; ii, 538 - - Monacanthidæ, i, 242 - family of, ii, 413 - - Monacanthus, i, 181, 206; ii, 414 - - du Monceau, i, 396 - - Mondini, ii, 144 - - mongrel whitefish, ii, 67 - - monkfish, i, 359; ii, 545 - brain of, figured, i, 547 - pectoral fin, figured, i, 56 - - Monocentridæ, ii, 250 - family of, ii, 257 - Houttuyn, discoverer of, ii, 257 - - Monocentrus, i, 260 - figure of, ii, 257 - - Monoceros, i, 268; ii, 409 - - Monodactylus, ii, 398 - figure of, ii, 397 - - Monolene, i, 206 - - Monopteridæ, ii, 141 - - Monopterus, ii, 141 - - Monorhinus, i, 593 - - Monotaxis, ii, 344 - - Monro, i, 390 - - monstre marin, i, 360, 361 - - monstrosities among fishes, i, 150 - - monstrous goldfish, - figure of, i, 151 - - Montagu, i, 396 - - month incubation, i, 170, 171, 172 - Günther on, i, 173 - - Moorish idols, ii, 406 - figure of, ii, 406 - - Moodeliar, - on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368 - - mooneye, i, 290; ii, 45 - - moonfishes, i, 144; ii, 243, 244, 276, 401 - figure of, i, 323 - - morays, ii, 152, 153 - figure of, i, 458; ii, 155 - - Mordacia, i, 491 - - Mordaciidæ, i, 491 - - Moreau, i, 95, 412 - - Morgan, i, 428 - - Moringua, ii, 153, 189 - - Moringuidæ, ii, 188, 189 - family of, ii, 153 - - Mormyrus, i, 393 - - Morone, ii, 321 - figure of, ii, 322 - - morphology, i, 511 - of fins, i, 62-90 - - Morris, - on lungs of fishes, i, 98-106 - - mortality of filefish, i, 357 - - Moseley, - on Ipnopidæ, ii, 131 - - Moser, - on catching salmon, ii, 85 - - moss-bunker, ii, 51 - - motor nerves, i, 153 - - mountain chains, - as barriers, i, 310 - - mountain-oopu, ii, 466 - - mountain-witch, ii, 445 - - Mount Whitney, - golden trout of, ii, 99 - - Moxostoma, ii, 174 - - mu, ii, 344 - - mucous channels, i, 22, 23 - - mud-bass, ii, 297 - - mud-dab, ii, 493 - - mud-minnows, i, 290; ii, 35, 193, 194 - - mud-minnows, - figure of, ii, 193 - tenacity of life in, i, 147 - - mud-skippers, ii, 465 - figure of, ii, 466 - - muffle jaws, ii, 444 - - Mugil, i, 32, 157, 343, 391; ii, 144, 219 - figure of, i, 330; ii, 221 - - Mugilidæ, i, 206; ii, 219 - - muki-muki, i, 183; ii, 420 - - Müller, i, 384, 396, 405, 415, 428, 609, 613; ii, 3, 24, 39, 40, 144, - 533 - on elastic spring, i, 96 - on ganoids, ii, 9 - on gas in swim-bladder, i, 96 - on Lepidosteus, ii, 5 - portrait of, i, 399 - - Mullerian duct, i, 28 - - mullets, i, 117, 268, 328; ii, 39, 144, 215, 219, 221 - Goode on, ii, 219, 220 - - Mullidæ, i, 206; ii, 257, 351-379 - - Mullus, i, 261, 393; ii, 256 - figure of, i, 322; ii, 352 - - Munster, i, 423 - - munu, i, 322; ii, 352 - - Muræna, i, 211, 391; ii, 152 - figure of, ii, 153 - - Murænesocidæ, ii, 150 - - Murænesox, i, 211; ii, 150 - - Murænidæ, i, 211; ii, 152, 155 - - Murænolepidæ, ii, 541 - - Murchison, i, 423 - - murcielago, ii, 458 - - muroaji, ii, 274 - - muscles of the fish, i, 25 - - muskallonge, - figure of, ii, 192 - - Musquaw whitefish, ii, 65 - - Mustelus, i, 71, 541 - - mutsu, ii, 317 - - mutton-fish, i, 324; ii, 518 - - mutton-snapper, ii, 335 - figure of, i, 331 - - Mycteroperca, 271; ii, 325, 327 - figure of, ii, 327 - - Myctophidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 132-134, 526 - - Myctophum, i, 195; ii, 133, 134 - figure of, ii, 133 - - Myliobatis, i, 557, 558 - - Mylognathus, i, 565 - - Mylostoma, i, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590 - - Mylostomidæ, i, 587 - - myotomes, i, 71 - - Myoxocephalus, ii, 445 - figure of, i, 219; ii, 446, 447 - - Myriacanthidæ, i, 566 - - Myriacanthus, i, 566; ii, 255 - - Myrichthys, - figure of, ii, 151 - - Myridæ, ii, 148, 150 - - Myriolepis, ii, 14 - - Myripristis, i, 162, 268, 271; ii, 254-256 - - Myrocongridæ, ii, 153 - - Myrophis, i, 313 - - Myrus, i, 259, 263; ii, 150 - - Mysis, i, 317 - - Mysore, - walking-fish of, i, 167 - - mythology of fishes, i, 359-366 - - Myxine, i, 198, 490, 593 - - Myxinidæ, i, 489 - - Myxobolus, i, 343 - - Myxocyprinus, ii, 173 - - Myxodagnus, ii, 506 - - Myxodes, ii, 508 - - Myxosporidia, i, 342, 344 - - Myzontes, i, 486 - - - Nagg's head-fish, i, 375, 376 - - Naisia, ii, 32 - - namazu, ii, 188 - - names of bones, i, 39 - - names of fishes, i, 372 - - nami-ho-hana, ii, 218 - - Nandidæ, ii, 358 - - Nannocharax, ii, 162 - - Nansenia, ii, 127 - - Narcine, - figure of, i, 185, 553 - - Narcobatidæ, - family of, i, 553 - - Narcobatis, i, 553 - - Nardo, i, 412 - - Nassau, - figure of, ii, 324 - - natural selection, - effect of, i, 318 - in fishes, i, 218 - process of, i, 297 - species changed by, i, 240 - - Naucrates, ii, 272, 278 - figure of, ii, 273 - - Nantichthys, ii, 448 - - Nebris, ii, 355 - - Necturus, i, 157, 600 - - needle-bearing filefish, - figure of, ii, 414 - - needle-fishes, i, 128 - figure of, ii, 210 - - negro-chub, ii, 167 - - negro-fish, ii, 324 - - Nelson, i, 419 - on Anableps, ii, 196, 197 - - Nemachilus, ii, 176 - - Nematognathi, i, 405; ii, 9, 40, 161, 177, 178 - - Nematistiidæ, ii, 278 - - Nematocentrus, ii, 218 - - Nematodes, i, 344 - Linton on, i, 352 - - Nematonurus, ii, 541 - - Nemichthyidæ, ii, 151 - - Nemichthys, i, 211; ii, 151 - figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152 - jaws figured, i, 156 - - Nemipterus, ii, 340 - - Nemopteryx, ii, 539 - - Neoceratodus, i, 79, 80, 100, 116, 204, 450, 613 - eggs of, i, 618 - figure of, i, 614 - lower jaw of, figured, i, 616 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 68, 609 - skull of, i, 67 - - Neochanna, i, 252; ii, 206 - - Neoclinus, ii, 462 - figure of, ii, 507 - - Neoditrema, ii, 375 - - Neoliparis, ii, 455 - figure of, ii, 455 - - Neopercis, ii, 502 - - Neosebastes, ii, 433 - - nerka, ii, 73 - - nerve cells and fibres, i, 152 - - nerves of fishes, i, 113, 114 - - nervous system, i, 109-114 - - nest-building, ii, 229 - of sticklebacks, ii, 230, 231 - - nest of fish, i, 14, 172 - - Nettastoma, i, 211, 259; ii, 151 - - Nettastomidæ, ii, 148, 151 - - neurentric canal, i, 138 - - Newberry, i, 426, 428, 584, 589 - - New England, - scanty fauna of, i, 302 - - Newton, i, 426 - - New Zealand, - fauna of, i, 252 - - nezupo, ii, 441 - - nictitating membrane, i, 540 - - nijinge-rijinge, i, 171, 172 - - Nieuhof, i, 396 - - Nilsson, i, 410 - - Niphon, ii, 320 - - nohu, ii, 434 - - noises of fishes, i, 168, 169 - - Nomeidæ, ii, 283 - - nomenclature, i, 173 - beginning of, i, 374 - trinomial, i, 378 - of trunkfishes, i, 373 - - Nordmann, i, 410 - - northern blennies, ii, 511 - - northern zone, i, 250 - - Norway haddock, ii, 428 - - Notacanthidæ, ii, 157 - - Notacanthus, ii, 157, 532 - figure of, ii, 158 - - Notæus, ii, 36 - - Notagogus, ii, 26 - figure of, ii, 28 - - Notelops, ii, 44 - - Notidiani, i, 447, 513, 519, 526 - order of, i, 523 - - Notidanoid shark, i, 438 - skull of, figured, i, 56 - - Notidanus, i, 523, 524 - - notochord, i, 55, 56, 509 - in Chimæras, i, 59 - in Elasmobranchs, i, 57 - - Notogeneus, i, 456 - figure of, ii, 55 - - Notopteridæ, ii, 48, 49 - - Notopterus, ii, 49 - - Nototheniidæ, ii, 501, 502, 533 - - Notropis, i, 129, 283, 304, 307, 311, 313; ii, 164 - figure of, i, 343, 457; ii, 165, 167 - - Noturus, i, 180; ii, 177, 182 - - Novaculichthys, ii, 390 - - Novara, i, 410 - - Nozawa, i, 418 - - numbers of genera, i, 262 - - numbfish, - figure of, i, 185, 553 - - number of vertebræ, i, 202-204 - - nuptial colors, i, 155, 156 - - nuptial tubercles, i, 33 - figure showing, ii, 167 - - Nyström, i, 416 - - - oarfish, i, 361; ii, 472 - figure of, i, 362; ii, 476 - Forgy on, ii, 473 - Glesnæs, ii, 472 - Holder on, ii, 474 - - Oatka Creek, i, 282 - - Oblata, i, 260; ii, 348 - - ocean currents, - agency of, i, 242 - - Ocyurus, - figure of, ii, 337 - - Odacidæ, ii, 388 - - Odax, ii, 390 - - Odontaspididæ, i, 533 - - Odontaspis, i, 534 - - Odontoscion, ii, 355 - - Odontostomus, ii, 136 - - Odontotodontidæ, i, 576 - - Odontotodus, - figure of, i, 570 - - Ogcocephalidæ, ii, 551 - - Ogcocephalus, - figure of, ii, 551-553 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 88 - - Ogilby, i, 408, 416 - on ragfishes, ii, 285 - - oil shark, i, 524 - - Oikopleura, i, 474 - - ojanco, ii, 337 - - okose, i, 236, 429; ii, 436 - - oldwench, ii, 413 - - oldwife, ii, 413 - - Old World catfish, ii, 182 - - olfactory lobe, - figure of, i, 111 - - Oligocottus, ii, 447, 449 - figure of, ii, 449 - - Oligopleuridæ, ii, 36, 41 - - Oligopleurus, ii, 36 - - Oligoplites, ii, 272 - - Oligorus, ii, 320 - - ombre chevalier, ii, 108, 109 - - Omosoma, ii, 284 - - Omosudis, ii, 136 - - Onchus, - Agassiz on, i, 530 - fin-spine of, i, 509 - - Oncobatis, i, 553 - - Oncottus, i, 317; ii, 447, 449 - figure of, ii, 447 - - Oncolepis, ii, 513 - - Oncopterus, ii, 489 - - Oncorhynchus, i, 146, 160, 301, 329, 332; ii, 68, 70, 89, 94 - figure of, 354; ii, 69, 71, 72, 76 - - ontogeny, i, 511 - - ontology, i, 63 - - oopu, ii, 465 - - Onychodontidæ, i, 602, 604 - - Onychodus, i, 604 - - opahs, i, 210; ii, 243 - taken by Berndt, ii, 244 - Farquhar on, ii, 244 - figure of, i, 323 - - opercle, i, 7, 45 - - opercula, - used in climbing, ii, 367 - - operculum, ii, 7 - - Ophicephalidæ, ii, 370 - - Ophidiidæ, ii, 520 - - Ophidion, i, 391, 612 - - Ophichthyidæ, i, 211; ii, 150 - - Ophichthus, - figure of, ii, 151 - - Ophiocephalidæ, i, 103, 104; ii, 215 - - Ophiocephalus, i, 149 - figure of, i, 150 - - Ophiodon, ii, 442, 518, 520 - figure of, ii, 440 - - Ophioblennius, ii, 510 - - Ophiopsis, ii, 26 - - Ophocephalus, - figure of, ii, 370 - - Opistharthri, i, 509 - - Opisthocentrus, ii, 512 - - Opisthocœlian, i, 49; ii, 29 - - Opisthocœlous, ii, 6 - - Opisthognathidæ, ii, 330, 359, 499, 502 - - Opisthognathus, ii, 462, 508 - figure of, ii, 360 - - Opisthomi, i, 611; ii, 499, 532-542 - - Opisthomyzon, ii, 469 - Storms on, ii, 469 - - Opisthonema, ii, 51, 53 - - opisthure, i, 84 - - Oplegnathus, i, 260 - - Opsanus, ii, 525 - figure of, ii, 524 - - Opsariichthys, ii, 165 - - optic nerves, - of flounders, ii, 482 - - orbitophenoid, ii, 40 - - orca, i, 361, 536 - - order, - defined, i, 373 - - organs of the fish, - electric, i, 25 - of hearing, i, 119-121 - nutritive, i, 29 - - Orectolobus, i, 533 - - Orestias, ii, 200 - - Oregon lamprey, - figure of, i, 496 - - Oregon sucker, - teeth of, figured, ii, 175 - - Ordovician deposits, - figure of, i, 435 - - origin, - of air-bladder, i, 98 - of fins, i, 62, 64, 67 - of lungs, i, 98 - - origin of lancelets, - Willey on, i, 484 - - Orodontidæ, i, 65, 66, 447, 528 - - Orr, - on external gill, i, 77 - - Ortmann, i, 238, 256, 270 - map of continents, i, 270 - - Orthacanthus, i, 521 - - Orthodon, ii, 165 - - Orthopristis, ii, 342 - - Orthopsetta, i, 206; ii, 489 - - Orthostœchus, i, 271 - - Osbeck, i, 389 - - Osbeckia, ii, 414 - figure of, ii, 414 - - Osborn, - on extinction of species, i, 239, 442 - on law of radiation, i, 296 - - Osmeroides, ii, 44, 134 - - Osmerus, i, 391; ii, 123, 127 - figure of, ii, 123 - - Osphromenidæ, ii, 368, 370 - - Osphromenus, ii, 368 - - ossicles, - Hasse on, i, 96 - - Ostariophysi, i, 120; ii, 38, 40, 140, 209 - series of, ii, 159-165 - - Osteoglossidæ, ii, 56, 60, 160 - - Osteoglossum, ii, 