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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
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+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #51702 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51702)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2
-(of 2), by David Starr Jordan
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
-
-Author: David Starr Jordan
-
-Release Date: April 9, 2016 [EBook #51702]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO STUDY OF FISHES, VOL 2 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and
-the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                      GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES
-
-  The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, _Inimicus japonicus_ (Cuv. and Val.),
-    from Wakanoura, Japan. From nature by Kako Morita.
-
-  Surface coloration about lava rocks.
-
-  Coloration of specimens living among red algæ.
-
-  Coloration in deep water; _Inimicus aurantiacus_ (Schlegel).
-]
-
-
-
-
-                                A GUIDE
-                                   TO
-                          THE STUDY OF FISHES
-
-
-                                   BY
-
-                           DAVID STARR JORDAN
-
-            _President of Leland Stanford Junior University_
-
-
-           _With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations_
-
-
-                             IN TWO VOLUMES
-
-                                VOL II.
-
-                             "I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge
-                             and the better qualified for all fortunes
-                             for knowing that there is a minnow in that
-                             brook."—_Thoreau_
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                NEW YORK
-                         HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
-                                  1905
-
-
-
-
-                            Copyright, 1905
-
-                                   BY
-
-                         HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
-
-
-                         Published March, 1905
-
-
-
-
-                                CONTENTS
-                                VOL. II.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I.
-
-                              THE GANOIDS.
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
- Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a          1
-   Natural Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on the
-   Ganoids as a Natural Group.
-
-                               CHAPTER II.
-
-                       THE GANOIDS (_Continued_).
-
- Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The Palæoniscidæ.—The    13
-   Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The Dictyopygidæ.—Order
-   Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Order
-   Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of
-   the Garpike.—Fossil Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.—
-   The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER III.
-
-                              ISOSPONDYLI.
-
- The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.—The       37
-   Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of
-   Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The Elopidæ.—The
-   Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ.—The
-   Ctenothrissidæ.—The Notopteridæ.—The Clupeidæ.—The
-   Dorosomatidæ.—The Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The
-   Osteoglossidæ.—The Pantodontidæ.
-
-                               CHAPTER IV.
-
-                               SALMONIDÆ.
-
- The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, the Lake   61
-   Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Oncorhynchus,
-   the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream Theory.—The Jadgeska
-   Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V.
-
-                        SALMONIDÆ (_Continued_).
-
- Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.—The       89
-   Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of Western
-   America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho, the Huchen.—
-   Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—The
-   Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—Fossil Salmonidæ.
-
-                               CHAPTER VI.
-
-                       THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT.
-
- The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The Microstomidæ.—    120
-   The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.—
-   Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The
-   Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.—
-   Chirothricidæ.—Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The
-   Sternoptychidæ.—Order Lyopomi.
-
-                              CHAPTER VII.
-
-                     THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES.
-
- The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.—Suborder   139
-   Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family Anguillidæ.—
-   Reproduction of the Eel.—Food of the Eel.—Larva of the Eel.—
-   Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.—
-   Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order
-   Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.—
-   Order Heteromi.
-
-                              CHAPTER VIII.
-
-                          SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI.
-
- Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The Cyprinidæ.—   159
-   Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—The Carp
-   and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches.
-
-                               CHAPTER IX.
-
-                     THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES.
-
- The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ.—The Sea   177
-   Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The Mad-toms.—The Old
-   World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The
-   Hypophthalmidæ or Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The
-   Callichthyidæ.—Fossil Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER X.
-
-                  THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI.
-
- Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The Pikes.—The Mud   188
-   minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.—Kneriidæ, etc.—The
-   Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi.
-
-                               CHAPTER XI.
-
-                     ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI.
-
- Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder             208
-   Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-fishes:
-   Exocœtidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XII.
-
-                       PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI.
-
- Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The Mullets:      215
-   Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—Stephanoberycidæ.—
-   Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—Suborder Rhegnopteri.
-
-                              CHAPTER XIII.
-
-            PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII, AND
-
-                              HYPOSTOMIDES.
-
- Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The         227
-   Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The Trumpet-fishes:
-   Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—The
-   Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The Lophobranchs.—The
-   Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses:
-   Hippocampus.—Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XIV.
-
-                SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS.
-
- Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.—                241
-   Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.—
-   Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John Dories: Zeidæ.—
-   Grammicolepidæ.
-
-                               CHAPTER XV.
-
-                               BERYCOIDEI.
-
- The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier-fishes:  250
-   Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone Fishes:
-   Monocentridæ.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XVI.
-
-                              PERCOMORPHI.
-
- Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—The Mackerel       258
-   Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—The Escolars:
-   Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and
-   Trichiuridæ.—The Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—
-   The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XVII.
-
-                         CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS.
-
- The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—The          272
-   Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes:
-   Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-fishes:
-   Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The
-   Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.—The Square-tails:
-   Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.
-
-                             CHAPTER XVIII.
-
-                    PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES.
-
- Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The Pigmy        293
-   Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—Crappies and
-   Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—The True
-   Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters to Perches.—The Perches.—
-   The Darters: Etheostominæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XIX.
-
-                      THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
-
- The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The Asineopidæ—    316
-   The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The
-   Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—
-   The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers:
-   Lutianidæ.—The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The
-   Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes:
-   Kyphosidæ.
-
-                               CHAPTER XX.
-
-            THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
-
- The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: Sciænidæ.—    351
-   The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The
-   Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—
-   The Malacanthidæ.—The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes:
-   Cepolidæ.—The Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXI.
-
-                       LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI.
-
- The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The      365
-   Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.—
-   Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The Embiotocidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXII.
-
-                      CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI.
-
- Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes:                380
-   Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse Fishes:
-   Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.
-
-                             CHAPTER XXIII.
-
-                            THE SQUAMIPINNES.
-
- The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The  397
-   Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The
-   Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The
-   Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder
-   Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXIV.
-
-                          SERIES PLECTOGNATHI.
-
- The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.—  411
-   The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The Spinacanthidæ.—The
-   Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The
-   Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—
-   The Head-fishes: Molidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXV.
-
-                  PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES.
-
- The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.—The       426
-   Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The
-   Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The
-   Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The
-   Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder
-   Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying
-   Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXVI.
-
-                 GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI.
-
- Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder Discocephali,     459
-   the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder Tæniosomi, the
-   Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Dealfishes:
-   Trachypteridæ.
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XXVII.
-
-                         SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA.
-
- The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of Flounders.—  481
-   The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The
-   Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—
-   The Soles: Soleidæ.—The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European
-   Soles (Soleinæ).—The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.
-
-                             CHAPTER XXVIII.
-
-                           SUBORDER JUGULARES.
-
- The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The Nototheniidæ.—The  499
-   Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets:
-   Callionymidæ.—The Dactyloscopidæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXIX.
-
-                        THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ.
-
- The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The             507
-   Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ, etc.—
-   The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The
-   Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—Sand-lances:
-   Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—The Brotulidæ.—
-   Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—Suborder Xenopterygii.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXX.
-
-                       OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI.
-
- Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ.—The      532
-   Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.
-
-                              CHAPTER XXXI.
-
-                     ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS.
-
- The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea-devils:     542
-   Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The Batfishes:
-   Ogcocephalidæ.
-
-
-
-
-                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-                                VOL. II.
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
- Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_            2
-
- _Palæoniscum frieslebenense_                                         14
-
- _Eurynotus crenatus_                                                 15
-
- _Dorypterus hoffmani_                                                16
-
- _Chondrosteus acipenseroides_                                        18
-
- _Acipenser sturio_, Common Sturgeon                                  19
-
- _Acipenser rubicundus_, Lake Sturgeon                                20
-
- _Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon                20
-
- _Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, side-view                          21
-
- _Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, view from below                    21
-
- _Psephurus gladius_                                                  21
-
- _Gyrodus hexagonus_                                                  22
-
- _Mesturus verrucosus_                                                23
-
- _Semionotus kapffi_                                                  24
-
- _Dapedium politum_                                                   25
-
- _Tetragonolepis semicinctus_                                         26
-
- _Isopholis orthostomus_                                              27
-
- _Lepisosteus osseus_, Long-nosed Garpike                             27
-
- _Caturus elongatus_                                                  28
-
- _Notagogus pentlandi_                                                28
-
- _Ptycholepis curtus_                                                 28
-
- _Pholidophorus crenulatus_                                           29
-
- _Lepisosteus tristœchus_, Alligator-gar                              31
-
- Lower Jaw of _Amia calva_, showing the gular plate                   33
-
- _Amia calva_, Bowfin (female)                                        35
-
- _Megalurus elegantissimus_                                           36
-
- _Leptolepis dubius_                                                  41
-
- _Elops saurus_, Ten-pounder                                          42
-
- _Holcolepis lewesiensis_                                             42
-
- _Tarpon atlanticus_, Tarpon or Grand Écaille                         43
-
- _Albula vulpes_, Lady-fish                                           44
-
- _Chanos chanos_, Milkfish                                            45
-
- _Hiodon tergisus_, Mooneye                                           45
-
- _Istieus grandis_                                                    46
-
- _Chirothrix libanicus_                                               46
-
- Skeleton of _Portheus molossus_                                      47
-
- _Ctenothrissa vexillifera_                                           48
-
- _Clupea harengus_, Herring                                           49
-
- _Pomolobus pseudoharengus_, Alewife                                  50
-
- _Brevoortia tyrannus_, Menhaden                                      51
-
- _Diplomystus humilis_                                                52
-
- _Dorosoma cepedianum_, Hickory-shad                                  53
-
- _Anchovia perthecata_, Silver Anchovy                                54
-
- _Notogoneus osculus_                                                 55
-
- _Phareodus testis_                                                   57
-
- Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing _Phareodus_, at Fossil,      58
-   Wyoming
-
- A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales            59
-
- _Alepocephalus agassizii_                                            60
-
- _Coregonus williamsoni_, Rocky Mountain Whitefish                    63
-
- _Coregonus clupeiformis_, Whitefish                                  64
-
- _Argyrosomus nigripinnis_, Bluefin Cisco                             66
-
- _Stenodus mackenziei_, Inconnu                                       67
-
- _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (female)                 69
-
- _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, King-salmon (grilse)                    70
-
- _Oncorhynchus nerka_, Male Red Salmon                                70
-
- _Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_, Humpback Salmon (female)                   72
-
- _Oncorhynchus masou_, Masu                                           72
-
- _Oncorhynchus nerka_, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after         76
-   spawning)
-
- _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (dying after spawning)   77
-
- _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon                          79
-
- _Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (male)                         98
-
- _Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (female)                       99
-
- _Salmo rivularis_, Steelhead Trout                                  101
-
- Head of Adult Trout-worm, _Dibothrium cordiceps_. From intestine    103
-   of white pelican
-
- Median segments of _Dibothrium cordiceps_                           103
-
- _Salmo henshawi_, Tahoe Trout                                       104
-
- _Salmo stomias_, Green-back Trout                                   105
-
- _Salmo macdonaldi_, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes                  105
-
- _Salmo clarkii spilurus_, Rio Grande Trout                          106
-
- _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, Colorado River Trout                   106
-
- _Hucho blackistoni_, Ito                                            107
-
- _Salvelinus oquassa_, Rangeley Trout                                108
-
- _Salvelinus aureolus_, Sunapee Trout                                109
-
- _Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout (male)                      110
-
- _Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout                             111
-
- _Salvelinus malma_, Malma Trout                                     113
-
- _Salvelinus malma_, Dolly Varden Trout                              114
-
- _Cristivomer namaycush_, Great Lake Trout                           114
-
- _Plecoglossus altivelis_, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet                   116
-
- _Thymallus signifer_, Alaska Grayling                               120
-
- _Thymallus tricolor_, Michigan Grayling                             122
-
- _Osmerus mordax_, Smelt                                             123
-
- _Thaleichthys pretiosus_, Eulachon or Ulchen                        124
-
- Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon     125
-   (_Thaleichthys pacificus_)
-
- _Mallotus villosus_, Capelin                                        126
-
- _Salanx hyalocranius_, Icefish                                      128
-
- _Stomias ferox_                                                     128
-
- _Chauliodus sloanei_                                                129
-
- _Synodus fætens_, Lizard-fish                                       130
-
- _Ipnops murrayi_                                                    131
-
- _Cetomimus gillii_                                                  132
-
- _Diaphus lucidus_, Headlight-fish                                   132
-
- _Myctophum opalinum_, Lantern-fish                                  133
-
- _Ceratoscopelus madeirensis_, Lantern-fish                          133
-
- _Rhinellus furcatus_                                                134
-
- _Plagyodus ferox_, Lancet-fish                                      135
-
- _Eurypholis sulcidens_                                              136
-
- _Eurypholis freyeri_                                                137
-
- _Argyropelecus olfersi_                                             137
-
- _Aldrovandia gracilis_                                              138
-
- _Anguilla chrisypa_, Common Eel                                     143
-
- _Anguilla chrisypa_, Larva of Common Eel                            148
-
- _Simenchelys parasiticus_, Pug-nosed Eel                            149
-
- _Synaphobranchus pinnatus_                                          149
-
- _Leptocephalus conger_, Conger-eel                                  150
-
- Larva of Conger-eel, _Leptocephalus conger_                         150
-
- _Xyrias revulsus_                                                   151
-
- _Myrichthys pantostigmius_                                          151
-
- _Ophichthus ocellatus_                                              151
-
- _Nemichthys avocetta_, Thread-eel                                   152
-
- Jaws of _Nemichthys avocetta_                                       152
-
- _Muræna retifera_                                                   153
-
- _Gymnothorax berndti_                                               154
-
- _Gymnothorax jordani_                                               155
-
- _Gymnothorax moringa_, Moray                                        155
-
- _Derichthys serpentinus_                                            156
-
- _Gastrostomus bairdi_, Gulper-eel                                   156
-
- _Notacanthus phasganorus_                                           158
-
- Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (_Ictiobus            160
-   bubalus_), showing the mesocoracoid
-
- Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp                          160
-
- _Brycon dentex_                                                     162
-
- Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, _Leuciscus cephalus_   163
-
- _Rhinichthys dulcis_, Black-nosed Dace                              164
-
- _Notropis hudsonius_, White Chub                                    165
-
- _Ericymba buccata_, Silver-jaw Minnow                               165
-
- _Notropis whipplei_, Silverfin                                      166
-
- _Campostoma anomalum_, Stone-roller                                 167
-
- Head of Day-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_                          167
-
- _Semotilus atromaculatus_, Horned Dace                              168
-
- _Abramis chrysoleucus_, Shiner                                      168
-
- _Ptychocheilus grandis_, Squawfish                                  169
-
- _Leuciscus lineatus_, Chub of the Great Basin                       169
-
- Lower Pharyngeal of _Placopharynx duquesnii_                        171
-
- _Erimyzon sucetta_, Creekfish or Chub-sucker                        172
-
- _Ictiobus cyprinella_, Buffalo-fish                                 173
-
- _Carpiodes cyprinus_, Carp-sucker                                   173
-
- _Catostomus commersoni_, Common Sucker                              174
-
- _Catostomus occidentalis_, California Sucker                        174
-
- Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, _Catostomus macrocheilus_        175
-
- _Xyrauchen cypho_, Razor-back Sucker                                175
-
- _Felichthys felis_, Gaff-topsail Cat                                179
-
- _Galeichthys milberti_, Sea Catfish                                 179
-
- _Ictalurus punctatus_, Channel Catfish                              180
-
- _Ameiurus nebulosus_, Horned Pout                                   181
-
- _Schilbeodes furiosus_, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral      182
-   spine
-
- _Torpedo electricus_, Electric Catfish                              183
-
- _Chlarias breviceps_, African Catfish                               185
-
- _Loricaria aurea_, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela                    186
-
- _Gnathonemus curvirostris_                                          189
-
- _Esox lucius_, Pike                                                 191
-
- _Esox masquinongy_, Muskallunge                                     192
-
- _Umbra pygmæa_, Mud-minnow                                          193
-
- _Anableps dovii_, Four-eyed Fish                                    195
-
- _Cyprinodon variegatus_, Round Minnow                               196
-
- _Jordanella floridæ_, Everglade Minnow                              197
-
- _Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (male)                                  198
-
- _Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (female)                                198
-
- _Zygonectes notatus_, Top-minnow                                    198
-
- _Empetrichthys merriami_, Death Valley Fish                         199
-
- _Xiphophorus helleri_, Sword-tail Minnow (male)                     199
-
- _Goodea luitpoldi_, a Viviparous Fish                               200
-
- _Chologaster cornutus_, Dismal Swamp Fish                           201
-
- _Typhlichthys subterraneus_, Blind Cave-fish                        202
-
- _Amblyopsis spelæus_, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave                 203
-
- _Dallia pectoralis_, Alaska Blackfish                               206
-
- _Tylosurus acus_, Needle-fish                                       210
-
- _Scombresox saurus_, Saury                                          212
-
- _Hyporhamphus unifasciatus_, Halfbeak                               212
-
- _Fodiator acutus_, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish                          213
-
- _Cypselurus californicus_, Catalina Flying-fish                     214
-
- _Chirostoma humboldtianum_, Pescado blanco                          217
-
- _Kirtlandia vagrans_, Silverside or Brit                            217
-
- _Atherinopsis californiensis_, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey            218
-
- _Iso flos-maris_, Flower of the Waves                               218
-
- _Mugil cephalus_, Striped Mullet                                    221
-
- _Joturus pichardi_, Joturo or Bobo                                  222
-
- _Sphyræna barracuda_, Barracuda                                     223
-
- _Cobitopsis acuta_                                                  224
-
- Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, _Polydactylus approximans_          225
-
- _Polydactylus octonemus_, Threadfin                                 225
-
- Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_          227
-
- Shoulder-girdle of _Fistularia petimba_, showing greatly extended   227
-   interclavicle, the surface ossified
-
- _Gasterosteus aculeatus_, Three-spined Stickleback                  232
-
- _Apeltes quadracus_, Four-spined Stickleback                        232
-
- _Aulostomus chinensis_, Trumpet-fish                                234
-
- _Macrorhamphosus sagifue_, Japanese Snipefish                       234
-
- _Æoliscus strigatus_, Shrimp-fish                                   235
-
- _Æoliscus heinrichi_                                                235
-
- _Solenostomus cyanopterus_                                          237
-
- _Hippocampus hudsonius_, Sea-horse                                  238
-
- _Zalises umitengu_, Sea-moth                                        240
-
- _Percopsis guttatus_, Sand-roller                                   241
-
- _Erismatopterus endlicheri_                                         242
-
- _Columbia transmontana_, Oregon Trout-perch                         242
-
- Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, _Lampris guttatus_ (_Brünnich_),       243
-   showing the enlarged infraclavicle
-
- Ligatures_Semiophorus velifer_                                      246
-
- _Amphistium paradoxum_                                              247
-
- _Zeus faber_, John Dory                                             248
-
- Skull of a Berycoidfish, _Beryx splendens_, showing the             250
-   orbitosphenoid
-
- _Beryx splendens_                                                   251
-
- _Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_                                           252
-
- _Paratrachichthys prosthemius_                                      253
-
- _Holocentrus ascenscionis_, Soldier-fish                            254
-
- _Holocentrus ittodai_                                               254
-
- _Ostichthys japonicus_                                              255
-
- _Monocentris japonicus_, Pine-cone Fish                             256
-
- _Scomber scombrus_, Mackerel                                        260
-
- _Germo alalunga_, Long-fin Albacore                                 263
-
- _Scomberomorus maculatus_, Spanish Mackerel                         264
-
- _Trichiurus lepturus_, Cutlass-fish                                 268
-
- _Palæorhynchus glarisianus_                                         268
-
- _Xiphias gladius_, Young Swordfish                                  269
-
- _Xiphias gladius_, Swordfish                                        270
-
- _Naucrates ductor_, Pilot-fish                                      273
-
- _Seriola lalandi_, Amber-fish                                       273
-
- _Trachurus trachurus_, Saurel                                       274
-
- _Carangus chrysos_, Yellow Mackerel                                 275
-
- _Trachinotus carolinus_, the Pampano                                277
-
- _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_, Bluefish                                279
-
- _Rachycentron canadum_, Sergeant-fish                               282
-
- _Peprilus paru_, Harvest-fish                                       284
-
- _Gobiomorus gronovii_, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish                   285
-
- _Coryphæna hippurus_, Dolphin or Dorado                             287
-
- _Mene maculata_                                                     288
-
- _Gasteronemus rhombeus_                                             289
-
- _Pempheris mulleri_, Catalufa de lo Alto                            289
-
- _Pempheris nyctereutes_                                             290
-
- _Luvarus imperialis_, Louvar                                        290
-
- _Aphredoderus sayanus_, Pirate Perch                                295
-
- _Elassoma evergladei_, Everglade Pigmy Perch                        295
-
- Skull of the Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_                     296
-
- _Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie                                        297
-
- _Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie (from life)                            298
-
- _Ambloplites rupestris_, Rock Bass                                  299
-
- _Mesogonistius chætodon_, Banded Sunfish                            299
-
- _Lepomis pallidus_, Blue-gill                                       300
-
- _Lepomis megalotis_, Long-eared Sunfish                             300
-
- _Eupomotis gibbosus_, Common Sunfish                                301
-
- _Micropterus dolomieu_, Small Mouth Black Bass                      303
-
- _Micropterus salmoides_, Large Mouth Black Bass                     305
-
- _Perca flavescens_, Yellow perch                                    308
-
- _Stizostedion canadense_, Sauger                                    309
-
- _Aspro asper_, Aspron                                               309
-
- _Zingel zingel_, Zingel                                             310
-
- _Percina caprodes_, Log-perch                                       311
-
- _Hadropterus aspro_, Black-sided Darter                             311
-
- _Diplesion blennioides_, Green-sided Darter                         312
-
- _Boleosoma olmstedi_, Tessellated Darter                            312
-
- _Crystallaria asprella_, Crystal Darter                             313
-
- _Ammocrypta clara_, Sand-darter                                     313
-
- _Etheostoma jordani_                                                314
-
- _Etheostoma camurum_, Blue-breasted Darter                          314
-
- _Apogon retrosella_, Cardinal-fish                                  316
-
- _Telescopias gilberti_, Kuromutsu                                   318
-
- _Apogon semilineatus_                                               319
-
- _Oxylabrax undecimalis_, Robalo                                     319
-
- _Morone americana_, White Perch                                     322
-
- _Promicrops itaiara_, Florida Jewfish                               323
-
- _Epinephelus striatus_, Nassau Grouper: _Cherna criolla_            324
-
- _Epinephelus drummond-hayi_, John Paw or Speckled Hind              325
-
- _Epinephelus morio_, Red Grouper                                    325
-
- _Epinephelus adscensionis_, Red Hind                                326
-
- _Mycteroperca venenosa_, Yellow-fin Grouper                         327
-
- _Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans_                                   328
-
- _Epinephelus niveatus_, Snowy Grouper                               329
-
- _Rypticus bistrispinus_, Soapfish                                   330
-
- _Lobotes surinamensis_, Flasher                                     331
-
- _Priacanthus arenatus_, Catalufa                                    331
-
- _Pseudopriacanthus altus_, Bigeye                                   332
-
- _Lutianus griseus_, Gray Snapper                                    334
-
- _Lutianus apodus_, Schoolmaster                                     335
-
- _Hoplopagrus guntheri_                                              336
-
- _Lutianus synagris_, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba                       336
-
- _Ocyurus chrysurus_, Yellow-tail Snapper                            337
-
- _Etelis oculatus_, Cachucho                                         337
-
- _Xenocys jessiæ_                                                    338
-
- _Aphareus furcatus_                                                 339
-
- _Hæmulon plumieri_, Grunt                                           340
-
- _Anisotremus virginicus_, Porkfish                                  341
-
- _Pagrus major_, Red Tai of Japan                                    342
-
- _Ebisu_, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai                   343
-
- _Stenotomus chrysops_, Scup                                         344
-
- _Calamus bajonado_, Jolt-head Porgy                                 345
-
- _Calamus proridens_, Little-head Porgy                              345
-
- _Diplodus holbrooki_                                                346
-
- _Archosargus unimaculatus_, Salema, Striped Sheepshead              347
-
- _Xystæma cinereum_, Mojarra                                         348
-
- _Gerres olisthostomus_, Irish Pampano                               349
-
- _Kyphosus sectatrix_, Chopa or Rudder-fish                          349
-
- _Apomotis cyanellus_, Blue-green Sunfish                            350
-
- _Pseudupeneus maculatus_, Red Goatfish or Salmonete                 351
-
- _Mullus auratus_, Golden Surmullet                                  352
-
- _Cynoscion nebulosus_, Spotted Weakfish                             353
-
- _Bairdiella chrysura_, Mademoiselle                                 355
-
- _Sciænops ocellata_, Red Drum                                       356
-
- _Umbrina sinaloæ_, Yellow-fin Roncador                              357
-
- _Menticirrhus americanus_, Kingfish                                 357
-
- _Pogonias chromis_, Drum                                            358
-
- _Gnathypops evermanni_                                              359
-
- _Opisthognathus macrognathus_, Jawfish                              359
-
- _Opisthognathus nigromarginatus_                                    360
-
- _Chiasmodon niger_, Black Swallower                                 360
-
- _Cirrhitus rivulatus_                                               364
-
- _Trichodon trichodon_, Sandfish                                     364
-
- _Anabas scandens_, Climbing Perch                                   366
-
- _Channa formosana_                                                  371
-
- _Ophicephalus barca_, Snake-headed China-fish                       371
-
- _Cymatogaster aggregatus_, White Surf-fish                          372
-
- _Hysterocarpus traski_, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch                373
-
- _Hypsurus caryi_                                                    373
-
- _Damalichthys argyrosomus_, White Surf-fish                         374
-
- _Rhacochilus toxotes_, Thick-lipped Surf-fish                       374
-
- _Hypocritichthys analis_, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous              375
-
- _Hysterocarpus traski_, Viviparous Perch (male)                     379
-
- _Hypsypops rubicunda_, Garibaldi                                    382
-
- _Pomacentrus leucostictus_, Damsel-fish                             382
-
- _Glyphisodon marginatus_, Cockeye Pilot                             383
-
- _Microspathodon dorsalis_, Indigo Damsel-fish                       384
-
- _Tautoga onitis_, Tautog                                            384
-
- _Tautoga onitis_, Tautog                                            386
-
- _Lachnolaimus falcatus_, Capitaine or Hogfish                       387
-
- _Xyrichthys psittacus_, Razor-fish                                  388
-
- _Pimelometopon pulcher_, Redfish (male)                             389
-
- _Lepidaplois perditio_                                              389
-
- Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, _Sparisoma cretense_. _a_,      391
-   Upper; _b_, Lower
-
- Jaws of Parrot-fish, _Calotomus xenodon_                            391
-
- _Cryptotomus beryllinus_                                            391
-
- _Sparisoma hoplomystax_                                             392
-
- _Sparisoma abildgaardi_, Red Parrot-fish                            392
-
- Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, _Scarus cæruleus_                         393
-
- Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_      393
-
- Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_      393
-
- _Scarus emblematicus_                                               394
-
- _Scarus cæruleus_, Blue Parrot-fish                                 394
-
- _Scarus vetula_, Parrot-fish                                        395
-
- _Halichæres bivittatus_, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the   399
-   coral-reefs
-
- _Monodactylus argenteus_                                            397
-
- _Psettus sebæ_                                                      399
-
- _Chætodipterus faber_, Spadefish                                    401
-
- _Chætodon capistratus_, Butterfly-fish                              402
-
- _Pomacanthus arcuatus_, Black Angel-fish                            403
-
- _Holacanthus ciliaris_, Angel-fish or Isabelita                     404
-
- _Holacanthus tricolor_, Rock Beauty                                 405
-
- _Zanclus canescens_, Moorish Idol                                   406
-
- _Teuthis cæruleus_, Blue Tang                                       407
-
- _Teuthis bahianus_, Brown Tang                                      408
-
- _Balistes carolinensis_, Trigger-fish                               412
-
- _Osbeckia lævis_, File-fish                                         414
-
- _Amanses scopas_, Needle-bearing File-fish                          414
-
- _Stephanolepis hispidus_, Common File-fish                          415
-
- _Lactophrys tricornis_, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold       416
-
- _Ostracion cornutum_, Horned Trunkfish                              416
-
- _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish                          416
-
- _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish (face view)              417
-
- _Lactophrys triqueter_, Spineless Trunkfish                         417
-
- _Lactophrys trigonus_, Hornless Trunkfish                           418
-
- Skeleton of the Cowfish, _Lactophrys tricornis_                     418
-
- _Lagocephalus lævigatus_, Silvery Puffer                            419
-
- _Spheroides spengleri_, Puffer, Inflated                            420
-
- _Spheroides maculatus_, Puffer                                      420
-
- _Tetraodon meleagris_                                               421
-
- _Tetraodon setosus_, Bristly Globefish                              422
-
- _Diodon hystrix_, Porcupine-fish                                    422
-
- _Chilomycterus schœpfi_, Rabbit-fish                                423
-
- _Mola mola_, Headfish (adult)                                       424
-
- _Ranzania makua_, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu               425
-
- _Sebastes marinus_, Rosefish                                        427
-
- Skull of _Scorpænichthys marmoratus_                                427
-
- _Sebastolobus altivelis_                                            428
-
- _Sebastodes mystinus_, Priest-fish                                  430
-
- _Sebastichthys serriceps_                                           431
-
- _Sebastichthys nigrocinctus_, Banded Rockfish                       432
-
- _Scorpæna grandicornis_, Lion-fish                                  433
-
- _Scorpæna mystes_, Sea-scorpion                                     434
-
- _Pterois volitans_, Lion-fish or Sausolele                          435
-
- _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_, Black Nohu or Poison-fish                 436
-
- _Snyderina yamanokami_                                              437
-
- _Trachicephalus uranoscopus_                                        438
-
- _Anoplopoma fimbria_, Skilfish                                      438
-
- _Pleurogrammus monopterygius_, Atka-fish                            439
-
- _Hexagrammos decagrammus_, Greenling                                440
-
- _Ophiodon elongatus_, Cultus Cod                                    440
-
- _Jordania zonope_                                                   442
-
- _Astrolytes notospilotus_                                           442
-
- _Hemilepidotus jordani_, Irish Lord                                 443
-
- _Triglops pingeli_                                                  443
-
- _Enophrys bison_, Buffalo Sculpin                                   443
-
- _Ceratocottus diceraus_                                             444
-
- _Elanura forficata_                                                 444
-
- _Cottus punctulatus_, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb                    444
-
- _Uranidea tenuis_, Miller's Thumb                                   445
-
- _Cottus evermanni_                                                  445
-
- _Cottus gulosus_, California Miller's Thumb                         446
-
- _Myxocephalus niger_, Pribilof Sculpin                              446
-
- _Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus_, 18-spined Sculpin                 447
-
- _Oncocottus quadricornis_                                           447
-
- _Blepsias cirrhosus_                                                448
-
- _Hemitripterus americanus_, Sea-raven                               448
-
- _Oligocottus maculosus_                                             449
-
- _Ereunias grallator_                                                450
-
- _Psychrolutes paradoxus_, Sleek Sculpin                             451
-
- _Gilbertidia sigolutes_                                             451
-
- _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_, Richardson's Sculpin                   451
-
- _Stelgis vulsus_                                                    451
-
- _Draciscus sachi_                                                   452
-
- _Pallasina barbata_, Agonoid-fish                                   453
-
- _Aspidophoroides monopterygius_                                     453
-
- _Cyclopterus lumpus_, Lumpfish                                      454
-
- _Crystallias matsushimæ_, Liparid                                   454
-
- _Neoliparis mucosus_, Snailfish                                     455
-
- _Prionotus evolans_, Sea-robin                                      456
-
- _Cephalacanthus volitans_, Flying Gurnard                           457
-
- _Peristedion miniatum_                                              457
-
- _Philypnus dormitor_, Guavina de Rio                                460
-
- _Eleotris pisonis_, Dormeur                                         460
-
- _Dormitator maculatus_, Guavina mapo                                461
-
- _Vireosa hanæ_                                                      461
-
- _Gobionellus oceanicus_, Esmeralda de Mar                           461
-
- _Pterogobius daimio_                                                462
-
- _Aboma etheostoma_, Darter Goby                                     462
-
- _Gillichthys mirabilis_, Long-jawed Goby                            463
-
- _Boleophthalmus chinensis_, Pond-skipper                            466
-
- _Periophthalmus barbarus_, Mud-skippy                               466
-
- _Eutæniichthys gillii_                                              467
-
- _Leptecheneis naucrates_, Sucking-fish or Pegador                   468
-
- _Rhombochirus osteochir_                                            469
-
- _Regalecus russelli_, Glesnæs Oarfish                               476
-
- _Trachypterus rex-salmonorum_, Dealfish or King of the Salmon       478
-
- Young Flounder just hatched                                         482
-
- _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, Larval Flounder                    483
-
- Larval Stages of _Platophrys podas_, a Flounder                     484
-
- _Platophrys lunatus_, Peacock Flounder                              485
-
- Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, _Salmo fario_                     486
-
- Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_          486
-
- _Lophopsetta maculata_, Window-pane                                 487
-
- _Syacium papillosum_, Wide-eyed Flounder                            488
-
- _Etropus crossotus_                                                 489
-
- _Hippoglossus hippoglossus_, Halibut                                492
-
- _Paralichthys dentatus_, Wide-mouthed Flounder                      493
-
- _Liopsetta putnami_, Eel-back Flounder                              494
-
- _Platichthys stellatus_, Starry Flounder                            495
-
- _Achirus lineatus_, Hog-choker Sole                                 496
-
- _Symphurus plagiusa_                                                498
-
- _Pteropsaron evolans_                                               502
-
- _Bathymaster signatus_                                              503
-
- _Ariscopus iburius_                                                 504
-
- _Astroscopus guttatus_, Star-gazer                                  505
-
- _Neoclinus satiricus_, Sarcastic Blenny                             507
-
- _Gibbonsia evides_, Kelp Blenny                                     508
-
- _Blennius cristatus_                                                508
-
- _Alticus atlanticus_, Rock-skipper                                  509
-
- _Alticus saliens_, Lizard-skipper                                   509
-
- _Emblemaria atlantica_                                              510
-
- _Scartichthys enosimæ_, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred        510
-   island of Enoshima, Japan
-
- _Zacalles bryope_                                                   511
-
- _Bryostemma tarsodes_                                               511
-
- _Exerpes asper_                                                     511
-
- _Pholis gunnellus_, Gunnel                                          512
-
- _Xiphistes chirus_                                                  512
-
- _Ozorthe dictyogramma_                                              513
-
- _Stichæus punctatus_                                                513
-
- _Bryostemma otohime_                                                514
-
- _Ptilichthys goodei_, Quillfish                                     514
-
- _Blochius longirostris_                                             514
-
- _Xiphasia setifera_                                                 515
-
- _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_, Wrymouth                               516
-
- _Anarhichas lupus_, Wolf-fish                                       517
-
- Skull of _Anarrhichthys ocellatus_                                  517
-
- _Zoarces anguillaris_, Eel-pout                                     518
-
- _Lycodes reticulatus_, Eel-pout                                     519
-
- _Lycenchelys verrilli_                                              519
-
- _Scytalina cerdale_                                                 519
-
- _Rissola marginata_, Cusk-eel                                       520
-
- _Lycodapus dermatinus_                                              520
-
- _Ammodytes americanus_, Sand-lance                                  521
-
- _Embolichthys mitsukurii_                                           521
-
- _Fierasfer dubius_, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl                    522
-
- _Fierasfer acus_, Pearlfish                                         523
-
- _Brotula barbata_                                                   524
-
- _Lucifuga subterranea_, Blind Brotula                               524
-
- _Opsanus pardus_, Leopard Toadfish                                  525
-
- _Porichthys porosissimus_, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines)   526
-
- _Aspasma ciconiæ_                                                   530
-
- _Caularchus mæandricus_, Clingfish                                  531
-
- _Mastacembelus ellipsifer_                                          532
-
- _Gadus callarias_, Codfish                                          533
-
- Skull of Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_                         536
-
- _Melanogrammus æglifinus_, Haddock                                  536
-
- _Theragra chalcogramma_, Pollock                                    537
-
- _Microgadus tomcod_, Tomcod                                         538
-
- _Lota maculosa_, Burbot                                             539
-
- _Enchelyopus cimbrius_, Four-bearded Rockling                       539
-
- _Merluccius productus_, California Hake                             540
-
- _Coryphænoides carapinus_, showing leptocercal tail                 540
-
- _Cælorhynchus carminatus_, Grenadier                                541
-
- _Steindachnerella argentea_                                         541
-
- _Lophius litulon_, Anko or Fishing-frog                             545
-
- _Cryptopsaras couesi_                                               547
-
- _Ceratias holbolli_, Deep-sea Angler                                548
-
- _Caulophryne jordani_                                               548
-
- _Pterophryne tumida_, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers            549
-
- _Antennarius nox_, Fishing-frog                                     550
-
- Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_               551
-
- _Antennarius scaber_, Frogfish                                      551
-
- _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_                                          552
-
- _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish                                 553
-
- _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish                                 553
-
-
-
-
-                               ERRATA[1]
-                                VOL. II
-
-
- Page xviii,  line     7, for _Ophicæphalus_ read _Ophicephalus_
-
-      xviii,    "     37, for _Mononactylus_ read _Monodactylus_
-
-        xix,    "     33, for _Trachicephales_ read _Trachicephalus_
-
-         xx,    "     37, for _Regaleaus glesneacsanius_ read _Regalecus
-                            russelli_
-
-        xxi,    "      2, for _Etopus_ read _Etropus_
-
-        xxi,    "     35, for _Zoacres_ read _Zoarces_
-
-          1,    "      7, _for_ jaws _read_ jaw
-
-         14,    "      9, _for_ hetercoercal _read_ heterocercal
-
-        136,    "      3, for _Evermannellus_ read _Evermannella_
-
-        170,    "     11, _for_ the fin _read_ the dorsal fin
-
-        171,    "     10, _for_ have _read_ has
-
-        303, legend,      _for_ Lacepède _read_ Lacépède
-
-        307,  line    14, _for_ vertebrate _read_ vertebral
-
-        311,    "     12, not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least
-                            developed in those species which cling
-                            closest to the bottom of the stream
-
-        350, legend,      for _Apomotes_ read _Apomotis_
-
-        355,  line    18, _for_ ours _read_ our
-
-        357,    "     14, _for_ chætodon _read_ Chætodon
-
-        358,    "     17, for _Scriænidæ_ read _Sciænidæ_
-
-        360,    "     14, for _Percesoces_ read _Percesoces_
-
-        409,    "     16, for _naseus_ read _Naseus_
-
-        419,    "     23, _for_ of the generic of this group _read_
-                            separating the group into genera
-
-        440,    "     17, _for_ Chinnook _read_ Chinook
-
-        459,    "     24, _for_ but the most _read_ but most
-
-        459,    "     25, _for_ thme _read_ them
-
-        467,    "     14, for _Typhogobius_ read _Typhlogobius_
-
-        472,  lines   34, _omit_ "but never in the United States".
-                      35,   Specimens of _Regalecus_ have been taken at
-                            Anclote Key, Florida, and at the Tortugas.
-
-        580,  col.     3, line 17, _for_ 165 _read_ 105
-
-The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology
-necessitates a few changes in generic names used in this book.
-
-      Thus _Amia_ (ganoid)                becomes _Amiatus_
-           _Apogon_                       becomes _Amia_
-           _Scarus_                       becomes _Callyodon_
-           _Teuthis_                      becomes _Hepatus_
-           _Acanthurus_                   becomes _Monoceros_
-           _Paramia_                      becomes _Cheilodipterus_
-           _Centropomus_ (_Oxylabrax_)    remains _Centropomus_
-           _Lucioperca_ (_Centropomus_)   becomes _Sander_
-           _Pomatomus_ (_Cheilodipterus_) remains _Pomatomus_
-           _Nomeus_ (_Gobiomorus_)        remains _Nomeus_
-           _Galeus_ (_Galeorhinus_)       remains _Galeus_
-           _Carcharias_ (_Carcharhinus_)  remains _Carcharias_
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest
-  of Dr. B. W. Evermann.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-                              THE GANOIDS
-
-
-=SUBCLASS Actinopteri.=—In our glance over the taxonomy of the earlier
-Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, we have detached from the main stem
-one after another a long series of archaic or primitive types. We have
-first set off those with rudimentary notochord, then those with
-retrogressive development who lose the notochord, then those without
-skull or brain, then those without limbs or lower jaw. The residue
-assume the fish-like form of body, but still show great differences
-among themselves. We have then detached those without membrane-bones, or
-trace of lung or air-bladder. We next part company with those having the
-air-bladder a veritable lung, and those with an ancient type of paired
-fins, a jointed axis fringed with rays, and those having the palate
-still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left only those having
-fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the modern fish.
-For all these in all their variety, as a class or subclass, the name
-_Actinopteri_, or _Actinopterygii_, suggested by Professor Cope, is now
-generally adopted. The shorter form, _Actinopteri_, being equally
-correct is certainly preferable. This term (ακτίς, ray; πτερόν or
-πτερύξ, fin) refers to the structure of the paired fins. In all these
-fishes the bones supporting the fin-rays are highly specialized and at
-the same time concealed by the general integument of the body. In
-general two bones connect the pectoral fin with the shoulder-girdle. The
-hypercoracoid is a flat square bone, usually perforated by a foramen.
-Lying below it and parallel with it is the irregularly formed
-hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, the actinosts, or
-pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, which actually support the
-fin-rays. In the more specialized forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts are
-few (four to six) in number, but in the more primitive types, or
-Ganoids, they may remain numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen
-in the Crossopterygians, and especially in _Polypterus_. Other
-variations may occur; the two coracoids sometimes are imperfect or
-specially modified, the upper sometimes without a foramen, and the
-actinosts may be distorted in form or position.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 1.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_
-    (Ayres).
-]
-
-=The Series Ganoidei.=—Among the lower _Actinopteri_ many archaic traits
-still persist, and in its earlier representatives the group approaches
-closely to the _Crossopterygii_, although no forms actually intermediate
-are known either living or fossil. The great group of _Actinopteri_ may
-be divided into two series or subclasses, the _Ganoidei_, or
-_Chrondrostei_, containing those forms, mostly extinct, which retain
-archaic traits of one sort or another, and the _Teleostei_, or bony
-fishes, in which most of the primitive characters have disappeared.
-Doubtless all of the _Teleostei_ are descended from a ganoid ancestry.
-
-Even among the _Ganoidei_, as the term is here restricted, there remains
-a very great variety of form and structure. The fossil and existing
-forms do not form continuous series, but represent the tips and remains
-of many diverging branches perhaps from some Crossopterygian central
-stock. The group constitutes at least three distinct orders and, as a
-whole, does not admit of perfect definition. In most but not all of the
-species the tail is distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of
-symmetry of the tail in some Teleosts being confined to the bones and
-not evident without dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the skeleton
-still cartilaginous, and in some it remains in a very primitive
-condition. Usually the Ganoids have an armature of bony plates,
-diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that developed on the teeth. In all
-of them the pectoral fin has numerous basal bones or actinosts. All of
-them have the air-bladder highly developed, usually cellular and
-functional as a lung, but connecting with the dorsal side of the gullet,
-not with the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms there
-is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms retain also
-the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral valve of the
-intestines found in the more archaic types of fishes. But traces of some
-or all of these structures are found in some bony fishes, and their
-presence in the Ganoids by no means justifies the union of the Ganoids
-with the sharks, Dipnoans, and Crossopterygians to form a great primary
-class, _Palæichthyes_, as proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of
-body may be found among the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these fishes
-were scarcely less varied and perhaps scarcely less abundant than the
-Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They far exceed the Crossopterygians in
-number and variety of forms. Transitional forms connecting the two
-groups are thus far not recognized. So far as fossils show, the
-characteristic actinopterous fin with its reduced and altered basal
-bones appeared at once without intervening gradations.
-
-The name _Ganoidei_ (γάνος, brightness; εἶδος, resemblance), alluding to
-the enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to those forms, mostly
-extinct, which were covered with bony scales or hard plates of one sort
-or another. As the term was originally defined, mailed catfishes,
-sea-horses, _Agonidæ_, _Arthrodires_, _Ostracophores_, and other wholly
-unrelated types were included with the garpikes and sturgeons as
-Ganoids. Most of these intruding forms among living fishes were
-eliminated by Johannes Müller, who recognized the various archaic
-characters common to the existing forms after the removal of the mailed
-Teleosts. Still later Huxley separated the Crossopterygians as a
-distinct group, while others have shown that the _Ostracophori_ and
-_Arthrodira_ should be placed far from the garpike in systematic
-classification. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped the name
-Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through the many meanings
-attached to it. Others have kept it as a convenient group name for the
-orders of archaic _Actinopteri_. For these varied and more or less
-divergent forms it seems convenient to retain it. As an adjective
-"ganoid" is sometimes used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled
-scales, some-in the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes.
-
-=Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?=—Several writers have urged that the
-_Ganoidei_, even as thus restricted, should not be considered as a
-natural group, whether subclass, order, or group of orders. The reasons
-for this view in brief are the following:
-
-1. The group is heterogeneous. The _Amiidæ_ differ more from the other
-Ganoids than they do from the herring-like Teleosts. The garpikes,
-sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge widely from each other and
-from the _Palæoniscidæ_ and the _Platysomidæ_. Each of the living
-families represents the residue or culmination of a long series, in some
-cases advancing, as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps
-degenerating, as in the case of the sturgeons.
-
-2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several (the
-cellular air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the spiral valve in
-the intestine, the heterocercal tail) are all possessed in greater or
-less degree by certain _Isospondyli_ or allies of the herring. All these
-characters are still better developed in _Crossoptergyii_ and
-_Dipneusti_, and each one disappears by degrees. Of the characters drawn
-from the soft parts we can know nothing so far as the extinct Ganoids
-are concerned.
-
-3. The optic chiasma, thus far characteristic of Ganoids as distinct
-from Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged that in closely
-related species of lizards some have the optic chiasma and others do
-not. This, however, proves nothing as to the value of the same character
-among fishes.
-
-4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the same character
-as the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed fishes, or that from
-fishes with a duct to the air-bladder to those without such duct.
-
-Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient to retain
-the Ganoidei (or _Chrondrostei_ if the older name be discarded on
-account of the many meanings attached to it) as a group equivalent to
-that of _Teleostei_ within the class or subclass of _Actinopteri_. It
-comprises the transitional forms between the _Crossopterygii_ and the
-bony fishes, and its members are especially characteristic of the
-Mesozoic age, ranging from the Devonian to the present era.
-
-Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question we may
-quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass of Ganoids, the
-first by Francis M. Balfour and William Kitchen Parker, the second from
-the pen of Theodore Gill.
-
-Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp.
-430-433) thus discuss the
-
-=Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.=—"Alexander Agassiz concludes his
-memoir on the development of _Lepidosteus_ by pointing out that in spite
-of certain affinities in other directions this form is 'not so far
-removed from the bony fishes as has been supposed.' Our own observations
-go far to confirm Agassiz's opinion.
-
-"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development of
-_Lepidosteus_ is strikingly Teleostean. In addition to the general
-Teleostean features of the embryo and larva, which can only be
-appreciated by those who have had an opportunity of practically working
-at the subject, we may point to the following developmental features[2]
-as indicative of Teleostean affinities:
-
-"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel of the
-epiblast.
-
-"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic stratum.
-
-"(3) The mode of development of the gut.
-
-"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though the pronephros of
-_Lepidosteus_ has primitive characters not retained by Teleostei.
-
-"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral column.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to
-  _Lepidosteus_ and Teleostei, but are always eminently characteristic
-  of the latter.
-
-"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters there
-are not a few important adult characters:
-
-"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands.
-
-"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of numerous
-so-called pancreatic cæca.
-
-"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine.
-
-"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of the
-cerebellum; the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores on the
-infundibulum, and of tori semi-circulares in the mid-brain.
-
-"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to which we have
-just called attention, a list containing not less important characters,
-both embryological and adult, separating _Lepidosteus_ from the
-Teleostei, can be drawn up:
-
-"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus.
-
-"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters.
-
-"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying the semen from
-the testes to the kidney, and through the tubules of the latter into the
-kidney-duct.
-
-"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill.
-
-"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character may possibly
-break down with the extension of our knowledge.
-
-"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon and the
-cerebral hemispheres.
-
-"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves.
-
-"(8) The absence of a pecten, and presence of a vascular membrane
-between the vitreous humor and the retina.
-
-"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ.
-
-"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal arches of the
-tail with the processes of the vertebral column.
-
-"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral and
-ventro-lateral divisions.
-
-"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum.
-
-"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate that
-Lepidosteus cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we hold that
-Müller's view is correct, according to which _Lepidosteus_ is a true
-Ganoid.
-
-"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however, recently
-been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist as Günther, and it
-may therefore be well to consider how far the group as defined by Müller
-is a natural one for living forms, and how far recent researches enable
-us to improve upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the
-characters of the Ganoids are thus shortly stated:
-
-"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular or rounded
-cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates, or are quite naked.
-The fins are often, but not always, beset with a double or single row of
-spinous plates or splints. The caudal fin embraces occasionally in its
-upper lobe the end of the vertebral column, which may be prolonged to
-the end of the upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of
-Teleostei. The gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under an
-operculum, like those of Teleostei. Many of them have an accessory organ
-of respiration, in the form of an opercular gill, which is distinct from
-the pseudobranch, and can be present together with the latter; many also
-have spiracles like Elasmobranchii. They have many valves in the stem of
-the aorta like the latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the
-aorta. Their ova are transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts.
-Their optic nerves do not cross each other. The intestine is often
-provided with a spiral valve, like Elasmobranchii. They have a
-swimming-bladder with a duct, like many Teleostei. Their pelvic fins are
-abdominal.
-
-"'If we include in a definition only those characters which are
-invariable, the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being those fish with
-numerous valves to the stem of the aorta, which is also provided with a
-muscular coat, with free gills, and an operculum, and with abdominal
-pelvic fins.'
-
-"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to his paper,
-the presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a processus
-falciformis and a choroid gland.
-
-"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we may probably
-add the following:
-
-"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open by a common
-urogenital aperture behind the anus.
-
-"(2) Skull hyostylic.
-
-"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated, though
-perhaps _Amia_ may be found to resemble the Teleostei in this
-particular.
-
-"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the larva.
-
-"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed.
-
-"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is not divided
-behind into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided part being
-extremely thin.
-
-"(7) Abdominal pores always present.
-
-"The great number of characters just given are amply sufficient to
-differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously enough, the only
-characters, amongst the whole series which have been given, which can be
-regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids are (1) the characters of the brain,
-and (2) the fact of the oviducts and kidney-ducts uniting together and
-opening by a common pore to the exterior.
-
-"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an indication of
-how widely separated in organization are the different members of this
-great group.
-
-"At the same time, the only group with which existing Ganoids have close
-affinities is the Teleostei. The points they have in common with the
-Elasmobranchii are merely such as are due to the fact that both retain
-numerous primitive vertebrate characters,[3] and the gulf which really
-separates them is very wide.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the
-  frequent presence of a spiracle; (3) the frequent presence of a
-  communication between the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4) the
-  heterocercal tail.
-
-"There is again no indication of any close affinity between the Dipnoans
-and, at any rate, existing Ganoids.
-
-"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of a very
-primitive stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder into a true
-lung, the highly specialized character of their limbs,[4] their peculiar
-autostylic skulls, the fact of their ventral nasal openings leading
-directly into the mouth, their multi-segmented bars (interspinous bars)
-directly prolonged from the neural and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays
-of the unpaired dorsal and ventral fins, and their well-developed
-cerebral hemispheres, very unlike those of Ganoids and approaching the
-Amphibian type, they form a very well-defined group and one very
-distinctly separated from the Ganoids.
-
-Footnote 4:
-
-  Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired
-  Fins of Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881.
-
-"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed from the
-Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links uniting these Ganoids with
-the Teleostei have been so fully preserved in the existing fauna of the
-globe that the two groups almost run into each other. If, in fact, we
-were anxious to make any radical change in the ordinary classification
-of fishes, it would be by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather
-constituting the Teleostei into one of the subgroups of the Ganoids,
-equivalent to the Chondrostei. We do not recommend such an arrangement,
-which in view of the great preponderance of the Teleostei amongst living
-fishes would be highly inconvenient, but the step from _Amia_ to the
-Teleostei is certainly not so great as that from the Chondrostei to
-Amia, and is undoubtedly less than that from the Selachii to the
-Holocephali."
-
-=Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.=—Dr. Gill observes ("Families
-of Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti) was originally
-framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal term for fishes having the scales
-(when present) angular and covered with enamel; and in the group so
-characterized were combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as
-the Teleostean orders Plectognathi, Lophobranchii, and Nematognathi, and
-(subsequently) the genus _Sudis_ (_Arapaima_), the last being regarded
-as a Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with these limits or
-characters.
-
-"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy and
-classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated
-memoirs on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal name Ganoidei;
-those memoirs have left an impression on ichthyology perhaps more
-decided than made by any other contributions to science, and that
-published _in extenso_ will ever be classical; numerous as have been the
-modifications since introduced into the system, no forms except those
-recognized by Müller (unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since
-among the Ganoids.
-
-"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute a natural
-group, and that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic nerves and
-multivalvular bulbus arteriosus) alleged by Müller to be peculiar to the
-teleostomous forms combined therein are problematical, and only
-_inferentially_ supposed to be common to the extinct Ganoids so called,
-and, finally, such objections couched in too strong language have
-culminated in the assertion that the characters in question are actually
-_shared_ by other physostome fishes.
-
-"No _demonstration_, however, has been presented as yet that any
-physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma and multivalvular
-_bulbus arteriosus_, and the statement to the contrary seems to have
-been the result of a venial misapprehension of Prof. Kner's statements,
-or the offspring of impressions left on the memory by his assertions, in
-forgetfulness of his exact words.
-
-"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters referred to,
-merely objects: (1) that they are _problematical_, are not confirmable
-for the extinct types, and were _probably_ not existent in certain forms
-that have been referred to the Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of
-the valves of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among recent Ganoids is so great
-as to show the unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is
-developed in the intestine of several osseous fishes ('genera of the
-so-called intermediate clupeoid groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and (4)
-the chiasma of the optic nerves in no wise furnishes a positive
-character for the Ganoids.
-
-"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the case of the
-intestinal spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague. The failure of the
-intestinal spiral valve, as a diagnostic character, has long been
-conceded, and in this case only have the forms that _prove_ the failure
-been referred to; in the other cases, where it would be especially
-desirable to have indicated the actual types falsifying the universality
-or exclusiveness of the characters, they have not been referred to, and
-the objections must be met as if they were not known to exist.
-
-"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used, problematical,
-inasmuch as no examination can be made of the soft parts of extinct
-forms, but with equal force may it be urged that any characters that
-have not been or cannot be _directly_ confirmed are problematical in the
-case of all other groups (e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied
-that the coordination of parts has been so invariably verified that all
-probabilities are in favor of similar coordination in any given case.
-
-"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number of valves
-of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among the various Ganoids, and even among the
-species of a single family (e.g., _Lepidosteidæ_), but the character of
-Ganoids lies not in the number, more or less, but in the greater number
-and relations (in contradistinction to the opposite pair of the
-Teleosts) in conjunction with the development of a _bulbus arteriosus_.
-In no other forms of Teleostomes have similar relations and structures
-been yet demonstrated.
-
-"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already been
-conceded, and no great stress has ever been laid on the character.
-
-"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all the known
-Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms (e.g., _Arapaima_,
-_Osteoglossum_, and _Clupeiform_ types) agreeing with typical physostome
-Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc., but which at the same time
-simulate most certain Ganoids (e.g., _Amia_) in form.
-
-"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the arguments
-against the validity of title, to natural association, of the Ganoids,
-have to meet the positive evidence of the coordinations noted; the value
-of such characteristics and coordinations can only be affected or
-destroyed by the demonstration that in all other respects there is (1)
-very close agreement of certain of the constituents of the subclass with
-other forms, and (2) inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those
-forms from _any_ (not all) other of the Ganoids, and consequently
-evidence _ubi plurima nitent_ against the taxonomic value of the
-characters employed for distinction.
-
-"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance between
-the Hyoganoids (_Lepisosteus_, _Amia_, etc.) and ordinary physostome
-Teleosts than between the former and the other orders of Ganoids, but it
-is equally true that they agree in other respects than in the brain and
-heart with the more generalized Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1)
-the paraglenal elements undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid,
-hypocoracoid, and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided, that
-is, differentiated into metapterygium and mesopterygium); and (3) those
-with ossified skeletons agree in the greater number of elements in the
-lower jaw. Therefore, until these coordinates fail, it seems advisable
-to recognize the Ganoids as constituents of a natural series; and
-especially on account of the superior taxonomic value of modifications
-of the brain and heart in other classes of vertebrates, for the same
-reason, and to keep prominently before the mind the characters in
-question, it appears also advisable to designate the series, until
-further discovery, as a subclass.
-
-"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized Teleosts at
-least _traces_ of some of the characters now considered to be peculiar
-to the Ganoids may be discovered. In anticipation of such a possibility,
-the author had at first discarded the subclass, recognizing the group
-only as one of the 'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration
-convinces him of the propriety of classification representing known
-facts and legitimate inferences rather than too much anticipation.
-
-"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with increasing
-knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but little more than the
-expressions of our want of knowledge of the intermediate forms; it may
-in truth be said that ability to segregate a class into well-defined
-groups is in ratio to our ignorance of all the terms."
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER II
-                         THE GANOIDS—Continued
-
-
-=CLASSIFICATION of Ganoids.=—The subdivision of the series of Ganoidei
-into orders offers great difficulty from the fact of the varying
-relationships of the members of the group and the fact that the great
-majority of the species are known only from broken skeletons preserved
-in the rocks. It is apparently easy to separate those with cartilaginous
-skeletons from those with these bones more or less ossified. It is also
-easy to separate those with bony scales or plates from those having the
-scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton grades into the other, and
-there is a bony basis even to the thinnest of scales found in this
-group. Among the multitude of names and divisions proposed we may
-recognize six orders, for which the names _Lysopteri_, _Chondrostei_,
-_Selachostomi_, _Pycnodonti_, _Lepidostei_, and _Halecomorphi_ are not
-inappropriate. Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from
-the first primitive group.
-
-=Order Lysopteri.=—In the most primitive order, called _Lysopteri_
-(λυσός, loose; πτερόν, fin) by Cope, _Heterocerci_ by Zittel and
-Eastman, and the "ascending series of Chondrostei" by Woodward, we find
-the nearest approach to the Chondropterygians. In this order the arches
-of the vertebræ are more or less ossified, the body is more or less
-short and deep, covered with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus
-is well developed, with numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are
-present, and the fins provided with fulcra. Dorsal and anal fins are
-present, with rays more numerous than their supports; ventral fin with
-basal supports which are imperfectly ossified; caudal fin mostly
-heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in form. All the members of this
-group are now extinct.
-
-=The Palæoniscidæ.=—The numerous genera of this order are referred to
-three families, the _Palæoniscidæ_, _Platysomidæ_, and _Dictyopygidæ_; a
-fourth family, _Dorypteridæ_, of uncertain relations, being also
-tentatively recognized. The family of _Palæoniscidæ_ is the most
-primitive, ranging from the Devonian to the Lias, and some of them seem
-to have entered fresh waters in the time of the coal-measures. These
-fishes have the body elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin.
-The tail is heterocercal and the body covered with rhombic plates.
-Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like scales are developed on the upper edge
-of the caudal fin in most recent Ganoids, and often the back has a
-median row of undeveloped scales. A multitude of species and genera are
-recorded. A typical form is the genus _Palæoniscum_,[5] with many
-species represented in the rocks of various parts of the world. The
-longest known species is _Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ from the Permian
-of Germany and England. _Palæoniscum magnum_, sixteen inches long,
-occurs in the Permian of Germany. From _Canobius_, the most primitive
-genus, to _Coccolepis_, the most modern, is a continuous series, the
-suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique, the basal bones of
-the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther forward, and the scales
-more completely imbricate. Other prominent genera are _Amblypterus_,
-_Eurylepis_, _Cheirolepis_, _Rhadinichthys_, _Pygopterus_,
-_Elonichthys_, _Ærolepis_, _Gyrolepis_, _Myriolepis_, _Oxygnathus_,
-_Centrolepis_, and _Holurus_.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
-  This word is usually written _Palæoniscus_, but Blainville, its author
-  (1818), chose the neuter form.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 2.—_Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ Blainville. Family
-    _Palæoniscidæ_. (After Zittel.)
-]
-
-=The Platysomidæ.=—The _Platysomidæ_ are different in form, the body
-being deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped, with very long dorsal
-and anal fins. In other respects they are very similar to the
-_Palæoniscidæ_, the osteology being the same. The _Palæoniscidæ_ were
-rapacious fishes with sharp teeth, the _Platysomidæ_ less active, and,
-from the blunter teeth, probably feeding on small animals, as crabs and
-snails.
-
-The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and held together as
-a coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The most extreme form is
-_Platysomus_, with the body very deep. _Platysomus gibbosus_ and other
-species occur in the Permian rocks of Germany. _Cheirodus_ is similar to
-_Platysomus_, but without ventral fins. _Eurynotus_, the most primitive
-genus, is remarkable for its large pectoral fins. _Eurynotus crenatus_
-occurs in the Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are
-_Mesolepis_, _Globulodus_, _Wardichthys_, and _Cheirodopsis_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 3.—_Eurynotus crenatus_ Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family
-    _Platysomidæ_. (After Traquair.)
-]
-
-Some of the _Platysomidæ_ have the interneural spines projecting through
-the skin before the dorsal fin. This condition is found also in certain
-bony fishes allied to the _Carangidæ_.
-
-=The Dorypteridæ.=—_Dorypterus hoffmani_, the type of the singular
-Palæozoic family of _Dorypteridæ_, with thoracic or sub-jugular
-many-rayed ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appearance, with distinct
-resemblances to certain Scombroid forms, but with a heterocercal tail
-like a ganoid, imperfectly ossified back-bone, and other very archaic
-characters. The body is apparently scaleless, unlike the true
-_Platysomidæ_, in which the scales are highly developed. A second
-species, _Dorypterus althausi_, also from the German copper shales, has
-been described. This species has lower fins than _Dorypterus hoffmani_,
-but may be the adult of the same type. _Dorypterus_ is regarded by
-Woodward as a specialized offshoot from the _Platysomidæ_. The
-many-rayed ventrals and the general form of the body and fins suggest
-affinity with the _Lampridæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 4.—_Dorypterus hoffmani_ Germar, restored. (After Hancock and
-    Howse.)
-]
-
-=Dictyopygidæ.=—In the _Dictyopygidæ_ (_Catopteridæ_), the body is
-gracefully elongate, less compressed, the heterocercal tail is short and
-abruptly turned upwards, the teeth are sharp and usually hooked, and the
-bony plates well developed. Of this group two genera are recognized,
-each containing numerous species. In _Redfieldius_ (= _Catopterus_
-Redfield, not of Agassiz) the dorsal is inserted behind the anal, while
-in _Dictyopyge_ this is not the case. _Redfieldius gracilis_ and other
-species are found in the Triassic of the Connecticut River. _Dictyopyge
-macrura_ is found in the same region, and _Dictyopyge catoptera_ and
-other species in Europe.
-
-=Order Chondrostei.=—The order _Chondrostei_ (χόνδρος, cartilage;
-ὀστέον, bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized by the
-persistence of the notochord in greater or less degree, the endoskeleton
-remaining cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts and baseosts of the median
-fins are arranged in simple regular series and the rays are more
-numerous than the supporting elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of
-infraclavicular plates. The pelvic fins have well-developed baseosts.
-The branchiostegals are few or wanting. In the living forms, and
-probably in all others, a matter which can never be ascertained, the
-optic nerves are not decussating, but form an optic chiasma, and the
-intestine is provided with a spiral valve. In all the species there is
-one dorsal and one anal fin, separate from the caudal. The teeth are
-small or wanting, the body naked or covered with bony plates; the caudal
-fin is usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To this
-order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids belong, as
-well as the modern degenerate forms known as sturgeons and perhaps the
-paddle-fishes, which are apparently derived from fishes with rhombic
-enameled scales. The species extend from the Upper Carboniferous to the
-present time, being most numerous in the Triassic.
-
-At this point in Woodward's system diverges a descending series,
-characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and elongate form, this
-leading through the synthetic type of _Chondrosteidæ_ to the modern
-sturgeon and paddle-fish, which are regarded as degenerate types.
-
-The family of _Saurorhynchidæ_ contains pike-like forms, with long jaws,
-and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is not heterocercal, but
-short-diphycercal; the bones of the head are covered with enamel, and
-those of the roof of the skull form a continuous shield. The opercular
-apparatus is much reduced, and there are no branchiostegals. The fins
-are all small, without fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal
-series of bony scutes, but is not covered with continuous scales. The
-principal genus is _Saurorhynchus_ (= _Belonorhynchus_; the former being
-the earlier name) from the Triassic. _Saurorhynchus acutus_ from the
-English Triassic is the best known species.
-
-The family of _Chondrosteidæ_ includes the Triassic precursors of the
-sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon, but the body is
-scaleless except on the upper caudal lobe, and there are no plates on
-the median line of the skull. The opercle and subopercle are present,
-the jaws are toothless, and there are a few well-developed caudal rays.
-The caudal has large fulcra. The single well-known species of this
-group, _Chondrosteus acipenseroides_, is found in the Triassic rocks of
-England and reaches a length of about three feet. It much resembles a
-modern sturgeon, though differing in several technical respects.
-_Chondrosteus pachyurus_ is based on the tail of a species of much
-larger size and _Gyrosteus mirabilis_, also of the English Triassic, is
-known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18 to 20 feet in
-length.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 5.—_Chondrosteus acipenseroides_ Egerton. Family _Chondrosteidæ_.
-    (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-The sturgeons constitute the recent family of _Acipenseridæ_,
-characterized by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and the presence
-of four barbels below the snout. In the _Acipenseridæ_ there are no
-branchiostegals and a median series of plates is present on the head.
-The body is armed with five rows of large bony bucklers,—each often with
-a hooked spine, sharpest in the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are
-developed on the tail, besides large fulcra. The sturgeons are the
-youngest of the Ganoids, not occurring before the Lower Eocene, one
-species, _Acipenser toliapicus_ occurring in the London clay. About
-thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred to three genera:
-_Acipenser_, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, _Scaphirhynchus_,
-in the Mississippi Valley, and _Kessleria_ (later called
-_Pseudoscaphirhynchus_), in Central Asia alone. Most of the species
-belong to the genus _Acipenser_, which abounds in all the rivers and
-seas in which salmon are found. Some of the smaller species spend their
-lives in the rivers, ascending smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons
-are marine, ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the
-spawning season. They range in length from 2½ to 30 feet.
-
-All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse and beefy.
-From their large size and abundance they possess great economic value.
-The eggs of some species are prepared as caviar.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 6.—Common Sturgeon, _Acipenser sturio_ Mitchill. Potomac River.
-]
-
-The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish. The mouth,
-underneath the long snout, is very protractile, sucker-like, and without
-teeth. Before it on the under side of the snout are four long feelers.
-Ordinarily the sturgeon feeds on mud and snails with other small
-creatures, but I have seen large numbers of Eulachon (_Thaleichthys_) in
-the stomach of the Columbia River sturgeon (_Acipenser transmontanus_).
-This fish and the Eulachon run in the Columbia at the same time, and the
-sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon will draw into it numbers of small
-fishes who may be unsuspiciously engaged in depositing their spawn. In
-the spawning season in June these clumsy fishes will often leap wholly
-out of the water in their play. The sturgeons have a rough skin besides
-five series of bony plates which change much with age and which in very
-old examples are sometimes lost or absorbed in the skin. The common
-sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is _Acipenser sturio_.
-_Acipenser huso_ and numerous other species are found in Russia and
-Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia is _Acipenser
-transmontanus_, and the great sturgeon of Japan _Acipenser kikuchii_.
-Smaller species are found farther south, as in the Mediterranean and
-along the Carolina coast. Other small species abound in rivers and
-lakes. _Acipenser rubicundus_ is found throughout the Great Lake region
-and the Mississippi Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six
-feet long, and at Sandusky, Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were
-taken in the pound nets. A similar species, _Acipenser mikadoi_, is
-abundant and valuable in the streams of northern Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 7.—Lake Sturgeon, _Acipenser rubicundus_ Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.
-]
-
-In the genus _Acipenser_ the snout is sharp and conical, and the
-shark-like spiracle is still retained.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 8.—Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. _Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_
-    (Rafinesque). Ohio River.
-]
-
-The shovel-nosed sturgeon (_Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_) has lost the
-spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly bony, and the
-snout is broad and shaped like a shovel. The single species of
-_Scaphirhynchus_ abounds in the Mississippi Valley, a fish more
-interesting to the naturalist than to the fisherman. It is the smallest
-of our sturgeons, often taken in the nets in large numbers.
-
-In _Scaphirhynchus_ the tail is covered by a continuous coat of mail. In
-_Kessleria[6] fedtschenkoi_, _rossikowi_, and other Asiatic species the
-tail is not mailed.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
-  These species have also been named _Pseudoscaphirhynchus_. _Kessleria_
-  is the earlier name, left undefined by its describer, although the
-  type was indicated.
-
-=Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.=—Another type of Ganoids, allied
-to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate, is that of the
-paddle-fishes, called by Cope _Selachostomi_ (σέλαχος, shark; στόμα,
-mouth). This group consists of a single family, _Polyodontidæ_, having
-apparently little in common with the other Ganoids, and in appearance
-still more suggestive of the sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is
-derived from the long flat blade in which the snout terminates. This
-extends far beyond the mouth, is more or less sensitive, and is used to
-stir up the mud in which are found the minute organisms on which the
-fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very minute barbels corresponding
-to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular names of spoonbill, duckbill
-cat, and shovel-fish are also derived from the form of the snout. The
-skin is nearly smooth, the tail is heterocercal, the teeth are very
-small, and a long fleshy flap covers the gill-opening. The very long and
-slender gill-rakers serve to strain the food (worms, leeches,
-water-beetles, crustaceans, and algæ) from the muddy waters from which
-they are taken. The most important part of this diet consists of
-Entomostracans. The single American species, _Polyodon spathula_,
-abounds through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger streams. It
-reaches a length of three or four feet. It is often taken in the nets,
-but the coarse tough flesh, like that of our inferior catfish, is not
-much esteemed. In the great rivers of China, the Yangtse and the Hoang
-Ho, is a second species, _Psephurus gladius_, with narrower snout, fewer
-gill-rakers, and much coarser fulcra on the tail. The habits, so far as
-known, are much the same.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 9.—Paddle-fish, _Polyodon spathula_ (Walbaum). Ohio River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 10.—Paddle-fish. _Polyodon Spathula_ (Walbaum). Ohio River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 11.—_Psephurus gladius_ Günther. Yangtse River. (After Günther.)
-]
-
-_Crossopholis magnicaudatus_ of the Green River Eocene shales is a
-primitive member of the _Polyodontidæ_. Its rostral blade is shorter
-than that of _Polyodon_, and the body is covered with small thin scales,
-each in the form of a small grooved disk with several posterior
-denticulations, arranged in oblique series but not in contact. The
-scales are quadrate in form, and more widely separated anteriorly than
-posteriorly. As in _Polyodon_, the teeth are minute and there are no
-branchiostegals. The squamation of this fish shows that _Polyodon_ as
-well as _Acipenser_ may have sprung from a type having rhombic scales.
-The tail of a Cretaceous fish, _Pholidurus disjectus_ from the
-Cretaceous of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family of
-_Polyodontidæ_.
-
-=Order Pycnodonti.=—In the extinct order _Pycnodonti_, as recognized by
-Dr. O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and without ossification, the
-body is very deep, the teeth are always blunt, the opercular apparatus
-is reduced, the dorsal fin many-rayed, and the fins without fulcra. The
-scales are rhombic, but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail.
-Many genera and species of _Pycnodontidæ_ are described, mostly from
-Triassic and Jurassic rocks of Europe. Leading European genera are
-_Pycnodus_, _Typodus_ (_Mesodon_), _Gyrodus_, and _Palæobalistum_. The
-numerous American species belong to _Typodus_, _Cœlodus_, _Pycnodus_,
-_Hadrodus_, and _Uranoplosus_. These forms have no affinity with
-_Balistes_, although there is some resemblance in appearance, which has
-suggested the name of _Palæobalistum_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 12.—_Gyrodus hexagonus_ Agassiz. Family _Pycnodontidæ_.
-    Lithographic Shales.
-]
-
-Woodward places these fishes with the _Semionotidæ_ and _Halecomorphi_
-in his suborder of _Protospondyli_. It seems preferable, however, to
-consider them as forming a distinct order.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 13.—_Mesturus verrucosus_ Wagner. Family _Pycnodontidæ_. (After
-    Woodward.)
-]
-
-=Order Lepidostei.=—We may place, following Eastman's edition of Zittel,
-the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single order, for which
-Huxley's name _Lepidostei_ may well be used. In this group the notochord
-is persistent, and the vertebræ are in various degrees of ossification
-and of different forms. The opercles are usually complete, the
-branchiostegals present, and there is often a gular plate. There is no
-infraclavicle and the jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and
-the supports of the fins agree in number with the rays. The tail is more
-or less heterocercal. The scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique
-series, which are often united above and below with peg-and-socket
-articulations. This group contains among recent fishes only the garpikes
-(_Lepisosteus_). They are closely allied to the _Palæoniscidæ_, but the
-skeleton is more highly ossified. On the other hand they approach very
-closely to the ancestors of the bowfin, _Amia_. One genus,
-_Acentrophorus_, appears in the Permian; the others are scattered
-through Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, the isolated group of gars still
-persisting. In the gars the vertebræ are concavo-convex, with
-ball-and-socket joints. In the others the vertebræ are incomplete or
-else double-concave, as in fishes generally.
-
-For the group here called _Lepidostei_ numerous other names have been
-used corresponding wholly or in part. _Rhomboganoidea_ of Gill covers
-nearly the same groups; _Holostei_ of Müller and _Hyoganoidea_ of Gill
-include the _Halecomorphi_ also; _Ginglymodi_ of Cope includes the
-garpikes only, while _Ætheospondyli_ of Woodward includes the
-_Aspidorhynchidæ_ and the garpikes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 14.—_Semionotus kapffi_ Fraas, restored. Family _Semionotidæ_.
-    (After Fraas, per Nicholson.)