11, 41, 42, 56, 57 - - Osteolepis, i, 602-604 - - Osteostraci, i, 568, 571, 573, 590 - order of, i, 575 - - Ostichthys, - figure of, ii, 255 - - Ostraciidæ, i, 568 - family of, ii, 415 - - Ostracion, i, 206, 373, 391; ii, 416-418 - figure of, i, 16, 376; ii, 416 - - Ostracodermi, i, 568; ii, 398, 411, 415 - - Ostracophores, i, 240, 242, 246, 444, 488, 568, 581, 582, 590, 603; ii, - 3 - figure of, i, 444 - nature of, i, 569 - order of, i, 573 - - Ostracophori, i, 462 - class of, i, 568, 569 - - Osurus, ii, 502 - - Otaki, i, 418, 422 - - Otodus, i, 538 - - otoliths, i, 119-121; 354 - - Otsego bass, ii, 64 - - Ouananiche, ii, 92, 93 - - Overland Monthly, - reference to, ii, 69 - - oviducts, ii, 6 - - oviparous fishes, i, 125 - - ovoviviparous fishes, i, 125, 550 - - Owen, i, 88, 90, 424, 428 - on swordfish, ii, 270, 271 - - Owsjannikow, i, 428 - - Owston, - sharks taken by, i, 534 - - Oxuderces, ii, 468 - - Oxudercidæ, ii, 468 - - Oxygnathus, ii, 14 - - Oxylabracidæ, ii, 320, 327 - family of, ii, 319 - - Oxylabrax, ii, 320, 355 - figure of, ii, 319 - - Oxylebius, ii, 440 - - Oxyjulis, ii, 388 - - Oxymonacanthus, ii, 415 - - Oxynotidæ, i, 546 - - Oxynotus, i, 546 - - Oxystomus, i, 259 - - oyster-fish, ii, 525 - - Ozorthe, ii, 513 - figure of, i, 9; ii, 513 - - - Pachycormidæ, ii, 34 - - Pachycormus, ii, 34 - - Pachylebias, ii, 201 - - Pachyrhizodontidæ, ii, 44 - - Pachyrhizodus, ii, 44 - - Pacific Creek, i, 308, 309 - - paddle-fish, i, 199, 253, 290; ii, 20 - - Pagellus, i, 260, 267; ii, 344, 346 - - Pagrus, i, 94, 259, 263, 324; ii, 343, 344, 346 - figure of, ii, 342 - - paired fins, - in Acanthodei, i, 515 - Balfour on, ii, 8 - migration of, i, 75 - origin of, i, 64 - Ryder on, i, 66 - - paired limbs, - Dean on, i, 81 - Mivart on, i, 70 - relation of, i, 69 - Thacker on, i, 70 - Gill on, i, 85 - - palæichthyologists, i, 424, 426, 427 - - palæichthyology, i, 426 - - Palæichthys, ii, 3 - - Palæobalistum, ii, 22 - - Palæoniscidæ, i, 452, 580; ii, 4, 14, 15, 23 - - Palæoniscum, i, 437, 622 - Blainville on, ii, 14 - figure of, i, 453; ii, 14 - - palæontology, evidence of, i, 64 - - Palæorhynchidæ, - family of, ii, 268 - - Palæorhynchus, ii, 268 - figure of, ii, 268 - - Palæospinax, i, 528 - - Palæospondylidæ, i, 593 - - Palæospondylus, i, 204, 437, 444, 593, 595, 596 - figure of, i, 591 - relationships of, i, 593 - - palatines, i, 6 - - palatopterygoid arch, ii, 152, 155 - - palato-quadrate apparatus, i, 508, 509, 523 - - Palinurichthys, ii, 284 - - Pallas, ii, 67, 135, 428, 522 - - Pallasina, ii, 453 - figure of, i, 221; ii, 453 - - Palœaspis, i, 575 - - palometa, i, 324; ii, 283 - - pampano, i, 210, 324; ii, 272-292 - gaff-topsail, ii, 277 - great, ii, 277 - round, ii, 277 - true, ii, 277 - - panai feri, ii, 367 - - Panama, - as barrier, i, 270 - final hypothesis as to, i, 279 - - pancreas, i, 32 - - Pander, i, 427 - - pan fish, ii, 355 - - Panicum, ii, 369 - - Pantodon, ii, 60 - - Pantodontidæ, ii, 57 - - Pantosteus, i, 304, 316; ii, 172 - - papagallo, ii, 278 - - papilla, i, 115 - - Pappichthys, ii, 36 - - Parabatrachus, i, 604 - - Paracentropogon, ii, 436 - - Paracentropristis, ii, 328 - - Paracirrhites, ii, 363 - - paraglenal, i, 90; ii, 12 - - Paragobiodon, ii, 466 - - Paralabrax, ii, 328 - - Paralepidæ, ii, 136 - - Paralichthys, i, 206; ii, 482, 486, 492 - figure of, ii, 493 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2 - tail of, figured, i, 83; ii, 486 - - Paraliparis, i, 202, 219; ii, 454, 455 - - Paramia, ii, 317 - - Paranguilla, ii, 150 - - Paranthias, ii, 328 - - Paraphyllodus, ii, 396 - - Parapristipoma, ii, 342 - - Parapegasus, ii, 240 - - Parapercis, ii, 502 - - Parasilurus, ii, 183 - - parasites of fishes, - crustaceans, i, 340 - figures illustrating, i, 341-344 - fungi, i, 353 - Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348 - hosts of, i, 343 - internal, i, 342 - protozoans, i, 342 - - parasitic diseases, - Gurley on, i, 342 - Linton on, i, 343 - Megnin on, i, 343 - Railliet on, i, 343 - Stiles on, i, 343 - Ward on, i, 343 - - parasitic fungi, i, 353 - - parasitic worms, - acanthocephala, i, 344 - cestodes, i, 344 - an article of food, i, 351 - nematodes, i, 344 - trematodes, i, 344 - - Paratrachichthys, i, 439; ii, 295 - figure of, ii, 253 - - Paraxus, i, 517 - - Pareioplitæ, ii, 426-458 - - parental affection in fishes, i, 166, 167 - - Parexocœtus, ii, 214 - - parent-stream theory, ii, 81 - - Parequula, ii, 287 - - pargo criollo, i, 324; ii, 335 - - pargo de lo alto, ii, 336 - - pargo guachinango, ii, 335 - - pargos, ii, 333 - - Park, i, 393 - - Parker, i, 90, 428, 594; ii, 160, 482 - on Chimæras, i, 563 - on hearing of fishes, i, 121, 122 - optic nerve of flounder, ii, 482, 483 - on soles, ii, 483 - - Parnell, i, 410 - - Parophrys, ii, 493 - - Parr, ii, 91 - - Parra, i, 396 - - parrot-fish, i, 21; ii, 56, 360, 385, 390, 393 - figure of, i, 330; ii, 392, 394, 395 - jaws of, figured, i, 30; ii, 391 - pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393 - - parts of skeleton, i, 35 - - paru, ii, 405 - - Patæcidæ, ii, 516 - - Patæcus, ii, 514 - - patao, ii, 348 - - Patten, i, 428 - on Ostracophores, i, 569 - - pesce re, ii, 218 - - peacock flounders, ii, 488 - - pearlfish, i, 84, 159; ii, 522 - figure of, i, 522, 523 - - pêche prêtre, ii, 429 - - Peck, i, 419 - - pecten, ii, 6 - - pectoral fin, i, 10, 521 - of Chiloscyllium, i, 66 - of codfish, i, 66 - figure of, i, 57, 66 - Gegenbaur on, i, 66, 67 - of Heptranchias, i, 57 - origin of, i, 67 - - pectoral limb, i, 50 - of Dipnoan, i, 60 - figure of, i, 85 - Kerr on, i, 61 - in shark, i, 60 - - peculiar, - jaws and teeth, i, 201 - larval forms, i, 142 - - pediculates, i, 51, 206, 207, 405; ii, 40, 499 - order of, ii, 542-553 - - Pegador, - figure of, i, 197; ii, 468 - - pegapega, ii, 468 - - Pegasidæ, ii, 240 - family of, ii, 239 - - Pegasus, i, 393; ii, 240 - - peixe rey, ii, 216 - - pelagic fishes, i, 245 - vertebræ in, i, 209 - - Pelamis, i, 364 - - Pelargorhynchus, ii, 136 - - Pelates, ii, 342 - - Pelecanus, i, 345 - - Pelecopterus, ii, 34 - - pelican, - fish parasites in, i, 345 - - pelican-eel, ii, 156 - - Pellegrin, i, 412 - on poisonous fishes, i, 182-184 - - Pelor, i, 180; ii, 434 - - Peltacephalata, i, 568 - - pelvic girdle, i, 42 - - Pempheridæ, ii, 288 - - Pempheris, ii, 289 - figure of, ii, 289, 290 - - penfishes, ii, 344 - - Penella, i, 242 - - Pennant, i, 396 - on parental affection in fishes, i, 166 - - Pentacerotidæ,[14] ii, 333 - -Footnote 14: - - This family should stand as _Histiopteridæ_, the name _Pentaceros_, - _Pentacerotidæ_, being used earlier for starfishes. - - pentadactyle limb, i, 79 - - Pentapus, ii, 341 - - Peprilus, ii, 285 - figure of, i, 18; ii, 284 - - Perca, 391; ii, 307, 315, 367 - brain of, i, 111 - figure of, ii, 308 - - Percalates, ii, 320 - - Percarina, ii, 310 - - Percesoces, ii, 157, 208, 228, 290, 360, 370, 521, 522 - order of, ii, 215 - - perches, i, 21, 209, 290, 304; ii, 168, 258, 304, 307, 310 - brain of, figured, i, 111 - European, ii, 307 - everglade pigmy, figured, ii, 295 - white, ii, 304 - yellow, ii, 307, 308 - - Percichthys, ii, 320 - - Percidæ, i, 209, 248, 290, 406; ii, 171, 258, 294, 304, 309, 320 - family of, ii, 304 - - Percilia, ii, 320 - - Percina, ii, 306, 310 - figure of, ii, 311 - - Percis, ii, 453 - - Percoidea, ii, 293-315 - - Percoidei, ii, 398 - - percoid fishes, ii, 293-315 - - Percomorphi, ii, 258-271, 365, 397, 398, 426 - suborder of, ii, 258 - - Percophidæ, ii, 502 - - Percopsidæ, i, 290; ii, 241 - family of, ii, 241 - - Percopsis, i, 316; ii, 296 - figure of, ii, 241 - - periblast, i, 136 - - Periophthalmus, i, 117; ii, 465, 510 - figure of, i, 118; ii, 466 - - Peristediidæ, i, 208; ii, 457 - - Peristedion, i, 219 - figure of, i, 299; ii, 457 - - peritoneum, i, 32 - - Permian, ii, 14, 23 - sharks from, i, 517 - - Perugia, i, 412 - - pescado azul, ii, 382 - - pescadillo del red, ii, 354 - - pescado blanco, i, 328; ii, 216 - figure of, i, 217, 329 - - pescado del rey, ii, 216 - - pesce rey, ii, 216 - - Petalodontidæ, i, 531 - family of, i, 554 - teeth of, figured, i, 555 - - Petalodus, i, 554 - - Petalopteryx, ii, 26, 458 - - Peters, i, 411 - - peto, ii, 266 - - Petromyzon, i, 132, 142, 357, 372, 391, 490, 618 - figure of, i, 491 - mouth figured, i, 492 - head of, figured, i, 111 - - Petromyzonidæ, i, 290, 373, 490 - - Petroscirtes, ii, 509 - - pez ciego, ii, 524 - - pez del rey, - figure of, ii, 218 - - pez de pluma, ii, 344 - - pez puerco, ii, 413 - - Phæbodus, i, 522 - - Phanerodon, ii, 375 - - Phaneropleuron, i, 612 - figure of, i, 613 - - Phanerosteon, i, 580 - - Phareodus, ii, 56, 57 - figures of, ii, 57-59 - fossils of, ii, 58, 59 - - pharyngeals, i, 5, 48 - figure of, i, 47 - of Italian parrot-fish, ii, 391 - of parrot-fish, figured, ii, 391 - use in voice, i, 121 - - pharyngeal teeth, - figured, ii, 175 - - Pharyngognathi, i, 405; ii, 259, 380, 396 - suborder of, ii, 384 - - Philippi, i, 415 - - Philypnus, ii, 459 - figure of, ii, 460 - - Pholidophoridæ, ii, 26, 29, 36, 41 - - Pholidophorus, ii, 28 - figure of, ii, 29 - - Pholidurus, ii, 22 - - Pholis, i, 209; ii, 512 - figure of, ii, 512 - - phosphorescent groups, i, 187 - - phosphorescent organs, - artificial stimulation of, i, 191 - chemical action in, i, 196 - cross-section of, i, 193 - Greene on, i, 194, 196, 197 - Lendenfeld on, i, 194, 195 - of Porichthys, i, 194 - - photophores, i, 187, 189 - - Phoxinus, ii, 167 - - Phractolamidæ, ii, 48 - - Phrynorhombus, ii, 488 - - Phtheirichthys, ii, 469 - - Phthinobranchii, i, 227-240 - - Phyllodus, ii, 396 - - Phyllolepidæ, i, 584 - - phylogeny, i, 63, 79 - - Phylopteryx, ii, 238 - - Phylyctænaspis, i, 586 - - Physoclysti, i, 405; ii, 39, 209 - - physostome, ii, 10 - - Physostomi, i, 405; ii, 39, 40 - - picarel, ii, 347 - - pickerel, i, 4; ii, 147 - - pigfish, ii, 342 - - pigmentation, i, 226 - effect of spirits on, i, 235 - - pigmy sunfishes, ii, 296 - - pike, i, 209, 239, 250, 290, 304, 328, 440; ii, 190 - figure of, i, 203, 328; ii, 191 - skeleton of, i, 203 - - pike-perch, ii, 309 - - pilchard, ii, 50 - - pilot-fish, i, 63; ii, 272 - figure of, ii, 273 - - Pimelodus, ii, 183, 186 - - Pimelometopon, ii, 388, 389 - figure of, ii, 389 - - pineal organ, i, 111 - Dean on, i, 112 - figure of, i, 111 - - pine-cone-fish, - figure of, i, 16; ii, 257 - - pinfish, ii, 344 - - ping, ii, 91 - - Pinguipedidæ, ii, 363, 499 - - pink, ii, 72 - - pintado, ii, 266 - - pipefish, i, 64, 128, 440 - family of, ii, 236 - - pirate-perch, i, 290; ii, 294 - figure of, ii, 295 - - Pisces, i, 393, 588 - characteristics of, i, 506 - - Piso, i, 389 - - placoderm, i, 462, 584, 590, 591, 593 - - Placodermi, i, 568, 622, 623 - - placoid scales, i, 21 - - Placopharynx, ii, 174 - lower pharyngeal figured, ii, 171 - - Plagioscion, ii, 354 - - Plagiostomi, i, 507 - - Plagiuri, i, 392 - - Plagyodontidæ, ii, 134, 136 - - Plagyodus, ii, 136 - figure of, ii, 135 - - plaice, ii, 487, 493 - - plaice tribe, ii, 492 - - pla-kat, ii, 370 - - Platacidæ, ii, 398, 400, 401 - - Platax, i, 240, 268; ii, 243, 245, 398, 401 - - Platophrys, - figure of, i, 174, 175 - larval form, i, 174 - - Platichthys, ii, 482, 493 - figure of, ii, 495 - - Platophrys, ii, 481, 482, 488 - larval stages of, figured, ii, 484 - - Platycephalidæ, i, 267 - family of, ii, 441 - - Platycephalus, ii, 441 - - Platycormus, ii, 283, 284, 485 - - Platyglossus, ii, 390 - - Platyptera, ii, 506 - - Platysomidæ, ii, 4, 14, 15 - - Platysomus, ii, 15 - figure of, i, 452 - - Platystacus, i, 128; ii, 184 - - Platyurus, i, 364 - - Playfair, i, 416 - - Plecoglossus, i, 260; ii, 62, 115, 117 - figure of, i, 321; ii, 116 - - plectognath fishes, i, 206 - - Plectognathi, ii, 9, 40 - series of, ii, 411 - - Plectognaths, ii, 291, 411 - - Plectorhynchus, ii, 341 - - Plectospondyli, ii, 40, 161, 162 - - plectospondylous, i, 48 - - Plectromus, ii, 253 - - Plectropoma, ii, 323 - - Plesiops, ii, 330, 359 - - Plethodus, ii, 44 - - Pleuracanthus, i, 65, 66, 204, 437, 510, 511, 513 - diphycercal tail of, i, 80 - figures of, i, 74, 519, 520 - headbones and teeth of, figured, i, 520 - - Pleurocanthidæ, i, 519, 520, 522, 566 - - Pleurogrammus, i, 209 - figure of, i, 328; ii, 439 - - Pleuronectidæ, i, 290 - family of, ii, 485 - - Pleuronectinæ, ii, 492 - - Pleuronectes, i, 391; ii, 493 - - Pleuronichthys, i, 206, 257; ii, 493 - figure of, i, 441 - - Pleuropholis, ii, 29 - - Pleuropterygii, i, 513, 514, 518 - - Plioplarchus, ii, 304 - - Plotosidæ, ii, 184 - - Plotosus, ii, 184 - - Plumier, i, 389 - - Pneumatosteus, ii, 32 - - Podopteryx, ii, 457 - - Podothecus, ii, 453 - - pond-skipper, - figure of, i, 118; ii, 466 - - Pœcilia, ii, 199 - - Pœciliidæ, 22, 125; ii, 194, 198, 199, 201, 213 - figure of, i, 126 - - Pœcilodus, i, 531 - - Poey, i, 376, 415 - portrait of, i, 413 - - Pogonias, i, 595; ii, 354, 357 - figure of, ii, 358 - - Pogonichthys, ii, 169 - - poison fishes, i, 180-185, 236 - figure of, i, 229; ii, 436 - - poison glands, ii, 177, 527 - in catfishes, ii, 182 - Günther on, ii, 527, 528, 529 - - poisonous fishes, ii, 325, 335 - diseases arising from, i, 183 - varieties of, i, 180, 182, 183 - - Polistotrema, - figure of, i, 489 - - Pollachius, i, 209; ii, 537 - - pollack, - figure of, ii, 537 - - Pollard, i, 595, 600 - - Polycentridæ, ii, 358 - - Polyclinidæ, i, 477 - - Polydactylus, - figure of, ii, 225 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225 - - Polygnathus, - figure of, i, 486 - - Polymixia, i, 122; ii, 257 - - Polymixiidæ, - family of, ii, 256 - - Polynemidæ, i, 122; 11, 215, 224 - - Polynemus, i, 393 - - Polyodon, i, 199, 253, 302, 452, 534, 566, 622, 623; ii, 22 - figure of, ii, 22 - - Polyodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 20, 21, 22 - - Polyospondyli, i, 509, 530, 561 - - Polypteridæ, i, 602, 605 - Boulenger on, i, 608 - - Polypterus, i, 76, 79, 88, 89, 204, 450, 600, 601, 603, 606, 616; ii, 2 - figure of, i, 79, 602, 607 - shoulder-girdle of, figured, i, 600 - - Polyrhizodus, i, 555 - - Polystylidæ, i, 476 - - Pomacanthus, ii, 403, 405 - figure of, ii, 403 - - Pomacentridæ, i, 206, 209; ii, 380, 381, 382 - organs of smell in, i, 115 - - Pomacentrus, i, 235; ii, 383 - figure of, ii, 382 - species of, ii, 383 - - Pomadasis, ii, 341, 342 - - Pomatomidæ, ii, 278 - - Pomatomus, ii, 278 - figure of, i, 324 - - pomfret, ii, 286 - - Pomolobus, i, 300; ii, 49, 53 - figure of, i, 455; ii, 50 - - Pomotis, i, 302; ii, 379 - - Pomoxis, i, 302; ii, 297 - figure of, ii, 297, 298 - - pompon, ii, 341 - - pond-skipper, - figure of, i, 118 - - pond-smelt, ii, 124 - - poolfishes, i, 159 - - pope, ii, 309 - - poppy-fish, ii, 283 - - Popular Science Monthly, - reference to, ii, 69 - - porbeagle, i, 537 - - porc des rivières, ii, 369 - - porcupine-fish, i, 19, 197; ii, 422, 423 - figure of, i, 17; ii, 422 - - porgy, i, 239; ii, 342 - varieties of, ii, 344 - - Porichthys, i, 121, 190, 191, 192; ii, 526 - figure of, i, 23; ii, 526 - Greene on, i, 190; ii, 526 - luminous organs of, i, 172 - phosphorescent organs of, i, 191 - - porkfish, ii, 341 - figure of, ii, 341 - - portal vein, i, 108 - - Portheus, ii, 48 - skeleton of, ii, 47 - - Port Jackson shark, - eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527 - - portugais, ii, 405 - - Portuguese man-of-war, - figure of, i, 160 - - Porcus, ii, 183 - - postembryonic development of fishes, i, 132 - - posterior limbs, i, 53 - - postero-temporal, i, 90 - - post-temporal, i, 88, 90 - - Potamorrhaphis, ii, 211 - - Powrie, i, 424 - - predatory fishes, i, 116; ii, 164 - - premaxillary, - figure of, i, 55 - - preopercle, i, 45 - - preservation of fishes, - Günther on, i, 431 - methods of, i, 431, 432 - - Priacanthidæ, ii, 333 - - Priacanthus, ii, 333 - figure of, ii, 331 - - Pribilof sculpin, - figure of, ii, 446 - - Priem, i, 427 - - priestfish, - figure of, ii, 430 - - Prime, - on crab-eater as game fish, ii, 282 - - primitive fishes, - brain of, i, 112 - skeleton of, i, 54 - - primitive herring-like fishes, i, 454 - - primitive sharks, i, 511 - orders of, i, 513 - - Prionace, i, 542 - - Prionodus, i, 488 - - Prionodes, ii, 329 - - Prionotus, i, 246; ii, 283 - figure of, ii, 456 - - Prionurus, ii, 409 - - Priscacara, ii, 381 - - Pristipoma, i, 375 - - Pristididæ, i, 549 - - Pristodontidæ, i, 555 - - Pristiophoridæ, - family of, i, 548, 549 - - Pristiophorus, i, 199 - figure of, i, 201, 548 - - Pristis, i, 199, 548 - figure of, i, 200 - - Pristiurus, i, 70 - - proach, ii, 445 - - Proantigonia, ii, 400 - - Proballostomus, ii, 201 - - problem of highest fishes, - Gill on, i, 383 - - problem of Oatka Creek, i, 282 - - process of natural selection, i, 297, 302 - - Prochanos, ii, 45 - - Prognathodes, ii, 404 - - Progymnodon, ii, 423 - - Prolebias, ii, 201 - - Promethichthys, ii, 267 - - Promicrops, ii, 323 - - pronephros, i, 619; ii, 5, 8 - - Pronotocanthus, ii, 157 - - Propristis, i, 550 - - propterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523 - - Prosarthri, i, 509, 526 - - proscapula, i, 89 - - prosencephalon, i, 109 - figure of, i, 111 - - Protamia, ii, 36 - - Protaulopsis, ii, 233 - - protection, - through poisonous flesh, i, 182 - of young, i, 128 - - protective, - coloration, i, 226 - markings, i, 228 - - Proteus, i, 600 - - Protocatostomus, ii, 56 - - protocercal tail, i, 81, 598 - Wyman on, i, 81 - - Protochordata, i, 460-466 - - Protonotacanthidæ, ii, 157 - - Protopterus, i, 82, 85, 100, 204, 450, 613, 616, 617 - figure of, i, 622 - - Protoselachii, i, 523 - - Protosphyræna, ii, 34 - - Protosphyrænidæ, ii, 34 - - Prostospondyli, ii, 23, 34 - - Protosyngnathus, ii, 233 - - Prototroctes, i, 252; ii, 128 - - protozoan parasites, i, 342 - - Provençal i, 95 - - Psammobatis, i, 553 - - Psammodus, i, 558, 559 - - Psammosteidæ, i, 574 - - Psenes, ii, 285 - - Psenopsis, ii, 284 - - Psephodus, i, 531 - - Psephurus, i, 199, 253, 452, 622, 623 - figure of, ii, 21 - - Psettidæ, ii, 291 - - Psettus, ii, 398, 400 - figure of, ii, 399 - - Pseudecheneis, ii, 184 - - Pseudeleginus, ii, 502 - - Pseudobagrus, ii, 183 - - Pseudoberyx, ii, 52 - - Pseudoblennius, i, 260; ii, 448 - - pseudobranch, ii, 7 - - pseudobranchiæ, i, 92 - - Pseudocheilinus, ii, 390 - - Pseudochromipidæ, ii, 359 - - Pseudogaleus, i, 533 - - Pseudojulis, ii, 389 - - Pseudolabrus, ii, 390 - - Pseudomonacanthus, ii, 415 - - Pseudopleuronectes, i, 174; ii, 493 - larval figures of, i, 176; ii, 483 - - Pseudopriacanthus, ii, 332, 333 - figure of, ii, 332 - - Pseudorhombus, ii, 492 - - Pseudoscaphirhynchus, ii, 18, 20 - - Pseudoscarus, i, 329; ii, 394, 396 - figure of, i, 330 - - Pseudosciæna, i, 169; ii, 355, 356 - - Pseudotriakidæ, - family of, i, 536 - - Pseudotriakis, i, 536 - - Pseudovomer, ii, 278, 286 - - Pseudogobio, i, 416 - - Pseudupeneus, ii, 352 - figure of, i, 122, 329; ii, 351 - - Psychrolutes, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449 - figure of, i, 221; ii, 451 - - Psychromaster, ii, 315 - - Pteraclidæ, ii, 286, 291 - - Pteraclis, ii, 286 - - Pteraspidæ, i, 570 - - Pteraspis, i, 569, 571, 591, 622 - figure of, i, 575 - - Pterichthyodes, i, 444, 622 - figure of, i, 576 - - Pterichthys, i, 581 - - Pterogobius, - figure of, ii, 462 - - Pterois, i, 180, 202; ii, 434 - figure of, ii, 435 - - Pterophryne, ii, 550 - figure of, ii, 549 - species of, ii, 550 - - Pteroplatea, i, 556 - - Pteropsaridæ, ii, 502 - - Pteropsaron, - figure of, ii, 502 - - Pterothrissidæ, ii, 46 - described, ii, 46 - - Pterothrissus, ii, 46 - - Pterophryne, - figure of, i, 52 - - pterygials, ii, 1 - - Pterygocephalus, ii, 513 - - pterygoid, i, 606 - - Ptilichthyidæ, ii, 513 - - Ptilichthys, - figure of, ii, 514 - - Ptychochelius, i, 164, 304; ii, 169 - figure of, i, 162 - - Ptychoderidæ, i, 465 - - Ptychodus, i, 557 - - Ptycholepis, ii, 26 - figure of, ii, 28 - - ptychopterygium, i, 510, 512 - - Ptychodus, i, 566 - - pudding-wife, ii, 388 - - pudiano, ii, 388 - - puffer, inflated, - figure of, ii, 420 - - puffers, i, 206, 236; - figure of, ii, 419, 420 - silver, ii, 419 - tiger, ii, 423 - - pugnacity of fishes, i, 162 - - pug-nosed eel, ii, 148 - figure of, ii, 149 - - Putnam, i, 405; ii, 522 - - Pycnodonti, ii, 13 - - Pycnodontidæ, ii, 22 - - Pycnodus, ii, 22 - - Pygæidæ, ii, 405 - - Pygæus, ii, 405, 410 - - Pygidiidæ, ii, 185, 186 - - Pygopterus, ii, 14 - - Pygosteus, ii, 231 - - pyloric cæca, i, 26, 32 - - Pyrosoma, i, 477 - - Pyrosomidæ, i, 477 - - - quadrate, i, 606 - - Quassilabia, ii, 174 - - Quensel, i, 396 - - Querimana, ii, 222 - - questions, - by Agassiz, i, 284 - by Cope, i, 288 - - quiescent fishes, i, 158 - - quillfish, - the, ii, 513 - figure of, ii, 514 - - quinnat salmon, i, 150, 301; ii, 68, 73-76 - figure of, i, 354; ii, 69, 79 - young male figured, i, 355 - - - rabbit-fishes, - figure of, ii, 423 - - Rabirubia, ii, 337 - - Rachycentridæ, - family of, ii, 282 - - Rachycentron, ii, 470, 468 - figure of, ii, 282 - - Rafinesque, i, 395; ii, 315 - on imaginary garpike, i, 364, 366 - - ragfishes, the, ii, 285 - Ogilby on, ii, 285 - - rainbow darter, ii, 315 - - rainbow trout, ii, 96-98, 100 - figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99 - - Raja, i, 72, 129, 391, 549 - figure of, i, 448, 552 - - Rajidæ, i, 551, 553 - - Ranicipitidæ, ii, 539 - - Rangeley trout, ii, 109 - figure of, i, 326 - - Raniceps, ii, 539 - - Ranzania, i, 84, 412 - figure of, ii, 425 - - Rapp, i, 411 - - Rascasio, ii, 433 - - ratfish, i, 564 - - Rathke, i, 428; ii, 144 - - rat-tail, i, 209; ii, 441, 540 - - Ray, i, 390 - - ray, i, 9, 24, 35, 117, 508, 509, 549 - electric organs of, i, 186 - - razor-back sucker, ii, 174 - figure of, ii, 175 - - razor-fish, - figure of, ii, 388 - - recognition marks, i, 7, 231, 232 - - records of fishes, i, 433 - - red charr, ii, 108 - - red drum, - figure of, ii, 356 - - redeye, ii, 168 - - Redfield, i, 423 - - redfin, ii, 166 - - Redfieldius, ii, 16 - - redfish, ii, 68, 324, 355, 388 - figure of, ii, 389 - - red goatfish, ii, 35 - figure of, i, 329 - - red grouper, ii, 324 - figure of, ii, 325 - - red hind, ii, 324 - figure of, ii, 326 - - red-mouth grunt, ii, 340 - - red mullet, ii, 352 - - red mumea, ii, 335 - - red parrot-fish, - figure of, ii, 393 - - red porgy, ii, 343 - - red rockfish, ii, 429 - - red rock-trout, ii, 440 - skeleton of, figured, i, 214 - - red salmon, ii, 69, 71, 82 - figure of, ii, 70, 76 - - red snapper, ii, 330, 335 - - red tai, ii, 349 - figure of, ii, 342 - - red-throated trout, ii, 102 - - red voraz, ii, 338 - - red wrasse, ii, 387 - - Reed, ii, 112, 113 - on trout-fishing, ii, 112 - - Regalecidæ, - family of, i, 472 - - Regalecus, i, 361; ii, 425, 472, 473, 479 - figure of, i, 362, 363 - - Regan, ii, 291 - on Teleostomi, i, 622, 623 - - Règnè Animal, i, 400 - - Reighard, i, 428 - on lampreys, i, 491 - - Reinhardt, i, 410; ii, 127 - portrait of, i, 409 - - Reinhardtius, ii, 491 - - Reis, i, 427, 428, 571 - - relations of fish faunas, - Japan and Mediterranean, i, 270 - - relationships, - of Chimæras, i, 563 - of Palæspondylus, i, 593, 595 - - relation of vertebræ to temperature, i, 202 - - Remora, i, 197; ii, 468, 469 - - Remorina, ii, 469 - - Remoropsis, ii, 469 - - Remsberg, - photograph by, i, 362 - - Renard, i, 396 - - reproduction of lost parts, i, 150 - - Requins, i, 540 - - resemblances of fish faunas, i, 259, 260 - - respiration, i, 91-108 - - Retropinna, i, 252; ii, 123 - - Retzius, i, 428 - - Rhabdofario, ii, 62, 118 - - Rhacochilus, ii, 375 - figure of, ii, 374 - - Rhacolepis, ii, 44 - - Rhadinichthys, ii, 14 - - Rhamphognathus, ii, 218 - - Rhamphocottidæ, ii, 449 - - Rhamphocottus, ii, 449 - figure of, ii, 451 - - Rhamphosidæ, ii, 234 - - Rhamphosus, ii, 234 - - Rhegnopteri, - order of, ii, 224 - - Rheopresbe, i, 256; ii, 445 - - Rhina, i, 551 - - Rhinæ, - suborder of, i, 547 - - Rhineastes, ii, 186 - - Rhinellidæ, ii, 134 - - Rhinellus, ii, 134 - figure of, ii, 134 - - Rhineodon, i, 540 - - Rhineodontidæ, i, 540 - - Rhinesomus, i, 377 - - Rhinichthys, i, 283, 307 - figure of, i, 342; ii, 164 - - Rhinidæ, i, 551 - - Rhinobatidæ, i, 551 - family of, i, 550 - - Rhinobatis, i, 553 - figure of, i, 551 - - Rhinochimæra, i, 199, 566 - - Rhinochimæridæ, i, 565 - - Rhinoptera, i, 557 - - Rhinotriacis, i, 541 - - Rhipidistia, i, 602 - - Rhizodontidæ, i, 603 - - Rhizodopsis, i, 603 - - Rhodeus, i, 129; ii, 164 - - Rhombochirus, - figure of, ii, 469 - - Rhomboganoidea, ii, 24 - - Rhomboplites, ii, 337 - - Rhombus, ii, 486 - - Rhyacichthyidæ, ii, 504 - - Rhyacichthys, ii, 504 - - Rhynchias, ii, 522 - - Rhynchobdella, ii, 532 - - Rhynchodus, i, 566 - - Rhynchorhinus, ii, 150 - - ribbon-fish, ii, 471, 475, 485 - Goode on, ii, 475 - - rice-field eels, ii, 141 - - Richardson, i, 408, 418; ii, 64 - on whitefish, i, 322 - - Richardson's sculpin, - figure of, ii, 451 - - Rio Grande trout, - figure of, ii, 106 - - Risso, i, 395 - - Rissola, - figure of, ii, 520 - - Ritter, - on ascidians, i, 474 - on Enteropneusta, i, 464 - - river-bullhead, - spawning of, i, 166 - - river-drum, ii, 354, 355 - - river-fishes, - dispersion of, i, 297-319 - - river-ruff, ii, 309 - - river-sculpin, ii, 445 - - river-sheepshead, ii, 354 - - river-trout, ii, 94 - - river-wolf, ii, 190 - - Rivulus, i, 314 - - roach, ii, 163, 168 - - robalito, ii, 320 - - robalo, the, i, 320, 355 - figure of, ii, 319, 324 - - Roccus, i, 291, 324; ii, 321, 330 - bones of, i, 35 - cranium of, i, 36-39 - figures of, i, 35-39, 46, 48 - - Roche, i, 396 - - rock-bass, i, 4; ii, 297 - figure of, ii, 299 - skull of, figured, ii, 296 - - rock-beauty, ii, 404 - figure of, ii, 405 - - rock-cod, i, 203; ii, 429 - - rock-cook, ii, 387 - - rockfish, i, 94, 125, 159; ii, 321, 429, 431 - figure of, i, 218 - - rock-hind, i, 19; ii, 324 - figure of, i, 29 - - rocklings, i, 209; ii, 520, 539 - - rock-pilots, the, ii, 381 - - rock-pool fishes, - figure of, i, 294 - - rock-skipper, ii, 510 - figure of, ii, 509 - - Rocky Mountains, - barriers to dispersion, i, 305 - - Rohon, i, 427, 428 - - romero, ii, 272 - - roncador, ii, 353, 355, 356 - - ronco amarilla, ii, 340 - - ronco arará, ii, 340 - - Rondelet, i, 361, 388 - on sea-monster, i, 360 - - Rondeletiidæ, ii, 132 - - Ronquilus, ii, 502 - - ronquils, ii, 502 - - rosefishes, i, 125; ii, 428 - figure of, ii, 427 - - Rosenthal, i, 428 - - rothfisch, ii, 106 - - rough-headed sea-robin, ii, 457 - - roundfish, ii, 63 - - round-herring, ii, 52 - - round-minnow, - figure of, ii, 196 - - round-robin, ii, 274 - - rousettes, i, 533 - - Rudarius, - figure of, i, 241 - - rudder-fish, ii, 273, 285, 349, 350 - figure of, ii, 349 - - runners, ii, 272 - - Rüppell, i, 411 - - Rusconi, - on external gills, i, 77 - - Russell, i, 396; ii, 473 - - rusty-dab, ii, 493 - - Rutilus, ii, 164, 168 - - Rutter, i, 422; ii, 69, 84 - photograph by, i, 355 - - Ruvettus, ii, 267 - - Ryder, i, 408, 428 - on embryos, i, 64 - on nest-building, ii, 229 - on paired limbs, i, 66 - on tail forms, i, 81, 84 - - Rypticus, - figure of, ii, 330 - - - saboti, ii, 304 - - Saccopharynx, ii, 136, 157 - - Sacramento perch, i, 179 - figure of, i, 258 - - Sagenodus, i, 613 - - sailfish, ii, 268 - - sailor-fish, i, 199 - - St. Ambrose, ii, 120 - on Thymallus, ii, 120 - - St. Hilaire, i, 396, 428 - - St. John, i, 426 - - Salangidæ, ii, 127 - - Salanx, i, 146; ii, 123, 127, 128 - figure of, i, 147; ii, 128 - - sälbling, ii, 108 - - Salar, ii, 90, 93 - - Salarias, i, 208, 271; ii, 510, 511 - - salema, ii, 346 - - Salmo, i, 291, 304, 305, 316-318, 332, 345, 346, 378, 391; ii, 62, 68, - 89, 94-96, 98 - figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99, 101, 104-106 - general description, ii, 89 - tail of, figured, ii, 486 - - salmon, i, 21, 25, 28, 39, 53, 146, 204, 209, 249, 256, 290, 440; ii, - 67-69, 94, 107, 128, 159 - artificial propagation of, ii, 88 - ascent of cascades, ii, 76 - Callbreath on, ii, 89 - colors of, ii, 78 - family of, i, 61-119 - habits in ocean, ii, 73 - method of descent of stream, ii, 78 - mutilation of, ii, 75, 76 - nest of, ii, 78 - packing of, ii, 87 - scales of, i, 21 - sexual distortion in, i, 129 - spawning changes in, ii, 89 - spawning of, ii, 78-80 - spring running, ii, 73 - white-meated, ii, 78 - of Yukon, i, 73 - - salmonete, i, 329 - figure of, ii, 351 - - salmon fishery, - of Japan, ii, 81 - output of, ii, 87 - - salmon fry, - liberation of, ii, 84 - marking of, ii, 84 - - Salmonidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 61-119, 127, 130, 161, 190 - - Salmonoidea, ii, 41, 61 - - salmonoids, ii, 94, 107 - - salmon pack, - estimate of, ii, 80 - - salmon roe, ii, 76 - - salmon shark, i, 447, 537 - - salmon trout, ii, 94, 105, 114 - - Salmopercæ, ii, 241-249 - suborder of, ii, 241 - - Salpa, i, 477; ii, 348 - - Salpidæ, i, 477 - - Salvelini, ii, 95, 106 - - Salvelinus, i, 282, 306, 307, 311; ii, 62, 95, 99, 107, 108-110, - 112-114 - description of, ii, 107 - figure of, i, 326; ii, 110, 111 - - samarang, i, 408 - - Samaris, ii, 489 - - samlet, - figure of, ii, 116 - - Sancassini, ii, 144 - - Sandalodus, i, 531 - - sand-dab, ii, 491 - - sand-darter, ii, 313 - figure of, i, 158; ii, 313 - - sandfishes, ii, 364 - figure of, ii, 364 - - sand-lance, - figure of, ii, 521 - - sand-pike, ii, 308 - - sand-roller, - figure of, ii, 241 - - Sandroserrus, ii, 309 - - Sandrus, ii, 309 - - sandstone, - fragment figured, i, 435 - - sand-sucker, ii, 357 - - sand-whiting, ii, 357 - - San Pedro fish, ii, 244 - - São Paulo, ii, 162 - - Saprolegnia, i, 353; ii, 76 - surface on, i, 354 - - sarcastic blenny, - figure of, ii, 507 - - Sarda, i, 210; ii, 264 - - Sardinella, i, 204, 327, 332; ii, 50 - - sardines, i, 199, 268; ii, 50 - - Sardinia, i, 204 - - Sardiniodes, ii, 134 - - Sardinius, ii, 44 - - Sargassum fish, - figure of, i, 52; ii, 549 - - sargo, ii, 345 - - Sars, ii, 535 - - saucer-eye porgy, - figure of, ii, 345 - - sauger, - figure of, ii, 309 - - Sauripterus, i, 603 - - Saurocephalus, ii, 48 - - Saurodon, ii, 48 - - Saurodontidæ, ii, 48 - - Sauropsida, i, 601 - - Sauropsis, ii, 34 - - Saurorhynchidæ, ii, 17 - - Saurorhynchus, ii, 17 - - saury, - figure of, ii, 212 - - sausolele, - figure of, ii, 435 - - Sauvage, i, 412, 427 - - savalo, ii, 43 - - sawfish, i, 199, 548 - figure of, i, 550 - - saw-shark, i, 549 - figure of, i, 201, 548 - - scabbard-fishes, ii, 267 - - Scænidæ, i, 206 - - scales of fish, - classification of, i, 20 - figure of, i, 21, 22 - - scamp, ii, 327 - - Scapanorhinus, - snout figured, i, 536 - - Scaphirhynchus, i, 253, 452; ii, 18, 20 - - Scardinius, ii, 168 - - Scaridæ, ii, 390, 393, 396 - - Scaridea, ii, 391 - - Scartichthys, - figure of, i, 294; ii, 510 - - Scarus, ii, 352, 391, 393, 396 - figure of, ii, 394 - jaws of, figured, ii, 393 - pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393 - - Scatophagus, ii, 400 - - Scaumenacia, i, 612 - - Schedophilus, ii, 285 - - Schilbiosus, - figure of, i, 179 - - Schilbeodes, i, 180, 202; ii, 177, 182 - figure of, ii, 182 - structure of, ii, 177 - - Schizocardium, i, 465 - - Schlegel, i, 414 - - Schmidt, i, 411 - - Schnäbel, ii, 63 - - Schnapper, ii, 343 - - Schneider, i, 398 - - schoolmaster, ii, 336 - - schoolmaster-snapper, - figure of, i, 440 - - Schomburgk, i, 415 - - Schöpf, i, 395 - - Sciæna, i, 391; ii, 356-358 - - Sciænidæ, i, 290; ii, 225, 353-355, 358 - - Sciænops, ii, 355 - figure of, ii, 356 - - Sclerodermi, ii, 398, 411, 412 - - scleroderms, ii, 412, 415 - - Scoliodon, i, 542 - - Scolopsis, ii, 342 - - Scomber, i, 94, 210, 391; ii, 260, 262, 266 - figure of, i, 332; ii, 260 - - Scomberoides, ii, 272, 470 - - Scomberomorus, i, 210, 322; ii, 264, 266 - figure of, ii, 264 - - Scomberosomus, - figure of, i, 322 - - Scomberidea, ii, 258, 271 - - Scombramphodon, ii, 266 - - Scombresox, ii, 211, 214 - figure of, i, 212 - - Scombridæ, i, 210; ii, 258, 272, 470 - family of, ii, 259 - - scombriform fishes, i, 209 - - Scombrinus, ii, 266 - - Scombroclupea, ii, 52 - - Scombroidea, - suborder of, ii, 258 - - Scombroidei, ii, 291, 484, 485 - - scombroids, ii, 485 - - Scombropidæ, ii, 317 - - Scombrops, ii, 317 - - scopeloid, ii, 474 - - Scopelus, ii, 133 - - Scophthalmus, ii, 486, 488 - - Scopoli, i, 396 - - Scorpæna, i, 180, 211, 391; ii, 429, 432, 433, 438 - figure of, i, 433, 434 - - Scorpænichthys, ii, 442 - skull of, figured, i, 427 - - Scorpænidæ, i, 94, 207, 211; ii, 363, 426, 435, 441, 503 - family of, i, 426, 448 - - Scorpænopsis, ii, 434 - - Scorpænopterus, ii, 436 - - Scorpididæ, ii, 397, 398, 400 - - Scorpis, ii, 398, 400 - - scorpion-fishes, i, 207, 429; ii, 426, 433 - - Scudder, i, 405 - - sculpin, i, 21, 219, 257, 290, 429, 440; ii, 363, 441, 445, 447-449 - buffalo, ii, 443 - daddy, ii, 445 - eighteen-spined, ii, 446 - great, ii, 442 - little, ii, 446 - long-horned, ii, 447 - Pribilof, ii, 446 - red, ii, 443 - Richardson's, ii, 451 - river, ii, 445 - sleek, ii, 451 - stone, ii, 443 - - scup, ii, 344 - figure of, ii, 343 - - scutes, i, 570 - - Scuticaria, ii, 153 - - Scymnorhinus, i, 546 - - Scyliorhinidæ, i, 127, 532, 533 - - Scyliorhinoid shark, - skull of, figured, i, 56 - - Scyliorhinus, i, 447, 533 - - Scyphophori, ii, 188, 207 - order of, ii, 188, 189 - - Scytalina, - figure of, ii, 519 - - Scytalinidæ, ii, 