-]
-
-The _Semionotidæ_ (_Stylodontidæ_) are robust-bodied Ganoids, having the
-vertebræ developed as rings, the jaws with several rows of teeth, those
-of the outer row styliform.
-
-_Semionotus bergeri_ is a well-known species, with the body moderately
-elongate. _Semionotus agassizi_ and many other species occur in the
-Triassic of the Connecticut valley and in New Jersey. The body is very
-deep in the related genus _Dapedium_, and the head is covered with
-strong bony plates. _Dapedium politum_ is a well-known species of the
-English Triassic. _Tetragonolepis_ (_Pleurolepis_) is a similar form,
-very deep and compressed, with strong, firm scales.
-
-In the extinct family of _Lepidotidæ_ the teeth are conical or
-chisel-shaped, while blunt or molar teeth are on the inside of the
-mouth, which is small, and the suspensorium of the mandible is vertical
-or inclined forward. The body is robust-fusiform, covered with rhomboid
-scales; the vertebræ form rings about the notochord; the teeth are
-either sharp or blunt. The dorsal fin is short, with large fulcra.
-
-The best known of the numerous genera are _Lepidotes_, rather elongate
-in body, with large, blunt teeth. Of the many species of _Lepidotes_,
-_Lepidotes elvensis_ abounds in the English and German Triassic, and
-_Lepidotes minor_ in the English Triassic. Another well-known European
-species is _Lepidotes mantelli_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 15.—_Dapedium politum_ Leach, restored. Family _Semionotidæ_.
-    (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-The _Isopholidæ_ (_Eugnathidæ_) differ from the families last named in
-the large pike-like mouth with strong teeth. The mandibular suspensorium
-is inclined backwards. The body is elongate, the vertebræ forming
-incomplete rings; the dorsal fin is short with large fulcra.
-
-_Isopholis dentosus_ is found with numerous other species in the British
-Triassic. _Caturus furcatus_ is especially characteristic of Triassic
-rocks in Germany. _Ptycholepis marshi_ occurs in the Connecticut valley.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 16.—_Tetragonolepis semicinctus_ Brown. Lias. Family
-    _Semionotidæ_. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-The _Macrosemiidæ_ are elongate fishes with long dorsal fin, the
-numerous species being found in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
-of Europe. _Macrosemius rostratus_ has a very high, continuous dorsal.
-_Macropistius arenatus_ is found in the Cretaceous of Texas, the only
-American species known. Prominent European genera are _Notagogus_,
-_Ophiopsis_, and _Petalopteryx_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 17.—_Isopholis orthostomus_ (Agassiz). Lias. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 18.—The Long-nosed Garpike, _Lepisosteus osseus_ (Linnæus). Fox
-    River, Wisconsin. (From nature; D. S. Jordan and M. L. McDonald,
-    1874.)
-]
-
-Intermediate between the allies of the gars and the modern herrings is
-the large extinct family of _Pholidophoridæ_, referred by Woodward to
-the _Isospondyli_, and by Eastman to the _Lepidostei_. These are small
-fishes, fusiform in shape, chiefly of the Triassic and Jurassic. The
-fins are fringed with fulcra, the scales are ganoid and rhombic, and the
-vertebræ reduced to rings. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and
-formed as in the _Isospondyli_. The caudal is scarcely heterocercal.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 19.—_Caturus elongatus_ Agassiz. Jurassic. Family _Isopholidæ_.
-    (After Zittel.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 20.—_Notagogus pentlandi_ Agassiz. Jurassic. Family
-    _Macrosemiidæ_. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 21.—_Ptycholepis curtus_ Egerton. Lias. Family _Isopholidæ_.
-    (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-Of _Pholidophorus_, with scales joined by peg-and-socket joints and
-uniform in size, there are many species. _Pholidophorus latiusculus_ and
-many others are found in the Triassic of England and the Continent.
-_Pholidophorus americanus_ occurs in the Jurassic of South Dakota.
-_Pleuropholis_, with the scales on the lateral line, which runs very
-low, excessively deepened, is also widely distributed. I have before me
-a new species from the Cretaceous rocks near Los Angeles. The
-_Archæomænidæ_ differ from _Pholidophoridæ_ in having cycloid scales. In
-both families the vertebræ are reduced to rings about the notochord.
-From fishes allied to the _Pholidophoridæ_ the earliest _Isospondyli_
-are probably descended.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 22.—_Pholidophorus crenulatus_ Egerton. Lias. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-In the _Aspidorhynchidæ_ the snout is more or less produced, the
-mandible has a distinct presymphysial bone, the vertebræ are
-double-concave or ring-like, and the fins are without fulcra. This
-family constitutes the suborder _Ætheospondyli_. In form these fishes
-resemble _Albula_ and other modern types, but have mailed heads and an
-ancient type of scales. Two genera are well known, _Aspidorhynchus_ and
-_Belonostomus_. _Aspidorhynchus acutirostris_ reaches a length of three
-feet, and is found in the Triassic lithographic stone of Bavaria. Other
-species occur in rocks of Germany and England.
-
-_Belonostomus_ has the snout scarcely produced. _Belonostomus
-sphyrænoides_ is the best known of the numerous species, all of the
-Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.
-
-=Family Lepisosteidæ.=—The family of _Lepisosteidæ_, constituting the
-suborder _Ginglymodi_ (γιγγλυμός, hinge), is characterized especially by
-the form of the vertebræ.
-
-These are opisthocœlian, convex in front and concave behind, as in
-reptiles, being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail is
-moderately heterocercal, less so than in the _Halecomorphi_, and the
-body is covered with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled scales in
-structure similar to that of the teeth. A number of peculiar characters
-are shown by these fishes, some of them having often been regarded as
-reptilian traits. Notable features are the elongate, crocodile-like
-jaws, the upper the longer, and both armed with strong teeth. The
-mandible is without presymphysial bone. The fins are small with large
-fulcra, and the scales are nearly uniform in size.
-
-All the species belong to a single family, _Lepisosteidæ_, which
-includes the modern garpikes and their immediate relatives, some of
-which occur in the early Tertiary. These voracious fishes are
-characterized by long and slender cylindrical bodies, with enameled
-scales and mailed heads and heterocercal tail. The teeth are sharp and
-unequal. The skeleton is well ossified, and the animal itself is
-extremely voracious. The vertebræ, reptile-like, are opisthocœlian, that
-is, convex in front, concave behind, forming ball-and-socket joints. In
-almost all other fishes they are amphicœlian or double-concave, the
-interspace filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species, and
-perhaps all the extinct species also, belong to the single genus
-_Lepisosteus_ (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled
-_Lepidosteus_). Of existing forms there are not many species, three to
-five at the most, and they swarm in the lakes, bayous, and sluggish
-streams from Lake Champlain to Cuba and along the coast to Central
-America. The best known of the species is the long-nosed garpike,
-_Lepisosteus osseus_, which is found throughout most of the Great Lake
-region and the Mississippi Valley, and in which the long and slender
-jaws are much longer than the rest of the head. The garpike frequents
-quiet waters and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often lies quiet for
-a long time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does not
-readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It feeds on
-crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly destructive, as
-its bad reputation indicates. Fishermen everywhere destroy it without
-mercy. Its flesh is rank and tough and unfit even for dogs.
-
-In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second dorsal and anal,
-the filamentous tip of the tail passing through and beyond it.
-
-The short-nosed garpike, _Lepisosteus platystomus_, is generally common
-throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short broad snout like the
-alligator-gar, but seldom exceeds three feet in length. In size, color,
-and habits it agrees closely with the common gar, differing only in the
-form of the snout. The form is subject to much variation, and it is
-possible that two or more species have been confounded.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 23.—Alligator-gar, _Lepisosteus tristœchus_ (Bloch). Cuba.
-]
-
-The great alligator-gar, _Lepisosteus tristœchus_, reaches a length of
-twenty feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of the streams about
-the Gulf of Mexico. Its snout is broad and relatively wide, and its
-teeth are very strong. It is very destructive to all sorts of
-food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and its enameled scales resist a
-spear or sometimes even shot. It breathes air to a certain extent by its
-lungs, but soon dies in foul water, not having the tenacity of life seen
-in _Amia_.
-
-=Embryology of the Garpike.=—Mr. Alexander Agassiz has given an account
-of the embryology of the garpike, of which the following is an abstract:
-
-"The garpike comes up the St. Lawrence in May, lays its eggs about the
-20th, and then disappears. The eggs are large, viscous, stick fast in an
-isolated way to whatever they fall upon, and look much like those of
-toads, having a large outer membrane and a small yolk. Artificial
-fecundation failed, but about 500 naturally-laid eggs were secured, of
-which all but 30 perished through mold. The young began to hatch in six
-days. Out of 30 young hatched, 27 lived until the 15th of July.
-Connection with the sharks appears in the similarity of the branchial
-arches and by the presence of the lateral fold in which the pectoral
-fins are formed; the way the tail is developed is very like that of the
-bony fishes. Among the Ganoids it appears, as well as in ordinary
-fishes, the dorsal cord is straight at first, then assumes a slightly
-upward curve at the extremity, when finally there appears the beginning
-of a lobe underneath, pointing to a complete heterocercal tail. All this
-is as in the bony fishes, but this is the permanent condition of the
-garpike, while in the bony fishes the extremity of the dorsal cord
-becomes extinct. The mode of development of the pectoral lobe (very
-large in this species) furnishes another resemblance. In the brain, and
-in the mode of formation of the gills, a likeness to the sharks is
-noticeable. The young garpikes move very slowly, and seem to float
-quietly, save an exceedingly rapid vibration of the pectorals and the
-tip of the tail. They do not swim about much, but attach themselves to
-fixed objects by an extraordinary horseshoe-shaped ring of
-sucker-appendages about the mouth. These appendages remain even after
-the snout has become so extended that the ultimate shape is hinted at;
-and furthermore, it is a remnant of this feature that forms the fleshy
-bulb at the end of the snout in the adult. The investigations thus far
-show that the young garpike has many characteristics in common with the
-sharks and skates, but it is not so different from the bony fishes as
-has been supposed."
-
-=Fossil Garpikes.=—A number of fossil garpikes, referred by Cope to the
-genus _Clastes_ and by Eastman and Woodward to _Lepidosteus_, are found
-in the Eocene of Europe and America. The most perfect of these remains
-is called _Lepisosteus atrox_, upward of four feet long, as large as an
-alligator-gar, which the species much resembles. Although found in the
-Eocene, Dr. C. R. Eastman declares that "it has no positively archaic
-features. If we inquire into the more remote or pre-Eocene history of
-Lepidosteids, palæontology gives no answer. They blossom forth suddenly
-and fully differentiated at the dawn of the Tertiary, without the least
-clue to their ancestry, unheralded and unaccompanied by any intermediate
-forms, and they have remained essentially unchanged ever since."
-
-Another fossil species is _Lepisosteus fimbriatus_, from the Upper
-Eocene of England. Scales and other fragments of garpikes are found in
-Germany, Belgium, and France, in Eocene and Miocene rocks. On some of
-these the nominal genera _Naisia_, _Trichiurides_, and _Pneumatosteus_
-are founded. _Clastes_, regarded by Eastman as fully identical with
-_Lepisosteus_, is said to have the "mandibular ramus without or with a
-reduced fissure of the dental foramen, and without the groove continuous
-with it in _Lepisosteus_. One series of large teeth, with small ones
-external to them on the dentary bone." Most of the fossil forms belong
-to _Clastes_, but the genus shows no difference of importance which will
-distinguish it from the ordinary garpike.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 24.—Lower jaw of _Amia calva_ Linnæus, showing the gular plate.
-]
-
-=Order Halecomorphi.=—To this order belong the allies, living or
-extinct, of the bowfin (_Amia_), having for the most part cycloid scales
-and vertebræ approaching those of ordinary fishes. The resemblance to
-the _Isospondyli_, or herring group, is indicated in the name (Halec, a
-herring; μορφή, form). The notochord is persistent, the vertebræ
-variously ossified. The opercles are always complete. The
-branchiostegals are broad and there is always a gular plate. The teeth
-are pointed, usually strong. There is no infraclavicle. Fulcra are
-present or absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in
-number to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid, but
-bony at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible complex, with
-well-developed splenial rising into a coronoid process, which is
-completed by a distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin with more than five
-actinosts; scales ganoid or cycloid. In the living forms the air-bladder
-is connected with the œsophagus through life; optic chiasma present;
-intestine with a spiral valve. This group corresponds to the _Amioidei_
-of Lütken and essentially to the _Cycloganoidei_ of Gill. The
-_Protospondyli_ (προτός, before; σπόνδυλος, vertebra) of Woodward
-contains essentially the same elements.
-
-=Pachycormidæ.=—In the family of _Pachycormidæ_ the notochord is
-persistent, the ethmoids and vomer fused and projecting between the
-maxillaries to form the prominent snout, the teeth large, the body
-fusiform, the dorsal short, with slender rays and few fulcra or none,
-and the scales are thin and rhombic. The numerous species are
-characteristic of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In _Sauropsis_
-(_longimana_) the body is elongate, and the pectoral fins are large and
-sickle-shaped. _Euthynotus_ has small fulcra. In _Pachycormus_
-(_macropterus_, _esocinus_, etc.) the form is robust and the ventral
-fins are wanting. In _Hypsycormus_ ventrals are present, and the caudal
-deeply forked.
-
-In the American family of _Protosphyrænidæ_ the jaws are armed with very
-strong teeth, as in the Barracuda, which, however, the species do not
-resemble in other respects. _Protosphyræna nitida_, _perniciosa_, and
-numerous other extinct forms, some of them of large size, were voracious
-inhabitants of the Cretaceous seas, and are found fossil, especially in
-North Carolina and Kansas. Numerous species called _Erisichthe_ and
-_Pelecopterus_ are all referred by Hay to _Protosphyræna_. In this
-family the scapula and coracoids are ossified, and perhaps the vertebræ
-also, and, as Dr. Hay has recently suggested, the _Protosphyrænidæ_ may
-really belong to the _Isospondyli_. In any event, they stand on the
-border-line between the most fish-like of the Ganoids and the most
-archaic of the bony fishes.
-
-The _Liodesmidæ_ (genus _Liodesmus_) are much like _Amia_, but the
-notochord is persistent, its sheath without ossification. _Liodesmus
-gracilis_ and _L. sprattiformis_ occur in the lithographic stones of
-Bavaria. Woodward places _Liodesmus_ with _Megalurus_ among the
-_Amiidæ_.
-
-=The Bowfins: Amiidæ.=—The _Amiidæ_ have the vertebræ more complete. The
-dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct fulcra. The
-diamond-shaped enameled scales disappear, giving place to cycloid
-scales, which gradually become thin and membranous in structure. A
-median gular plate is developed between the branchiostegals. The tail is
-moderately heterocercal, and the head covered with a bony coat of mail.
-
-The family of _Amiidæ_ contains a single recent species, _Amia calva_,
-the only living member of the order _Halecomorphi_. The bowfin, or
-grindle, is a remarkable fish abounding in the lakes and swamps of the
-Mississippi Valley, the Great Lake region, and southward to Virginia,
-where it is known by the imposing but unexplained title of John A.
-Grindle. In the Great Lakes it is usually called "dogfish," because even
-the dogs will not eat it, and "lawyer," because, according to Dr.
-Kirtland, "it will bite at anything and is good for nothing when
-caught."
-
-The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the male being
-smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated black spot on the
-tail. Both sexes are dark mottled green in color. The flesh of the
-species is very watery, pasty, much of the substance evaporating when
-exposed to the air. It is ill-flavored, and is not often used as food.
-The species is very voracious and extremely tenacious of life. Its
-well-developed lung enables it to breathe even when out of the water,
-and it will live in the air longer than any other fish of American
-waters, longer even than the horned pout (_Ameiurus_) or the mud-minnow
-(_Umbra_). As a game fish the grindle is one of the very best, if the
-angler does not care for the flesh of what he catches, it being one of
-the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 25.—Bowfin (female), _Amia calva_ Linnæus. Lake Michigan.
-]
-
-The _Amiidæ_ retain many of the Ganoid characters, though approaching
-more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the modern herring tribe.
-For this reason the name _Halecomorphi_ (shad-formed) was given to this
-order by Professor Cope. The gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids
-reappears in the herring-like family of _Elopidæ_, which includes the
-tarpon and the ten-pounder.
-
-Woodward unites the extinct genera called _Cyclurus_, _Notæus_,
-_Amiopsis_, _Protamia_, _Hypamia_, and _Pappichthys_ with _Amia_.
-_Pappichthys_ (_corsoni_, etc.), from the Wyoming Eocene, is doubtless a
-valid genus, having but one row of teeth in each jaw, and _Amiopsis_ is
-also recognized by Hay. Woodward refers to _Amia_ the following extinct
-species: _Amia valenciennesi_, from the Miocene of France; _Amia
-macrocephala_, from the Miocene of Bohemia; and _Amia ignota_, from the
-Eocene of Paris. Other species of Amia are known from fragments. Several
-of these are from the Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Some of them have
-a much shorter dorsal fin than that of _Amia calva_ and may be
-generically different.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 26.—_Megalurus elegantissimus_ Wagner. Family _Amiidæ_. (After
-    Zittel.)
-]
-
-The genus _Megalurus_ differs from _Amia_ in the still shorter dorsal
-fin, less than one-third the length of the back. The body is elongate
-and much depressed. _Megalurus lepidotus_ and several other species are
-found in the lithographic stones of Bavaria and elsewhere.
-
-=The Oligopleuridæ.=—In the extinct family _Oligopleuridæ_ the scales
-are cycloid, the bones of the head scarcely enameled, and the vertebræ
-well ossified. Fulcra are present, and the mouth is large, with small
-teeth. The genera are _Oligopleurus_, _Ionoscopus_, and _Spathiurus_,
-the species not very numerous and chiefly of the Cretaceous. _Ionoscopus
-cyprinoides_ of the lithographic shales of Bavaria is a characteristic
-species.
-
-From the three families last named, with the _Pholidophoridæ_, there is
-an almost perfect transition from the Ganoid fishes to teleosteans of
-the order of _Isospondyli_, the primitive order from which all other
-bony fishes are perhaps descended. The family of _Leptolepidæ_,
-differing from _Oligopleuridæ_ in the absence of fulcra, is here placed
-with the _Isospondyli_, but it might about as well be regarded as
-Ganoid.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-                              ISOSPONDYLI
-
-
-=THE Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.=—The fishes which still remain
-for discussion constitute the great subclass or series of _Teleostei_
-(τελεός, true; οστέον, bone), or bony fishes. They lack wholly or partly
-the Ganoid traits, or show them only in the embryo. The tail is
-slightly, if at all, heterocercal; the actinosts of the pectoral fins
-are few and large, rarely over five in number, except among the eels;
-the fulcra disappear; the air-bladder is no longer cellular, except in
-very rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration. The optic nerves are
-separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the skeleton is
-almost entirely bony, the notochord usually disappearing entirely with
-age; the valves in the arterial bulb are reduced in number, and the
-spiral valve of the intestines disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid
-traits may persist somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a
-distinct specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type,
-with the loss of characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and
-Ganoids. In a general way the skeleton of all Teleosts corresponds with
-that of the striped bass (see Figs. 22, 23, Vol. I), and the visceral
-anatomy is in all cases sufficiently like that of the sunfish (Fig. 16,
-Vol. I).
-
-The mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids, persists in
-the less specialized types of bony fishes, although no trace of it is
-found in the perch-like forms. With all this, there is developed among
-the bony fishes an infinite variety in details of structure. For this
-reason the _Teleostei_ must be broken into many orders, and these orders
-are very different in value and in degrees of distinctness, the various
-groups being joined by numerous and puzzling intergradations.
-
-=Order Isospondyli.=—Of the various subordinate groups of bony fishes,
-there can be no question as to which is most primitive in structure, or
-as to which stands nearest the orders of Ganoids. Earliest of the bony
-fishes in geological time is the order of _Isospondyli_ (ἴσος, equal;
-σπόνδυλος, vertebra), containing the allies, recent or fossil, of the
-herring and the trout. This order contains those soft-rayed fishes in
-which the ventral fins are abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch
-is developed, and the anterior vertebræ are unmodified and essentially
-similar to the others. The orbitosphenoid is present in all typical
-forms. In certain forms of doubtful affinity (_Iniomi_) the mesocoracoid
-is wanting or lost in degeneration. Through the _Isospondyli_ all the
-families of fishes yet to be considered are apparently descended, their
-ancestors being Ganoid fishes and, still farther back, the
-Crossopterygians.
-
-Woodward gives this definition of the _Isospondyli_: "Notochord varying
-in persistence, the vertebral centra usually complete, but none
-coalesced; tail homocercal, but hæmal supports not much expanded or
-fused. Symplectic bone present, mandible simple, each dentary consisting
-only of two elements (dentary and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments
-of a splenoid on the inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the
-cranium; precoracoid (mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates
-wanting. Pelvic (ventral) fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only in the less
-specialized families. In the living forms air-bladder connected with the
-œsophagus in the adult; optic nerves decussating (without chiasma), and
-intestine either wanting spiral valve or with an incomplete
-representative of it."
-
-=The Classification of the Bony Fishes.=—The classification of fishes
-has been greatly complicated by the variety of names applied to groups
-which are substantially but not quite identical one with another. The
-difference in these schemes of classification lies in the point of view.
-In all cases a single character must be brought to the front; such
-characters never stand quite alone, and to lay emphasis on another
-character is to make an alteration large or small in the name or in the
-boundaries of a class or order. Thus the _Ostariophysi_ with the
-_Isospondyli_, _Haplomi_, and a few minor groups make up the great
-division of the _Abdominales_. These are fishes in which the ventral
-fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that the pelvis is
-free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being attached to
-different parts of the skeleton. Most of the abdominal fishes are also
-soft-rayed fishes, that is, without consecutive spines in the dorsal and
-anal fins, and they show a number of other archaic peculiarities. The
-Malacopterygians (μαλακός, soft; πτερύξ, fin) of Cuvier therefore
-correspond very nearly to the _Abdominales_. But they are not quite the
-same, as the spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets have abdominal ventrals,
-and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes, as the sea-snails and
-brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their fin-spines.
-
-In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the slender tube
-connecting the air-bladder with the œsophagus persists through life.
-This character defines Müller's order of _Physostomi_ (φυσός, bladder;
-στόμα, mouth), as opposed to his _Physoclysti_ (φυσός, bladder;
-κλεῖστός, closed), in which this tube is present in the embryo or larva
-only. Thus the _Thoracices_ and _Jugulares_, or fishes having the
-ventrals thoracic or jugular, together correspond almost exactly to the
-Acanthopterygians, (ακανθα, spine; πτερύξ, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes
-of Cuvier, or to the _Physoclysti_ of Müller. The Malacopterygians, the
-_Abdominales_, and the _Physostomi_ are in the same way practically
-identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have mostly ctenoid scales,
-and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the _Physostomi_ correspond
-roughly to Agassiz's _Cycloidei_, and the _Physoclysti_ to his
-_Ctenoidei_.
-
-But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly exact, and in
-any system of classification we must choose characters for primary
-divisions so ancient and therefore so permanent as to leave no room for
-exceptions. The extraordinary difficulty of doing this, with the
-presence of most puzzling intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest
-that the great body of bony fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed,
-abdominal, thoracic, and jugular alike, be placed in a single great
-order which he calls _Teleocephali_ (τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head). The
-aberrant forms with defective skull and membrane-bones he would separate
-as minor offshoots from this great mass with the name of separate
-orders. But while the divisions of _Teleocephali_ are not strongly
-differentiated, their distinctive characters are real, ancient, and
-important, while those of the aberrant groups, called orders by Gill (as
-_Plectognathi_, _Pediculati_, _Hemibranchii_), are relatively modern and
-superficial, which is one reason why they are more easily defined. There
-seems to us no special advantage in the retention of a central order
-_Teleocephali_, from which the divergent branches are separated as
-distinct orders.
-
-While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of most of the
-families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident that the
-relationships of the groups cannot be shown in any linear series or by
-any conceivable arrangement of orders and suborders. The living teleost
-fishes have sprung from many lines of descent, their relationships are
-extremely diverse, and their differences are of every possible degree of
-value. The ordinary schemes have magnified the value of a few common
-characters, at the same time neglecting other differences of equal
-value. No system of arrangement which throws these fishes into large
-groups can ever be definite or permanent.
-
-=Relationships of Isospondyli.=—For our purposes we may divide the
-physostomous fishes as understood by Müller into several orders, the
-most primitive, the most generalized, and economically the most
-important being the order of _Isospondyli_. This order contains those
-bony fishes which have the anterior vertebræ unaltered (as distinguished
-from the _Ostariophysi_), the skull relatively complete, or at least not
-eel-like, the mesocoracoid typically developed, but atrophied in
-deep-sea forms and finally lost, the orbitosphenoid present. In all the
-species the ventral fins are abdominal and normally composed of more
-than six rays; the air-duct is developed. The scales are chiefly cycloid
-and the fins are without true spines. In many ways the order is more
-primitive than _Nematognathi_, _Plectospondyli_, or _Apodes_. It is
-certain that it began earlier in geological time than any of these. On
-the other hand, the _Isospondyli_ are closely connected through the
-_Berycoidei_ with the highly specialized fishes. The continuity of the
-natural series is therefore interrupted by the interposition of the side
-branches of Ostariophysans and eels before considering the _Haplomi_ and
-the other transitional forms. The forms called _Iniomi_, which lack the
-mesocoracoid and the orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the
-_Haplomi_ by Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance.
-
-Ganoid traits are present in certain families of _Isospondyli_. Among
-these are the gular plate (found in _Amia_ and the _Elopidæ_), doubtless
-derived from the similar structure in earlier Ganoids; additional valves
-in the arterial bulb in the cellular air-bladder of _Notopterus_ and
-_Osteoglossum_, the spiral intestinal valve in _Chirocentridæ_, and the
-ganoid scales of the extinct _Leptolepidæ_.
-
-=The Clupeoidea.=—The _Isospondyli_ are divisible into numerous
-families, which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions,
-_Clupeoidea_, the herring-like forms; the _Salmonoidea_, the trout-like
-forms; and the _Iniomi_, or lantern-fishes, and their allies. The
-last-named group should probably be removed from the order of
-_Isospondyli_. In the _Clupeoidea_, the allies of the great family of
-the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed, retaining the
-mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the post-temporal is
-articulated above with the cranium. The fishes in this group lack the
-adipose fin which is characteristic of most of the higher or salmon-like
-families.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 27.—_Leptolepis dubius_ Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After
-    Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Leptolepidæ.=—Most primitive of the _Isospondyli_ is the extinct
-family of _Leptolepidæ_, closely allied to the Ganoid families of
-_Pholidophoridæ_ and _Oligopleuridæ_. It is composed of graceful,
-herring-like fishes, with the bones of the head thin but covered with
-enamel, and the scales thin but firm and enameled on their free portion.
-There are no fulcra and there is no lateral line. The vertebræ are well
-developed, but always pierced by the notochord. The genera are
-_Lycoptera_, _Leptolepis_, _Æthalion_, and _Thrissops_. In _Lycoptera_
-of the Jurassic of China the vertebral centra are feebly developed, and
-the dorsal fin short and posterior. In _Leptolepis_ the anal is short
-and placed behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the
-Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found in the
-Cretaceous. _Leptolepis coryphænoides_ and _Leptolepis dubius_ are among
-the more common species. _Æthalion_ (_knorri_) differs in the form of
-the jaws. In _Thrissops_ the anal fin is long and opposite the dorsal.
-_Thrissops salmonea_ is found in the lithographic stone; _Thrissops
-exigua_ in the Cretaceous. In all these early forms there is a hard
-casque over the brain-cavity, as in the living types, _Amia_ and
-_Osteoglossum_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 28.—Ten-pounder, _Elops saurus_ L. An ally of the earliest bony
-    fishes. Virginia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 29.—A primitive Herring-like fish, _Holcolepis lewesiensis_,
-    Mantell, restored. Family _Elopidæ_. English Chalk. (After
-    Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Elopidæ.=—The family of _Elopidæ_ contains large fishes
-herring-like in form and structure, but having a flat membrane-bone or
-gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw, as in the Ganoid
-genus _Amia_. The living species are few, abounding in the tropical
-seas, important for their size and numbers, though not valued as
-food-fishes save to those who, like the Hawaiians and Japanese, eat
-fishes raw. These people prefer for that purpose the white-meated or
-soft-fleshed forms like _Elops_ or _Scarus_ to those which yield a
-better flavor when cooked.
-
-The ten-pounder (_Elops saurus_), pike-like in form but with very weak
-teeth, is found in tropical America. _Elops machnata_, the jack
-mariddle, the awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in the Pacific, is
-scarcely if at all different.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 30.—Tarpon or Grande Écaille, _Tarpon atlanticus_ Cuv. & Val.
-    Florida.
-]
-
-The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sable (_Tarpon
-atlanticus_), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of Florida and
-Carolina. It takes the hook with great spirit, and as it reaches a
-length of six feet or more it affords much excitement to the successful
-angler. The very large scales are much used in ornamental work.
-
-A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of the dorsal
-very much produced, is _Megalops cyprinoides_ of the East Indies. Other
-species occur in the South Seas.
-
-Numerous fossil genera related to _Elops_ are found in the Cretaceous
-and Tertiary rocks. _Holcolepis lewesiensis_ (wrongly called
-_Osmeroides_) is the best-known European species. Numerous species are
-referred to _Elopopsis_. _Megalops prisca_ and species of _Elops_ also
-occur in the London Eocene.
-
-In all these the large parietals meet along the median line of the
-skull. In the closely related family of _Spaniodontidæ_ the parietals
-are small and do not meet. All the species of this group, united by
-Woodward with the _Elopidæ_, are extinct. These fishes preceded the
-_Elopidæ_ in the Cretaceous period. Leading genera are _Thrissopater_
-and _Spaniodon_, the latter armed with large teeth. _Spaniodon blondeli_
-is from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. Many other species are found in
-the European and American Cretaceous rocks, but are known from imperfect
-specimens only.
-
-_Sardinius_, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand near
-_Spaniodon_. _Rhacolepis buccalis_ and _Notelops brama_ are found in
-Brazil, beautifully preserved in concretions of calcareous mud supposed
-to be of Cretaceous age.
-
-The extinct family of _Pachyrhizodontidæ_ is perhaps allied to the
-_Elopidæ_. Numerous species of _Pachyrhizodus_ are found in the
-Cretaceous of southern England and of Kansas.
-
-=The Albulidæ.=—The _Albulidæ_, or lady-fishes, characterized by the
-blunt and rounded teeth, are found in most warm seas. _Albula vulpes_ is
-a brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food. The metamorphosis
-(see Fig. 112, Vol. I) which the larva undergoes is very remarkable. It
-is probably, however, more or less typical of the changes which take
-place with soft-rayed fishes generally, though more strongly marked in
-_Albula_ and in certain eels than in most related forms. Fossils allied
-to _Albula_, _Albula oweni_, _Chanoides macropomus_, are found in the
-Eocene of Europe; _Syntegmodus altus_ in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In
-_Chanoides_, the most primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in
-_Albula_. _Plethodus_ and _Thryptodus_, with peculiar dental plates on
-the roof and floor of the mouth, probably constitute a distinct family,
-_Thryptodontidæ_. The species are found in European and American rocks,
-but are known from imperfect specimens only.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 31.—The Lady-fish, _Albula vulpes_ (Linnæus). Florida.
-]
-
-=The Chanidæ.=—The _Chanidæ_, or milkfishes, constitute another small
-archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are large, brilliantly
-silvery, toothless fishes, looking like enormous dace, swift in the
-water, and very abundant in the Gulf of California, Polynesia, and
-India. The single living species is the _Awa_, or milkfish, _Chanos
-chanos_, largely used as food in Hawaii. Species of _Prochanos_ and
-_Chanos_ occur in the Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene. Allied to
-_Chanos_ is the Cretaceous genus _Ancylostylos_ (_gibbus_), probably the
-type of a distinct family, toothless and with many-rayed dorsal.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 32.—Milkfish, _Chanos chanos_ (L.). Mazatlan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 33.—Mooneye, _Hiodon tergisus_ Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.
-]
-
-=The Hiodontidæ.=—The _Hiodontidæ_, or mooneyes, inhabit the rivers of
-the central portion of the United States and Canada. They are shad-like
-fishes with brilliantly silvery scales and very strong sharp teeth,
-those on the tongue especially long. They are very handsome fishes and
-take the hook with spirit, but the flesh is rather tasteless and full of
-small bones, much like that of the milkfish. The commonest species is
-_Hiodon tergisus_. No fossil _Hiodontidæ_ are known.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 34.—_Istieus grandis_ Agassiz. Family _Pterothrissidæ_. (After
-    Zittel.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 35.—_Chirothrix libanicus_ Pictet & Humbert. Cretaceous of Mt.
-    Lebanon. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Pterothrissidæ.=—The _Pterothrissidæ_ are sea-fishes like _Albula_,
-but more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live in deep or cold
-waters along the coasts of Japan, where they are known as gisu. The
-single species is _Pterothrissus gissu_. The fossil genus _Istieus_,
-from the Upper Cretaceous, probably belongs near the _Pterothrissidæ_.
-_Istieus grandis_ is the best-known species. Another ancient family, now
-represented by a single species, is that of the _Chirocentridæ_, of
-which the living type is _Chirocentrus dorab_, a long, slender, much
-compressed herring-like fish, with a saw-edge on the belly, found in the
-East Indies, in which region _Chirocentrus polyodon_ occurs as a fossil.
-Numerous fossil genera related to _Chirocentrus_ are enumerated by
-Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family of
-_Ichthyodectidæ_ (_Saurodontidæ_). Of these, _Portheus_,
-_Ichthyodectes_, _Saurocephalus_ (_Saurodon_), and _Gillicus_ are
-represented by numerous species, some of them fishes of immense size and
-great voracity. _Portheus molossus_, found in the Cretaceous of
-Nebraska, is remarkable for its very strong teeth. Species of other
-genera are represented by numerous species in the Cretaceous of both the
-Rocky Mountain region and of Europe.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 36.—Gigantic skeleton of _Portheus molossus_ Cope. (Photograph by
-    Charles H. Sternberg.)
-]
-
-=The Ctenothrissidæ.=—A related family, _Ctenothrissidæ_, is represented
-solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group the body is robust
-with large scales, ctenoid in _Ctenothrissa_, cycloid in _Aulolepis_.
-The fins are large, the belly not serrated, and the teeth feeble.
-_Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ is from Mount Lebanon. Other species occur in
-the European chalk. In the small family of _Phractolæmidæ_ the
-interopercle, according to Boulenger, is enormously developed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 37.—_Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ Pictet, restored. Mt. Lebanon
-    Cretaceous. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Notopteridæ.=—The _Notopteridæ_ is another small family in the
-rivers of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in a long and
-tapering fin, and, as usual in fishes which swim by body undulations,
-the ventral fins are lost. The belly is doubly serrate. The air-bladder
-is highly complex in structure, being divided into several compartments
-and terminating in two horns anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior
-horns being in direct communication with the auditory organ. A fossil
-_Notopterus_, _N. primævus_, is found in the same region.
-
-=The Clupeidæ.=—The great herring family, or _Clupeidæ_, comprises
-fishes with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales, and feeble
-dentition. From related families it is separated by the absence of
-lateral line and the division of the maxillary into three pieces. In
-most of the genera the belly ends in a serrated edge, though in the true
-herring this is not very evident, and in some the belly has a blunt
-edge. Some of the species live in rivers, some ascend from the sea for
-the purpose of spawning. The majority are confined to the ocean. Among
-all the genera, the one most abundant in individuals is that of
-_Clupea_, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are immense schools
-of _Clupea harengus_. In the North Pacific on both shores another
-herring, _Clupea pallasi_, is equally abundant, and with the same market
-it would be equally valuable. As salted, dried, or smoked fish the
-herring is found throughout the civilized world, and its spawning and
-feeding-grounds have determined the location of cities.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 38.—Herring, _Clupea harengus_ L. New York.
-]
-
-The genus _Clupea_, of northern distribution, has the vertebræ in
-increased number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer. Several
-other genera are very closely related, but ranging farther south they
-have, with other characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebræ. The alewife, or
-branch-herring (_Pomolobus pseudoharengus_), ascends the rivers to spawn
-and has become landlocked in the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the
-Gulf of Mexico, _Pomolobus chrysochloris_, becomes very fat in the sea.
-The species becomes landlocked in the Ohio River, where it thrives as to
-numbers, but remains lean and almost useless as food. The glut-herring,
-_Pomolobus æstivalis_, and the sprat, _Pomolobus sprattus_, of Europe
-are related forms.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 39.—Alewife, _Pomolobus pseudoharengus_ (Wilson). Potomac River.
-]
-
-Very near also to the herring is the shad (_Alosa sapidissima_) of the
-eastern coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the shad of the
-Gulf of Mexico (_Alosa alabamæ_), the Ohio River shad (_Alosa
-ohiensis_), very lately discovered, the Allice shad (_Alosa alosa_) of
-Europe, and the Thwaite shad (_Alosa finta_). In the genus _Alosa_ the
-cheek region is very deep, giving the head a form different from that
-seen in the herring.
-
-The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, peculiarly
-delicate in flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree than occurs in
-any other good food-fish, its flesh is crowded with small bones. The
-shad has been successfully introduced into the waters of California,
-where it abounds from Puget Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the
-rivers to spawn in May as in its native region, the Atlantic coast.
-
-The genus _Sardinella_ includes species of rich flesh and feeble
-skeleton, excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones and all.
-This condition favors their preservation in oil as "sardines." All the
-species are alike excellent for this purpose. The sardine of Europe is
-the _Sardinella pilchardus_, known in England as the pilchard. The
-"Sardina de España" of Cuba is _Sardinella pseudohispanica_, the sardine
-of California, _Sardinella cærulea_. _Sardinella sagax_ abounds in
-Chile, and _Sardinella melanosticta_ is the valued sardine of Japan.
-
-In the tropical Pacific occur other valued species, largely belonging to
-the genus _Kowala_. The genus _Harengula_ contains small species with
-very large, firm scales which do not fall when touched, as is generally
-the case with the sardines. Most common of these is _Harengula sardina_
-of the West Indies. Similar species occur in southern Europe and in
-Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 40.—Menhaden, _Brevoortia tyrannus_ (Latrobe). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-In _Opisthonema_, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is much
-produced, as in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The two species known
-are abundant, but of little commercial importance. Of greater value are
-the menhaden, or the moss-bunker, _Brevoortia tyrannus_, inhabiting the
-sandy coasts from New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish,
-rarely eaten when adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable
-sardines. It is used chiefly for oil, the annual yield exceeding in
-value that of whale-oil. The refuse is used as manure, a purpose for
-which the fishes are often taken without preparation, being carried
-directly to the cornfields. From its abundance this species of inferior
-flesh exceeds in commercial value almost all other American fishes
-excepting the cod, the herring, and the quinnat salmon.
-
-One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G. Brown
-Goode on the "Natural and Economic History of Menhaden."
-
-Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed bodies, dry
-and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the tropics and are
-largely salted and dried by the Chinese. Among these are _Ilisha
-elongata_ of the Chinese coast. Related forms occur in Mexico and
-Brazil.
-
-The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations on the
-belly, are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of _Dussumieriidæ_. These
-are mostly small tropical fishes used as food or bait. One of these, the
-Kobini-Iwashi of Japan (_Stolephorus japonicus_), with a very bright
-silver band on the side, has considerable commercial importance. Very
-small herrings of this type in the West Indies constitute the genus
-_Jenkinsia_, named for Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins, the first to study
-seriously the fishes of Hawaii. Other species constitute the widely
-distributed genera _Etrumeus_ and _Dussumieria_. _Etrumeus sardina_ is
-the round herring of the Virginia coast. _Etrumeus micropus_ is the
-Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 41.—A fossil Herring, _Diplomystus humilis_ Leidy. (From a
-    specimen obtained at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back
-    lost in the specimen. Family _Clupeidæ_.
-]
-
-Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety, even
-among the _Clupeidæ_ as at present restricted. _Histiothrissa_ of the
-Cretaceous seems to be allied to _Dussumieria_ and _Stolephorus_.
-Another genus, from the Cretaceous of Palestine, _Pseudoberyx_
-(_syriacus_, etc.), having pectinated scales, should perhaps constitute
-a distinct subfamily, but the general structure is like that of the
-herring. More evidently herring-like is _Scombroclupea_
-(_macrophthalma_). The genus _Diplomystus_, with enlarged scales along
-the back, is abundantly represented in the Eocene shales of Green River,
-Wyoming. Species of similar appearance, usually but wrongly referred to
-the same genus, occur on the coasts of Peru, Chile, and New South Wales.
-A specimen of _Diplomystus humilis_ from Green River is here figured.
-Numerous herring, referred to _Clupea_, but belonging rather to
-_Pomolobus_, or other non-Arctic genera, have been described from the
-Eocene and later rocks.
-
-Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus _Leptosomus_,
-as _Leptosomus percrassus_, are found in the Cretaceous of South Dakota.
-
-Fossil species doubtfully referred to _Dorosoma_, but perhaps allied
-rather to the thread-herring (_Opisthonema_), being herrings with a
-prolonged dorsal ray, are recorded from the early Tertiary of Europe.
-Among these is _Opisthonema doljeanum_ from Austria.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 42.—Hickory-shad, _Dorosoma cepedianum_ (Le Sueur). Potomac
-    River.
-]
-
-=The Dorosomatidæ.=—The gizzard-shad, _Dorosomatidæ_, are closely
-related to the _Clupeidæ_, differing in the small contracted toothless
-mouth and reduced maxillary. The species are deep-bodied, shad-like
-fishes of the rivers and estuaries of eastern America and eastern Asia.
-They feed on mud, and the stomach is thickened and muscular like that of
-a fowl. As the stomach has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the
-common American species is often called hickory-shad. The gizzard-shad
-are all very poor food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of
-small bones. The belly is always serrated. In three of the four genera
-of _Dorosomatidæ_ the last dorsal ray is much produced and whip-like.
-The long and slender gill-rakers serve as strainers for the mud in which
-these fishes find their vegetable and animal food. _Dorosoma
-cepedianum_, the common hickory-shad or gizzard-shad, is found in
-brackish river-mouths and ponds from Long Island to Texas, and
-throughout the Mississippi Valley in all the large rivers. Through the
-canals it has entered Lake Michigan. The Konoshiro, _Clupanodon
-thrissa_, is equally common in China and Japan.
-
-=The Engraulididæ.=—The anchovies (_Engraulididæ_) are dwarf herrings
-with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. They are small in
-size and weak in muscle, found in all warm seas, and making a large part
-of the food of the larger fish. The genus _Engraulis_ includes the
-anchovy of Europe, _Engraulis encrasicholus_, with similar species in
-California, Chile, Japan, and Australia. In this genus the vertebræ are
-numerous, the bones feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species
-of _Engraulis_ are preserved in oil, often with spices, or are made into
-fish-paste, which is valued as a relish. The genus _Anchovia_ replaces
-_Engraulis_ in the tropics. The vertebræ are fewer, the bones firm and
-stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as food for larger fish,
-these have little value, although existing in immense schools. Most of
-the species have a bright silvery band along the side. The most familiar
-of the very numerous species is the silver anchovy, _Anchovia browni_,
-which abounds in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several other
-genera occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but _Engraulis_ only
-is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called _Engraulis_ are recorded
-from the Tertiary of Europe.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 43.—A Silver Anchovy, _Anchovia perthecata_ (Goode & Bean).
-    Tampa.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 44.—_Notogoneus osculus_ Cope. Green River Eocene. Family
-    _Gonorhynchidæ_.
-]
-
-=Gonorhynchidæ.=—To the _Isospondyli_ belongs the small primitive family
-of _Gonorhynchidæ_, elongate fishes with small mouth, feeble teeth, no
-air-bladder, small scales of peculiar structure covering the head, weak
-dentition, the dorsal fin small, and posterior without spines. The
-mesocoracoid is present as in ordinary _Isospondyli_. _Gonorhynchus
-abbreviatus_ occurs in Japan, and _Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus_ is found
-in Australia and about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species
-occur. _Charitosomus lineolatus_ and other species are found in the
-Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without teeth from
-the Oligocene of Europe and America are referred to the genus
-_Notogoneus_. _Notogoneus osculus_ occurs in the Eocene fresh-water
-deposits at Green River, Wyoming. It bears a very strong resemblance in
-form to an ordinary sucker (_Catostomus_), for which reason it was once
-described by the name of _Protocatostomus_. The living _Gonorhynchidæ_
-are all strictly marine.
-
-In the small family of _Cromeriidæ_ the head and body are naked.
-
-=The Osteoglossidæ.=—Still less closely related to the herring is the
-family of _Osteoglossidæ_, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical rivers,
-armed with hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic. The largest of
-all fresh-water fishes is _Arapaima gigas_ of the Amazon region, which
-reaches a length of fifteen feet and a weight of 400 pounds. It has
-naturally considerable commercial importance, as have species of
-_Osteoglossum_, coarse river-fishes which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and
-the East Indies. _Heterotis nilotica_ is a large fish of the Nile. In
-some or all of these the air-bladder is cellular or lung-like, like that
-of a Ganoid.
-
-Allied to the _Osteoglossidæ_ is _Phareodus_ (_Dapedoglossus_), a group
-of large shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of peculiar mosaic
-texture and with a bony casque on the head, found in fresh-water
-deposits of the Green River Eocene. In the perfect specimens of
-_Phareodus_ (or _Dapedoglossus_) _testis_ the first ray of the pectoral
-is much enlarged and serrated on its inner edge, a character which may
-separate these fishes as a family from the true _Osteoglossidæ_. It does
-not, however, appear in Cope's figures, none of his specimens having the
-pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very strong and sharp,
-the scales are very large and thin, looking like the scales of a
-parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal and similar to it,
-and the caudal is truncate. The end of the vertebral column is turned
-upward.
-
-Other species are _Phareodus acutus_, known from the jaws; _P.
-encaustus_ is known from a mass of thick scales with reticulate or
-mosaic-like surface, much as in _Osteoglossum_, and _P. æquipennis_ from
-a small example, perhaps immature. _Phareodus testis_ is frequently
-found well preserved in the shales at Fossil Station, to the
-northwestward of Green River. Whether all these species possess the
-peculiar structure of the scales, and whether all belong to one genus,
-is uncertain.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 45.—_Phareodus testis_ (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long
-    collected at Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming.
-    (Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)
-]
-
-In Eocene shales of England occurs _Brychætus muelleri_, a species
-closely related to _Phareodus_, but the scales smaller and without the
-characteristic reticulate or mosaic structure seen in _Phareodus
-encaustus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 46.—Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing _Phareodus_, at
-    Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Wilbur C. Knight.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 47.—A day's catch of Fossil fishes, _Phareodus_, _Diplomystus_,
-    etc. Green River Eocene Shales, Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by
-    Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)
-]
-
-=The Pantodontidæ.=—The bony casque of _Osteoglossum_ is found again in
-the _Pantodontidæ_, consisting of one species, _Pantodon buchholzi_, a
-small fish of the brooks of West Africa. As in the _Osteoglossidæ_ and
-in the _Siluridæ_, the subopercle is wanting in _Pantodon_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 48.—_Alepocephalus agassizii_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-The _Alepocephalidæ_ are deep-sea herring-like fishes very soft in
-texture and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses. Some species
-may be found in almost all seas below the depth of half a mile.
-_Alepocephalus rostratus_ of the Mediterranean has been long known, but
-most of the other genera, _Talismania_, _Mitchillina_, _Conocara_, etc.,
-are of very recent discovery, having been brought to the surface by the
-deep-sea dredging of the _Challenger_, the _Albatross_, the _Blake_, the
-_Travailleur_, the _Talisman_, the _Investigator_, the _Hirondelle_, and
-the _Violante_.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IV
-                               SALMONIDÆ
-
-
-=THE Salmon Family.=—The series or suborder _Salmonoidea_, or allies of
-the salmon and trout, are characterized as a whole by the presence of
-the adipose fin, a structure also retained in Characins and catfishes,
-which have no evident affinity with the trout, and in the
-lantern-fishes, lizard-fishes, and trout-perches, in which the affinity
-is very remote. Probably these groups all have a common descent from
-some primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at least a fleshy fold on
-the back.
-
-Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from almost
-every point of view is that of the _Salmonidæ_, the salmon family. As
-now restricted, it is not one of the largest families, as it comprises
-less than a hundred species; but in beauty, activity, gaminess, quality
-as food, and even in size of individuals, different members of the group
-stand easily with the first among fishes. The following are the chief
-external characteristics which are common to the members of the family:
-
-Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in scales of
-varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or somewhat inferior, varying
-considerably among the different species, those having the mouth largest
-usually having also the strongest teeth. Maxillary provided with a
-supplemental bone, and forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw.
-Pseudobranchiæ present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula
-complete. No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed near the
-middle of the length of the body. Adipose fin well developed. Caudal fin
-forked. Anal fin moderate or rather long. Ventral fins nearly median in
-position. Pectoral fins inserted low. Lateral line present. Outline of
-belly rounded. Vertebræ in large number, usually about sixty.
-
-The stomach in all the _Salmonidæ_ is siphonal, and at the pylorus are
-many (15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric cœca. The air-bladder is
-large. The eggs are usually much larger than in fishes generally, and
-the ovaries are without special duct, the ova falling into the cavity of
-the abdomen before exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of
-adhesiveness, and the readiness with which they may be impregnated,
-render the _Salmonidæ_ peculiarly adapted for artificial culture.
-
-The _Salmonidæ_ are peculiar to the north temperate and Arctic regions,
-and within this range they are almost equally abundant wherever suitable
-waters occur. Some of the species, especially the larger ones, are
-marine and anadromous, living and growing in the sea, and ascending
-fresh waters to spawn. Still others live in running brooks, entering
-lakes or the sea when occasion serves, but not habitually doing so.
-Still others are lake fishes, approaching the shore or entering brooks
-in the spawning season, at other times retiring to waters of
-considerable depth. Some of them are active, voracious, and gamy, while
-others are comparatively defenseless and will not take the hook. They
-are divisible into ten easily recognized genera: _Coregonus_,
-_Argyrosomus_, _Brachymystax_, _Stenodus_, _Oncorhynchus_, _Salmo_,
-_Hucho_, _Cristivomer_, _Salvelinus_, and _Plecoglossus_.
-
-Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are recorded chiefly
-from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the name of _Rhabdofario
-lacustris_. We have also received from Dr. John C. Merriam, from
-ferruginous sands of the same region, several fragments of jaws of
-salmon, in the hook-nosed condition, with enlarged teeth, showing that
-the present salmon-runs have been in operation for many thousands of
-years. Most other fragments hitherto referred to _Salmonidæ_ belong to
-some other kind of fish.
-
-=Coregonus, the Whitefish.=—The genus _Coregonus_, which includes the
-various species known in America as lake whitefish, is distinguishable
-in general by the small size of its mouth, the weakness of its teeth,
-and the large size of its scales. The teeth, especially, are either
-reduced to slight asperities, or else are altogether wanting. The
-species reach a length of one to three feet. With scarcely an exception
-they inhabit clear lakes, and rarely enter streams except to spawn. In
-far northern regions they often descend to the sea; but in the latitude
-of the United States this is never possible for them, as they are unable
-to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take the hook, and rarely
-feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties characterize the lakes of
-Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia and America. Largest and most
-desirable of all these as a food-fish is the common whitefish of the
-Great Lakes (_Coregonus clupeiformis_), with its allies or variants in
-the Mackenzie and Yukon.
-
-The species of _Coregonus_ differ from each other in the form and size
-of the mouth, in the form of the body, and in the development of the
-gill-rakers.
-
-_Coregonus oxyrhynchus_—the _Schnäbel_ of Holland, Germany, and
-Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout projecting far
-beyond it. No species similar to this is found in America.
-
-The Rocky Mountain whitefish (_Coregonus williamsoni_) has also a small
-mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter and much shorter
-than in _C. oxyrhynchus_. This is a small species abounding everywhere
-in the clear lakes and streams of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
-Nevada, from Colorado to Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and
-excellent as food.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 49.—Rocky Mountain Whitefish, _Coregonus williamsoni_ Girard.
-]
-
-Closely allied to _Coregonus williamsoni_ is the pilot-fish,
-shad-waiter, roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (_Coregonus
-quadrilateralis_). This species is found in the Great Lakes, the
-Adirondack region, the lakes of New Hampshire, and thence northwestward
-to the Yukon, abounding in cold deep waters, its range apparently
-nowhere coinciding with that of _Coregonus williamsoni_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 50.—Whitefish, _Coregonus clupeiformis_ Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.
-]
-
-The common whitefish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_) is the largest in size
-of the species of _Coregonus_, and is unquestionably the finest as an
-article of food. It varies considerably in appearance with age and
-condition, but in general it is proportionately much deeper than any of
-the other small-mouthed _Coregoni_. The adult fishes develop a
-considerable fleshy hump at the shoulders, which causes the head, which
-is very small, to appear disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in
-November and December, on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food was
-ascertained by Dr. P. R. Hoy to consist chiefly of deep-water
-crustaceans, with a few mollusks, and larvæ of water insects. "The
-whitefish," writes Mr. James W. Milner, "has been known since the time
-of the earliest explorers as preeminently a fine-flavored fish. In fact
-there are few table-fishes its equal. To be appreciated in its fullest
-excellence it should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled. Father
-Marquette, Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for months at a
-time had to depend upon the whitefish for their staple article of food—
-bore testimony to the fact that they never lost their relish for it, and
-deemed it a special excellence that the appetite never became cloyed
-with it." The range of the whitefish extends from the lakes of New York
-and New England northward to the Arctic Circle. The "Otsego bass" of
-Otsego Lake in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local form
-of the ordinary whitefish.
-
-Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the Lavaret,
-Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (_Coregonus lavaretus_), of the
-mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. _Coregonus
-kennicotti_, the muksun, and _Coregonus nelsoni_, the humpback
-whitefish, are found in northern Alaska and in the Yukon. Several other
-related species occur in northern Europe and Siberia.
-
-Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting or Musquaw
-River whitefish (_Coregonus labradoricus_). Its teeth are stronger,
-especially on the tongue, than in any of our other species, and its body
-is slenderer than that of the whitefish. It is found in the upper Great
-Lakes, in the Adirondack region, in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes
-of Maine and New Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the
-Canadian lakes. This species runs up the St. Mary's River, from Lake
-Huron to Lake Superior, in July and August. Great numbers are snared or
-speared by the Indians at this season at the Sault Ste. Marie.
-
-In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened or covered
-with small warts, as in the male _Cyprinidæ_.
-
-=Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.=—In the genus _Argyrosomus_ the mouth is
-larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but extending forward on its
-lower edge, and the body is more elongate and more evenly elliptical.
-The species are more active and predaceous than those of _Coregonus_ and
-are, on the whole, inferior as food.
-
-The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish is the cisco of
-Lake Michigan (_Argyrosomus hoyi_). It is a slender fish, rarely
-exceeding ten inches in length, and its scales have the brilliant
-silvery luster of the mooneye and the ladyfish.
-
-The lake herring, or cisco (_Argyrosomus artedi_), is, next to the
-whitefish, the most important of the American species. It is more
-elongate than the others, and has a comparatively large mouth, with
-projecting under-jaw. It is correspondingly more voracious, and often
-takes the hook. During the spawning season of the whitefish the lake
-herring feeds on the ova of the latter, thereby doing a great amount of
-mischief. As food this species is fair, but much inferior to the
-whitefish. Its geographical distribution is essentially the same, but to
-a greater degree it frequents shoal waters. In the small lakes around
-Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe, Geneva, Oconomowoc,
-etc.), the cisco has long been established; and in these waters its
-habits have undergone some change, as has also its external appearance.
-It has been recorded as a distinct species, _Argyrosomus sisco_, and its
-excellence as a game-fish has been long appreciated by the angler. These
-lake ciscoes remain for most of the year in the depths of the lake,
-coming to the surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow
-water only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance of the
-cisco has led to much foolish discussion as to the probability of their
-returning by an underground passage to Lake Michigan during the periods
-of their absence. One author, confounding "cisco" with "siscowet," has
-assumed that this underground passage leads to Lake Superior, and that
-the cisco is identical with the fat lake trout which bears the latter
-name. The name "lake herring" alludes to the superficial resemblance
-which this species possesses to the marine herring, a fish of quite a
-different family.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 51.—Bluefin Cisco, _Argyrosomus nigripinnis_ Gill. Sheboygan.
-]
-
-Closely allied to the lake herring is the bluefin of Lake Michigan and
-of certain lakes in New York (_Argyrosomus nigripinnis_), a fine large
-species inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable by the blue-black color
-of its lower fins. In the lakes of central New York are found two other
-species, the so-called lake smelt (_Argyrosomus osmeriformis_) and the
-long-jaw (_Argyrosomus_ _prognathus_). _Argyrosomus lucidus_ is abundant
-in Great Bear Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the
-cisco type (_Argyrosomus laurettæ_, _A. pusillus_, _A. alascanus_); and
-in Europe very similar species are the Scotch vendace (_Argyrosomus
-vandesius_) and the Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as well as
-others less perfectly known.
-
-The Tullibee, or "mongrel whitefish" (_Argyrosomus tullibee_), has a
-deep body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the ciscoes. It is
-found in the Great Lake region and northward, and very little is known
-of its habits. A similar species (_Argyrosomus cyprinoides_) is recorded
-from Siberia—a region which is peculiarly suited for the growth of the
-_Coregoni_, but in which the species have never received much study.
-
-=Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.=—Another little-known form,
-intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, is _Brachymystax
-lenock_, a large fish of the mountain streams of Siberia. Only the skins
-brought home by Pallas a century ago are yet known. According to Pallas,
-it sometimes reaches a weight of eighty pounds.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 52.—Inconnu, _Stenodus mackenziei_ (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska.
-]
-
-Still another genus, intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon,
-is _Stenodus_, distinguished by its elongate body, feeble teeth, and
-projecting lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mackenzie River salmon, known on
-the Yukon as "charr" (_Stenodus mackenziei_), belongs to this genus. It
-reaches a weight of twenty pounds or more, and in the far north is a
-food-fish of good quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse
-Rapids. Not much is recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in
-museums. A species of _Stenodus_ called _Stenodus leucichthys_ inhabits
-the Volga, Obi, Lena, and other northern rivers; but as yet little is
-definitely known of the species.
-
-=Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.=—The genus _Oncorhynchus_ contains
-the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact, as well as in name, the
-king salmon. The genus is closely related to _Salmo_, with which it
-agrees in general as to the structure of its vomer, and from which it
-differs in the increased number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric
-cœca, and gill-rakers. The character most convenient for distinguishing
-_Oncorhynchus_, young or old, from all the species of _Salmo_, is the
-number of developed rays in the anal fin. These in _Oncorhynchus_ are
-thirteen to twenty, in _Salmo_ nine to twelve.
-
-The species of _Oncorhynchus_ have long been known as anadromous salmon,
-confined to the North Pacific. The species were first made known nearly
-one hundred and fifty years ago by that most exact of early observers,
-Steller, who, almost simultaneously with Krascheninnikov, another early
-investigator, described and distinguished them with perfect accuracy
-under their Russian vernacular names. These Russian names were, in 1792,
-adopted by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a
-scientific nomenclature. Five species of _Oncorhynchus_ are well known
-on both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other in Japan. These
-have been greatly misunderstood by early observers on account of the
-extraordinary changes due to differences in surroundings, in sex, and in
-age, and in conditions connected with the process of reproduction.
-
-There are five species of salmon (_Oncorhynchus_) in the waters of the
-North Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other which is known
-only from the waters of Japan. These species may be called: (1) the
-quinnat, or king-salmon, (2) the blue-back salmon, or redfish, (3) the
-silver salmon, (4) the dog-salmon, (5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the
-masu; or (1) _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, (2) _Oncorhynchus nerka_, (3)
-_Oncorhynchus milktschitsch_, (4) _Oncorhynchus keta_, (5) _Oncorhynchus
-gorbuscha_, (6) _Oncorhynchus masou_. All these species save the last
-are now known to occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as well as in those
-of Alaska and Oregon. These species, in all their varied conditions, may
-usually be distinguished by the characters given below. Other
-differences of form, color, and appearance are absolutely valueless for
-distinction, unless specimens of the same age, sex, and condition are
-compared.
-
-The quinnat salmon (_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_),[7] called quinnat,
-tyee, chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight of 22 pounds, but
-individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are occasionally taken. It has
-about 16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchiostegals, 23 (9 + 14) gill-rakers on
-the anterior gill-arch, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. The scales are
-comparatively large, there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal
-series. In the spring the body is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and
-caudal fin having more or less of round black spots, and the sides of
-the head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic luster. In the fall the
-color is often black or dirty red, and the species can then be
-distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by its
-technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red, becoming
-suddenly pale as the spawning season draws near.
-
-Footnote 7:
-
-  For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is
-  referred to papers by the late Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the
-  _Albatross_, in the publications of the United States Fish Commission,
-  the _Popular Science Monthly_, and the _Overland Monthly_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 53.—Quinnat Salmon (female), _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_
-    (Walbaum). Columbia River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 54.—King-salmon grilse, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ (Walbaum).
-    (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 55.—Male Red Salmon in September, _Oncorhynchus nerka_ (Walbaum).
-    Payette Lake, Idaho.
-]
-
-The blue-back salmon (_Oncorhynchus nerka_),[8] also called red salmon,
-sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8 pounds. It has about 14
-developed anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, and 75 to 95 pyloric cœca. The
-gill-rakers are more numerous than in any other salmon, the number being
-usually about 39 (16 + 23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to
-140 in the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded, and
-the color is a clear bright blue above, silvery below, and everywhere
-immaculate. Young fishes often show a few round black spots, which
-disappear when they enter the sea. Fall specimens in the lakes are
-bright crimson in color, the head clear olive-green, and they become in
-a high degree hook-nosed and slab-sided, and bear little resemblance to
-the spring run. Young spawning male grilse follow the changes which take
-place in the adult, although often not more than half a pound in weight.
-These little fishes often appear in mountain lakes, but whether they are
-landlocked or have come up from the sea is still unsettled. These dwarf
-forms, called kokos by the Indians and benimasu in Japan, form the
-subspecies _Oncorhynchus nerka kennerlyi_. The flesh in this species is
-firmer than that of any other and very red, of good flavor, though drier
-and less rich than the king-salmon.
-
-Footnote 8:
-
-  For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader
-  is referred to various papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the
-  Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission and elsewhere.
-
-The silver salmon, or coho (_Oncorhynchus milktschitsch_, or _kisutch_),
-reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 developed rays in the anal,
-13 branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers, and 45 to 80 pyloric cœca.
-There are about 127 scales in the lateral line. The scales are thin and
-all except those of the lateral line readily fall off. This feature
-distinguishes the species readily from the red salmon. In color it is
-silvery in spring, greenish above, and with a few faint black spots on
-the upper parts only. In the fall the males are mostly of a dirty red.
-The flesh in this species is of excellent flavor, but pale in color, and
-hence less valued than that of the quinnat and the red salmon.
-
-The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in Japan
-(_Oncorhynchus keta_), reaches an average weight of about 7 to 10
-pounds. It has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, 24 (9 + 15)
-gill-rakers, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. There are about 150 scales in
-the lateral line. In spring it is dirty silvery, immaculate, or
-sprinkled with small black specks, the fins dusky, the sides with faint
-traces of gridiron-like bars. In the fall the male is brick-red or
-blackish, and its jaws are greatly distorted. The pale flesh is well
-flavored when fresh, but pale and mushy in texture and muddy in taste
-when canned. It is said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt
-dog-salmon are consumed in Japan.
-
-The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (_Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_), is the
-smallest of the American species, weighing from 3 to 5 pounds. It has
-usually 15 anal rays, 12 branchiostegals, 28 (13 + 15) gill-rakers, and
-about 180 pyloric cœca. Its scales are much smaller than in any other
-salmon, there being 180 to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is
-bluish above, silvery below, the posterior and upper parts with many
-round black spots, the caudal fin always having a few large black spots
-oblong in form. The males in fall are dirty red, and are more
-extravagantly distorted than in any other of the _Salmonidæ_. The flesh
-is softer than in the other species; it is pale in color, and, while of
-fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when canned.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 56.—Humpback Salmon (female), _Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_ (Walbaum).
-    Cook's Inlet.
-]
-
-The masu, or yezomasu (_Oncorhynchus masou_), is very similar to the
-humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without black spots,
-the back usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller salmon, and is
-fairly abundant in the streams of Hokkaido, the island formerly known as
-Yezo.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG 57.—Masu (female), _Oncorhynchus masou_ (Brevoort). Aomori, Japan.
-]
-
-Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates in Frazer
-River and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, including all those
-which flow from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers of the world are the
-Nushegak and Karluk in Alaska, with the Columbia River, Frazer River,
-and Sacramento River farther south. The red and the silver salmon
-predominate in Puget Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the
-Sacramento, and the silver salmon in most of the smaller streams along
-the coast. All the species occur, however, from the Columbia northward;
-but the blue-back is not found in the Sacramento. Only the quinnat and
-the dog-salmon have been noticed south of San Francisco. In Japan _keta_
-is by far the most abundant species of salmon. It is known as saké, and
-largely salted and sold in the markets. _Nerka_ is known in Japan only
-as landlocked in Lake Akan in northern Hokkaido. _Milktschitsch_ is
-generally common, and with _masou_ is known as masu, or small salmon, as
-distinguished from the large salmon, or saké. _Tschawytscha_ and
-_gorbuscha_ are unknown in Japan. _Masou_ has not been found elsewhere.
-
-The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the "noble salmon," habitually "run"
-in the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of running in the
-rivers is as follows: _tschawytscha_, _nerka_, _milktschitsch_,
-_gorbuscha_, _keta_. Those which run first go farthest. In the Yukon the
-quinnat runs as far as Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles.
-The red salmon runs to "Forty-Mile," which is nearly 1800 miles. Both
-ascend to the head of the Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and
-Taku rivers. The quinnat runs practically only in the streams of large
-size, fed with melting snows; the red salmon only in streams which pass
-through lakes. It spawns only in small streams at the head of a lake.
-The other species spawn in almost any fresh water and only close to the
-sea.
-
-The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far greater than that
-of the other species, because they can be captured in numbers when at
-their best, while the others are usually taken only after deterioration.
-
-The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. Quinnat
-and silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine at almost any
-season in Puget Sound and among the islands of Alaska. This would
-indicate that these species do not go far from the shore. The silver
-salmon certainly does not. The quinnat pursues the schools of herring.
-It takes the hook freely in Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a
-distance of six to eight miles out. We have reason to believe that these
-two species do not necessarily seek great depths, but probably remain
-not very far from the mouth of the rivers in which they were spawned.
-The blue-back or red salmon certainly seeks deeper water, as it is
-seldom or never taken with the seine along shore, and it is known to
-enter the Strait of Fuca in July, just before the running season,
-therefore coming in from the open sea. The great majority of the quinnat
-salmon, and probably all the blue-back salmon, enter the rivers in the
-spring. The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of March; it
-lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until the actual
-spawning season in November, the greatest run being in early June in
-Alaska, in July in the Columbia. The run begins earliest in the
-northernmost rivers, and in the longest streams, the time of running and
-the proportionate amount in each of the subordinate runs varying with
-each different river. In general the runs are slack in the summer and
-increase with the first high water of autumn. By the last of August only
-straggling blue-backs can be found in the lower course of any stream;
-but both in the Columbia and in the Sacramento the quinnat runs in
-considerable numbers at least till October. In the Sacramento the run is
-greatest in the fall, and more run in the summer than in spring. In the
-Sacramento and the smaller rivers southward there is a winter run,
-beginning in December. The spring quinnat salmon ascends only those
-rivers which are fed by the melting snows from the mountains and which
-have sufficient volume to send their waters well out to sea. Those
-salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults (supposed to be at
-least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no more developed than
-at the same time in others of the same species which have not yet
-entered the rivers. It would appear that the contact with cold fresh
-water, when in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and
-to run before there is any special influence to that end exerted by the
-development of the organs of generation. High water on any of these
-rivers in the spring is always followed by an increased run of salmon.
-The salmon-canners think—and this is probably true—that salmon which
-would not have run till later are brought up by the contact with the
-cold water. The cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not
-understood. We may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another
-way of expressing our ignorance. In general it seems to be true that in
-those rivers and during those years when the spring run is greatest the
-fall run is least to be depended on.
-
-The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August, beginning in
-late June in Chilcoot River, where some were found actually spawning
-July 15; beginning after the middle of July in Frazer River.
-
-As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these species
-(quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in the fall these
-young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far failed to notice any
-gradations in size or appearance of these young fish by which their ages
-could be ascertained. It is, however, probable that some of both sexes
-reproduce at the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat
-male grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, the
-milt fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark
-colors of the older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length
-were not seen. All of either sex, large and small, then in the river had
-the ovaries or milt developed. Little blue-backs of every size, down to
-six inches, are also found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their
-organs of generation fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young
-fish are males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of
-the old males. Apparently all these young fishes, like the old ones, die
-after spawning.
-
-The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia, in the spring,
-is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about sixteen. Individuals
-weighing from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both rivers,
-and some as high as eighty or even one hundred pounds are recorded,
-especially in Alaska, where the species tends to run larger. It is
-questionable whether these large fishes are those which, of the same
-age, have grown more rapidly; those which are older, but have for some
-reason failed to spawn; or those which have survived one or more
-spawning seasons. All these origins may be possible in individual cases.
-There is, however, no positive evidence that any salmon of the Pacific
-survives the spawning season.
-
-Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their ascent
-till death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubtless not one of
-them ever returns to the ocean, and a large proportion fail to spawn.
-They are known to ascend the Sacramento to its extreme head-waters,
-about four hundred miles. In the Columbia they ascend as far as the
-Bitter Root and Sawtooth mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is
-not known. This is a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon a
-few ascend to Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. At these
-great distances, when the fish have reached the spawning grounds,
-besides the usual changes of the breeding season their bodies are
-covered with bruises, on which patches of white fungus (_Saprolegnia_)
-develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes are often injured or
-destroyed, parasitic worms gather in their gills, they become extremely
-emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the loss of oil; and as soon
-as the spawning act is accomplished, and sometimes before, _all_ of them
-die. The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia causes
-the injury or death of a great many salmon.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 58.—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male, after spawning),
-    _Oncorhynchus nerka_ (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho.
-]
-
-When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait, and their
-stomachs are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they do
-not feed; and when they reach the spawning grounds their stomachs,
-pyloric cœca and all, are said to be no larger than one's finger. They
-will sometimes take the fly, or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the
-clear waters of the upper tributaries, but this is apparently solely out
-of annoyance, snapping at the meddling line. Only the quinnat and
-blue-back (there called redfish) have been found at any great distance
-from the sea, and these (as adult fishes) only in late summer and fall.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 59.—Young Male Quinnat Salmon, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, dying
-    after spawning. Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-The spawning season is probably about the same for all the species. It
-varies for each of the different rivers, and for different parts of the
-same river. It doubtless extends from July to December, and takes place
-usually as soon as the temperature of the water falls to 54°. The manner
-of spawning is probably similar for all the species. In the quinnat the
-fishes pair off; the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad,
-shallow "nest" in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a
-depth of one to four feet and the female deposits her eggs in it. They
-then float down the stream tail foremost, the only fashion in which
-salmon descend to the sea. As already stated, in the head-waters of the
-large streams, unquestionably, all die; it is the belief of the writer
-that none ever survive. The young hatch in sixty days, and most of them
-return to the ocean during the high water of the spring. They enter the
-river as adults at the age of about four years.
-
-The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or not
-according to the species, and with the mouth about equally symmetrical
-in both sexes. As the spawning season approaches the female loses her
-silvery color, becomes more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink
-into the skin, and the flesh changes from salmon-red and becomes
-variously paler, from the loss of oil; the degree of paleness varying
-much with individuals and with inhabitants of different rivers. In the
-Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat, in either spring or fall, is rarely
-pale. In the Columbia a few with pale flesh are sometimes taken in
-spring, and an increasing number from July on. In Frazer River the fall
-run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning purposes, because so
-many are "white-meated." In the spring very few are "white-meated"; but
-the number increases towards fall, when there is every variation, some
-having red streaks running through them, others being red toward the
-head and pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be
-distinguished externally, and the color is dependent on neither age nor
-sex. There is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is little
-market for canned salmon not of the conventional orange-color.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 60.—Quinnat Salmon, _Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ (Walbaum).
-    Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.)
-]
-
-As the season advances the difference between the males and females
-becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace with the development of the
-milt, as is shown by dissection. The males have (1) the premaxillaries
-and the tip of the lower jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws
-becoming finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either
-they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth
-cannot be closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and canine-like,
-their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they are often half an inch
-long. (3) The teeth on the vomer and tongue often disappear. (4) The
-body grows more compressed and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very
-distinct hump is formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon,
-but is found in all. (5) The scales disappear, especially on the back,
-by the growth of spongy skin. (6) The color changes from silvery to
-various shades of black and red, or blotchy, according to the species.
-The blue-back turns rosy-red, the head bright olive; the dog-salmon a
-dull red with blackish bars, and the quinnat generally blackish. The
-distorted males are commonly considered worthless, rejected by the
-canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the Indians. These changes
-are due solely to influences connected with the growth of the
-reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the action of fresh
-water. They take place at about the same time in the adult males of all
-species, whether in the ocean or in the rivers. At the time of the
-spring runs all are symmetrical. In the fall all males, of whatever
-species, are more or less distorted. Among the dog-salmon, which run
-only in the fall, the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they
-first enter the Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback, taken in
-salt water about Seattle, have the same peculiarities. The male is
-slab-sided, hook-billed, and distorted, and is rejected by the canners.
-No hook-jawed females of any species have been seen.
-
-On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing. They
-always head towards the current, and this appearance of playing may be
-simply due to facing the moving tide. Afterwards they enter the deepest
-parts of the stream and swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their
-rate of travel at Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles
-per day; on the Columbia at about three miles per day. Those which enter
-the Columbia in the spring and ascend to the mountain rivers of Idaho
-must go at a more rapid rate than this, as they must make an average of
-nearly four miles per day.