519 - - sea-bass, i, 135; ii, 320, 323 - figure of, i, 137 - - sea-bat, ii, 552 - - sea-catfish, ii, 178 - eggs of, hatched in mouth, ii, 179 - figure of, ii, 179 - - sea-devil, i, 559; ii, 547 - - sea-drum, ii, 357 - - sea-horse, i, 19, 64, 128; ii, 449 - family of, i, 236 - figure of, i, 17 - - Seale, i, 422 - - sea-mink, ii, 356 - - sea-moth, ii, 239 - figure of, ii, 240 - - sea-poacher, i, 208; ii, 449, 453 - - sea-raven, - figure of, i, 220; ii, 448 - - sea-robin, i, 246; ii, 457 - figure of, ii, 456 - rough-headed, ii, 457 - striped, ii, 457 - - sea-scorpion, ii, 363 - figure of, ii, 434 - - sea-serpent, i, 361; ii, 471, 473 - - sea-snail, i, 217; ii, 39, 454 - - sea-trout, ii, 94 - - sea-waifs, ii, 133 - - sea weed, ii, 512 - - sebago, ii, 92 - - Sebastapistes, ii, 434 - - Sebastes, i, 125, 211; ii, 428 - figure of, i, 218; ii, 427 - - Sebastichthys, ii, 428, 429, 433 - figure of, ii, 431, 432 - - Sebastiscus, ii, 432 - - Sebastodes, i, 125, 211, 219, 375; ii, 428, 429, 431-433, 438 - figure of, ii, 429 - skeleton of, figured, i, 214 - - Sebastolobus, i, 52-55, 211 - cranium of, i, 53 - figure of, ii, 428 - lower jaw of, i, 54 - maxillary of, i, 55 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 52 - - Sebastopsis, i, 271; ii, 432 - - Sectator, i, 271; ii, 350 - - Seeley, i, 410 - - Segemehl, i, 97 - - segments of Dibothrium figured, ii, 103 - - selachians, i, 572, 592 - - Selachii, i, 382, 507-509; ii, 9 - - Selachostomi, i, 623; ii, 13 - order of, ii, 20 - - Selenaspis, - clavicle of, i, 87 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 86 - - Selene, ii, 276 - development of, figured, i, 148 - Lütken on, i, 144 - skeleton of, figured, i, 55 - - Selenichthyes, ii, 241-249 - suborder of, ii, 243 - - Selenosteus, i, 588 - - Selenosteidæ, i, 587 - - Semicossyphus, ii, 390 - - Semionotidæ, ii, 23, 24, 26 - - Semionotus, - figure of, ii, 24 - - Semiophoridæ, ii, 245 - - Semiophorus, ii, 245 - figure of, ii, 246 - - Semon, i, 428 - - Semotilus, i, 282; ii, 167 - figure of, i, 285; ii, 268 - - señorita, ii, 388 - - sense organs, i, 115-123 - - sense of pain, i, 123 - - sense of taste, i, 121 - - sense of touch, i, 121 - - sensorium, i, 153 - - sensory nerves, i, 153 - - Sergeant Baker, ii, 130 - - sergeant-fish, - figure of, ii, 282 - - Seriola, ii, 272, 278 - figure of, i, 459; ii, 273 - - Seriphus, ii, 354 - - serran, ii, 329 - - Serrana, ii, 357 - - Serranellus, ii, 329 - - Serranidæ, i, 206, 209, 259, 290; ii, 258, 293, 319, 320, 324, 327, - 328, 330, 331, 333, 359, 363 - - serrano, ii, 327, 328 - - Serranus, ii, 328, 363 - - Serrasalmo, ii, 161, 162 - - Sertulariæ, ii, 544 - - sese de lo alto, ii, 336 - - sesele, ii, 304 - - Setarches, ii, 433 - - setiform, i, 30 - - sexual coloration, i, 230 - - sexual modification, - in colors, i, 129 - in structure, i, 129 - - shad, ii, 50, 53, 147 - - shad waiter, ii, 63 - - shagreen grains, i, 570 - - sharks, i, 21, 23, 24, 28, 53, 75, 445, 446, 519, 523, 542, 543, 545, - 546 - air-bladder wanting in, i, 506 - distribution of, i, 459 - eggs of, i, 127, 433 - fossil teeth of, i, 546 - jaws of, i, 35 - pectoral limbs of, i, 60, 66 - phosphorescent, i, 189 - primitive, i, 510, 511 - shoulder-girdle in, i, 507 - skull of, i, 56, 57 - - shark-sucker, i, 197; ii, 468, 469 - - sharp-nosed flying-fish, - figure of, ii, 213 - - Shasta, ii, 97 - - Shaw, i, 398 - - sheatfish, ii, 182, 183 - - sheepshead, i, 30, 324; ii, 345, 346 - figure of, i, 31; ii, 346 - - shibi, ii, 263 - - shiner, i, 283; ii, 163, 168 - figure of, ii, 168 - - shiro-uwo, ii, 127, 467 - - Shooter, - head-fish taken by, ii, 424 - - shore-fishes, i, 245 - distribution of, i, 263-265 - - short-nosed garpike, - figure of, i, 452 - - shoulder girdle, i, 42, 50 - of batfish, ii, 551 - of buffalo-fish, ii, 160 - figure of, i, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 69, 70, 86, 88, 89, 600; ii, 225, - 227 - figure of fossil, i, 521 - of flounder figured, i, 58; ii, 2 - of Ictiobus ii, 160 - inner view of, ii, 160 - of Neoceratodus, i, 609 - of Opah figured, ii, 243 - of Polypterus, i, 70 - of Sebastolobus figured, i, 52 - in sharks, i, 507 - in true eel, ii, 141 - - shovel-nosed sturgeon i, 253 - - shrimp, ii, 147 - - shrimpfishes, ii, 234 - figure of, ii, 235 - - Shufeldt, - photographs by, i, 7, 13, 137; ii, 181, 305, 333 - - Siebold, i, 411, 414 - - sierra, ii, 266 - - Siganidæ, ii, 409, 410 - - Siganus, ii, 410 - - sight organs, i, 116-118 - - significance, - of resemblance, i, 259 - of rare forms, i, 262 - - Sillaginidæ, ii, 358 - - sillago, ii, 358 - - silk-snapper, ii, 336 - - Siluridæ, i, 149, 205, 280, 290, 293; ii, 60, 178, 182, 186 - - siluroid, i, 290; ii, 529 - - Silurus, i, 391; ii, 182 - - silverfin, - figure of, i, 457; ii, 166 - - silver-jaw minnow, ii, 165 - figure of, ii, 165 - - silver-jenny, ii, 348 - - silver-king, ii, 43 - - silver-perch, ii, 342 - - silver-salmon, ii, 68, 71, 73, 87 - - silversides, i, 290; ii, 215 - figure of, ii, 217 - - silver surf-fish, - figure of, i, 309; ii, 375 - - silver-tail, ii, 512 - - silvery anchovy, - figure of, ii, 54 - - silvery puffer, - figure of, ii, 419 - - Simenchelyidæ, ii, 148 - - Simenchelys, ii, 148 - figure of, ii, 149 - - Sindo, i, 418, 422 - - singing-fish, i, 121 - figure of, i, 23; ii, 526 - species of, ii, 526 - - Siniperca, ii, 320 - - sinus impar, i, 120 - - sinus venosus, i, 108 - - Siphonognathidæ, ii, 390 - - Siphonognathus, ii, 390 - - Siphonostoma, ii, 236 - - Sirembo, ii, 524 - - Sirenoidei, i, 612 - order of, i, 613 - - sisco, ii, 66, 67 - - siscowet, ii, 66, 115 - - Sisoridæ, ii, 184 - - skates, i, 28, 551, 552 - - skeleton of cowfish, - figure of, ii, 418 - - skeleton of fish, i, 10, 34-61 - of cowfish, i, 215 - of Chimæra, i, 564 - parts of, i, 35, 36 - primitive, i, 54 - of pike figured, i, 203 - of red rockfish, i, 214 - of Selene figured, i, 55 - of shark, i, 57 - of spiny-rayed fish, i, 214 - - skilfishes, ii, 438 - figure of, ii, 438 - - skin-peeler, ii, 415 - - skipjack, ii, 50 - - skippers, - Couch on, ii, 211 - - skipping-goby, i, 117 - - skittle-dogs, i, 545 - - skull, - of Anarrhichthys, ii, 517 - autostylic, i, 57 - figure of, ii, 296 - of haddock, ii, 536 - hyostylic, i, 56, 508 - of rock-bass, ii, 296 - of Scorpænichthys figured, ii, 427 - of shark figured, i, 56 - - sleek-sculpin, - figure of, i, 221; ii, 451 - - sleeper-shark, i, 547 - - sleepy Argentine, ii, 134 - - slippery Dick, ii, 388 - figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396 - - Sloane, i, 389 - - small-mouthed bass, - figure of, i, 325; ii, 303 - - smear-dab, ii, 494 - - smelt, ii, 66, 91, 120-138 - figure of, ii, 123 - - Smerdis, ii, 310, 330 - - Smith, i, 416, 419, 608 - on Arctic species, i, 317 - - Smitt, i, 410 - - snailfish, ii, 455 - - snake-blennies, ii, 512 - - snake-eels, ii, 150 - figure of, i, 233 - - snake-headed China-fish, ii, 371 - figure of, i, 150; ii, 371 - - snake-headed mullets, ii, 370 - - snapper, ii, 333, 335, 338 - diamond, ii, 337 - gray, ii, 334, 335 - lane, ii, 336 - mahogany, ii, 337 - mangrove, ii, 335 - mutton, ii, 335 - red, ii, 335 - silk, ii, 336 - true, ii, 337 - yellow-tail, ii, 337 - - snipe-eels, ii, 151 - - snipefishes, ii, 234 - - Snodgrass, i, 422; ii, 423 - - snooks, ii, 282, 320 - - snowy grouper, - figure of, ii, 329 - - Snyder, i, 418, 420 - - Snyderina, - figure of, ii, 437 - - soapfishes, ii, 330 - figure of, ii, 330 - - sobaco, ii, 413 - - sockeye, ii, 69 - - soft-rayed fishes, i, 204; ii, 39 - - soi, ii, 429 - - soldados, ii, 253 - - Solander, i, 395 - - soldier-fish, ii, 315 - family of, ii, 253 - figure of, ii, 254 - - Solea, i, 327; ii, 487, 496 - - Soleidæ, i, 290; ii, 495, 499 - - Soleinæ, ii, 496 - - Solenostomidæ, - family of, ii, 236 - - Solenostomus, i, 128; ii, 236 - figure of, ii, 237 - - soles, ii, 495 - broad, ii, 495 - Day on, ii, 496, 497 - European, ii, 496 - Gill on, ii, 496 - habits of, ii, 496 - hog-choker, ii, 498 - Parker on, ii, 483 - - Sonnerat, i, 395 - - Sörensen, - on elastic spring, i, 97 - - sounds of fishes, i, 168-170 - Bowring on, i, 168 - - soup-fin sharks, - figure of, i, 541 - - southern zone, i, 253 - - spadefish, ii, 400 - figure of, i, 325; ii, 401 - - Spaniodon, ii, 43 - - Spaniodontidæ, ii, 47 - - Spanish-flag, ii, 323, 429 - - Spanish-mackerel, i, 64, 210, 322 - figure of, i, 322; ii, 264 - Goode on, ii, 264, 265 - Mitchill on, ii, 264 - - Sparidæ, i, 206; ii, 342, 344, 346, 372 - family of, ii, 342 - - Sparisoma, i, 268; ii, 352, 391, 392, 396 - figure of, ii, 392 - jaws figured, i, 30 - - Sparnodus, ii, 347 - - Sparus, i, 259, 263, 391; ii, 346 - - Spathiurus, ii, 36 - - Spaulding, ii, 84 - marking of fry by, ii, 84 - - spawning-grounds, - return to, ii, 82 - - spawning of salmon, i, 160 - - special creation impossible, i, 295 - - spearfish, i, 199; ii, 469 - - specialized fishes, i, 249 - - species, i, 371 - absent through barriers, i, 238 - changed through natural - selection, ii, 239 - characters of, i, 292 - conditions favorable to, i, 301 - extinction of, i, 239 - meaning of, i, 293, 379 - special creation, i, 295 - transfer of, i, 312 - - speckled flounder, ii, 488 - - speckled hind, ii, 324 - figure of, ii, 325 - - speckled trout, - figure of, i, 326; ii, 110 - - Spengel, - on Enteropneusta, i, 464 - - Spengelia, i, 465 - - Spengeliidæ, i, 465 - - sperling, ii, 123 - - Sphærodon, i, 268 - - Sphagebranchus, ii, 151 - - Sphagepæa, i, 565 - - sphenial, i, 606 - - Sphenocephalus, ii, 252 - - Spheroides, i, 206; ii, 419-421 - figure of, i, 420 - - Sphyrænidæ, i, 206 - family of, ii, 222 - - Sphyræna, ii, 221 - figure of, ii, 223 - - Sphyrænodus, ii, 266 - - Sphyrna, i, 543 - figure of, i, 544 - - Sphyrnidæ, i, 543 - - Spicara, i, 260; ii, 347 - - Spinacanthidæ, ii, 415 - - Spinacanthus, ii, 415 - - Spinachia, ii, 232 - - spinal cord, i, 112 - - spineless trunkfish, - figure of, i, 378; ii, 417 - - spines of catfish, i, 179 - - spiny eels, ii, 157 - - spiny-rayed fishes, i, 21, 206-208; ii, 39, 208, 307 - skeleton of, figured, i, 214 - - spiracle, i, 92 - - Spiraculis, i, 393 - - spiral valve, i, 32 - - splenial, i, 43 - - split-tail, ii, 169 - - Spondyliosoma, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350 - - spookfishes, i, 564 - - spot, ii, 356 - - spotted trout, ii, 105 - - spotted trunkfish, ii, 416 - figure of, i, 377; ii, 417 - - spotted weakfish, - figure of, ii, 353 - - sprat, i, 204; ii, 50, 123 - - spring salmon, ii, 80 - - Squalidæ, i, 531, 543, 545, 546, 566 - - Squaloraja, i, 566 - - Squalorajidæ, i, 566 - - Squalus, i, 391 - figure of, i, 545 - - Squamipinnes, ii, 209, 411 - - Squamipinus, ii, 397-410 - - square-tails, ii, 291 - - Squatina, i, 548 - brain of, figured, i, 547 - pectoral fin figured, i, 56 - - Squatinidæ, i, 549, 554 - - squawfish, - figure of, i, 162; ii, 169 - spawning journey of, i, 164 - - squeteague, ii, 353 - - squirrel-fish, ii, 253, 329 - - Stannius, i, 428 - - star-gazer, ii, 364, 503 - figure of, i, 187, 504 - - Starks, C. L. - drawings of fishes i, 36-39 - - Starks, E. C., i, 