-
-As already stated, the economic value of any species depends in great
-part on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally possible to
-capture salmon of any species in large numbers until they have entered
-the estuaries or rivers, and the spring salmon enter the large rivers
-long before the growth of the organs of reproduction has reduced the
-richness of the flesh. The fall salmon cannot be taken in quantity until
-their flesh has deteriorated; hence the dog-salmon is practically almost
-worthless except to the Indians, and the humpback salmon was regarded as
-little better until comparatively recently, when it has been placed on
-the market in cans as "Pink Salmon." It sells for about half the price
-of the red salmon and one-third that of the quinnat. The red salmon is
-smaller than the quinnat but, outside the Sacramento and the Columbia,
-far more abundant, and at present it exceeds the quinnat in economic
-value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted in 1902 to over two
-million cases (48 pounds each), worth wholesale about $4.00 per case, or
-about $8,000,000. The other species in Alaska yield about one million
-cases, the total wholesale value of the pack for 1902 being $8,667,673.
-The aggregate value of the quinnat is considerably less, but either
-species far exceed in value all other fishes of the Pacific taken
-together. The silver salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound
-for a considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and
-it may be taken in large numbers with seines before the season for
-entering the rivers.
-
-The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog-salmon, ascend
-streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to be in great
-anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work their way up little
-brooks only a few inches deep, where they perish miserably, floundering
-about on the stones. Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco
-to Bering Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon.
-
-The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of Japan is the
-cause of the relative unimportance of the river fisheries of the
-northern island of Japan, Hokkaido. It is not likely that either the
-quinnat or the red salmon can be introduced into these rivers, as they
-have no snow-fed streams, and few of them pass through lakes which are
-not shut off by waterfalls. For the same reason neither of these species
-is likely to become naturalized in the waters of our Eastern States,
-though it is worth while to bring the red salmon to the St. Lawrence.
-The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan, should thrive in the
-rivers and bays of New England.
-
-=The Parent-stream Theory.=—It has been generally accepted as
-unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return to spawn to the
-very stream in which they were hatched. As early as 1880 the present
-writer placed on record his opinion that this theory was unsound. In a
-general way most salmon return to the parent stream, because when in the
-sea the parent stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and
-runways which directed their course to the sea may influence their
-return trip in the same fashion. When the salmon is mature it seeks
-fresh water. Other things being equal, about the same number will run
-each year in the same channel. With all this, we find some curious
-facts. Certain streams will have a run of exceptionally large or
-exceptionally small red salmon. The time of the run bears some relation
-to the length of the stream: those who have farthest to go start
-earliest. The time of running bears also a relation to the temperature
-of the spawning grounds: where the waters cool off earliest the fish run
-soonest.
-
-The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory may be
-considered under three heads:[9] (1) Distinctive runs in various
-streams. (2) Return of marked salmon. (3) Introduction of salmon into
-new streams followed by their return.
-
-Footnote 9:
-
-  See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the _Pacific Fisherman_ for
-  July, 1903.
-
-Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that they can
-distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the Lynn Canal red
-salmon are larger than those in most waters, and it is claimed that
-those of Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those of the sister stream at
-Chilcat. The red salmon of Red Fish Bay on Baranof Island are said to be
-much smaller than usual, and those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not
-more than one-third the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream
-near Nass River are more wiry than those of the neighboring large
-stream. The same claim is made for the different streams of Puget Sound,
-each one having its characteristic run. In all this there is some truth
-and perhaps some exaggeration. I have noticed that the Chilcoot fish
-seem deeper in body than those at Chilcat. The red salmon becomes
-compressed before spawning, and the Chilcoot fishes having a short run
-spawn earlier than the Chilcat fishes, which have many miles to go, the
-water being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river. Perhaps some
-localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes, while not
-attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well observes that "until a
-constant difference has been demonstrated by a careful examination of
-large numbers of fish from each stream taken _at the same time_, but
-little weight can be attached to arguments of this nature."
-
-It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly all salmon
-return to the region in which they were spawned. Most of them apparently
-never go far away from the mouth of the stream or the bay into which it
-flows. It is true that salmon are occasionally taken well out at sea,
-and it is certain that the red salmon runs of Puget Sound come from
-outside the Straits of Fuca. There is, however, evidence that they
-rarely go so far as that. When seeking shore they do not reach the
-original channels.
-
-In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia, used the
-following words, which he has not had occasion to change:
-
-"It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some special
-instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the same spawning
-grounds where they were originally hatched. We fail to find any evidence
-of this in the case of the Pacific-coast salmon, and we do not believe
-it to be true. It seems more probable that the young salmon hatched in
-any river mostly remain in the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty,
-or forty miles of its mouth. These, in their movements about in the
-ocean, may come into contact with the cold waters of their parent
-rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a considerable distance from
-the shore. In the case of the quinnat and the blue-back their 'instinct'
-seems to lead them to ascend these fresh waters, and in a majority of
-cases these waters will be those in which the fishes in question were
-originally spawned. Later in the season the growth of the reproductive
-organs leads them to approach the shore and search for fresh waters, and
-still the chances are that they may find the original stream. But
-undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams in which
-no salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks about Puget Sound, where
-the water is not three inches deep, are often found dead or dying salmon
-which have entered them for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the
-Russian River and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time
-of low water in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand-bars,
-and that the salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling
-themselves entirely out of water on the beach. But this does not prove
-that the salmon are guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which
-leads them to their parent river in spite of the fact that the river
-cannot be found. The waters of Russian River soak through these
-sand-bars, and the salmon instinct, we think, leads them merely to
-search for fresh waters. This matter is much in need of further
-investigation; at present, however, we find no reason to believe that
-the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were spawned there,
-or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas River is more likely, on that
-account, to return to the Clackamas than to go up the Cowlitz or the Des
-Chûtes."
-
-Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking the fry. But
-this is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost the only structure which
-can be safely mutilated is the adipose fin, and this is often nipped off
-by sticklebacks and other meddling fish. The following experiments have
-been tried, according to Mr. Davis:
-
-In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by cutting off the
-adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River. Nearly 400 of these
-marked fish are said to have been taken in the Columbia in 1898, and a
-few more in 1899. In addition a few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900
-in the Sacramento River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia.
-In the Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where nearly
-all of the fishing was done, but a few were in the original stream, the
-Clackamas. It is stated that the fry thus set free in the Clackamas came
-from eggs obtained in the Sacramento—a matter which has, however, no
-bearing on the present case.
-
-In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washington, 2000 fry of
-the quinnat or king-salmon were marked in 1899 by a V-shaped notch in
-the caudal fin. Numerous fishes thus marked were taken in the lower
-Columbia in 1901 and 1902. A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but
-some also at the hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the
-hatchery on Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream not being
-a tributary of the Columbia, but flowing into Shoalwater Bay. None were
-noticed in the Sacramento. The evidence shows that the most who are
-hatched in a large stream tend to return to it, and that in general most
-salmon return to the parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon
-hatched in one branch of a river tends to return there rather than to
-any other. Experiments of Messrs. Rutter and Spaulding in marking adult
-fish at Karluk would indicate that they roam rather widely about the
-island before spawning. An adult spawning fish, marked and set free at
-Karluk, was taken soon after on the opposite side of the island of
-Kadiak.
-
-The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw some light on this
-question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young quinnat-salmon fry were set
-free in Papermill Creek near Olema, California. This is a small stream
-flowing into the head of Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a
-run of salmon. In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon
-appeared in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weighing
-about sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for identification.
-These fishes certainly returned to the parent stream, although this
-stream was one not at all fitted for their purpose.
-
-But this may be accounted for by the topography of the bay. Tomales Bay
-is a long and narrow channel, about twenty miles long and from one to
-five in width, isolated from other rivers and with but one tributary
-stream. Probably the salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not
-have left it at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to
-the same place.
-
-That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools of
-king-salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring about in the
-channels of southeastern Alaska. A few years since Captain J. F. Moser,
-in charge of the _Albatross_, set gill-nets for salmon at various places
-in the sea off the Oregon and Washington coast, catching none except in
-the bays.
-
-Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in Chinook River,
-which flows into the Columbia at Baker's Bay:
-
-"It is a small, sluggish stream and has never been frequented by Chinook
-salmon, although considerable numbers of silver and dog salmon enter it
-late in the fall. A few years ago the State established a hatchery on
-this stream, and since 1898 between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Chinook fry
-have been turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the
-pound-nets in Baker's Bay, towed into the river in crates and then
-liberated above the dike, which prevents their return to the Columbia.
-When ripe the salmon ascend to the hatchery, some two or three miles
-farther up the river, where they are spawned.
-
-"The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs me that in
-1902, during November and December, quite a number of Chinook salmon
-ascended the Chinook River. About 150 salmon of both sexes were taken in
-a trap located in the river about four miles from its mouth. At first
-thought it would appear that these were probably fish which, when fry,
-had been liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof
-that this was the case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season of 1902 was
-remarkable in that the salmon ran inshore in large schools, a thing
-which they had not done before for years. It is possible that the fish,
-being forced in close to the shore, came in contact with the current
-from the Chinook River, which, since the stream is small and sluggish,
-would not be felt far from shore. Once brought under the influence of
-the current from the river, the salmon would naturally ascend that
-stream, whether they had been hatched there or not."
-
-The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts at hand, is
-that salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great distance from the
-stream in which they are hatched, that most of them return to the
-streams of the same region, a majority to the parent stream, but that
-there is no evidence that they choose the parental spawning grounds in
-preference to any other, and none that they will prefer an undesirable
-stream to a favorable one for the reason that they happen to have been
-hatched in the former.
-
-=The Jadgeska Hatchery.=—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel, Alaska, has
-long conducted a very interesting but very costly experiment in this
-line. About 1890 he established himself in a small stream called
-Jadgeska on the west coast of Etolin Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet,
-Clarence Straits. This stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand
-red salmon spawned, besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and
-humpback salmon. Making a dam across the stream, he helped the red
-salmon over it, destroying all of the inferior kinds which entered the
-stream. He also established a hatchery for the red salmon, turning loose
-many fry yearly for ten or twelve years. This was done in the
-expectation that all the salmon hatched would return to Jadgeska in
-about four years. By destroying all individuals of other species
-attempting to run, it was expected that they would become extinct so far
-as the stream is concerned.
-
-The result of this experiment has been disappointment. After twelve
-years or more there has been no increase of red salmon in the stream,
-and no decrease of humpbacks and other humbler forms of salmon. Mr.
-Callbreath draws the conclusion that salmon run at a much greater age
-than has been supposed—at the age of sixteen years, perhaps, instead of
-four. A far more probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined
-other bands bound for more suitable streams. It is indeed claimed that
-since the establishment of Callbreath's hatchery on Etolin Island there
-has been a notable increase of the salmon run in the various streams of
-Prince of Wales Island on the opposite side of Clarence Straits. But
-this statement, while largely current among the cannerymen, and not
-improbable, needs verification.
-
-We shall await with much interest the return of the thousands of salmon
-hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may venture the prophecy that while a
-large percentage will return to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay,
-Karta Bay, Moira Sound, and other red salmon waters along the line of
-their return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea.
-
-=Salmon-packing.=—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing of the
-flesh in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was begun on the
-Columbia River by the Hume Brothers in 1866. In 1874 canneries were
-established on the Sacramento River, in 1876 on Puget Sound and on
-Frazer River, and in 1878 in Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon
-was packed; afterwards the red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally
-the humpback, known commercially as pink salmon. In most cases the flesh
-is packed in one-pound tins, forty-eight of which constitute a case. The
-wholesale price in 1903 was for quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red
-salmon $4.00, silver salmon $2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon
-$1.50. It costs in round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The
-very low price of the inferior brands is due to overproduction.
-
-The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts to about
-fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting seven to nine
-millions of this amount. Of this amount the red salmon constitutes
-somewhat more than half, the quinnat about four-fifths of the rest.
-
-In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable
-diminution in numbers, although the evidence is sometimes conflicting.
-In Alaska this has been due to the vicious custom, now done away with,
-of barricading the streams so that the fish could not reach the spawning
-grounds, but might be all taken with the net. In the Columbia River the
-reduction in numbers is mainly due to stationary traps and
-salmon-wheels, which leave the fish relatively little chance to reach
-the spawning grounds. In years of high water doubtless many salmon run
-in the spring which might otherwise have waited until fall.
-
-The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of salmon by
-means of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the fisheries of the
-Sacramento have been fully restored, those of the Columbia approximately
-maintained, and a hopeful beginning has been made in hatching red salmon
-in Alaska.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-                        SALMONIDÆ—(_Continued_)
-
-
-=SALMO, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.=—The genus _Salmo_ comprises
-those forms of salmon which have been longest known. As in related
-genera, the mouth is large, and the jaws, palatines, and tongue are
-armed with strong teeth. The vomer is flat, its shaft not depressed
-below the level of the head or chevron (the anterior end). There are a
-few teeth on the chevron; and behind it, on the shaft, there is either a
-double series of teeth or an irregular single series. These teeth in the
-true salmon disappear with age, but in the others (the black-spotted
-trout) they are persistent. The scales are silvery and moderate or small
-in size. There are 9 to 11 developed rays in the anal fin. The caudal
-fin is truncate, or variously concave or forked. There are usually 40 to
-70 pyloric cœca, 11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8 + 12)
-gill-rakers. The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked than in
-_Oncorhynchus_; they are also greater in the anadromous species than in
-those which inhabit fresh waters. In general the male in the breeding
-season is redder, its jaws are prolonged, the front teeth enlarged, the
-lower jaw turned upwards at the end, and the upper jaw notched, or
-sometimes even perforated, by the tip of the lower. All the species of
-_Salmo_ (like those of _Oncorhynchus_) are more or less spotted with
-black. Unlike the species of _Oncorhynchus_, the species of _Salmo_ feed
-more or less while in fresh water, and the individuals for the most part
-do not die after spawning, although many old males do thus perish.
-
-=The Atlantic Salmon.=—The large species of _Salmo_, called salmon by
-English-speaking people (_Salmo salar_, _Salmo trutta_), are marine and
-anadromous, taking the place in the North Atlantic occupied in the North
-Pacific by the species of _Oncorhynchus_. Two others more or less
-similar in character occur in Japan and Kamchatka. The others (trout),
-forming the subgenus _Salar_, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly
-or imperfectly anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout abound in all
-streams of northern Europe, northern Asia, and in that part of North
-America which lies _west_ of the Mississippi Valley. The black-spotted
-trout are entirely wanting in eastern America—a remarkable fact in
-geographical distribution, perhaps explained only on the hypothesis of
-the comparatively recent and Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we
-may suppose, has not yet had opportunity to extend its range across the
-plains, unsuitable for salmon life, which separate the upper Missouri
-from the Great Lakes.
-
-The salmon (_Salmo salar_) is the only black-spotted salmonoid found in
-American waters tributary to the Atlantic. In Europe, where other
-species similarly colored occur, the species may be best distinguished
-by the fact that the teeth on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear
-with age. From the only other species positively known, the salmon trout
-(_Salmo trutta_), which shares this character, the true salmon may be
-distinguished by the presence of but eleven scales between the adipose
-fin and the lateral line, while _Salmo trutta_ has about fourteen. The
-scales are comparatively large in the salmon, there being about one
-hundred and twenty-five in the lateral line. The caudal fin, which is
-forked in the young, becomes, as in other species of salmon, more or
-less truncate with age. The pyloric cœca are fifty to sixty in number.
-
-The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is "superiorly of a
-steel-blue, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly a few
-rounded or X-shaped spots scattered above the lateral line and upper
-half of the head, being more numerous in the female than in the male.
-Dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins dusky; ventrals and anal white, the
-former grayish internally. Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are
-of a brilliant steel-blue along the back, which becomes changed to a
-muddy tinge when they enter rivers. After these fish have passed into
-the fresh waters for the purpose of breeding, numerous orange streaks
-appear in the cheeks of the male, and also spots or even marks of the
-same, and likewise of a red color, on the body. It is now termed a
-'redfish.' The female, however, is dark in color and known as
-'blackfish.' 'Smolts' (young river fish) are bluish along the upper half
-of the body, silvery along the sides, due to a layer of silvery scales
-being formed over the trout-like colors, while they have darker fins
-than the yearling 'ping,' but similar bands and spots, which can be seen
-(as in the parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light.
-'Parr' (fishes of the year) have two or three black spots only on the
-opercle, and black spots and also orange ones along the upper half of
-the body, and no dark ones below the lateral line, although there may be
-orange ones which can be seen in its course. Along the side of the body
-are a series (12 to 15) of transverse bluish bands, wider than the
-ground color and crossing the lateral line, while in the upper half of
-the body the darker color of the back forms an arch over each of these
-bands, a row of spots along the middle of the rayed dorsal fin, and the
-adipose orange-tipped."
-
-The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr are
-characteristic of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and nearly all
-the other _Salmonidæ_.
-
-The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadromous fish,
-spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the streams in the
-fall for the purpose of reproduction. The time of running varies much in
-different streams and also in different countries. As with the Pacific
-species, these salmon are not easily discouraged in their progress,
-leaping cascades and other obstructions, or, if these prove impassable,
-dying after repeated fruitless attempts.
-
-The young salmon, known as the "parr," is hatched in the spring. It
-usually remains about two years in the rivers, descending at about the
-third spring to the sea, when it is known as "smolt." In the sea it
-grows much more rapidly, and becomes more silvery in color, and is known
-as "grilse." The grilse rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some
-of them, as in the case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are
-capable of reproduction.
-
-After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome in appearance,
-as in fact. They are then known as "kelts." The Atlantic salmon does not
-ascend rivers to any such distances as those traversed by the quinnat
-and the blue-back. Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the
-act of spawning. Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in
-the rivers, and that, therefore, the destruction of the kelts might
-increase the supply of salmon.
-
-As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the quinnat
-salmon, neither better nor worse, so far as I can see, when equally
-fresh. In both the flesh is rich and finely flavored; but the appetite
-of man becomes cloyed with salmon-flesh sooner than with that of
-whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size the Atlantic salmon does not fall
-far short of the quinnat. The average weight of the adult is probably
-less than fifteen pounds. The largest one of which I find a record was
-taken on the coast of Ireland in 1881, and weighed 84¾ pounds.
-
-The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45° and 75°. In
-the United States it is now rarely seen south of Cape Cod, although
-formerly the Hudson and numerous other rivers were salmon-streams.
-Overfishing, obstructions in the rivers, and pollution of the water by
-manufactories and by city sewage are agencies against which the salmon
-cannot cope.
-
-Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are recognized by
-Dr. Günther in Europe, and three in America. The landlocked forms,
-abundant in Norway, Sweden, and Maine, which cannot, or at least do not,
-descend to the sea, are regarded by him as distinct species. "The
-question," observes Dr Günther, "whether any of the migratory species
-can be retained by artificial means in fresh water, and finally
-accommodate themselves to a permanent sojourn therein, must be negatived
-for the present." On this point I think that the balance of evidence
-leads to a different conclusion. These fresh-water forms (_Sebago_ and
-_Ouananiche_) are actually salmon which have become landlocked. I have
-compared numerous specimens of the common landlocked salmon (_Salmo
-salar sebago_) of the lakes of Maine and New Brunswick with landlocked
-salmon (_Salmo salar hardini_) from the lakes of Sweden, and with
-numerous migratory salmon, both from America and Europe. I see no reason
-for regarding them as specifically distinct. The differences are very
-trivial in kind, and not greater than would be expected on the
-hypothesis of recent adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have
-therefore on our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, _Salmo
-salar_. The landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is _Salmo salar
-sebago_. The _Ouananiche_ of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of
-anglers, is _Salmo salar ouananiche_.
-
-=The Ouananiche.=—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the _Ouananiche_:
-"But the prince of the pool was the fighting _Ouananiche_, the little
-salmon of St. John. Here let me chant thy praise, thou noblest and most
-high-minded fish, the cleanest feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest
-leaper, and the bravest warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin,
-the trout, in his purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more
-splendid armor than thy russet and silver mottled with black, but thine
-is the kinglier nature.
-
-"The old salmon of the sea who begat thee long ago in these inland
-waters became a backslider, descending again to the ocean, and grew
-gross and heavy with coarse feeding. But thou, unsalted salmon of the
-foaming floods, not landlocked as men call thee, but choosing of thine
-own free will to dwell on a loftier level in the pure, swift current of
-a living stream, hath grown in grace and risen to a better life.
-
-"Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality, and thy five
-pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of pounds of flesh less
-vitalized by spirit. Thou feedest on the flies of the air, and thy food
-is transformed into an aerial passion for flight, as thou springest
-across the pool, vaulting toward the sky. Thine eyes have grown large
-and keen by piercing through the foam, and the feathered hook that can
-deceive thee must be deftly tied and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins,
-by ceaseless conflict with the rapids, have broadened and strengthened,
-so that they can flash thy slender body like a living arrow up the fall.
-As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou among the fish, the
-plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all the water-folk."
-
-Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these fishes, takes, in
-his memoir on "The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland," and in other
-papers, a similar view in regard to the European species. Omitting the
-species with permanent teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus
-_Salar_), he finds among the salmon proper only two species, _Salmo
-salar_ and _Salmo trutta_. The latter species, the sea-trout or
-salmon-trout of England and the estuaries of northern Europe, is similar
-to the salmon in many respects, but has rather smaller scales, there
-being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose fin and the
-lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon, nor does it
-reach so large a size. Although naturally anadromous, like the true
-salmon, landlocked forms of the salmon-trout are not uncommon. These
-have been usually regarded as different species, while aberrant or
-intermediate individuals are usually regarded as hybrids. The
-salmon-trout of Europe have many analogies with the steelhead of the
-Pacific.
-
-The present writer has examined many thousands of American _Salmonidæ_,
-both of _Oncorhynchus_ and _Salmo_. While many variations have come to
-his attention, and he has been compelled more than once to modify his
-views as to specific distinctions, he has never yet seen an individual
-which he had the slightest reason to regard as a "hybrid." It is
-certainly illogical to conclude that every specimen which does not
-correspond to our closet-formed definition of its species must therefore
-be a "hybrid" with some other. There is no evidence worth mentioning,
-known to me, of extensive hybridization in a state of nature in any
-group of fishes. This matter is much in need of further study; for what
-is true of the species in one region, in this regard, may not be true of
-others. Dr. Günther observes:
-
-"Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already expressed his belief
-that the different salmonoids interbreed; and this view has since been
-shared by many who have observed these fishes in nature. Hybrids between
-the sewin (_Salmo trutta cambricus_) and the river-trout (_Salmo fario_)
-were numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales before
-salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions allowed to pass
-into these streams, and so variable in their characters that the passage
-from one species to the other could be demonstrated in an almost
-unbroken series, which might induce some naturalists to regard both
-species as identical. Abundant evidence of a similar character has
-accumulated, showing the frequent occurrence of hybrids between _Salmo
-fario_ and _S. trutta_.... In some rivers the conditions appear to be
-more favorable to hybridism than in others in which hybrids are of
-comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids between the salmon and other
-species are very scarce everywhere."
-
-Very similar to the European _Salmo trutta_ is the trout of Japan
-(_Salmo perryi_), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu, or
-river-salmon. This species abounds everywhere in Japan, the young being
-the common trout of the brooks, black-spotted and crossed by parr-marks,
-the adult reaching a weight of ten or twelve pounds in the larger rivers
-and descending to the sea. In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted,
-salmon-like species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is _Salmo
-mykiss_, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of the
-Columbia.
-
-The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus _Salar_, differ from
-_Salmo salar_ and _Salmo trutta_ in the greater development of the
-vomerine teeth, which are persistent throughout life, in a long double
-series on the shaft of the vomer. About seven species are laboriously
-distinguished by Dr. Günther in the waters of western Europe. Most of
-these are regarded by Dr. Day as varieties of _Salmo fario_. The latter
-species, the common river-trout or lake-trout of Europe, is found
-throughout northern and central Europe, wherever suitable waters occur.
-It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily, and is excellent as food.
-It is more hardy than the different species of charr, although from an
-æsthetic point of view it must be regarded as inferior to all of the
-_Salvelini_. The largest river-trout recorded by Dr. Day weighed
-twenty-one pounds. Such large individuals are usually found in lakes in
-the north, well stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed.
-Farther south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout-life,
-they become mature at a length of less than a foot, and a weight of a
-few ounces. These excessive variations in the size of individuals have
-received too little notice from students of _Salmonidæ_. Similar
-variations occur in all the non-migratory species of _Salmo_ and of
-_Salvelinus_. Numerous river-trout have been recorded from northern
-Asia, but as yet nothing can be definitely stated as to the number of
-species actually existing.
-
-=The Black-spotted Trout.=—In North America only the region west of the
-Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern Alaska, and the valley
-of Mackenzie River have species of black-spotted trout. There are few of
-these north of Sitka in Alaska, although black-spotted trout are
-occasionally taken on Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the
-Rocky Mountain region. If we are to follow the usage of the names
-"salmon" and "trout" which prevails in England, we should say that, in
-America, it is only these western regions which have any trout at all.
-Of the number of species (about twenty-five in all) which have been
-indicated by authors, certainly not more than about 8 to 10 can possibly
-be regarded as distinct species. The other names are either useless
-synonyms, or else they have been applied to local varieties which pass
-by degrees into the ordinary types.
-
-=The Trout of Western America.=—In the western part of America are found
-more than a score of forms of trout of the genus _Salmo_, all closely
-related and difficult to distinguish. There are representatives in the
-head-waters of the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South Platte, Missouri, and
-Colorado rivers; also in the Great Salt Lake basin, throughout the
-Columbia basin, in all suitable waters from southern California and
-Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol Bay, similar forms again
-appearing in Kamchatka and Japan.
-
-Among the various more or less tangible species that may be recognized,
-three distinct series appear. These have been termed the cutthroat-trout
-series (allies of _Salmo clarkii_), the rainbow-trout series (allies of
-_Salmo irideus_), and the steelhead series (allies of _Salmo rivularis_,
-a species more usually but wrongly called _Salmo gairdneri_).
-
-The steelhead, or _rivularis_ series, is found in the coastwise streams
-of California and in the streams of Oregon and Washington, below the
-great Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and northward in Alaska along the
-mainland as far as Skaguay. The steelhead-trout reach a large size (10
-to 20 pounds). They spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all
-the true steelheads the head is relatively very short, its length being
-contained about five times in the distance from tip of snout to base of
-caudal fin. The scales in the steelhead are always rather small, about
-150 in a linear series, and there is no red under the throat. The spots
-on the dorsal fin are fewer in the steelhead (4 to 6 rows) than in the
-other American trout.
-
-The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of California and
-Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135 in a lengthwise series)
-and the head is relatively large, forming nearly one-fourth of the
-length to base of caudal. These enter the sea only when in the small
-coastwise streams. Usually they have no red under the throat. The
-cutthroat forms are found from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka,
-in the coastwise streams of northern California, Oregon, Washington, and
-Alaska, and all the clear streams on both sides of the Rocky Mountains,
-and in the Great Basin and the head-waters of the Colorado. The
-cutthroat-trout have the scales small, about 180, and there is always a
-bright dash of orange-red on each side concealed beneath the branches of
-the lower jaw. Along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada there are
-also forms of trout with the general appearance of rainbow-trout and
-evidently belonging to that species, but with scales intermediate in
-number (in McCloud River), var. _shasta_, or with scales as small as in
-the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var. _gilberti_. In these
-small-scaled forms more or less red appears below the lower jaw, and
-they are doubtless what they appear to be, really intermediate between
-_clarkii_ and _irideus_, although certainly nearest the latter. A
-similar series of forms occurs in the Columbia basin, the upper Snake
-being inhabited by _clarkii_ and the lower Snake by _clarkii_ and
-_rivularis_, together with a medley of forms apparently intermediate.
-
-It seems probable that the American trout originated in Asia, extended
-its range to southeast Alaska, thence southward to the Fraser and
-Columbia, thence to the Yellowstone and the Missouri _via_ Two-Ocean
-Pass; from the Snake River to the Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from
-the Missouri southward to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the
-Platte to the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and then from Oregon
-southward coastwise and along the Sierras to northern Mexico, thence
-northward and coastwise, the sea-running forms passing from stream to
-stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 61.—Rainbow Trout (male), _Salmo irideus shasta_ Jordan.
-    (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-Of the American species the rainbow trout of California (_Salmo
-irideus_) most nearly approaches the European _Salmo fario_. It has the
-scales comparatively large, although rather smaller than in _Salmo
-fario_, the usual number in a longitudinal series being about 135. The
-mouth is smaller than in other American trout; the maxillary, except in
-old males, rarely extending beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well
-forked, becoming in very old fishes more nearly truncate. The head is
-relatively large, about four times in the total length. The size of the
-head forms the best distinctive character. The color, as in all the
-other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in the males, with a red
-lateral band, and reddish and dusky blotches. The head, back, and upper
-fins are sprinkled with round black spots, which are very variable in
-number, those on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens
-taken in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar
-conditions, is bright silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This species is
-especially characteristic of the waters of California. It abounds in
-every clear brook, from the Mexican line northward to Mount Shasta, or
-beyond, the species passing in the Columbia region by degrees into the
-species or form known as _Salmo masoni_, the Oregon rainbow trout, a
-small rainbow trout common in the forest streams of Oregon, with smaller
-mouth and fewer spots on the dorsal. No true rainbow trout have been
-anywhere obtained to the eastward of the Cascade Range or of the Sierra
-Nevada, except as artificially planted in the Truckee River. The species
-varies much in size; specimens from northern California often reach a
-weight of six pounds, while in the streams above Tia Juana in Lower
-California the southernmost locality from which I have obtained trout,
-they seldom exceed a length of six inches. Although not usually an
-anadromous species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in the
-rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens being often
-taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been made to introduce it in
-Eastern streams, but it appears to seek the sea when it is lost. It is
-apparently more hardy and less greedy than the American charr, or
-brook-trout (_Salvelinus fontinalis_). On the other hand, it is
-distinctly inferior to the latter in beauty and in gaminess.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 62.—Rainbow Trout (female), _Salmo irideus shasta_ Jordan.
-    (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-Three varieties of some importance have been indicated, _Salmo irideus
-stonei_, the Nissui trout of the Klamath, with spots on the posterior
-parts only, _Salmo irideus shasta_ of the upper Sacramento, and the
-small-scaled _Salmo irideus gilberti_ of the Kings and Kern rivers. In
-the head-waters of the Kern, in a stream called Volcano Creek or Whitney
-Creek, the waterfall sometimes called Agua-Bonita shuts off the
-movements of the trout. Above this fall is a dwarf form with bright
-golden fins, and the scales scarcely imbricated. This is the "golden
-trout of Mount Whitney," _Salmo irideus agua-bonita_. It will possibly
-be found to change back to the original type if propagated in different
-waters.
-
-In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement, sprightliness
-when in the water, reckless dash with which it springs from the water to
-meet the descending fly ere it strikes the surface, and the mad and
-repeated leaps from the water when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever
-hold a very high rank. "The gamest fish we have ever seen," writes Dr.
-Evermann, "was a 16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch
-tributary of Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a broad and
-deep pool of exceedingly clear water. As the angler from behind a clump
-of willows made the cast the trout bounded from the water and met the
-fly in the air a foot or more above the surface; missing it, he dropped
-upon the water, only to turn about and strike viciously a second time at
-the fly just as it touched the surface; though he again missed the fly,
-the hook caught him in the lower jaw from the outside, and then began a
-fight which would delight the heart of any angler. His first effort was
-to reach the bottom of the pool, then, doubling upon the line, he made
-three jumps from the water in quick succession, clearing the surface in
-each instance from one to four feet, and every time doing his utmost to
-free himself from the hook by shaking his head as vigorously as a dog
-shakes a rat. Then he would rush wildly about in the large pool, now
-attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool, now trying the
-opposite direction, and often striving to hide under one or the other of
-the banks. It was easy to handle the fish when the dash was made up or
-down stream or for the opposite side, but when he turned about and made
-a rush for the protection of the overhanging bank upon which the angler
-stood it was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these
-were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But finally he
-was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever made."
-
-"The rainbow takes the fly so readily that there is no reason for
-resorting to grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is a fish
-whose gaminess will satisfy the most exacting of expert anglers and
-whose readiness to take any proper line will please the most impatient
-of inexperienced amateurs."
-
-The steelhead (_Salmo rivularis_) is a large trout, reaching twelve to
-twenty pounds in weight, found abundantly in river estuaries and
-sometimes in lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa Barbara. The spent fish
-abound in the rivers in spring at the time of the salmon-run. The
-species is rarely canned, but is valued for shipment in cold storage.
-Its bones are much more firm than those of the salmon—a trait
-unfavorable for canning purposes. The flesh when not spent after
-spawning is excellent. The steelhead does not die after spawning, as all
-the Pacific salmon do.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 63.—Steelhead Trout, _Salmo rivularis_ Ayres. Columbia River.
-]
-
-It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched in the brooks
-from eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain streams from six to
-thirty-six months, going down to the sea with the high waters of spring,
-after which they return to spawn as typical steelhead trout. I now
-regard this view as unfounded. In my experience the rainbow and the
-steelhead are always distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the
-rainbow trout is unknown; the scales in the steelhead are always smaller
-(about 155) than in typical rainbow trout; finally, the small size of
-the head in the steelhead is always distinctive.
-
-The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper Columbia,
-seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the rivers away from
-the sea. Derived from the steelhead, but apparently quite distinct from
-it, are three very noble trout, all confined so far as yet known to Lake
-Crescent in northwestern Washington. These are the crescent trout,
-_Salmo crescentis_, the Beardslee trout, _Salmo beardsleei_, and the
-long-headed trout, _Salmo bathæcetor_. The first two, discovered by
-Admiral L. A. Beardslee, are trout of peculiar attractiveness and
-excellence. The third is a deep-water form, never rising to the surface,
-and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still uncertain, and it may
-be derived from some type other than the steelhead.
-
-=Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.=—This species has much smaller scales
-than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual number in a longitudinal
-series being 160 to 170. Its head is longer (about four times in length
-to base of caudal). Its mouth is proportionately larger, and there is
-always a narrow band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the
-tongue. These teeth are always wanting in _Salmo irideus_ and
-_rivularis_ in which species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The
-color in _Salmo clarkii_ is, as in other species, exceedingly variable.
-In life there is always a deep-red blotch on the throat, between the
-branches of the lower jaw and the membrane connecting them. This is not
-found in other species, or is reduced to a narrow strip or pinkish
-shade. It seems to be constant in all varieties of _Salmo clarkii_, at
-all ages, thus furnishing a good distinctive character. It is the sign
-manual of the Sioux Indians, and the anglers have already accepted from
-this mark the name of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some
-species is found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of
-Utah, in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on both sides of
-the Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout Oregon, Washington,
-Idaho, British Columbia, the coastwise islands of southeastern Alaska
-(Baranof, etc.), to Kadiak and Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake
-suitable for trout-life being without it. In California the species
-seems to be comparatively rare, and its range rarely extending south of
-Cape Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads
-are sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Washington and
-Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget Sound it is a
-common fish. These sea-run individuals are more silvery and less spotted
-than those found in the mountain streams and lakes. The size of _Salmo
-clarkii_ is subject to much variation. Ordinarily four to six pounds is
-a large size; but in certain favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the
-fjords of southeastern Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds
-are occasionally taken.
-
-Those species or individuals dwelling in lakes of considerable size,
-where the water is of such temperature and depth as insures an ample
-food-supply, will reach a large size, while those in a restricted
-environment, where both the water and food are limited, will be small
-directly in proportion to these environing restrictions. The trout of
-the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach a weight of at least 17 pounds,
-while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature trout do not exceed 8 to 9¼ inches in
-total length or one-fourth pound in weight. In small creeks in the
-Sawtooth Mountains and elsewhere they reach maturity at a length of 5 or
-6 inches, and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with the impression
-that they are a species different from the larger ones found in the
-lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations between these
-extreme forms may be found in the intervening and connecting waters, the
-differences are not even of sub-specific significance.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 64.—Head of adult Trout-worm, _Dibothrium cordiceps_ Leidy, a
-    parasite of _Salmo clarkii_. From intestine of white pelican,
-    Yellowstone Lake. (After Linton.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 65.—Median segments of _Dibothrium cordiceps_.
-]
-
-Dr. Evermann observes: "The various forms of cutthroat-trout vary
-greatly in game qualities; even the same subspecies in different waters,
-in different parts of its habitat, or at different seasons, will vary
-greatly in this regard. In general, however, it is perhaps a fair
-statement to say that the cutthroat-trout are regarded by anglers as
-being inferior in gaminess to the Eastern brook-trout. But while this is
-true, it must not by any means be inferred that it is without game
-qualities, for it is really a fish which possesses those qualities in a
-very high degree. Its vigor and voraciousness are determined largely, of
-course, by the character of the stream or lake in which it lives. The
-individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades and seething
-rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a fight which is
-rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in warmer and larger streams
-and lakes they may be very sluggish and show but little fight. Yet this
-is by no means always true. In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow
-very large and where they are often very logy, one is occasionally
-hooked which tries to the utmost the skill of the angler to prevent his
-tackle from being smashed and at the same time save the fish."
-
-Of the various forms derived from _Salmo clarkii_ some mere varieties,
-some distinct species, the following are among the most marked:
-
-_Salmo henshawi_, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries and
-outlet, Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt and the Carson
-and throughout the basin of the former glacial lake called Lake
-Lahontan. This is a distinct species from _Salmo clarkii_ and must be
-regarded as the finest of all the cutthroat-trout. It is readily known
-by its spotted belly, the black spots being evenly scattered over the
-whole surface of the body, above and below. This is an excellent
-game-fish, and from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake it is brought in large
-numbers to the markets of San Francisco. In the depths of Lake Tahoe,
-which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra Nevada, occurs a very
-large variety which spawns in the lake, _Salmo henshawi tahoensis_. This
-reaches a weight of twenty-eight pounds.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 66.—Tahoe Trout, _Salmo henshawi_ Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe,
-    California.
-]
-
-In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close to the
-ordinary cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is derived. This is
-known as _Salmo clarkii virginalis_. In Utah Lake it reaches a large
-size.
-
-In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found a small
-trout with peculiar markings called _Salmo clarkii bouvieri_.
-
-In the head-waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is the small
-green-back trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch and large black
-spots. This is _Salmo clarkii stomias_, and it is especially fine in St.
-Vrain's River and the streams of Estes Park. In Twin Lakes, a pair of
-glacial lakes tributary of the Arkansas near Leadville, is found _Salmo
-clarkii macdonaldi_, the yellow-finned trout, a large and very handsome
-species living in deep water, and with the fins golden yellow. This
-approaches the Colorado trout, _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, and it may
-be derived from the latter, although it occurs in the same waters as the
-very different green-back trout, or _Salmo clarkii stomias_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 67.—Green-back Trout, _Salmo stomias_ Cope. Arkansas River,
-    Leadville, Colo.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 68.—Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, _Salmo macdonaldi_ Jordan &
-    Evermann. Twin Lakes, Colo.
-]
-
-Two fine trout derived from _Salmo clarkii_ have been lately discovered
-by Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a mountain lake near Lake
-Crescent, but not connected with it, the two separated from the sea by
-high waterfalls. These have been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as _Salmo
-jordani_, the "spotted trout" of Lake Southerland, and _Salmo
-declivifrons_, the "salmon-trout." These seem to be distinct forms or
-subspecies produced through isolation.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 69.—Rio Grande Trout, _Salmo clarkii spilurus_ Cope. Del Norte,
-    Colo.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 70.—Colorado River Trout, _Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_ Cope.
-    Trapper's Lake, Colo.
-]
-
-The Rio Grande trout (_Salmo clarkii spilurus_) is a large and profusely
-spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio Grande, the mountain
-streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and as far south as the northern
-part of Chihuahua. Its scales are still smaller than those of the
-ordinary cutthroat-trout, and the black spots are chiefly confined to
-the tail. Closely related to it is the trout of the Colorado Basin,
-_Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, a large and handsome trout with very small
-scales, much sought by anglers in western Colorado, and abounding in all
-suitable streams throughout the Colorado Basin.
-
-=Hucho, the Huchen.=—The genus _Hucho_ has been framed for the Huchen or
-Rothfisch (_Hucho hucho_) of the Danube, a very large trout, differing
-from the genus _Salmo_ in having no teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and
-from the _Salvelini_ at least in form and coloration. The huchen is a
-long and slender, somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and
-strong teeth. The color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It
-reaches a size little inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to
-be an excellent food-fish. In northern Japan is a similar species,
-_Hucho blackistoni_, locally known as Ito, a large and handsome trout
-with very slender body, reaching a length of 2½ feet. It is well worthy
-of introduction into American and European waters.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 71.—Ito, _Hucho blackistoni_ (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan.
-]
-
-=Salvelinus, the Charr.=—The genus _Salvelinus_ comprises the finest of
-the _Salmonidæ_, from the point of view of the angler or the artist. In
-England the species are known as charr or char, in contradistinction to
-the black-spotted species of _Salmo_, which are called trout. The former
-name has unfortunately been lost in America, where the name "trout" is
-given indiscriminately to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous
-other fishes (_Micropterus_, _Hexagrammos_, _Cynoscion_, _Agonostomus_)
-wholly unlike the _Salmonidæ_ in all respects. It is sometimes said that
-"the American brook-trout is no trout, nothing but a charr," almost as
-though "charr" were a word of reproach. Nothing higher, however, can be
-said of a salmonoid than that it is a "charr." The technical character
-of the genus _Salvelinus_ lies in the form of its vomer. This is deeper
-than in _Salmo_; and when the flesh is removed the bone is found to be
-somewhat boat-shaped above, and with the shaft depressed and out of the
-line of the head of the vomer. Only the head or chevron is armed with
-teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin.
-
-In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout. The body in
-all is covered with round spots which are paler than the ground color,
-and crimson or gray. The lower fins are usually edged with bright
-colors. The sexual differences are not great. The scales, in general,
-are smaller than in other _Salmonidæ_, and they are imbedded in the skin
-to such a degree as to escape the notice of casual observers and even of
-most anglers.
-
-               "One trout scale in the scales I'd lay
-               (If trout had scales), and 'twill outweigh
-               The wrong side of the balances."—LOWELL.
-
-The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest of
-mountain streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature. They are not
-migratory, or only to a limited extent. In northern regions they descend
-to the sea, where they grow much more rapidly and assume a nearly
-uniform silvery-gray color. The different species are found in all
-suitable waters throughout the northern parts of both continents, except
-in the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin, where only the black-spotted
-trout occur. The number of species of charr is very uncertain, as, both
-in America and Europe, trivial variations and individual peculiarities
-have been raised to the rank of species. More types, however, seem to be
-represented in America than in Europe.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 72.—Rangeley Trout, _Salvelinus oquassa_ (Girard). Lake Oquassa,
-    Maine.
-]
-
-The only really well-authenticated species of charr in European waters
-is the red charr, sälbling, or ombre chevalier (_Salvelinus alpinus_).
-This species is found in cold, clear streams in Switzerland, Germany,
-and throughout Scandinavia and the British Islands. Compared with the
-American charr or brook-trout, it is a slenderer fish, with smaller
-mouth, longer fins, and smaller red spots, which are confined to the
-sides of the body. It is a "gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of
-taking the bait and feeding largely at night-time. It appears to require
-very pure and mostly deep water for its residence." It is less tenacious
-of life than the trout. It reaches a weight of from one to five pounds,
-probably rarely exceeding the latter in size. The various charr
-described from Siberia are far too little known to be enumerated here.
-
-Of the American charr the one most resembling the European species is
-the Rangeley Lake trout (_Salvelinus oquassa_). The exquisite little
-fish is known in the United States only from the Rangeley chain of lakes
-in western Maine. This is very close to the Greenland charr, _Salvelinus
-stagnalis_, a beautiful species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is
-much slenderer than the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and
-smaller mouth. In life it is dark blue above, and the deep-red spots are
-confined to the sides of the body. The species rarely exceeds the length
-of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes, but in some other waters it reaches a
-much larger size. So far as is known it keeps itself in the depths of
-the lake until its spawning season approaches, in October, when it
-ascends the stream to spawn.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 73.—Sunapee Trout, _Salvelinus aureolus_ Bean. Sunapee Lake, N.
-    H.
-]
-
-Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout, _Salvelinus
-aureolus_, a beautiful charr almost identical with the European species,
-found in numerous ponds and lakes of eastern New Hampshire and
-neighboring parts of Maine. Mr. Garman regards this trout as the
-offspring of an importation of the ombre chevalier and not as a native
-species, and in this view he may be correct. _Salvelinus alipes_ of the
-far north may be the same species. Another remarkable form is the Lac de
-Marbre trout of Canada, _Salvelinus marstoni_ of Garman.
-
-In Arctic regions another species, called _Salvelinus naresi_, is very
-close to _Salvelinus oquassa_ and may be the same.
-
-Another beautiful little charr, allied to _Salvelinus stagnalis_, is the
-Floeberg charr (_Salvelinus arcturus_). This species has been brought
-from Victoria Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the extreme northern part of
-Arctic America, the northernmost point whence any salmonoid has been
-obtained.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 74.—Speckled Trout (male), _Salvelinus fontinalis_ (Mitchill).
-    New York.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 75.—Brook Trout, _Salvelinus fontinalis_ (Mitchill), natural
-    size. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-The American charr, or, as it is usually called, the brook-trout
-(_Salvelinus fontinalis_), although one of the most beautiful of fishes,
-is perhaps the least graceful of all the genuine charrs. It is
-technically distinguished by the somewhat heavy head and large mouth,
-the maxillary bone reaching more or less beyond the eye. There are no
-teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least of such teeth being found in
-nearly all other species. Its color is somewhat different from that of
-the others, the red spots being large and the black more or less mottled
-and barred with darker olive. The dorsal and caudal fins are likewise
-barred or mottled, while in the other species they are generally uniform
-in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of the
-Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams of the
-Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the Chattahoochee River
-in northern Georgia northward at least to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the
-northern limits of its range being as yet not well ascertained. It
-varies greatly in size, according to its surroundings, those found in
-lakes being larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found
-farthest south, in the head-waters of the Chattahoochee, Savannah,
-Catawba, and French Broad, rarely pass the dimensions of fingerlings.
-The largest specimens are recorded from the sea along the Canadian
-coast. These frequently reach a weight of ten pounds; and from their
-marine and migratory habits, they have been regarded as forming a
-distinct variety (_Salvelinus fontinalis immaculatus_), but this form is
-merely a sea-run brook-trout. The largest fresh-water specimens rarely
-exceed seven pounds in weight. Some unusually large brook-trout have
-been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the largest known to me having a
-reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook-trout is the favorite
-game-fish of American waters, preëminent in wariness, in beauty, and in
-delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all clear and cold waters within its
-range, the large lakes and the smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks and
-the largest rivers; and when it can do so without soiling its
-aristocratic gills on the way, it descends to the sea and grows large
-and fat on the animals of the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary
-fish, and it often requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught,
-too, with artificial or natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms,
-grasshoppers, grubs, the spawn of other fish, or even the eyes or cut
-pieces of other trout. It spawns in the fall, from September to late in
-November. It begins to reproduce at the age of two years, then having a
-length of about six inches. In spring-time the trout delight in rapids
-and swiftly running water; and in the hot months of midsummer they
-resort to deep, cool, and shaded pools. Later, at the approach of the
-spawning season, they gather around the mouths of cool, gravelly brooks,
-whither they resort to make their beds.[10]
-
-Footnote 10:
-
-  Hallock.
-
-The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through the agency
-of the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In the words of an excellent
-angler, the late Myron W. Reed of Denver: "This is the last generation
-of trout-fishers. The children will not be able to find any. Already
-there are well-trodden paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and
-in Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the side of
-which you will find no paper collar or other evidence of civilization.
-It is the Nameless River. Not that trout will cease to be. They will be
-hatched by machinery and raised in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver,
-and grow flabby and lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will
-not cease to be. He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the
-fat and songless reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding and easy
-pond-life enervate and deprave him. The trout that the children will
-know only by legend is the gold-sprinkled, living arrow of the white
-water; able to zigzag up the cataract; able to loiter in the rapids;
-whose dainty meat is the glancing butterfly."
-
-The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in artificial
-ponds. It has been successfully transported to Europe, and it is already
-abundant in certain streams in England, in California, and elsewhere.
-
-In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without red spots,
-called _Salvelinus agassizi_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 76.—Malma Trout, or "Dolly Varden," _Salvelinus malma_ (Walbaum).
-    Cook Inlet, Alaska.
-]
-
-The "Dolly Varden" trout, or malma (_Salvelinus malma_), is very similar
-to the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form, color, and
-habits. It is found always to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, in
-the streams of northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British
-Columbia, Alaska, and Kamchatka, as far as the Kurile Islands. It
-abounds in the sea in the northward, and specimens of ten to twelve
-pounds weight are not uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska.
-The Dolly Varden trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed
-than the Eastern brook-trout. The red spots are found on the back of the
-fish as well as on the sides, and the back and upper fins are without
-the blackish marblings and blotches seen in _Salvelinus fontinalis_. In
-value as food, in beauty, and in gaminess _Salvelinus malma_ is very
-similar to its Eastern cousin.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 77.—The Dolly Varden Trout, _Salvelinus malma_ (Walbaum). Lake
-    Pend d'Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.)
-]
-
-In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout, is very
-destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless numbers are taken
-in the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away as useless by the canners.
-In every coastwise stream of Alaska the water fairly "boils" with these
-trout. They are, however, not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan
-occurs _Salvelinus pluvius_, the iwana, a species very similar to the
-Dolly Varden, but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile
-region and Kamchatka is another large charr, _Salvelinus kundscha_, with
-the spots large and cream-color instead of crimson.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 78.—Great Lake Trout, _Cristivomer namaycush_ (Walbaum). Lake
-    Michigan.
-]
-
-=Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.=—Allied to the true charrs, but now
-placed by us in a different genus, _Cristivomer_, is the Great Lake
-trout, otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe, or togue (_Cristivomer
-namaycush_). Technically this fish differs from the true charrs in
-having on its vomer a raised crest behind the chevron and free from the
-shaft. This crest is armed with strong teeth. There are also large
-hooked teeth on the hyoid bone, and the teeth generally are
-proportionately stronger than in most of the other species. The Great
-Lake trout is grayish in color, light or dark according to its
-surroundings; and the body is covered with round paler spots, which are
-gray instead of red. The dorsal and caudal fins are marked with darker
-reticulations, somewhat as in the brook-trout. This noble species is
-found in all the larger lakes from New England and New York to
-Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes tributary
-to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples from Lake Bennett, Lake
-Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass), and have seen specimens from Lake La
-Hache in British Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than any
-_Salvelinus_, specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being
-not uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to eighty
-pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be regarded as
-somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish. Compared with
-other salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a sluggish, heavy, and
-ravenous fish. It has been known to eat raw potato, liver, and
-corn-cobs,—refuse thrown from passing steamers. According to Herbert, "a
-coarse, heavy, stiff rod, and a powerful oiled hempen or flaxen line, on
-a winch, with a heavy sinker; a cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh,
-fish, or fowl,—is the most successful, if not the most orthodox or
-scientific, mode of capturing him. His great size and immense strength
-alone give him value as a fish of game; but when hooked he pulls
-strongly and fights hard, though he is a boring, deep fighter, and
-seldom if ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon or
-brook-trout."
-
-In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake trout
-known as the Siscowet (_Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz_), remarkable
-for its extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of this difference
-lies probably in some peculiarity of food as yet unascertained.
-
-=The Ayu, or Sweetfish.=—The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan, _Plecoglossus
-altivelis_, resembles a small trout in form, habits, and scaling. Its
-teeth are, however, totally different, being arranged on serrated plates
-on the sides of the jaws, and the tongue marked with similar folds. The
-ayu abounds in all clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from
-the sea like a salmon. It reaches the length of about a foot. The flesh
-is very fine and delicate, scarcely surpassed by that of any other fish
-whatsoever. It should be introduced into clear short streams throughout
-the temperate zones.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 79.—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, _Plecoglossus altivelis_ Schlegel.
-    Tamagawa, Tokyo, Japan.
-]
-
-In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams the ayu is
-fished for on a large scale by means of tamed cormorants. This is
-usually done from boats in the night by the light of torches.
-
-=Cormorant-fishing.=—The following account of cormorant-fishing is
-taken, by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whitney, from an article
-contributed by the writer to _Outing_, April, 1902:
-
-Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer. It rises
-somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward of Musashi,
-among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees, and it flows
-across the plains bordered by rice-fields and mulberry orchards to the
-misty bay of Tokyo. It is, therefore, a river of Japan, and along its
-shores are quaint old temples, each guarding its section of primitive
-forest, picturesque bridges, huddling villages, and torii, or gates
-through which the gods may pass.
-
-The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but it runs on a
-wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the snow melts in the
-mountains. And this broad flood-bed is filled with gravel, with
-straggling willows, showy day-lilies, orange amaryllis, and the little
-sky-blue spider-flower, which the Japanese call chocho, or
-butterfly-weed.
-
-In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the white ripples,
-dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little sculpins and gobies
-lurking under the stones. Trout dart through its upper waters, and at
-times salmon run up from the sea.
-
-But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort of dwarf
-salmon, running in the spring and spawning in the rivers just as a
-salmon does. But it is smaller than any salmon, not larger than a smelt,
-and its flesh is white and tender, and so very delicate in its taste and
-odor that one who tastes it crisply fried or broiled feels that he has
-never tasted real fish before. In all its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a
-dwarf of its kind, one which our ancestors in England would have called
-a "samlet." Its scientific name is _Plecoglossus altivelis_.
-_Plecoglossus_ means plaited tongue, and _altivelis_, having a high
-sail; for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious way,
-and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poetically
-inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the ayu are
-very peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged folds or plaits
-along the sides of the jaws, quite different from those of any other
-fish whatsoever.
-
-In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches long. It is
-like a trout in build, and its scales are just as small. It is light
-yellowish or olive in color, growing silvery below. Behind its gills is
-a bar of bright shining yellow, and its adipose fin is edged with
-scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the dorsal fin shaded with black,
-while the anal fin is dashed with pale red.
-
-So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go afishing. It
-is easy enough to find the place, for it is not more than ten miles out
-of Tokyo, on a fine old farm just by the ancient Temple of Tachikawa,
-with its famous inscribed stone, given by the emperor of China.
-
-At the farmhouse, commodious and hospitable, likewise clean and charming
-after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy who brings our
-fishing-tackle.
-
-They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which we are to
-do our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with a white spot behind
-its eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing in the water, with which
-it says _y-eugh_ whenever a stranger makes a friendly overture. The
-cormorants answer to the name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like
-the only word the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box
-together and we set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa.
-Arrived at the stream, the boy takes the three cormorants out of the box
-and adjusts their fishing-harness. This consists of a tight ring about
-the bottom of the neck, of a loop under each wing, and a directing line.
-
-Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the stream, driving the
-little fishes—ayu, zakko, haë, and all the rest—before it. The boy with
-the cormorants goes in advance. The three birds are eager as pointer
-dogs, and apparently full of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left
-they plunge with lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish.
-When the bird's neck is full of fishes down to the level of the
-shoulders, the boy draws him in, grabs him by the leg, and shakes him
-unceremoniously over a basket until all the fishes have flopped out.
-
-The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager eyes and much
-repeating of _y-eugh_, the only word they know. The ayu are not for
-them, and some of the kajikas and hazés were prizes of science. But
-zakko (the dace) and haë (the minnow) were made for the cormorant. The
-boy picks out the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then
-another. Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one gulp, for
-the ring is off his neck by this time, and then says _y-eugh_, which
-means that he likes the fun, and when we are ready will be glad to try
-again. And no doubt they have tried it many times since, for there are
-plenty of fishes in the Jewel River, zakko and haë as well as ayu.
-
-=Fossil Salmonidæ.=—Fossil salmonidæ are rare and known chiefly from
-detached scales, the bones in this family being very brittle and easily
-destroyed. Nothing is added to our knowledge of the origin of these
-fishes from such fossils.
-
-A large fossil trout or salmon, called _Rhabdofario lacustris_, has been
-brought from the Pliocene at Catherine's Creek, Idaho. It is known from
-the skull only. _Thaumaturus luxatus_, from the Miocene of Bohemia,
-shows the print of the adipose fin. As already stated (p. 62), fragments
-of the hooked jaws of salmon, from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in
-the museum of the University of California.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER VI
-                       THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT
-
-
-=THE Grayling, or Thymallidæ.=—The small family of _Thymallidæ_, or
-grayling, is composed of finely organized fishes allied to the trout,
-but differing in having the frontal bones meeting on the middle line of
-the skull, thus excluding the frontals from contact with the
-supraoccipital. The anterior half of the very high dorsal is made up of
-unbranched simple rays. There is but one genus, _Thymallus_, comprising
-very noble game-fishes characteristic of subarctic streams.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 80.—Alaska Grayling, _Thymallus signifer_ Richardson. Nulato,
-    Alaska.
-]
-
-The grayling, _Thymallus_, of Europe, is termed by Saint Ambrose "the
-flower of fishes." The teeth on the tongue, found in all the trout and
-salmon, are obsolete in the grayling. The chief distinctive peculiarity
-of the genus _Thymallus_ is the great development of the dorsal fin,
-which has more rays (20 to 24) than are found in any of the _Salmonidæ_,
-and the fin is also higher. All the species are gaily colored, the
-dorsal fin especially being marked with purplish or greenish bands and
-bright rose-colored spots; while the body is mostly purplish gray, often
-with spots of black. Most of the species rarely exceed a foot in length,
-but northward they grow larger. Grayling weighing five pounds have been
-taken in England; and according to Dr. Day they are said in Lapland to
-reach a weight of eight or nine pounds. The grayling in all countries
-frequent clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter the sea, or even
-the larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the streams, and
-prefer those which have a succession of pools and shallows, with a sandy
-or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The grayling spawns on the
-shallows in April or May (in England). It is non-migratory in its
-habits, depositing its ova in the neighborhood of its usual haunts. The
-ova are far more delicate and easily killed than those of the trout or
-charr. The grayling and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not
-altogether in harmony. It is said that the grayling devours the eggs of
-the trout. It is certain that the trout feed on the young grayling. As a
-food-fish, the grayling of course ranks high; and it is beloved by the
-sportsman. They are considered gamy fishes, although less strong than
-the brook-trout, and perhaps less wary. The five or six known species of
-grayling are very closely related, and are doubtless comparatively
-recent offshoots from a common stock, which has now spread itself widely
-through the northern regions.
-
-The common grayling of Europe (_Thymallus thymallus_) is found
-throughout northern Europe, and as far south as the mountains of Hungary
-and northern Italy. The name _Thymallus_ was given by the ancients,
-because the fish, when fresh, was said to have the odor of water-thyme.
-Grayling belonging to this or other species are found in the waters of
-Russia and Siberia.
-
-The American grayling (_Thymallus signifer_) is widely distributed in
-British America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is very abundant, rising
-readily to the fly. In several streams in northern Michigan, Au Sable
-River, and Jordan River in the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near
-Keweenaw in the northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species
-with shorter and lower dorsal fins, known to anglers as the Michigan
-grayling (_Thymallus tricolor_). This form has a longer head, rather
-smaller scales, and the dorsal fin rather lower than in the northern
-form (_signifer_); but the constancy of these characters in specimens
-from intermediate localities is yet to be proved. Another very similar
-form, called _Thymallus montanus_, occurs in the Gallatin, Madison, and
-other rivers of Western Montana tributary to the Missouri. It is locally
-still abundant and one of the finest of game-fishes. It is probable that
-the grayling once had a wider range to the southward than now, and that
-so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is tending
-toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being accelerated in
-Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The colonies of grayling in Michigan
-and Montana are probably remains of a post-glacial fauna.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 81.—Michigan Grayling, _Thymallus tricolor_ Cope. Au Sable River,
-    Mich.
-]
-
-=The Argentinidæ.=—The family of _Argentinidæ_, or smelt, is very
-closely related to the _Salmonidæ_, representing a dwarf series of
-similar type. The chief essential difference lies in the form of the
-stomach, which is a blind sac, the two openings near together, and about
-the second or pyloric opening there are few if any pyloric cæca. In all
-the _Salmonidæ_ the stomach has the form of a siphon, and about the
-pylorus there are very many pyloric cæca. The smelt have the adipose fin
-and the general structure of the salmon. All the species are small in
-size, and most of them are strictly marine, though some of them ascend
-the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do, but not going very far. A few
-kinds become landlocked in ponds. Most of the species are confined to
-the north temperate zone, and a few sink into the deep seas. All that
-are sufficiently abundant furnish excellent food, the flesh being
-extremely delicate and often charged with a fragrant oil easy of
-digestion.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 82.—Smelt, _Osmerus mordux_ (Mitchill). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-The best-known genus, _Osmerus_, includes the smelt, or spirling
-(éperlan), of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food-fishes,
-although quickly spoiling in warm weather. _Osmerus eperlanus_ is the
-European species; _Osmerus mordax_ of our eastern coast is very much
-like it, as is also the rainbow-smelt, _Osmerus dentex_ of Japan and
-Alaska. A larger smelt, _Osmerus albatrossis_, occurs on the coast of
-Alaska, and a small and feeble one, _Osmerus thaleichthys_, mixed with
-other small or delicate fishes, is the whitebait of the San Francisco
-restaurants. The whitebait of the London epicure is made up of the young
-of herrings and sprats of different species. The still more delicate
-whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish, _Salanx chinensis_.
-_Retropinna retropinna_, so called from the backward insertion of its
-dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand. All the
-other species belong to northern waters. _Mesopus_, the surf-smelt, has
-a smaller mouth than _Osmerus_ and inhabits the North Pacific. The
-California species, _Mesopus pretiosus_, of Neah Bay has, according to
-James G. Swan, "the belly covered with a coating of yellow fat which
-imparts an oily appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed
-or washed and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish." This species
-spawns in late summer along the surf-line. According to Mr. Swan the
-water seems to be filled with them. "They come in with the flood-tide,
-and when a wave breaks upon the beach they crowd up into the very foam,
-and as the surf recedes many will be seen flapping on the sand and
-shingle, but invariably returning with the undertow to deeper water."
-The Quilliute Indians of Washington believe that "the first surf-smelts
-that appear must not be sold or given away to be taken to another place,
-nor must they be cut transversely, but split open with a mussel-shell."
-
-The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, _Mesopus
-japonicus_, in Japan. _Mesopus olidus_, the pond-smelt of Alaska,
-Kamchatka, and Northern Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 83.—Eulachon, or Ulchen. _Thaleichthys pretiosus_ Girard.
-    Columbia River. Family _Argentinidæ_.
-]
-
-Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite species is
-the famous eulachon, or candle-fish (_Thaleichthys pacificus_). The
-Chinook name, usually written eulachon, is perhaps more accurately
-represented as ulchen. This little fish has the form of a smelt and
-reaches the length of nearly a foot. In the spring it ascends in
-enormous numbers all the rivers north of the Columbia, as far as
-Skaguay, for a short distance for the purpose of spawning. These runs
-take place usually in advance of the salmon-runs. Various predatory
-fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon during its runs, and even
-the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full of the little fishes,
-which they have taken in by their sucker-like mouths. At the time of the
-runs the eulachon are extremely fat, so much so that it is said that
-when dried and a wick drawn through the body they may be used as
-candles. On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their run
-is greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eulachon-oil from
-them. This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute for cod-liver oil in
-medicine. Whatever may be its merits in this regard, it has the
-disadvantage in respect to salability of being semi-solid or lard-like
-at ordinary temperatures, requiring melting to make it flow as oil. The
-eulachon is a favorite pan-fish in British Columbia. The writer has had
-considerable experience with it, broiled and fried, in its native
-region, and has no hesitation in declaring it to be the best-flavored
-food-fish in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy, and richly
-flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does not,
-however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska bury the
-eulachon in the ground in great masses. After the fish are well decayed
-they are taken out and the oil pressed from them. The odor of the fish
-and the oil is then very offensive, less so, however, than that of some
-forms of cheese eaten by civilized people.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 84.—Page of William Clark's handwriting with sketch of the
-    Eulachon (_Thaleichthys pacificus_), the first notice of the
-    species. Columbia River, 1805. (Expedition of Lewis & Clark.)
-    (Reproduced from the original in the possession of his granddaughter
-    Mrs. Julia Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of Messrs. Dodd, Mead
-    & Company, publishers of the "Original Journals of the Lewis and
-    Clark Expedition.")
-]
-
-The capelin (_Mallotus villosus_) closely resembles the eulachon,
-differing mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar scales of
-the males. In the male fish a band of scales above the lateral line and
-along each side of the belly become elongate, closely imbricated, with
-the free points projecting, giving the body a villous appearance. It is
-very abundant on the coasts of Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and
-the Pacific, and is an important source of food for the natives of those
-regions.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 85.—Capelin, _Mallotus villosus_ L. Crosswater Bay.
-]
-
-This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen them in August
-cast on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at Metlakahtla in 1897),
-living and dead, in numbers which seem incredible. The males are then
-distorted, and it seems likely that all of them perish after spawning.
-The young are abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate
-numbers are reported from the shores of Greenland.
-
-The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food-fish, but to
-the natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it is a very important
-article of food. Fossil capelin are found in abundance in recent shales
-in Greenland enveloped in nodules of clay. In the open waters about the
-Aleutian Islands a small smelt, _Therobromus callorhini_, occurs in very
-great abundance and forms the chief part of the summer food of the
-fur-seal. Strangely enough, no complete specimen of this fish has yet
-been seen by man, although thousands of fragments have been taken from
-seals' stomachs. From these fragments Mr. Frederick A. Lucas has
-reconstructed the fish, which must be an ally of the surf-smelt,
-probably spawning in the open ocean of the north.
-
-The silvery species called _Argentina_ live in deeper water and have no
-commercial importance. _Argentina silus_, with prickly scales, occurs in
-the North Sea. Several fossils have been doubtfully referred to
-_Osmerus_.
-
-=The Microstomidæ.=—The small family of _Microstomidæ_ consists of a few
-degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth and but three or four
-branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep seas. _Nansenia grœnlandica_
-was found by Reinhardt off the coast of Greenland, and six or eight
-other species of _Microstoma_ and _Bathylagus_ have been brought in by
-the deep-sea explorations.
-
-=The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.=—Still more feeble and insignificant are
-the species of _Salangidæ_, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait, which may
-be described as _Salmonidæ_ reduced to the lowest terms. The body is
-long and slender, perfectly translucent, almost naked, and with the
-skeleton scarcely ossified. The fins are like those of the salmon, the
-head is depressed, the jaws long and broad, somewhat like the bill of a
-duck, and within there are a few disproportionately strong canine teeth,
-those of the lower jaw somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary canal
-is straight for its whole length, without pyloric cæca. These little
-fishes, two to five inches long, live in the sea in enormous numbers and
-ascend the rivers of eastern Asia for the purpose of spawning. It is
-thought by some that they are annual fishes, all dying in the fall after
-reproduction, the species living through the winter only within its
-eggs. But this is only suspected, not proved, and the species will repay
-the careful study which some of the excellent naturalists of Japan are
-sure before long to give to it. The species of _Salanx_ are known as
-whitebait, in Japan as _Shiro-uwo_, which means exactly the same thing.
-They are also sometimes called icefish (_Hingio_), which, being used for
-no other fish, may be adopted as a group name for _Salanx_.
-
-The species are _Salanx chinensis_ from Canton, _Salanx hyalo cranius_
-from Korea and northern China, _Salanx microdon_ from northern Japan,
-and _Salanx ariakensis_ from the southern island of Kiusiu. The Japanese
-fishes are species still smaller and feebler than their relatives from
-the mainland.
-
-=The Haplochitonidæ.=—The _Haplochitonidæ_ are trout-like fishes of the
-south temperate zone, differing from the _Salmonidæ_ mainly in the
-extension of the premaxillary until, as in the perch-like fishes, it
-forms the outer border of the upper jaw. The adipose fin is present as
-in all the salmon and smelt. _Haplochiton_ of Tierra del Fuego and the
-Falkland Islands is naked, while in _Prototroctes_ of Australia and New
-Zealand the body, as in all salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with
-scales. _Prototroctes maræna_ is the yarra herring of Australia. The
-closely related family of _Galaxiidæ_, also Australian, but lacking the
-adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 86.—Icefish, _Salanx hyalocranius_ Abbott. Family _Salangidæ_.
-    Tientsin, China.
-]
-
-=Stomiatidæ.=—The _Stomiatidæ_, with elongate bodies, have the mouth
-enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of the several species
-_Stomias ferox_ is best known. According to Dr. Boulenger, these fishes
-are true _Isospondyli_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 87.—_Stomias ferox_ Reinhardt. Banquereau.
-]
-
-_Astronesthidæ_ is another small group of small fishes naked and black,
-with long canines, found in the deep sea.
-
-The _Malacosteidæ_ is a related group with extremely distensible mouth,
-the species capable of swallowing fishes much larger than themselves.
-
-The viper-fishes (_Chauliodontidæ_) are very feeble and very voracious
-little fishes occasionally brought up from the depths. _Chauliodus
-sloanei_ is notable for the length of the fangs.
-
-Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely related family
-of _Gonostomidæ_. _Gonostoma_ and _Cyclothone_ dwell in oceanic abysses.
-One species, _Cyclothone elongata_, occurs at the depth of from half a
-mile to nearly four miles almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is
-probably the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and
-most fragile, of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 88.—_Chauliodus sloanei_ Schneider. Grand Banks.
-]
-
-=Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.=—The suborder _Iniomi_ (ἰνίον,
-nape; ὤμος, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in which the
-shoulder-girdle has more or less lost its completeness of structure as
-part of the degradation consequent on life in the abysses of the sea.
-These features distinguish these forms from the true _Isospondyli_, but
-only in a very few of the species have these characters been verified by
-actual examination of the skeleton. The mesocoracoid arch is wanting or
-atrophied in all of the species examined, and the orbitosphenoid is
-lacking, so far as known. The group thus agrees in most technical
-characters with the _Haplomi_, in which group they are placed by Dr.
-Boulenger. On the other hand the relationships to the _Isospondyli_ are
-very close, and the _Iniomi_ have many traits suggesting degenerate
-_Isospondyli_. The post-temporal has lost its usual hold on the skull
-and may touch the occiput on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the
-species are soft in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all
-that live in the deep sea are provided with luminous spots or glands
-giving light in the abysmal depths. These spots are wanting in the few
-shore species, as also in those which approach most nearly to the
-_Salmonidæ_, these being presumably the most primitive of the group. In
-these also the post-temporal touches the back of the cranium near the
-side. In the majority of the _Iniomi_ the adipose fin of the _Salmonidæ_
-is retained. From the phosphorescent spots is derived the general name
-of lantern-fishes applied of late years to many of the species. Most of
-these are of recent discovery, results of the remarkable work in
-deep-sea dredging begun by the _Albatross_ and the _Challenger_. All of
-the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble muscles,
-are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed with veritable daggers
-and spears.
-
-=Aulopidæ.=—Most primitive of the _Iniomi_ is the family of _Aulopidæ_,
-having an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no luminous spots. The
-rough firm scales suggest those of the berycoid fishes. The few species
-of _Aulopus_ and _Chlorophthalmus_ are found in moderate depths.
-_Aulopus purpurissatus_ is the "Sergeant Baker" of the Australian
-fishermen.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 89.—Lizard-fish, _Synodus fætens_ L. Charleston, S. C.
-]
-
-=The Lizard-fishes.=—The _Synodontidæ_, or lizard-fishes, have
-lizard-like heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a character
-rare among the soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxillary is grown fast to
-the premaxillary, and the color is not black. Most of the species are
-shore-fishes and some are brightly colored. _Synodus fætens_ is the
-common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of our Atlantic coast. _Synodus
-varius_ of the Pacific is brightly colored, olive-green and orange-red
-types of coloration existing at different depths. Most of the species
-lie close to the bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A few
-occur in oceanic depths. The "Bombay duck" of the fishermen of India is
-a species of _Harpodon_, _H. nehereus_, with large mouth and
-arrow-shaped teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish.
-
-The _Benthosauridæ_ are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but with
-distinct maxillaries. The _Bathypteroidæ_, of the deep seas, resemble
-_Aulopus_, but have the upper and lower pectoral rays filiform,
-developed as organs of touch in the depths in which the small eyes
-become practically useless.
-
-=Ipnopidæ.=—In the _Ipnopidæ_ the head is depressed above and the two
-eyes are flattened and widened so as to occupy most of its upper
-surface. These structures were at first supposed to be luminous organs,
-but Professor Moseley has shown them to be eyes. "They show a flattened
-cornea extending along the median line of the snout, with a large retina
-composed of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus destined
-undoubtedly to produce an image and to receive especial luminous rays."
-The single species, _Ipnops murrayi_, is black in color and found at the
-depth of 2½ miles in various seas.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 90.—_Ipnops murrayi_ Günther.
-]
-
-The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes destined to live in
-the dark abysses of the ocean seems at first contradictory, but we must
-remember that these singular forms are descendants of immigrants from
-the shore and from the surface. "In some cases the eyes have not been
-specially modified, but in others there have been modifications of a
-luminous mucous membrane leading on the one hand to phosphorescent
-organs more or less specialized, or on the other to such remarkable
-structures as the eyes of _Ipnops_, intermediate between true eyes and
-phosphorescent plates. In fishes which cannot see, and which retain for
-their guidance only the general sensibility of the integuments and the
-lateral line, these parts soon acquire a very great delicacy. The same
-is the case with tactile organs (as in _Bathypterois_ and
-_Benthosaurus_), and experiments show that barbels may become organs of
-touch adapted to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest movements or
-the slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded fishes full
-cognizance of the medium in which they live."
-
-=Rondeletiidæ.=—The _Rondeletiidæ_ are naked black fishes with small
-eyes, without adipose fin and without luminous spots, taken at great
-depths in the Atlantic. The relationship of these fishes is wholly
-uncertain.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 91.—_Cetomimus gillii_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-The _Cetomimidæ_ are near allies of the _Rondeletiidæ_, having the mouth
-excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the right whales,
-which these little fishes curiously resemble.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 92.—Headlight Fish, _Diaphus lucidus_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-=Myctophidæ.=—The large family of _Myctophidæ_, or lantern-fishes, is
-made up of small fishes allied to the _Aulopidæ_, but with the body
-covered with luminous dots, highly specialized and symmetrically
-arranged. Most of them belong to the deep sea, but others come to the
-surface in the night or during storms when the sunlight is absent.