420 - on berycoid skull, ii, 250 - on fish skeleton, i, 39 - - starry-flounder, ii, 493 - figure of, ii, 495 - - star-spined ray, - figure of, i, 448 - - Stearns, i, 419 - - steelhead, ii, 94, 96, 99, 100 - figure of, ii, 101 - - steelhead-trout, - figure of, i, 327 - - Steenstrup, i, 410 - - Stegocephali, i, 606 - - Stegostoma, i, 533 - - Stegothalami, i, 584 - Dean on, i, 585 - - Steindachnerella, ii, 541 - - Steindachner, i, 411, 414, 427 - portrait of, i, 403 - - Steindachneria, - figure of, ii, 541 - - Steinegeria, ii, 286 - - Steinegeriidæ, ii, 286 - - Stelgis, - figure of, ii, 451 - - Steller, i, 395; ii, 135 - on quinnat salmon, ii, 68 - - Stellifer, i, 271; ii, 355 - - Stenodus, ii, 62, 68 - figure of, ii, 67 - - Stenotomus, ii, 344 - figure of, ii, 343 - - Stephanoberycidæ, - family of, ii, 223 - - Stephanoberyx, ii, 223 - - Stephanolepis, ii, 414, 415 - figure of, i, 182, 415 - - Stereobalanus, i, 465 - - Stereolepis, ii, 321 - - Sternoptychidæ, ii, 137 - - Sternoptyx, i, 357; ii, 137 - - Stethojulis, ii, 390 - - Stichæiniæ, ii, 511 - - Stichæus, ii, 513 - figure of, ii, 513 - - stickleback, i, 51, 128, 250, 290; ii, 157, 215, 228, 229, 232 - fighting of, i, 165 - figure of, ii, 232 - shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227 - spines of, i, 179 - - Stieda, i, 428 - - Stiles, - on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344 - - stingaree, i, 556 - - sting-bull, ii, 501 - - stingfish, ii, 501 - - sting-rays, i, 84, 267, 549 - figure of, i, 246, 555 - spines of, i, 182 - - Stizostedion, ii, 308 - figure of, ii, 309 - - Stolephorus, ii, 52 - - Stomias, - figure of, ii, 128 - - Stomiatidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 128 - - Stone, ii, 80 - on rate of travel of salmon, ii, 80 - - stone-bass, ii, 323 - - stone-cats, ii, 182 - - stone-roller, i, 157; ii, 166 - figure of, i, 33; ii, 167 - - stone-sculpin, ii, 443 - - stonewall perch, ii, 359, 360 - - stony-flounder, ii, 482 - - Storer, i, 418 - - Storms, i, 427 - on fossil remora, ii, 469 - - Stratodontidæ, ii, 137 - - Stratodus, ii, 137 - - Strinsia, ii, 539 - - striped-bass, i, 48, 53; ii, 37, 321 - bones of, i, 39, 45 - figure of, i, 35 - tail of, i, 49 - vertebral column of, i, 48 - - striped-mullet, - figure of, i, 330 - - striped sea-robin, ii, 457 - - Ström, i, 396 - - Stromateidæ, i, 160; ii, 215, 259, 284, 291, 398, 485 - family of, ii, 283 - - Stromateus, i, 391; ii, 283, 291 - - sturgeon, i, 128, 204, 250, 257, 290; ii, 18-21, 159, 160, 182, 186 - child swallowed by, ii, 182 - of Danube, ii, 182 - figure of, ii, 19, 20 - larva of, figured, i, 141 - - Styela, - figure of, i, 475, 476 - - Stygicola, i, 314; ii, 524 - - Stylephoridæ, ii, 480 - - Stylephorus, ii, 480 - - subgenus, i, 373 - - suborbital stay, i, 44 - - subspecies, i, 294 - - sucker, i, 156, 198, 290, 304; ii, 56, 171, 172, 174 - California, ii, 174 - carp, ii, 173 - common, ii, 174 - figure showing parasites, i, 348 - Oregon, ii, 175 - razor-backed, figured, ii, 175 - - sucking-disks, - of clingfish, i, 198 - - sucking-fish, - figure of, i, 197; ii, 468 - - Suckley, i, 419 - - Sudis, ii, 9, 136 - - Suez Canal, i, 268 - - sukkegh, ii, 69 - - Suletind watershed, i, 307 - - Sulphur, the, i, 408 - - summer herring, - figure of, i, 455 - - Sunapee trout, - figure of, ii, 109 - - sunfish, i, 3-15, 28, 209, 290; ii, 37, 297, 424 - banded, ii, 299 - blue-green, i, 26 - common figured, i, 7; ii, 301 - description of, i, 4 - dwarf, ii, 467 - figure of, i, 2, 4, 27 - food of, i, 11 - long-eared, i, 3; ii, 300 - nine-spined, ii, 301 - photograph of, i, 13 - pigmy, ii, 297 - - supraclavicle, i, 89 - - Surface, - on destruction of fish, i, 357 - on lampreys, i, 491-505 - on Saprolegnia, i, 354-356 - - surf-fish, i, 125, 207, 290; ii, 372, 373 - blue, ii, 375 - silver, ii, 375 - thick-lipped, ii, 374 - wall-eye, ii, 375 - white, ii, 374 - - surf-shiner, ii, 376 - - surf-smelt, ii, 123, 124, 127 - - surf-whiting, ii, 357 - - surgeon-fish, ii, 407 - lancet of, i, 181 - - surmullets, i, 122, 198, 322; ii, 351-379 - - suspensorium of mandible, i, 43 - - susuki, i, 324; ii, 320 - - Swain, i, 422 - - Swainson, i, 410 - - swallowers, ii, 360 - - Swammerdam, i, 390 - - swampy watersheds, i, 314 - - Swan, ii, 123 - on Mesopus, ii, 123 - - sweetfish, ii, 115 - - sweet-perch, ii, 363 - - swell-sharks, i, 197, 533 - - swell-toad, ii, 420, 423 - - swim-bladder, ii, 95 - - swordfish, i, 169, 199, 210; ii, 269 - adult, figured, ii, 270 - Goode on, ii, 270 - Owen on, ii, 270, 271 - vessels struck by, ii, 270 - young, figured, ii, 269 - - swordtail-minnow, - figure of, i, 124; ii, 199 - - Syacium, - figure of, ii, 488 - - Syllæmus, ii, 224 - - Symbranchia, ii, 140 - order of, ii, 140 - - Symbranchidæ, ii, 141 - - Symbranchus, ii, 141 - - Symphodus, i, 268; ii, 387 - - Symphurus, - figure of, ii, 498 - - symplectic bone, ii, 156 - - Synagrops, ii, 317 - - Synanceia, i, 180; ii, 434 - figure of, i, 229 - - Synaphobranchidæ, ii, 149 - - Synaphobranchus, ii, 149 - figure of, ii, 149 - - Synaptura, ii, 497 - - Synchiropus, ii, 506 - - Synechodus, - eggs of, i, 527 - - Synentognathi, ii, 190, 208-214 - suborder of, ii, 209 - - Syngnathidæ, - family of, i, 236 - - Syngnathus, i, 170, 391; ii, 236 - - Synodontidæ, ii, 130, 133 - - Synodontis, ii, 182 - - Synodus, ii, 190 - figure of, ii, 130 - - synonymy and priority, - Coues on, i, 374 - - Syntegmodus, ii, 44 - - Syrski, ii, 144, 145 - on eels, ii, 145 - - Systema Naturæ, i, 373 - - - Tachysurus, ii, 178, 179, 86 - - Tænioides, ii, 467 - - Tæniosomi, ii, 292, 459-480 - suborder of, ii, 471, 472 - - Tæniotoca, ii, 375 - - Tæniura, i, 557 - - tahanohadai, ii, 363 - - Tahoe trout, - figure of, i, 327; ii, 104 - - tai-fishing, - illustration of, i, 338 - - tail forms, i, 49, 50, 80-85 - - taiva, ii, 342 - - Talisman, i, 408; ii, 60 - - Talismania, ii, 60 - - Tamiobatidæ, i, 532 - - Tamiobatis, i, 551 - - tangs, ii, 407 - - Tantogolabrus, ii, 387 - - Tarpon, i, 157, 205; ii, 35, 51 - figure of, ii, 43 - - Tarrassiidæ, i, 602 - - Tarrassius, i, 602 - - tarwhine, ii, 344 - - tautog, ii, 387 - figure of, ii, 385, 386 - - Tautoga, i, 207; ii, 385 - - taxonomy, i, 367, 368 - - Tectospondyli, i, 448, 510, 513, 519, 545, 549 - order of, i, 543 - Woodward on, i, 543 - - tectospondylous, i, 49 - - teeth, i, 29, 30, 201 - of Ceratodus figured, i, 614 - of Chimæra, i, 562 - of Corax, i, 543 - figured, i, 522, 524 - of Janassa, i, 554 - of sharks, i, 515, 527, 529, 537 - - Teleocephali, i, 405; ii, 39, 40, 209 - - Teleosteans, i, 384 - - Teleostei, i, 66, 204, 622, 624; ii, 2, 5, 37 - sympathetic system of, i, 114 - - Teleostomes, i, 599 - - Teleostomi, i, 462, 572, 583, 598, 599, 603 - Regan on, i, 622 - - teleosts, i, 35, 135, 139, 141, 204, 569; ii, 1, 3, 4, 159 - - Telepholis, ii, 133 - - Telescopias, ii, 317 - figure of, ii, 318 - - teleotemporal, i, 90 - - Temnothoraci, i, 584, 586 - - temperature, - affecting distribution, i, 242 - - tenacity of life in fishes, i, 146, 147, 149 - - tench, ii, 168 - - tengudai, ii, 333 - - tengusame, i, 534 - - ten-pounder, ii, 35, 43 - figure of, i, 454; ii, 42 - - Terapon, ii, 342 - - Teraponidæ, ii, 342 - - Tertiary fishes, i, 440 - - Tertiary ganoids, ii, 140 - - tessellated darter, - figure of, ii, 312 - - tessellated teeth, i, 30, 549 - - Tetragonolepis, i, 24 - figure of, ii, 26 - - Tetragonopterus, i, 314; ii, 161, 162, 381 - - Tetragonuridæ, ii, 215 - family of, ii, 291 - - Tetragonurus, ii, 291 - - Tetraodon, i, 169, 197, 206, 236, 393, 611; ii, 420 - figure of, i, 183, 244; ii, 421, 422 - - Tetraodontidæ, i, 182; ii, 421 - family of, ii, 419 - - Tetrapturus, i, 257; ii, 269 - - Tetrarhynchus, ii, 134 - - Tetronarce, i, 554 - - Teuthidæ, ii, 291 - - Teuthididæ, ii, 407, 409 - - Teuthis, i, 268, 271, 293; ii, 407 - figure of, i, 181; ii, 407, 408 - - Thacher, - on paired limbs, i, 70 - - thalamencephalon, ii, 6, 8 - - Thalassoma, i, 207, 267, 271; ii, 389 - - Thalassophryne, i, 180; ii, 526, 527 - poison organ of, ii, 528, 529 - structure of, ii, 527, 528 - - Thalassothia, ii, 526 - - Thaleichthys, ii, 124 - figure of, i, 320; ii, 19, 124 - sketch of, ii, 125 - - Thaliacea, i, 477 - - Thaumaturus, ii, 119 - - Thelodontidæ, i, 574, 579 - - Thelodus, i, 570, 573 - - Theragra, i, 209 - figure of, ii, 537 - - Therobromus, ii, 127 - - Thetis, the, i, 410 - - thick-lipped surf-fish, - figure of, i, 374 - - Tholichthys, i, 144; ii, 402 - - Thollière, i, 427 - - Thompson, i, 410, 418 - - Thoracici, i, 393; ii, 39 - - Thoracies, ii, 209 - - Thoreau, ii, 190, 308 - - thread-eel, ii, 151, 152 - figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152 - - threadfins, i, 122; ii, 215, 224 - figure of, ii, 225 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225 - - threadfish, ii, 276 - - threadhead worms, i, 351 - - thread-herring, ii, 51, 53 - - three-forked hake, ii, 539 - - three-spined stickleback, - figure of, ii, 232 - - thresher-shark, i, 536 - - Thrissopater, ii, 43 - - Thrissops, ii, 41 - - Thryptodontidæ, ii, 44 - - Thryptodus, ii, 44 - - Thunberg, i, 416 - - thunder-pumper, ii, 354, 355 - - Thunnus, i, 210, 272; ii, 262 - - Thursius, i, 604 - - Thwaite shad, ii, 50 - - Thyestes, i, 576 - - Thymallidæ, ii, 120 - - Thymallus, i, 305; ii, 120, 121, 122 - figure of, i, 328; ii, 120, 122 - - Thyrsites, ii, 267 - - Thyrsitocephalus, ii, 267 - - tide pools of Misaki, - view of, i, 161 - - tiger-puffer, ii, 423 - - tiger-sharks, i, 533 - - Tilapia, ii, 380 - - tilefish, ii, 361 - catastrophe to, ii, 362 - Collins on, ii, 362 - Gill on, ii, 361, 362 - - Tilesius, i, 396, 416 - - Tinca, i, 345; ii, 168, 175 - - tiñosa, ii, 276 - - Tiphle, ii, 236 - - Titanichthyidæ, i, 587 - - Titanichthys, i, 583, 587, 589 - - Titicaca Lake, - peculiar fish from, ii, 201 - - toadfish, ii, 525, 526 - Brazilian, ii, 526 - poison, ii, 526 - poison-organs of, i, 180 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 59 - - tomcod, ii, 537 - figure of, ii, 538 - - tomtates, ii, 341 - - tongue-fish, ii, 488, 497 - - tooth, - of Hybodus, figured, i, 528 - of Lamnidæ, i, 538 - - topknot, ii, 488 - - top-minnow, i, 118; ii, 198, 199, 467 - figure of, ii, 198 - - toque, ii, 114 - - torabuku, ii, 423 - - tori, ii, 6 - - Tornaria, - figure of, i, 463 - - torpedo, i, 268; ii, 183, 188 - figure of, i, 186; ii, 183 - fin rudiments in, i, 71 - - torsk, ii, 539 - - toto, ii, 398 - - totuava, ii, 354 - - Townsend, ii, 502 - - Tower, - on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95, 96 - on weakfish, i, 94 - - Toxotes, i, 240, 268; ii, 400 - - Toxotidæ, ii, 400 - - Trachicephalus, - figure of, i, 456; ii, 438 - - Trachichthyidæ, ii, 253 - - Trachichthys, i, 263; ii, 252 - - Trachidermus, ii, 445 - - Trachinidæ, ii, 500, 501, 506, 525 - - Trachinotus, i, 322; ii, 276 - - Trachinus, i, 169, 180, 391; ii, 500, 501 - Boulenger on, ii, 501 - - Trachosteus, i, 583, 588, 589, 590 - - Trachurops, ii, 275 - - Trachurus, i, 210, 274 - figure of, ii, 274 - - Trachypteridæ, - family of, ii, 477 - Goode and Bean on, ii, 479 - - Trachypterus, i, 144; ii, 425, 477 - figure of, ii, 478 - Günther on, ii, 480 - - Trachyrhynchus, ii, 541 - - trahira, ii, 162 - - transportation of fishes, i, 150 - - Trautschold, i, 427 - - Traquair, i, 426, 428 - on Gnasthome, i, 573 - on high and low forms, i, 381, 382 - on Ostracophores, i, 569-571 - on Palæospondylus, i, 591 - portrait of, i, 425 - on sharks, i, 512 - - Traquairia, i, 517 - - Travailleur, the, i, 408; ii, 60 - - tree-climber of India, - Daldorf on, i, 163 - - treefish, ii, 431 - - Tremataspidæ, i, 576 - - trematodes, i, 344 - - Triakis, i, 541 - - Triacanthidæ, ii, 412 - - Triacanthodes, ii, 412 - - Triacanthus, ii, 412 - - Trichina, i, 352 - - Trichiurichthys, ii, 268 - - Trichiuridæ, i, 210; ii, 472 - family of, ii, 267 - - Trichiurides, ii, 32 - - Trichiurus, ii, 268, 479 - figure of, ii, 268 - - Trichodon, - figure of, ii, 364 - - Trichodontidæ, ii, 364, 506 - - trinomial nomenclature, i, 378 - - trigger-fishes, i, 440; ii, 412, 413 - figure of, i, 184, 412 - - Trigla, i, 169, 391; ii, 456, 457 - air-bladder of, i, 97 - - Triglidæ, i, 122, 208; ii, 455 - family of, ii, 455 - - Triglops, ii, 442 - figure of, ii, 443 - - Triglopsis, i, 317; ii, 447 - - Trigonodon, ii, 347 - - Triodon, ii, 419 - - Triodontidæ, ii, 418 - - Tripterygian, ii, 508 - - Tristichopterus, i, 603 - - Trochocopus, ii, 388 - - Troglichthys, i, 220, 222; ii, 202, 203 - - tropical fishes, - species of, i, 271 - variety among, i, 333 - - Tropidichthyidæ, ii, 421 - - Tropidichthys, i, 115; ii, 422 - - Troschel, i, 415 - - trout, i, 156, 250, 290, 304, 326, 327; ii, 38, 41, 61, 89, 90, 107, - 121, 128, 147, 168 - tail figure of, ii, 486 - of Utah basin, ii, 104 - of Yellowstone, i, 345 - - trout-perch, i, 241, 290; ii, 61 - figure of, ii, 242 - - trout-spotted darter, ii, 314 - - trout-worm, ii, 103 - figure of head, ii, 103 - segments of, figured, ii, 103 - - trucha, ii, 320 - - true eels, ii, 141 - shoulder-girdle in, ii, 141 - - true perches, ii, 304 - - true sharks, i, 523-560 - - true snapper, ii, 337 - - trumpeter, ii, 363 - - trumpet-fish, i, 51, 440 - family of, i, 233 - figure of, i, 234 - - truncate, i, 19 - - truncus arteriosus, ii, 6 - - trunkfishes, i, 16, 19, 206, 373, 375, 378, 429; ii, 415-417 - figure of, i, 373, 376, 377 - horned, ii, 416 - hornless, ii, 419 - spineless, ii, 417 - spotted, ii, 416 - - Trypauchen, ii, 467 - - tschawytscha, ii, 73 - - Tschudi, i, 415 - - tsuzume, ii, 402 - - tullibee, ii, 67 - - tunicates, i, 460, 462, 467-481 - adult, figured, i, 480 - anatomy, figured, i, 472 - Kingsley on, i, 467, 468, 469 - larva, figured, i, 471 - Ritter on, i, 474 - - tunny, i, 19, 210 - great, ii, 262 - - turbots, i, 206, 328; ii, 488, 489 - tribe, the, ii, 487 - - Turner, - on Dallia, ii, 207 - - Turton, i, 410 - - Tutuila Island, - lizard skipper from, i, 230 - - Twin Lakes, - trout of, i, 241 - - Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307, 308, 309, 310 - Evermann on, i, 307 - - tyee, ii, 69 - - Tylosurus, i, 128 - figure of, ii, 210 - shoulder-girdle of, i, 59 - - Typhlichthys, i, 220, 314; ii, 201, 202 - figure of, i, 116; ii, 202 - - Typhlogobius, i, 198; ii, 467 - - Typodus, ii, 222 - - - uku, i, 325; ii, 338 - - Ulæma, i, 271 - - ulchen, ii, 124 - figure of, i, 320; ii, 124 - - Umbra, i, 253; ii, 35 - figure of, ii, 193 - - Umbridæ, i, 290; ii, 193, 194 - - Umbrina, ii, 356, 357 - figure of, ii, 357 - - umiuma, i, 429 - - uncertain conclusions, i, 79 - - Undina, i, 204, 605 - - unicorn-fish, ii, 409, 415 - - U. S. Fish Commission, ii, 69 - - Upeneus, ii, 353 - - Upham, - on glacial effects, i, 275 - - upland fishes, i, 311 - - Uranidea, ii, 443, 445 - figure of, ii, 445 - - Uranoplosus, ii, 22 - - Uranoscopus, i, 259, 260, 393; ii, 361, 364, 503, 504 - - Uranoscopidæ, ii, 503, 504, 506, 525 - - Urenchelyidæ, ii, 142 - - Urenchelys, ii, 142 - - ureters, ii, 6 - - Urochordata, i, 460 - - Urodela, i, 76 - - Urolophus, i, 555-557 - - Uronemidæ, i, 612 - - Uronemus, i, 612 - - Urophycis, i, 187; ii, 538 - - Uropterygius, ii, 153 - - urosome, i, 84, 85 - - Urosphen, ii, 234 - - Urosphenidæ, ii, 234 - - urostyle, i, 84 - - Usinosita, ii, 498 - - uu, i, 162 - - - vaca, i, 235; ii, 327 - - Vahl, i, 396 - - Vaillant, i, 412 - portrait of, i, 413 - - Valenciennellus, ii, 134 - - Valenciennes, i, 401, 404 - - Valenciennesia, ii, 460 - - Valentyn, i, 396 - - Valisneri, ii, 144 - - Valisneria, ii, 144 - - Van Dyke, ii, 93 - on Ouananiche, ii, 93 - - vaqueta de dos colores, ii, 404 - - variability of instinct, - Whitman on, i, 156 - - variation in colors, i, 235 - - variation in fin-rays, i, 211 - - Variola, ii, 327 - - vasa efferentia, ii, 6 - - vas deferens, i, 28 - - Velifer, ii, 286 - - Vellitor, i, 260; ii, 448 - - vendace, ii, 67 - - venomous spines, - of catfish, i, 179 - of scorpion-fish, i, 180 - - ventral fins, i, 10 - - Venustodus, i, 531 - - Verasper, ii, 492 - - ver blanc, i, 351 - - Verilus, ii, 338 - - vertebræ, i, 203, 205 - - vertebræ in fishes, i, 212 - Boulenger on, i, 213 - figure of, i, 510 - - vertebral column, i, 46-48 - figure of, i, 48 - - vertebral column, - of lancelet, i, 55 - of Roccus, i, 48 - - verrugato, ii, 356 - - vessels engaged in fish-collecting, i, 408, 410 - - villiform teeth, i, 29 - - Vinciguerra, ii, 408 - portrait of, i, 413 - - Vinciguerria, ii, 134 - - Vinson, - on Gourami, ii, 369 - - Violante, the, i, 408; ii, 60 - - viper-fish, ii, 129 - - Vireosa, ii, 460 - figure of, ii, 461 - - viscera of fish, i, 26, 28 - - viviparous fishes, - figure of, i, 125, 126, 222; ii, 200 - - viviparous perch, - figure of, ii, 379 - - voices of fishes, i, 121 - - Vogmar, ii, 477 - - Vogt, i, 428 - - Volador, ii, 458 - - Vomer, ii, 276 - - vomer, i, 6 - - Vomeropsis, ii, 278 - - - wachna cod, ii, 537 - - Wagner, i, 427 - - Waha Lake, ii, 104 - - Waite, i, 408, 416 - portrait of, i, 409 - - Walbaum, i, 397; ii, 68 - - Walcott, i, 428, 603 - on fossil chimæroids, i, 565 - on oldest forms, i, 435 - - walking-fish, i, 167 - - wall-eye, ii, 307 - - wall-eyed surf-fish, ii, 375 - - Walton, i, 336, 337 - - Ward, - on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344 - - Wardichthys, ii, 15 - - water-beetle, ii, 144 - - water-pig, ii, 369 - - watersheds, i, 305 - the Cassiquiare, i, 307 - how fishes cross, i, 306 - the Suletind, i, 306 - swampy, i, 314 - Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307 - - weakfish, ii, 353 - - Weber, i, 428 - on swim-bladder, i, 96 - - Weberian apparatus, i, 93, 96, 97; ii, 160 - figure of, i, 93; ii, 160 - - weevers, ii, 500 - Gill on, i, 500 - - weissfelchen, ii, 65 - - weissfisch, ii, 65 - - wels, ii, 182 - - welshmen, ii, 253 - - West Indian fish, i, 235 - - whale-shark, i, 540 - - whiff, ii, 488, 489 - - whips, i, 206 - - whiptail rays, i, 549 - - Whiteaves, i, 427 - - whitebait, ii, 123, 127, 216 - - white bass, ii, 321 - - white bullhead, ii, 180 - - white catfish, - figure of, i, 344 - - white channel-cat, ii, 180 - - white chub, - figure of, ii, 165 - - whitefish, i, 62-64, 305, 322; ii, 115, 362, 467 - figure of, i, 321 - - white-mouthed drummers, ii, 356 - - white perch, ii, 321 - figure of, ii, 322 - - white sea-bass, ii, 354 - - white sharks, i, 534 - - white shiner, - figure showing parasites, i, 343 - - white surf-fish, - figure of, ii, 374 - with young figured, i, 125; ii, 372 - - whiting, ii, 537 - - Whitman, i, 428 - on instincts, i, 156 - - Whitmee, - on aquarium fishes, i, 165 - - Whitney, ii, 116 - - wide-eyed flounder, - figure of, ii, 488 - - wide-gape, ii, 545 - - wide-mouthed flounder, - figure of, ii, 493 - - Wiedersheim, i, 513 - - Williams, - on eye of flounder, i, 174-178 - - Williamson, i, 423 - - Williston, i, 427 - - willow-cat, ii, 180 - - Willughby, i, 390 - - Winckler, i, 427 - - window-pane fish, ii, 488 - figure of, ii, 487 - - wine-colored eel, ii, 153 - - wolf-eel, ii, 517 - - wolf-fish, ii, 517 - figure of, ii, 517 - - Wolffian duct, i, 28 - - Woodward, i, 426, 428, 519, 543, 554, 582, 584, 591, 594, 602; ii, 4, - 13, 24, 26, 34, 36, 43, 48, 140, 425, 514, 522 - on Acanthodei, i, 514, 516 - on Chondrostei, ii, 17 - on Dorypterus, ii, 16 - on eels, ii, 140 - on fossil fishes, i, 439 - on fossil garpike, ii, 32 - on Isospondyli, ii, 38 - portrait of, i, 425 - on Pycnodonti, ii, 23 - - Woolman, i, 422 - - worm-like eels, ii, 150 - - worm of the Yellowstone, i, 345 - - Worthen, i, 426 - - wrasse, i, 203; ii, 385, 387 - - wreckfish, ii, 323 - - Wright, i, 427, 428 - on fishes of Panama, i, 275 - - wrymouths, - figure of, ii, 516 - - Wyman, - on month gestation, i, 170 - on protocercal tail, i, 81 - - - Xanthichthys, ii, 413 - - Xererpes, ii, 512 - figure of, ii, 511 - - Xenichthys, i, 271; ii, 338 - - Xenistius, i, 271; ii, 338 - figure of, ii, 338 - - Xenocephalidæ, ii, 520 - - Xenocephalus, ii, 520 - - Xenocys, i, 271; ii, 338 - - Xenomi, i, 405; ii, 157 - order of, ii, 206 - - Xenopterygii, ii, 499 - suborder of, ii, 529 - - Xesurus, ii, 409 - - Xiphasia, - figure of, ii, 515 - - Xiphasiidæ, ii, 513 - - Xiphias, i, 210, 329, 391; ii, 269 - figure of, ii, 270 - - Xiphidiinæ, ii, 511 - - Xiphidion, ii, 512 - - Xiphiidæ, - family of, ii, 269 - - Xiphiorhynchus, ii, 269 - - Xiphorphorus, - figure of, i, 124; ii, 199 - - Xiphistes, - figure of, ii, 512 - - Xyrauchen, ii, 172, 174 - figure of, ii, 175 - - Xyrias, - figure of, ii, 151 - - Xyrichthys, i, 207; ii, 388-390 - figure of, ii, 388 - - Xystæma, ii, 348 - figure of, ii, 347 - - Xystreurys, ii, 492 - - Xystrodus, i, 531 - - - yamabe, i, 327; ii, 95 - - yamanokami, ii, 445 - - Yarrell, i, 410 - on fishing-frog, i, 169 - on sounds, i, 168 - - yellowback rockfish, - figure of, i, 218 - - yellow bass, ii, 321 - - yellow catfish, ii, 182 - - yellow-fin grouper, ii, 325 - figure of, ii, 327 - - yellow-fin trout, ii, 105 - figure of, ii, 105 - - yellow-fish, ii, 324 - - yellow goatfish, ii, 352 - - yellow grunt, ii, 340 - - yellow mackerel, ii, 276 - - yellow perch, ii, 307 - - Yellowstone Lake, - trout of, i, 310, 345-347 - - Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, - figure of, ii, 444 - - yellow-tail, ii, 273 - - yellow-tail roncador, ii, 356 - figure of, ii, 357 - - yellow-tail snapper, - figure of, ii, 337 - - yezomasu, ii, 71, 72 - - Young, i, 426 - on angling, i, 337-339 - - - Zacalles, - figure of, ii, 511 - - Zacco, ii, 164 - - zakko, ii, 117, 120 - - Zalarges, ii, 134 - - Zalembrius, ii, 374, 376 - - Zalieutes, ii, 552 - - Zalises, - figure of, ii, 240 - - Zanclidæ, ii, 406 - family of, ii, 406 - - Zanclus, i, 240, 268; ii, 406 - figure of, ii, 406 - - Zaniolepis, ii, 440 - - Zander, ii, 309 - - Zaprora, ii, 286 - - Zaproridæ, ii, 286 - - Zebrasoma, ii, 408, 409 - - Zebrias, ii, 497 - - Zeidæ, ii, 398 - family of, ii, 247 - - Zenarchopterus, ii, 212 - - Zenion, ii, 249 - - Zenopsis, ii, 249 - - Zeoidea, i, 241-249 - suborder of, ii, 245 - - Zeoidei, ii, 484 - - zeoid fishes, ii, 245 - - Zeorhombi, ii, 245 - - Zesticelus, ii, 447 - - Zeugopterus, ii, 488 - - Zeus, i, 259, 263, 267, 391; ii, 243, 249, 398 - figure of, ii, 248 - - Zigno, i, 427 - - Zingel, ii, 307 - figure of, ii, 310 - - Zittel, i, 427; ii, 13, 514 - on Lepidostei, ii, 23 - on Ostracophores, i, 569 - portrait of, i, 425 - - Zoarces, ii, 144, 518 - figure of, ii, 518 - - Zoarcidæ, ii, 518, 522 - - zoogeography, i, 237 - - zooids, i, 479 - - zootomists, i, 90 - - Zostera, i, 476 - - Zuieuw, i, 396 - - Zygonectes, ii, 199 - figure of, ii, 198 - - - - - FERNS - - A MANUAL FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES - WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS BASED ON THE - STALKS AND ON THE FRUCTIFICATION - - _With over two hundred illustrations from original drawings and - photographs_ - - BY CAMPBELL E. WATERS - - 302 pages, square 8vo. Boxed, $3.00 net; by mail, $3.34 - -This book is thoroughly authoritative, and is written in popular style. -It covers all the ferns in the region embraced either in Britton's or in -Gray's Manuals. - -"This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. =No -finer examples of fern photography have ever been produced.