-Through this habit they are often thrown by the waves on the decks of
-small vessels. Largely from Danish merchant-vessels, Dr. Lütken has
-obtained the unrivaled collection of these sea-waifs preserved in the
-Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The species are all small in
-size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger fishes of the
-depths, from which their lantern-like spots and large eyes help them to
-escape. The numerous species are now ranged in about fifteen genera,
-although earlier writers placed them all in a single genus _Myctophum_
-(_Scopelus_).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 93.—Lantern-fish, _Myctophum opalinum_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-In the genus _Diaphus_ (_Æthoprora_) there is a large luminous gland on
-the end of the short snout, like the headlight of an engine. In
-_Dasyscopelus_ the scales are spinescent, but in most of the genera, as
-in _Myctophum_, the scales are cycloid and caducous, falling at the
-touch. In _Diaphus_ the luminous spots are crossed by a septum giving
-them the form of the Greek letter θ (theta). One of the commonest
-species is _Myctophum humboldti_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 94.—Lantern-fish, _Ceratoscopelus madeirensis_ (Lowe). Gulf
-    Stream.
-]
-
-=Chirothricidæ.=—The remarkable extinct family of _Chirothricidæ_ may be
-related to the _Synodontidæ_, or _Myctophidæ_. In this group the teeth
-are feeble, the paired fins much enlarged, and the ventrals are well
-forward. The dorsal fin, inserted well forward, has stout basal bones.
-_Chirothrix libanicus_ of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable
-for its excessively large ventral fins. _Telepholis_ is a related genus.
-_Exocœtoides_ with rounded caudal fin is probably the type of a distinct
-family, _Exocœtoididæ_, the caudal fin being strongly forked in
-_Chirothrix_. The small extinct group of _Rhinellidæ_ is usually placed
-near the _Myctophidæ_. They are distinguished by the very long gar-like
-jaws; whether they possessed adipose fins or luminous spots cannot be
-determined. _Rhinellus furcatus_ and other species occur in the
-Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly
-related to the _Myctophidæ_ are numerous. _Osmeroides monasterii_
-(wrongly called _Sardinioides_), from the German Cretaceous, seems
-allied to _Myctophum_, although, of course, luminous spots leave no
-trace among fossils. _Acrognathus boops_ is remarkable for the large
-size of the eyes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 95.—_Rhinellus furcatus_ Agassiz. Upper Cretaceous of Mt.
-    Lebanon. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-=Maurolicidæ.=—The _Maurolicidæ_ are similar in form and habit, but
-scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly specialized. _Maurolicus
-pennanti_, the "Sleppy Argentine," is occasionally taken on either side
-of the Atlantic. Other genera are _Zalarges_, _Vinciguerria_, and
-_Valenciennellus_.
-
-=The Lancet-fishes.=—The _Plagyodontidæ_ (_Alepisauridæ_) contains the
-lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean depths with
-very high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with knife-like teeth. These
-large fish are occasionally cast up by storms or are driven to the
-shores by the torments of a parasite, _Tetrarhynchus_, found imbedded in
-the flesh.
-
-It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced above
-their level by fishes which they have swallowed. In such cases they are
-destroyed through the reduction of pressure.
-
-Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens are rare.
-The dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very feebly ossified, and
-the ligaments connecting the vertebræ are very loose and extensible, so
-that the body can be considerably stretched. "This loose connection of
-the parts of the body is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is
-merely the consequence of their withdrawal from the pressure of the
-water to which they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When
-within the limits of their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular, and
-fibrous parts of the body will have that solidity which is required for
-the rapid and powerful movements of a predatory fish. That the fishes of
-this genus (_Plagyodus_) belong to the most ferocious of the class is
-proved by their dentition and the contents of their stomach." (Günther.)
-Dr. Günther elsewhere observes: "From the stomach of one example have
-been taken several octopods, crustaceans, ascidians, a young _Brama_,
-twelve young boarfishes (_Capros_), a horse-mackerel, and one young of
-its own species."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 96.—Lancet-fish, _Plagyodus ferox_ (Lowe). New York.
-]
-
-The lancet-fish, _Plagyodus ferox_, is occasionally taken on either side
-of the Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish, called _Plagyodus
-æsculapius_, has been taken at Unalaska, off San Luis Obispo, and in
-Humboldt Bay. It does not seem to differ at all from _Plagyodus ferox_.
-The original type from Unalaska had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes
-(_Eumicrotremus spinosus_). This is the species described from Steller's
-manuscripts by Pallas under the name of _Plagyodus_. Another species,
-_Plagyodus borcalis_, is occasionally taken in the North Pacific.
-
-The _Evermannellidæ_ is a small family of small deep-sea fishes with
-large teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary power of
-swallowing other fishes, scarcely surpassed by _Chiasmodon_ or
-_Saccopharynx_. _Evermannella_ (_Odontostomus_, the latter name
-preoccupied) and _Omosudis_ are the principal genera.
-
-The _Paralepidæ_ are reduced allies of _Plagyodus_, slender, silvery,
-with small fins and fang-like jaws. As in _Plagyodus_, the adipose fin
-is developed and there are small luminous dots. The species are few and
-mostly northern; one of them, _Sudis ringens_, is known only from a
-single specimen taken by the present writer from the stomach of a hake
-(_Merluccius productus_), the hake in turn swallowed whole by an
-albacore in the Santa Barbara Channel. The _Sudis_ had been devoured by
-the hake, the hake by the albacore, and the albacore taken on the hook
-before the feeble _Sudis_ had been digested.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 97.—_Eurypholis sulcidens_ Pictet, restored. Family
-    _Enchodontidæ_. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as
-    _E. boissieri_.)
-]
-
-Perhaps allied to the _Plagyodontidæ_ is also the large family of
-_Enchodontidæ_, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of Syria,
-Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate, the teeth very
-strong, and the dorsal fin short. _Enchodus lewesiensis_ is found in
-Mount Lebanon, _Halec sternbergi_ in the German Cretaceous, and many
-species of _Enchodus_ in Kansas; _Cimolichthys dirus_ in North Dakota.
-
-Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of _Dercetidæ_
-from the Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These are elongate fishes, the
-scales small or wanting, but with two or more series of bony scutes
-along the flanks. In _Dercetis scutatus_ the scutes are large and the
-dorsal fin is very long. Other genera are _Leptotrachelus_ and
-_Pelargorhynchus_. Dr. Boulenger places the _Dercetidæ_ in the order
-_Heteromi_. This is an expression of the fact that their relations are
-still unknown. Probably related to the _Dercetidæ_ is the American
-family of _Stratodontidæ_ with its two genera, _Stradodus_ and _Empo_
-from the Cretaceous (Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. _Empo nepaholica_ is
-one of the best-known species.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 98.—_Eurypholis freyeri_ Heckel. Family _Enchodontidæ_.
-    Cretaceous. (After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 99.—_Argyropelecus olfersi_ Cuvier. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-=The Sternoptychidæ.=—The _Sternoptychidæ_ differ materially from all
-these forms in the short, compressed, deep body and distorted form. The
-teeth are small, the body bright silvery, with luminous spots. The
-species live in the deep seas, rising in dark or stormy weather.
-_Sternoptyx diaphana_ is found in almost all seas, and species of
-_Argyropelecus_ are almost as widely distributed. After the earthquakes
-in 1896, which engulfed the fishing villages of Rikuzen, in northern
-Japan, numerous specimens of this species were found dead, floating on
-the water, by the steamer _Albatross_.
-
-The _Idiacanthidæ_ are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and without
-pectorals, related to the _Iniomi_.
-
-=Order Lyopomi.=—Other deep-sea fishes constitute the order or suborder
-_Lyopomi_ (λυός, loose; πῶμα, opercle). These are elongate fishes having
-no mesocoracoid, and the preopercle rudimentary and connected only with
-the lower jaw, the large subopercle usurping its place. The group, which
-is perhaps to be regarded as a degenerate type of _Isospondyli_,
-contains the single family of _Halosauridæ_, with several species, black
-in color, soft in substance, with small teeth and long tapering tail,
-found in all seas. The principal genera are _Halosaurus_ and
-_Aldrovandia_ (_Halosauropsis_). _Aldrovandia macrochira_ is the
-commonest species on our Atlantic coast.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 100.—_Aldrovandia gracilis_ (Goode & Bean). Guadaloupe Island,
-    West Indies. Family _Halosauridæ_.
-]
-
-Several fossil _Halosauridæ_ are described from the Cretaceous of Europe
-and Syria, referred to the genera _Echidnocephalus_ and _Enchelurus_.
-Boulenger refers the _Lyopomi_ to the suborder _Heteromi_.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VII
-                     THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES
-
-
-=THE Eels.=—We may here break the sequence from the _Isospondyli_ to the
-other soft-rayed fishes, to interpolate a large group of uncertain
-origin, the series or subclass of eels.
-
-The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually regarded as
-constituting a single order, the Apodes (ἄ, without; ποῦς, foot). The
-group as a whole is characterized by the almost universal separation of
-the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by the absence of the mesocoracoid
-arch on the shoulder-girdle, by the presence of more than five pectoral
-actinosts, as in the Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of
-undifferentiated vertebræ, giving the body a snake-like form, by the
-absence in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living
-forms, by the absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures
-indicate a low organization. Some of them are certainly results of
-degeneration, and others are perhaps indications of primitive
-simplicity. Within the limits of the group are seen other features of
-degeneration, notably shown in the progressive loss of the bones of the
-upper jaw and the membrane-bones of the head and the degradation of the
-various fins. The symplectic bone is wanting, the notochord is more or
-less persistent, the vertebral centra always complete constricted
-cylinders, none coalesced. But, notwithstanding great differences in
-these regards, the forms have been usually left in a single order, the
-more degraded forms being regarded as descended from the types which
-approach nearest to the ordinary fishes. From this view Professor Cope
-dissents. He recognizes several orders of eels, claiming that we should
-not unite all these various fishes into a single order on account of the
-eel-like form. If we do so, we should place in another order those with
-the fish-like form. It is probable, though not absolutely certain, that
-the _Apodes_ are related to each other. The loss among them, first, of
-the connection of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of the
-separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct
-maxillary and premaxillary; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must be
-regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation. The
-large number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord, the absence
-of spines, and the large numbers of vertebræ seem to be traits of
-primitive simplicity. Special lines of degeneration are further shown by
-deep-sea forms. What the origin of the _Apodes_ may have been is not
-known with any certainty. They are soft-rayed fishes, with the
-air-bladder connected by a tube with the œsophagus, and with the
-anterior vertebræ not modified. In so far they agree with the
-_Isospondyli_. In some other respects they resemble the lower
-_Ostariophysi_, especially the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes.
-But these resemblances, mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we
-have no links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes with any
-of the other orders. Probably Woodward's suggestion that they may form a
-series parallel with the _Isospondyli_ and independently descended from
-Tertiary Ganoids deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most
-satisfactory arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as
-constituting four distinct orders for which we may use the names
-_Symbranchia_ (including _Ichthyocephali_ and _Holostomi_), _Apodes_
-(including _Enchelycephali_ and _Colocephali_), _Carencheli_, and
-_Lyomeri_.
-
-=Order Symbranchia.=—The _Symbranchia_ are distinguished by the
-development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and premaxillary
-being well developed. The gill-openings are very small, and usually
-confluent below. These fresh-water forms of the tropics, however
-eel-like in form, may have no real affinity with the true eels. In any
-event, they should not be placed in the same order with the latter.
-
-The eels of the suborder _Ichthyocephali_ (ιχθύς, fish; κεφαλή, head)
-have the head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, premaxillary, and
-palatines are well developed, and the shoulder-girdle is joined by a
-post-temporal to the skull. The body is distinctly eel-like, the tail
-being very short and the fins inconspicuous. The number of vertebræ is
-unusually large. The order contains the single family _Monopteridæ_, the
-rice-field eels, one species, _Monopterus albus_, being excessively
-common in pools and ditches from China and southern Japan to India.
-
-The eels of the suborder _Holostomi_ (ὀλός, complete; στόμα, mouth)
-differ from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder-girdle from
-the skull, a step in the direction of the true eels. The _Symbranchidæ_
-are very close to the _Monopteridæ_ in external appearance, small,
-dusky, eel-like inhabitants of sluggish ponds and rivers of tropical
-America and the East Indies. The gill-openings are confluent under the
-throat. _Symbranchus marmoratus_ ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz,
-having much the habit of the rice-field eel of Japan and China. The
-_Amphipnoidæ_, with peculiar respiratory structures, abound in India.
-_Amphipnous cuchia_, according to Günther, has but three gill-arches,
-with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To supplement this
-insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like sac is developed on each
-side of the body behind the head, opening between the hyoid and the
-first branchial arch. The interior of the sac is abundantly provided
-with blood-vessels, the arterial coming from the branchial arch, whilst
-those issuing from it unite to form the aorta. _Amphipnous_ has
-rudimentary scales. The other _Holostomi_ and _Ichthyocephali_ are naked
-and all lack the pectoral fin.
-
-The _Chilobranchidæ_ are small sea-fishes from Australia, with the tail
-longer than the rest of the body, instead of much shorter as in the
-others.
-
-No forms allied to _Symbranchus_ or _Monopterus_ are recorded as
-fossils.
-
-=Order Apodes, or True Eels.=—In this group the shoulder-girdle is free
-from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced in number, through
-coalescence of the parts.
-
-Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups perhaps worthy of
-still higher rank: _Archencheli_, _Enchelycephali_, and _Colocephali_.
-
-=Suborder Archencheli.=—The _Archencheli_, now entirely extinct, are
-apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain traits
-characteristic of the _Isospondyli_. They retain the separate caudal
-fin, with the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor Hay has recently
-found, in an example from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, remains of
-distinct ventral fins. These traits seem to indicate an almost perfect
-transition from the _Isospondyli_ to the _Archencheli_.
-
-One family may be recognized at present, _Urenchelyidæ_.
-
-The earliest known eel, _Urenchelys avus_, occurs in the upper
-Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. It represents the family _Urenchelyidæ_,
-apparently allied to the _Anguillidæ_, but having a separate caudal fin.
-Its teeth are small, conical, blunt, in many series. There are more than
-100 vertebræ, the last expanded in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales
-rudimentary; dorsal arising at the occiput. Branchiostegals slender, not
-curved around the opercle. _Urenchelys anglicus_ is another species,
-found in the chalk of England.
-
-=Suborder Enchelycephali.=—The suborder _Enchelycephali_ (ἔγχελυς, eel;
-κεφαλή, head) contains the typical eels, in which the shoulder-girdle is
-free from the skull, the palatopterygoid arch relatively complete, the
-premaxillaries wanting or rudimentary, the ethmoid and vomer coalesced,
-forming the front of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the
-cranium with a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are
-present, and the cranium lacks the combined degradation and
-specialization shown by the morays (_Colocephali_).
-
-=Family Anguillidæ.=—The most primitive existing family is that of the
-typical eels, _Anguillidæ_, which have rudimentary scales oblong in
-form, and set separately in groups at right angles with one another.
-These fishes are found in the fresh and brackish waters of all parts of
-the world, excepting the Pacific coast of North America and the islands
-of the Pacific. In the upper Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi they
-are also absent unless introduced. The species usually spawn in the sea
-and ascend the rivers to feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in
-fresh water, and none go far into the sea, or where the water is
-entirely salt. The young eels sometimes ascend the brooks near the sea
-in incredible numbers, constituting what is known in England as
-"eel-fairs." They will pass through wet grass to surmount ordinary
-obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and according to Professor
-Baird "in the spring and summer the visitor who enters under the sheet
-of water at the foot of the falls will be astonished at the enormous
-numbers of young eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in
-the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads, as seen
-in the course of the perilous journey referred to, would hardly be
-considered excessive by those who have visited the spot at a suitable
-season of the year." "At other times large eels may be seen on their way
-down-stream, although naturally they are not as conspicuous then as are
-the hosts of the young on their way upstream. Nevertheless it is now a
-well-assured fact that the eels are catadromous, that is, that the old
-descend the watercourses to the salt water to spawn, and the young, at
-least of the female sex, ascend them to enjoy life in the fresh water."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 101.—Common Eel, _Anguilla chrisypa_ Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass.
-]
-
-=Reproduction of the Eel.=—Dr. Gill ("Riverside Natural History," p.
-103) gives the following account of the reproduction of _Anguilla_:
-
-"The generation of the eel was long involved in great mystery, and the
-knowledge thereof is one of the recent acquisitions of scientific
-investigation. So late, indeed, as 1880 it was declared that 'their mode
-of propagation is still unknown.' In want of positive knowledge the rein
-has been given to loose hypothesis and conjecture. It has been variously
-asserted that eels were generated from slime, from dew, and from the
-skins of old eels or of snakes. The statement that they come from
-horse-hairs is familiar to many country boys, and the origin of this
-belief is due simply to the fact that there are certain aquatic worms,
-known under the generic name _Gordius_, which are elongated and
-apparently smooth like the eel, and which may be found in the same
-waters. It was one of the ideas of the Greek to attribute their
-paternity, as of many other doubtful offspring, to the convenient
-Jupiter. The statement that they are viviparous has arisen from two
-causes: one the existence of intestinal worms, and the other from the
-confusion of the eel with an elongated and consequently eel-like but
-otherwise very different form, the _Zoarces viviparus_. The _Zoarces_ is
-indeed, in Germany as well as in the Scandinavian countries, generally
-known as the Aal-mutter, or eel-mother, and thus in its name perpetuates
-the fancy. Even where eels are to be found in extreme abundance, and
-where they are the objects of a special culture, like erroneous opinions
-prevail. Thus, according to Jacoby, about the lagoon of Comacchio there
-is an 'ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the eel is born of
-other fishes; they point to special differences in color and especially
-in the common mullet, _Mugil cephalus_, as the causes of variation in
-color and form among eels. It is a very ancient belief, widely prevalent
-to the present day, that eels pair with water-snakes. In Sardinia the
-fishermen cling to the belief that a certain beetle, the so-called
-water-beetle, _Dytiscus ræselii_, is the progenitor of eels, and they
-therefore call this "mother of eels."' The assignment of such maternity
-to the water-beetle is doubtless due to the detection of the hair-worm,
-or Gordius, in the insect by sharp-sighted but unscientific observers,
-and, inasmuch as the beetle inhabits the same waters as the eel, a very
-illogical deduction has led to connect the two together.
-
-"All such beliefs as have been thus recounted are due to the
-inconspicuous nature of the generative organs in eels found in fresh
-waters and at most seasons—a characteristic which is in strong contrast
-to the development of corresponding parts in fishes generally.
-Nevertheless the ovaries of the eel were discovered, as long ago as
-1707, by Dr. Sancassini of Comacchio, and described by the celebrated
-Valisneri (after whom the plant _Valisneria_ was named) in 1710, again
-by Mondini in 1777, and almost contemporaneously by O. J. Müller of
-Denmark. Later the illustrious Rathke (in 1824, 1838, and 1850) and also
-Hornbaum-Hornschuch published the results of special investigations, and
-figured the eggs. But it was only in 1873 (after several futile
-endeavors by others) that the male organ of the eel was recognized, also
-by an Italian naturalist, Dr. Syrski, in small individuals of the
-species, and a previous idea that the eel was hermaphroditic thereby
-dispelled. The sexual differences are correlated with external ones, and
-generally the males and females, when adult, can be told apart. Jacoby
-testifies that he examined large numbers with a view to solve this
-question. The most important differences relate to (1) size; (2) form of
-the snout; (3) color; (4) dorsal fin; and (5) size of the eyes. (1) The
-males rarely attain a length of more than seventeen to nineteen inches,
-while adult females are generally much larger; (2) the snout in the male
-is attenuated and rather pointed, while in the female it is
-comparatively broad and blunt; (3) the male is of a deep darkish green,
-or often a deep black with a shining luster and a whitish belly, while
-the female has a clearer color, usually of a greenish hue on the back
-and yellowish on the belly; (4) the dorsal fin is lower and less
-developed in the male than in the female; and (5) the eye of the male is
-large and that of the female, as a rule, comparatively small. These
-characters, however, do not always hold good. Jacoby remarked that
-'special reference having been paid to the height and narrowness of the
-dorsal fin, much success has been met with in picking out, in the
-fish-market of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski
-(that is, the male organ); absolute certainty, however, in recognizing
-them cannot be guaranteed. If one is searching among living eels with no
-characters in mind,—with the exception of the first, that of length,—he
-will find in every ten eels, on an average, eight females and two with
-the supposed male organ; but if the selection is made with a careful
-reference to all these marks of difference, the proportion changes, and
-out of every ten examples about eight will be found with the supposed
-male organ.'
-
-"According to Herr Benecke, 'it may be assumed with the greatest safety
-that the eel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the
-lamprey, it spawns only once and then dies. All the eggs of a female
-show the same degree of maturity, while in the fish which spawn every
-year, besides the large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next
-spawning period, there exist very many of much smaller size, which are
-destined to mature hereafter and be deposited in other years. It is very
-hard to understand how young eels could find room in the body of their
-mother if they were retained until they had gained any considerable
-size. The eel embryo can live and grow for a long time supported by the
-little yolk, but, when this is done, it can only obtain food outside of
-the body of its mother. The following circumstances lead us to believe
-that the spawning of the eel takes place only in the sea: (1) that the
-male eel is found only in the sea or brackish water, while female eels
-yearly undertake a pilgrimage from the inland waters to the sea, a
-circumstance which has been known since the time of Aristotle, and upon
-the knowledge of which the principal capture of eels by the use of fixed
-apparatus is dependent; (2) that the young eels, with the greatest
-regularity, ascend from the sea into the rivers and lakes.'"
-
-All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the
-young eels never find their way into landlocked ponds in the course of
-their wanderings, while eels planted in such isolated bodies of water
-thrive and grow rapidly, but never increase in numbers. Another still
-more convincing argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly
-contained many eels, but which, by the erection of impassable weirs,
-have been cut off from the sea, the supply of eels has diminished, and
-after a time only scattering individuals, old and of great size, are
-taken in them. An instance of this sort occurred in Lake Muskengorf in
-West Prussia. If an instance of the reproduction of the eel in fresh
-water could be found, such occurrences as these would be quite
-inexplicable.
-
-In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the eels begins
-in April or in May; in their lower stretches and shorter streams, later
-in the season. In all running waters the eel-fishery depends upon the
-downward migrations; the eels press up the streams with occasional
-halts, remaining here and there for short periods, but always make their
-way above. They appear to make the most progress during dark nights,
-when the water is troubled and stormy, for at this time they are
-captured in the greatest numbers. It is probable that after the eels
-have once returned to the sea and there deposited their spawn, they
-never can return into fresh water, but remain there to die. A great
-migration of grown eels in spring or summer has never been reported, and
-it appears certain that all the female eels which have once found their
-way to the sea are lost to the fisherman.
-
-=Food of the Eel.=—Eels, in the words of Mr. W. H. Ballou, are "among
-the most voracious of carnivorous fishes. They eat most inland fishes,
-except the garfish and the chub. Investigation of six hundred stomachs
-by Oswego fishermen showed that the latter bony fish never had a place
-in their bill of fare. They are particularly fond of game-fishes, and
-show the delicate taste of a connoisseur in their selection from choice
-trout, bass, pickerel, and shad. They fear not to attack any object when
-disposed, and their bite in human flesh shows even a vicious attitude
-towards man. On their hunting excursions they overturn huge and small
-stones alike, working for hours if necessary, beneath which they find
-species of shrimp and crayfish, of which they are exceedingly fond. Of
-shrimps they devour vast numbers. Their noses are poked into every
-imaginable hole in their search for food, to the terror of innumerable
-small fishes."
-
-In the opinion of Mr. Ballou, too, "eels are to the water what the
-fishhawk is to the air. They are, perhaps, the most powerful and rapid
-of natatorians. Again, they hide in the mud beneath some log or
-overhanging rock, and dart out with tremendous fury at the unsuspecting
-prey. They attack the spawn of other fishes open-mouthed, and are even
-said to suck the eggs from an impaled female. They fearlessly and
-rapidly dive head-foremost in the mud, disappearing from view in the
-twinkling of a star. They are owl-like in their habits, committing many
-of their depredations at night.
-
-"No fish is yet reported to utilize a full-grown eel as food. Pickerel,
-garfish, and bass, which are particularly numerous in these lakes, are
-supposed to literally devour the young fry. Mr. Sawyer describes the
-operation of the pickerel darting through a long column of young eels
-open-mouthed and devouring vast numbers of them."
-
-=Larva of the Eel.=—The translucent band-shaped larva of the common eel
-has been very recently identified and described by Dr. Eigenmann. It is
-probable that all true eels, _Enchelycephali_, pass through a
-band-shaped or leptocephalous stage, as is the case with _Albula_ and
-other _Isospondyli_. In the continued growth the body becomes firmer,
-and at the same time much shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the
-normal form of the species in question.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 102.—Larva of Common Eel, _Anguilla chrisypa_ (Rafinesque),
-    called _Leptocephalus grassii_. (After Eigenmann.)
-]
-
-In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully reviewed the
-life-history of the eel. The common species live in fresh waters,
-migrating to the sea in the winter. They deposit in deep water minute
-eggs that float at the surface. The next year they develop into the
-band-shaped larva. The young eels enter the streams two years after
-their parents drop down to the sea. It is doubtful whether eels breed in
-fresh water. The male eel is much smaller than the female.
-
-The eel is an excellent food-fish, the flesh being tender and oily, of
-agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its relatives. Eels often
-reach a large size, old individuals of five or six feet in length being
-sometimes taken.
-
-=Species of Eels.=—The different species are very closely related. Not
-more than four or five of them are sharply defined, and these mostly in
-the South Seas and in the East Indies. The three abundant species of the
-north temperate zone, _Anguilla anguilla_ of Europe, _Anguilla chrisypa_
-of the eastern United States, and _Anguilla japonica_ of Japan, are
-scarcely distinguishable. In color, size, form, and value as food they
-are all alike.
-
-Fossil species referred to the _Anguillidæ_ are known from the early
-Tertiary. _Anguilla leptoptera_ occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolea, and
-_Anguilla elegans_ in the Miocene of Œningen in Baden. Other fossil eels
-seem to belong to the _Nettastomidæ_ and _Myridæ_.
-
-=Pug-nosed Eels.=—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel,
-_Simenchelys parasiticus_, constituting the family of _Simenchelyidæ_.
-This species is scaled like a true eel, has a short, blunt nose, and
-burrows its way into the bodies of halibut and other large fishes. It
-has been found in Newfoundland and Madeira. Another family possessing
-rudimentary scales is that of the _Synaphobranchidæ_, slender eels of
-the ocean depths, widely distributed. In these forms the gill-openings
-are confluent. _Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ is the best-known species.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 103.—Pug-nosed Eel, _Simenchelys parasiticus_ Gill. Sable Island
-    Bank.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 104.—_Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ (Gronow). Le Have Bank.
-]
-
-=Conger-eels.=—The _Leptocephalidæ_, or conger-eels, are very similar to
-the fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with a somewhat
-different mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the head.
-
-The principal genus is _Leptocephalus_, including the common conger-eel
-(_Leptocephalus conger_) of eastern America and Europe and numerous very
-similar species in the tropics of both continents. These fishes are
-strictly marine and, reaching the length of five or six feet, are much
-valued as food. The eggs are much larger than those of the eel and are
-produced in great numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their
-numbers. Dr. Hermes calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female in
-an aquarium.
-
-These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with very small
-heads formerly known as _Leptocephalus_, an ancient name which is now
-taken for the genus of congers, having been first used for the larva of
-the common conger-eel. The loose watery tissues of these "ghost-fishes"
-grow more and more compact and they are finally transformed into young
-congers.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 105.—Conger-eel, _Leptocephalus conger_ (L.). Noank, Conn.
-]
-
-The _Murænesocidæ_ are large eels remarkable for their strong knife-like
-teeth. _Murænesox savanna_ occurs in the West Indies and in the
-Mediterranean, _Murænesox cinereus_ in Japan, and _Murænesox coniceps_
-on the west coast of Mexico, all large and fierce, with teeth like
-shears. The _Myridæ_ are small and worm-like eels closely allied to the
-congers, having the tail surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial.
-_Myrus myrus_ is found in the Mediterranean. Species of _Eomyrus_,
-_Rhynchorhinus_, and _Paranguilla_ apparently allied to _Myrus_ occur in
-the Eocene. Other related families, mostly rare or living in the deep
-seas, are the _Ilyophidæ_, _Heterocongridæ_, and _Dysommidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 106.—Larva of Conger-eel (_Leptocephalus conger_), called
-    _Leptocephalus morrissi_. (After Eigenmann.)
-]
-
-=The Snake-eels.=—Most varied of the families of eels is the
-_Ophichthyidæ_, snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the tail,
-which protrudes beyond the fins. Of the many genera found in tropical
-waters several are remarkable for the sharply defined coloration,
-suggesting that of the snake. Characteristic species are _Chlevastes
-colubrinus_ and _Leiuranus semicinctus_, two beautifully banded species
-of Polynesia, living in the same holes in the reefs and colored in the
-same fashion. Another is _Callechelys melanotænia_. The commonest
-species on the Atlantic coast is the plainly colored _Ophichthus
-gomesi_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG 107.—_Xyrias revulsus_ Jordan & Snyder. Family _Ophichthyidæ_.
-    Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-In the genus _Sphagebranchus_, very slender eels of the reefs, the fins
-are almost wanting.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 108.—_Myrichthys pantostigmius_ Jordan & McGregor. Clarion
-    Island.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 109.—_Ophichthus ocellatus_ (Le Sueur). Pensacola.
-]
-
-Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels
-(_Nettastomidæ_) inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. _Nettastoma
-bolcense_ occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. The produced snout forms
-a transition to the really extraordinary type of thread-eels or
-snipe-eels (_Nemichthyidæ_), of which numerous genera and species live
-in the oceanic depths. In _Nemichthys_ the long, very slender,
-needle-like jaws are each curved backward so that the mouth cannot by
-any possibility be shut. The body is excessively slender and the fish
-swims with swift undulations, often near the surface, and when seen is
-usually taken for a snake. The best-known species is _Nemichthys
-scolopaceus_ of the Atlantic and Pacific. _Nemichthys avocetta_, very
-much like it, has been twice taken in Puget Sound.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 110.—Thread-eel, _Nemichthys avocetta_ Jordan & Gilbert.
-    Vancouver Island.
-]
-
-=Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.=—In the suborder _Colocephali_ (κολός,
-deficient; κεφαλή, head) the palatopterygoid arch and the membrane-bones
-generally are very rudimentary. The skull is thus very narrow, the
-gill-structures are not well developed, and in the chief family there
-are no pectoral fins. This group is very closely related to the
-_Enchelycephali_, from which it is probably derived.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 111.—Jaws of _Nemichthys avocetta_ Jordan & Gilbert.
-]
-
-In the great family of morays (_Murænidæ_) the teeth are often very
-highly developed. The muscles are always very strong and the spines bite
-savagely, a live moray being often able to drive men out of a boat. The
-skin is thick and leathery, and the coloration is highly specialized,
-the pattern of color being often elaborate and brilliant. In _Echidna
-zebra_ for example the body is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden
-yellow. In _Muræna_ each nostril has a barbel. _Muræna helena_, the
-oldest moray known, is found in Europe. In _Gymnothorax_, the largest
-genus, only the anterior nostrils are thus provided. _Gymnothorax
-mordax_ of California is a large food-fish, as are also the brown
-_Gymnothorax funebris_ and the spotted _Gymnothorax moringa_ in the West
-Indies. These and many other species may coil themselves in crevices in
-the reefs, whence they strike out at their prey like snakes, taking
-perhaps the head of a duck or the finger of a man.
-
-In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the mouth so filled
-with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be closed. This fact,
-however, renders no assistance to their prey, as the teeth are adapted
-for holding as well as for cutting.
-
-In _Enchelynassa bleekeri_, a huge wine-colored eel of the South Seas,
-the teeth are larger than in any other species. _Evenchelys_
-(_macrurus_) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail,
-_Echidna_ for its blunt teeth, and _Scuticaria_, _Uropterygius_, and
-_Channomuræna_ for the almost complete absence of fins. In _Anarchias_
-(_allardicei_; _knighti_), the anal fin is absent. The flesh of the
-morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and not readily
-digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 112.—_Muræna retifera_ Garman. Charleston, S. C.
-]
-
-The _Myrocongridæ_ are small morays with developed pectoral fins. The
-species are few and little known.
-
-=Family Moringuidæ.=—Structurally one of the most peculiar of the groups
-of eels is the small family of _Moringuidæ_ of the East and West Indies.
-In these very slender, almost worm-like fishes the heart is placed very
-far behind the gills and the tail is very short. The fins are very
-little developed, and some forms, as _Gordiichthys irretitus_ of the
-Gulf of Mexico, the body as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great
-number of vertebræ. _Moringua hawaiiensis_ occurs in Hawaii, _M.
-edwardsi_ in the Bahamas. This family probably belongs with the morays
-to the group of _Colocephali_, although its real relationships are not
-wholly certain.
-
-=Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.=—Certain offshoots from the
-Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must apparently be
-considered as distinct orders occur sparingly in the deep seas. One of
-these, _Derichthys serpentinus_, the long-necked eel, constitutes the
-sole known species of the suborder _Carencheli_ (καρά, head; ἔγχελυς,
-eel). In this group the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in
-ordinary fishes, but united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As in
-true eels, the shoulder-girdle is remote from the skull. The head is set
-on a snake-like neck. The single species representing the family
-_Derichthyidæ_ was found in the abysmal depths of the Gulf Stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 113.—_Gymnothorax berndti_ Snyder. Hawaii. Family _Murænidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 114.—_Gymnothorax jordani_ (Evermann & Marsh). Family _Murænidæ_.
-    Puerto Rico.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 115.—Moray, _Gymnothorax moringa_ Bloch. Family _Murænidæ_.
-    Tortugas.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 116.—_Derichthys serpentinus_ Gill. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 117.—Gulper-eel, _Gastrostomus bairdi_ Gill & Ryder. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-=Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.=—Still more aberrent and in many respects
-extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder _Lyomeri_ (λυός,
-loose; μέρος, part), known as "Gulpers." These are degenerate forms,
-possibly degraded from some conger-like type, but characterized by an
-extreme looseness of structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are
-reduced to five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the
-palatopterygoid arch is wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are wanting,
-as in all true eels, and the maxillaries loosely joined to the skull.
-The symplectic bone is wanting, and the lower jaw is so hinged to the
-skull that it swings freely in various directions. In place of the
-lateral line are singular appendages. Dr. Gill says of these fishes:
-"The entire organization is peculiar to the extent of anomaly, and our
-old conceptions of the characteristics of a fish require to be modified
-in the light of our knowledge of such strange beings." Special features
-are the extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger than
-that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small eye at the
-tip of the snout, and the relative length of the tail. The whole
-substance is excessively fragile as usual with animals living in great
-depths and the color is jet black. Three species have been described,
-and these have been placed in two families, _Saccopharyngidæ_, with the
-trunk (gill-opening to the vent) much longer than the head, and
-_Eurypharyngidæ_, with the trunk very short, much shorter than the head.
-The best-known species is the pelican eel (_Eurypharynx pelacanoides_),
-of the coast of Morocco, described by Vaillant in 1882. _Gastrostomus
-bairdi_, very much like it, occurs in the great depths under the Gulf
-Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes that it is
-possible that all three are really the same species, for which the
-oldest name would be _Saccopharynx ampullaceus_. Of this form four
-specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of them six feet long,
-carried to the surface through having swallowed fishes too large to be
-controlled. To be carried above its depth in a struggle with its prey is
-one of the greatest dangers to which the abysmal fishes are subject.
-
-=Order Heteromi.=—The order of _Heteromi_ (ἑτερός, different; ὤμος,
-shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of a better
-place, as its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers have regarded
-it as allied to the eels; some have placed it among the Ganoids. Others
-have found affinities with the sticklebacks, and still others with the
-singular fresh-water fishes called _Mastacembelus_. The _Heteromi_ agree
-with the eels, as well as with _Mastacembelus_, in having the scapular
-arch separate from the cranium. Unlike all the true eels, most of the
-species have true dorsal and anal spines, as in the _Percesoces_ and
-_Hemibranchii_. The ventral fins, when present, are abdominal and each
-with several spines in front, a character not found among the
-_Acanthopteri_. There is no mesocoracoid.
-
-The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in the _Xenomi_,
-are reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate. The two groups have
-little else in common, however, and this trait is possibly primitive in
-both cases, more likely to have arisen through independent degeneration.
-The separation of the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity
-with the eels, as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families
-are known, both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in which
-spines are not developed.
-
-The _Notacanthidæ_ are elongate, compressed, ending in a band-shaped,
-tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and few or no soft
-rays, and the mouth is normal, provided with teeth. The species of
-_Notacanthus_ are few and scantily preserved. Those of _Macdonaldia_ are
-more abundant. _Macdonaldia challengeri_ is from the North Pacific,
-being once taken off Tokio. The extinct family of _Protonotacanthidæ_
-differs in the total absence of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single
-species, _Pronotocanthus sahel-almæ_, originally described as a
-primitive eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon.
-
-The _Lipogenyidæ_ have a round, sucker-like mouth, with imperfect lower
-jaw, but are otherwise similar. _Lipogenys gilli_ was dredged in the
-Gulf Stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 118.—_Notacanthus phasganorus_ Goode & Bean. Grand Banks.
-]
-
-Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of _Heteromi_ by the
-addition of the _Dercetidæ_, _Halosauridæ_ (_Lyopomi_), and the
-_Fierasferidæ_. We can hardly suppose that all these forms are really
-allied to _Notacanthus_.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VIII
-                          SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI
-
-
-=OSTARIOPHYSI.=—A large group of orders, certainly of common descent,
-may be brought together under the general name of _Ostariophysi_
-(ὀσταρίον, a small bone; θυσός, inflated). These are in many ways allied
-to the _Isospondyli_, but they have undergone great changes of
-structure, some of the species being highly specialized, others
-variously degenerate. A chief character is shared by all the species.
-The anterior vertebræ are enlarged, interlocked, considerably modified,
-and through them a series of small bones connect the air-bladder with
-the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently an organ of hearing
-through a form of connection which is lost in all the higher fishes.
-
-In all the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded eel-like
-forms called _Gymnonoti_, the mesocoracoid arch persists, a trait found
-in all the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the _Teleost_ order of
-_Isospondyli_. Other traits of the Ostariophysan fishes are shared by
-the _Isospondyli_ (herring, salmon) and other soft-rayed fishes. The
-air-bladder is large, but not cellular. It leads through life by an open
-duct to the œsophagus. The ventral fins are abdominal in position. The
-pectorals are inserted low. A mesocoracoid arch is developed on the
-inner side of the shoulder-girdle. (See Fig. 119.) There are no spines
-on the fins, except in many cases a single one, a modified soft ray at
-front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if present, are cycloid or
-replaced by bony plates.
-
-Many of the species have an armature much like that of the sturgeon, but
-here the resemblance ends, the bony plates in the two cases being
-without doubt independently evolved. According to Cope, the affinities
-of the catfishes to the sturgeon are "seen in the absence of symplectic,
-the rudimentary maxillary bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the
-interclavicles. There is also a superficial resemblance in the dermal
-bones." But it is not likely that any real affinity exists.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 119.—Inner view of shoulder-girdle of the Buffalo-fish. _Ictiobus
-    bubalus_ Rafinesque, showing the mesocoracoid (59). (After Starks.)
-]
-
-The sturgeons lack the characteristic auditory ossicles, or "Weberian
-apparatus," which the catfishes possess in common with the carp family,
-the _Characins_, and the _Gymnonoti_. These orders must at least have a
-common origin, although this origin is obscure, and fossil remains give
-little help to the solution of the problem. Probably the ancestors of
-the _Ostariophysi_ are to be found among the allies of the
-_Osteoglossidæ_. Gill has called attention to the resemblance of
-_Erythrinus_ to _Amia_. In any event, all the _Ostariophysi_ must be
-considered together, as it is not conceivable that so complex a
-structure as the Weberian apparatus should have been more than once
-independently evolved. The branchiostegals, numerous among the
-_Isospondyli_, are mostly few among the _Ostariophysi_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 120.—Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Günther,
-    after Weber.)
-]
-
-To the _Ostariophysi_ belong the vast majority of the fresh-water fishes
-of the world. Their primitive structure is shown in many ways; among
-others by the large number of vertebræ instead of the usual twenty-four
-among the more highly specialized families of fishes. We may group the
-_Ostariophysi_ under four orders: _Heterognathi_, _Eventognathi_
-(_Plectospondyli_), _Nematognathi_, and _Gymnonoti_.
-
-=The Heterognathi.=—Of these the order of _Heterognathi_ seems to be the
-most primitive, but in some ways the most highly developed, showing
-fewer traits of degeneration than any of the others. The presence of the
-adipose fin in this group and in the catfishes seems to indicate some
-sort of real affinity with the salmon-like forms, although there has
-been great change in other regards.
-
-The order _Heterognathi_, or _Characini_ (ἕτερος, different; γνάθος,
-jaw), contains those _Ostariophysi_ which retain the mesocoracoid and
-are not eel-like, and which have the lower pharyngeals developed as in
-ordinary fishes. In most cases an adipose fin is present and there are
-strong teeth in the jaws. There are no pseudobranchiæ, and, as in the
-_Cyprinidæ_, usually but three branchiostegals. The _Characidæ_
-constitute the majority of the fresh-water fishes in those regions which
-have neither _Cyprinidæ_ nor _Salmonidæ_. Nearly four hundred species
-are known from the rivers of South America and Africa. A single species,
-_Tetragonopterus argentatus_, extends its range northward to the Rio
-Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or, with this single
-exception, in the United States. Most of them are small fishes with deep
-bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor-like teeth. Some are as
-innocuous as minnows, which they very much resemble, but others are
-extremely voracious and destructive in the highest degree. Of the
-caribe, belonging to the genus _Serrasalmo_, known by its serrated
-belly, Dr. Günther observes:
-
-"Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a perfect pest in
-many rivers of tropical America. In all the teeth are strong, short,
-sharp, sometimes lobed incisors, arranged in one or more series; by
-means of them they cut off a mouthful of flesh as with a pair of
-scissors; and any animal falling into the water where these fish abound
-is immediately attacked and cut to pieces in an incredibly short time.
-They assail persons entering the water, inflicting dangerous wounds
-before the victims are able to make their escape. In some localities it
-is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the hook and line, as the fish
-hooked is immediately attacked by the 'caribe' (as these fish are
-called), and torn to pieces before it can be withdrawn from the water.
-The caribes themselves are rarely hooked, as they snap the hook or cut
-the line. The smell of blood is said to attract at once thousands of
-these fishes to the spot."
-
-Two families of _Heterognathi_ are recognized: the _Erythrinidæ_, which
-lack the adipose fin, and the _Characidæ_, in which this fin is
-developed. The _Erythrinidæ_ are large pike-like fishes of the South
-American rivers, robust and tenacious of life, with large mouths armed
-with strong unequal teeth. The best-known species is the _Trahira_
-(_Hoplias malabaricus_).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 121.—_Brycon dentex_ Günther. Family _Characidæ_. Nicaragua.
-]
-
-Among the _Characidæ_, _Serrasalmo_ has been already noticed.
-_Citharinus_ in Africa has very few teeth, and _Curimatus_ in South
-America none at all. _Nannocharax_ in Africa is composed of very
-diminutive fishes, _Hydrocyon_ exceedingly voracious ones, reaching a
-length of four feet, with savage teeth. Many of the species are allies
-of _Tetragonopterus_, small, silvery, bream-like fishes with flat bodies
-and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these are American. A related genus
-is _Brycon_, found in the streams about the Isthmus of Panama.
-
-Extinct _Characins_ are very rare. Two species from the Tertiary lignite
-of São Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to _Tetragonopterus_—_T. avus_
-and _T. ligniticus_.
-
-=The Eventognathi.=—The _Eventognathi_ (ἔυ, well; ἔν, within; γνάθος,
-jaw) are characterized by the absence of teeth in the jaws and by the
-high degree of specialization of the lower pharyngeals, which are
-scythe-shaped and in typical forms are armed with a relatively small
-number of highly specialized teeth of peculiar shape and arranged in
-one, two, or three rows. In all the species the gill-openings are
-restricted to the sides; there is no adipose fin, and the broad, flat
-branchiostegals are but three in number. In all the species the scales,
-if present, are cycloid, and the ventral fins, of course, abdominal. The
-modification of the four anterior vertebræ and their connection with the
-air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes.
-
-The name _Plectospondyli_ is often used for this group (πλεκτός,
-interwoven; σπόνδυλος, vertebra), but that term originally included the
-_Characins_ as well.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 122.—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, _Leuciscus
-    cephalus_ (Linnæus). (After Seelye.)
-]
-
-=The Cyprinidæ.=—The chief family of the _Eventognathi_ and the largest
-of all the families of fishes is that of _Cyprinidæ_, comprising 200
-genera and over 2000 species, found throughout the north temperate zone
-but not extending to the Arctic Circle on the north, nor much beyond the
-Tropic of Cancer on the south. In this family belong all the fishes
-known as carp, dace, chub, roach, bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The
-essential character of the family lies in the presence of one, two, or
-three rows of highly specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the
-main row containing 4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of
-the main row differ in form according to the food of the fish. They may
-be coarse and blunt, molar-like in those which feed on shells; they may
-be hooked at tip in those which eat smaller fishes; they may be serrated
-or not; they may have an excavated "grinding surface," which is most
-developed in the species which feed on mud and have long intestines. In
-the _Cyprinidæ_, or carp family, the barbels are small or wanting, the
-head is naked, the caudal fin forked, the mouth is toothless and without
-sucking lips, and the premaxillaries form its entire margin. With a few
-exceptions the _Cyprinidæ_ are small and feeble fishes. They form most
-of the food of the predatory river fishes, and their great abundance in
-competition with these is due to their fecundity and their
-insignificance. They spawn profusely and find everywhere an abundance of
-food. Often they check the increase of predatory fish by the destruction
-of their eggs.
-
-In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is very brilliant,
-rendering these little creatures for a time the most beautifully colored
-of fishes. In spring and early summer the fins, sides, and head in the
-males are often charged with pigment, the prevailing color of which is
-rosy, though often satin-white, orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or
-jet black. Among American genera _Chrosomus_, _Notropis_, and
-_Rhinichthys_ are most highly colored. _Rhodeus_, _Rutilus_, and _Zacco_
-in the Old World are also often very brilliant.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 123.—Black-nosed Dace, _Rhinichthys dulcis_ Girard. Yellowstone
-    River.
-]
-
-In very many species, especially in America, the male in the breeding
-season is often more or less covered with small, grayish tubercles or
-pearly bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis. These are most numerous on
-the head and fall off after the breeding season. They are most developed
-in _Campostoma_.
-
-The _Cyprinidæ_ are little valued as food-fishes. The carp, largely
-domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and tasteless. Most of
-the others are flavorless and full of small bones. One species,
-_Opsariichthys uncirostris_, of Japan is an exception in this regard,
-being a fish of very delicate flavor.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 124.—White Chub, _Notropis hudsonius_ (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake,
-    Minn.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 125.—Silver-jaw Minnow, _Ericymba buccata_ Cope. Defiance, Ohio.
-]
-
-In America 225 species of _Cyprinidæ_ are known. One hundred of these
-are now usually held to form the single genus _Notropis_. This includes
-the smaller and weaker species, from two to seven inches in length,
-characterized by the loss, mostly through degeneration, of special
-peculiarities of mouth, fins, and teeth. These have no barbels and never
-more than four teeth in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have
-so small a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its
-rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (_Orthodon_) has more than
-five teeth in the main row and none have more than two rows or more than
-two teeth in the lower row. By these and other peculiarities it would
-seem that the American species are at once less primitive and less
-complex than the Old World forms. There is some evidence that the group
-is derived from Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms
-being much nearer the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the
-Mississippi Valley. Not many _Cyprinidæ_ are found in Mexico, none in
-Cuba, South America, Australia, Africa, or the islands to the eastward
-of Borneo. Many species are very widely distributed, many others
-extremely local. In the genus _Notropis_, each river basin in the
-Southern States has its series of different and mostly highly colored
-species. The presence of _Notropis niveus_ in the Neuse, _Notropis
-pyrrhomelas_ in the Santee, _Notropis zonistius_ in the Chattahoochee,
-_Notropis callistius_, _trichroistius_, and _stigmaturus_ in the
-Alabama, _Notropis whipplei_ in the Mississippi, _Notropis galacturus_
-in the Tennessee, and _Notropis cercostigma_ in the Sabine forms an
-instructive series in this regard. These fishes and the darters
-(_Etheostominæ_) are, among American fishes, the groups best suited for
-the study of local problems in distribution.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 126.—Silverfin, _Notropis whipplei_ (Girard). White River,
-    Indiana. Family _Cyprinidæ_.
-]
-
-=Species of Dace and Shiner.=—Noteworthy species in other genera are the
-following:
-
-Largest and best known of the species of _Notropis_ is the familiar
-shiner or redfin, _Notropis cornutus_, found in almost every brook
-throughout the region east of the Missouri River.
-
-_Campostoma anomalum_, the stone-roller, has the very long intestines
-six times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen coils around the
-air-bladder. This species feeds on mud and spawns in little brooks,
-swarming in early spring throughout the Mississippi Valley, and is
-notable for its nuptial tubercles and the black and orange fins.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 127.—Stone-roller, _Campostoma anomalum_ (Rafinesque). Family
-    _Cyprinidæ_. Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about
-    the air-bladder.
-]
-
-In the negro-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ of the Pennsylvanian
-district, the rami of the lower jaw are united for their whole length,
-looking like a projecting tongue.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 128.—Head of Day-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ (Le Sueur).
-    Shenandoah River.
-]
-
-The fallfish, _Semotilus corporalis_, is the largest chub of the Eastern
-rivers, 18 inches long, living in swift, clear rivers. It is a soft
-fish, and according to Thoreau "it tastes like brown paper salted" when
-it is cooked. Close to this is the horned dace, _Semotilus
-atromaculatus_, and the horny head, _Hybopsis kentuckiensis_, both among
-the most widely distributed of our river fishes. These are all allied to
-the gudgeon (_Gobio gobio_), a common boys' fish of the rivers of
-Europe, and much sought by anglers who can get nothing better. The
-bream, _Abramis_, represented by numerous species in Europe, has a deep
-compressed body and a very long anal fin. It is also well represented in
-America, the golden shiner, common in Eastern and Southern streams,
-being _Abramis chrysoleucus_. The bleak of Europe (_Alburnus alburnus_)
-is a "shiner" close to some of our species of _Notropis_, while the
-minnow of Europe, _Phoxinus phoxinus_, resembles our gorgeously colored
-_Chrosomus erythrogaster_. Other European forms are the roach (_Rutilus
-rutilus_), the chub (_Leuciscus cephalus_), the dace (_Leuciscus
-leuciscus_), the id (_Idus idus_), the redeye (_Scardinius
-erythropthalmus_), and the tench (_Tinca tinca_). The tench is the
-largest of the European species, and its virtues with those of its more
-or less insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton.
-All of these receive more attention from anglers in England than their
-relatives receive in America. All the American _Cyprinidæ_ are ranked as
-"boys' fish," and those who seek the trout or black bass or even the
-perch or crappie will not notice them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who
-treasures the yellow perch as a real fish: "So many unquestionable fish
-he counts, then so many chubs which he counts, then throws away."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 129.—Horned Dace, _Semotilus atromaculatus_ (Mitchill). Aux
-    Plaines River, Ill. Family _Cyprinidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 130.—Shiner, _Abramis chrysoleucus_ (Mitchill). Hackensack River,
-    N. J.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 131.—The Squawfish, _Ptychocheilus grandis_ Agassiz. (Photograph
-    by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-=Chubs of the Pacific Slope.=—In the Western waters are numerous genera,
-some of the species reaching a large size. The species of squawfish
-(_Ptychocheilus lucius_ in the Colorado, _Ptychocheilus grandis_ in the
-Sacramento, and _Ptychocheilus oregonensis_ in the Columbia) reach a
-length of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These fishes are long and slender,
-with large toothless mouths and the aspect of a pike.
-
-Allied to these are the "hard tails" (_Gila elegans_ and _Gila robusta_)
-of the Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely eatable, with
-lean bodies, flat heads, and expanded tails. The split-tail,
-_Pogonichthys macrolepidotus_, is found in the Sacramento.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 132.—Chub of the Great Basin, _Leuciscus lineatus_ (Girard).
-    Heart Lake, Yellowstone Park. Family _Cyprinidæ_.
-]
-
-In the chisel-mouth, _Acrocheilus alutaceus_, of the Columbia the lips
-have a hard cutting edge. In _Meda_, very small fishes of the Colorado
-Basin, the dorsal has a compound spine of peculiar structure. Many of
-the species of Western waters belong to the genus _Leuciscus_, which
-includes also many species of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace
-(_Leuciscus hakuensis_) is often found out in the sea, but, in general,
-_Cyprinidæ_ are only found in fresh waters. The genus of barbels
-(_Barbus_) contains many large species in Europe and Asia. In these the
-barbel is better developed than in most other genera, a character which
-seems to indicate a primitive organization. _Barbus mosal_ of the
-mountains of India is said to reach a length of more than six feet and
-to have "scales as large as the palm of the hand."
-
-=The Carp and Goldfish.=—In the American and European _Cyprinidæ_ the
-dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species it is longer,
-having 15 to 20 rays and is often preceded by a serrated spine like that
-of a catfish. Of the species with long dorsal the one most celebrated is
-the carp (_Cyprinus carpio_). This fish is a native of the rivers of
-China, where it has been domesticated for centuries. Nearly three
-hundred years ago it was brought to northern Europe, where it has
-multiplied in domestication and become naturalized in many streams and
-ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the carp has attracted much
-attention in America. It has been generally satisfactory where the
-nature of the fish is understood and where expectations have not been
-too high.
-
-The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tranquil, and
-weedy waters with muddy bottoms. Its food consists of water insects and
-other small animals, and vegetable matter, such as the leaves of aquatic
-plants. They can be fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens,
-and they bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and
-chickens do to wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very hardy fish,
-grows rapidly, and has immense fecundity, 700,000 eggs having been found
-in the ovaries of a single individual. It reaches sometimes a weight of
-30 to 40 pounds. As a food-fish the carp cannot be said to hold a high
-place. It is tolerated in the absence of better fish.
-
-The carp, either native or in domestication, has many enemies. In
-America, catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs or its young, as
-well as water-snakes, turtles, kingfishes, crayfishes, and many other
-creatures which live about our ponds and in sluggish streams. In
-domestication numerous varieties of carp have been formed, the
-"leather-carp" (Lederkarpfen) being scaleless, others, "mirror-carp"
-(Spiegelkarpfen), having rows of large scales only along the lateral
-line or the bases of the fins.
-
-Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (_Carassius auratus_). This
-is also a common Chinese fish introduced in domestication into Europe
-and America. The golden-yellow color is found only in domesticated
-specimens, and is retained by artificial selection. The native goldfish
-is olivaceous in color, and where the species has become naturalized (as
-in the Potomac River, where it has escaped from fountains in Washington)
-it reverts to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the
-rivers of Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright colors as
-an ornamental fish. It has no beauty of form nor any interesting habits,
-and many of our native fishes (_Percidæ_, _Cyprinidæ_) far excel it in
-attractiveness as aquarium fishes. Unfortunately they are less hardy.
-Many varieties and monstrosities of the goldfish have been produced by
-domestication.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 133.—Lower pharyngeal of _Placopharynx duquesnii_ (Le Sueur).
-]
-
-=The Catostomidæ.=—The suckers, or _Catostomidæ_, are an offshoot from
-the _Cyprinidæ_, differing chiefly in the structure of the mouth and of
-the lower pharyngeal bones. The border of the mouth above is formed
-mesially by the small premaxillaries and laterally by the maxillaries.
-The teeth of the lower pharyngeals are small and very numerous, arranged
-in one series like the teeth of a comb. The lips are usually thick and
-fleshy, and the dorsal fin is more or less elongate (its rays eleven to
-fifty in number), characters which distinguish the suckers from the
-American _Cyprinidæ_ generally, but not from those of the Old World.
-
-About sixty species of suckers are known, all of them found in the
-rivers of North America except two, which have been recorded on rather
-uncertain authority from Siberia and China. Only two or three of the
-species extend their range south of the Tropic of Cancer into Mexico or
-Central America, and none occur in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring
-islands. The majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of
-the Rocky Mountains, although species of _Catostomus_, _Chasmistes_,
-_Deltistes_, _Xyrauchen_, and _Pantosteus_ are found in abundance in the
-Great Basin and the Pacific slope.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 134.—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, _Erimyzon sucetta_ (Lacépède).
-    Nipisink Lake, Illinois. Family _Catostomidæ_.
-]
-
-In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about three feet.
-As food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh of all being
-flavorless and excessively full of small bones. Most of them are
-sluggish fishes; they inhabit all sorts of streams, lakes, and ponds,
-but even when in mountain brooks they gather in the eddies and places of
-greatest depth and least current. They feed on insects and small aquatic
-animals, and also on mud, taking in their food by suction. They are not
-very tenacious of life. Most of the species swarm in the spring in
-shallow waters. In the spawning season they migrate up smaller streams
-than those otherwise inhabited by them. The large species move from the
-large rivers into smaller ones; the small brook species go into smaller
-brooks. In some cases the males in spring develop black or red pigment
-on the body or fins, and in many cases tubercles similar to those found
-in the _Cyprinidæ_ appear on the head, body, and anal and caudal fins.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 135.—Buffalo-fish, _Ictiobus cyprinella_ (Cuv. & Val.). Normal,
-    Ill.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 136.—Carp-sucker, _Carpiodes cyprinus_ (Le Sueur). Havre de
-    Grace.
-]
-
-The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera _Ictiobus_
-and _Carpiodes_, are the largest of the _Catostomidæ_, and bear a
-considerable resemblance to the carp. They have the dorsal fin many
-rayed and the scales large and coarse. They abound in the large rivers
-and lakes between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, one species
-being found in Central America and a species of a closely related genus
-(_Myxocyprinus asiaticus_) being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely
-ascend the smaller rivers except for the purpose of spawning. Although
-so abundant in the Mississippi Valley as to be of importance
-commercially, they are very inferior as food-fishes, being coarse and
-bony. The genus _Cycleptu_s contains the black-horse, or Missouri
-sucker, a peculiar species with a small head, elongate body, and
-jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller rivers tributary to the
-Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers in the spring. Most of the other
-suckers belong to the genera _Catostomus_ and _Moxostoma_, the latter
-with the large-toothed _Placopharynx_ being known, from the red color of
-the fins, as red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are
-very widely distributed, two of them (_Catostomus commersoni_, _Erimyzon
-sucetta_) being found in almost every stream east of the Rocky Mountains
-and _Catostomus catostomus_ throughout Canada to the Arctic Sea. The
-most peculiar of the suckers in appearance is the harelip sucker
-(_Quassilabia lacera_) of the Western rivers. Very singular in form is
-the humpback or razor-back sucker of the Colorado, _Xyrauchen cypho_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 137.—Common Sucker, _Catostomus commersoni_ (Le Sueur). Ecorse,
-    Mich.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 138.—California Sucker, _Catostomus occidentalis_ Agassiz.
-    (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-=Fossil Cyprinidæ.=—Fossil _Cyprinidæ_, closely related to existing
-forms, are found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the Tertiary,
-but rarely if ever earlier than the Miocene. _Cyprinus_ _priscus_ occurs
-in the Miocene of Germany, perhaps showing that Germany was the original
-home of the so-called "German carp," afterwards actually imported to
-Germany from China. Some specimens referred to _Barbus_, _Tinca_,
-_Rhodeus_, _Aspius_, and _Gobio_ are found in regions now inhabited by
-these genera, and many species are referred to the great genus
-_Leuciscus_, _Leuciscus œningensis_ from the Miocene of Germany being
-perhaps the best known. Several species of _Leuciscus_ or related genera
-are found in the Rocky Mountain region. Among these is the recently
-described _Leuciscus turneri_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 139.—Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, _Catostomus
-    macrocheilus_.
-]
-
-Fossil _Catostomidæ_ are very few and chiefly referred to the genus
-_Amyzon_, supposed to be allied to _Erimyzon_, but with a longer dorsal.
-_Amyzon commune_ and other species are found in the Rocky Mountains,
-especially in the Miocene of the South Park in Colorado and the Eocene
-of Wyoming. Two or three species of _Catostomus_, known by their skulls,
-are found in the Pliocene of Idaho.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 140.—Razor-back Sucker, _Xyrauchen cypho_ (Lockington). Green
-    River, Utah.
-]
-
-=The Loaches.=—The _Cobitidæ_, or loaches, are small fishes, all less
-than a foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of Europe and Asia.
-In structure they are not very different from minnows, but they are
-rather eel-like in form, and the numerous long barbels about the mouth
-strongly suggest affinity with the catfishes. The scales are small, the
-pharyngeal teeth few, and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes,
-enclosed in a capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors,
-tenacious of life, feeding on insects and worms. The species often bury
-themselves in mud and sand. They lie quiet on the bottom and move very
-quickly when disturbed much after the manner of darters and gobies.
-Species of _Cobitis_ and _Misgurnus_ are widely distributed from England
-to Japan. _Nemachilus barbatulus_ is the commonest European species.
-_Cobitis tænia_ is found, almost unchanged, from England to the streams
-of Japan.
-
-Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from _Cobitis_,
-occur in the Miocene and more recent rocks.
-
-From ancestors of loaches or other degraded _Cyprinidæ_ we may trace the
-descent of the catfishes.
-
-The _Homalopteridæ_ are small loaches in the mountain streams of the
-East Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number of pharyngeal teeth
-(10 to 16) is greater than in the loaches, carp, or minnows.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IX
-                     THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES
-
-
-=THE Nematognathi.=—The _Nematognathi_ (νῆμα, thread; γνάθος, jaw),
-known collectively as catfishes, are recognized at once by the fact that
-the rudimentary and usually toothless maxillary is developed as the bony
-base of a long barbel or feeler. Usually other feelers are found around
-the head, suggesting the "smellers" of a cat. The body is never scaly,
-being either naked and smooth or else more or less completely mailed
-with bony plates which often resemble superficially those of a sturgeon.
-Other distinctive characters are found in the skeleton, notably the
-absence of the subopercle, but the peculiar development of the maxillary
-and its barbel with the absence of scales is always distinctive. The
-symplectic is usually absent, and in some the air-bladder is reduced to
-a rudiment inclosed in a bony capsule. In almost all cases a stout spine
-exists in the front of the dorsal fin and in the front of each pectoral
-fin. This spine, made of modified or coalescent soft rays, is often a
-strong weapon with serrated edges and capable of inflicting a severe
-wound. When the fish is alarmed, it sets this spine by a rotary motion
-in its socket joint. It can then be depressed only by breaking it. By a
-rotary motion upward and toward the body the spine is again lowered. The
-wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this fact is due not to
-a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the slime of the
-spine.
-
-In two genera, _Noturus_ and _Schilbeodes_, a poison-gland exists at the
-base of the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp pain like the
-sting of a hornet and almost exactly like the sting of a scorpion-fish.
-Most of the _Nematognathi_ possess a fleshy or adipose fin behind the
-dorsal, exactly as in the salmon. In a few cases the adipose fin
-develops an anterior spine and occasionally supporting rays.
-
-All the _Nematognathi_ are carnivorous bottom feeders, devouring any
-prey they can swallow. Only a few enter the sea, and they occur in the
-greatest abundance in the Amazon region. Upward of 1200 species,
-arranged in 150 genera, are recorded. They vary greatly in size, from
-two inches to six feet in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but
-the species in the sea have very tough and flavorless flesh. Some of the
-others are extremely delicate, with finely flavored flesh and a grateful
-absence of small bones.
-
-=Families of Nematognathi.=—According to Dr. Eigenmann's scheme of
-classification,[11] the most primitive family of Nematognathi is that of
-_Diplomystidæ_, characterized by the presence of a well-developed
-maxillary, as in other soft-rayed fishes. The single species,
-_Diplomystes papillosus_, is found in the waters of Chile.
-
-Footnote 11:
-
-  A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7.
-
-Similar to the _Diplomystidæ_ in all other respects is the great central
-family of _Siluridæ_, by far the most numerous and important of all the
-divisions of _Nematognathi_.
-
-=The Siluridæ.=—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly mailed, the
-barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short, inserted forward,
-the adipose fin without spine, and the lower pharyngeals separate. All
-the marine catfishes and most of the fresh-water species belong to this
-group, and its members, some 700 species, abound in all parts of the
-world where catfishes are known—"a bloodthirsty and bullying race of
-rangers inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready
-to do battle with their nearest neighbor."
-
-=The Sea Catfish.=—In the tropical seas are numerous species of
-catfishes belonging to _Tachysurus_, _Arius_, _Galeichthys_,
-_Felichthys_, and other related genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes
-covered with smooth skin, the head usually with a coat of mail, pierced
-by a central fontanelle. Some of them reach a considerable size,
-swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as food, being always tough and
-coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the pelican, which devour these
-catfishes are often destroyed by the sudden erection of the pectoral
-spines. None of these are found in Europe or in Japan. Of the very many
-American species the gaff-topsail catfish (_Felichthys felis_), noted
-for its very high spines, extends farthest north and is one of the very
-largest species. This genus has two barbels at the chin. Most others
-have four. The commonest sea catfish of the Carolina coast is
-_Galeichthys milberti_. In _Tachysurus_ the teeth on the palate are
-rounded, in most of the others they are in villiform bands.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 141.—Gaff-topsail Cat, _Felichthys felis_ (L.). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 142.—Sea Catfish, _Galeichthys milberti_ (Cuv. & Val.).
-    Pensacola.
-]
-
-In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small peas, are
-taken into the mouth of the male and there cared for until hatched.
-
-=The Channel Cats.=—In all the rivers of North America east of the Rocky
-Mountains are found catfishes in great variety. The channel cats,
-_Ictalurus_, known most readily by the forked tails, are the largest in
-size and most valued as food. The technical character of the genus is
-the backward continuation of the supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge
-to the base of the dorsal. The great blue cat, _Ictalurus furcatus_,
-abounds throughout the large rivers of the Southern States and reaches a
-weight of 150 pounds or more. It is an excellent food and its firm flesh
-is readily cut into steaks. In the Great Lakes and northward is a very
-similar species, also of large size, which has been called _Ictalurus
-lacustris_. Another similar species is the willow cat, _Ictalurus
-anguilla_. The white channel-cat, _Ictalurus punctatus_, reaches a much
-smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift streams of the
-Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama, and the Gasconade. It is
-a very delicate food-fish, with tender white flesh of excellent flavor.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 143.—Channel Catfish, _Ictalurus punctatus_ (Rafinesque).
-    Illinois River. Family _Siluridæ_.
-]
-
-=Horned Pout.=—The genus _Ameiurus_ includes the smaller brown catfish,
-horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and the caudal fin is
-usually but not always rounded. The many species are widely diffused,
-abounding in brooks, lakes, and ponds. _Ameiurus nebulosus_ is the
-best-known species, ranging from New England to Texas, known in the East
-as horned pout. It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento,
-where it abounds, as well as its congener, _Ameiurus catus_ (see Fig.
-229, Vol. I), the white bullhead, brought with it from the Potomac. The
-latter species has a broader head and concave or notched tail. All the
-species are good food-fishes. All are extremely tenacious of life, and
-all are alike valued by the urchin, for they will bite vigorously at any
-sort of bait. All must be handled with care, for the sharp pectoral
-spines make an ugly cut, a species of wound from which few boys' hands
-in the catfish region are often free.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 144.—Horned pout, _Ameiurus nebulosus_ (Le Sueur). (From life by
-    Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, is
-a partly blind catfish, evidently derived from local species outside the
-cave. It has been named _Gronias nigrilabris_.
-
-A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, _Ictalurus_
-_meridionalis_, as far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of
-Guatemala.
-
-Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition, known as
-_Istlarius balsanus_, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas. In Mexico all
-catfishes are known as Bagre, this species as Bagre de Rio.
-
-The genus _Leptops_ includes the great yellow catfish, or goujon, known
-at once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a mottled olive and yellow
-fish of repulsive exterior, and it reaches a very great size. It is,
-however, a good food-fish.
-
-=The Mad-toms.=—The genera _Noturus_ and _Schilbeodes_ are composed of
-diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine armed at base, with a
-poison sac which renders its sting extremely painful though not
-dangerous. The numerous species of this genus, known as "mad-toms" and
-"stone cats," live among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of
-them rarely exceed three inches in length, and their varied colors make
-them attractive in the aquarium.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 145.—Mad-tom, _Schilbeodes furiosus_ Jordan & Meek. Showing the
-    poisoned pectoral spine. Family _Siluridæ_. Neuse River.
-]
-
-=The Old World Catfishes.=—In the catfishes of the Old World and their
-relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting. The chief species
-found in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels, _Silurus glanis_. This,
-next to the sturgeon, is the largest river fish in Europe, weighing 300
-to 400 pounds. It is not found in England, France, or Italy, but abounds
-in the Danube. It is a lazy fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping
-from nets. It is very voracious, and many stories are told of the
-contents of its stomach. A small child swallowed whole is recorded from
-Thorn, and there are still more remarkable stories, but not properly
-vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in color, naked, sleek, and much
-like an American _Ameiurus_ save that its tail is much longer and more
-eel-like. Another large catfish, known to the ancients, but only
-recently rediscovered by Agassiz and Garman, is _Parasilurus
-aristotelis_ of the rivers of Greece. In China and Japan is the very
-similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish, _Parasilurus asotus_, often found
-in ponds and used as food. Numerous smaller related catfishes, _Porcus_
-(_Bagrus_), _Pseudobagrus_, and related genera swarm in the brooks and
-ponds of the Orient.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 146.—Electric Catfish, _Torpedo electricus_ (Gmelin). Congo
-    River. (After Boulenger.)
-]
-
-In the genus _Torpedo_ (_Malapterurus_) the dorsal fin is wanting.
-_Torpedo electricus_, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species of
-much interest to anatomists. The shock is like that of a Leyden jar. The
-structures concerned are noticed on p. 186, Vol. I. The generic name
-_Torpedo_ was applied to the electric catfish before its use for the
-electric ray.
-
-In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster around the
-genus _Pimelodus_. Some of them have the snout very long and spatulate.
-Most of them possess a very long adipose fin. The species are generally
-small in size and with smooth skin like the North American catfishes.
-Still other species in great numbers are grouped around the genus
-_Doras_. In this group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at
-its end, and the lateral line is armed behind with spinous shields. All
-but one of the genera belong to the Amazon district, _Synodontis_ being
-found in Africa.
-
-Concerning _Doras_, Dr. Günther observes: "These fishes have excited
-attention by their habit of traveling during the dry season from a piece
-of water about to dry up in quest of a pond of greater capacity. These
-journeys are occasionally of such a length that the fish spends whole
-nights on the way, and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so
-large that the Indians who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the
-prey thus placed in their hands. The Indians suppose that the fish carry
-a supply of water with them, but they have no special organs and can
-only do so by closing the gill-openings or by retaining a little water
-between the plates of their bodies, as Hancock supposes. The same
-naturalist adds that they make regular nests, in which they cover up
-their eggs with care and defend them, male and female uniting in this
-parental duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed, at
-the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is sometimes placed in
-a hole scooped out of the beach."
-
-=The Sisoridæ.=—The _Sisoridæ_ are small catfishes found in swift
-mountain streams of northern India. In some of the genera
-(_Pseudecheneis_) in swift streams a sucking-disk formed of longitudinal
-plates of skin is formed on the breast. This enables these fishes to
-resist the force of the water. In one genus, _Exostoma_, plates of skin
-about the mouth serve the same purpose.
-
-The _Bunocephalidæ_ are South American catfishes with the dorsal fin
-undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In _Platystacus_ (_Aspredo_),
-the eggs are carried on the belly of the female, which is provided with
-spongy tentacles to which the eggs are attached. After the breeding
-season the ventral surface becomes again smooth.
-
-=The Plotosidæ.=—The _Plotosidæ_ are naked catfishes, largely marine,
-found along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the second dorsal is
-very long. _Plotosus anguillaris_, the sea catfish of Japan, is a small
-species striped with yellow and armed with sharp pectoral spines which
-render it a very disagreeable object to the fishermen. In sandy bays
-like that of Nagasaki it is very abundant. Allied to this is the small
-Asiatic family of _Chacidæ_.
-
-=The Chlariidæ.=—The _Chlariidæ_ are eel-like, with a soft skeleton and
-a peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps and muddy streams
-of India, where some species reach a length of six feet. One species,
-_Chlarias magur_, has been brought by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it
-flourishes in the same waters as _Ameiurus nebulosus_, brought from the
-Potomac and by Chinese carried from San Francisco.
-
-=The Hypophthalmidæ and Pygidiidæ.=—The _Hypophthalmidæ_ have the minute
-air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule. The eyes are placed very
-low and the skin is smooth. The statement that this family lacks the
-auditory apparatus is not correct. The few species belong to northern
-South America.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 147.—An African Catfish, _Chlarias breviceps_ Boulenger. Congo
-    River. Family _Chlariidæ_. (After Boulenger.)
-]
-
-Allied to this group is the family _Pygidiidæ_ with a differently formed
-bony capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous species are all South
-American, mostly of mountain streams of high altitude. Some are very
-small. Certain species are said to flee for protection into the
-gill-cavity of larger catfishes. Some are reported to enter the urethra
-of bathers, causing severe injuries. The resemblance of certain species
-to the loaches, or _Cobitidæ_, is very striking. This similarity is due
-to the results of similar environment and necessarily parallel habits.
-The _Argidæ_ have the capsule of the air-bladder formed in a still
-different fashion. The few species are very small, inhabitants of the
-streams of the high Andes.
-
-=The Loricariidæ.=—In the family of _Loricariidæ_ the sides and back are
-armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder is still in a bony
-capsule, and the mouth is small with thick fringed lips. The numerous
-species are all small fishes of the South American waters, bearing a
-strong external resemblance to _Agonidæ_, but wholly different in
-anatomy.
-
-=The Callichthyidæ.=—The _Callichthyidæ_ are also small fishes armed
-with a bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely allied to the
-_Pygidiidæ_. The body is more robust than in the _Callichthyidæ_ and the
-coat of mail is differently formed. The species swarm in the rivers of
-northern South America, where with the mailed _Loricariidæ_ they form a
-conspicuous part of the fish fauna.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 148.—_Loricaria aurea_ Steindachner, a mailed Catfish from Rio
-    Meta, Venezuela. Family _Loricariidæ_. (After Steindachner.)
-]
-
-=Fossil Catfishes.=—Fossil catfishes are very few in number. _Siluridæ_,
-allied to _Chlarias_, _Bagarius_, _Heterobranchus_, and other
-fresh-water forms of India, are found in the late Tertiary rocks of
-Sumatra, and catfish spines exist in the Tertiary rocks of the United
-States. Vertebræ in the Canadian Oligocene have been referred by Cope to
-species of _Ameiurus_ (_A. cancellatus_ and _A. maconnelli_).
-_Rhineastes peltatus_ and six other species, perhaps allied to
-_Pimelodus_, have been described by Cope from Eocene of Wyoming and
-Colorado. _Bucklandium diluvii_ is found in the Eocene London clays, and
-several species apparently marine, referred to the neighborhood of
-_Tachysurus_ or _Arius_, are found in Eocene rocks of England.
-
-There is no evidence that the group of catfishes has any great
-antiquity, or that its members were ever so numerous and varied as at
-the present time. The group is evidently derived from scaly ancestors,
-and its peculiarities are due to specialization of certain parts and
-degeneration of others.
-
-There is not the slightest reason for regarding the catfishes as direct
-descendants of the sturgeon or other Ganoid type. They should rather be
-looked upon as a degenerate and highly modified offshoot from the
-primitive Characins.
-
-=Order Gymnonoti.=—At the end of the series of _Ostariophysans_ we may
-place the _Gymnonoti_ (γυμνός, bare; νῶτος, back). This group contains
-about thirty species of fishes from the rivers of South America and
-Central America. All are eel-like in form, though the skeleton with the
-shoulder-girdle suspended from the cranium is quite unlike that of a
-true eel. There is no dorsal fin. The vent is at the throat and the anal
-is excessively long. The gill-opening is small as in the eel, and as in
-most elongate fishes, the ventral fins are undeveloped. The body is
-naked or covered with small scales.
-
-Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance. The
-_Electrophoridæ_ constitutes by itself Cope's order of _Glanencheli_
-(γλανίς, catfish; ἔγχελυς, eel). This group he regards as intermediate
-between the eel-like catfishes (_Chlarias_) and the true eels. It is
-naked and eel-shaped, with a short head and projecting lower jaw like
-that of the true eel. The single species, _Electrophorus electricus_,
-inhabits the rivers of Brazil, reaching a length of six feet, and is the
-most powerful of all electric fishes. Its electric organs on the tail
-are derived from modified muscular tissue. They are described on p. 170,
-Vol. I.
-
-The _Gymnotidæ_ are much smaller in size, with compressed scaly bodies
-and the mouth at the end of a long snout. The numerous species are all
-fishes without electric organs. _Eigenmannia humboldti_ of the Panama
-region is a characteristic species. No fossil _Gymnonoti_ are recorded.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER X
-                  THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI
-
-
-=ORDER Scyphophori.=—The _Scyphophori_ (σκύφος, cup; φορέω, to bear)
-constitutes a small order which lies apparently between the _Gymnonoti_
-and the _Isospondyli_. Boulenger unites it with the _Isospondyli_. The
-species, about seventy-five in number, inhabit the rivers of Africa,
-where they are important as food-fishes. In all there is a deep cavity
-on each side of the cranium covered by a thin bony plate, the
-supertemporal bone. There is no symplectic bone, and the subopercle is
-very small or concealed. The gill-openings are narrow and there are no
-pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder connects with the ear, but not
-apparently in the same way as with the _Ostariophysan_ fishes, to which,
-however, the _Scyphophori_ are most nearly related. In all the
-_Scyphophori_ the body is oblong, covered with cycloid scales, the head
-is naked, there are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the end of a
-long snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail, which
-with reference to a similar structure in _Torpedo_ and _Electrophorus_
-is held to be a degenerate electric organ. According to Günther, "it is
-without electric functions, but evidently representing a transitional
-condition from muscular substance to an electric organ. It is an oblong
-capsule divided into numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa
-and containing a gelatinous substance."
-
-=The Mormyridæ.=—There are two families of _Scyphophori_. The
-_Mormyridæ_ have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the
-_Gymnarchidæ_ are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting.
-_Gymnarchus miloticus_ of the Nile reaches a length of six feet, and it
-is remarkable as retaining the cellular structure of the air-bladder as
-seen in the garpike and bowfin. It doubtless serves as an imperfect
-lung.
-
-The best-known genus of _Scyphophori_ is _Mormyrus_. Species of this
-genus found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by the ancient
-Egyptians and pictures of _Mormyrus_ are often seen among the emblematic
-inscriptions. The Egyptians did not eat the _Mormyrus_ because with two
-other fishes it was accused of having devoured a limb from the body of
-Osiris, so that Isis was unable to recover it when she gathered the
-scattered remains of her husband.
-
-In _Mormyrus_ the bones of the head are covered by skin, the snout is
-more or less elongated, and the tail is generally short and
-insignificant. One of the most characteristically eccentric species is
-_Gnathonemus curvirostris_, lately discovered by Dr. Boulenger from the
-Congo. Fossil _Mormyridæ_ are unknown.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 149.—_Gnathonemus curvirostris_ Boulenger. Family _Mormyridæ_.
-    Congo River. (After Boulenger.)
-]
-
-=The Haplomi.=—In the groups called _Iniomi_ and _Lyopomi_, the
-mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition which in some
-cases may be due to the degeneration produced by deep-sea life. In the
-eels a similar condition obtains. In the group called _Haplomi_ (ἁπλοός,
-simple; ὤμος, shoulder), as in all the groups of fishes yet to be
-discussed, this arch is wholly wanting at all stages of development. In
-common with the _Isospondyli_ and with soft-rayed fishes in general the
-air-bladder has a persistent air-duct, all the fins are without true
-spines, the ventral fins are abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The
-group is a transitional one, lying almost equidistant between the
-_Isospondyli_ and the _Acanthopterygii_. Gill unites it with the latter
-and Woodward with the former. We may regard it for the present as a
-distinct order, although no character of high importance separates it
-from either. Hay unites the _Haplom_i with the _Synentognathi_ to form
-the order of _Mesichthyes_, or transitional fishes, but the affinities
-of either with other groups are quite as well marked as their relation
-to each other. Boulenger unites the _Iniomi_ with the _Haplomi_, an
-arrangement which apparently has merit, for the most primitive and
-non-degenerate _Iniomi_, as _Aulopus_ and _Synodus_, lack both
-mesocoracoid and orbitosphenoid. These bones are characteristic of the
-_Isospondyli_, but are wanting in _Haplomi_.
-
-There is no adipose dorsal in the typical _Haplomi_, the dorsal is
-inserted far back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but not all of
-the species are of small size, living in fresh or brackish water, and
-they are found in almost all warm regions, though scantily represented
-in California, Japan, and Polynesia. The four families of typical
-_Haplomi_ differ considerably from one another and are easily
-distinguished, although obviously related. Several other families are
-provisionally added to this group on account of agreement in technical
-characters, but their actual relationships are uncertain.
-
-=The Pikes.=—The _Esocidæ_ have the body long and slender and the mouth
-large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp teeth of different sizes,
-some of them being movable. The upper jaw is not projectile, and its
-margin, as in the _Salmonidæ_, is formed by the maxillary. The scales
-are small, and the dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the
-stomach is without pyloric cæca. There is but a single genus, _Esox_
-(_Lucius_ of Rafinesque), with about five or six living species. Four of
-these are North American, the other one being found in Europe, Asia, and
-North America.
-
-All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destructive to other
-species which may happen to be their neighbors; "mere machines for the
-assimilation of other organisms." Thoreau describes the pike as "the
-swiftest, wariest, and most ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the
-river-wolf. It is a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the
-shadow of a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye;
-motionless as a jewel set in water, or moving slowly along to take up
-its position; darting from time to time at such unlucky fish or frog or
-insect as comes within its range, and swallowing it at one gulp.
-Sometimes a striped snake, bound for greener meadows across the stream,
-ends its undulatory progress in the same receptacle."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 150.—The Pike, _Esox-lucius_ L. (From life by R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-As food-fishes, all the _Esocidæ_ rank high. Their flesh is white,
-fine-grained, disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor.
-
-The finest of the _Esocidæ_, a species to be compared, as a grand game
-fish, with the salmon, is the muskallunge (_Esox masquinongy_).
-Technically this species may be known by the fact that its cheeks and
-opercles are both naked on the lower half. It may be known also by its
-great size and by its color, young and old being spotted with black on a
-golden-olive ground.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 151.—Muskallunge, _Esox masquinongy_ Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.
-]
-
-The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region, where it
-inhabits the deeper waters, except for a short time in the spring, when
-it enters the streams to spawn. It often reaches a length of six feet
-and a weight of sixty to eighty pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare,
-for no small locality would furnish food for more than one such giant.
-It is, says Hallock, "a long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way
-formed for the life it leads, that of a dauntless marauder."
-
-A second species of muskallunge, _Esox ohiensis_, unspotted but vaguely
-cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River and the upper
-Mississippi Valley. It is especially abundant in Chautauqua Lake.
-
-The pike (_Esox lucius_) is smaller than the muskallunge, and is
-technically best distinguished by the fact that the opercles are naked
-below, while the cheeks are entirely scaly. The spots and cross-bars in
-the pike are whitish or yellowish, and always paler than the olive-gray
-ground color. It is the most widely distributed of all fresh-water
-fishes, being found from the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes,
-and New England to Alaska and throughout northern Asia and Europe. It
-reaches a weight of ten to twenty pounds or more, being a large strong
-fish in its way, inferior only to the muskallunge. In England _Esox
-lucius_ is known as the pike, while its young are called by the
-diminutive term pickerel. In America the name pickerel is usually given
-to the smaller species, and sometimes even to _Esox lucius_ itself, the
-word being with us a synonym for pike, not a diminutive.
-
-Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the eastern
-United States. They are greenish in color and banded or reticulated,
-rather than spotted, and, in all, the opercles as well as the cheeks are
-fully covered with scales. One of these (_Esox reticulatus_) is the
-common pickerel of the Eastern States, which reaches a respectable size
-and is excellent as food. The others, _Esox americanus_ along the
-Atlantic seaboard and _Esox vermiculatus_ in the middle West, seldom
-exceed a foot in length and are of no economic importance.
-
-Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe, _Esox
-lepidotus_ from the Miocene of Baden being one of the earliest and the
-best known; in this species the scales are much larger than in the
-recent species. The fossil remains would seem to indicate that the
-origin of the family was in southern Europe, although most of the living
-species are American.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 152.—Mud-minnow, _Umbra pygmæa_ (De Kay). New Jersey.
-]
-
-=The Mud-minnows.=—Close to the pike is the family of _Umbridæ_, or
-mud-minnows, which technically differ from the pikes only in the short
-snout, small mouth, and weak dentition. The mud-minnows are small,
-sluggish, carnivorous fishes living in the mud at the bottom of cold,
-clear streams and ponds. They are extremely tenacious of life, though
-soon suffocated in warm waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of
-the middle West (_Umbra limi_) often remains in dried sloughs and
-bog-holes, and has been sometimes plowed up alive. _Umbra pygmæa_, a
-striped species, is found in the Eastern States and _Umbra crameri_ in
-bogs and brooks along the Danube. This wide break in distribution seems
-to indicate a former wide extension of the range of _Umbridæ_, perhaps
-coextensive with _Esox_. Fossil _Umbridæ_ are, however, not yet
-recognized.
-
-=The Killifishes.=—Most of the recent _Haplomi_ belong to the family of
-_Pœciliidæ_ (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this group the small
-mouth is extremely protractile, its margin formed by the premaxillaries
-alone much as in the spiny-rayed fishes. The teeth are small and of
-various forms according to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms
-they are incisor-like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the
-species that eat insects or worms they are more firmly fixed. The head
-is scaly, the stomach without cæca, and the intestines are long in the
-plant-eating species and short in the others. There are nearly 200
-species, very abundant from New England and California southward to
-Argentina, and in Asia and Africa also. In regions where rice is
-produced, they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some of them enter
-the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some are brilliantly
-colored, and in many species the males are quite unlike the females,
-being smaller and more showy. The largest species (_Fundulus_,
-_Anableps_) rarely reach the length of a foot, while _Heterandria
-formosa_, a diminutive inhabitant of the Florida rivers, scarcely
-reaches an inch. Some species are oviparous, but in most of the
-herbivorous forms, and some of the others, the eggs are hatched within
-the body, and the anal in the male is modified into a long sword-shaped
-intromittent organ, placed farther forward than the anal in the female.
-The young when born closely resemble the parent. Most of the
-insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving slowly with the eyes
-partly out of water. This habit in the genus _Anableps_ (four-eyed fish,
-or _Cuatro ojos_) is associated with an extraordinary structure of the
-eye. This organ is prominent and is divided by a horizontal partition
-into two parts, the upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air,
-the lower in the water. The few species of _Anableps_ are found in
-tropical America. The species of some genera swim near the bottom, but
-always in very shallow waters. All are very tenacious of life, and none
-have any commercial value although the flesh is good.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 152_a_.—Four-eyed Fish, _Anableps dovii_ Gill. Tehuantepec,
-    Mexico.
-]
-
-The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been carefully
-studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S. Fish Commission,
-who furnishes the following notes published by Evermann & Goldsborough:
-
-"The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, and
-parallel with the length of the body. This bar is darker than the other
-external portions of the eyeball and has its edges darker still.
-Dividing the external aspect of the eye equally, it has its lower edge
-on the same level as the back of the fish, which is flat and straight
-from snout to dorsal, or nearly the whole length of the fish; so that
-when the body of the fish is just submerged the level of the water
-reaches to this bar, and the lower half of the eye is in water, the
-upper half in the air. Upon dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it
-appears nearly round. A membranous sheath covers the external part and
-invests most of the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the
-external portion of the eye is seen to be upon this membrane, which may
-correspond to the conjunctiva. The back portion of the eyeball being cut
-off, one lens is found. The lining of the ball consists, in front, of
-one black layer, evidently choroid. Behind there is a retinal layer. The
-choroid layer turns up anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an
-iris. The free edge is chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A
-large pupil is left, but is divided by two flaps, continuations of the
-choroid coat, projecting from either side and overlapping. There are
-properly then two pupils, an upper and lower, separated by a band
-consisting of the two flaps, which may probably, by moving upward and
-downward, increase or diminish the size of either pupil; an upward
-motion of the flaps increasing the lower pupil at the expense of the
-other, and vice versa."
-
-This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, when
-swimming at the surface of the water, as is its usual custom, to see in
-the air with the upper portion and in the water with the lower. It is
-thus able to see not only such insects as are upon the surface of the
-water or flying in the air above, but also any that may be swimming
-beneath the surface.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 153.—Round Minnow, _Cyprinodon variegatus_ Lacépède. St. George
-    Island, Maryland.
-]
-
-According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, "the individuals of this species swim
-always at the surface and in little schools arranged in platoons or
-abreast. They always swim headed upstream against the current, and feed
-upon floating matter which the current brings them. A platoon may be
-seen in regular formation breasting the current, either making slight
-headway upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui
-vive for any suitable food the current may bring. Now and then one may
-be seen to dart forward, seize a floating food particle, and then resume
-its place in the platoon. And thus they may be observed feeding for long
-periods. They are almost invariably found in running water well out in
-the stream, or at least where the current is strongest and where
-floating matter is most abundant, for it is upon floating matter that
-they seem chiefly to depend. They are not known to jump out of the water
-to catch insects flying in the air or resting upon vegetation above the
-water surface, nor do they seem to feed to any extent upon all small
-crustaceans or other portions of the plankton beneath the surface.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 154.—Everglade Minnow, _Jordanella floridæ_ Goode & Bean.
-    Everglades of Florida.
-]
-
-"When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily frightened—they escape
-by skipping or jumping over the water, 2 or 3 feet at a skip. They rise
-entirely out of the water, and at a considerable angle, the head
-pointing upward. In descending the tail strikes the water first and
-apparently by a sculling motion new impetus is acquired for another
-leap. This skipping may continue until the school is widely scattered.
-When a school has become scattered, and after the cause of their fright
-has disappeared, the individuals soon rejoin each other. First two will
-join each other and one by one the others will join them until the whole
-school is together again. Rarely do they attempt to dive or get beneath
-the surface; when they do they have great difficulty in keeping under
-and soon come to the surface again."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 155.—Mayfish, _Fundulus majalis_ (L.) (male). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 156.—Mayfish, _Fundulus majalis_ (female). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 157.—Top-minnow, _Zygonectes notatus_ (Rafinesque). Eureka
-    Springs, Ark.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 158.—Death Valley Fish, _Empetrichthys merriami_ Gilbert.
-    Amargosa Desert, Cal. Family _Pœciliidæ_. (After Gilbert.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 159.—Sword-tail Minnow, male, _Xiphophorus helleri_ Heckel. The
-    anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz.
-]
-
-Of the many genera of _Pœciliidæ_, top-minnows, and killifishes we may
-mention the following: _Cyprinodon_ is made up of chubby little fishes
-of eastern America with tricuspid, incisor teeth, oviparous and
-omnivorous. Very similar to these but smaller are the species of
-_Lebias_ in southern Europe. _Jordanella floridæ_ of the Florida
-everglades is similar, but with the dorsal fin long and its first ray
-enlarged and spine-like. It strongly resembles a young sunfish. Most of
-the larger forms belong to _Fundulus_, a genus widely distributed from
-Maine to Guatemala and north to Kansas and southern California.
-_Fundulus majalis_, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is the largest of
-the genus. _Fundulus heteroclitus_, the killifish, the most abundant.
-_Fundulus diaphanus_ inhabits sea and lake indiscriminately. _Fundulus
-stellifer_ of the Alabama is beautifully colored, as is _Fundulus
-zebrinus_ of the Rio Grande. The genus _Zygonectes_ includes dwarf
-species similar to _Fundulus_, and _Adinia_ includes those with short,
-deep body. _Goodea atripinnis_ with tricuspid teeth lives in warm
-springs in Mexico, and several species of _Goodea_, _Gambusia_,
-_Pœcilia_, and other genera inhabit hot springs of Mexico, Central
-America, and Africa. The genus _Gambusia_, the top-minnows, includes
-numerous species with dwarf males having the anal modified. _Gambusia
-affinis_ abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in the southern
-lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It brings forth its brood in
-early spring. Viviparous and herbivorous with modified anal fin are the
-species of _Pœcilia_, abundant throughout Mexico and southward to
-Brazil; _Mollienesia_ very similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin,
-showily marked, occurs from Louisiana southward, and _Xiphophorus_, with
-a sword-shaped lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; _Characodon_ and
-_Goodea_ (see Fig. 53, Vol. I) in Mexico have notched teeth, and
-finally, _Heterandria_ contains some of the least of fishes, the
-handsomely colored males barely half an inch long.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 160.—_Goodea luitpoldi_ (Steindachner). A viviparous fish from
-    Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico. Family _Pœciliidæ_. (After Meek.)
-]
-
-In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (_Orestias_)
-without ventral fins. Still more peculiar is _Empetrichthys merriami_ of
-the desert springs of the hot and rainless Death Valley in California,
-similar to _Orestias_, but with enormously enlarged pharyngeals and
-pharyngeal teeth, an adaptation to some unknown purpose. Fossil
-Cyprinodonts are not rare from the Miocene in southern Europe. The
-numerous species are allied to _Lebias_ and _Cyprinodon_, and are
-referred to _Prolebias_ and _Pachylebias_. None are American, although
-two American extinct genera, _Gephyrura_ and _Proballostomus_, are
-probably allied to this group.
-
-=Amblyopsidæ.=—The cavefishes, _Amblyopsidæ_, are the most remarkable of
-the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is placed at the throat.
-The form is that of the _Pœciliidæ_, but the mouth is larger and not
-protractile. The species are viviparous, the young being born at about
-the length of a quarter of an inch.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 161.—Dismal Swamp Fish, _Chologaster cornutus_ Agassiz. Supposed
-    ancestor of _Typhlichthys_. Virginia.
-]
-
-In the primitive genus _Chologaster_, the fish of the Dismal Swamp, the
-eyes are small but normally developed. _Chologaster cornutus_ abounds in
-the black waters of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, thence southward
-through swamps and rice-fields to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida.
-It is a small fish, less than two inches long, striped with black, and
-with the habit of a top-minnow. Other species of _Chologaster_,
-possessing eyes and color, but provided also with tactile papillæ, are
-found in cave springs in Tennessee and southern Illinois.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 162.—Blind Cave-fish, _Typhlichthys subterraneus_ Girard. Mammoth
-    Cave, Kentucky.
-]
-
-From _Chologaster_ is directly descended the small blindfish
-_Typhlichthys subterraneus_ of the caves of the Subcarboniferous
-limestone rocks of southern Indiana and southward to northern Alabama.
-As in _Chologaster_, the ventral fins are wanting. The eyes, present in
-the young, become defective and useless in the adult, when they are
-almost hidden by other tissues. The different parts of the eye are all
-more or less incomplete, being without function. The structure of the
-eye has been described in much detail in several papers by Dr. Carl H.
-Eigenmann. As to the cause of the loss of eyesight two chief theories
-exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance in the species of the
-results of disuse in the individual and the Weissmannian doctrine that
-the loss of sight is a result of panmixia or cessation of selection.
-This may be extended to cover reversal of selection, as in the depths of
-the great caves the fish without eyes would be at some slight advantage.
-Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but the evidence
-brought forward fails to convince the present writer that results of
-individual use or disuse ever become hereditary or that they are ever
-incorporated in the characters of a species. In the caves of southern
-Missouri is an independent case of similar degradation. _Troglichthys
-rosæ_, the blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of
-degeneration. It is thought to be separately descended from some other
-species of _Chologaster_. Of this species Mr. Garman and Mr. Eigenmann
-have given detailed accounts from somewhat different points of view.
-
-Concerning the habits of the blindfish (_Troglichthys rosæ_), Mr. Garman
-quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth Hoppin, of Jasper County,
-Missouri: "For about two weeks I have been watching a fish taken from a
-well. I gave him considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in
-an uninhabited place subject to as few changes of temperature as
-possible. He seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when first taken
-from the well. If not capable of long fasts, he must live on small
-organisms my eye cannot discern. He is hardly ever still, but moves
-about the sides of the vessel constantly, down and up, as if needing the
-air. He never swims through the body of the water away from the sides
-unless disturbed. Passing the finger over the sides of the vessel under
-water I find it slippery. I am careful not to disturb this slimy coating
-when the water is changed.... Numerous tests convince me that it is
-through the sense of touch, and not through hearing, that the fish is
-disturbed; I may scream or strike metal bodies together over him as near
-as possible, yet he seems to take no notice whatever. If I strike the
-vessel so that the water is set in motion, he darts away from that side
-through the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I stir
-the water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his actions are the
-same."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 163.—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, _Amblyopsis spelæus_ (De
-    Kay). Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
-]
-
-The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, _Amblyopsis spelæus_,
-reaches a length of five inches. It possesses ventral fins. From this
-fact we may infer its descent from some extinct genus which, unlike
-_Chologaster_, retains these fins. The translucent body, as in the other
-blindfishes, is covered with very delicate tactile papillæ, which form a
-very delicate organ of touch.
-
-The anomalous position of the vent in _Amblyopsidæ_ occurs again in an
-equally singular fish, _Aphredoderus sayanus_, which is found in the
-same waters throughout the same region in which _Chologaster_ occurs. It
-would seem as if these lowland fishes of the southern swamps were
-remains of a once much more extensive fauna.
-
-No fossil allies of _Chologaster_ are known.
-
-=Kneriidæ, etc.=—The members of the order of _Haplomi_, recorded above,
-differ widely among themselves in various details of osteology. There
-are other families, probably belonging here, which are still more
-aberrant. Among these are the _Kneriidæ_, and perhaps the entire series
-of forms called _Iniomi_, most of which possess the osteological traits
-of the _Haplomi_.
-
-The family of _Kneriidæ_ includes a few very small fishes of the rivers
-of Africa.
-
-=The Galaxiidæ.=—The _Galaxiidæ_ are trout-like fishes of the southern
-rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the northern zones.
-The species lack the adipose fins and have the dorsal inserted well
-backward. According to Boulenger these fishes, having no mesocoraoid,
-should be placed among the _Haplomi_. Yet their relation to the
-_Haplochitonidæ_ is very close and both families may really belong to
-the _Isospondyli_. _Galaxias truttaceus_ is the kokopu, or "trout," of
-New Zealand. _Galaxias ocellatus_ is the yarra trout of Australia.
-Several other species are found in southern Australia, Tasmania,
-Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands, and even in South Africa. This very
-wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has given rise to
-the suggestion of a former land connection between Australia and
-Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some geologists to believe in
-the existence of a former great continent called Antarctica, now
-submerged except that part which constitutes the present unknown land of
-the Antarctic.
-
-As intimated on p. 253, Vol. I, this distribution of _Galaxias_ with
-similar anomalies in other groups could not if unsupported by geological
-evidence be held to prove the former extension of the Antarctic
-continent. Dr. Boulenger[12] has recently shown that _Galaxias_ lives
-freely in salt water, a fact sufficient to account for its wide
-distribution in the rivers of the southern hemisphere.
-
-Footnote 12:
-
-  Dr. Boulenger (_Nature_, Nov. 27, 1902) has the following note on
-  _Galaxias_: "Most text-books and papers discussing geographical
-  distribution have made much of the range of a genus of small fishes,
-  somewhat resembling trout, the _Galaxias_, commonly described as true
-  fresh-water forms, which have long been known from the extreme south
-  of South America, New Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Australia. The
-  discovery, within the last few years, of a species of the same genus
-  in fresh water near Cape Town, whence it had previously been described
-  as a loach by F. de Castelnau, has added to the interest, and has been
-  adduced as a further argument in support of the former existence of an
-  Antarctic continent. In alluding to this discovery when discussing the
-  distribution of African fresh-water fishes in the introduction to my
-  work 'Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo,' in 1901, I observed that,
-  contrary to the prevailing notion, all species of _Galaxias_ are not
-  confined to fresh water, and that the fact of some living both in the
-  sea and in rivers suffices to explain the curious distribution of the
-  genus; pointing out that in all probability these fishes were formerly
-  more widely distributed in the seas south of the tropic of Capricorn,
-  and that certain species, adapting themselves entirely to fresh-water
-  life, have become localized at the distant points where they are now
-  known to exist. Although as recently as October last the distinguished
-  American ichthyologist D. S. Jordan wrote (_Science_, xiv, p. 20): 'We
-  know nothing of the power of _Galaxias_ to survive submergence in salt
-  water, if carried in a marine current': it is an established fact,
-  ascertained some years ago by F. E. Clarke in New Zealand and by R.
-  Vallentin in the Falkland Islands, that _Galaxias attenuatus_ lives
-  also in the sea. In New Zealand it periodically descends to the sea,
-  where it spawns, from January to March, and returns from March to May.
-  In accordance with these marine habits, this species has a much wider
-  range than any of the others, being known from Chile, Patagonia,
-  Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, New Zealand, Tasmania, and
-  southern Australia.
-
-  "I now wish to draw attention to a communication made by Captain F. W.
-  Hutton in the last number of the Transactions of the New Zealand
-  Institute (xxxiv, p. 198), 'On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland
-  Islands.' This fish, named _Galaxias bollansi_, was taken out of the
-  mouth of a specimen of _Merganser australis_ during the collection
-  excursion to the southern islands of New Zealand made in January,
-  1901, by His Excellency the Earl of Ranfurly.
-
-  "It is hoped that by giving greater publicity to these discoveries the
-  family _Galaxiidæ_ will no longer be included among those strictly
-  confined to fresh waters, and that students of the geographical
-  distribution of animals will be furnished with a clue to a problem
-  that has so often been discussed on insufficient data. As observed by
-  Jordan (_l. c._), all anomalies in distribution cease to be such when
-  the facts necessary to understand them are at hand.'
-
-  "Of the fresh-water species of _Galaxias_, eight are known from New
-  Zealand and the neighboring islands, seven from New South Wales, three
-  or four from south Australia, one from west Australia, two from
-  Tasmania, seven from South America, from Chile southwards, and one
-  from the Cape of Good Hope."
-
-_Neochanna_ is an ally of _Galaxias_ living in burrows in the clay or
-mud like a crayfish, often at a distance from water. As in various other
-mud-living types, the ventral fins are obsolete.
-
-=Order Xenomi.=—We must place near the _Haplomi_ the singular group of
-_Xenomi_ (ξενός, strange; ὤμος, shoulder), regarded by Dr. Gill as a
-distinct order. Externally these fish much resemble the mud-minnows,
-differing mainly in the very broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin
-and papery, the two coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate
-imperfectly divided. The pectorals are attached directly to this without
-the intervention of actinosts, but in the distal third, according to Dr.
-Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate begins to break up into a fringe
-of narrow cartilaginous strips. These about equal the very large number
-(33 to 36) of pectoral rays, the basal part of each ray being slightly
-forked to receive the tip of the cartilaginous strip.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 164.—Alaska Blackfish, _Dallia pectoralis_ (Bean). St. Michaels,
-    Alaska.
-]
-
-"In the deep-sea eels of the order _Heteromi_ there is a somewhat
-similar condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as the hypercoracoid
-and hypocoracoid though present are merely membranous elements
-surrounded by cartilage and the actinosts are greatly reduced. It seems
-probable that we are dealing in the two cases with independent
-degeneration of the shoulder-girdle and that the two groups (_Xenomi_
-and _Heteromi_) are not really related." (Gilbert.)
-
-Of the single family _Dalliidæ_, one species is known, the Alaska
-blackfish, _Dallia pectoralis_.
-
-This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length of eight inches
-and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of northwestern Alaska and
-westward through Siberia. It is found in countless numbers according to
-its discoverer, Mr. L. M. Turner, "wherever there is water enough to wet
-the skin of a fish," and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of
-the natives. Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will remain
-frozen in baskets for weeks and when thawed out are as lively as ever.
-Turner gives an account of a frozen individual swallowed by a dog which
-escaped in safety after being thawed out by the heat of the dog's
-stomach.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER XI
-                     ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI
-
-
-=ORDER Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.=—The most of the
-remaining bony fishes constitute a natural group for which the name
-_Acanthopterygii_ (ἄκανθα, spine; πτερύξ, πτερόν, fin or wing) may be
-used. This name is often written _Actinopteri_, a form equally correct
-and more euphonious and convenient. These fishes are characterized, with
-numerous exceptions, by the presence of fin spines, by the connection of
-the ventral fins with the shoulder-girdle, by the presence in general of
-more than one spine in the anterior part of dorsal and anal fins, and as
-a rule of one spine and five rays in the ventral fins, and by the
-absence in the adult of a duct to the air-bladder. Minor characters are
-these: the pectoral fins are inserted high on the shoulder-girdle, the
-scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper jaw is formed by the
-premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always toothless.
-
-But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any single
-character or group of characters. It is connected with the
-_Malacopterygii_ through the _Haplomi_ on the one hand by transitional
-groups of genera which may lack any one of these characters. On the
-other hand, in the extreme forms, each of these distinctive characters
-may be lost through degeneration. Thus fin spines, ctenoid scales, and
-the homocercal tail are lost in the codfishes, the connection of
-ventrals with shoulder-girdle fails in the _Percesoces_, etc., and the
-development of the air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In
-one family even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and
-modifications the species have undergone.
-
-The various transitional forms between the _Haplomi_ and the perch-like
-fishes have been from time to time regarded as separate orders. Some of
-them are more related to the perch, others rather to ancestors of salmon
-or pike, while still others are degenerate offshoots, far enough from
-either.
-
-On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and transitional, may
-well be placed in one order, which would include the primitive
-flying-fishes and mullets, the degraded globefishes, and the specialized
-flounders. As for the most part these are spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier's
-name _Acanthopterygii_, or _Acanthopteri_, will serve us as well as any.
-The _Physoclysti_ of Müller, the _Thoracices_ of older authors, and the
-_Ctenoidei_ of Agassiz include substantially the same series of forms.
-The order _Teleocephali_ of Gill (τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head) has
-been lately so restricted as to cover nearly the same ground. In Gill's
-most recent catalogue of families, the order _Teleocephali_ includes the
-_Haplomi_ and rejects the _Hemibranchii_, _Lophobranchii_,
-_Plectognathi_, and _Pediculati_, all of these being groups
-characterized by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters not
-of the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order
-_Teleocephali_ included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the
-_Ostariophysi_ were first detached, and still later the _Isospondyli_
-were regarded by Dr. Gill as a separate order.
-
-We may first take up serially as suborders the principal groups which
-serve to effect the transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes.
-
-=Suborder Synentognathi.=—Among the transitional forms between the
-soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most important groups
-is that known as _Synentognathi_ (σύν, together; ἔν, within; γνάθος,
-jaw). These have, in brief, the fins and shoulder-girdle of _Haplomi_,
-the ventral fins abdominal, the dorsal and anal without spines. At the
-same time, as in the spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct
-and the pectoral fins are inserted high on the side of the body. With
-these traits are two others which characterize the group as a suborder.
-The lower pharyngeal bones are solidly united into one bone and the
-lateral line forms a raised ridge along the lower side of the body.
-These forms are structurally allied to the pikes (_Haplomi_), on the one
-hand, and to the mullets (_Percesoces_), on the other, and this
-relationship accords with their general appearance. In this group as in
-all the remaining families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in
-very nearly all of these families the duct to the air-bladder disappears
-at an early stage of development.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 165.—Needle-fish, _Tylosurus acus_ (Lacépède). New York.
-]
-
-=The Garfishes: Belonidæ.=—There are two principal groups or families
-among the _Synentognathi_, the _Belonidæ_, with strong jaws and teeth,
-and the _Exocœtidæ_, in which these structures are feeble. Much more
-important characters appear in the anatomy. In the _Belonidæ_ the third
-upper pharyngeal is small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly
-soldered to the premaxillary. The vertebræ are provided with
-zygapophyses. The species of _Belonidæ_ are known as garfishes, or
-needle-fishes. They resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing else
-in common. The body is long and slender, covered with small scales.
-Sharp, unequal teeth fill the long jaws and the dorsal is opposite the
-anal, on the hinder part of the body. These fishes are green in color,
-even the bones being often bright green, while the scales on the sides
-have a silvery luster. The species are excellent as food, the green
-color being associated with nothing deleterious. All are very voracious
-and some of the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be dangerous even
-to man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the thrust of the sharp
-snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes swim near the
-surface of the water and often move with great swiftness, frequently
-leaping from the water. The genus _Belone_ is characterized by the
-presence of gill-rakers. _Belone belone_ is a small garfish common in
-southern Europe. _Belone platura_ occurs in Polynesia. The American
-species (_Tylosurus_) lack gill-rakers. _Tylosurus marinus_, the common
-garfish of the eastern United States, often ascends the rivers.
-_Tylosurus raphidoma_, _Tylosurus fodiator_, _Tylosurus acus_, and other
-species are very robust, with short strong jaws. _Athlennes hians_ is a
-very large fish with the body strongly compressed, almost ribbon-like.
-It is found in the West Indies and across the Isthmus as far as Hawaii.
-Many other species, mostly belonging to _Tylosurus_, abound in the warm
-seas of all regions. _Tylosurus ferox_ is the long tom of the Australian
-markets. _Potamorrhaphis_ with the dorsal fin low is found in Brazilian
-rivers. A few fossil species are referred to _Belone_, _Belone flava_
-from the lower Eocene being the earliest.
-
-=The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.=—The family of _Exocœtidæ_ includes the
-flying-fishes and several related forms more or less intermediate
-between these and the garfishes. In these fishes the teeth are small and
-nearly equal and the maxillary is separate from the premaxillary. The
-third upper pharyngeal is much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to
-the vertebræ.
-
-The skippers (_Scombresox_) have slender bodies, pointed jaws, and, like
-the mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind dorsal and anal,
-although in other respects they show no affinity to the mackerel. The
-common skipper, or saury (_Scombresox saurus_), is found on both shores
-of the North Atlantic swimming in large schools at the surface of the
-water, frequently leaping for a little distance like the flying-fish.
-They are pursued by the mackerel-like fishes, as the tunny or bonito,
-and sometimes by porpoises. According to Mr. Couch, the skippers, when
-pursued, "mount to the surface in multitudes and crowd on each other as
-they press forward. When still more closely pursued, they spring to the
-height of several feet, leap over each other in singular confusion, and
-again sink beneath. Still further urged, they mount again and rush along
-the surface, by repeated starts, for more than one hundred feet, without
-once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch the water. At last the
-pursuer springs after them, usually across their course, and again they
-all disappear together. Amidst such multitudes—for more than twenty
-thousand have been judged to be out of the water together—some must fall
-a prey to the enemy; but so many hunting in company, it must be long
-before the pursuers abandon. From inspection we could scarcely judge the
-fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though numerous, are
-small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle of their
-articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the direction of their
-motions to the surface."
-
-A similar species, _Cololabis saira_, with the snout very much shorter
-than in the Atlantic skipper, is the _Samma_ of the fishermen of Japan.
-
-The hard-head (_Chriodorus atherinoides_) has no beak at all and its
-tricuspid incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In this genus, as
-in the flying-fishes, there are no finlets. The hard-head is an
-excellent food-fish abundant about the Florida Keys but not yet seen
-elsewhere.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 166.—Saury, _Scombresox saurus_ (L.). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 167.—Halfbeak, _Hyporhamphus unifasciatus_ (Ranzani). Chesapeake
-    Bay.
-]
-
-Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that of the
-halfbeaks, or balaos, _Hemirhamphus_, etc. These are also vegetable
-feeders, but with much smaller teeth, and the lower jaw with a
-spear-like prolongation to which a bright-red membrane is usually
-attached. Of the halfbeaks there are several genera, all of the species
-swimming near the surface in schools and sometimes very swiftly. Some of
-them leap into the air and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes,
-with which group the halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The
-commonest species along our Atlantic coast is _Hyporhamphus
-unifasciatus_; a larger species, _Hemirhamphus brasiliensis_, abounds
-about the Florida Keys. _Euleptorhamphus longirostris_, a ribbon-shaped
-elongate fish, with long jaw and long pectorals, is taken in the open
-sea, both in the Atlantic and Pacific, being common in Hawaii. The
-Asiatic genus _Zenarchopterus_ is viviparous, having the anal fin much
-modified in the male, forming an intromittent organ, as in the
-_Pœciliidæ_. One species occurs in the river mouths in Samoa.
-
-The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the pectoral fins
-much enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air for a longer or
-shorter distance.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 168.—Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, _Fodiator acutus_ (Val.). Panama.
-]
-
-The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach more nearly
-to the halfbeaks. _Fodiator acutus_, with sharp jaws, and
-_Hemiexocœtus_, with a short beak on the lower jaw, are especially
-intermediate. The flight of the flying-fishes is described in detail on
-p. 157, Vol. I.
-
-The Catalina flying-fish, _Cypselurus californicus_, of the shore of
-southern California is perhaps the largest of the known species,
-reaching a length of 18 inches. To this genus, _Cypselurus_, having a
-long dorsal and short anal, and with ventrals enlarged as well as
-pectorals, belong all the species strongest in flight, _Cypselurus
-heterurus_ and _furcatus_ of the Atlantic, _Cypselurus simus_ of Hawaii
-and _Cypselurus agoo_ in Japan. The very young of most of these species
-have a long barbel at the chin which is lost with age.
-
-In the genus _Exonautes_ the base of anal fin is long, as long as that
-of the dorsal. The species of this group, also strong in flight, are
-widely distributed. Most of the European flying-fishes, as _Exonautes
-rondeleti_, _Exonautes speculiger_, and _Exonautes vinciguerræ_, belong
-to this group, while those of _Cypselurus_ mostly inhabit the Pacific.
-The large Australian species _Exonautes unicolor_, Fig. 226, Vol. I,
-belongs to this group. In the restricted genus _Exocœtus_ the ventral
-fins are short and not used in flight. _Exocœtus volitans_ (_evolans_)
-is a small flying-fish, with short ventral fins not used for flight. It
-is perhaps the most widely distributed of all, ranging through almost
-all warm seas. _Parexocœtus brachypterus_, still smaller, and with
-shorter, grasshopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An
-excellent account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given by
-Dr. C. F. Lütken (1876), the University of Copenhagen, which institution
-has received a remarkably fine series from trading-ships returning to
-that port. Later accounts have been given by Jordan and Meek, and by
-Jordan and Evermann.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 169.—Catalina Flying-fish, _Cypselurus californicus_ (Cooper).
-    Santa Barbara.
-]
-
-Very few fossil _Exocœtidæ_ are found. Species of _Scombresox_ and
-_Hemirhamphus_ are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being
-_Hemirhamphus edwardsi_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil
-flying-fishes are known, and the genera, _Exocœtus_, _Exonautes_, and
-_Cypselurus_ are doubtless all of very recent origin.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XII
-                       PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI
-
-
-=SUBORDER Percesoces.=—In the line of direct ascending transition from
-the _Haplomi_ and _Synentognathi_, the pike and flying-fish, towards the
-typical perch-like forms, we find a number of families, perch-like in
-essential regards but having the ventral fins abdominal.
-
-These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and the
-barracuda, have been segregated by Cope as an order called _Percesoces_
-(Perca, perch; Esox, pike), a name which correctly describes their real
-affinities. In these typical forms, mullet, silverside, and barracuda,
-the affinities are plain, but in other transitional forms, as the
-threadfin and the stickleback, the relationships are less clear. Cope
-adds to the series of _Percesoces_ the _Ophiocephalidæ_, which Gill
-leaves with the _Anabantidæ_ among the spiny-rayed forms. Boulenger adds
-also the sand-lances (_Ammodytidæ_) and the threadfins (_Polynemidæ_),
-while Woodward places here the _Crossognathidæ_. In the present work we
-define the _Percesoces_ so as to include all spiny-rayed fishes in which
-the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, excepting those having a
-reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts, or other peculiarities of
-the shoulder-girdle. The _Ammodytidæ_ have no real affinities with the
-_Percesoces_. The _Crossognathidæ_ and other families with abdominal
-ventrals and the dorsal spines wholly obsolete may belong with the
-_Haplomi_. Boulenger places the _Chiasmodontidæ_, the _Stromateidæ_, and
-the _Tetragonuridæ_ among the _Percesoces_, an arrangement of very
-doubtful validity. In most of the _Percesoces_ the scales are cycloid,
-the spinous dorsal forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct
-is wanting.
-
-=The Silversides: Atherinidæ.=—The most primitive of living _Percesoces_
-constitute the large family of silversides (_Atherinidæ_), known as
-"fishes of the King," Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or Peixe Re, wherever
-the Spanish or Portuguese languages are spoken. The species are, in
-general, small and slender fishes of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on
-small animals. The mouth is small, with feeble teeth. There is no
-lateral line, the color is translucent green, with usually a broad
-lateral band of silver. Sometimes this is wanting, and sometimes it is
-replaced by burnished black. Some of the species live in lakes or
-rivers, others in bays or arms of the sea, but never at a distance from
-the shore or in water of more than a few feet in depth. The larger
-species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally delicate, are
-fried in numbers as "whitebait," but the bones are firmer and more
-troublesome than in the smelts and young herring. The species of the
-genus _Atherina_, known as "friars," or "brit," are chiefly European,
-although some occur in almost all warm or temperate seas. These are
-small fishes, with the mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales
-rather large and firm. _Atherina hepsetus_ and _A. presbyter_ are common
-in Europe, _Atherina stipes_ in the West Indies, _Atherina bleekeri_ in
-Japan, and _Atherina insularum_ and _A. lacunosa_ in Polynesia. The
-genus _Chirostoma_ contains larger species, with projecting lower jaw,
-abounding in the lakes of Mexico. _Chirostoma humboldtianum_ is very
-abundant about Mexico City. Like all the other species of this genus it
-is remarkably excellent as food, the different species constituting the
-famous "Pescados Blancos" of the great lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of
-the western slope of Mexico. A very unusual circumstance is this: that
-numerous very closely related species occupy the same waters and are
-taken in the same nets. In zoology, generally, it is an almost universal
-rule that very closely related species occupy different geographical
-areas, their separation being due to barriers which prevent
-interbreeding. But in the lake of Chapala, near Guadalajara, Prof. John
-O. Snyder and the present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E. Meek, found
-ten distinct species of _Chirostoma_, all living together, taken in the
-same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful examination.
-Most of these species are very abundant throughout the lake, and all
-reach a length of twelve to fifteen inches. These species are
-_Chirostoma estor_, _Ch. lucius_, _Ch. sphyræna_, _Ch. ocotlane_, _Ch.
-lermæ_, _Ch. chapalæ_, _Ch. grandocule_, _Ch. labarcæ_, _Ch. promelas_,
-and _Ch. bartoni_. A similar assemblage of species nearly all different
-from these was obtained by Dr. Seth E. Meek in the lake of Patzcuaro,
-farther south. In this lake were found _Ch. attenuatum_, _Ch.
-patzcuaro_, _Ch. humboldtianum_, _Ch. grandocule_, and _Ch. estor_. The
-lake of Zirahuen, near Chapala, contains _Ch. estor_ and _Ch. zirahuen_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 170.—Pescado blanco, _Chirostoma humboldtianum_ (Val.). Lake
-    Chalco, City of Mexico.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 171.—Silverside or Brit, _Kirtlandia vagrans_ (Goode & Bean).
-    Pensacola.
-]
-
-Still another species, _Ch. jordani_, is found about the city of Mexico,
-where it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts of Peru, Chile,
-and Argentina is found still another assemblage of fishes of the king,
-with very small scales, constituting the genera _Basilichthys_ and
-_Gastropterus_ (_Pisciregia_). _Basilichthys microlepidotus_ is the
-common Pesca del Rey of Chile. The small silversides, or "brit," of our
-Atlantic coast belong to numerous species of _Menidia_, _Menidia notata_
-to the northward and _Menidia menidia_ to the southward being most
-abundant. _Kirtlandia laciniata_, with ragged scales, is common along
-the Virginia coast, and _K. vagrans_ farther south. Another small
-species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook silverside
-_Labidesthes sicculus_, which swarms in clear streams from Lake Ontario
-to Texas. This species, three to four inches long, has the snout
-produced and a very bright silvery stripe along the side. Large and
-small species of silversides occur in the sea along the California
-coast, where they are known familiarly as "blue smelt" or "Peixe Re."
-The most important of these and the largest member of the family,
-reaching a length of eighteen inches, is _Atherinopsis californiensis_,
-an important food-fish throughout California, everywhere wrongly known
-as smelt. _Atherinops affinis_ is much like it, but has Y-shaped teeth.
-_Iso flos-maris_, called Nami-no-hana, or flower of the surf, is a
-shining little fish with belly shape like that of a herring. It lives in
-the surf on the coast of Japan. _Melanotænia nigrans_ of Australia
-(family _Melanotæniidæ_) has the lateral band jet-black, as has also
-_Melaniris balsanus_ of the rivers of southern Mexico. _Atherinosoma
-vorax_ of Australia has strong teeth like those of a barracuda.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 172.—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, _Atherinopsis californiensis_
-    Girard. San Diego.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 173.—Flower of the waves, _Iso flos-maxis_, Jordan & Starks.
-    Enoshima, Japan.
-]
-
-Fossil species of _Atherina_ occur in the Italian Eocene, the best known
-being _Atherina macrocephala_. Another species, _Rhamphognathus
-paralepoides_, allied to _Menidia_, occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-=The Mullets: Mugilidæ.=—The mullets (_Mugilidæ_) are more clumsy in
-form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads and stouter
-fin-spines. The ventral fins are abdominal but well forward, the pelvis
-barely touching the clavicle, a condition to be defined as
-"subabdominal." The small mouth is armed with very feeble teeth, often
-reduced to mere fringes. The stomach is muscular like the gizzard of a
-fowl and the species feed largely on the vegetation contained in mud.
-There are numerous species, mostly living in shallow bays and estuaries,
-but some of them are confined to fresh waters. All are valued as food
-and some of them under favorable conditions are especially excellent.
-
-Most of the species belong to the genera _Mugil_, the mullet of all
-English-speaking people, although not at all related to the red mullet
-or surmullet of the ancient Romans, _Mullus barbatus_.
-
-The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long, with blunt
-heads, small mouths almost toothless, large scales, and a general
-bluish-silvery color often varied by faint blue stripes. The most
-important species is _Mugil cephalus_, the common striped mullet. This
-is found throughout southern Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from
-Monterey, California, to Chile, and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan,
-and the Red Sea. Among specimens from all these regions we can detect no
-difference.
-
-Professor Goode gives the following account of its habits:
-
-"The large mullets begin to assemble along the Florida coast in schools
-in the height of summer, probably preparatory to spawning, and at this
-time the eggs commence to mature. In this season they swim at the
-surface, and are then pursued by enemies in the water and the air, and
-also fall an easy prey to the fishermen. They appear to prefer to swim
-against the wind, and school best with a northeast wind. They also run
-against the tide. In Florida the spawning season seems to extend from
-the middle of November to the middle of January. Some of the fishermen
-say that they go on the mud-flats and oyster-beds at the mouth of the
-river to deposit their eggs. What becomes of them after this no one
-seems to know, but it is probable that they spread themselves over the
-whole surface of water-covered country in such a manner as not to be
-perceptible to the fisherman, who makes no effort at this time to secure
-the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find their way to the lakes
-and others remain wherever they find good feeding-ground, gathering
-flesh and recruiting strength for the great strain of the next spawning
-season."
-
-Professor Goode informs us that the fishermen recognize "three distinct
-periods of schooling and separate runs of mullet. To what extent these
-are founded on tradition, or upon the necessity of change in the size of
-the mesh of their nets, it is impossible to say. The 'June mullet'
-average about five to the pound; the 'fat mullet,' which are taken from
-August 20 to October 1, weigh about two pounds; these have, the
-fishermen say, a 'roe of fat' on each side as thick as a man's thumb.
-The 'roe mullet' weigh about two and a half pounds and are caught in
-November and until Christmas. Between the seasons of 'fat mullet' and
-'roe mullet' there is an intermission of two or three weeks in the
-fishing." Professor Goode hazards the suggestion that "the 'fat mullet'
-of September are the breeding fish of November, with roes in an immature
-state, the ova not having become fully differentiated."
-
-The mullet feed on the bottom in quiet water, swimming head downward.
-The food is sifted over in the mouth, the mud rejected, and the plants,
-chiefly microscopic, retained. Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of
-mullets to barnyard fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich
-spot the others flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a
-sort of filter, stopping the sand and mud, the coarse parts being
-ejected through the mouth. Dr. Günther thus describes this apparatus:
-
-"The upper pharyngeals have a rather irregular form: they are slightly
-arched, the convexity being directed toward the pharyngeal cavity,
-tapering anteriorly and broad posteriorly. They are coated with a thick,
-soft membrane, which reaches far beyond the margin of the bone and is
-studded all over with minute horny cilia. Each branchial arch is
-provided with a series of long gill-rakers, which are laterally bent
-downward, each series closely fitting to the sides of the adjoining
-arch; they constitute together a sieve admirably adapted to permit a
-transit for the water, retaining at the same time every solid substance
-in the cavity of the pharynx."
-
-The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the head at the
-surface of the water.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 174.—Striped Mullet, _Mugil cephalus_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-We are not able to distinguish from the common striped mullet of Europe
-and America the mullet of Hawaii, the famous Ama-ama, the most valued of
-Hawaiian fishes. This species is reared in mullet ponds, made by
-extending a stone wall across an arm of the sea. Through openings in the
-wall the young mullet enter, and in its protection they grow very fat on
-the abundant algæ and other vegetation. They thus become the most
-plentiful and most esteemed of the market fishes of Honolulu. The Awa
-(_Chanos_) and the Awa-awa (_Elops_) also enter these ponds and are
-reared with the mullet, being similarly but less valued. Unfortunately
-the kaku, or small barracuda (_Sphyræna helleri_), also enters with
-these helpless fishes and destroys many of the smaller individuals.
-Another striped species, also very similar to _Mugil cephalus_ in
-appearance and value, in fact indistinguishable from the Hawaiian
-mullet, abounds in Japan and India.
-
-The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but otherwise
-differ little. _Mugil curema_ is the white mullet of tropical America,
-ranging occasionally northward, and several other species occur in the
-West Indies and the Mediterranean. The genus _Mugil_ has the eye covered
-by thick transparent tissue called the adipose eyelid. In _Liza_ the
-adipose eyelid is wanting. _Liza capito_, the big-headed mullet of the
-Mediterranean, is a well-known species. Most of the mullets of the south
-seas belong to the genus _Liza_. _Liza melinoptera_ and _Liza_
-_cæruleomaculata_ are common in Samoa. The genus _Querimana_ includes
-dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long, known as whirligig-mullets.
-These little fishes gather in small schools and swim round and round on
-the surface like the whirligig-beetles, or _Gyrinidæ_, their habits
-being like those of the young mullets; some young mullets having been,
-in fact, described as species of _Querimana_. The genus _Agonostomus_
-includes fresh-water mullets of the mountain rivers of the East and West
-Indies and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout. _Agonostomus
-nasutus_ of Mexico is the best-known species.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 175.—Joturo or Bobo, _Joturus pichardi_ Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama.
-]
-
-The Joturo, or Bobo, _Joturus pichardi_, is a very large robust and
-vigorous mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls in the mountain
-torrents of Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central America. It is a good
-food-fish, frequently taken about Jalapa, Havana, and on the Isthmus of
-Panama. Its lips are very thick and its teeth are broad, serrated,
-loosely inserted incisors.
-
-Fossil mullets are few. _Mugil radobojanus_ is the earliest from the
-Miocene of Croatia.
-
-=The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.=—The _Sphyrænidæ_, or barracudas, differ
-from the mullets in the presence of very strong teeth in the bones of
-the large mouth. The lateral line is also developed, there is no
-gizzard, and there are numerous minor modifications connected with the
-food and habits. The species are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in
-swimming and voracious to the last degree. Some of the species reach a
-length of six feet or more, and these are almost as dangerous to bathers
-as sharks would be. The long, knife-like teeth render them very
-destructive to nets. The numerous species are placed in the single genus
-_Sphyræna_, and some of them are found in all warm seas, where they feed
-freely on all smaller fishes, their habits in the sea being much like
-those of the pike in the lakes. The flesh is firm, delicate, and
-excellent in flavor. In the larger species, especially in the West
-Indies, it may be difficult of digestion and sometimes causes serious
-illness, or "ichthyosism."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 176.—Barracuda, _Sphyræna barracuda_ Walbaum. Florida.
-]
-
-_Sphyræna sphyræna_ is the spet, or sennet, a rather small barracuda
-common in southern Europe. _Sphyræna borealis_ of our eastern coast is a
-similar but still feebler species rarely exceeding a foot in length.
-These and other small species are feeble folk as compared with the great
-barracuda (_Sphyræna barracuda_) of the West Indies, a robust savage
-fish, also known as picuda or becuna. _Sphyræna commersoni_ of Polynesia
-is a similar large species, while numerous lesser ones occur through the
-tropical seas. On the California coast _Sphyræna argentea_ is an
-excellent food-fish, slenderer than the great barracuda but reaching a
-length of five feet.
-
-Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian Eocene,
-_Sphyræna bolcensis_ being the earliest.
-
-=Stephanoberycidæ.=—We may append to the _Percesoces_, for want of a
-better place, a small family of the deep sea, its affinities at present
-unknown. The _Stephanoberycidæ_ have the ventrals I, 5, subabdominal, a
-single dorsal without spine, and the scales cycloid, scarcely
-imbricated, each with one or two central spines. The mouth is large,
-with small teeth, the skull cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which
-group the normally formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to
-exclude it. _Stephanoberyx monæ_ and _S. gilli_ are found at the depth
-of a mile and a half below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed them
-with the _Percesoces_, but more recently suggests their relationship
-with the _Haplomi_. Perhaps, as supposed by Gill, they may prove to be
-degenerate berycoids in which the ventral fins have lost their normal
-connection.
-
-=Crossognathidæ.=—A peculiar primitive group referred by Woodward to the
-_Percesoces_ is the family of _Crossognathidæ_ of the Cretaceous period.
-As in these fishes there are no fin-spines, they may be perhaps better
-placed with the _Haplomi_. The dorsal fin is long, without distinct
-spines, and the abdominal ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is
-small, with feeble teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed.
-_Crossognathus sabandianum_ occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzerland and
-Germany, _Syllæmus latifrons_ and other species in the Colorado
-Cretaceous, and _Syllæmus anglicus_ in England. The _Crossognathidæ_
-have probably the lower pharyngeals separate, else they would be placed
-among the _Synentognathi_, a group attached by Woodward, not without
-reason, to the _Percesoces_.
-
-=Cobitopsidæ.=—Near the _Crossognathidæ_ may be placed the extinct
-_Cobitopsidæ_, _Cobitopsis acuta_ being recorded from the Oligocene of
-Puy-de-Dôme in France. In this species there is a short dorsal fin of
-about seventeen rays, no teeth, and the well-developed ventral fins are
-not far in front of the anal. This little fish bears a strong
-resemblance to _Ammodytes_, but the affinities of the latter genus are
-certainly with the ophidioid fishes, while the real relationship of
-_Cobitopsis_ is uncertain.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 177.—_Cobitopsis acuta_ Gervais, restored. Oligocene of
-    Puy-de-Dôme. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-=Suborder Rhegnopteri.=—The threadfins (_Polynemidæ_) are allied to the
-mullets, but differ from them and from all other fishes in the structure
-of the pectoral fin and its basal bones, or actinosts.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 178.—Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, _Polydactylus approximans_
-    (Lay & Bennett).
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 179.—Threadfin, _Polydactylus octonemus_ (Girard). Pensacola.
-]
-
-The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower composed of free
-or separate rays very slender and thread-like, sometimes longer than the
-body. Two of the actinosts of the pectoral support the fin, one is
-slender and has no rays, while the fourth is plate-like and attached to
-the coracoids, supporting the pectoral filaments. The body is rather
-robust, covered with large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The
-lateral line extends on the caudal fin as in the _Sciænidæ_ which group
-these fishes resemble in many ways. The mouth is large, inferior, with
-small teeth. The species are carnivorous fishes of excellent flesh,
-abounding on sandy shores in the warm seas. They are not very active and
-not at all voracious. The coloration is bluish and silvery, sometimes
-striped with black. Most of the species belong to the genus
-_Polydactylus_. _Polydactylus virginicus_, the barbudo, with seven
-filaments, is common in the West Indies and Florida. _Polydactylus
-octonemus_ with eight filaments is more rare, but ranges further north.
-_Polydactylus approximans_, the raton of western Mexico, with six
-filaments, reaches San Diego. _Polydactylus plebejus_ is common in Japan
-and other species range through Polynesia. In India isinglass is made
-from the large air-bladder of species of _Polydactylus_. The rare
-_Polynemus quinquarius_ of the West Indies have five pectoral filaments,
-these being greatly elongate, much longer than the body.
-
-No extinct _Polynemidæ_ are recorded.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XIII
-             PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII,
-                            AND HYPOSTOMIDES
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 180.—Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_
-    Linnæus. (After Parker.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 181.—Shoulder-girdle of _Fistularia petimba_ Lacépède, showing
-    greatly extended interclavicle, the surface ossified.
-]
-
-=SUBORDER Hemibranchii.=—Still another transitional group, the
-_Hemibranchii_, is composed of spiny-rayed fishes with abdominal
-ventrals. In this suborder there are other points of divergence, though
-none of high importance. In these fishes the bones of the
-shoulder-girdle are somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced or
-wanting, and the gill structures somewhat degenerate. The presence of
-bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles, below and behind the
-clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order of _Hemibranchii_.
-But this character has very slight importance. In two families,
-_Macrorhamphosidæ_ and _Centriscidæ_, the interclavicles are absent
-altogether. In the _Fistulariidæ_ they are very large. According to the
-studies of Mr. Edwin C. Starks, the bone in question is not a true
-infraclavicle. It is not identical with the infraclavicle of the
-Ganoids, but it is only a backward extension of the hypocoracoid, there
-being no suture between the two bones. In those species which have bony
-plates instead of scales, this bone has a deposit of bony substance or
-ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives it an apparent prominence as
-compared with other bones of the skeleton, but it has no great taxonomic
-importance. Dr. Hay unites the suborders _Hemibranchii_,
-_Lophobranchii_, and _Hypostomides_ to form the order _Phthinobranchii_
-(φθινάς, waning; βράγχος, gill), characterized by the reduction of the
-gill-arches. These forms are really nearly related, but their affinities
-with the _Percesoces_ are so close that it may not be necessary to form
-a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites the
-_Hemibranchii_ with _Lampris_ to form a group, _Catosteomi_,
-characterized by the development of infraclavicles; but we cannot see
-that _Lampris_ bears any affinity to the sticklebacks, or that the
-presence of infraclavicle has any high significance, nor is it the
-supposed infraclavicle of _Lampris_ homologous with that of the
-_Hemibranchii_. The dorsal fin in the _Hemibranchii_ has more or less
-developed spines; spines are also present in the ventral fins. The lower
-pharyngeals are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small and
-the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle and
-symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived from some
-transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the _Percesoces_. The
-Lophobranchs, another supposed order, represent simply a still further
-phase of degradation of gills and ventral fins. Dr. Gill separates these
-two groups as distinct orders and places them, as aberrant offshoots,
-near the end of his series of bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with
-the other transitional forms, not regarding their traits of divergence
-as of any great importance in the systematic arrangement of families.
-
-=The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.=—The sticklebacks (_Gasterosteidæ_)
-are small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the _Fistulariidæ_ so
-far as anatomy is concerned, but with very different appearance and
-habits. The body often mailed, the dorsal is preceded by free spines and
-the ventrals are each reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray.
-The jaws are short, bristling with sharp teeth, and these little
-creatures are among the most active, voracious, and persistent of all
-fishes. They attack the fins of larger fishes, biting off pieces, and at
-the same time they devour the eggs of all species accessible to them. In
-almost all fresh and brackish waters of the north temperate zone these
-little fishes abound. "It is scarcely to be conceived," Dr. Günther
-observes, "what damage these little fishes do, and how greatly
-detrimental they are to the increase of all the fishes among which they
-live, for it is with the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness that
-they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come their way."
-
-The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the northern
-hemisphere, species essentially alike being found throughout northern
-Europe, Asia, and America. The same species is subject to great
-variation. The degree of development of spines and bony plates is
-greatest in individuals living in the sea and least in clear streams of
-the interior. Each of the mailed species has its series of half-mailed
-or even naked varieties found in the fresh waters. This is true in
-Europe, New England, California, and Japan. The farther the individuals
-are from the sea, the less perfect is their armature. Thus,
-_Gasterosteus cataphractus_, which in the sea has a full armature of
-bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will have in river mouths
-from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh water only 2 or 3 or even none
-at all.
-
-The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building habits. The
-male performs this operation, and he is provided with a special gland
-for secretion of the necessary cement. Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A.
-Ryder an account of this process. The secretory gland is a "large
-vesicle filled with a clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon
-contact with water. It appears to open directly in front of the vent. As
-soon as it is ruptured, it loses its transparency, and whatever
-secretion escapes becomes whitish after being in contact with water for
-a short time. This has the same tough, elastic qualities as when spun by
-the animal itself, and is also composed of numerous fibers, as when a
-portion is taken that has been recently spun upon the nest. Thus
-provided, when the nuptial season has arrived the male stickleback
-prepares to build his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her eggs. How
-this nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the sticklebacks,
-have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K. Lord, from
-observations on _Gasterosteus cataphractus_ on Vancouver Island,
-although the source of his secretion was misunderstood:
-
-"The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants, where the
-water always flows but not too swiftly. He first begins by carrying
-small bits of green material which he nips off the stalks and tugs from
-out the bottom and sides of the bank; these he attaches by some
-glutinous material, that he clearly has the power of secreting, to the
-different stems destined as pillars for his building. During this
-operation he swims against the work already done, splashes about, and
-seems to test its durability and strength; rubs himself against the tiny
-kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his sides to mix with and
-act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then he thrusts his nose into
-the sand at the bottom, and, bringing a mouthful, scatters it over the
-foundation; this is repeated until enough has been thrown on to weight
-the slender fabric down and give it substance and stability. Then more
-twists, turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the
-materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of the house
-that has yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery, when completed
-is a hollow, somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped structure worked together
-much in the same way as the platform fastened to the water-plants; the
-whole firmly glued together by the viscous secretion scraped from off
-the body. The inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of
-plastering system; the little architect continually goes in, then,
-turning round and round, works the mucus from his body on to the inner
-sides of the nest, where it hardens like tough varnish. There are two
-apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole leading into a wren's
-nest, and not unlike it.
-
-"All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish, and when
-completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he swims towards a group of the
-fair sex enjoying themselves amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best
-and brightest livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the
-most approved style of stickleback love-making this young and wealthy
-bachelor approaches the object of his affections, most likely tells her
-all about his house and its comforts, hints delicately at his readiness
-and ability to defend her children against every enemy, vows unfailing
-fidelity, and in lover fashion promises as much in a few minutes as
-would take a lifetime to fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit;
-personal beauty, indomitable courage, backed by the substantial
-recommendations of a house ready built and fitted for immediate
-occupation, are gifts not to be lightly regarded.
-
-"Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her appreciation,
-and by sundry queer contortions declares herself his true and devoted
-spouse. Then the twain return to the nest, into which the female at once
-betakes herself and therein deposits her eggs, emerging, when the
-operation is completed, by the opposite hole. During the time she is in
-the nest (about six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and
-rubs his nose against it, and altogether appears to be in a state of
-defiant excitement. On the female leaving, he immediately enters,
-deposits the milt on the eggs, taking his departure through the back
-door. So far his conduct is strictly pure; but I am afraid morality in
-stickleback society is of rather a lax order. No sooner has this lady,
-his first love, taken her departure, than he at once seeks another,
-introduces her as he did the first, and so on, wife after wife, until
-the nest is filled with eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully
-deposited betwixt each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should
-be two holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished,
-so it is equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize
-fish-eggs, running water is the first necessity; and, as the holes are
-invariably placed in the direction of the current, a steady stream of
-water is thus directed over them."
-
-To the genus _Gasterosteus_ the largest species belong, those having
-three dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered with bony
-plates. _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ inhabits both shores of the Atlantic
-and the scarcely different _Gasterosteus cataphractus_ swarms in the
-inlets from southern California to Alaska, Siberia, and northern Japan.
-Half-naked forms have been called by various names and one entirely
-naked in streams of southern California is named _Gasterosteus
-williamsoni_. Its traits are, however, clearly related to its life in
-fresh waters.
-
-In _Pygosteus pungitius_, a type of almost equally wide range, there are
-nine or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender. All kinds of
-waters of the north on both continents may yield this species or its
-allies and variations, mailed or naked. The naked, _Apeltes quadracus_,
-is found in the sea only, along the New England coast.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 182.—Three-spined Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ L. Wood's
-    Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 183.—Four-spined Stickleback, _Apeltes quadracus_ Mitchill.
-    Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-_Eucalia inconstans_ is the stickleback of the clear brook from New York
-to Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet black in spring with the sheen
-of burnished copper and he is intensely active in his work of protecting
-the eggs of his own species and destroying the eggs and fry of others.
-_Spinachia spinachia_ is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many
-dorsal spines.
-
-No fossil _Gasterosteidæ_ are recorded, and the family, while the least
-specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most primitive of the
-suborder.
-
-=The Aulorhynchidæ.=—Closely related to the sticklebacks is the small
-family of _Aulorhynchidæ_, with four soft rays in the ventral fins.
-_Aulorhynchus_, like _Spinachia_, has many dorsal spines and an elongate
-snout approaching that of a trumpet-fish. _Aulorhynchus flavidus_ lives
-on the coast of California and _Aulichthys japonicus_ in Japan. The
-extinct family of _Protosyngnathidæ_ is near _Aulorhynchus_, with the
-snout tubular, the ribs free, not anchylosed as in _Aulorhynchus_, and
-with the first vertebræ fused, forming one large one as in _Aulostomus_.
-_Protosyngnathus sumatrensis_ occurs in Sumatra. _Protaulopsis
-bolcensis_ of the Eocene of Italy has the ventral fins farther back, and
-is probably more primitive than the sticklebacks.
-
-=Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.=—Closely related to the sticklebacks so
-far as structure is concerned is a family of very different habit, the
-cornet-fishes, or cornetas (_Fistulariidæ_). In these fishes the body is
-very long and slender, like that of a garfish. The snout is produced
-into a very long tube, which bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth
-are very small. There are no scales, but bony plates are sunk in the
-skin. The ventrals are abdominal, each with a spine and four rays. The
-four anterior vertebræ are very much elongate. There are no spines in
-the dorsal and the back-bone extends through the forked caudal, ending
-in a long filament. The cornet-fishes are dull red or dull green in
-color. They reach a length of two or three feet, and the four or five
-known species are widely distributed through the warm seas, where they
-swim in shallow water near the surface. _Fistularia tabaccaria_, the
-tobacco-pipe fish, is common in the West Indies, _Fistularia petimba_,
-_F. serrata_, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very
-small size, _Fistularia longirostris_, is known from the Eocene of Monte
-Bolca, near Verona. _Fistularia kœnigi_ is recorded from the Oligocene
-of Glarus.
-
-=The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.=—The _Aulostomidæ_, or trumpet-fishes
-are in structure entirely similar to the _Fistulariidæ_, but the body is
-band-shaped, compressed, and scaly, the long snout bearing the feeble
-jaws at the end. There are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the
-tail. _Aulostomus chinensis_ (_maculatus_) is common in the West Indies,
-_Aulostomus valentini_ abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where it is a
-food-fish of moderate importance. A species of _Aulostomus_
-(_bolcensis_) is found in the Italian Eocene. Allied to it is the
-extinct family _Urosphenidæ_, scaleless, but otherwise similar.
-_Urosphen dubia_ occurs in the Eocene at Monte Bolca. _Urosphen_ is
-perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of
-_Hemibranchii_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 184.—Trumpet-fish, _Aulostomus chinensis_ (L.) Virginia.
-]
-
-=The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.=—Very remarkable fishes are the
-snipefishes, or _Macrorhamphosidæ_. In these forms the snout is still
-tubular, with the short jaws at the end. The body is short and deep,
-partly covered with bony plates. The dorsal has a very long serrated
-spine, besides several shorter ones, and the ventral fins have one spine
-and five rays.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 185.—Japanese Snipefish, _Macrorhamphosus sagifue_ Jordan &
-    Starks. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, _Macrorhamphosus scolopax_, is rather
-common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar species (_M.
-sagifue_) occurs in Japan. The _Rhamphosidæ_, represented by
-_Rhamphosus_, an extinct genus with the ventrals further forward, are
-found in the Eocene rocks of Monte Bolca. _Rhamphosus vastrum_ has
-minute scales, short dorsal, and the snout greatly attenuate.
-
-=The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.=—One of the most extraordinary types of
-fishes is the small family of _Centriscidæ_, found in the East Indies.
-The back is covered by a transparent bony cuirass which extends far
-beyond the short tail, on which the two dorsal fins are crowded.
-Anteriorly this cuirass is composed of plates which are soldered to the
-ribs. The small toothless mouth is at the end of a long snout.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 186.—Shrimp-fish, _Æoliscus strigatus_ (Günther). Riu Kiu
-    Islands, Japan.
-]
-
-These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very much like
-shrimps. _Centriscus scutatus_ (_Amphisile_) with the terminal spine
-fixed is found in the East Indies, and _Æoliscus strigatus_ with the
-terminal spine movable is found in southern Japan and southwards.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 187.—_Æoliscus heinrichi_ Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family
-    _Centriscidæ_. (After Heckel.)
-]
-
-A fossil species, _Æoliscus heinrichi_, is found in the Oligocene of
-various parts of Europe, and _Centriscus longirostris_ occurs in the
-Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-In the _Centriscidæ_ and _Macrorhamphosidæ_ the expansions of the
-hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed.
-
-=The Lophobranchs.=—The suborder _Lophobranchii_ (λοφός, tuft; βραγχός,
-gill) is certainly an offshoot from the _Hemibranchii_ and belongs
-likewise among the forms transitional from soft to spiny-rayed fishes.
-At the same time it is a degenerate group, and in its modifications it
-turns directly away from the general line of specialization.
-
-The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills to small
-lobate tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The so-called
-infraclavicles are present, as in most of the _Hemibranchii_. Bony
-plates united to form rings take the place of scales. The long tubular
-snout bears the short toothless jaws at the end. The preopercle is
-absent, and the ventrals are seven-rayed or wanting. The species known
-as pipefishes and sea-horses are all very small and none have any
-economic value. They are numerous in all warm seas, mostly living in
-shallow bays among seaweed and eel-grass. The muscular system is little
-developed and all the species have the curious habit of carrying the
-eggs until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or tail; this
-structure is usually found in the male.
-
-=The Solenostomidæ.=—The _Solenostomidæ_ of the East Indies are the most
-primitive of these fishes. They have the body rather short and provided
-with spinous dorsal, and ventral fins. The pretty species are
-occasionally swept northward to Japan in the Black Current.
-_Solenostomus cyanopterus_ is a characteristic species. _Solenorhynchus
-elegans_, now extinct (with the trunk more elongate), preceded
-_Solenostomus_ in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-=The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.=—The _Syngnathidæ_ are very long and
-slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventral fins, the body
-covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish, _Syngnathus_, there are very
-many species on all northern coasts. _Syngnathus acus_ is common in
-Europe, _Syngnathus fuscum_ along the New England coast, _Syngnathus
-californiense_ in California, and _Syngnathus schlegeli_ in Japan.
-Numerous other species of _Syngnathus_ and other genera are found
-further south in the same regions. _Corythroichthys_ is characteristic
-of coral reefs and _Microphis_ of the streams of the islands of
-Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the greater
-number of vertebræ and of bony rings. _Tiphle tiphle_ is a large
-pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was preceded by _Tiphle
-albyi_ (_Siphonostoma_) in the Miocene of Sicily. Other pipefishes,
-referred to as _Syngnathus_ and _Calamostoma_, are found as fossils in
-Tertiary rocks.
-
-=The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.=—Both fossil and recent forms constitute a
-direct line of connection from the pipefishes to the sea-horses. In the
-latter the head has the form of the head of a horse. It is bent at right
-angles to the body like the head of a knight at chess. There is no
-caudal fin, and the tail in typical species is coiled and can hardly be
-straightened out. _Calamostoma_ of the Eocene, _Gasterotokeus_ of
-Polynesia, and _Acentronura_ of Japan are forms which connect the true
-sea-horses with the pipefish. _Gasterotokeus_ has the long head and
-slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile finless tail of a
-sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse belong to the
-genus _Hippocampus_. These little creatures have the egg-sac of the male
-under the abdomen. They range from two inches to a foot in length and
-some of the many species may be found in abundance in every warm sea.
-Some cling by the tails to floating seaweed and are swept to great
-distances; others cling to eel-grass and live very near the shore. The
-commonest European species is _Hippocampus hippocampus_. Most abundant
-on our Atlantic coast is _Hippocampus hudsonius_. _Hippocampus
-coronatus_ is most common in Japan. The largest species are _Hippocampus
-ingens_ of Lower California and _Hippocampus kelloggi_ in Japan. Many
-species, especially of the smaller ones, have the spines of the bony
-plates of the body ending in fleshy flaps. These are sometimes so
-enlarged as to simulate leaves of seaweed, thus serving for the
-efficient protection of the species. These flaps are developed to an
-extreme degree in _Phyllopteryx eques_, a pipefish of the East Indies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 188.—_Solenostomus cyanopterus_ Bleeker. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 189.—Sea-horse, _Hippocampus hudsonius_ Dekay. Virginia.
-]
-
-No fossil sea-horses are known.
-
-The following account of the breeding-habits of our smallest sea-horse
-(_Hippocampus zosteræ_) was prepared by the writer for a book of
-children's stories:
-
-"He was a little bit of a sea-horse and his name was Hippocampus. He was
-not more than an inch long, and he had a red stripe on the fin on his
-back, and his head was made of bone and it had a shape just like a
-horse's head, but he ran out to a point at his tail, and his head and
-his tail were all covered with bone. He lived in the Grand Lagoon at
-Pensacola in Florida, where the water is shallow and warm and there are
-lots of seaweeds. So he wound his tail around a stem of seaweed and hung
-with his head down, waiting to see what would happen next, and then he
-saw another little sea-horse hanging on another seaweed. And the other
-sea-horse put out a lot of little eggs, and the little eggs all lay on
-the bottom of the sea at the foot of the seaweed. So Hippocampus crawled
-down from the seaweed where he was and gathered up all those little
-eggs, and down on the under side of his tail where the skin is soft he
-made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all the eggs into
-this pocket and fastened it together and stuck it with some slime. So he
-had all the other sea-horse's eggs in his own pocket.
-
-"Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his tail around it,
-and hung there with his head down to see what would happen next. The sun
-shone down on him, and by and by all the little eggs began to hatch out,
-and each one of the eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a
-sea-horse. And when he hung there with his head down he could feel all
-the little sea-ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by they
-squirmed so much that they pushed the pocket open, and then every one
-crawled away from him, and he couldn't get them back, and so he went
-along with them and watched to see that nothing should hurt them. And by
-and by they hung themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging
-there yet. And so he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and
-twisted his tail around it, and waited to see what would happen next.
-And what happened next was just the same thing over again."
-
-=Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.=—The small suborder of
-_Hypostomides_ (ὑπό, below; στόμα, mouth) consists of the family of
-_Pegasidæ_. These "sea-moths" are fantastic little fishes, probably
-allied to the sticklebacks, but wholly unique in form. The slender body
-is covered with bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single
-plate. The small mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The
-preopercle and the symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals are
-abdominal, formed of two rays, and the very large pectoral fin is placed
-horizontally like a great wing.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG 190.—Sea-moth, _Zalises umitengu_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-    (View from below.)
-]
-
-The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea-dragons, rarely
-exceed four inches in length. They are found in the East Indies and
-drift with the currents northward to Japan. The genera are _Pegasus_,
-_Parapegasus_, and _Zalises_. The best-known species are _Zalises
-draconis_ and _Pegasus volitans_.
-
-No fossil species of _Pegasidæ_ are known.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XIV
-                   SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL
-                                 GROUPS
-
-
-=SUBORDER Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.=—More ancient than
-the _Hemibranchii_, and still more distinctly in the line of transition
-from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes, is the small suborder of
-_Salmopercæ_. This is characterized by the presence of the adipose fin
-of the salmon, in connection with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a
-perch. The premaxillary forms the entire edge of the upper jaw, the
-maxillary being without teeth. The air-bladder retains a rudimentary
-duct. The bones of the head are full of mucous cavities, as in the
-European perch called _Gymnocephalus_ and _Acerina_. There are two
-spines in the dorsal and one or two in the anal, while the abdominal
-ventrals have each a spine and eight rays. Two species only are known
-among living fishes, these emphasizing more perfectly than any other
-known forms the close relation really existing between spinous and
-soft-rayed forms. The single family of _Percopsidæ_ would seem to find
-its place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of to-day.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 191.—Sand-roller, _Pecropsis guttatus_ Agassiz. Okoboji Lake, Ia.
-]
-
-_Percopsis guttata_, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great Lakes,
-is a pale translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a length of six
-inches. It abounds in the Great Lakes and their tributaries and is
-occasionally found in the Delaware, Ohio, Kansas, and other rivers and
-northwestward as far as Medicine Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily
-taken with a hook from the piers at Chicago.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 192.—Oregon Trout-perch, _Columbia transmontana_ Eigenmann.
-    Umatilla River, Oregon.
-]
-
-_Columbia transmontana_ is another little fish of similar type, but
-rougher and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in sandy or weedy
-lagoons throughout the lower basin of the Columbia, where it was first
-noticed by Dr. Eigenmann in 1892. From the point of view of structure
-and classification, this left-over form is one of the most remarkable of
-American fishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 193.—_Erismatopterus endlicheri_ Cope. Green River Eocene. (After
-    Cope.)
-]
-
-=Erismatopteridæ.=—Here should perhaps be placed the family of
-_Erismatopteridæ_, represented by _Erismatopterus levatus_ and other
-species of the Green River Eocene shales. In _Erismatopterus_ the short
-dorsal has two or three spines, there are two or three spines in the
-anal, and the abdominal ventrals are opposite the dorsal. Allied to
-_Erismatopterus_ is _Amphiplaga_ of the same deposits.
-
-We cannot, however, feel sure that these extinct fragments, however well
-preserved, belonged to fishes having an adipose fin. Among spiny-rayed
-fishes the _Percopsidæ_ alone retain this character, and the real
-affinities of _Erismatopterus_ may be with _Aphredoderidæ_ and other
-percoid forms.
-
-The relations of the extinct family of _Asineopidæ_ are also still
-uncertain. This group comprises fresh-water fishes said to be allied to
-the _Aphredoderidæ_, but with the pelvic bones not forked. _Asineops
-pauciradiata_, _squamifrons_ and _viridensis_ are described from the
-Green River shales. With _Erismatopterus_ all these fishes may belong to
-the suborder of _Salmopercæ_, but, as above stated, the possession of
-the adipose fin, the most characteristic trait of the _Salmopercæ_,
-cannot be verified in the fossil remains.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 194.—Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, _Lampris guttatus_ (Brünnich),
-    showing the enlarged infraclavicle. (After Boulenger.)
-]
-
-=Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.=—We may bring together
-as constituting another suborder certain forms of uncertain
-relationship, but which seem to be transitional between deep-bodied
-extinct Ganoids and the forms allied to _Platax_, _Zeus_, and
-_Antigonia_. The name of _Selenichthyes_ (σηλήνη, moon; ἰχθύς, fish) is
-suggested by Boulenger for the group of opahs, or moonfishes. These are
-characterized by the highly compressed body, the great development of a
-large hypocoracoid, and especially by the structure of the ventral fins,
-which are composed of about fifteen rays instead of the one spine and
-five rays characteristic of the specialized perch-like fishes. The
-living forms of this type are further characterized by the partial or
-total absence of the spinous dorsal, by the small oblique mouth, and the
-prominence of the ventral curve of the body. A thorough study of the
-osteology of these forms living and fossil will be necessary before the
-group can be properly defined. The large bone above mentioned was at
-first considered by Boulenger as the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the
-hypocoracoid being regarded by him as displaced, lying with the
-actinosts. But it is certain, from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this
-bone is the real hypocoracoid, which in this case is simply exaggerated
-in size, but placed as in ordinary fishes.
-
-The single living family, _Lamprididæ_, contains but one species,
-_Lampris guttatus_, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo, Jerusalem
-haddock, or San Pedro fish. This species reaches a length of six feet
-and a weight of 500 to 600 pounds. Fig. 199 (Vol. I) is taken from a
-photograph of an example weighing 317½ pounds taken near Honolulu by Mr.
-E. L. Berndt. The body is almost as deep as long, plump and smooth,
-without scales or bony plates. The vertebræ are forty-five in number,
-and the large ventrals contain about fifteen rays. The dorsal is without
-spines, the small mouth without teeth. The color is a "rich brocade of
-silver and lilac, rosy on the belly, everywhere with round silvery
-spots." The head and back have ultramarine tints, the jaws and fins are
-vermilion. On a drawing of this fish made at Sable Island in 1856, Mr.
-James Farquhar wrote (to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin): "Just imagine the body,
-a beautiful silver interspersed with spots of a lighter color about the
-size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a golden ring
-around them. You will then have some idea of the splendid appearance of
-the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen them I might have realized a
-fortune."
-
-The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The flesh is of varying
-shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of a rich, exquisite flavor
-scarcely surpassed by any other fish whatsoever.
-
-The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and ranging
-very widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed in Norway by
-Gunner, the good bishop of Throndhjem, about 1780. It was soon after
-recorded from Elsinore, Torbay, and Madeira, and is occasionally taken
-in various places in Europe. It is also recorded from Newfoundland,
-Sable Island, Cuba, Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco),
-Santa Catalina, Honolulu, and Japan.
-
-The specimen studied by the writer came ashore at Monterey in an injured
-condition, having been worsted in a struggle with some better-armed
-fish.
-
-Allied to _Lampris_ is the imposing extinct species known as
-_Semiophorus velifer_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Verona, the
-type of the extinct family of _Semiophoridæ_. This is a deep compressed
-fish, with very high spinous dorsal and very long, many-rayed ventrals.
-Other related species are known also from the Eocene. There is no
-evidence of any close relation between these fishes with _Caranx_ or
-_Platax_, with which Woodward associates _Semiophorus_.
-
-The _Semiophoridæ_ differ from the _Lamprididæ_ chiefly in the
-development of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of many slender
-rays.
-
-=Suborder Zeoidea.=—Not far from the _Selenichthyes_ and the
-_Berycoidei_ we may place the singular group of John Dories, or zeoid
-fishes. These have the ventral fins thoracic and many-rayed, the dorsal
-fin provided with spines, and the post-temporal, as in the
-_Chætodontidæ_, fused with the skull. Dr. Boulenger calls attention to
-the close relation of these fishes to the flounders, and suggests the
-possible derivation of both from a synthetic type, the _Amphistiidæ_,
-found in the European Eocene. The _Amphistiidæ_, _Zeidæ_, and flounders
-are united by him to form the group or suborder _Zeorhombi_,
-characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays not I, 5 in
-number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin-spines and the
-progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing the two eyes to the same
-side of the head. It is not certain that the flounders are really
-derived from Zeus-like fishes, but no other guess as to their origin has
-more elements of probability.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 195.—_Semiophorus velifer_ Volta. Eocene. (After Agassiz, per
-    Zittel.)
-]
-
-We may, however, regard the _Zeoidea_ on the one hand and the
-_Heterosomata_ on the other as distinct suborders. This is certain, that
-the flounders are descended from spiny-rayed forms and that they have no
-affinities with the codfishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 196.—_Amphistium paradoxum_ Agassiz. Upper Eocene. (Supposed
-    ancestor of the flounders). (After Boulenger.)
-]
-
-=Amphistiidæ.=—The _Amphistiidæ_, now extinct, are deep-bodied,
-compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal fins in which a
-few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely
-differentiated from the soft rays. The form of body and the structure of
-the fins are essentially as in the flounders, from which they differ
-chiefly by the symmetry of the head, the eyes being normally placed.
-_Amphistium paradoxum_ is described by Agassiz from the upper Eocene. It
-occurs in Italy and France. In its dorsal and anal fins there are about
-twenty-two rays, the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute
-or absent and there is a high supraoccipital crest.
-
-=The John Dories: Zeidæ.=—The singular family of _Zeidæ_, or John
-Dories, agrees with Chætodonts in the single character of the fusion of
-the post-temporal with the skull. The species, however, diverge widely
-in other regards, and their ventral fins are essentially those of the
-Berycoids. In all the species there are seven to nine soft rays in the
-ventral fins, as in the Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the
-fused post-temporal has been independently derived. The anterior
-vertebræ in _Zeus_, as in _Chætodon_, are closely crowded together. In
-the _Zeidæ_ the spinous dorsal is well developed, the body naked or with
-very thin scales, and provided with bony warts at least around the bases
-of dorsal and anal fins. The species are mostly of small size, silvery
-in color, living in moderate depths in warm seas. The best-known genus
-is _Zeus_, which is a group of shore-fishes of the waters of Asia and
-Europe. The common John Dory (called in Germany Härings-König, or king
-of the herrings), _Zeus faber_, abounds in shallow bays on the coasts of
-Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, and is a striking feature
-of the markets of southern Europe. The dorsal spines are high, the mouth
-large, and on the sides is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of
-the thumb of St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the
-mouth of this species. A black spot on several other species is
-associated with the same legend.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 197.—The John Dory, _Zeus faber_. Linnæus. Devon, England.
-]
-
-On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish (_Zeus
-japonicus_), very similar to the European species and like it in form
-and color. _Zenopsis nebulosa_ and _Zen itea_ also occur on the coasts
-of Japan. The remaining _Zeidæ_ (_Cyttus_, _Zenopsis_, _Zenion_, etc.)
-are all rare species occasionally dredged especially in the Australian
-region. _Zeus priscus_ is recorded from the Tertiary, and _Cyttoides
-glaronensis_ from the upper Eocene of Glavus.
-
-=Grammicolepidæ.=—The _Grammicolepidæ_, represented by a single species,
-_Grammicolepis brachiusculus_, rarely taken off the coast of Cuba, is
-related to the _Zeidæ_. It has rough, ridged, parchment-like scales
-deeper than long. The ventrals are thoracic, with the rays in increased
-number, as in _Zeus_ and _Beryx_, with each of which it suggests
-affinity.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER XV
-                               BERYCOIDEI
-
-
-=THE Berycoid Fishes.=—We may place in a separate order a group of
-fishes, mostly spiny-rayed, which appeared earlier in geological time
-than any other of the spinous forms, and which in several ways represent
-the transition from the isospondylous fishes to those of the type of the
-mackerel and perch. In the berycoid fishes the ventral fins are always
-thoracic, the number of rays almost always greater than I, 5, and in all
-cases an orbitosphenoid bone is developed in connection with the septum
-between the orbits above. This bone is found in the _Isospondyli_ and
-other primitive fishes, but according to the investigations of Mr. E. C.
-Starks it is wanting in all percoid and scombroid forms, as well as in
-the _Haplomi_ and in all the higher fishes. This trait may therefore,
-among thoracic fishes, be held to define the section or suborder of
-_Berycoidei_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 198.—Skull of a Berycoid fish, _Beryx splendens_ Cuv. & Val.,
-    showing the orbitosphenoid (OS), characteristic of all Berycoid
-    fishes.
-]
-
-These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic types, were more abundant
-in Cretaceous and Eocene times than now. The possession of an increased
-number of soft rays in the ventral fins is archaic, although in one
-family, the _Monocentridæ_, the number is reduced to three. Most of the
-living _Berycoidei_ retain through life the archaic duct to the
-air-bladder characteristic of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In
-some however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the fish series
-the number of twenty-four vertebræ appears. In most spiny-rayed fishes
-of the tropics, of whatever family, this number is retained.
-
-In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin, and in certain cases
-the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses that of the most extreme
-perch-like forms. In geological times the Berycoids preceded all other
-perch-like fishes. They are probably ancestral to all the latter. All
-the recent species, in spite of high specialization, retain some archaic
-characters.
-
-=The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.=—The typical family, _Berycidæ_, is composed
-of fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or black in color, with
-the body short and compressed, the scales varying in the different
-genera. The single dorsal fin has a few spines in front, and there are
-no barbels. The suborbitals are not greatly developed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 199.—_Beryx splendens_ Lowe. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-The species of _Beryx_, called in Spanish _Alfonsino_, _Beryx elegans_
-and _Beryx decadactylus_, are widely distributed at moderate depths, the
-same species being recorded from Portugal, Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf
-Stream, and Japan. The colors are very handsome, being scarlet with
-streaks of white or golden. These fishes reach the length of a foot or
-more and are valued as food where sufficiently common.
-
-Numerous species of _Beryx_ and closely allied genera are found in all
-rocks since Cretaceous times; _Beryx dalmaticus_, from the Cretaceous of
-Dalmatia, is perhaps the earliest. _Beryx insculptus_ is found in New
-Jersey, but no other Berycoids are yet known as fossils from North
-America. _Sphenocephalus_, with four anal spines, is found in the chalk,
-as are also species of _Acrogaster_ and _Pycnosterinx_, these being the
-earliest of fishes with distinctly spiny fins.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 200.—_Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_ (Mantell), restored. English
-    Cretaceous Family _Berycidæ_. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-The _Trachichthyidæ_ are deep-sea fishes with short bodies, cavernous
-skulls, and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with a few spines in
-front. The suborbitals are very broad, often covering the cheeks, and
-the anal fin is shorter than the dorsal, a character which separates
-these fishes from the _Berycidæ_, in which group the anal fin is very
-long. The belly has often a serrated edge, and the coloration is red or
-black, the black species being softer in body and living in deeper
-water. Species of _Hoplostethus_, notably _Hoplostethus mediterraneus_,
-are found in most seas at a considerable depth. _Trachichthys_, a genus
-scarcely distinguishable from _Hoplostethus_, is found in various seas.
-The genus _Paratrachichthys_ is remarkable for the anterior position of
-the vent, much as in _Aphredoderus_. Species occur in Japan and
-Australia. _Gephyroberyx_, with the dorsal fin notched, is known from
-Japan (_G. japonicus_) and Madeira (_G. darwini_).
-
-We may also refer to the _Trachichthyidæ_ certain species of still
-deeper waters, black in color and still softer in texture, with smaller
-scales which are often peculiar in form. These constitute the genera
-_Caulolepis_, _Anoplogaster_, _Melamphaës_, and _Plectromus_. In
-_Caulolepis_ the jaws are armed with very strong canines.
-
-Allied to the _Trachichthyidæ_ are also the fossil genera _Hoplopteryx_
-and _Homonotus_. _Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_, from the English chalk, is
-one of the earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 201.—_Paratrachichthys prosthemius_ Jordan & Fowler, Misaki,
-    Japan. Family _Trachichthyidæ_.
-]
-
-=The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.=—The soldier-fishes (_Holocentridæ_),
-also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados, matajuelos, malau,
-alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic of rocky banks in the
-tropical seas. In this family the flesh is firm and the large scales
-very hard and with very rough edges. There are eleven spines in the
-dorsal and four in the anal, the third being usually very long. The
-ventral fins have one spine and seven soft rays. The whole head and body
-are rough with prickles. The coloration is always brilliant, the ground
-hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines or stripes of white,
-black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and they furnish a
-large part of the beauty of coloration so characteristic of the fishes
-of the coral reefs. The species are active, pugnacious, carnivorous, but
-not especially voracious, the mouth being usually small.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 202.—Soldier-fish, _Holocentrus ascenscionis_ (Osbeck).
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 203.—Soldier-fish, _Holocentrus ittodai_ Jordan & Fowler. Riu Kiu
-    Islands, Japan.
-]
-
-The genus _Holocentrus_ is characterized by the presence of a large
-spine on the angle of the preopercle. Its species are especially
-numerous, _Holocentrus ascenscionis_, abundant in Cuba, ranges northward
-in the Gulf Stream. _Holocentrus suborbitalis_, the mojarra cardenal, is
-a small, relatively dull species swarming about the rocks of western
-Mexico. _Holocentrus spinosissimus_ is a characteristic fish of Japan.
-Many other species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies, as
-well as in tropical America. _Holocentrus ruber_ and _Holocentrus
-diadema_ are common species of Polynesia and the East Indies. Other
-abundant species are _H. spinifer_, _H. microstomus_, and _H.
-violascens_.
-
-_Holocentrus marianus_ is the marian of the French West Indies.
-_Holocentrus sammara_, and related large-mouthed species occur in
-Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 204.—_Ostichthys japonicus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Giran, Formosa.
-]
-
-In _Myripristis_ the preopercular spine is wanting and the air-bladder
-is divided into two parts, the anterior extending to the ear.
-_Myripristis jacobus_ is the brilliantly colored candil, or "Frère
-Jacques," of the West Indies. Species of _Myripristis_ are known in
-Hawaii as _u-u_. A curious method of catching _Myripristis murdjan_ is
-pursued on the Island of Hawaii. A living fish is suspended by a cord in
-front of a reef inhabited by this species. It remains with scarlet fins
-spread and glistening red scales. Its presence is a challenge to other
-individuals, who rush out to attack it. These are then drawn out by a
-concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a decoy.
-_Myripristis pralinius_, _M. multiradiatus_, and other species occur in
-Polynesia. _Ostichthys_ is allied to _Myripristis_ but with very large
-rough scales. _Ostichthys japonicus_ is a large and showy fish of the
-waters of Japan. _Ostichthys pillwaxi_ occurs at Honolulu. _Holotrachys
-lima_ is a small, brick-red fish with small very rough scales found
-throughout Polynesia.
-
-Fossil species of _Holocentrus_, _Myripristis_, and related extinct
-genera occur in the Eocene and Miocene. _Holocentrus macrocephalus_,
-from Monte Bolca Eocene, is one of the best known. _Myricanthus
-leptacanthus_ from the same region, has very slender spines in the fins.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 205.—Pine-cone Fish, _Monocentris japonicus_ (Houttuyn). Waka,
-    Japan.
-]
-
-=The Polymixiidæ.=—The family of _Polymixiidæ_, or barbudos, is one of
-the most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewildering combination of
-characters belonging to different groups. With the general aspect of a
-Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7, and the single dorsal fin with a few
-spines, _Polymixia_ has the scales rather smooth and at the chin are two
-long barbels which look remarkably like those of the family of _Mullidæ_
-or _Surmullets_. As in the _Mullidæ_, there are but four
-branchiostegals. In other regards the two groups seem to have little in
-common. According to Starks, the specialized feelers at the chin are
-different in structure and must have been independently developed in the
-two groups. In _Polymixia_, each barbel is suspended from the hypohyal;
-three rudimentary branchiostegals forming its thickened base. In
-_Mullus_, each barbel is suspended from the trip of a slender projection
-of the ceratohyal, having no connection with the branchiostegals.
-_Polymixia_ possesses the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true berycoid,
-while the _Mullidæ_ are genuine percoid fishes.
-
-Four species of _Polymixia_ are recorded from rather deep water:
-_Polymixia nobilis_ from Madeira, _Polymixia lowei_ from the West
-Indies, _Polymixia berndti_ from Hawaii, and _Polymixia japonica_ from
-Japan. All are plainly colored, without red.
-
-=The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.=—Among the most extraordinary of
-all fishes is the little family of _Monocentridæ_, or pine-cone fishes.
-_Monocentris japonicus_, the best-known species, is common on the coasts
-of Japan. It reaches the length of five inches. The body is covered with
-a coat of mail, made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put
-together. The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral fin is
-replaced by a very strong rough spine. The animal fully justifies the
-remark of its discoverer, Houttuyn (1782), that it is "the most
-remarkable fish which exists." It is dull golden brown in color, and in
-movement as sluggish as a trunkfish. A similar species, called
-knightfish, _Monocentris gloriæ-maris_, is found in Australia. No
-fossils allied to _Monocentris_ are known.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XVI
-                              PERCOMORPHI
-
-
-=SUBORDER Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.=—We may place in a
-single suborder the various groups of fishes which cluster about the
-perches, and the mackerels. The group is not easily definable and may
-contain heterogeneous elements. We may, however, arrange in it, for our
-present purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes having the ventral fins
-thoracic, of one spine and five rays (the ventral fin occasionally
-wanting or defective, having a reduced number of rays), the lower
-pharyngeal bones separate, the suborbital chain without backward
-extension or bony stay, the post-temporal normally developed and
-separate from the cranium, the premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the
-cranium itself without orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure not
-greatly unlike that of perch or mackerel, and the back-bone primitively
-of twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased in arctic, pelagic, or
-fresh-water offshoots.
-
-The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed forms, group
-themselves chiefly about two central families, the _Scombridæ_, or
-mackerels, and the _Serranidæ_, the sea-bass, with their fresh-water
-allies, the _Percidæ_, or perch.
-
-=The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.=—The two groups of _Percomorphi_, the
-mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no exact definition, as the
-one fully grades into the other. The mackerel-like forms, or
-_Scombroidea_, as a whole are defined by their adaptation for swift
-movement. The profile is sharp anteriorly, the tail slender, with widely
-forked caudal; the scales are usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a
-character as not to produce friction in the water.
-
-In general the external surface is smooth, the skeleton light and
-strong, the muscles firm, and the species are carnivorous and
-predaceous. But among the multitude of forms are many variations, and
-some of these will seem to be exceptions to any definition of
-mackerel-like fishes which could possibly be framed.
-
-The mackerels, or _Scombroidea_, have usually the tail very slender,
-composed of very strong bones, with widely forked fin. In the perch and
-bass the tail is stout, composed largely of flesh, the supporting
-vertebræ relatively small and spread out fan-fashion behind. Neither
-mackerels nor perch nor any of their near allies ever have more than
-five soft rays in the ventral fins, and the persistence of this number
-throughout the _Percomorphi_, _Squamipinnes_, _Pharyngognathi_, and
-spiny fishes generally must be attributed to inheritance from the
-primitive perch-like or mackerel-like forms. In almost all the groups to
-be considered in this work, after the _Berycoidea_ the ventral rays are
-I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration, never more. In the central or
-primitive members of most of these groups there are twenty-four
-vertebræ, the number increased in certain forms, probably through
-repetitive degeneration.
-
-=The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.=—We may first consider the great central
-family of _Scombridæ_, or true mackerels, distinguished among related
-families by their swift forms, smooth scales, metallic coloration, and
-technically by the presence of a number of detached finlets behind the
-dorsal and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines in
-the fins are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong, the flesh
-oily, and the air-bladder reduced in size or altogether wanting. As in
-most swift-swimming fishes and fishes of pelagic habit, the vertebræ are
-numerous and relatively small, an arrangement which promotes flexibility
-of body. It is not likely that this group is the most primitive of the
-scombroid fishes. In some respects the _Stromateidæ_ stand nearer the
-primitive stock. The true mackerels, however, furnish the most
-convenient point of departure in reviewing the great group.
-
-In the genus of true mackerels, _Scomber_, the dorsal fins are well
-separated, the first being rather short, and the scales of the shoulders
-are not modified to form a corselet. There are numerous species, two of
-them of general interest. The common mackerel, _Scomber scombrus_, is
-one of the best known of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the
-Atlantic, where on both shores it runs in vast schools, the movements
-varying greatly from season to season, the preference being for cool
-waters. The female mackerel produces about 500,000 eggs each year,
-according to Professor Goode. These are very minute and each is provided
-with an oil-globule, which causes it to float on the surface. About
-400,000 barrels of mackerel are salted yearly by the mackerel fleet of
-Massachusetts. Single schools of mackerel, estimated to contain a
-million barrels, have been recorded. Captain Harding describes such a
-school as "a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles long."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 206.—Mackerel, _Scomber scombrus_ L. New York.
-]
-
-Professor Goode writes:
-
-"Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of many thousands of
-the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine. The success of the
-mackerel-fishery is much more uncertain than that of the cod-fishery,
-for instance, for the supply of cod is quite uniform from year to year.
-The prospects of each season are eagerly discussed from week to week in
-thousands of little circles along the coast, and are chronicled by the
-local press. The story of each successful trip is passed from mouth to
-mouth, and is a matter of general congratulation in each fishing
-community. A review of the results of the American mackerel-fishery, and
-of the movements of the fish in each part of the season, would be an
-important contribution to the literature of the American fisheries.
-
-"The mackerel-fishery is peculiarly American, and its history is full of
-romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the American
-mackerel-schooners—yachts of great speed and unsurpassed for
-seaworthiness. The modern instruments of capture are marvels of
-inventive skill, and require the highest degree of energy and
-intelligence on the part of the fishermen. The crews of the
-mackerel-schooners are still for the most part Americans of the old
-colonial stock, although the cod and halibut fisheries are to a great
-extent given up to foreigners.
-
-"When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheepshead cannot
-vanquish him in a gastronomic tournament. In Holland, to be sure, the
-mackerel is not prized, and is accused of tasting like rancid fish-oil,
-and in England, even, they are usually lean and dry, like the wretched
-skeletons which are brought to market in April and May by the southern
-fleet, which goes forth in the early spring from Massachusetts to
-intercept the schools as they approach the coasts of Carolina and
-Virginia. They are not worthy of the name of mackerel. _Scomber
-Scombrus_ is not properly in season until the spawning time is over,
-when the schools begin to feed at the surface in the Gulf of Maine and
-the 'North Bay.'
-
-"Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drippings, or
-slightly corned in strong brine, caught at night and eaten in the
-morning, a mackerel or a bluefish is unsurpassable. A well-cured autumn
-mackerel is perhaps the finest of all salted fish, but in these days of
-wholesale capture by the purse-seine, hasty dressing and careless
-handling, it is very difficult to obtain a sweet and sound salt
-mackerel. Salt mackerel may be boiled as well as broiled, and a fresh
-mackerel may be cooked in the same manner. Americans will usually prefer
-to do without the sauce of fennel and gooseberry which transatlantic
-cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and lean, new or stale, mackerel
-are consumed by Americans in immense quantities, as the statistics show,
-and whatever their state, always find ready sale."
-
-Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely distributed is
-the chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel, _Scomber japonicus_
-(Houttuyn, 1782), usually known by the later name of _Scomber colias_
-(Gmelin, 1788). In this species the air-bladder (absent in the common
-mackerel) is moderately developed. It very much resembles the true
-mackerel, but is of smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and
-keeps nearer to the shore. It may be usually distinguished by the
-presence of vague, dull-gray spots on the sides, where the true mackerel
-is lustrous silvery.
-
-This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic coast, on
-the coast of California, and everywhere in Japan.
-
-_Scomber antarcticus_ is the familiar mackerel of Australia. _Scomber
-loo_, silvery, with round black spots, is the common mackerel of the
-South Seas, locally known as _Ga_.
-
-_Scomber priscus_ is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene.
-
-_Auxis thazard_, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the shoulders
-enlarged and somewhat coalescent, forming what is called a corselet. The
-species ranges widely through the seas of the world in great numbers,
-but very erratic, sometimes myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then
-none seen for years. It is more constant in its visits to Japan and
-Hawaii. Fossil species of _Auxis_ are found in the Miocene.
-
-The genus _Gymnosarda_ has the corselet as in _Auxis_, but the first
-dorsal fin is long, extending backward to the base of the second. Its
-two species, _Gymnosarda pelamis_, the Oceanic bonito, and _Gymnosarda
-alleterata_, the little tunny, are found in all warm seas, being
-especially abundant in the Mediterranean, about Hawaii and Japan. These
-are plump fish of moderate size, with very red and very oily flesh.
-
-Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (_Thunnus thynnus_)
-found in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight of 1500 pounds.
-These enormous fishes are much valued by anglers, a popular "Tuna Club"
-devoted to the sport of catching them with a hook having its
-headquarters at Avalon, on Santa Catalina Island, in California. They
-are good food, although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The
-name horse-mackerel is often given to these monsters on the New England
-coast. In California, the Spanish name of tuna has become current among
-fisherman.
-
-Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore (_Germo
-alalonga_). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty pounds, and is
-known by its very long, almost ribbon-like pectoral fins. This species
-is common in the Mediterranean, and about the Santa Barbara Islands,
-where it runs in great schools in March. The flesh of the albacore is of
-little value, unless, as in Japan, it is eaten raw. The Japanese shibi
-(_Germo germo_) is another large albacore, having the finlets bright
-yellow. It is found also at Hawaii.
-
-The bonito (_Sarda sarda_) wanders far throughout the Atlantic,
-abounding on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean, coming inshore
-in summer to spawn or feed. Its flesh is red and not very delicate,
-though it may be reckoned as a fair food-fish. It is often served under
-the name of "Spanish mackerel" to the injury of the reputation of the
-better fish.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 207.—The Long-fin Albacore, _Germo alalunga_ (Gmelin). Gulf
-    Stream.
-]
-
-Professor Goode writes:
-
-"One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength. Every line in
-its contour is suggestive of swift motion. The head is shaped like a
-minie bullet, the jaws fit together so tightly that a knife-edge could
-scarcely pass between, the eyes are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a
-perfect level with the adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and
-strong, the contours of the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly
-merging into the straighter lines in which the contour of the body
-slopes back to the tail. The dorsal fin is placed in a groove into which
-it is received, like the blade of a clasp-knife in its handle. The
-pectoral and ventral fins also fit into depressions in the sides of the
-fish. Above and below, on the posterior third of the body, are placed
-the little finlets, each a little rudder with independent motions of its
-own, by which the course of the fish may be readily steered. The tail
-itself is a crescent-shaped oar, without flesh, almost without scales,
-composed of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory. A
-single sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel the
-bonito a hundred yards, for the polished surfaces of its body can offer
-little resistance to the water. I have seen a common dolphin swimming
-round and round a steamship, advancing at the rate of twelve knots an
-hour, the effort being hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly
-seventy miles in an hour. Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It
-might be done by the aid of the electrical contrivances by which is
-calculated the initial velocity of a projectile. The bonitoes in our
-sounds to-day may have been passing Cape Colony or the Land of Fire day
-before yesterday."
-
-Another bonito, _Sarda chilensis_, is common in California; in Chile,
-and in Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines than the bonito of
-the Atlantic, but the same size, coloration, and flesh. Both are blue,
-with undulating black stripes along the side of the back.
-
-The genus _Scomberomorus_ includes mackerels slenderer in form, with
-larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively pale and free
-from oil.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 208.—The Spanish Mackerel, _Scomberomorus maculatus_ (Mitchill).
-    New York.
-]
-
-_Scomberomorus maculatus_, the Spanish mackerel of the West Indies, is
-one of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography was written by Mitchill
-almost a century ago in these words:
-
-"A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July."
-
-Goode thus writes of it:
-
-"The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful of fishes. It
-appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of beauty, when we look
-upon it, as shown in Kilbourn's well-known painting, darting like an
-arrow just shot from the bow, its burnished sides, silver flecked with
-gold, thrown into bold relief by the cool green background of the
-rippled sea; the transparent grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks
-of its trembling fins enhance the metallic splendor of its body, until
-it seems to rival the most brilliant of tropical birds. Kilbourn made
-copies of his large painting on the pearly linings of seashells and
-produced some wonderful effects by allowing the natural luster of the
-mother-of-pearl to show through his transparent pigments and simulate
-the brilliancy of the life-inspired hues of the quivering, darting
-sea-sprite, whose charms even his potent brush could not properly
-depict.
-
-"It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which comes to us
-only in midsummer, and which disappears with the approach of cold, to
-some region not yet explored by ichthyologists. It is doubtless very
-familiar in winter to the inhabitants of some region adjacent to the
-waters of the Caribbean or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place
-shall have been discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with
-the bluefish and the mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical winter
-resort to which we send the migratory fishes whose habits we do not
-understand—the middle strata of the ocean, the floating beds of
-Sargassum, which drift hither and thither under the alternate promptings
-of the Gulf-stream currents and the winter winds."
-
-The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate schools and is
-caught in abundance from Cape May southward. Its white flesh is most
-delicious, when properly grilled, and Spanish mackerel, like pampano,
-should be cooked in no other way.
-
-A very similar species, _Scomberomorus sierra_, occurs on the west coast
-of Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as food by the Mexicans.
-In California, the Monterey Spanish mackerel (_Scomberomorus concolor_)
-is equally excellent as a food-fish. This fish lacks the spots
-characteristic of most of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay
-of Monterey, especially at Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the
-autumn of 1879 and 1880. It has not, so far as is known, been seen
-since, nor is the species recorded from any other coast.
-
-The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots upon its sides.
-Almost exactly like it in appearance is the pintado, or sierra
-(_Scomberomorus regalis_), but in this species the spots are oblong in
-form. The pintado abounds in the West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate
-than that of the more true Spanish mackerel. The name _sierra_, saw,
-commonly applied to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been
-corrupted into _cero_ in some books on angling.
-
-Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on the coasts of
-India, Chile, and Japan.
-
-The great kingfish, or cavalla (_Scomberomorus cavalla_), is a huge
-Spanish mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100
-pounds. It is dark iron-gray in color, one of the best of food-fishes,
-and is unspotted, and its firm, rich flesh resembles that of the
-barracuda.
-
-Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp-nosed,
-swift-swimming mackerel found in the East and West Indies, as well as in
-Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet and a weight of more than a
-hundred pounds. Its large knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and
-the color is almost black. _Acanthocybium solandri_ is the species found
-in Hawaii and Japan. The American _Acanthocybium petus_, occasionally
-also taken in the Mediterranean, may be the same species.
-
-Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well as
-representatives of related genera now extinct, abound in the Eocene and
-Miocene, especially in northern Italy. Among them are _Scomber antiquus_
-from the Miocene, _Scombrinus macropomus_ from the Eocene London clays,
-much like _Scomber_, but with stronger teeth, _Sphyrænodus priscus_ from
-the same deposits, the teeth still larger, _Scombramphodon crossidens_,
-from the same deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of
-_Scomberomorus_. _Scomberomorus_ is the best represented of all the
-genera as fossil, _Scomberomorus speciosus_ and numerous other species
-occurring in the Eocene. A fossil species of _Germo_, _G. lanceolatus_,
-occurs at Monte Bolca in Eocene rocks. Another tunny, with very small
-teeth is _Eothynnus salmonens_, from the lower Eocene near London.
-Several other tunny-like fishes occur in the lower Tertiary.
-
-=The Escolars: Gempylidæ.=—More predaceous than the mackerels and
-tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, _Gempylidæ_, known as _escolars_
-("scholars"), with the body almost band-shaped and the teeth very large
-and sharp. Some of these, from the ocean depths, are violet-black in
-color, those near the surface being silvery. _Escolar violaceus_ lives
-in the abysses of the Gulf Stream. _Ruvettus pretiosus_, the black
-escolar, lives in more moderate depths and is often taken in Cuba,
-Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very large fish, black, with very
-rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of oil; sometimes rated
-very high, and at other times too rank to be edible. The name _escolar_
-means _scholar_ in Spanish, but its root meaning, as applied to this
-fish, comes from a word meaning _to scour_, in allusion to the very
-rough scales.
-
-_Promethichthys prometheus_, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so-called from
-its wariness, is caught in the same regions, being especially common
-about Madeira and Hawaii. _Gempylus serpens_, the snake-mackerel, is a
-still slenderer and more voracious fish of the open seas. _Thyrsites
-atun_ is the Australian "barracuda," a valued food-fish, voracious and
-predaceous.
-
-=Scabbard-and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.=—The family of
-_Lepidopidæ_, or scabbard-fishes, includes degenerate mackerels,
-band-shaped, with continuous dorsal fin, and the long jaws armed with
-very small teeth. These are found in the open sea, _Lepidopus candatus_
-being the most common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet
-and comes to different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn. It
-lives in warm water and is at once chilled by the least cold; hence the
-name of frostfish occasionally applied to it. Several species of
-_Lepidopus_ are fossil in the later Tertiary. _Lepidopus glarisianus_
-occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it _Thyrsitocephalus alpinus_,
-which approaches more nearly to the _Gempylidæ_.
-
-Still more degenerate are the _Trichiuridæ_, or cutlass-fishes, in which
-the caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like filament. The
-species are bright silvery in color, very slender, and very voracious,
-reaching a length of three to five feet. _Trichiurus lepturus_ is rather
-common on our Atlantic coast. The names hairfish and silver-eel, among
-others, are often given to it. _Trichiurus japonicas_, a very similar
-species, is common in Japan, and other species inhabit the tropical
-seas. _Trichiurichthys_, a fossil genus with well-developed scales,
-precedes _Trichiurus_ in the Miocene.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 209.—Cutlass-fish, _Trichiurus lepturus_ Linnæus. St. Augustine,
-    Fla.
-]
-
-=The Palæorhynchidæ.=—The extinct family of _Palæorhynchidæ_ is found
-from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very long and slender
-fishes, with long jaws and small teeth, the dorsal fin long and
-continuous. The species resembles the _Escolar_ on the one hand and the
-sailfishes on the other, and they may prove to be ancestral to the
-_Istiophoridæ_. _Hemirhynchus deshayesi_ with the upper jaw twice as
-long as the lower, sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris;
-_Palæorhynchum glarisianum_, with the jaws both elongate, the lower
-longest, is in the Oligocene of Glarus. Several other species of both
-genera are recorded.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 210.—_Palæorhynchus glarisianus_ Blainville. Oligocene. (After
-    Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.=—Remotely allied to the cutlass-fishes
-and still nearer to the _Palæorhynchidæ_ is the family of sailfishes,
-_Istiophoridæ_, having the upper jaw prolonged into a sword made of
-consolidated bones. The teeth are very feeble and the ventral fins
-reduced to two or three rays. The species are few in number, of large
-size, and very brilliant metallic coloration, inhabiting the warm seas,
-moving northward in summer. They are excellent as food, similar to the
-swordfish in this as in many other respects. The species are not well
-known, being too large for museum purposes, and no one having critically
-studied them in the field. _Istiophorus_ has the dorsal fin very high,
-like a great sail, and undivided; _Istiophorus nigricans_ is rather
-common about the Florida Keys, where it reaches a length of six feet.
-Its great sail, blue with black spots, is a very striking object.
-Closely related to this is _Istiophorus orientalis_ of Japan and other
-less known species of the East Indies.
-
-_Tetrapturus_, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided into
-two parts. Its species are taken in most warm seas, _Tetrapturus
-imperator_ throughout the Atlantic, _Tetrapturus amplus_ in Cuba,
-_Tetrapturus mitsukurii_ and _Tetrapturus mazara_ in Japan. These much
-resemble swordfish in form and habits, and they have been known to
-strike boats in the same way.
-
-Fossil _Istiophoridæ_ are known only from fragments of the snout, in
-Europe and America, referred provisionally to _Istiophorus_. The genus
-_Xiphiorhynchus_, fossil swordfishes from the Eocene, known from the
-skull only, may be referred to this family, as minute teeth are present
-in the jaws. _Xiphiorhynchus priscus_ is found in the London Eocene.
-
-=The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.=—The family of swordfishes, _Xiphiidæ_,
-consists of a single species, _Xiphias gladius_, of worldwide
-distribution in the warm seas. The snout in the swordfish is still
-longer, more perfectly consolidated, and a still more effective weapon
-of attack. The teeth are wholly wanting, and there are no ventral fins,
-while the second of the two fins on the back is reduced to a slight
-finlet.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 211.—Young Swordfish, _Xiphias gladius_ (Linnæus). (After
-    Lütken.)
-]
-
-The swordfish follows the schools of mackerel to the New England coasts.
-"Where you see swordfish, you may know that mackerel are about," Goode
-quotes from an old fisherman. The swordfish swims near the surface,
-allowing its dorsal fin to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal.
-It often leaps out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea
-can swim more swiftly.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 212.—Swordfish, _Xiphias gladius_ (Linnæus). (After Day.)
-]
-
-"The pointed head," says Goode, "the fins of the back and abdomen snugly
-fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals, the long, lithe, muscular
-body, sloping slowly to the tail, fit it for the most rapid and forcible
-movement through the water. Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England
-court in regard to its power, said:
-
-"'It strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed
-hammers. Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot, and is as
-dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile.'
-
-"Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters of this
-fish with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships. What can be the
-inducement for it to attack objects so much larger than itself it is
-hard to surmise.
-
-"It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes possession
-of the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned, it should retaliate
-by attacking its assailant. An old swordfish fisherman told Mr.
-Blackford that his vessel had been struck twenty times. There are,
-however, many instances of entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at
-sea. Many of these are recounted in a later portion of this memoir.
-Their movements when feeding are discussed below, as well as their
-alleged peculiarities of movement during the breeding season.
-
-"It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two are never seen
-swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says that they are always distant
-from each other at least thirty or forty feet.
-
-"The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword. Without any special
-effort on my part numerous instances of their attacks upon vessels have
-in the last ten years found their way into the pigeon-hole labeled
-'Swordfish.'"
-
-Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic wherever mackerel
-run. They do not breed on our shores, but probably do so in the
-Mediterranean and other warm seas. They are rare off the California
-coast, but five records existing (Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa
-Catalina, San Diego, off Cerros Island). The writer has seen two large
-individuals in the market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in
-Japan. As a food-fish, the swordfish is one of the best, its
-dark-colored oily flesh, though a little coarse, making most excellent
-steaks. Its average weight on our coast is about 300 pounds, the maximum
-625.
-
-The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of development, the
-very young having the head armed with rough spines and in nowise
-resembling the adult.
-
-Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be distinguished from
-remains of _Istiophoridæ_.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XVII
-                         CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS
-
-
-=THE Pampanos: Carangidæ.=—We next take up the great family of Pampanos,
-_Carangidæ_, distinguished from the _Scombridæ_ as a whole by the
-shorter, deeper body, the fewer and larger vertebræ, and by the loss of
-the provision for swift movement in the open sea characteristic of the
-mackerels and their immediate allies. A simple mark of the _Carangidæ_
-is the presence of two separate spines in front of the anal fin. These
-spines are joined to the fin in the young. All of the species undergo
-considerable changes with age, and almost all are silvery in color with
-metallic blue on the back.
-
-Most like the true mackerel are the "leather-jackets," or "runners,"
-forming the genera _Scomberoides_ and _Oligoplites_. _Scomberoides_ of
-the Old World has the body scaly, long, slender, and fitted for swift
-motion; _Scomberoides sancti-petri_ is a widely diffused species, and
-others are found in Polynesia. In the New World genus _Oligoplites_ the
-scales are reduced to linear ridges imbedded in the skin at different
-angles. _Oligoplites saurus_ is a common dry and bony fish abounding in
-the West Indies and ranging north in summer to Cape Cod.
-
-_Naucrates ductor_, the pilot-fish, or romero, inhabits the open sea,
-being taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the West Indies, Hawaii, and
-Japan. It is marked by six black cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and
-it reaches a length of about two feet. In its development it undergoes
-considerable change, its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to
-disconnected spines.
-
-The amber-fishes, forming the genus _Seriola_, are rather robust fishes,
-with the anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal. The sides of the
-tail have a low, smooth keel. From a yellow streak obliquely across the
-head in some species they receive their Spanish name of coronado. The
-species are numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food,
-and range in length from two to six feet.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 213.—Pilot-fish, _Naucrates ductor_ (Linnæus). New Bedford, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 214.—Amber-fish, _Seriola lalandi_ (Cuv. & Val.). Family
-    _Carangidæ_. Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-_Seriola dorsalis_ is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued by
-anglers for its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Barbara Islands in
-early summer. _Seriola zonata_ is the rudder-fish, or shark's pilot,
-common on our New England coast. The banded young, abundant off Cape
-Cod, lose their marks with age. _Seriola hippos_ is the "samson-fish" of
-Australia. _Seriola lalandi_ is the great amber-fish of the West Indies,
-occasionally venturing farther northward, and _Seriola dumerili_ the
-amber-jack, or coronado, of the Mediterranean. The deep-bodied medregal
-(_Seriola fasciata_) is also taken in the West Indies, as is also the
-high-finned _Seriola rivoliana_. Species very similar to these occur in
-Hawaii and Japan, where they are known as _Ao_, or bluefishes. _Seriola
-lata_ is fossil in the mountains of Tuscany.
-
-The runner, _Elegatis bipinnulatus_, differs from _Seriola_ in having a
-finlet behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost all warm seas,
-ranging north once in a while to Long Island.
-
-The mackerel scads (_Decapterus_) have also a finlet, and on the
-posterior part of the body the lateral line is shielded with bony
-plates. In size and form these little fishes much resemble small
-mackerel, and they are much valued as food wherever abundant.
-_Decapterus punclatus_, known also as cigar-fish and round-robin,
-frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the West Indies, where it is
-abundant. _Decapterus russelli_ is the _Maruaji_, highly valued in Japan
-for its abundance, while _Decapterus muroadsi_ is the Japanese muroaji.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 215.—The Saurel, _Trachurus trachurus_ (Linnæus). Newport, R. I.
-]
-
-_Megalaspis cordyla_ abounds in the East Indies and Polynesia. It has
-many finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral line are developed to
-an extraordinary degree.
-
-In _Trachurus_ the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend the whole
-length of the lateral line. The species known as saurel and wrongly
-called horse-mackerel are closely related and some of them very widely
-distributed.
-
-_Trachurus trachurus_ common in Europe, extends to Japan where it is the
-abundant maaji. _Trachurus mediterraneus_ is common in southern Europe
-and _Trachurus symmetricus_ in California. _Trachurus picturatus_ of
-Madeira is much the same as the last named, and there is much question
-as to the right names and proper limits of all these species.
-
-In _Trachurops_ the bony plates are lacking on the anterior half of the
-body, and there is a peculiar nick and projection on the lower part of
-the anterior edge of the shoulder-girdle. _Trachurops crumenophthalma_,
-the goggler, or big-eyed scad, ranges widely in the open sea and at
-Hawaii, as the _Akule_, is the most highly valued because most abundant
-of the migratory fishes. At Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being
-here _Atule_. _Trachurops torva_ is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of the
-Japanese, always abundant.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 216.—Yellow Mackerel, _Carangus chrysos_ (Mitchill). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-To _Caranx_, _Carangus_, and a number of related genera, characterized
-by the bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a host of species
-may be referred. These fishes, known as cavallas, hard-tails, jacks,
-etc., are broad-bodied, silvery or metallic black in color, and are
-found in all warm seas. They usually move from the tropics northward in
-the fall in search of food and are especially abundant on our Atlantic
-coast, in Polynesia, and in Japan. About the Oceanic Islands they are
-resident, these being their chosen spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa
-they form a large part of the food-supply, the ulua (_Carangus
-forsteri_) and the malauli (_Carangus melampygus_) being among the most
-valuable food-fishes, large in size and excellent in flesh, unsurpassed
-in fish chowders. Of the American species _Carangus chrysos_, called
-yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging from Cape Cod southward.
-This is an elongate species of moderate size. The cavalla, or jiguagua,
-_Carangus hippos_, known by the black spot on the opercle, with another
-on the pectoral fin, is a widely distributed species and one of the
-largest of the tribe. Another important food-fish is the horse-eye-jack,
-or jurel, _Carangus latus_, which is very similar to the species called
-ulua in the Pacific. The black jack, or tiñosa, of Cuba, _Carangus
-funebris_, is said to be often poisonous. This is a very large species,
-black in color, the sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets
-of Havana. The young of different species of _Carangus_ are often found
-taking refuge under the disk of jelly-fishes protected by the stinging
-feelers. The species of the genus _Carangus_ have well-developed teeth.
-In the restricted genus of _Caranx_ proper, the jaws are toothless.
-_Caranx speciosus_, golden with dark cross-bands, is a large food-fish
-of the Pacific. _Citula armata_ is another widely distributed species,
-with some of the dorsal rays produced in long filaments.
-
-In _Alectis ciliaris_, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the armature of
-the tail is very slight and each fin has some of its rays drawn out into
-long threads. In the young these are very much longer than the body, but
-with age they wear off and grow shorter, while the body becomes more
-elongate. In _Vomer_, _Selene_, and _Chloroscombrus_ the bony armature
-of the tail, feeble in _Alectis_, by degrees entirely disappears.
-
-_Vomer setipinnis_, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has the body
-greatly elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the fins, growing
-shorter with age, become finally very low. _Selene vomer_, the
-horse-head-fish, or look-down (see Fig. 113, Vol. I), is similarly but
-even more distorted. The fins, filamentous in the young, grow shorter
-with age, as in _Vomer_ and _Alectis_. The skeleton in these fishes is
-essentially like that of _Carangus_, the only difference lying in the
-compression and distortion of the bones. _Chloroscombrus_ contains the
-casabes, or bumpers, thin, dry, compressed fish, of little value as
-food, the bony armature of the tail being wholly lost.
-
-To the genus _Trachinotus_ belong the pampanos, broad-bodied, silvery
-fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered with small scales and
-with no bony plates.
-
-The true pampano, _Trachinotus carolinus_, is one of the finest of all
-food-fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and to be cooked in the
-same way, only by broiling. The flesh is white, firm, and flaky, with a
-moderate amount of delicate oil. It has no especial interest to the
-angler and it is not abundant enough to be of great commercial
-importance, yet few fish bring or deserve to bring higher prices in the
-markets of the epicures. The species is most common along our Gulf
-coast, ranging northward along the Carolinas as far as Cape Cod.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 217.—The Pampano, _Trachinotus carolinus_ (Linnæus). Wood's Hole.
-]
-
-Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the broad body of
-the fish. The spelling "pompano" should therefore be discouraged.
-
-The other pampanos, of which there are several in tropical America and
-Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and relatively
-flavorless. _Trachinotus palometa_, the gaff-topsail pampano, has very
-high fins and its sides have four black bands like the marks of a grill.
-The round pampano, _Trachinotus falcatus_, is common southward, as is
-also the great pampano, _Trachinotus goodei_, which reaches a length of
-three feet. _Trachinotus ovatus_, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common
-in Polynesia and the East Indies. No pampanos are found in Europe, but a
-related genus, _Lichia_, contains species which much resemble them, but
-in which the body is more elongate and the mouth larger.
-
-Numerous fossils are referred to the _Carangidæ_ with more or less
-certainty. _Aipichthys pretiosus_ and other species occur in the
-Cretaceous. These are deep-bodied fishes resembling _Seriola_, having
-the falcate dorsal twice as long as the anal and the ventral ridge with
-thickened scales. _Vomeropsis_ (_longispina elongata_, etc.), also from
-the Eocene, with rounded caudal, the anterior dorsal rays greatly
-elongate, and the supraoccipital crest highly developed, probably
-constitutes with it a distinct family, _Vomeropsidæ_. Several species
-referable to _Carangus_ are found in the Miocene. _Archæus glarisianus_,
-resembling _Carangus_, but without scales so far as known, is found in
-the Oligocene of Glarus; _Seriola prisca_ and other species of _Seriola_
-occur in the Eocene; _Carangopsis brevis_, etc., allied to _Caranx_, but
-with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene of France and
-Italy.
-
-_Ductor leptosomus_ from the Eocene of Monte Bolca resembles
-_Naucrates_; _Trachinotus tenuiceps_ is recorded from Monte Bolca, and a
-species of uncertain relationship, called _Pseudovomer minutus_, with
-sixteen caudal vertebræ is taken from the Miocene of Licata.
-
-=The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.=—Very close to the _Carangidæ_, and
-especially to the genus _Seriola_, is the small family of
-_Nematistiidæ_, containing the papagallo, _Nematistius pectoralis_ of
-the west coast of Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has the general
-appearance of an amber-fish, but the dorsal spines are produced in long
-filaments. The chief character of the family is found in the excessive
-division of the rays of the pectoral fins.
-
-=The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.=—Allied to the _Carangidæ_ is the
-family of bluefishes (_Cheilodipteridæ_, or _Pomatomidæ_). The single
-species _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_, or _Pomatomus saltatrix_, known as
-the bluefish, is a large, swift, extremely voracious fish, common
-throughout most of the warmer parts of the Atlantic, but very
-irregularly distributed on the various coasts. Its distribution is
-doubtless related to its food. It is more abundant on our Eastern coast
-than anywhere else, and its chief food here is the menhaden. The
-bluefish differs from the _Carangidæ_ mainly in its larger scales, and
-in a slight serration of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender and
-easily torn. As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few
-superiors. Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but most
-of those taken are much smaller. It is one of the most voracious of all
-fish. Concerning this, Professor Baird observes:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 218.—Bluefish, _Cheilodipterus saltatrix_ (L.). New York.
-]
-
-"There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the bluefish among
-the marine species on our coast, whatever may be the case among some of
-the carnivorous fish of the South American waters. The bluefish has been
-well likened to an animated chopping-machine the business of which is to
-cut to pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a given
-space of time. All writers are unanimous in regard to the
-destructiveness of the bluefish. Going in large schools in pursuit of
-fish not much inferior to themselves in size, they move along like a
-pack of hungry wolves, destroying everything before them. Their trail is
-marked by fragments of fish and by the stain of blood in the sea, as,
-where the fish is too large to be swallowed entire, the hinder portion
-will be bitten off and the anterior part allowed to float away or sink.
-It is even maintained with great earnestness that such is the gluttony
-of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the contents are
-disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that it kills many more
-fish than it requires for its own support.
-
-"The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this function of
-destruction, and although they occasionally devour crabs, worms, etc.,
-the bulk of their sustenance throughout the greater part of the year is
-derived from other fish. Nothing is more common than to find a small
-bluefish of six or eight inches in length under a school of minnows
-making continual dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the
-bluefish of all sizes, with rare exceptions, are found loaded with the
-other fish, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty, either entire or
-in fragments.
-
-"As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that it is not
-merely the small fry that are thus devoured, and which it is expected
-will fall a prey to other animals, but that the food of the bluefish
-consists very largely of individuals which have already passed a large
-percentage of the chances against their reaching maturity, many of them,
-indeed, having arrived at the period of spawning. To make the case more
-clear, let us realize for a moment the number of bluefish that exist on
-our coast in the summer season. As far as I can ascertain by the
-statistics obtained at the fishing-stations on the New England coast, as
-also from the records of the New York markets, kindly furnished by
-Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton Market, the capture of bluefish from
-New Jersey to Monomoy during the season amounts to no less than one
-million individuals, averaging five or six pounds each. Those, however,
-who have seen the bluefish in his native waters and realized the immense
-numbers there existing will be quite willing to admit that probably not
-one fish in a thousand is ever taken by man. If, therefore, we have an
-actual capture of one million, we may allow one thousand millions as
-occurring in the extent of our coasts referred to, even neglecting the
-smaller ones, which, perhaps, should also be taken into account.
-
-"An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not excessive,
-according to the testimony elicited from the fishermen and substantiated
-by the stomachs of those examined; this gives ten thousand millions of
-fish destroyed per day. And as the period of the stay of the bluefish on
-the New England coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have
-in round numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured in the
-course of a season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging five pounds,
-devours or destroys even half its own weight of other fish per day (and
-I am not sure that the estimate of some witnesses of twice this weight
-is not more nearly correct), we will have, during the same period, a
-daily loss of twenty-five hundred million pounds, equal to three hundred
-thousand millions for the season.
-
-"This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at least three
-to five pounds in weight. We must, however, allow for those of smaller
-size, and a hundred-fold or more in number, all engaged simultaneously
-in the butchery referred to.
-
-"We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however much we may
-diminish, within reason, the estimate of the number of bluefish and the
-average of their capture, there still remains an appalling aggregate of
-destruction. While the smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry,
-those of which we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of
-them, if not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or two
-years of that period.
-
-"It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn deposited by
-any fish at a given time not more than 30 per cent. are hatched, and
-that less than 10 per cent. attain an age when they are able to take
-care of themselves. As their age increases the chances of reaching
-maturity become greater and greater. It is among the small residuum of
-this class that the agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever
-reasonable reduction may be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that
-they exert a material influence.
-
-"The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of the immense
-amount of food they must consume. The young fish which first appear
-along the shores of Vineyard Sound, about the middle of August, are
-about five inches in length. By the beginning of September, however,
-they have reached six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the
-second year they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this they
-increase in a still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes eastward from
-Vineyard Sound in the spring weighing five pounds is represented,
-according to the general impression, by the ten to fifteen-pound fish of
-the autumn. If this be the fact, the fish of three or four pounds which
-pass along the coast of North Carolina in March return to it in October
-weighing ten to fifteen pounds.
-
-"As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the other
-inhabitants of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher; and it is able
-to contend successfully with any other species not superior to itself in
-size. It is not known whether an entire school ever unite in an attack
-upon a particular object of prey, as is said to be the case with the
-ferocious fishes of the South American rivers; should they do so, no
-animal, however large, could withstand their onslaught.
-
-"They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish of all
-kinds, but perhaps more especially the menhaden, which they seem to
-follow along the coast, and which they attack with such ferocity as to
-drive them on the shore, where they are sometimes piled up in windrows
-to the depth of a foot or more."
-
-=The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.=—The _Rachycentridæ_, or
-sergeant-fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes, with
-large mouths and small teeth, ranging northward from the warm seas. The
-dorsal spines are short and stout, separate from the fin, and the body
-is almost cylindrical, somewhat like that of the pike.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 219.—Sergeant-fish, _Rachycentron canadum_ (Linnæus). Virginia.
-]
-
-_Rachycentron canadum_, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or
-sergeant-fish, reaches a length of about five feet. The last name is
-supposed to allude to the black stripe along its side, like the stripe
-on a sergeant's trousers. It is rather common in summer along our
-Atlantic coast as far as Cape Cod, especially in Chesapeake Bay.
-_Rachycentron pondicerrianum_, equally voracious, extends its summer
-depredations as far as Japan. The more familiar name for these fishes,
-_Elacate_, is of later date than _Rachycentron_.
-
-Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish:
-
-"In shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern pike, with a
-similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is dark green on the back,
-growing lighter on the sides, but the distinguishing characteristic is a
-broad, dark collar over the neck, from which two black stripes or
-straps, parting on the shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail.
-He looks as if harnessed with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a
-fly-rod is that of a wild horse. The first one that I struck, in the
-brackish water of Hillsborough River at Tampa, gave me a hitherto
-unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was not unfamiliar, but when the
-fierce fellow took the top of the water and went along lashing it with
-his tail, swift as a bullet, then descended, and with a short, sharp,
-electric shock left the line to come home free, I was for an instant
-confounded. It was all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that I
-struck after this behaved in the same way, and after I had got 'the hang
-of them' I took a great many."
-
-=The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.=—The butter-fishes (_Stromateidæ_) form
-a large group of small fishes with short, compressed bodies, smooth
-scales, feeble spines, the vertebræ in increased number and especially
-characterized by the presence of a series of tooth-like processes in the
-œsophagus behind the pharyngeals. The ventral fins present in the young
-are often lost in the process of development.
-
-According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely attached to
-the shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera _Platycormus_ and
-_Homosoma_. This is perhaps a primitive feature, indicating the line of
-descent of these fishes from berycoid forms.
-
-We unite with the _Stromateidæ_ the groups or families of
-_Centrolophidæ_ and _Nomeidæ_, knowing no characters by which to
-separate them.
-
-_Stromateus fiatola_, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an
-excellent food-fish of the Mediterranean. _Poronotus triacanthus_, the
-harvest-fish, or dollar-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a common little
-silvery fish six to ten inches, as bright and almost as round as a
-dollar. Its tender oily flesh has an excellent flavor. Very similar to
-it is the poppy-fish (_Palometa simillima_) of the sandy shores of
-California, miscalled the "California pampano," valued by the San
-Francisco epicure, who pays large prices for it supposing it to be
-pampano, although admitting that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer
-flesh and better flavor. The harvest-fish, _Peprilus paru_, frequently
-taken on our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins.
-_Stromateoides argenteus_, a much larger fish than any of these, is a
-very important species on the coasts of China.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 220.—Harvest-fish, _Peprilus paru_ (Linnæus). Virginia.
-]
-
-_Psenopsis anomala_ takes the place of our butter-fishes in Japan, and
-much resembles them in appearance as in flavor.
-
-To the _Stromateidæ_ we also refer the black ruff of Europe,
-_Centrolophus niger_, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying to
-our coast. Allied to it is the black rudder-fish, _Palinurichthys
-perciformis_, common on the Massachusetts coast, where it is of some
-value as a food-fish. A specimen in a live-box once drifted to the coast
-of Cornwall, where it was taken uninjured, though doubtless hungry.
-Other species of ruff-and rudder-fish are recorded from various coasts.
-
-Allied to the _Stromateidæ_ are numerous fossil forms. _Omosoma
-sachelalmæ_ and other species occur in the Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon.
-_Platycormus germanus_, with ctenoid scales resembling a berycoid, but
-with the ventral rays I, 5, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely
-related to this is _Berycopsis elegans_, with smoother scales, from the
-English Chalk.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 221.—Portuguese Man-of-war Fish, _Gobiomorus gronovii_. Family
-    _Stromateidæ_.
-]
-
-_Gobiomorus gronovii_ (usually called _Nomeus gronovii_), the Portuguese
-man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three inches long, common
-in the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf Stream, where it hides from its
-enemies among the poisoned tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war. Under
-the Portuguese man-of-war and also in or under large jelly-fishes
-several other species are found, notably _Carangus medusicola_ and
-_Peprilus paru_. Many small species of _Psenes_, a related genus, also
-abound in the warm currents from tropical seas.
-
-=The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.=—Allied to the butter-fishes are the
-deep-water _Icosteidæ_, fishes of soft, limp bodies as unresistant as a
-wet rag, _Icosteus ænigmaticus_ of the California coast being known as
-ragfish. _Schedophilus medusophagus_ feeds on medusæ and salpa, living
-on the surface in the deep seas. Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a specimen
-taken in Ireland:
-
-"It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within twenty-four
-hours after its capture the skin of the belly and the intestines fell
-off when it was lifted, and it felt in the hand quite soft and
-boneless." A related species (_S. heathi_) has been lately taken by Dr.
-Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in California.
-
-The family of _Acrotidæ_ contains a single species of large size.
-_Acrotus willoughbyi_, allied to _Icosteus_, but without ventral fins
-and with the vertebræ very numerous. The type, five and one-quarter feet
-long, was thrown by a storm on the coast of Washington, near the
-Quinnault agency.
-
-The family of _Zaproridæ_ contains also a single large species, _Zaprora
-silenus_, without ventrals, but scaly and firm in substance. One
-specimen 2½ feet long was taken at Nanaimo on Vancouver Island and a
-smaller one at Victoria.
-
-=The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.=—The _Bramidæ_ are broad-bodied fishes of the
-open seas, covered with firm adherent scales. The flesh is firm and the
-skeleton heavy, the hypercoracoid especially much dilated. Of the
-various species the pomfret, or black bream (_Brama raii_), is the best
-known and most widely diffused. It reaches a length of two to four feet
-and is sooty black in color. It is not rare in Europe and has been
-occasionally taken at Grand Bank off Newfoundland, at the Bermudas, off
-the coast of Washington, on Santa Catalina Island, and in Japan. It is
-an excellent food-fish, but is seldom seen unless driven ashore by
-storms.
-
-_Steinegeria rubescens_ of the Gulf of Mexico is a little-known deep-sea
-fish allied to _Brama_, but placed by Jordan and Evermann in a distinct
-family, _Steinegeriidæ_.
-
-Closely related to the _Bramidæ_ is the small family of _Pteraclidæ_,
-silvery fishes with large firm scales, living near the surface in the
-ocean currents. In these fishes the ventral fins are placed well
-forward, fairly to be called jugular, and the rays of the dorsal and
-anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are excessively prolonged. The
-species, none of them well known, are referred to four genera—
-_Pteraclis_, _Bentenia_, _Centropholis_, and _Velifer_. They are
-occasionally taken in ocean currents, chiefly about Japan and Madeira.
-
-Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the _Bramidæ_ are recorded
-from the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are _Acanthonemus_, and perhaps
-_Pseudovomer_.
-
-=The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.=—The dolphins, or dorados (_Coryphænidæ_),
-are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, compressed bodies, elevated
-heads, sharp like the cut-water of a boat, and with the caudal fin very
-strong. The long dorsal fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is
-without spines. The high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is
-developed only in the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as
-food. Its colors, golden-blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at
-death, though the extent of this change has been much exaggerated.
-Similar changes of color occur at death in most bright-colored fishes,
-especially in those with thin scales. The common dolphin, or dorado
-(_Coryphæna hippurus_), is found in all warm seas swimming near the
-surface, as usual in predatory fishes, and reaches a length of about six
-feet. The small dolphin, _Coryphæna equisetis_, rarely exceeds 2½ feet,
-and is much more rare than the preceding, from which the smaller number
-of dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young dolphins
-of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the head not
-elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very different from that of the
-adult. _Goniognathus coryphænoides_ is an extinct dolphin of the Eocene.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 222.—Dolphin or Dorado, _Coryphæna hippurus_ Linnæus. New York.
-]
-
-The name dolphin, belonging properly to a group of small whales or
-porpoises, the genus _Delphinus_, has been unfortunately used in
-connection with this very different animal, which bears no resemblance
-to the mammal of the same name.
-
-Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these occur in the
-warm seas. The _Leiognathidæ_ are small, silvery fishes of the East
-Indies. _Leiognathus argentatus_ (_Equula_) is very common in the bays
-of Japan, a small silvery fish of moderate value as food. _Gazza
-minuta_, similar, with strong teeth, abounds farther south. _Leiognathus
-fasciatum_ is common in Polynesia. A fossil species called _Parequula
-albyi_ occurs in the Miocene of Licata.
-
-The _Kurtidæ_ are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian seas, with
-some of the ribs immovably fixed between rings formed by the ossified
-cover of the air-bladder and with the hypocoracoid obsolete. _Kurtus
-indicus_ is the principal species.
-
-=The Menidæ.=—Near the _Kurtidæ_ we may perhaps place the family of
-_Menidæ_, of one species, _Mene maculata_, the moonfish of the open seas
-of the East Indies and Japan. This is a small fish, about a foot long,
-with the body very closely compressed, the fins low and the belly,
-through the extension of the pelvic bone, a good deal more prominent
-than the back. The ventral fins have the usual number of one spine and
-five soft rays, a character which separates _Mene_ widely from
-_Lampris_, which in some ways seems allied to it.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 223.—_Mene maculata_ (Bloch & Schneider). Family Menidæ. Japan.
-]
-
-Another species of _Menidæ_ is the extinct _Gasteronemus rhombeus_ of
-the Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same form, with long pubic
-bones. The very long ventral fins are, however, made of one spine and
-one or two rays. A second species, _Gasteronemus oblongus_, is recorded
-from the same rocks.
-
-=The Pempheridæ.=—The _Pempheridæ_, "deep-water catalufas," or "magifi,"
-are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in color, with very short
-dorsal, containing a few graduated spines, and with a very long anal
-fin. These inhabit tropical seas at moderate depths. _Pempheris_ bears a
-superficial resemblance to _Beryx_, but, according to Starks, this
-resemblance is not borne out by the anatomy. _Pempheris mulleri_ and _P.
-poeyi_ are found in the West Indies. _Pempheris otaitensis_ and _P.
-mangula_ range through Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 224.—_Gasteronemus rhombeus_ Agassiz. (After Woodward.) Menidæ.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 225.—Catalufa de lo Alto, _Pempheris mulleri_ Poey. Havana.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 226.—_Pempheris nyctereutes_ Jordan & Evermann. Giran, Formosa.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 227.—The Louvar, _Luvarus imperialis_ Rafinesque. Family
-    Luvaridæ. (After Day.)
-]
-
-Very close to the _Pempheridæ_ is the small family of _Bathyclupeidæ_.
-These are herring-like fishes, much compressed and with a duct to the
-air-bladder. There are but one or two dorsal spines. The ventrals are of
-one spine and five rays as in perch-like fishes, but placed behind the
-pectoral fins. This feature, due to the shortening of the belly, is
-regarded by Alcock, the discoverer, as a result of degeneration, and the
-family was placed by him among the herrings. The persistent air-duct
-excludes it from the _Percesoces_, the normally formed ventrals from the
-_Berycoidei_. If we trust the indications of the skeleton, we must place
-the family with _Pempheris_, near the scombroid fishes.
-
-=Luvaridæ.=—Another singular family is the group of _Louvars_,
-_Luvaridæ_. _Luvaris imperialis._ The single known species is a large,
-plump, voracious fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all unbranched, and
-the scales scurf-life over the smooth skin. It is frequently taken in
-the Mediterranean, and was found on the island of Santa Catalina,
-California, by Mr. C. F. Holden.
-
-=The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.=—The _Tetragonuridæ_ are long-bodied
-fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered with hard, firm, very
-adherent scales. _Tetragonurus cuvieri_, the single species, called
-square-tail, or escolar de natura, is a curious fish, looking as if
-whittled out of wood, covered with a compact armor of bony scales, and
-swimming very slowly in deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic
-and Mediterranean and has been once taken at Wood's Hole in
-Massachusetts. According to Mr. C. T. Regan the relations of this
-eccentric fish are with the _Stromateidæ_ and _Bramidæ_, the skeleton
-being essentially that of _Stromateus_, and Boulenger places both
-_Tetragonurus_ and _Stromateus_ among the _Percesoces_.
-
-=The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.=—The family of _Lophotidæ_ consists
-of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped, naked, with the dorsal
-of flexible spines beginning as a high crest on the elevated occiput.
-The first spine is very strong. The ventrals are thoracic with the
-normal number, I, 5, of fin-rays. _Lophotes cepedianus_, the crested
-bandfish, is occasionally taken in the Mediterranean in rather deep
-water. _Lophotes capellei_ is rarely taken in the deep waters of Japan.
-
-It is thought that the _Lophotidæ_ may be related to the ribbon-fishes,
-_Tæniosomi_, but on the whole they seem nearer to the highly modified
-_Scombroidei_, the _Pteraclidæ_ for example.
-
-In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the _Bramidæ_ to the
-_Antigoniidæ_ and the _Ilarchidæ_, then passing over the series which
-leads through _Chætodontidæ_ and _Teuthidæ_ to the _Plectognaths_. It
-is, however, necessary to include here, alongside the mackerels, though
-not closely related to them, the parallel series of perch-like fishes,
-which at the end become also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant
-forms, with other series of which the origin and relations are
-imperfectly understood. As the relations of forms cannot be expressed in
-a linear series, many pages must intervene before we can take up the
-supposed line of development from the Scombroid fishes to those called
-_Squamipinnes_.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XVIII
-                    PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES
-
-
-=PERCOID Fishes.=—We may now take up the long series of the _Percoidea_,
-the fishes built on the type of the perch or bass. This is a group of
-fishes of diverse habits and forms, but on the whole representing better
-than any other the typical _Acanthopterygian_ fish. The group is
-incapable of concise definition, or, in general, of any definition at
-all; still, most of its members are definitely related to each other and
-bear in one way or another a resemblance to the typical form, the perch,
-or more strictly to its marine relatives, the sea-bass, or _Serranidæ_.
-The following analysis gives most of the common characters of the group:
-
-Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are typically ctenoid,
-not smooth nor spinous, and of moderate size. Lateral line typically
-present and concurrent with the back. Head usually compressed laterally
-and with the cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal
-and with lateral cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed,
-arranged in bands on the jaws, and in several families on the vomer and
-palatine bones also, as well as on the pharyngeals; gill-rakers usually
-sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but sometimes short or feeble; lower
-pharyngeals almost always separate, usually armed with cardiform teeth;
-third upper pharyngeal moderately enlarged, elongate, not articulated to
-the cranium, the fourth typically present; gills four, a slit behind the
-fourth; gill membranes free from the isthmus, and usually not connected
-with each other; pseudobranchiæ typically well developed.
-Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No bony stay connecting the
-suborbital chain to the preopercle. Opercular bones all well developed,
-normal in position; the preopercle typically serrate. No cranial spines.
-Dorsal fin variously developed, but always with some spines in front,
-these typically stiff and pungent; anal fin typically short, usually
-with three spines, sometimes with a larger number, rarely with none;
-caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral fins well developed,
-inserted high; ventral fins always present, thoracic, separate, almost
-always with one spine and five rays, the _Aphredoderidæ_ having more, a
-few _Serranidæ_ having fewer. Air-bladder usually present, without
-air-duct in adult; simple and generally adherent to the walls of the
-abdomen. Stomach cæcal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in
-most species, long in the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well
-developed, none of the vertebræ especially modified, the number 10 + 14
-= 24, except in certain extratropical and fresh-water forms, which
-retain primitive higher numbers. Shoulder-girdle normally developed, the
-post-temporal bifurcate attached to the skull, but not coossified with
-it; none of the epipleural bones attached to the center of the vertebræ;
-coracoids normal, the hypercoracoid always with a median foramen, the
-basal bones of the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials) normally
-developed, three or four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer than
-broad; premaxillary forming the border of the mouth usually protractile;
-bones of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting.
-
-The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently some of those of
-the fresh waters. Among these the process of evolution has been less
-rapid. In some groups, as the _Percidæ_, the great variability of
-species is doubtless due to the recent origin, the characters not being
-well fixed.
-
-=The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.=—Among the most remarkable of the
-living percoid fishes and probably the most primitive of all, showing
-affinities with the _Salmopercæ_, is the pirate-perch, _Aphredoderus
-sayanus_, a little fish of the lowland streams of the Mississippi
-Valley. The family of _Aphredoderidæ_ agrees with the berycoid fishes in
-scales and structure of the fins, and Boulenger places it with the
-Berycidæ. Starks has shown, however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid,
-and the general osteology is that of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal
-and anal have a few spines. The thoracic ventrals have one spine and
-eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably no duct to the
-air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the position of the vent. In
-the adult this is in front of the ventral fins, at the throat. In the
-young it is behind the ventral fins as in ordinary fishes. With age it
-moves forward by the prolongation of the horizontal part of the
-intestine or rectum. The same peculiar position of the vent is found in
-the berycoid genus _Paratrachichthys_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 228.—Pirate Perch, _Aphredoderus sayanus_ (Gilliams). Illinois
-    River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 229.—Everglade Pigmy Perch, _Elassoma evergladei_ Jordan.
-    Everglades of Florida.
-]
-
-In the family _Aphredoderidæ_ but one species is known, _Aphredoderus
-sayanus_, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length of five inches and lives
-in sluggish lowland streams with muddy bottom from New Jersey and
-Minnesota to Louisiana. It is dull green in color and feeds on insects
-and worms. It has no economic value, although extremely interesting in
-its anatomy and relationship.
-
-Whether the _Asineopidæ_, fresh-water fishes of the American Eocene, and
-the _Erismatopteridæ_, of the same deposits (see page 235) are related
-to _Aphredoderus_ or to _Percopsis_ is still uncertain.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 230.—Skull of the Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_.
-]
-
-=The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.=—One of the most primitive groups is
-that of _Elassomidæ_, or pigmy sunfishes. These are very small fishes,
-less than two inches long, living in the swamps of the South, resembling
-the sunfishes, but with the number of dorsal spines reduced to from
-three to five. _Elassoma zonatum_ occurs from southern Illinois to
-Louisiana. _Elassoma evergladei_ abounds in the Everglades of Florida.
-In both the body is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green
-crossed by black bars or blotches.
-
-=The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.=—The large family of _Centrarchidæ_, or
-sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of the eastern
-United States, where the various species are inordinately abundant. The
-body is relatively short and deep, and the axis passes through the
-middle so that the back has much the same outline as the belly. The
-pseudobranchiæ are imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the
-head is feebly armed, the bones being usually without spines or
-serratures. The colors are often brilliant, the sexes alike, and all are
-carnivorous, voracious, and gamy, being excellent as food. The origin of
-the group is probably Asiatic, the fresh-water serranoid of Japan,
-_Bryttosus_, resembling in many ways an American sunfish, and the genus
-_Kuhlia_ of the Pacific showing many homologies with the black bass,
-_Micropterus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 231.—Crappie, _Pomoxis annularis_ Rafinesque. Ohio River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 232.—Crappie, _Pomoxis annularis_ (Raf.). (From life by Dr. R. W.
-    Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 233.—Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_ (Rafinesque.) Ecorse,
-    Mich.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 234.—Banded Sunfish, _Mesogonistius chætodon_ (Baird). Delaware
-    River.
-]
-
-=Crappies and Rock Bass.=—_Pomoxis annularis_, the crappie, and _Pomoxis
-sparoides_, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes, valued by the angler.
-These are perhaps the most primitive of the family, and in these species
-the anal fin is larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass,
-_Centrarchus macropterus_, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps
-and lowland ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish,
-attractive in the aquarium. _Acantharchus pomotis_ is the mud-bass of
-the Delaware, and _Archoplites interruptus_, the "perch" of the
-Sacramento. The latter is a large and gamy fish, valued as food and
-interesting as being the only fresh-water fish of the nature of perch or
-bass native to the west of the Rocky Mountains. The numbers of this
-species, according to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa, California, have been
-greatly reduced by the introduction of the catfish (_Ameiurus
-nebulosus_) into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young catfish, and
-its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another species of
-this type is the warmouth (_Chænobryttus gulosus_) of the ponds of the
-South, and still more familiar rock-bass or redeye (_Ambloplites
-rupestris_) of the more northern lakes and rivers valued as a game-and
-food-fish. A very pretty aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish,
-_Mesogonistius chætodon_, of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined
-sunfish, _Enneacanthus gloriosus_, of the coast streams southward.
-_Apomotis cyanellus_, the blue-green sunfish or little redeye, is very
-widely distributed from Ohio westward, living in every brook. The
-dissection of this species is given on page 26, Vol. I. To _Lepomis_
-belong numerous species having the opercle prolonged in a long flap
-which is always black in color, often with a border of scarlet or blue.
-The yellowbelly of the South (_Lepomis auritus_), ear-like the showily
-colored long-eared sunfish (_Lepomis megalotis_) of the southwest,
-figured on page 2, Vol. I, the bluegill (_Lepomis pallidus_), abundant
-everywhere south and west of New York, are members of this genus. The
-genus _Eupomotis_ differs in its larger pharyngeals, which are armed
-with blunt teeth. The common sunfish, or pumpkinseed, _Eupomotis
-gibbosus_, is the most familiar representative of the family, abounding
-everywhere from Minnesota to New England, then south to Carolina on the
-east slope of the Alleghanies, breeding everywhere in ponds and in the
-eddies of the clear brooks.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 235.—Blue-Gill, _Lepomis pallidus_ (Mitchill). Potomac River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 236.—Long-eared Sunfish, _Lepomis megalotis_ (Rafinesque). From
-    Clear Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family _Centrarchidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 237.—Common Sunfish, _Eupomotis gibbosus_ (Linnæus). Root River,
-    Wis.
-]
-
-=The Black Bass.=—The black bass (_Micropterus_) belong to the same
-family as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more elongate form,
-and more voracious habit. The two species are among the most important
-of American game-fishes, abounding in all clear waters east of the
-Alleghanies and resisting the evils of civilization far better than the
-trout.
-
-The small-mouthed black bass, _Micropterus dolomieu_, is the most
-valuable of the species. Its mouth, although large, is relatively small,
-the cleft not extending beyond the eye. The green coloration is broken
-in the young by bronze cross-bands. The species frequents only running
-streams, preferring clear and cold waters, and it extends its range from
-Canada as far to the southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James
-A. Henshall, an accomplished angler, author of the "Book of the Black
-Bass," says: "The black bass is eminently an American fish; he has the
-faculty of asserting himself and of making himself completely at home
-wherever placed. He is plucky, game, brave, unyielding to the last when
-hooked. He has the arrowy rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring
-strength and bold leap of a salmon, while he has a system of fighting
-tactics peculiarly his own. I consider him inch for inch and pound for
-pound the gamest fish that swims."
-
-In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: "No doubt the bass is the
-appointed successor of the trout; not through heritage, nor selection,
-nor by interloping, but by foreordination. Truly, it is sad to
-contemplate, in the not distant future, the extinction of a beautiful
-race of creatures, whose attributes have been sung by all the poets; but
-we regard the inevitable with the same calm philosophy with which the
-astronomer watches the burning out of a world, knowing that it will be
-succeeded by a new creation. As we mark the soft varitinted flush of the
-trout disappear in the eventide, behold the sparkle of the coming bass,
-as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We hardly know which to admire
-the most—the velvet livery and the charming graces of the departing
-courtier, or the flash of the armor-plates of the advancing warrior. The
-bass will unquestionably prove himself a worthy substitute for his
-predecessor and a candidate for a full legacy of honors.
-
-"No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become as densely
-settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects of the
-crowded domain resemble the suburban surroundings of our Boston; when
-every feature of the pastoral landscape shall wear the finished
-appearance of European lands, and every verdant field be closely cropped
-by lawn-mowers and guarded by hedges, and every purling stream which
-meanders through it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled
-trout from which the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to
-catch at a dollar a pound (as we already have on Long Island), and all
-the appurtenances and appointments of a genuine English trouting
-privilege and a genuine English 'outing.'
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 238.—Small Mouth Black Bass, _Micropterus dolomieu_ Lacépède.
-]
-
-"In those future days, not long hence to come, some venerable piscator,
-in whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing, the brawling stream
-which tumbled over the rocks in the tangled wildwood, and moistened the
-arbutus and the bunchberries which garnished its banks, will totter
-forth to the velvet edge of some peacefully flowing stream, and having
-seated himself on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed
-there by his careful attendant, cast right and left for the semblance of
-sport long dead.
-
-"Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early morning
-meal, and from the center of the boil which follows the fall of the
-handfuls thrown in my piscator of the ancient days will hook a two-pound
-trout, and play him hither and yon, from surface to bottom, without
-disturbing the pampered gourmands which are gorging themselves upon the
-disgusting viands; and when he has leisurely brought him to land at
-last, and the gillie has scooped him with his landing-net, he will feel
-in his capacious pocket for his last trade dollar, and giving his friend
-the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay aside his rod forever."
-
-The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe and
-California. There is little danger that it will work injury to the
-trout, for the black bass prefers limestone streams, and the trout
-rarely does well in waters which do not flow over granite rock or else
-glacial gravel.
-
-The large-mouth black bass (_Micropterus salmoides_) is very much like
-the other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in the adult cleft beyond
-the eye; the scales are larger, and in the young there is always a broad
-black stripe along the sides and no cross-bands. The two are found in
-the same region, but almost never in the same waters, for the
-large-mouth bass is a fish of the lakes, ponds, and bayous, always
-avoiding the swift currents. The young like to hide among weeds or
-beneath lily-pads. From its preference for sluggish waters, its range
-extends farther to the southward, as far as the Mexican State of
-Tamaulipas.
-
-_Plioplarchus_ is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene of South
-Dakota and Oregon. _Plioplarchus sexspinosus_, _septemspinosus_, and
-_whitei_ are imperfectly known species.
-
-=The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.=—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy, though more
-like the white perch in appearance and habit, are the members of the
-little family of _Kuhliidæ_. These are active silvery perches of the
-tropical seas, ponds, and river-mouths, especially abundant in
-Polynesia. _Kuhlia malo_ is the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery
-fish living in great numbers in brackish waters. _Kuhlia rupestris_, the
-salele of the Samoan rivers, is a large swift fish of the rock pools, in
-form, color, and habits remarkably like the black bass. It is silvery
-bronze in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green. The sesele, _Kuhlia
-marginata_, lives with it in the rivers, but is less abundant. The
-saboti, _Kuhlia tæniura_, a large silvery fish with cross-bands on the
-caudal fin, lives about lava-rooks in Polynesia from the Galapagos to
-Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers. Still other species
-are found in the rock pools and streams of Japan and southward.
-
-The skeleton in _Kuhlia_ is essentially like that of the black bass, and
-Dr. Boulenger places the genus with the _Centrarchidæ_.
-
-=The True Perches: Percidæ.=—The great family of _Percidæ_ includes
-fresh-water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elongate in body, with
-the vertebræ in increased number and with only two spines in the anal
-fin. About ninety species are recorded, the vast majority being
-American. The dwarf perches, called darters (_Etheostominæ_), are
-especially characteristic of the clear streams to the eastward of the
-plains of the Missouri. These constitute one of the greatest attractions
-of our American river fauna. They differ from the perch and its European
-allies in their small size, bright colors, and large fins, and more
-technically in the rudimentary condition of the pseudobranchiæ and the
-air-bladder, both of which organs are almost inappreciable. The
-preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the branchiostegals is six. The
-anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the _Gobiidæ_, to which group
-the darters bear a considerable superficial resemblance, which, however,
-indicates no real affinity.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 239.—Large-mouthed Black Bass, _Micropterus salmoides_ (Lac.).
-    (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-=Relations of Darters to Perches.=—The colors of the _Etheostominæ_, or
-darters, are usually very brilliant, species of _Etheostoma_ especially
-being among the most brilliantly colored fishes known; the sexual
-differences are often great, the females being, as a rule, dull in color
-and more speckled or barred than the males. Most of them prefer clear
-running water, where they lie on the bottom concealed under stones,
-darting, when frightened or hungry, with great velocity for a short
-distance, by a powerful movement of the fan-shaped pectorals, then
-stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the caudal fin in swimming, and
-they are seldom seen floating or moving freely in the water like most
-fishes. When at rest they support themselves on their expanded ventrals
-and anal fin. All of them can turn the head from side to side, and they
-frequently lie with the head in a curved position or partly on one side
-of the body. The species of _Ammocrypta_, and perhaps some of the
-others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge, the fish
-buries itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for hours at a time
-with only its eyes and snout visible. The others lurk in stony places,
-under rocks and weeds. Although more than usually tenacious of vitality,
-the darters, from their bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by
-impurities in the water. All the darters are carnivorous, feeding
-chiefly on the larvæ of _Diptera_, and in their way voracious. All are
-of small size; the largest (_Percina rex_) reaches a length of ten
-inches, while the smallest (_Microperca punctulata_) is, one of the
-smallest spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of an
-inch and a half. In Europe no _Etheostominæ_ are found, their place
-being filled by the genera _Zingel_ and _Aspro_, which bear a strong
-resemblance to the American forms, a resemblance which may be a clue to
-the origin of the latter.
-
-=The Perches.=—The European perch, _Perca fluviatilis_, is placed by
-Cuvier at the head of the fish series, as representing in a high degree
-the traits of a fish without sign of incomplete development on the one
-hand or of degradation on the other. Doubtless the increased number of
-the vertebræ is the chief character which would lead us to call in
-question this time-honored arrangement. Because, however, the perch has
-a relatively degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied form,
-the striped bass, as a fairer type of the perfected spiny-rayed fish.
-Certainly the bass represents this type better than the perch.
-
-But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically perfect
-fish, it is far from being one of the most highly specialized, for, as
-we have seen in several cases, a high degree of specialization of a
-particular structure is a first step toward its degradation.
-
-The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers. The yellow
-perch of America (_Perca flavescens_) is very much like it, a little
-brighter in color, olive and golden with dusky cross-bands. It frequents
-quiet streams and ponds from Minnesota eastward, then southward east of
-the Alleghanies. "As a still-pond fish," says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott,
-"if there is a fair supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but
-the largest specimens come either from the river or from the inflowing
-creeks. Deep water of the temperature of ordinary spring-water, with
-some current and the bed of the stream at least partly covered with
-vegetation, best suits this fish." The perch is a food-fish of moderate
-quality. In spite of its beauty and gaminess, it is little sought for by
-our anglers, and is much less valued with us than is the European perch
-in England. But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that "before many years
-the perch will have as many followers as the black bass among those who
-fish for pleasure" in the region it inhabits. "A fish for the people it
-is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from among the people who have
-neither time nor patience for long trips nor complicated tackle who will
-prove its steadfast friends." The boy values it, according to Thoreau.
-When he returns from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as "real
-fishes." "So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs,
-which he counts, then throws away."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 240.—Yellow Perch, _Perca flavescens_ Mitchill. Potomac River.
-]
-
-In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes, are
-well developed. These structures recently investigated by Evelyn G.
-Mitchill, form a fold of connective tissue just behind the premaxillary
-and before the vomer. They are used in respiration, preventing the
-forward flow of water as the mouth closes.
-
-Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the Miocene.
-
-Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and voracious, is
-the group of pike perches, found in eastern America and Europe. The
-wall-eye, or glass-eye (_Stizostedion vitreum_), is the largest of this
-tribe, reaching a weight of ten to twenty pounds. It is found throughout
-the region east of the Missouri in the large streams and ponds, an
-excellent food-fish, with white, flaky flesh and in the north a game
-fish of high rank. The common names refer to the large glassy eye,
-concerning which Dr. Goode quotes from some "ardent admirer" these
-words: "Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in form as the
-salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale disturbed, every fin
-perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big wall-eyes stand out with
-that life-like glare so characteristic of the fish."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 241.—Sauger, _Stizostedion canadense_ (Smith). Ecorse, Mich.
-]
-
-Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more translucent in color,
-is the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and Northern rivers,
-_Stizostedion canadense_. This fish rarely exceeds fifteen inches in
-length, and as a food-fish it is of correspondingly less importance.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 242.—The Aspron, _Aspro asper_ (Linnæus). Rhone River. Family
-    _Percidæ_. (After Seelye.)
-]
-
-The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, _Centropomus_ (or
-_Sandrus_) _lucioperca_, is an excellent game-fish, similar to the
-sauger, but larger, characterized technically by having the ventral fins
-closer together. Another species, _Centropomus volgensis_, in Russia,
-looks more like a perch than the other species do. _Sandroserrus_, a
-fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene. Another European fish related
-to the perch is the river ruff, or pope, _Acerina cernua_, which is a
-small fish with the form of a perch and with conspicuous mucous cavities
-in the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe and especially
-abundant at the confluence of rivers. _Gymnocephalus schrætzer_ of the
-Danube has the head still more cavernous. _Percarina demidoffi_ of
-southern Russia is another dainty little fish of the general type of the
-perch. A fossil genus of this type called _Smerdis_ is numerously
-represented in the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, _Aspro asper_,
-is a species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers,
-especially the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired fins highly
-developed. _Zingel zingel_ is found in the Danube, as is also a third
-species called _Aspro streber_. In form and coloration these species
-greatly resemble the American darters, and the genus _Zingel_ is,
-perhaps, the ancestor of the entire group. _Zingel_ differs from
-_Percina_ mainly in having seven instead of six branchiostegals and the
-pseudobranchiæ better developed. The differences in these and other
-regards which distinguish the darters are features of degradation, and
-they are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To this fact we
-may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic characters within the
-group. Sharply defined genera occur where the intervening types are
-lost. The darter is one of the very latest products in the evolution of
-fishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 243.—The Zingel, _Zingel zingel_ (Linnæus). Danube River. (After
-    Seelye.)
-]
-
-=The Darters: Etheostominæ.=—Of the darters, or etheostomine perches,
-over fifty species are known, all confined to the streams of the region
-bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colorado, and Nuevo Leon. All are small
-fishes and some of them minute, and some are the most brilliantly
-colored of all fresh-water fishes of any region, the most ornate
-belonging to the large genus called _Etheostoma_. The largest species,
-the most primitive because most like the perch, belong to the genus
-_Percina_.
-
-First among the darters because largest in size, most perch-like in
-structure, and least degenerate, we place the king darter, _Percina rex_
-of the Roanoke River in Virginia. This species reaches a length of six
-inches, is handsomely colored, and looks like a young wall-eye.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 244.—Log-perch, _Percina caprodes_ (Rafinesque). Licking Co.,
-    Ohio.
-]
-
-The log-perch, _Percina caprodes_, is near to this, but a little
-smaller, with the body surrounded by black rings alternately large and
-small. In this widely distributed species, large enough to take the
-hook, the air-bladder is present although small. In the smaller species
-it vanishes by degrees, and in proportion as in their habits they cling
-to the bottom of the stream. The air-bladder is least developed in those
-species which cling closest to the bottom of the stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 245.—Black-sided Darter, _Hadropterus aspro_ (Cope & Jordan).
-    Chickamauga River.
-]
-
-The genus _Hadropterus_ includes many handsome species, most of them
-with a black lateral band widened at intervals. The black-sided darter,
-_Hadropterus aspro_, is the best-known species and one of the most
-elegant of all fishes, abounding in the clear gravelly streams of the
-Ohio basin and northwestward.
-
-_Hadropterus evides_ of the Ohio region is still more brilliant, with
-alternate bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most exquisite in
-their arrangement. In the South, _Hadropterus nigrofasciatus_, the
-crawl-a-bottom of the Georgia rivers, is a heavily built darter, which
-Vaillant has considered the ancestral species of the group. Still more
-swift in movement and bright in color are the species of _Hypohomus_,
-which flash their showy hues in the sparkling brooks of the Ozark and
-the Great Smoky Mountains. _Hypohomus aurantiacus_ is the best-known
-species.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 246.—Green-sided Darter, _Diplesion blennioides_ Rafinesque.
-    Clinch River. Family _Percidæ_.
-]
-
-_Diplesion blennioides_, the green-sided darter, is the type of numerous
-species with short heads, large fins, and coloration of speckled green
-and golden. It abounds in the streams of the Ohio Valley.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 247.—Tessellated Darter, _Boleosoma olmstedi_ (Storer). Potomac
-    River.
-]
-
-The tessellated darters, _Boleosoma_, are the most plainly colored of
-the group and among the smallest; yet in the delicacy, wariness, and
-quaintness of motion they are among the most interesting, especially in
-the aquarium. _Boleosoma_ _nigrum_, the Johnny darter in the West, and
-_Boleosoma olmstedi_ in the East are among the commonest species, found
-half hidden in the weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors,
-although the male in the spring has the head, and often the whole body,
-jet black.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 248.—Crystal Darter, _Crystallaria asprella_ (Jordan). Wabash
-    River.
-]
-
-_Crystallaria asprella_, a large species almost transparent, is
-occasionally taken in swift currents along the limestone banks of the
-Mississippi. Still more transparent is the small sand-darter,
-_Ammocrypta pellucida_, which lives in the clearest of waters,
-concealing itself by plunging into the sand. Its scales are scantily
-developed, as befits a fish that chooses this method of protection, and
-in the related _Ammocrypta beani_ of the streams of the Louisiana
-pine-woods, the body is almost naked, as also in _Ioa vitrea_, the
-glassy darter of the pine-woods of North Carolina.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 249.—Sand-darter, _Ammocrypta clara_ (Jordan & Meek). Des Moines
-    River.
-]
-
-In the other darters the body is more compressed, the movements less
-active, the coloration even more brilliant in the males, which are far
-more showy than their dull olivaceous mates.
-
-To _Etheostoma_ nearly half of the species belong, and they form indeed
-a royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be noticed here, but all
-of them are described in detail and many are figured by Jordan and
-Evermann ("Fishes of North and Middle America," Vol. I).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 250.—_Etheostoma jordani_ Gilbert. Chestnut Creek, Verbena, Ala.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 251.—Blue-breasted Darter, _Etheostoma camurum_ (Cope), the most
-    brilliantly colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn.
-]
-
-Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted darter,
-_Etheostoma camurum_, red-blue and olive, with red spots, like a trout.
-This species lives in clear streams of the Ohio valley, a region perhaps
-to be regarded as the center of abundance of these fishes.
-
-Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, _Etheostoma maculatum_, dusky
-and red, with round crimson spots. _Etheostoma rufilineatum_ of the
-French Broad is one of the most gaudy of fishes. _Etheostoma australe_
-of Chihuahua ranges farthest south of all the darters, and _Etheostoma
-boreale_ of Quebec perhaps farthest north, though _Etheostoma iowæ_,
-found from Iowa to the Saskatchewan, may dispute this honor. _Etheostoma
-cæruleum_, the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique
-bands of blue and scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the
-brilliantly colored species, as it is the most abundant throughout the
-Ohio valley.
-
-_Etheostoma flabellare_, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by Rafinesque
-in Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series made known to
-science. It has no bright colors, but its movements in water are more
-active than any of the others, and it is the most hardy in the aquarium.
-
-_Psychromaster tuscumbia_ abounds in the great limestone springs of
-northern Alabama, while _Copelandellus quiescens_ swarms in the
-black-water brooks which flow into the Dismal Swamp and thence southward
-to the Suwanee. It is a little fish not very active, its range going
-farther into the southern lowlands than any other. Finally, _Microperca
-punctulata_, the least darter, is the smallest of all, with fewest
-spines and dullest colors, most specialized in the sense of being least
-primitive, but at the same time the most degraded of all the darters.
-
-No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record. The nearest
-is perhaps _Mioplosus labracoides_ from the Eocene at Green River,
-Wyoming. This elongate fish, a foot long, has the dorsal rays IX-1, 13,
-and the anal rays II, 13, its scales finely serrated, and the preopercle
-coarsely serrated on the lower limb only. This species, with its
-numerous congeners from the Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true
-perch than the darters. Several species related to Perca are also
-recorded from the Eocene of England and Germany. A species called
-_Lucioperca skorpili_, allied to _Centropomus_, is described from the
-Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms imperfectly
-preserved, of still more doubtful affinities.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XIX
-                      THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES
-
-
-=THE Cardinal-fishes. Apogonidæ.=—The _Apogonidæ_ or cardinal-fishes are
-perch-like fishes, mostly of small size, with two distinct short dorsal
-fins. They are found in the warm seas, and many of them enter rivers,
-some even inhabiting hot springs. Many of the shore species are bright
-red in color, usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others,
-however, are olive or silvery, and a few in deeper water are
-violet-black.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 252.—Cardinal-fish, _Apogon retrosella_ Gill. Mazatlan.
-]
-
-The species of _Apogon_ are especially numerous, and in regions where
-they are abundant, as in Japan, they are much valued as food. _Apogon
-imberbis_, the "king of the mullet," is a common red species of southern
-Europe. _Apogon maculatus_ is found in the West Indies. _Apogon
-retrosella_ is the pretty "cardenal" of the west coast of Mexico.
-_Apogon lineatus_, _semilineatus_ and other species abound in Japan, and
-many species occur about the islands of Polynesia. _Epigonus
-telescopium_ is a deep-sea fish of the Mediterranean and _Telescopias_
-and _Synagrops_ are genera of the depths of the Pacific. _Paramia_ with
-strong canines is allied to _Apogon_, and similar in color and habit.
-
-Allied to _Apogon_ are several small groups often taken as distinct
-families. The species of _Ambassis_ (_Ambassidæ_) are little fishes of
-the rivers and bays of India and Polynesia, resembling small silvery
-perch or bass. All these have three anal spines instead of two as in
-_Apogon_. Some of these enter rivers and several are recorded from hot
-springs. _Scombrops boops_, the mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish
-found in rather deep water. It is remarkable for its very strong teeth,
-although its flesh is feeble and easily torn. A still larger species in
-Cuba, _Scombrops oculata_, known as _Escolar chino_, resembles a
-barracuda. These fishes with fragile bodies and very strong teeth are
-placed by Gill in a separate family (_Scombropidæ_). _Acropoma
-japonicum_ is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with the vent
-placed farther forward than in _Apogon_. It is the type of the
-_Acropomidæ_, a small family of the Pacific. _Enoplosus armatus_ is an
-Australian fish with high back and fins, with a rather stately
-appearance, type of the _Enoplosidæ_. In his last catalogue of families
-of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes _Scombropidæ_ and _Acropomidæ_ as distinct
-families, but their relationships with _Apogon_ are certainly very
-close. Many genera allied to _Apogon_ and _Ambassis_ occur in Australian
-rivers. Several fossils referred to _Apogon_ (_Apogon spinosus_, etc.)
-occur in the Eocene of Italy and Germany.
-
-=The Anomalopidæ.=—The family of _Anomalopidæ_ is a small group of
-deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but perhaps remotely related
-to _Apogon_. _Anomalops palpebrata_ is found in Polynesia and has
-beneath the eye a large luminous organ unlike anything seen elsewhere
-among fishes.
-
-=The Asineopidæ.=—Another family of doubtful relationship is that of
-_Asineopidæ_, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of extinct fresh-water
-fishes found in the Green River shales. In _Asineops squamifrons_ the
-opercles are unarmed, the teeth villiform, and the dorsal fin undivided,
-composed of eight or nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The
-anal spines, as in _Apogon_, are two only, and the scales are cycloid.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 253.—Kuromutsu, _Telescopias gilberti_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki,
-    Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 254.—_Apogon semilineatus_ Schlegel. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 255.—Robalo, _Oxylabrax undecimalis_ (Bloch). Florida.
-]
-
-=The Robalos:[13] Oxylabracidæ.=—The family of Robalos (_Oxylabracidæ_
-or _Centropomidæ_) is closely related to the _Serranidæ_, differing
-among other things in having the conspicuous lateral line extended on
-the caudal fin. These are silvery fishes with elongate bodies, large
-scales, a pike-like appearance, the first dorsal composed of strong
-spines and the second spine of the anal especially large. They are found
-in tropical America only, where they are highly valued as food, the
-flesh being like that of the striped bass, white, flaky, and of fine
-flavor. The common robalo, or snook, _Oxylabrax_ (or _Centropomus_)
-_undecimalis_, reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty pounds. It ranges
-north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line is black. The
-smaller species, of which several are described, are known as _Robalito_
-or _Constantino_.
-
-Footnote 13:
-
-  The European zander is the type of Lacépède's genus _Centropomus_. The
-  name _Centropomus_ has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most
-  authors.
-
-=The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.=—The central family of the percoid fishes is
-that of the _Serranidæ_, or sea-bass. Of these about 400 species are
-recorded, carnivorous fishes found in all warm seas, a few ascending the
-fresh waters. In general, the species are characterized by the presence
-of twenty-four vertebræ and three anal spines, never more than three.
-The fresh-water species are all more or less archaic and show traits
-suggesting the _Oxylabracidæ_, _Percidæ_, or _Centrarchidæ_, all of
-which are doubtless derived from ancestors of _Serranidæ_. Among the
-connecting forms are the perch-like genera _Percichthys_ and _Percilia_
-of the rivers of Chile. These species look much like perch, but have
-three anal spines, the number of vertebræ being thirty-five.
-_Percichthys trucha_ is the common trucha, or trout, of Chilean waters.
-
-_Lateolabrax japonicus_, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one of the
-most valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to the robalo,
-which it much resembles. This genus and the East Indian _Centrogenys
-waigiensis_ approach _Oxylabrax_ in appearance and structure. _Niphon
-spinosus_, the ara of Japan, is a very large sea-bass, also of this
-type. Close to these bass, marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus
-_Siniperca_ and the Korean genus _Coreoperca_, several species of which
-abound in Oriental rivers. In southern Japan is the rare _Bryttosus
-kawamebari_, a bass in structure, but very closely resembling the
-American sunfish, even to the presence of the bright-edged black
-ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some such form the
-_Centrarchidæ_ were derived.
-
-Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (_Lates_), Australia
-(_Percalates_, etc.), and southern Africa. _Oligorus macquariensis_ is
-the great cod of the Australian rivers and _Ctenolates ambiguus_ is the
-yellow belly, while _Percalates colonorum_ is everywhere the "perch" in
-Australian rivers. The most important member of these transitional types
-between perch and sea-bass is the striped bass, or rockfish (_Roccus
-lineatus_), of the Atlantic coast of the United States. This large fish,
-reaching in extreme cases a weight of 112 pounds, lives in shallow
-waters in the sea and ascends the rivers in spring to spawn. It is
-olivaceous in color, the sides golden silvery, with narrow black
-stripes. About 1880 it was introduced by the United States Fish
-Commission into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a fish
-of large commercial importance. To the angler the striped bass is always
-"a gallant fish and a bold biter," and Genio Scott places it first among
-the game-fishes of America.
-
-The white bass (_Roccus chrysops_) is very similar to it, but shorter
-and more compressed, reaching a smaller size. This fish is abundant in
-the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi as far south as Arkansas.
-
-The yellow bass (_Morone interrupta_), a coarser and more brassy fish,
-replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above Cincinnati and St.
-Louis. The white perch (_Morone americana_) is a little fish of the
-Atlantic seaboard, entering the sea, but running up all the rivers,
-remaining contentedly landlocked in ponds. It is one of the most
-characteristic fishes of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a
-good pan fish, takes the hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves
-the good-will of the angler who cannot stray far into the mountains.
-Very close to these American bass is the bass, bars, or robalo, of
-southern Europe, _Dicentrarchus labrax_, a large olive-colored fish,
-excellent as food, living in the sea about the mouths of rivers.
-
-=The Jewfishes.=—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense size,
-reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust in form, a
-weight of 500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky green in color,
-thick-headed, rough-scaled, with low fins, voracious disposition, and
-sluggish movements. In almost all parts of the world these great bass
-are called jewfish, but no reason for this name has ever been suggested.
-In habit and value the species are much alike, and the jewfish of
-California, _Stereolepis gigas_, the prize of the Santa Catalina
-anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely related to this
-is the Japanese ishinagi, _Megaperca ischinagi_, the jewfish, or
-stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the Abura bodzu, or
-"fat priest," _Ebisus sagamius_. In the West Indies, as also on the west
-coast of Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa, is _Promicrops itaiara_. The
-black grouper, _Garrupa nigrita_, is the jewfish of Florida. The
-European jewfish, more often called _wreckfish_, or stone-bass, is
-_Polyprion americanus_, and the equally large _Polyprion oxygeneios_ is
-found in Australia, as is also another jewfish, _Glaucosoma hebraicum_,
-the last belonging to the _Lutianidæ_. Largest of all these jewfishes is
-_Promicrops lanceolata_ of the South Pacific. This huge bass, according
-to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of twelve feet.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 256.—White Perch, _Morone americana_ Gmelin. (From life by Dr. R.
-    W. Shufeldt; one half natural size.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 257.—Florida Jewfish, _Promicrops itaiara_ (Lichtenstein). St.
-    John's River, Fla.
-]
-
-Related to the jewfishes are numerous smaller fishes. One of these, the
-Spanish-flag of Cuba, _Gonioplectrus hispanus_, is rose-colored, with
-golden bands like the flag of Spain itself. Other species referred to
-_Acanthistius_ and _Plectropoma_ have, like this, hooked spines on the
-lower border of the preopercle.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 258.—_Epinephelus striatus_ (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: _Cherna
-    criolla_. Family _Serranidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 259.—John Paw or Speckled Hind, _Epinephelus drummond-hayi_ Goode
-    Pensacola.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 260.—_Epinephelus morio_ (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or
-    Mero. Family _Serranidæ_.
-]
-
-=The Groupers.=—In all warm seas abound species of _Epinephelus_ and
-related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous. They are mostly
-large voracious fishes with small scales, pale flesh of fair quality,
-and from their abundance they are of large commercial importance. To
-English-speaking people these fishes are usually known as grouper, a
-corruption of the Portuguese name garrupa. In the West Indies and about
-Panama there are very many species, and still others abound in the
-Mediterranean, in southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and the West
-Indies. They have very much in common, but differ in size and color,
-some being bright red, some gaudily spotted with red or blue, but most
-of them are merely mottled green or brown. In many cases individuals
-living near shore are olivaceous, and those of the same species in the
-depths are bright crimson or scarlet. We name below a few of the most
-prominent species. Even a bare list of all of them would take many
-pages. _Cephalopholis cruentatus_, the red hind of the Florida Keys, is
-one of the smallest and brightest of all of them. _Cephalopholis
-fulvus_, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans, is called negro-fish,
-butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, according to its color, which
-varies with the depth. It is red, yellow, or olive, with many round blue
-spots. _Epinephelus adscenscionis_, the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere
-with orange. _Epinephelus guaza_ is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe,
-a large food-fish of value, rather dull in color. _Epinephelus striatus_
-is the Nassau grouper, or _Cherna criolla_, common in the West Indies.
-_Epinephelus maculosus_ is the cabrilla of Cuba. _Epinephelus
-drummond-hayi_, the speckled hind, umber brown, spotted with lavender,
-is one of the handsomest of all the groupers. _Epinephelus morio_, the
-red grouper, is the commonest of all these fishes in the American
-markets. In Asia the species are equally numerous, _Epinephelus quernus_
-of Hawaii and the red _Epinephelus fasciatus_ of Japan and southward
-being food-fishes of importance. _Epinephelus merra_, _Epinephelus
-gilberti_, and _Epinephelus tauvina_ are among the more common species
-of Polynesia. _Epinephelus corallicola_, a species profusely spotted,
-abounds in the crevices of coral reefs, while _Cepholopholis argus_ and
-_C. leopardus_ are showy fishes of the deeper channels. _Mycteroperca
-venenosa_, the yellow-finned grouper, is a large and handsome fish of
-the coast of Cuba, the flesh sometimes poisonous; when red in deep water
-it is known as the bonaci cardenal. _Mycteroperca bonaci_; the bonaci
-arará sells in our markets as black grouper. _Mycteroperca microlepis_
-is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not reaching the West
-Indies, and _Mycteroperca rubra_, which is never red, enters the
-Mediterranean. _Mycteroperca falcata_ is known in the markets as scamp,
-and _Mycteroperca venadorum_ is a giant species from the Venados
-Islands, near Mazatlan. _Diploprion bifasciatus_ is a handsome
-grouper-like fish with two black cross-bands, found in Japan and India.
-_Variola louti_, red, with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one
-of the most showy fishes of the equatorial Pacific.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 261.—Red Hind, _Epinephelus adscensionis_ (Osbeck). Puerto Rico.
-    (After Evermann.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 262.—Yellow-fin Grouper, _Mycteroperca venenosa_ (Linnæus).
-    Havana.
-]
-
-The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus _Hypoplectrus_.
-Their extraordinary and unexplained variations in color have been
-noticed on page 235, Vol. I. The common species—blue, orange, green,
-plain, striated, checkered, or striped—bears the name of _Hypoplectrus
-unicolor_. (Fig. 264).
-
-=The Serranos.=—In all the species known as jewfish and grouper, as also
-in the _Oxylabracidæ_ and most _Centrarchidæ_, the maxillary bone is
-divided by a lengthwise suture which sets off a distinct supplemental
-maxillary. This bone is wanting in the remaining species of _Serranidæ_,
-as it is also in those forms already noticed which are familiarly known
-as bass. The species without the supplemental maxillary are in general
-smaller in size, the canines are on the sides of the jaws instead of in
-front, and there are none of the hinged depressible teeth which are
-conspicuous in the groupers. The species are abundant in the Atlantic,
-but scarcely any are found in Polynesia, and few in Japan or India.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 263.—_Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans_ (Poey). Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-_Serranus cabrilla_ is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a well-known
-and excellent food-fish, the original type of the family of _Serranidæ_.
-_Serranellus scriba_ is the serran, a very pretty shore-fish of southern
-Europe, longer known than any other of the tribe. On the coast of
-southern California are also species called Cabrillas, fine, large,
-food-fish, bass-like in form, _Paralabrax clathratus_, and other less
-common species. The _Cabrillas_ and their relatives are almost all
-American, a few straying across to Europe. One of the most important in
-the number is the black sea-bass, or black will, of our Atlantic coast,
-_Centropristes striatus_. This is a common food-and game-fish, dusky in
-color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel-fishes (_Diplectrum_) and
-the many serranos (_Prionodes_) of the tropics, small bright-colored
-fishes of the rocks and reefs, must be passed with a word, as also the
-small _Paracentropristis_ of the Mediterranean and the fine red
-creole-fish of the West Indies, _Paranthias furcifer_. In one species,
-_Anyperodon leucogrammicus_ of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the
-palatines.
-
-The barber-fish (_Anthias anthias_) of southern Europe, bright red and
-with the lateral line running very high, is the type of a numerous group
-found at the lowest fishing level in all warm seas. All the species of
-this group are bright red, very handsome, and excellent as food.
-_Hemianthias vivanus_, known only from the spewings of the red snapper
-(_Lutianus aya_) at Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species,
-red, with golden streaks. The genus _Plesiops_ consists of small fishes
-almost black in color, with blue spots and other markings, abounding
-about the coral reefs. In this genus the lateral line is interrupted and
-there is some indication of affinity with the _Opisthognathidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 264.—Snowy Grouper, _Epinephelus niveatus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Natural
-    size: young. (Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 265.—Soapfish, _Rypticus bistrispinus_ (Mitchill). Virginia.
-]
-
-In the soapfishes (_Rypticus_) the supplemental maxillary appears again,
-but in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to two or three spines and
-there are none in the anal. _Rypticus saponaceus_, so called from the
-smooth or soapy scales, is the best known of the numerous species, which
-all belong to tropical America. _Grammistes_, with eight dorsal spines,
-is a related form in Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black
-stripes. Numerous species referred to the _Serranidæ_ occur in the
-Eocene and Miocene rocks. Some are related to _Epinephelus_, others to
-_Roccus_ and _Lates_. In the Tertiary lignite of Brazil is a species of
-_Percichthys_, _Percichthys antiquus_, with _Properca beaumonti_, which
-seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to _Dicentrarchus_.
-_Prolates heberti_ of the Cretaceous, one of the earliest of the series,
-has the caudal rounded and is apparently allied to _Lates_, as is also
-the heavily armed _Acanus regleysianus_ of the Oligocene. _Smerdis
-minutus_, a small fish from the Oligocene, is also related to _Lates_,
-which genus with _Roccus_ and _Dicentrarchus_ must represent the most
-primitive of existing members of this family. Of both _Smerdis_ and
-_Dicentrarchus_ (_Labrax_) numerous species are recorded, mostly from
-the Miocene of Europe.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 266.—Flasher, _Lobotes surinamensis_ (Bloch). Virginia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 267.—Catalufa, _Priacanthus arenatus_ Cuv. & Val. Wood's Hole,
-    Mass.
-]
-
-=The Flashers: Lobotidæ.=—The small family of _Lobotidæ_, flashers, or
-triple-tails, closely resembles the _Serranidæ_, but there are no teeth
-on vomer or palatines. The three species are robust fishes, of a large
-size, of a dark-green color, the front part of the head very short. They
-reach a length of about three feet and are good food-fishes. _Lobotes
-surinamensis_ comes northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod.
-_Lobotes pacificus_ is found about Panama. _Lobotes erate_, common in
-India, was taken by the writer at Misaki, Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 268.—Bigeye, _Pseudopriacanthus altus_ Gill. Young specimen.
-    (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-=The Bigeyes: Priacanthidæ.=—The _Catalufas_ or bigeyes (_Priacanthidæ_)
-are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short, flattened bodies, rough
-scales, large eyes, and bright-red coloration. The mouth is very
-oblique, and the anal fin about as large as the dorsal. The commonest
-species is _Priacanthus cruentatus_, widely diffused through the Pacific
-and also in the West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians,
-which used to come into the bays in myriads at the period of death of
-royalty. It is still abundant, even after Hawaiian royalty has passed
-away.
-
-_Pseudopriacanthus altus_ is a short, very deep-bodied, and very rough
-fish, scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our coast, driven
-northward by the Gulf Stream. The young fishes are quite unlike the
-adult in appearance. Numerous other species of _Priacanthus_ occur in
-the Indies and Polynesia.
-
-=The Pentacerotidæ.=—Another family with strong spines and rough scales
-is the group of _Pentacerotidæ_. _Histiopterus typus_, the Matodai, is
-found in Japan, and is remarkable for its very deep body and very high
-spines. Equally remarkable is the Tengudai, _Histiopterus acutirostris_,
-also Japanese. _Anoplus banjos_ is a third Japanese species, more common
-than the others, and largely taken in the Inland Sea. All these are
-eccentric variations from the perch-like type.
-
-=The Snappers: Lutianidæ.=—Scarcely less numerous and varied than the
-sea-bass is the great family of _Lutianidæ_, known in America as
-snappers or pargos. In these fishes the maxillary slips along its edge
-into a sheath formed by the broad preorbital. In the _Serranidæ_ there
-is no such sheath. In the _Lutianidæ_ there is no supplemental
-maxillary, teeth are present on the vomer and palatines, and in the jaws
-there are distinct canines. These fishes of the warm seas are all
-carnivorous, voracious, gamy, excellent as food though seldom of fine
-grain, the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250 species are known,
-and in all warm seas they are abundant.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 269.—Gray Snapper, _Lutianus griseus_ L. Puerto Rico. (After
-    Evermann.)
-]
-
-To the great genus _Lutianus_ most of the species belong. These are the
-snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish-speaking
-fishermen. The shore species are green in color, mostly banded, spotted,
-or streaked. In deeper water bright-red species are found. One of these,
-_Lutianus aya_, the red snapper or pargo guachinango of the Gulf of
-Mexico, is, economically speaking, the most important of all these
-fishes in the United States. It is a large, rather coarse fish, bright
-red in color, and it is taken on long lines on rocky reefs chiefly about
-Pensacola and Tampa in Florida, although similar fisheries exist on the
-shores of Yucatan and Brazil.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 270.—_Lutianus apodus_ (Walbaum), Schoolmaster or Cají. Family
-    _Lutianidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 271.—_Hoplopagrus guntheri_ Gill. Mazatlan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 272.—Lane Snapper or Biajaiba, _Lutianus synagris_ (Linnæus). Key
-    West.
-]
-
-A related species is the _Lutianus analis_, the mutton snapper or pargo
-criollo of the West Indies. This is one of the staple fishes of the
-Havana market, always in demand for banquets and festivals, because its
-flesh is never unwholesome. The mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper,
-_Lutianus griseus_, called in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest
-species on our coasts. The common name arises from the fact that the
-young hide in the mangrove bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally
-out in pursuit of sardines and other small fishes. It is a very wary
-fish, to be sought with care, hence the name "lawyer," sometimes heard
-in Florida. The cubero (_Lutianus cyanopterus_) is a very large snapper,
-often rejected as unwholesome, being said to cause the disease known as
-ciguatera. Certain snappers in Polynesia have a similar reputation. The
-large red mumea, _Lutianus bohar_, is regarded as always poisonous in
-Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. _L. leioglossus_ is also
-held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of this type are
-regarded as always safe. Other common snappers of Florida and Cuba are
-the dog snapper or jocu (_Lutianus jocu_), the schoolmaster or cají
-(_Lutianus apodus_), the black-fin snapper or sese de lo alto (_Lutianus
-buccanella_), the silk snapper or pargo de lo alto (_Lutianus vivanus_),
-the abundant lane snapper or biajaiba (_Lutianus synagris_), and the
-mahogany snapper or ojanco (_Lutianus mahogani_). Numerous other species
-occur on both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assemblage
-is found in the East Indies, some of them ranging northward to Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 273.—Yellow-tail Snapper, _Ocyurus chrysurus_ (Linnæus). Key
-    West.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 274.—Cachucho, _Etelis oculatus_ (Linnæus). Havana.
-]
-
-_Hoplopagrus guntheri_ is a large snapper of the west coast of Mexico,
-having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit-like nostrils and
-other notable peculiarities. From the standpoint of structure this
-species, with its eccentric characters—is especially interesting. The
-yellow-tail snapper or rabirubia (_Ocyurus chrysurus_) is a handsome and
-common fish of the West Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which
-makes it a swifter fish than the others. Another red species is the
-diamond snapper or cagon de lo alto, _Rhomboplites aurorubens_. All
-these true snappers have the soft fins more or less scaly. In certain
-species that swim more freely in deep waters, these fins are naked.
-Among them is the Arnillo, _Apsilus dentatus_, a pretty brown fish of
-the West Indies, and its analogue in Hawaii, _Apsilus brighami_, red,
-with golden cross-bands. _Aprion virescens_, the Uku of Hawaii, is a
-large fish of a greenish color and elongate body, widely diffused
-throughout Polynesia and one of the best of food-fishes. A related
-species is the red voraz (_Aprion macrophthalmus_) of the West Indies.
-
-Most beautiful of all the group are the species of _Etelis_, with the
-dorsal fin deeply divided and the head flattened above. These live in
-rather deep water about rocky reefs and are fiery red in color. Best
-known is the Cuban species, _Etelis oculatus_, the cachucho of the
-markets. Equally abundant and equally beautiful is _Etelis carbunculus_
-of Polynesia, _Etelis evurus_ of Hawaii, and other species of the
-Pacific islands.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 275.—_Xenocys jessiæ_ Jordan & Bollman. Family _Lutianidæ_.
-    Galapagos Islands.
-]
-
-_Verilus sordidus_, the black escolar of Cuba, has the form of _Etelis_,
-but the flesh is very soft and the color violet-black, indicating its
-life in very deep water. Numerous small silvery snappers living near the
-shore along the coast of western Mexico belong to the genera called
-_Xenichthys_, _Xenistius_, and _Xenocys_. _Xenistius californiensis_ is
-the commonest of these species, _Xenocys jessiæ_, the largest in size,
-with black lines like a striped bass. To the genus _Dentex_ belongs a
-large snapper-like fish of the Mediterranean, _Dentex dentex_. Very many
-related species occur in the old world, the prettily colored _Nemipterus
-virgatus_, the _Itoyori_ of Japan being one of the best known. Another
-interesting fish is _Aphareus furcatus_, a handsome, swift fish of the
-open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies. _Glaucosoma
-burgeri_ is a large snapper of Japan, and a related species, _Glaucosoma
-hebraicum_, is one of the "jewfishes" of Australia. Numerous fossil
-forms referred to _Dentex_ occur in the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also a
-fish called _Ctenodentex lackeniensis_ from the Eocene of Belgium.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 276.—_Aphareus furcatus_ (Lacépède). Odawara, Japan. Family
-    _Lutianidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 277.—Grunt, _Hæmulon plumieri_ (Bloch). Charleston, S. C.
-]
-
-=The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.=—The large family of _Hæmulidæ_, known in America
-as grunters or roncos, is represented with the snappers in all tropical
-seas. The common names (Spanish, _roncar_, to grunt or snore) refer to
-the noise made either with their large pharyngeal teeth or with the
-complex air-bladder. These fishes differ from the _Lutianidæ_ mainly in
-the feebler detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer.
-Most of the American species belong to the genus _Hæmulon_ or red-mouth
-grunts, so called from the dash of scarlet at the corner of the mouth.
-_Hæmulon plumieri_, the common grunt, or ronco arará, is the most
-abundant species, known by the narrow blue stripes across the head. In
-the yellow grunt, ronco amarillo (_Hæmulon sciurus_), these stripes
-cross the whole body. In the margate-fish, or Jallao (_Hæmulon album_),
-the largest of the grunts, there are no stripes at all. Another common
-grunt is the black spotted sailor's choice, _Ronco prieto_ (_Hæmulon
-parra_), very abundant from Florida southward. Numerous other grunts and
-"Tom Tates" are found on both shores of Mexico, all the species of
-_Hæmulon_ being confined to America. _Anisotremus_ includes numerous
-deep-bodied species with smaller mouth, also all American. _Anisotremus
-surinamensis_, the pompon, abundant from Louisiana southward is the
-commonest species. _Anisotremus virginicus_, the porkfish or Catalineta,
-beautifully striped with black and golden, is very common in the West
-Indies. _Plectorhynchus_ of Polynesia and the coasts of Asia contains
-numerous large species closely resembling _Anisotremus_, but lacking the
-groove at the chin characteristic of _Anisotremus_ and _Hæmulon_. Some
-of these are striped or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion.
-_Pomadasis_, a genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains
-silvery species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and the
-spines generally stronger. _Pomadasis crocro_ is the commonest West
-Indian species, _Pomadasis hasta_ the best known of the Asiatic forms.
-_Gnathodentex aurolineatus_ with golden stripes is common in Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 278.—Porkfish, _Anisotremus virginicus_ (Linnæus). Key West.
-]
-
-The pigfishes, _Orthopristis_, have the spines feebler and the anal fin
-more elongate. Of the many species, American and Mediterranean,
-_Orthopristis chrysopterus_ is most familiar, ranging northward to Long
-Island, and excellent as a pan fish. _Parapristipoma trilineatum_, the
-Isaki of Japan, is equally abundant and very similar to it. Many related
-species belong to the Asiatic genera, _Terapon_, _Scolopsis_, _Cæsio_,
-etc., sometimes placed in a distinct family as _Teraponidæ_. _Terapon
-servus_ enters the streams of Polynesia, and is a very common fish of
-the river mouths, taken in Samoa by the boys. _Terapon theraps_ is found
-throughout the East Indies. _Terapon richardsoni_ is the Australian
-silver perch. _Cæsio_ contains numerous small species, elongate and
-brightly colored, largely blue and golden. _Scolopsis_, having a spine
-on the preorbital, contains numerous species in the East Indies and
-Polynesia. These are often handsomely colored. Among them is the taiva,
-_Scolopsis trilineatus_ of Samoa, gray with white streaks and markings
-of delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related to
-_Pomadasis_ is _Pomadasis furcatus_. Another, perhaps allied to
-_Terapon_, is called _Pelates quindecimalis_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 279.—The Red Tai of Japan, _Pagrus major_ Schlegel. Family
-    _Sparidæ_. (After Kishinouye.)
-]
-
-=The Porgies: Sparidæ.=—The great family of _Sparidæ_ or porgies is also
-closely related to the _Hæmulidæ_. The most tangible difference rests in
-the teeth, which are stronger, and some of those along the side of the
-jaw are transformed into large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small
-crabs and shells. The name porgy, in Spanish pargo, comes from the Latin
-_Pagrus_ and Greek πάγρος, the name from time immemorial of the red
-porgy of the Mediterranean, _Pagrus pagrus_. In this species the front
-teeth are canine-like, the side teeth molar. It is a fine food-fish,
-very handsome, being crimson with blue spots, and in the Mediterranean
-it is much esteemed. It also breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and
-Gulf coasts.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 280.—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai. (Sketch by
-    Kako Morita.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 281.—Scup, _Stenotomus chrysops_ (Linnæus). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 282.—_Calamus bajonado_ (Bloch & Schneider), Jolt-head Porgy. Pez
-    de Pluma. Family _Sparidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 283.—Little-head Porgy, _Calamus proridens_ Jordan & Gilbert. Key
-    West.
-]
-
-Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai of Japan
-(_Pagrus major_), a fish so highly esteemed as to be, with the rising
-sun and the chrysanthemum, a sort of national emblem. In all prints and
-images the fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 280), beloved of the Japanese people,
-appears with a red tai under his arm. This species, everywhere abundant,
-is crimson in color, and the flesh is always tender and excellent. A
-similar species is the well-known and abundant "schnapper" of Australia,
-_Pagrus unicolor_. Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled
-with blue spots, _Pagrus cardinalis_, occurs in Japan in great
-abundance, as also two species similar in character but without red,
-known as _Kurodai_ or black tai. These are _Sparus latus_ and _Sparus
-berda_. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, _Sparus aurata_, is very
-similar to these Japanese species. _Sparus sarba_ in Australia is the
-tarwhine, and _Sparus australis_ the black bream. The numerous species
-of _Pagellus_ abound in the Mediterranean. These are smaller in size
-than the species of _Pagrus_, red in color and with feebler teeth.
-_Monotaxis grandoculis_, known as the "mu," is a widely diffused and
-valuable food-fish of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale
-cross-bands. Very closely related is also the American scup or fair maid
-(_Stenotomus chrysops_), one of our commonest pan fishes. In this genus
-and in _Calamus_ the second interhæmal spine is very greatly enlarged,
-its concave end formed like a quill-pen and including the posterior end
-of the large air-bladder. This arrangement presumably assists in
-hearing. Of the penfishes, or pez de pluma, numerous species abound in
-tropical America, where they are valued as food. Of these the bajonado
-or jolt-head porgy (_Calamus bajonado_) is largest, most common and
-dullest in color. _Calamus calamus_ is the saucer-eye porgy, and
-_Calamus proridens_, the little-head porgy. _Calamus leucosteus_ is
-called white-bone porgy, and the small _Calamus arctifrons_ the
-grass-porgy.
-
-The Chopa spina, or pinfish, _Lagodon rhomboides_, is a little porgy
-with notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South Atlantic coast.
-
-In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine-like are
-compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human incisors. These
-species are known as sheepshead, or sargos.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 284.—_Diplodus holbrooki_ Bean. Pensacola.
-]
-
-_Diplodus sargus_ and _Diplodus annularis_ are common sargos of the
-Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of the tail.
-_Diplodus argenteus_ of the West Indies and _Diplodus holbrooki_ of the
-Carolina coast are very close to these.
-
-The sheepshead, _Archosargus probatocephalus_, is much the most valuable
-fish of this group. The broad body is crossed by about seven black
-cross-bands. It is common from Cape Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching
-rarely a weight of fifteen pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and
-tender. The sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook
-readily and with some spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller
-species known as Salema (_Archosargus unimaculatus_), with blue and
-golden stripes and a black spot at the shoulder. It abounds in the West
-Indies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 285.—_Archosargus unimaculatus_ (Bloch), Salema, Striped
-    Sheepshead. Family _Sparidæ_.
-]
-
-On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are numerous species of
-_Lethrinus_ and related genera, formed and colored like snappers, but
-with molar teeth and the cheek without scales. A common species in Japan
-is _Lethrinus richardsoni_.
-
-Fossil species of _Diplodus_, _Sparus_, _Pagrus_, and _Pagellus_ occur
-in the Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera, _Sparnodus_ and
-_Trigonodon_, of similar type. _Sparnodus macrophthalmus_ is abundant in
-the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-=The Picarels: Mænidæ.=—The _Mænidæ_, or _Picarels_, are elongate,
-gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protractility of
-the upper jaw. _Spicara smaris_ and several other small species are
-found in the Mediterranean. _Emmelichthys_ contains species of larger
-size occurring in the West Indies and various parts of the Pacific,
-chiefly red and very graceful in form and color. _Emmelichthys
-vittatus_, the boga, is occasionally taken in Cuba, _Erythrichthys
-schlegeli_ is found in Japan and Hawaii.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 286.—Mojarra, _Xystæma cinereum_ (Walbaum). Key West.
-]
-
-=The Mojarras: Gerridæ.=—The _Gerridæ_, or _Mojarras_, have the mouth
-equally protractile, but the form of the body is different, being broad,
-compressed, and covered with large silvery scales. In some species the
-dorsal spines and the third anal spine are very strong, and in some the
-second interhæmal is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder,
-as in _Calamus_. Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones,
-are American. The smallest, _Eucinostomus_, have the quill-shaped
-interhæmal and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest
-species is the silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, _Eucinostomus gula_,
-which ranges from Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf along sandy
-shores. Equally common is _Eucinostomus californiensis_ of the Pacific
-Coast of Mexico, while _Eucinostomus harengulus_ of the West Indies is
-also very abundant. _Ulæma lefroyi_ has but two anal spines and the
-interhæmal very small. It is common through the West Indies. _Xystæma_,
-with the interhæmal spear-shaped and normally formed, is found in Asia
-and Polynesia more abundantly than in America, although one species,
-_Xystæma cinereum_, the broad shad, or Mojarra blanca, is common on both
-shores of tropical America. _Xystæma gigas_ is found in Polynesia, _X.
-oyena_ in Japan, and _X. filamentosum_ in Formosa and India. _Xystæma
-massalongoi_ is also fossil in the Miocene of Austria. The species of
-_Gerres_ have very strong dorsal and anal spines and the back much
-elevated. _Gerres plumieri_, the striped mojarra, _Gerres brasiliensis_,
-the patao, _Gerres olisthostomus_, the Irish pampano, and _Gerres
-rhombeus_ are some of the numerous species found on the Florida coast
-and in the West Indies. The family of _Leiognathidæ_, already noticed
-(page 287), should stand next to the _Gerridæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 287.—Irish Pampano, _Gerres olisthostomus_ Goode & Bean. Indian
-    River, Fla.
-]
-
-=The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.=—The _Kyphosidæ_, called rudder-fishes,
-have no molars, the front of the jaws being occupied by incisors, which
-are often serrated, loosely attached, and movable. The numerous species
-are found in the warm seas and are chiefly herbivorous.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 288.—Chopa or Rudder-fish, _Kyphosus sectatrix_ (Linnæus). Wood's
-    Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-_Boops boops_ and _Boops salpa_, known as boga and salpa, are elongate
-fishes common in the Mediterranean. Other Mediterranean forms are
-_Spondyliosoma cantharus_, _Oblata melanura_, etc. _Girella nigricans_
-is the greenfish of California, everywhere abundant about rocks to the
-south of San Francisco, and of considerable value as food. Almost
-exactly like it is the Mejinadai (_Girella punctata_) of Japan. The
-best-known members of this group belong to the genus _Kyphosus_.
-_Kyphosus sectatrix_ is the rudder-fish, or Chopa blanca, common in the
-West Indies and following ships to the northward even as far as Cape
-Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is supposed that it is enticed by
-the waste thrown overboard. _Kyphosus elegans_ is found on the west
-coast of Mexico, _Kyphosus tahmel_ in the East Indies and Polynesia, and
-numerous other species occur in tropical America and along the coasts of
-southern Asia. _Sectator ocyurus_ is a more elongate form of
-rudder-fish, striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the Pacific.
-_Medialuna californiensis_ is the half-moon fish, or medialuna, of
-southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken on rocky
-shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian seas.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 288_a_.—Blue-green Sunfish, _Apomotis cyanellus_ (Rafinesque).
-    Kansas River. (After Kellogg.)
-]
-
-Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to _Boops_,
-_Spondyliosoma_, and other genera.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER XX
-                 THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR
-                               RELATIVES
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 289.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, _Pseudupeneus maculatus_ Bloch.
-    Family _Mullidæ_ (Surmullets.)
-]
-
-=THE Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.=—The _Mullidæ_ (Surmullets) are
-shore-fishes of the warm seas, of moderate size, with small mouth, large
-scales, and possessing the notable character of two long, unbranched
-barbels of firm substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short, well
-separated, the first of six to eight firm spines. There are two anal
-spines and the ventral fins, thoracic, are formed of one spine and five
-rays. The flesh is white and tender, often of very superior flavor. The
-species are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on small animals. They are not
-voracious, and predaceous fishes feed freely on them. The coloration is
-generally bright, largely red or golden, in nearly all cases with an
-under layer, below the scales, of red, which appears when the fish is
-scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are often bright yellow, and
-when the fish swims along the bottom these are carried in advance,
-feeling the way. Testing the bottom with their feelers, these fishes
-creep over the floor of shallow waters, seeking their food.
-
-The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and the current
-genera are separated by details of the arrangement of the teeth. But few
-are found outside the tropics.
-
-The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, _Mullus barbatus_, is the most
-famous species, placed by the Romans above all other fishes unless it be
-the scarus, _Sparisoma cretense_. From the satirical poets we learn that
-"enormous prices were paid for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to
-bring the fish into the dining-room and exhibit it alive before the
-assembled guests, so that they might gloat over the brilliant and
-changing colors during the death-agonies." It is red in life, and when
-the scales are removed, the color is much brighter.
-
-It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extravagantly
-valued to-day as was formerly the case in Rome. _Mullus surmuletus_ is a
-second European species, scarcely different from _Mullus barbatus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 290.—Golden Surmullet, _Mullus auratus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Wood's
-    Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polynesian species
-known as kumu and munu (_Pseudupeneus porphyreus_ and _Pseudupeneus
-bifasciatus_). _Mullus auratus_ is a small surmullet occasionally taken
-off our Atlantic coast, but in deeper water than that frequented by the
-European species. _Pseudupeneus maculatus_ is the red goatfish or
-salmonete, common from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow
-goatfish, _Pseudupeneus martinicus_, equally valued. Many other species
-are found in tropical America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan.
-Perhaps the most notable are _Upeneus vittatus_, striped with yellow and
-with the caudal fin cross-barred and the belly sulphur-yellow, and
-_Upeneus arge_, similar, the belly white. The common red and
-black-banded "moana" or goatfish of Hawaii is _Pseudupeneus
-multifasciatus_.
-
-No fossil _Mullidæ_ are recorded, so far as known to us.
-
-=The Croakers: Sciænidæ.=—The family of _Sciænidæ_ (croakers, roncadors)
-is another of the great groups of food-fishes. The species are found on
-every sandy shore in warm regions and all of them are large enough to
-have value as food, while many have flesh of superior quality. None are
-brightly colored, most of the species being nearly plain silvery.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 291.—Spotted Weakfish, _Cynoscion nebulosus_. Virginia.
-]
-
-Special characters are the cavernous structure of the bones of the head,
-which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization (and occasional
-absence) of the air-bladder, and the presence of never more than two
-anal spines, one of these being sometimes very large. Most of the
-species are marine, all are carnivorous; none inhabit rocky places and
-none descend to depths in the sea. At the least specialized extreme of
-the family, the mouth is large with strong canines and the species are
-slender, swift, and predaceous.
-
-The weakfish or squeteague (_Cynoscion regalis_) is a type of a
-multitude of species, large, swift, voracious, but with tender flesh,
-which is easily torn. The common weakfish, abundant on our Atlantic
-coast, suffers much at the hands of its enemy and associate, the
-bluefish. It is one of the best of all our food-fishes. Farther south
-the spotted weakfish (_Cynoscion nebulosus_), very incorrectly known as
-sea-trout, takes its place, and about New Orleans is especially and
-justly prized.
-
-The California "bluefish," _Cynoscion parvipinnis_, is very similar to
-these Atlantic species, and there are many other species of _Cynoscion_
-on both coasts of tropical America, forming a large part of the best
-fish-supply of the various markets of the mainland. On the rocky
-islands, as Cuba, and about coral reefs, _Sciænidæ_ are practically
-unknown. In the Gulf of California, the totuava, _Cynoscion macdonaldi_,
-reaches a weight of 172 pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great
-"white sea-bass" of California, _Cynoscion nobilis_, reaches 100 pounds.
-In these large species the flesh is much more firm than in the weakfish
-and thus bears shipment better. _Cynoscion_ has canines in the upper jaw
-only and its species are all American. In the East Indies the genus
-_Otolithes_ has strong canines in both jaws. Its numerous species are
-very similar in form, habits, and value to those of _Cynoscion_. The
-queenfish, _Seriphus politus_, of the California coast, is much like the
-others of this series, but smaller and with no canines at all. It is a
-very choice fish, as are also the species of _Macrodon_ (_Ancylodon_)
-known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores of South
-America.
-
-_Plagioscion squamosissimus_ and numerous species of _Plagioscion_ and
-other genera live in the rivers of South America. A single species, the
-river-drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or thunder-pumper (_Aplodinotus
-grunniens_), is found in streams in North America. This is a large fish
-reaching a length of nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed,
-from the Great Lakes to Rio Usumacinta in Guatemala, whence it has been
-lately received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in lakes and
-sluggish rivers. The flesh is coarse, and in the Great Lakes it is
-rarely eaten, having a rank odor. In Louisiana and Texas it is, however,
-regarded as a good food-fish. In this species the lower pharyngeals are
-very large and firmly united, while, as in all other _Sciænidæ_, except
-the genus _Pogonias_, these bones are separated. In all members of the
-family the ear-bones or otoliths are largely developed, often finely
-sculptured. The otoliths of the river-drum are known to Wisconsin boys
-as "lucky-stones," each having a rude impress of the letter L. The names
-roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the like refer to the
-grunting noise made by most _Sciænidæ_ in the water, a noise at least
-connected with the large and divided air-bladder.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 292.—Mademoiselle, _Bairdiella chrysura_ (Linnæus). Virginia.
-]
-
-Numerous silvery species belong to _Larimus_, _Corvula_, _Odontoscion_,
-and especially to _Bairdiella_, a genus in which the second anal spine
-is unusually strong. The mademoiselle, _Bairdiella chrysura_ is a pretty
-fish of our Atlantic coast, excellent as a pan fish. In _Bairdiella
-ensifera_ of Panama the second anal spine is enormously large, much as
-in a robalo (_Oxylabrax_).
-
-In _Stellifer_ and _Nebris_, the head is soft and spongy. _Stellifer
-lanceolatus_ is occasionally taken off South Carolina, and numerous
-other species of this and related genera are found farther South.
-
-_Sciænops ocellata_ is the red-drum or channel bass of our South
-Atlantic coast, a most important food-fish reaching a weight of
-seventy-five pounds. It is well marked by a black ocellus on the base of
-the tail. On the coast of Texas, this species, locally called redfish,
-exceeds in economic value all other species found in that State.
-
-_Pseudosciæna aquila_, the maigre of southern Europe, is another large
-fish, similar in value to the red drum. _Pseudosciæna antarctica_ is the
-kingfish of Australia. To _Sciæna_ belong many species, largely Asiatic,
-with the mouth inferior, without barbels, the teeth small, and the
-convex snout marked with mucous pores. _Sciæna umbra_, the ombre, is the
-common European species, _Sciæna saturna_, the black roncador of
-California, is much like it. _Sciæna deliciosa_ is one of the most
-valued food-fishes of Peru, and _Sciæna argentata_ is valued in Japan.
-Species of _Sciæna_ are especially numerous on the coasts of India.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 293.—Red Drum, _Sciænops ocellata_ Linnæus. Texas.
-]
-
-_Roncador stearnsi_, the California roncador, is a large fish with a
-black ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance in the
-Los Angeles market. The goody, spot, or lafayette (_Leiostomus
-xanthurus_) is a small, finely flavored species abundant from Cape Cod
-to Texas. Similar to it but inferior is the little roncador (_Genyonemus
-lineatus_) of California. The common croaker, _Micropogon undulatus_, is
-very abundant on our Eastern coast, and other species known as
-verrugatos or white-mouthed drummers replace it farther South.
-
-In _Umbrina_ the chin has a short thick barbel. The species abound in
-the tropics, _Umbrina cirrosa_ in the Mediterranean; _Umbrina coroides_
-in California, and the handsome _Umbrina roncador_, the yellow-tailed
-roncador, in southern California. The kingfish, _Menticirrhus_, differs
-in lacking the air-bladder, and lying on the bottom in shallow water the
-lower fins are enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the
-species are American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food.
-_Menticirrhus saxatilis_ is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant
-from Cape Ann southward, _Menticirrhus americanus_ is the equally common
-sand-whiting of Carolina, and _Menticirrhus littoralis_ the
-surf-whiting. The California whiting or sand-sucker is _Menticirrhus
-undulatus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 294.—Yellow-fin Roncador, _Umbrina sinaloæ_ Scofield. Mazatlan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 295.—Kingfish, _Menticirrhus americanus_ (Linnæus). Pensacola.
-]
-
-_Pogonias chromis_, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and the lower
-pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river-drum, _Aplodinotus_.
-It is a coarse fish common on our Atlantic coasts, a large specimen
-taken at St. Augustine weighing 146 pounds. Other species of this
-family, belonging to the genus _Eques_, are marked with ribbon-like
-stripes of black. _Eques lanceolatus_, known in Cuba as serrana, is the
-most ornate of these species, looking like a butterfly-fish or Chætodon.
-
-Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to _Sciæna_,
-_Umbrina_, _Pogonias_, and other genera. Otoliths or ear-bones not
-clearly identifiable are found from the Miocene on. These structures are
-more highly specialized in this group than in any other.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 296.—Drum, _Pogonias chromis_ (Linnæus). Matanzas, Fla.
-]
-
-=The Sillaginidæ, etc.=—Allied to the _Sciænidæ_ is the small family of
-Kisugos, _Sillaginidæ_, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender,
-cylindrical fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance to
-small _Sciænas_.
-
-_Sillago japonicas_, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant species,
-valued as food. _Sillago sihama_ ranges from Japan to Abyssinia.
-
-A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended to the
-percoid series, with which they agree in general characters, especially
-in the normal structure of the shoulder-girdle and in the insertion of
-the pectoral and ventral fins.
-
-The _Lactariidæ_ constitute a small family of the East Indies, allied to
-the _Sciænidæ_, but with three anal spines. The mouth is armed with
-strong teeth. _Lactarius lactarius_ is a food-fish of India.
-
-The _Nandidæ_ are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian streams,
-without pseudobranchiæ.
-
-The _Polycentridæ_ are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of the
-streams of South America, without lateral line and with many anal
-spines.
-
-=The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.=—The _Pseudochromipidæ_ are
-marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line interrupted, and with
-a single dorsal. They bear some resemblance to _Plesiops_ and other
-aberrant _Serranidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 297.—_Gnathypops evermanni_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 298.—Jawfish, _Opisthognathus macrognathus_ Poey. Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-Very close to these are the _Opisthognathidæ_ or jawfishes with a single
-lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain species of
-_Opisthognathus_, the maxillary, long and curved, extends far behind the
-head. The few species are found in warm seas, but always very sparingly.
-Some of them are handsomely colored.
-
-=The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.=—A singular group evidently allied
-to the _Hæmulidæ_ is the family of _Oplegnathidæ_. In these fishes the
-teeth are grown together to form a bony beak like the jaw of a turtle.
-Except for this character, the species are very similar to ordinary
-grunts. While the mouth resembles that of the parrot-fish, it is
-structurally different and must have been independently developed.
-_Oplegnathus punctatus_, the "stonewall perch" (ishigakidai), is common
-in Japan, as is also the banded _Oplegnathus fasciatus_. Other species
-are found in Australia and Chile.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 299.—_Opisthognathus nigromarginatus._ India. (After Day.)
-]
-
-=The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.=—The family of swallowers
-_Chiasmodontidæ_, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft flesh and
-feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced. The ventrals are
-post-thoracic, the rays I, 5, facts which point to some affinity with
-the _Opisthognathidæ_, although Boulenger places these fishes among the
-_Percesoces_. _Chiasmodon niger_, the black swallower of the
-mid-Atlantic, has exceedingly long teeth and the whole body so
-distensible that it can swallow fishes of many times its own size.
-According to Gill:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 300.—Black Swallower, _Chiasmodon niger_ Johnson, containing a
-    fish larger than itself. Le Have Bank.
-]
-
-"It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which,
-nevertheless, may be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by the tail
-and gradually climbs over it with its jaws, first using one and then the
-other; as the captive is taken in the stomach and integuments stretch
-out, and at last the entire fish is passed through the mouth and into
-the stomach, and the distended belly appears as a great bag, projecting
-out far backwards and forwards, over which is the swallower with the
-ventrals dislocated and far away from their normal place. The walls of
-the stomach and belly have been so stretched that they are transparent,
-and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But such rapacity
-is more than the captor itself can stand. At length decomposition sets
-in, the swallower is forced belly upwards, and the imprisoned gas, as in
-a balloon, takes it upwards from the depths to the surface of the ocean,
-and there, perchance, it may be found and picked up, to be taken home
-for a wonder, as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found
-their way into museums—one being in the United States National Museum—
-and in each the fish in the stomach has been about twice as long, and
-stouter in proportion, than the swallower—six to twelve times bulkier!
-Its true habitat seems to be at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms."
-
-Allied to this family is the little group of _Champsodontidæ_ of Japan
-and the East Indies. _Champsodon vorax_ looks like a young
-_Uranoscopus_. The body is covered with numerous lateral lines and
-cross-lines.
-
-=The Malacanthidæ.=—The _Malacanthidæ_ are elongate fishes, rather
-handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxillary behind.
-_Malacanthus plumieri_, the matajuelo blanco, a slender fish of a
-creamy-brown color, is common in the West Indies. Other species are
-found in Polynesia, the most notable being _Malacanthus_ (or _Oceanops_)
-_lativittatus_, a large fish of a brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black
-lateral band. In Samoa this species is called gatasami, the "eye of the
-sea."
-
-=The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.=—The _Latilidæ_, or blanquillos, have also
-an enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the flesh more
-firm. The species reach a considerable size and are valued as food.
-_Lopholotilus chamæleonticeps_ is the famous tilefish dredged in the
-depths under the Gulf Stream. It is a fish of remarkable beauty, red and
-golden. This species, Professor Gill writes, "was unknown until 1879,
-when specimens were brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously
-unexplored bank about eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land, Mass. In
-the fall of 1880 it was found to be extremely abundant everywhere off
-the coast of southern New England at a depth of from seventy-five to two
-hundred and fifty fathoms. The form of the species is more compressed,
-and higher, than in most of the family, and what especially
-distinguishes it is the development of a compressed, 'fleshy, fin-like
-appendage over the back part of the head and nape, reminding one of the
-adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.' It is especially notable,
-too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size, being by
-far larger than any other member of its family. A weight of fifty pounds
-or more is, or rather, one might say, was frequently attained by it,
-although such was very far above the average, that being little over ten
-pounds. In the reach of water referred to, it could once be found
-abundantly at any time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale
-in March, 1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for,
-on the surface of the water for a distance of about three hundred miles
-from north to south, and fifty miles from east to west. It has been
-calculated by Capt. Collins that as many as one thousand four hundred
-and thirty-eight millions were scattered over the surface. This would
-have allowed about two hundred and twenty-eight pounds to every man,
-woman and child of the fifty million inhabitants of the United States!
-On trying at their former habitat the next fall, as well as all
-successive years to the present time, not a single specimen could be
-found where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus a case of a
-catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused complete
-annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited period. Whether the
-grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied subsequently by the progeny
-of a protected colony remains to be seen, but it is scarcely probable
-that the entire species has been exterminated." It is now certain that
-the species is not extinct.
-
-_Caulolatilus princeps_ is the blanquillo or "whitefish" of southern
-California, a large handsome fish formed like a dolphin, of purplish,
-olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other species of _Caulolatilus_
-are found in the West Indies. _Latilus_ _japonicus_ is the amadai or
-sweet perch of Japan, an excellent food-fish of a bright crimson color.
-
-The _Pinguipedidæ_ of Chile resemble the _Latilidæ_, having also the
-enlarged premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, however, thickened and
-placed farther forward.
-
-=The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.=—The small family of _Cepolidæ_, or
-bandfishes, resemble the _Latilidæ_ somewhat and are probably related to
-them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins are thoracic, with a
-spine and five rays, but the body is drawn out into a long eel-like
-form, the many-rayed dorsal and anal fins meeting around the tail. The
-few species are crimson in color with small scales. They are used as
-food, but the flesh is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. _Cepola
-tænia_ is common in the Mediterranean, and _Acanthocepola krusensterni_
-abounds in the bays of southern Japan.
-
-=The Cirrhitidæ.=—The species of the family _Cirrhitidæ_ strongly
-resemble the smaller _Serranidæ_ and even _Serranus_ itself, but the
-lower rays of the pectoral fins are enlarged and are undivided, as in
-the sea-scorpions and some sculpins. In these fishes, however, the bony
-stay, which characterizes _Scorpænidæ_ and _Cottidæ_, is wholly absent.
-It is, however, considered possible that this interesting family
-represents the point of separation at which the mail-cheeked fishes
-become differentiated from the typical perch-like forms. _Goniistius
-zonatus_, the _takanohadai_, is a valuable food-fish of Japan, marked by
-black cross-bands. _Paracirrhites forsteri_ and other species of
-_Cirrhitus_ and _Paracirrhites_ are very pretty fishes of the coral
-reefs, abundant in the markets of Honolulu, the spotted _Cirrhitus
-marmoratus_ being the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of
-this family, _Cirrhitus rivulatus_, a large fish, green, with blue
-markings, is found in American waters. It frequents the rocky shores of
-the west coast of Mexico.
-
-Allied to the _Cirrhitidæ_ is the small family of _Latrididæ_, with a
-long dorsal fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of the pectoral
-similarly modified. _Latris hecateia_ is called the "trumpeter" in
-Australian waters. It is one of the best food-fishes of Australia,
-reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds.
-
-Another small family showing the same peculiar structure of the pectoral
-fin is that of the _Aplodactylidæ_. The species of _Aplodactylus_ live
-on the coasts of Chile and Australia. They are herbivorous fishes, with
-flat, tricuspid teeth, and except for their pectoral fins are very
-similar to the _Kyphosidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 301.—_Cirrhitus rivulatus_ Valenciennes. Mazatlan.
-]
-
-=The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.=—In the neighborhood of the _Latrididæ_,
-Dr. Boulenger places the _Trichodontidæ_ or sandfishes, small,
-scaleless, silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These are much
-compressed in body, with very oblique mouths, with fringed lips and, as
-befits their northern habitat, with a much increased number of vertebræ.
-They bury themselves in sand under the surf, and the two species,
-_Trichodon trichodon_ and _Arctoscopus japonicus_, range very widely in
-the regions washed by the Japan current. These species bear a strong
-resemblance to the star-gazers (_Uranoscopus_), but this likeness seems
-to be superficial only.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 302.—Sandfish, _Trichodon trichodon_ (Tilesius). Shumagin
-    Islands, Alaska.
-]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXI
-                       LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI
-
-
-=THE Labyrinthine Fishes.=—An offshoot of the _Percomorphi_ is the group
-of _Labyrinthici_, composed of perch-like fishes which have a very
-peculiar structure to the pharyngeal bones and respiratory apparatus.
-This feature is thus described by Dr. Gill:
-
-"The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing arches are
-peculiarly modified. The elements in question (called branchihyal) of
-each side, instead of being straight and solid, as in most fishes, are
-excessively developed and provided with several thin plates or folds,
-erect from the surface of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which
-the bones are attached. These plates, by their intersection, form
-chambers, and are lined with a vascular membrane, which is supplied with
-large blood-vessels. It was formerly supposed that the chambers referred
-to had the office of receiving and retaining supplies of water which
-should trickle down and keep the gills moist; such was supposed to be an
-adaptation for the sustentation of life out of the water. The
-experiments of Surgeon Day, however, throw doubt upon this alleged
-function, and tend to show: (1) that these fishes died when deprived of
-access to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either in
-the water or in the apparatus used, but from being unable to subsist on
-air obtained solely from the water, aerial respiration being
-indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture out of the water for
-lengthened periods, and for a short, but variable period in water only;
-and (3) that the cavity or receptacle does not contain water, but has a
-moist secreting surface, in which air is retained for the purpose of
-respiration. It seems probable that the air, after having been supplied
-for aerial respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be
-discharged per anum. In fine, the two respiratory factors of the
-branchial apparatus have independent functions: (1) the labyrinthiform,
-or branchihyal portion, being a special modification for the respiration
-of atmospheric air, and (2) the gill filaments discharging their normal
-function. If, however, the fish is kept in water and prevented from
-coming to the surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform
-apparatus becomes filled with water which cannot be discharged, owing to
-its almost non-contractile powers. There is thus no means of emptying
-it, and the water probably becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing
-the blood, so that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the
-branchiæ. This will account for the fact that when the fish is in a
-state of quiescence, it lives much longer than when excited, whilst the
-sluggishness sometimes evinced may be due to poisoned or carbonized
-blood."
-
-Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by Professor
-Gill; and to these we may append a fifth, which, however, lacks the
-elaborate structures mentioned above and which shows other evidences of
-degeneration.
-
-=The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.=—The family of _Anabantidæ_,
-according to Gill, "includes those species which have the mouth of
-moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the vomer alone, or on
-both the vomer and palatine bones). To the family belongs the celebrated
-climbing-fish.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 303.—The Climbing Perch, _Anabas scandens_ Linnæus. Opercle cut
-    away to show the gill-labyrinth.
-]
-
-"The climbing-fish (_Anabas scandens_) is especially noteworthy for the
-movability of the suboperculum. The operculum is serrated. The color is
-reddish olive, with a blackish spot at the base of the caudal fin; the
-head, below the level of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band
-running from the angle of the mouth to the angle of the preoperculum,
-and with a black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost spines of
-the operculum.
-
-"The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir, printed in 1797, by
-Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the Danish East India Company at
-Tranquebar. Daldorf called it _Perca scandens_, and affirmed that he
-himself had taken one of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its
-operculum in a slit in the bark of a palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_)
-which grew near a pond. He also described its mode of progression; and
-his observations were substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John, a
-missionary resident in the same country. His positive evidence was,
-however, called into question by those who doubted on account of
-hypothetical considerations. Even in popular works not generally prone
-to even a judicious skepticism, the accounts were stigmatized as
-unworthy of belief. We have, however, in answer to such doubts, too
-specific information to longer distrust the reliability of the previous
-reports.
-
-"Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt. Jesse Mitchell of
-the Madras Government Central Museum, communicated to his superior the
-statement that 'this fish inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is
-called _Panai feri_, i.e., the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When
-there are palmyra-trees growing by the side of a tank or pool, when
-heavy rain falls and the water runs profusely down their trunks, this
-fish, by means of its opercula, which move unlike those of other fishes,
-crawls up the tree sideways (i.e., inclining to the sides considerably
-from the vertical) to a height of from five to seven feet, and then
-drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon the ground, it runs or
-proceeds rapidly along in the same manner (sideways) as long as the
-mucus on it remains.'
-
-"These movements are effected by the opercula, which, it will be
-remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they can, according to
-Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the statement), be raised or
-turned outwards to nearly a right angle with the body, and when in that
-position, the suboperculum distends a little, and it appears that it is
-chiefly by the spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a
-purchase on the tree or ground. 'I have,' says Captain Mitchell,
-'ascertained by experiment that the mere closing of the operculum, when
-the spines are in contact with any surface, even common glass, pulls an
-ordinary-sized fish forwards about half an inch,' but it is probable
-that additional force is supplied by the caudal and anal fins, both of
-which, it is said, are put in use when climbing or advancing on the
-ground; the motion, in fact, is described as a wriggling one.
-
-"The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to ascend streams
-against the current, and we can now understand how, during rain, the
-water will flow down the trunk of a tree, and the climbing-fish, taking
-advantage of this, will ascend against the down-flow by means of the
-mechanism already described, and by which it is enabled to reach a
-considerable distance up the trunk." (Gill.)
-
-=The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.=—"The _Osphromenidæ_ are fishes with a
-mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the palate. To this
-family belongs the gourami, whose praises have been so often sung, and
-which has been the subject of many efforts for acclimatization in France
-and elsewhere by the French.
-
-"The gourami (_Osphromenus goramy_) has an oblong, oval form, and, when
-mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the young there are black
-bands across the body, and also a blackish spot at the base of the
-pectoral fin. The gourami, if we can credit reports, occasionally
-reaches a gigantic size, for it is claimed that it sometimes attains a
-length of 6 feet, and weighs 150 pounds, but if this is true, the size
-is at least exceptional, and one of 20 pounds is a very large fish;
-indeed, they are considered very large if they weigh as much as 12 or 14
-pounds, in which case they measure about 2 feet in length.
-
-"The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie in the
-intertropical belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of its young, and
-prepares a nest for the reception of eggs. The bottom selected is muddy,
-the depth variable within a narrow area, that is, in one place about a
-yard, and near by several yards deep.
-
-"They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass (_Panicum
-jumentorum_) which grows on the surface of the water, and whose floating
-roots, rising and falling with the movements of the water, form natural
-galleries, under which the fish can conceal themselves. In one of the
-corners of the pond, among the plants which grow there, the gouramis
-attach their nest, which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of
-plants and mud, and considerably resembles in form those of some birds.
-
-"The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs, insects,
-worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account of its omnivorous
-habit, it has been called by the French colonists of Mauritius _porc des
-rivières_, or 'water-pig.' It is, however, essentially a vegetarian, and
-its adaptation for this diet is indicated by the extremely elongated
-intestinal canal, which is many times folded upon itself. It is said to
-be especially fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh
-is, according to several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm
-and easy of digestion. They vary in quality with the nature of the
-waters inhabited, those taken from a rocky river being much superior to
-those from muddy ponds; but those dwelling at the mouth of rivers, where
-the water is to some extent brackish, are the best of all. Again, they
-vary with age; and the large, overgrown fishes are much less esteemed
-than the small ones. They are in their prime when three years old. Dr.
-Vinson says the flavor is somewhat like that of carp; and, if this is
-so, we may entertain some skepticism as to its superiority; but the
-unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence naturally leads to the
-belief that the comparison is unfair to the gourami.
-
-"Numerous attempts have been made by the French to introduce the gourami
-into their country, as well as into several of their provinces; and for
-a number of years consignments of the eggs, or the young, or adult fish,
-were made. Although at least partially successful, the fish has never
-been domiciliated in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be
-reasonably expected that it would be, knowing, as we do, its
-sensitiveness to cold and the climates under which it thrives.
-
-"The fish of paradise (_Macropodus viridi-auratus_) is a species
-remarkable for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and especially
-of the ventrals, which has obtained for it the generic name
-_Macropodus_. To some extent this species has also been made the subject
-of fish-culture, but with reference to its beauty and exhibition in
-aquaria and ponds, like the goldfish, rather than for its food
-qualities.
-
-"The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the
-fighting-fish (_Betta pugnax_). It is cultivated by the natives of Siam,
-and a special race seems to have been the result of such cultivation.
-The fishes are kept in glasses of water and fed, among other things,
-with the larvæ of mosquitoes or other aquatic insects. 'The Siamese are
-as infatuated with the combats of these fishes as the Malays are with
-their cock-fights, and stake on the issue considerable sums, and
-sometimes their own persons and families. The license to exhibit
-fish-fights is farmed, and brings a considerable annual revenue to the
-king of Siam. The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the
-hills of Penang. The inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the
-'fighting-fish.'"
-
-The _Helostomidæ_ are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the lips and
-with long intestines. _Helostoma temmincki_ lives in the rivers of Java,
-Borneo, and Sumatra.
-
-The _Luciocephalidæ_ of East Indian rivers have the suprabranchial organ
-small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a membrane. In these species
-there are no spines in the dorsal and anal, while in the _Anabantidæ_
-and _Osphromenidæ_ numerous spines are developed both in the dorsal and
-anal. _Luciocephalus pulcher_ indicates a transition toward the
-_Ophicephalidæ_.
-
-=The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.=—The family of _Ophicephalidæ_,
-snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among the _Percesoces_ by
-Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer the Labyrinthine fishes, of which
-it is perhaps a degenerate descendant. The body is long, cylindrical,
-covered with firm scales which on the head are often larger and
-shield-like. The mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit
-carnivorous and voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but
-the thoracic position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like
-forms and the absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of
-degradation, the more so as in one genus (_Channa_) the ventrals are
-wanting altogether. The numerous species are found in the rivers of
-southern China and India, crossing to Formosa and to Africa. They are
-extremely tenacious of life, and are carried alive by the Chinese to San
-Francisco and to Hawaii, where they are now naturalized, being known as
-"China-fishes."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 304.—_Channa formosana_ Jordan & Evermann. Streams of Formosa.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 305.—Snake-headed China-fish, _Ophicephalus barca_. India. (After
-    Day.)
-]
-
-These fishes have no special organ for holding water on the gills, but
-the gill space may be partly closed by a membrane. According to Dr.
-Günther, these fishes are "able to survive drought living in semi-fluid
-mud or lying in a torpid state below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom
-of a tank from which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is
-probably entirely suspended during the state of torpidity, but whilst
-the mud is still soft enough to allow them to come to the surface, they
-rise at intervals to take in a quantity of air, by means of which their
-blood is oxygenized. This habit has been observed in some species to
-continue also to the period of the year in which the fish lives in
-normal water, and individuals which are kept in a basin and prevented
-from coming to the surface and renewing the air for respiratory purposes
-are suffocated. The particular manner in which the accessory branchial
-cavity participates in respiratory functions is not known. It is a
-simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the opening of
-which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane."
-
-_Ophicephalus striatus_ is the most widely diffused species in China,
-India, and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and biting at any
-bait from a live frog to an artificial salmon-fly. It has been
-introduced into Hawaii. _Ophicephalus marulius_ is another very common
-species, as is also _Channa orientalis_, known by the absence of ventral
-fins.
-
-=Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.=—Another offshoot from the
-perch-like forms is the small suborder of _Holconoti_ (ὅλκος, furrow;
-νῶτος, back). It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much in
-common with the _Gerridæ_ and _Sparidæ_, but with certain striking
-characteristics not possessed by any perch or bass. All the species are
-viviparous, bringing forth their young alive, these being in small
-number and born at an advanced stage of development. The lower
-pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the _Labridæ_, a group which these
-fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects. The soft dorsal and anal
-are formed of many fine rays, the anal being peculiarly modified in the
-male sex. The nostrils, ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle have the
-structure normal among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow, which
-suggested to Agassiz the name of _Holconoti_, is also found among
-various perch-like forms.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 306.—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, _Cymatogaster
-    aggregatus_ Gibbons. San Francisco.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 307.—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, _Hysterocarpus traski_
-    Gibbons. Sacramento River.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 308.—_Hypsurus caryi_ (Agassiz). Monterey.
-]
-
-=The Embiotocidæ.=—The group contains a single family, the
-_Embiotocidæ_, or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined
-to California, these two living in Japan. The species are relatively
-small fishes, from five inches to eighteen inches in length, with rather
-large, usually silvery scales, small mouths and small teeth. They feed
-mainly on crustaceans, two or three species being herbivorous. With two
-exceptions, they inhabit the shallow waters on sandy beaches, where they
-bring forth their young. They can be readily taken in nets in the surf.
-As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the flesh being somewhat watery
-and with little flavor. Many are dried by the Chinese. The two
-exceptions in distribution are _Hysterocarpus traski_, which lives
-exclusively in fresh waters, being confined to the lowlands of the
-Sacramento Basin, and _Zalembius rosaceus_, which descends to
-considerable depths in the sea. In _Hysterocarpus_ the spinous dorsal is
-very greatly developed, seventeen stout spines being present, the others
-having but eight to eleven and these very slender.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 309.—White Surf-fish, _Damalichthys argyrosomus_ (Girard).
-    British Columbia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 310.—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, _Rhacochilus toxotes_ Agassiz.
-    Monterey, Cal.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 311.—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), _Hypocritichthys analis_
-    (Agassiz). Monterey.
-]
-
-The details of structure vary greatly among the different species, for
-which reason almost every species has been properly made the type of a
-distinct genus. The two species found in Japan are _Ditrema temmincki_
-and _Neoditrema ransonneti_. In the latter species the female is always
-toothless. Close to _Ditrema_ is the blue surf-fish of California,
-_Embiotoca jacksoni_, the first discovered and perhaps the commonest
-species. _Tæniotoca lateralis_ is remarkable for its bright coloration,
-greenish, with orange stripes. _Hypsurus caryi_, still brighter in
-color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal region very long.
-_Phanerodon furcatus_ and _P. atripes_ are dull silvery in color, as in
-_Damalichthys argyrosomus_, the white surf-fish, which ranges northward
-to Vancouver Island, and is remarkable for the extraordinary size of its
-lower pharyngeals. _Holconotus rhodoterus_ is a large, rosy species, and
-_Amphistichus argenteus_ a large species with dull yellowish
-cross-bands. _Rhachochilus toxotes_ is the largest species in the family
-and the one most valued as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping,
-ragged lips. _Hyperprosopon arcuatus_, the wall-eye surf-fish, is
-brilliantly silvery, with very large eyes. _H. agassizi_ closely
-resembles it, as does also the dwarf species, _Hypocritichthys analis_,
-to which the Japanese _Neoditrema ransonneti_ is very nearly related.
-The other species are all small. _Abeona minima_ and _A. aurora_ feed on
-seaweed. _Brachyistius frenatus_ is the smallest of all, orange-red in
-color, while its relative, _Zalembius rosaceus_, is handsomest of all,
-rose-red with a black lateral spot. _Cymatogaster aggregatus_, the
-surf-shiner, is a little fish, excessively common along the California
-coast, and from its abundance it has been selected by Dr. Eigenmann as
-the basis of his studies of these fishes. In this species the male shows
-golden and black markings, which are wanting in the silvery female, and
-the anterior rays of the anal are thickened or otherwise modified.
-
-No fossil embiotocoids are recorded.
-
-The viviparity of the Embiotocidæ was first made known by Dr. A. C.
-Jackson in 1863 in a letter to Professor Agassiz. From this letter we
-make the following extracts:
-
-"A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on the _7th of
-June_, I rose early in the morning for the purpose of taking a mess of
-fish for breakfast, pulled to the usual place, baited with crabs, and
-commenced fishing, the wind blowing too strong for profitable angling;
-nevertheless on the first and second casts I fastened the two fishes,
-male and female, that I write about, and such were their liveliness and
-strength that they endangered my slight trout rod. I, however, succeeded
-in bagging both, though in half an hour's subsequent work I got not even
-a nibble from either this or any other species of fish. I determined to
-change the bait, to put upon my hook a portion of the fish already
-caught, and cut for that purpose into the larger of the two fish caught.
-I intended to take a piece from the thin part of the belly, when what
-was my surprise to see coming from the opening thus made _a small live
-fish_. This I at first supposed to be prey which this fish had
-swallowed, but on further opening the fish I was vastly astonished to
-find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached to it _a long
-very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent that I could already
-distinguish through it the shape, color, and formation of a multitude_
-of small fish (_all facsimiles of each other_), with which it was well
-filled. I took it on board (we were occupying a small vessel which we
-had purchased for surveying purposes). When I opened the bag, I took
-therefrom _eighteen_ more of the young fish, precisely like in size,
-shape, and color the first I had accidentally extracted. The _mother was
-very large round her center and of a very dark-brown color, approaching
-about the back and on the fins a black color, and a remarkably vigorous
-fish_. The young which I took from her were in shape, save as to
-rotundity, perfect miniatures of the mother, formed like her, and of the
-same general proportions, except that the old one was (probably owing to
-her pregnancy) much broader and wider between the top of the dorsal and
-the ventral fins in proportion to her length than the young were. _As to
-color, they were in all respects like the mother, though the shades were
-many degrees lighter._ Indeed, they were in all respects like their
-mother and like each other, the same peculiar mouth, the same position
-and shape of the fins, and the same eyes and gills, and there cannot
-remain in the mind of any one who sees the fish in the same state that I
-did a single doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from
-whose body I took them, and _that this species of fish gives birth to
-her young alive and perfectly formed, and adapted to seeking its own
-livelihood in the water. The number of young in the bag was nineteen_ (I
-fear I misstated the number in my former letter), _and every one as
-brisk and lively and as much at home in a bucket of salt water as if
-they had been for months accustomed to the water_. The male fish that
-was caught was not quite as large as the female, either in length or
-circumference, and altogether a more slim fish. I think we may
-reasonably expect to receive the specimens by the first of December. But
-I can hardly hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as I found
-it, with young well grown, before the return of the same season, viz.,
-June. By that time I trust the facts will be fully decided, and the
-results, as important as they may be, fully appreciated."
-
-Dr. Jackson's specimens came from Sausalito Bay, near San Francisco.
-Soon after the publication of this letter a similar discovery was made
-independently by Dr. William P. Gibbons, of Alameda. Still other
-specimens were made known in 1854 by Dr. Charles Girard, these having
-been collected in connection with the United States Pacific Railroad
-Surveys. The species first examined by Dr. Jackson was named by Agassiz
-_Embiotoca jacksoni_.
-
-In Professor Agassiz's comments on Dr. Jackson's discovery he makes the
-following observations (_Amer. Jour. Science and Arts_, 1854):
-
-"The female genital apparatus in the state of pregnancy consists of a
-large bag the appearance of which in the living animal has been
-described by Mr. Jackson. Upon the surface of it large vascular
-ramifications are seen, and it is subdivided internally into a number of
-distinct pouches, opening by wide slits into the lower part of the sac.
-This sac seems to be nothing but the widened lower end of the ovary, and
-the pouches within it to be formed by the folds of the ovary itself. In
-each of these pouches a young is wrapped up as in a sheet, and all are
-packed in the most economical manner as far as saving space is
-concerned, some having their head turned forwards and others backwards.
-_This is, therefore, a normal ovarian gestation._ The external genital
-opening is situated behind the anus, upon the summit and in the center
-of a conical protuberance formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in its
-place by two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls.
-The number of young contained in this sac seems to vary. Mr. Jackson
-counted nineteen; I have seen only eight or nine in the specimens sent
-by Mr. Cary, but since these were open when received it is possible that
-some had been taken out. However, their size is most remarkable in
-proportion to the mother. In a specimen of _Emb. jacksoni_ 10½ inches
-long and 4½ high the young were nearly 3 inches long and 1 inch high;
-and in an _Emb. caryi_ 8 inches long and 3¼ high the young were 2¾
-inches long and ⅞ of an inch high. Judging from their size, I suspected
-for some time that the young could move in and out of this sac like
-young opossums, but on carefully examining the position of the young in
-the pouches, and also the contracted condition of the sphincter at the
-external orifice of the sexual organs, I remained satisfied that this
-could not be the case, and that the young which Mr. Jackson found so
-lively after putting them in a bucket of salt water had then for the
-first time come into free contact with the element in which they were
-soon to live; but at the same time it can hardly be doubted that the
-water penetrates into the marsupial sac, since these young have fully
-developed gills. The size of the young compared with that of the mother
-is very remarkable, being full one-third its length in the one, and
-nearly so in the other species. Indeed these young Embiotocæ, not yet
-hatched, are three or four times larger than the young of a Pomotis (of
-the same size) a full year old. In this respect these fishes differ from
-all the other viviparous species known to us. There is another feature
-about them of considerable interest, that while the two adults differ
-markedly in coloration, the young have the same dress, light yellowish
-olive with deeper and brighter transverse bands, something like the
-young trout and salmon in their parr dress."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 312.—Viviparous Perch (male), _Hysterocarpus traski_ Gibbons.
-    Battle Creek, Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXII
-                      CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI
-
-
-=SUBORDER Chromides.=—The suborder _Chromides_ contains spiny-rayed
-fishes similar to the perch-like forms in most regards, but strikingly
-distinguished by the complete union of the lower pharyngeal bones, as in
-the _Holconoti_ and _Pharyngognathi_, and still more remarkably by the
-presence of but one nasal opening on each side. In all the perch-like
-fishes and in nearly all others there are two nasal openings or nostrils
-on each side, these two entering into the same nasal sac. In all the
-_Chromides_ the lateral line is incomplete or interrupted, and the
-scales are usually large and ctenoid.
-
-=The Cichlidæ.=—The suborder _Chromides_ includes two families,
-_Cichlidæ_, and _Pomacentridæ_. The _Cichlidæ_ are fresh-water fishes of
-the tropics, characterized by the presence of three to ten spines in the
-anal fin. In size, color, appearance, habits, and food value they bear a
-striking resemblance to the fresh-water sunfishes, or _Centrarchidæ_, of
-the eastern United States. This resemblance is one of analogy only, for
-in structure the _Cichlidæ_ have no more in common with the
-_Centrarchidæ_ than with other families of perch or bass. The numerous
-species of _Cichlidæ_ are confined to tropical America and to
-corresponding districts in Africa and western Asia. _Tilapia nilotica_
-abounds in the Nile. _Tilapia galilæa_ is found in the river Jordan and
-the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to form part of the great
-draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels, and a black spot on the side
-is held to commemorate the touch of Simon Peter. Numerous other species
-of _Cichlidæ_, large and small, abound in central Africa, even in the
-salt ditches of the Sahara.
-
-The species of _Cichla_, especially _Cichla ocellaris_, of the rivers of
-South America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong analogy to the
-black bass of farther north. A vast number of species belonging to
-_Heros_, _Acara_, _Cichlasoma_, _Geophagus_, _Chætobranchus_, and
-related genera swarm in the Amazon region. Each of the large rivers of
-Mexico has one or more species; one of these, _Heros cyanoguttatus_,
-occurs in the Rio Grande and the rivers of southern Texas, its range
-corresponding with that of _Tetragonopterus argentatus_, just as the
-range of the whole family of _Cichlidæ_ corresponds with that of the
-_Characinidæ_. No other species of either family enters the United
-States. A similar species, _Heros tetracanthus_, abounds in the rivers
-of Cuba, and another, _Heros beani_, called the mojarra verde, in the
-streams of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America
-_Cichlidæ_ and _Characinidæ_ are very abundant. One fossil genus is
-known, called _Priscacara_ by Cope. _Priscacara clivosa_ and other
-species occur in the Eocene of Green River and the Great Basin of Utah.
-In this genus vomerine teeth are said to be present, and there are three
-anal spines. None of the living _Cichlidæ_ have vomerine teeth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 313.—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), _Hypsypops rubicunda_
-    (Girard). La Jolla, San Diego, Cal.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 314.—_Pomacentrus leucostictus_ (Müller & Troschel), Damsel-fish.
-    Family _Pomacentridæ_.
-]
-
-=The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.=—The _Pomacentridæ_, called
-rock-pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in all
-cases but two anal spines. The species are often very brilliantly
-colored, lustrous metallic blue and orange or scarlet being the
-prevailing shades among the bright-colored species. Their habits in the
-reef pools correspond very closely with those of the _Chætodontidæ_.
-With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly-fishes, the exceeding
-alertness and quickness of movement make up for lack of protective
-colors. With both groups the choice of rocky basins, crevices in the
-coral, and holes in coral reefs preserves them from attacks of enemies
-large enough to destroy them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of
-living coral are often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The
-_Pomacentridæ_ are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to
-the northward of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored
-differently from the adult, having sky-blue spots and often ocelli on
-the fins, which disappear with age. But one species _Chromis chromis_,
-is found in the Mediterranean. _Chromis punctipinnis_, the blacksmith,
-is found in southern California, and _Chromis notatus_ is the common
-dogoro of Japan. One of the largest species, reaching the length of a
-foot, is the Garibaldi, _Hypsypops rubicundus_, of the rocky shores of
-southern California. This fish, when full grown, is of a pure bright
-scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue spots. Species of
-_Pomacentrus_, locally known as pescado azul, abound in the West Indies
-and on the west coast of Mexico. _Pomacentrus fuscus_ is the commonest
-West Indian species, and _Pomacentrus rectifrenum_ the most abundant on
-the west coast of Mexico, the young, of an exquisite sky-blue, crowding
-the rock pools. _Pomacentrus_ of many species, blue, scarlet, black, and
-golden, abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is
-without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest
-development in the south seas. About forty different species of
-_Pomacentrus_ and _Glyphisodon_ occur in the corals of the harbor of
-Apia in Samoa.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 315.—Cockeye Pilot, _Glyphisodon marginatus_ (Bloch). Cuba.
-]
-
-Almost equally abundant are the species of _Glyphisodon_. The "cockeye
-pilot," or jaqueta, _Glyphisodon marginatus_, green with black bands,
-swarms in the West Indies, occasionally ranging northward, and is
-equally common on the west coast of Mexico. _Glyphisodon abdominalis_
-replaces it in Hawaii, and the Asiatic _Glyphisodon saxatilis_ is
-perhaps the parent of both. _Glyphisodon sordidus_ banded with pale and
-with a black ocellus below the soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to
-the Red Sea, and is a food-fish of some importance. _Glyphisodon
-cœlestinus_ blue, with black bands, abounds in the south seas.
-
-The many species of _Amphiprion_ are always brilliant, red or orange,
-usually marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy blue. _Amphiprion
-melanopus_ abounds in the south seas. _Azurina hirundo_ is a slender
-species of lower California of a brilliant metallic blue. All these
-species are carnivorous, feeding on shrimps, worms, and the like.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 316.—Indigo Damsel fish, _Microspathodon dorsalis_ (Gill).
-    Mazatlan, Mex.
-]
-
-_Microspathodon_ is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being loosely
-implanted in the jaws. _Microspathodon dorsalis_, of the west coast of
-Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer-like fins.
-_Microspathodon chrysurus_, of the West Indian coral reefs, black with
-round blue spots and the tail yellow. This family is probably of recent
-origin, as few fossils are referred to it. _Odonteus pygmæus_ of the
-Eocene perhaps belongs to it.
-
-=Suborder Pharyngognathi.=—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, constituting
-the group called _Pharyngognathi_ (φαρύγξ, gullet; γνάθος, jaw), by
-Johannes Müller, have the lower pharyngeal bones much enlarged and
-solidly united, their teeth being either rounded or else flat and paved.
-The nostrils, ventral fins, pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the
-ordinary perch-like type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized,
-usually large and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills
-are reduced in number, 3½ instead of 4, with no slit behind the last
-half gill. The scales are always cycloid and are usually large. In the
-tropical forms the vertebræ are always twenty-four in number (10 + 14),
-but in northern forms the number is largely increased with a
-proportionate increase in the number and strength of the dorsal spines.
-All the species are strictly marine, and the coloration is often the
-most highly specialized and brilliant known among fishes, the
-predominant shade being blue.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 317.—Tautog, _Tautoga onitis_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and snails, which
-they crush with their strong teeth, there being often a strong canine at
-the posterior end of the premaxillary, which holds the snail while the
-lower jaw acts upon it. The species are very numerous and form the most
-conspicuous feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They
-abound especially in the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are
-good for food, though all are relatively flavorless, the flesh being
-rather soft and not oily.
-
-=The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.=—The principal family is that of the
-_Labridæ_, characterized by the presence of separate teeth in the front
-of the jaws. Numerous fossil species are known from the Eocene and
-Miocene. Most of these are known only from the lower pharyngeal bones.
-_Labrodon_ is the most widely diffused genus, probably allied to
-_Labrus_, but with a pile of successional teeth beneath each functional
-tooth. The species are mostly from the Miocene.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 318.—Tautog, _Tautoga onitis_ (L.). (From life by Dr. R. W.
-    Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-The northern forms of _Labridæ_ are known as wrasse on the coasts of
-England. Among these are _Labrus bergylta_, the ballan wrasse; _Labrus
-viridis_, the green wrasse; _Labrus ossiphagus_, the red wrasse; and
-_Labrus merula_, the black wrasse. _Acantholabrus palloni_ and
-_Centrolabrus exoletus_ have more than three anal spines. The latter
-species, known as rock cook, is abundant in western Norway, as far north
-as Throndhjem, its range extending to the northward beyond that of any
-other Labroid. Allied to these, on the American coast, is the tautog or
-blackfish, _Tautoga onitis_, a common food-fish, dusky in color with
-excellent white flesh, especially abundant on the coast of New England.
-With this, and still more abundant, is the cunner or chogset,
-_Tautogolabrus adspersus_, greenish-blue in color, the flesh being also
-more or less blue. This fish is too small to have much value as food,
-but it readily takes the hook set for better fishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 319.—Capitaine or Hogfish, _Lachnolaimus falcatus_. Florida.
-]
-
-In the Mediterranean are found many species of _Crenilabrus_, gaily
-colored, each species having its own peculiar pattern and its own
-arrangement of inky spots. Among these are _Crenilabrus mediterraneus_,
-_Crenilabrus pavo_, and _Crenilabrus griseus_. With these are the small
-species called _Ctenolabrus rupestris_, the goldsinny, much like the
-American cunner, and the long-nosed _Symphodus scina_.
-
-Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capitaine or hogfish,
-_Lachnolaimus maximus_, a great fish, crimson in color, with its fin
-spines ending in long streamers; _Bodianus rufus_, the Spanish ladyfish
-or pudiano, half crimson, half golden. _Halichæres radiatus_, the
-pudding-wife (a mysterious word derived from "oldwife" and the
-Portuguese name, pudiano), a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked.
-Of the smaller species, _Clepticus parræ_, the janissary, with very
-small teeth, _Halichœres bivittatus_, the slippery-dick, ranging
-northward to Cape Hatteras, and _Doratonotus megalepis_, of an intense
-grass-green color, are among the most notable. The razor-fish,
-_Xyrichthys psittacus_, red, with the forehead compressed to a sharp
-edge, is found in the Mediterranean as well as throughout the West
-Indies, where several other species of razor-fish also occur.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 320.—Razor-fish, _Xyrichthys psittacus_ (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 321.—Redfish (male), _Pimelometopon pulcher_ (Ayres). San Diego.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 322.—_Lepidaplois perditio_ (Quoy & Gaimard). Wakanoura, Japan.
-]
-
-Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast of America.
-_Pimelometopon pulcher_, the redfish or fathead of southern California,
-reaches a length of two feet or more. It abounds in the broad band of
-giant kelp which lines the California coast and is a food-fish of much
-importance. The female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail
-are black and on the top of the head is developed with age a great
-adipose hump. A similar hump is found on the adult of several other
-large labroids. Similar species on the coast of South America, differing
-in color and size of scales, are _Pimelometopon darwini_, _Trochocopus
-opercularis_, and _Bodianus diplotænia_. The señorita, _Oxyjulis
-californica_, is a dainty cream-colored little fish of the California
-coast, _Halichœres semicinctus_, the kelpfish, light olive, the male
-with a blue shoulder bar, is found in southern California. On the west
-coast of Mexico are numerous species of _Thalassoma_, _Halichœres_,
-_Pseudojulis_, _Xyrichthys_ and _Iniistius_, all different from the
-corresponding species in the West Indies, and equally different from the
-much greater variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian
-and West Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of every
-shade and pattern of bright colors—blue, green, golden, scarlet,
-crimson, purple—as if painted on with lavish hand and often in the most
-gaudy pattern, although at times laid on with the greatest delicacy. The
-most brilliant species belong to _Thalassoma_ and _Julis_, the most
-delicately colored to _Stethojulis_ and _Cirrhilabrus_. In _Gomphosus_
-the snout is prolonged on a long slender tube. In _Cheilio_ the whole
-body is elongate. In _Iniistius_ the first two dorsal spines form a
-separate fin, the forehead being sharp as in _Xyrichthys_. Other widely
-distributed genera are _Anampses_, _Lepidaplois_, _Semicossyphus_,
-_Duymæria_, _Platyglossus_, _Pseudolabrus_, _Hologymnosus_,
-_Macropharyngodon_, _Coris_, _Julis_, _Hemipteronotus_,
-_Novaculichthys_, _Cheilinus_, _Hemigymnus_, and _Cymolutes_.
-_Halichœres_ is as abundant in the East Indies as in the West, one of
-its species _Halichœres pæcilopterus_ being common as far north as
-Hakodate in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes are very
-different in color, although in most species no external sexual
-differences of any sort appear. In the East Indian genus,
-_Pseudocheilinus_, the eye is very greatly modified. The cornea is
-thickened, forming two additional lens-like structures.
-
-The small family of _Odacidæ_ differs from the Labridæ in having in each
-jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth anteriorly, the
-pharyngeal teeth being pavement-like. The scales are small, very much
-smaller than in the _Scaridæ_, the body more elongate, and the structure
-of the teeth different. The species are mostly Australian, _Odax
-balteatus_ being the most abundant. It is locally known as kelpfish.
-
-In the _Siphonognathidæ_ the teeth are much as in the _Odacidæ_, but the
-body is very elongate, the snout produced as in the cornet-fishes
-(_Fistularia_), and the upper jaw ends in a long skinny appendage.
-_Siphonognathus argyrophanes_, from Australia, reaches a length of
-sixteen inches.
-
-=The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.=—The parrot-fishes, or _Scaridæ_, are very
-similar to the _Labridæ_ in form, color, and scales, but differ in the
-more or less complete fusion of the teeth, a character which varies in
-the different genera.
-
-Of these the most primitive is _Calotomus_, confined to the East Indies
-and Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united at base, their tips
-free and imbricated over the surface of the jaw.
-
-The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. _Calotomus
-japonicus_ is the Budai or Igami of Japan. _Calotomus sandwichensis_ and
-_Calotomus irradians_ are found in Hawaii, and _Calotomus xenodon_ on
-the off-shore islands of Mexico. In _Calotomus_ the dorsal spines are
-slender. In _Scaridea_ (_balia_) of the Hawaiian Islands the first
-dorsal is formed of pungent spines as in _Sparisoma_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 323.—Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, _Sparisoma cretense_
-    (L.). _a_, upper; _b_, lower.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 324.—Jaws of a Parrot-fish, _Calotomus xenodon_ Gilbert.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 325.—_Cryptotomus beryllinus_ Jordan & Swain. Key West, Florida.
-]
-
-_Cryptotomus_ of the Atlantic is also a transitional group having the
-general characters of _Sparisoma_, but the anterior teeth more separate.
-The several species are all small and characteristic of the West Indian
-fauna, one species, _Cryptotomus beryllinus_, ranging northward to Long
-Island.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 326.—_Sparisoma hoplomystax_ (Cope). Key West.
-]
-
-In the large genus _Sparisoma_ the teeth are more completely joined. In
-this group, which is found only in the tropical Atlantic, the lower
-pharyngeals are broader than long and hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws
-are not completely united, the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral
-line not interrupted, and the gill membranes broadly united to the
-isthmus.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 327.—_Sparisoma abildgaardi_ (Bloch), Red Parrot-fish. Loro,
-    Colorado. Family _Scaridæ_.
-]
-
-Of the numerous species the dull-colored _Sparisoma flavescens_ is most
-abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther north than any other.
-_Sparisoma cretense_, the _Scarus_ of the ancients, is found in the
-Mediterranean, being the only member of the family known in Europe and
-the only _Sparisoma_ known from outside the West Indian fauna.
-
-Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, _Sparisoma
-abildgaardi_, _Sparisoma xystrodon_, _Sparisoma hoplomystax_, the last
-two being small species about the Florida Keys, and the handsome
-_Sparisoma viride_ from the West Indies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 328.—Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, _Scarus cæruleus_ (Bloch).
-]
-
-_Scarus_ is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its members are
-especially abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies, the center of
-distribution of the group, although some extend their range to western
-Mexico, Japan, the Red Sea, and Australia, and a large number are found
-in the West Indies. Most of them are fishes of large size, but a few, as
-the West Indian _Scarus croicensis_, reach the length of less than a
-foot, and other still smaller species (_Scarus evermanni_, _Scarus
-bollmani_) are found only in water of considerable depth (200 fathoms).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 329.—Upper pharyngeals of an Indian Parrot-fish, _Scarus
-    strongylocephalus_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 330.—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus
-    strongylocephalus_ (Bleeker).
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 331.—_Scarus emblematicus_ Jordan & Rutter. Jamaica.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 332.—_Scarus cœruleus_ (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul.
-    Family _Scaridæ_.
-]
-
-The genus _Scarus_ is characterized by not only the almost complete
-fusion of its teeth, but by numerous other characters. Its lower
-pharyngeals are oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth appearing as a mosaic
-on the concave surface. The gill-membranes are scarcely united to the
-narrow isthmus, the lateral line is interrupted, the dorsal spines are
-flexible, and there are but few scales on the head. These, as well as
-the scales of the body, are always large. The most highly specialized of
-its species have the teeth deep blue in color, a character which marks
-the genus or subgenus _Pseudoscarus_. Of the species of this type, the
-loro, _Pseudoscarus cœlestinus_, and the more abundant guacamaia,
-_Pseudoscarus guacamaia_ (fig. 215 vol. I) of the West Indies, are
-characteristic forms. The perrico, _Pseudoscarus perrico_ of the west
-coast of Mexico, and the great blue parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and
-Samoa, _Pseudoscarus jordani_, belong to this type. _Pseudoscarus
-jordani_ was formerly tabu to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant
-colors and toothsome flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly
-valued fish at the royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily
-at a dollar or more per pound. To this type belong also the blue
-parrot-fish, _Pseudoscarus ovifrons_, of Japan. In the restricted genus
-_Scarus_ proper the teeth are pale. The great blue parrot-fish, of the
-West Indies, _Scarus cœruleus_, belongs to this group. This species,
-deep blue in color, reaches a large size, and the adult has a large
-fleshy hump on the forehead. Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and with
-showy coloration are the West Indian species _Scarus tæniopterus_,
-_Scarus vetula_, _Scarus croicensis_, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 333.—_Scarus vetula_ Bloch & Schneider, Parrot-fish. Family
-    _Scaridæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 334.—Slippery-dick or Doncella, _Halichœres bivittatus_ (Bloch),
-    a fish of the coral reefs. Key West. Family _Labridæ_.
-]
-
-Very many species of both _Scarus_ and _Pseudoscarus_, green, blue,
-red-brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs of Polynesia.
-About twenty-five species occur in Samoa. _Pseudoscarus latax_ and _P.
-ultramarinus_ being large and showy species, chiefly blue. _Pseudoscarus
-prasiognathus_ is deep red with the jaws bright blue.
-
-Fossil species referred to _Scarus_ but belonging rather to _Sparisoma_
-are found in the later Tertiary. The genera _Phyllodus_, _Egertonia_,
-and _Paraphyllodus_ of the Eocene perhaps form a transition from
-_Labridæ_ to _Scaridæ_. In _Paraphyllodus medius_ the three median teeth
-of the lower pharyngeals are greatly widened, extending across the
-surface of the bone.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XXIII
-                            THE SQUAMIPINNES
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 335.—_Monodactylus argenteus_ (Linnæus). From Apia, Samoa. Family
-    _Scorpididæ_.
-]
-
-=The Squamipinnes.=—Very closely allied to the _Percomorphi_ is the
-great group called _Squamipinnes_ (_squama_, scale; _pinna_, fin) by
-Cuvier and _Epelasmia_ by Cope. With a general agreement with the
-_Percomorphi_, it is distinguished by the more or less complete
-soldering of the post-temporal with the cranium. In the more specialized
-forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the upper jaw, and a
-progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening. The ventral fin
-retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the perch mackerel-like
-forms, it has one spine and five rays, never any more. The ventral fins
-are occasionally lost in the adult, as in the _Stromateidæ_, or they may
-lose part of their rays. The name _Squamipinnes_ refers to the scaly
-fins, the typical species having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and
-caudal, and sometimes of other fins densely covered with small scales.
-In various aberrant forms these scales are absent. The name _Epelasmia_
-(ἔπι, above; ἐλάσμος, plate) refers to the thin upper pharyngeals
-characteristic of certain forms. The transition from this group to the
-_Sclerodermi_ is very clear and very gradual. The _Squamipinnes_,
-_Sclerodermi_, _Ostracodermi_, and _Gymnodontes_ form a continuous
-degenerating series. On the other hand the less specialized
-_Squamipinnes_ approach very closely to forms already considered. The
-_Antigoniidæ_ are of uncertain affinities, possibly derived from such
-forms as _Histiopteridæ_, while _Platax_ show considerable resemblance
-to scaly-finned fishes like the _Kyphosidæ_ and _Stromateidæ_. The
-_Scorpididæ_ seem intermediate between _Stromateidæ_ and _Platacidæ_. In
-such offshoots from _Scombroidei_ or _Percoidei_ the group doubtless had
-its origin.
-
-We may begin the series with some forms which are of doubtful affinity
-and more or less intermediate between the _Squamipinnes_ and the more
-primitive _Percomorphi_.
-
-=The Scorpididæ.=—This family has the general appearance of _Platax_ and
-_Ilarches_, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the post-temporal is
-free from the skull as in perch-like fishes. The species inhabit the
-Pacific. _Scorpis georgianus_ is a food-fish of Australia, with the body
-oblong. _Monodactylus argenteus_, the toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular
-in form, while _Psettus sebæ_ is twice as deep as long, the
-deepest-bodied of all fishes in proportion to its length.
-
-=The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.=—The boarfishes (_Antigoniidæ_) are
-characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales, the
-post-temporal, as in the _Chætodontidæ_ and the _Zeidæ_, being adnate to
-the skull.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 336.—_Psettus sebæ_ Cuv. & Val. East Indies.
-]
-
-These fishes bear some resemblance to _Zeus_, but there is no evidence
-of close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to the
-_Chætodontidæ_. _Capros aper_, the boarfish, is common in southern
-Europe, reaching a length of less than a foot, the protractile mouth
-suggesting that of a pig. The diamond-fishes, _Antigonia_, are deeper
-than long and strongly compressed, the body being covered with roughish
-scales. The color is salmon-red and the species live just below the
-depths ordinarily explored by fishermen. _Antigonia capros_ is found at
-Madeira and in the West Indies, _Antigonia steindachneri_ about Hawaii
-and in Japan, while the smaller _Antigonia rubescens_ is abundant in the
-Japanese bays at a depth reached by the dredge. An extinct genus,
-_Proantigonia_ from the Miocene is said to connect _Antigonia_ with
-_Capros_.
-
-=The Arches: Toxotidæ.=—The archers, _Toxotidæ_, have the body
-compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five spines.
-The skeleton differs widely from that of _Chætodon_ and the family
-should perhaps rather find its place among the percoids. _Toxotes
-jaculatrix_ is found in the East Indies. The name alludes to its
-supposed habit of catching insects by shooting drops of water at them
-through its long mouth.
-
-=The Ephippidæ.=—With the typical _Squamipinnes_, the teeth become very
-slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least specialized family is
-that of _Ephippidæ_, characterized by the presence of four anal spines
-and a recumbent spine before the dorsal. The principal genus, _Ephippus_
-(_Scatophagus_), is represented by _Ephippus argus_, a small, bass-like
-fish, spotted with black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging
-northward to Formosa. Species referred to _Ephippus_ (_Scatophagus_) are
-recorded from the Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of
-_Toxotes_ has been also found.
-
-=The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.=—In the _Ilarchidæ_ the dorsal is divided
-into two fins, the spinous part being free from scales. In various
-regards the species are intermediate between ordinary perch-like forms
-and the chætodonts. In these fishes the body is very deep and, with the
-soft fins, closely covered with roughish scales. In _Ilarches_
-(_Ephippus_), represented by _Ilarches orbis_ of the Indian seas, these
-scales are relatively large. This species is a common food-fish from
-India to Formosa.
-
-In the American genus, _Chætodipterus_, the scales are quite small. The
-spadefish (_Chætodipterus faber_), sometimes called also moonfish or
-angel-fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a length of two feet.
-It is rather common from Cape Cod to Cuba, and is an excellent pan fish,
-with finely flavored white flesh. The young are marked by black
-cross-bands which disappear with age, and in the adult the
-supraoccipital crest is greatly thickened and the skull otherwise
-modified. A very similar species, _Chætodipterus zonatus_, occurs on the
-west coast of Mexico. Species allied to _Chætodipterus_ are fossil in
-the Italian Eocene. The _Drepanidæ_ of the East Indies are close to the
-_Ilarchidæ_. _Drepane punctata_ is a large, deep-bodied fish resembling
-the spadefish but with larger scales.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 337.—Spadefish, _Chætodipterus faber_ (L.). Virginia.
-]
-
-=The Platacidæ.=—Closely related to the _Ilarchidæ_ is also the East
-Indian family of _Platacidæ_, remarkable for the very great depth and
-compression of the body, which is much deeper than long, and the highly
-elevated dorsal and anal still further emphasize this peculiarity of
-form. In this group the few dorsal spines are closely attached to the
-soft rays and the general color is dusky. In the young the body is
-deeper than in the adult and the ventral fins much more produced. The
-best-known species is the tsuzume or batfish (_Platax orbicularis_),
-which ranges from India through the warm current to northern Japan.
-_Platax teira_, farther south, is very similar. _Platax_ _altissimus_,
-with a very high dorsal, is a fossil in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 338.—Butterfly-fish, _Chætodon capistratus_ Linnæus. Jamaica.
-]
-
-=The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.=—The central family of
-_Squamipinnes_ is that of the butterfly-fishes or _Chætodontidæ_. In
-this group the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth small, the
-dorsal fin continuous and closely scaly, and the ventral fins with one
-spine and five rays. The species are mostly of small size and brilliant
-and varied coloration, yellow and black being the leading colors. They
-vary considerably with age, the young having the posterior free edges of
-the bones of the head produced, forming a sort of collar. These forms
-have received the name of _Tholichthys_, but that supposed genus is
-merely the young of _Chætodon_. The species of _Chætodontidæ_ abound in
-rock pools and about coral reefs in clear water. They are among the most
-characteristic forms of these waters and their excessive quickness of
-movement compensates for their conspicuous coloration. In these confined
-localities they have, however, few enemies. The broad bodies and spinous
-fins make them rather difficult for a large fish to swallow. They feed
-on small crustaceans, worms, and the like. The analogy to the butterfly
-is a striking one, giving rise to the English name, butterfly-fish, the
-Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chochouwo, all having the same
-meaning. Fossil chætodonts are rather few, _Chætodon pseudorhombus_ of
-the Pliocene of France, _Holocanthus microcephalus_ and _Pomacanthus
-subarcuatus_ of the Eocene, being the only species recorded by Zittel.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 339.—Black Angel-fish, _Pomacanthus arcuatus_ (Linnæus).
-    Barnegat, New Jersey.
-]
-
-In the principal genus, _Chætodon_, the colors are especially bright.
-There is almost always a black bar across the eye, and often black
-ocelli adorn the fins. This genus is wanting in Europe. _Chætodon
-capistratus_, _striatus_, and numerous other species are found in the
-West Indies; _Chætodon humeralis_ and _nigrirostris_ are common on the
-coast of Mexico. The center of their distribution is in Polynesia and
-the East Indian Archipelago. _Chætodon reticulatus_, _lineolatus_,
-_ulietensis_, _ornatissimus_, _ephippion_, _setifer_, and _auriga_ are
-among the most showy species. Numerous closely related genera are
-described. In some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube,
-bearing the jaws at its end. Of this type are _Chelmo_ in India,
-_Forcipiger_ in Polynesia, and _Prognathodes_ in the West Indies.
-_Heniochus_ (_macrolepidotus_) has one dorsal spine greatly elongated.
-_Microcanthus strigatus_, one of the most widely distributed species, is
-known by its small scales. _Megaprotodon_ (_triangularis_) has four anal
-spines instead of three as in the others.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 340.—Angel-fish or Isabelita, _Holacanthus ciliaris_ (Linnæus).
-    Jamaica. Family _Chætodontidæ_.
-]
-
-The species of _Holacanthus_, known as angel-fishes, are larger in size,
-and their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet or blue. In
-this genus the preopercle is armed with a strong spine, and there are
-fourteen or more strong spines in the dorsal. This genus has also its
-center of distribution in the East Indies, whence two species
-(_septentrionalis_ and _ronin_) with concentric stripes of blue range
-northward to Japan. _Holacanthus tibicen_, jet-black with one yellow
-cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu Islands southward. The angel-fish
-or isabelita (_Holacanthus ciliaris_), orange-red, sky-blue, and golden,
-as though gaudily painted, is the best-known species. The vaqueta de dos
-colores or rock beauty (_Holacanthus bicolor_), half jet-black, half
-golden, is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-fishes of
-the West Indies. _Holacanthus passer_ is a showy inhabitant of the west
-coast of Mexico. _Holacanthus diacanthus_, orange, barred with blue, is
-one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral reefs of Polynesia.
-_Holacanthus flavissimus_, golden with some deep-blue markings, and
-_Holacanthus nicobariensis_, blackish with white circles, are found with
-other species in the same waters.
-
-The genus _Pomacanthus_ (_Pomacanthodes_) includes American species
-only, still larger in size and differing from _Holacanthus_ in having
-nine to eleven spines only in the dorsal fin. The young of _Pomacanthus_
-are blackish, crossed by many curved yellow cross-bands, which disappear
-entirely with age. Three species are known, _Pomacanthus arcuatus_, the
-black angel, chirivita or portugais, _Pomacanthus paru_, the Indian-fish
-or paru of the West Indies, and _Pomacanthus zonipectus_, "Mojarra de
-las Piedras," of the west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes, but
-lacking the brilliant colors of _Holacanthus_ and the fine pattern usual
-in _Chætodon_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 341.—Rock Beauty, _Holacanthus tricolor_ (L.). Puerto Rico.
-]
-
-=The Pygæidæ.=—Between the _Chætodontidæ_ and the _Acanthuridæ_ we would
-place the extinct family of _Pygæidæ_, of the Eocene. In _Pygæus gigas_
-and other species the dorsal spines are strong and numerous; there are 5
-to 8 species in the anal fin, the scales are shagreen-like, and the
-teeth seem coarser than in the _Chætodontidæ_. The tail is apparently
-unarmed, and the soft dorsal, as in _Chætodon_, is much shorter than the
-spinous. To this family the Eocene genera, _Aulorhamphus_ (_bolceusis_),
-with produced snout, and _Apostasis_ (_croaticus_), with long spinous
-dorsal, probably belong.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 342.—The Moorish Idol, _Zanclus canescens_ (Linnæus). From
-    Hawaii. Family _Zanclidæ_. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.)
-]
-
-=The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.=—The family of _Zanclidæ_ includes a
-single species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, _Zanclus canescens_. In
-this family the scales are reduced to a fine shagreen, and in the adult
-two bony horns grow out over the eye. The dorsal spines are prolonged in
-filaments and the color is yellow crossed by bars of black. _Zanclus
-canescens_ is a very handsome fish with the general appearance and habit
-of a _Chætodon_, but the form is more exaggerated. It is found
-throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-shore islands of Mexico, and
-is generally common, though rarely entering rock pools.
-
-_Zanclus eocænus_ is recorded from the Italian Eocene.
-
-=The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.=—In the next family, _Acanthuridæ_, the
-surgeon-fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen-like, the
-body is more elongate, the gill-openings still more restricted, and the
-teeth are flattened and incisor-like. The pubic bone is more elongate,
-and in all the species some sort of armature is developed on the side of
-the tail. The spinous dorsal in all is less developed than the soft
-dorsal. The species abound in the warm seas, especially about the tide
-pools, and are used as food. They undergo considerable changes with age,
-the caudal armature being developed by degrees. Nearly all are dull
-brown in color, but in some a vivid ornamentation is added. Fossil forms
-are found from the Eocene and later. Most of these are referable to
-_Teuthis_ and _Acanthurus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 343.—_Teuthis cœruleus_ (Bloch & Schneider), Blue Tang. Mexico.
-    Family _Teuthididæ_.
-]
-
-The principal genus is _Teuthis_, characterized by the presence on each
-side of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine with the point
-turned forwards and dropping into a sheath. This spine gives these
-fishes their name of surgeon-fish, doctor-fish, lancet-fish, tang,
-barbero, etc., and it forms a very effective weapon against fish or man
-who would seize one of these creatures by the tail. The species have the
-center of distribution in the East Indies and have not reached Europe.
-Three species are found in the West Indies. The blue tang (_Teuthis
-cœruleus_) is chiefly bright blue. The common tang, _Teuthis chirurgus_,
-is brown with bluish streaks, while a third species, _Teuthis bahianus_,
-has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species is _Teuthis
-crestonis_, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are closely related to
-_Teuthis matoides_, found from India to Hawaii.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 344.—Brown Tang, _Teuthis bahianus_ (Ranzani). Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-_Teuthis triostegus_, of Japan and Polynesia and the East Indies, is
-covered with cross-bands alternately black and pale. In Hawaii this is
-replaced by the very similar _Teuthis sandwichensis_. Many species are
-found about Hawaii and the other Polynesian Islands. _Teuthis achilles_
-has a large blotch of brilliant scarlet on the tail, and _Teuthis
-olivaceus_ a bright-colored mark on the shoulder. _Teuthis lineatus_,
-yellow with blue stripes, a showily colored fish of the coral reefs, is
-often poisonous, its flesh producing ciguatera.
-
-_Zebrasoma_ differs from _Teuthis_ in having but 4 or 5 dorsal spines
-instead of 10 or 11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very high.
-_Zebrasoma flavescens_, sometimes brown, sometimes bright yellow, is
-common in Polynesia; _Zebrasoma veliferum_, cross-barred with black, is
-also common.
-
-_Ctenochætus_ (_strigosus_), unlike the others, is herbivorous and has
-its teeth loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black with dull
-orange streaks, was once tabu to the king of Hawaii, who ate it raw, and
-common people who appropriated it were put to death.
-
-In _Xesurus_ the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four bony
-tubercles which have no sharp edge. _Xesurus scalprum_ is common in
-Japan, and there are three species or more on the west coast of Mexico,
-_Xesurus punctatus_ and _Xesurus laticlavius_ being most abundant.
-
-In _Prionurus_ (_microlepidotus_) of the tropical Pacific the armature
-is still more degraded, about six small plates being developed.
-
-In _Acanthurus_ (_Monoceros_, _Naseus_), the unicorn-fish and its
-relatives, the ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays, the
-caudal spines are very large, blunt, immovable, one placed in front of
-the other. In most of the species of _Acanthurus_ a long, bony horn
-grows forward from the cranium above the eye. This is wanting in the
-young and has various degrees of development in the different species,
-in some of which it is wholly wanting. The species of _Acanthurus_ reach
-a large size, and in some the caudal spines are bright scarlet, in
-others blue. _Acanthurus unicornis_, the unicorn-fish, is the commonest
-species and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in Japan, in
-Hawaii, and in the East Indies.
-
-_Axinurus thynnoides_ of the East Indies has a long, slim body, with
-slender tail like a mackerel.
-
-=Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.=—The _Amphacanthi_ (ἄμφϊ,
-everywhere; ἄκανθα, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes certainly related to
-the _Teuthididæ_, but differing from all other fishes in having the last
-ray of the ventrals spinous as well as the first, the formula being I.
-4, I. The anal fin has also six or seven spines; and the maxillary is
-soldered to the premaxillary. The skeleton is essentially like that of
-the _Acanthuridæ_.
-
-The single family, _Siganidæ_, contains fishes of moderate size, valued
-as food, and abounding about rocks in shallow water from the Red Sea to
-Tahiti. The coloration is rather plain olive or brown, sometimes with
-white spots, sometimes with bluish lines. The species are very much
-alike and all belong to the single genus _Siganus_. One species,
-_Siganus fuscescens_, dusky with small, pale dots, is a common food-fish
-of Japan. Others, as _Siganus oramin_ and _Siganus vermiculatus_, occur
-in India, and _Siganus punctatus_, known as lo, abounds about the coral
-reefs of Samoa. _Siganus vulpinus_ differs from the others in the
-elongate snout.
-
-A fossil genus, _Archoteuthis_ (_glaronensis_), is found in the Tertiary
-of Glarus. It differs from _Siganus_ in the deeper body and in the
-presence of six instead of seven spines in the anal fin.
-
-The real relationship of the _Siganidæ_ is still uncertain, but the
-family is probably most nearly allied to the _Acanthuridæ_, with which
-the species were first combined by Linnæus, who included both in his
-genus _Teuthis_. In the structure of the vertical fins the _Siganidæ_
-resemble the extinct genus _Pygæus_.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXIV
-                          SERIES PLECTOGNATHI
-
-
-=THE Plectognaths.=—Derived directly from the _Acanthuridæ_, from which
-they differ by progressive steps of degeneration, are the three
-suborders of _Sclerodermi_, _Ostracodermi_, and _Gymnodontes_, forming
-together the series or suborder of _Plectognathi_. As the members of
-this group differ from one another more widely than the highest or most
-generalized forms differ from the _Acanthuridæ_, we do not regard it as
-a distinct order. The forms included in it differ from the _Acanthuridæ_
-much as the swordfishes differ from ordinary mackerel. The
-_Plectognathi_ (πλεϡτός, woven together; γνάθος, jaw) agree in the union
-of the maxillary and premaxillary, in the union of the post-temporal
-with the skull, in the great reduction of the gill-opening, and in the
-elongation of the pelvic bones. All these characters in less degree are
-shown in the _Squamipinnes_. We have also the reduction and final entire
-loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dorsal, the
-compression and final partial or total fusion of the teeth of the upper
-jaw, the specialization of the scales, which change from bony scutes
-into a solid coat of mail on the one hand, and on the other are reduced
-to thorns or prickles and are finally altogether lost. The number of
-vertebræ is also progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the
-caudal fin seems attached to the head, the body being apparently
-wanting. Throughout the group poisonous alkaloids are developed in the
-flesh. These may produce the violent disease known as ciguatera,
-directly attacking the nervous system. See p. 182, vol. I.
-
-The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized by external
-characters. In the _Sclerodermi_ (σκλερός, hard; δέρμα, skin) the
-spinous dorsal is present and the body is more or less distinctly scaly.
-The teeth are separate and incisor-like and the form is compressed. In
-the _Ostracodermi_ (ὀστράκος, a box; δέρμα, skin) there is no spinous
-dorsal, the teeth are slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable,
-bony box. In the _Gymnodontes_ (γυμνός, naked; ὀδούς, tooth) the teeth
-are fused into a beak like that of a turtle, either continuous or
-divided by a median suture in each jaw, the spinous dorsal is lost, and
-the body is covered with thorns or prickles or else is naked.
-
-=The Scleroderms.=—The _Sclerodermi_ include three recent and one
-extinct families. Of the recent forms, _Triacanthidæ_ is the most
-primitive, having the ventral fins each represented by a stout spine and
-the skin covered with small, rough scales. The dorsal has from four to
-six stiff spines.
-
-_Triacanthodes anomalus_ is found in Japan, _Hollardia hollardi_ in
-Cuba. _Triacanthus brevirostris_, with the first spine very large, is
-the common hornfish of the East Indies ranging northward to Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 345.—The Trigger-fish, _Balistes carolinensis_ Gmelin. New York.
-]
-
-=The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.=—The _Balistidæ_, or trigger-fishes,
-have the body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged. The
-first dorsal fin is composed of a short stout rough spine, with a
-smaller one behind it and usually a third so placed that by touching it
-the first spine may be set or released. This peculiarity gives the name
-of trigger-fish as well as the older name of _Balistes_, or cross-bow
-shooter. There are no ventral fins, the long pelvis ending in a single
-blunt spine. The numerous species of trigger-fishes are large coarse
-fishes of the tropical seas occasionally ranging northward. The center
-of distribution is in the East Indies, where many of the species are
-most fantastically marked. _Balistes carolinensis_, the leather-jacket,
-or cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the American coast.
-_Balistes vetula_, the oldwife, oldwench, or cochino, marked with blue,
-is common in the West Indies, as are several other species, as
-_Canthidermis sufflamen_, the sobaco, and the jet-black _Melichthys
-piceus_, the black oldwife, or galafata. Several species occur on the
-Pacific Coast of Mexico, the Pez Puerco, _Balistes verres_, being
-commonest. Still others are abundant about the Hawaiian Islands and
-Japan. The genus _Balistapus_, having spinous plates on the tail,
-contains the largest number of species, these being at the same time the
-smallest in size and the most oddly colored. _Balistapus aculeatus_ and
-_Balistapus undulatus_ are common through Polynesia to Japan. Most of
-the tropical species of _Balistidæ_ are more or less poisonous, causing
-ciguatera, the offensive alkaloids becoming weaker in the northern
-species. _Melichthys radula_ abounds in Polynesia. In this species great
-changes take place at death, the colors changing from blue and mottled
-golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian species are
-_Xanthichthys lineopunctatus_, _Balistes vidua_, _Balistes bursa_, and
-_Balistes flavomarginatus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 346.—File-fish, _Osbeckia lævis_ (_scripta_). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 347.—The Needle-bearing File-fish, _Amanses scopas_ of Samoa.
-]
-
-=The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.=—Closely related to the _Balistidæ_ are
-the _Monacanthidæ_, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In these the
-body is very lean and meager, the scales being reduced to shagreen-like
-prickles. The ventral fins are replaced by a single movable or immovable
-spine, which is often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a
-single spine with sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in
-general smaller than the _Balistidæ_ and usually but not always dull in
-color. They have no economic value and are rarely used as food, the dry
-flesh being bitter and offensive. The species are numerous in tropical
-and temperate seas, although none are found in Europe. On our Atlantic
-coast, _Stephanolepis hispidus_ and _Ceratacanthus schœpfi_ are common
-species. In the West Indies are numerous others, _Osbeckia lævis_ and
-_Alutera güntheriana_, largest in size, among the commonest. Both of
-these are large fishes without ventral spine. _Monacanthus chinensis_,
-with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the ventral spine, is found
-on the coast of China. Of the numerous Japanese species, the most
-abundant and largest is _Pseudomonacanthus modestus_, with deep-blue
-fins and the ventral spine immovable. Another is _Stephanolepis
-cirrhifer_, known as _Kawamuki_, or skin-peeler. _Alutera monoceros_,
-and _Osbeckia scripta_, the unicorn fish, abound in the East Indies,
-with numerous others of less size and note. In the male of the
-Polynesian _Amanses scopas_ (Fig. 347) the tail is armed with a brush of
-extraordinarily long needle-like spines.
-
-In _Stephanolepis spilosomus_ the caudal fin is of a brilliant scarlet
-color, contrasting with the usual dull colors of these fishes. In
-_Oxymonacanthus longirostris_ the body is blue with orange checker-like
-spots and the snout is produced in a long tube. About the islands of
-Polynesia, filefishes are relatively few, but some of them are very
-curious in form or color.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 348.—Common File fish, _Stephanolepis hispidus_ (Linnæus).
-    Virginia.
-]
-
-=The Spinacanthidæ.=—In the extinct family _Spinacanthidæ_ the body is
-elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The first dorsal has six or
-seven spines, and there are rough spines in the pectoral. The teeth are
-bluntly conical. _Spinacanthus blennioides_ and _S. imperalis_ are found
-in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. These are probably the nearest to the
-original ancestor among known scleroderms.
-
-=The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.=—The group _Ostracodermi_ contains the
-single family of _Ostraciidæ_, the trunkfishes or cuckolds. In this
-group, the body is enveloped in a bony box, made of six-sided scutes
-connected by sutures, leaving only the jaws, fins and tail free. The
-spinous dorsal fin is wholly wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the
-outer fins are short and small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in
-the tropical seas. They are slow of motion, though often brightly
-colored.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 349.—Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold, _Lactophrys
-    tricornis_ (Linnæus). Charleston, S. C.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 350.—Horned Trunkfish, _Ostracion cornutum_ (Linnæus). East
-    Indies. (After Bleeker.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 351.—Spotted Trunkfish, _Lactophrys bicaudalis_ (Linnæus).
-    Cozumel Island, Yucatan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 352.—Spotted Trunkfish (face view), _Lactophrys bicaudalis_
-    (Linnæus).
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 353.—Spineless Trunkfish, _Lactophrys triqueter_ (Linnæus).
-    Tortugas.
-]
-
-Against most of their enemies they are protected by the bony case. The
-species range from four inches to a foot in length, so far as known.
-They are not poisonous, and are often baked in the shell. Three genera
-are recognized: _Lactophrys_ with the _carapace_, three-angled;
-_Ostracion_ with four angles; and _Aracana_, resembling _Ostracion_, but
-with the carapace not closed behind the anal fin. In each of these
-genera there is considerable minor variation due to the presence or
-absence of spines on the bony shell. In some species, called cuckolds,
-or cowfishes, long horns are developed over the eye. Others have spines
-on some other part of the shield and some have no spines at all. No
-species are found in Europe, and none on the Pacific coast of America.
-The three-angled species, called _Lactophrys_, are native chiefly to the
-West Indies, sometimes carried by currents to Guinea, and one is
-described from Australia. _Lactophrys tricornis_ of the West Indies has
-long horns over the eye; _Lactophrys trigonus_ has spines on the lower
-parts only. _Lactophrys triqueter_ is without spines, and the fourth
-American species, _Lactophrys bicaudalis_, is marked by large black
-spots. The species of _Ostracion_ radiate from the East Indies. One of
-them, _Ostracion gibbosum_, has a turret-like spine on the middle of the
-back, causing the carapace to appear five-angled; _Ostracion diaphanum_
-has short horns over the eye, and _Ostracion cornutum_ very long ones;
-_Ostracion_ _immaculatus_, the common species of Japan, is without
-spines; _Ostracion sebæ_ of Hawaii and Samoa is deep, rich blue with
-spots of golden. _Aracana_ is also of East Indian origin; _Aracana
-aculeata_, with numerous species, is common in Japan. A fossil species
-of _Ostracion_ (_O. micrurum_) is known from the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 354.—Hornless Trunkfish, _Lactophrys trigonus_ (Linnæus).
-    Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-=The Gymnodontes.=—The group of _Gymnodontes_, having the teeth united
-in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degeneration of scales
-and fins. There is no trace of spinous dorsal, or ventral. The scales
-are reduced to thorns or prickles, or are lost altogether. All the
-species have the habit of inflating themselves with air when disturbed,
-thus floating, belly upward, on the surface of the water. Very few