= Dr. Waters -brings to his work fifteen years of experience in field and herbarium -study, and the book may be expected to prove of permanent scientific -value, as well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but -imperfectly filled."—_Plant World._ - -"For all who study or wish to study our native ferns Dr. Waters has -prepared a book which is sure to prove =both helpful and inspiring=. -Especially charming and significant are the views showing typical habits -and habitats."—_The American Naturalist._ - -"There could hardly be a better book for those interested in the -subject."—_Boston Literary World._ - - - OUR NATIVE FERNS - - AND THEIR ALLIES - - _WITH SYNOPTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN PTERIDOPHYTA - NORTH OF MEXICO_ - - BY LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD - - PROFESSOR IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - - Revised. xii + 156 pages, 12mo $1.00 - -"The elementary part is clear and well calculated to introduce beginners -to the study of the plants treated of. The excellent key makes the -analysis of ferns comparatively easy. The writer cordially commends the -book. It should be in the hands of all who are especially interested in -the vascular cryptogams of the United States."—_Bulletin of the Torrey -Botanical Club, N. Y._ - - Henry Holt and Company - - 29 West 23d Street, New York - -[Illustration] - - - GEOLOGY - - Vol I. "Geologic Processes and Their Results" - - BY Prof. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN - - AND - - Prof. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY - - Heads of the Departments of Geology and Geography, University of - Chicago; Members of the United - States Geological Survey; Editors of the Journal of Geology - - With numerous illustrations, including 24 colored maps and - 3 tables. 654 pages, 8vo, $4.00 net - - Vol. II. "Earth History." _In preparation_ - -CHAS. D. WALCOTT, _Director of U. S. Geological Survey_: "I am impressed -with the admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in -which geological principles and processes and their results have been -presented. The text is written in an entertaining style and is -supplemented by admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail -to obtain a clear idea of nature and the work of geological agencies, of -the present status of the science, and of the spirit which actuates the -working geologist." - -T. A. JAGGAR, Jr., _Harvard University_: "An excellent statement of -modern American geology, with abundant new illustrative material based -upon the most recent work of government and other surveys." - -HENRY S. WILLIAMS, _Yale University_: "It is the best treatise on this -part of the subject which we have seen in America." - -R. S. WOODWARD, _Columbia University_: "It is admirable for its science, -admirable for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled -illustrations." - -ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, _University of Michigan_. "I deem it an epoch-making -book and one that will vastly extend the study of geology." - - - BUTTERFLIES - - BY S. H. SCUDDER - - THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES - - _With Special Reference to American Forms. Being an Application of the - "Doctrine of - Descent" to the Study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of Practical - Instruction_ - - 12mo $1.50 net - - Brief Guide to the Commoner Butterflies of the Northern - United States and Canada - - Being an Introduction to the Knowledge of their Life-Histories - - _New edition. With 21 plates, containing in all 97 illustrations_ - - 12mo $1.50 - - - THE LIFE OF A BUTTERFLY - - A CHAPTER IN NATURAL HISTORY FOR THE GENERAL READER - - 16mo $1.00 - - Henry Holt and Company - - 29 West 23d Street, New York - -[Illustration] - - - The Natural History of Plants - - THEIR FORMS, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION - AND DISTRIBUTION - - FROM THE GERMAN OF - - ANTON KERNER VON MARILAUN - - _Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna_ - - BY F. W. OLIVER - - _Quain Professor of Botany in University College, London_ - - WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF - - MARIAN BUSH AND MARY E. EWART - - 4to. New edition. 2 vols. The set $11.00 - -A work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the -modern sense, thoroughly scientific. The new edition is practically -identical with the former four-volume edition except that the colored -plates in the latter have been omitted. The wood-engravings, over two -thousand in number, have been retained. - -_Prof. John M. Coulter_, in THE DIAL: "Prof. Kerner has brought the most -recent researches within reach of the intelligent reader, and in a style -so charming that even the professional teacher may learn a lesson in the -art of presentation.... =It is such books as this that will bring botany -fairly before the public as a subject of absorbing interest=; that will -illuminate the botanical lecture-room." - -_Prof. Chas. R. Barnes_, in THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE: "This lucidity, and -the excellent illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical -reader to the science of botany, but =should serve as a lesson to the -professional botanist in the art of presentation=." - -_The Nation_: "He has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the -phenomena of vegetation which is practically without any rival." - - - GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS - AND A TREATISE ON THOSE - INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS - - FOR THE USE OF - - _COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURISTS_ - - BY ALPHEUS S. PACKARD, M.D. - - With 685 illustrations. Ninth edition. xii + 715 pp., 8vo, $5.00 net - - - PLANT PHYSIOLOGY - - BY GEORGE J. PEIRCE - - _Professor in Leland Stanford University_ - - vi + 291 pages, 8vo $2.00 - -A modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles -of plant physiology, intended for the student or general reader -acquainted with the elements of botany. - -_Science_: "The volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite -markedly from the old-time works devoted to plant physiology." - -_William F. Ganong, Professor in Smith College_: "I am much pleased with -the clearness, proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject. -It seems to me =an admirable exposition of the principles of plant -physiology= as they are understood at the present day, and it should -have a wide use." - - Henry Holt and Company - - 29 West 23d Street, New York - -[Illustration] - - - MUSHROOMS - - BY GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON - - _Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the Cornell - University - Experiment Station_ - - =Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms.= By MRS. SARAH TYSON RORER - - =Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms.= By J. F. CLARK - - _With 230 illustrations from photographs, including 15 colored plates_ - - 320 pages, 8vo. $3.00 net; by mail, $3.23 - -_Educational Review_:—"It would be difficult to conceive of a more -attractive and useful book.... In addition to its general attractiveness -and the beauty of its illustrations, it is written in a style well -calculated to win the merest tyro." - - - Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms - - BY LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD - - _Professor in Columbia University_ - - iv + 236 pages, 12mo $1.50 - -_Bradley M. Davis_, in the BOTANICAL GAZETTE:—"Wonderfully free from the -dry diagnoses of most systematic descriptions, and everywhere combined -with interesting accounts of life-habits and activities.... A marvel in -its compactness, with a wonderfully uniform tone throughout, condensed -and yet very clear." - - - Flora of the Northern States and Canada - - BY PROFESSOR N. L. BRITTON - - _Director of the New York Botanical Garden_ - - x + 1080 pages, large 12mo $2.25 - -This manual is published in response to a demand for a handbook suitable -for ordinary school use, which shall meet modern requirements and -outline modern conceptions of the science. It is based on _An -Illustrated Flora_ prepared by Professor Britton in co-operation with -Judge Addison Brown, in three volumes. The text has been revised and -brought up to date, and much of novelty has been added, but all -illustrations are omitted. - - CONWAY MACMILLAN, _Professor in the University of Minnesota_, in - SCIENCE:—"There is no work extant in the whole series of American - botanical publications which deals with descriptions of the - flowering plants that can for a moment be compared with it, either - for a skillful and delightful presentation of the subject-matter or - for modern, scientific, and accurate mastery of the thousandfold - mass of detail of which such a work must consist." - - V. M. SPALDING, _Professor in the University of Michigan_:—"I regard - the book as one that we cannot do without and one that will - henceforth take its place as a necessary means of determination of - the plant species within its range." - - Henry Holt and Company - - 29 West 23d Street, New York - -[Illustration] - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - - 1. Corrected the ERRATA listed on p. xxiii with the exception of the - table of changes in generic names. - 2. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical - errors. - 3. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 5. Enclosed bold font in =equals=. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume -2 (of 2), by David Starr Jordan - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO STUDY OF FISHES, VOL 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 51702-0.txt or 51702-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/7/0/51702/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |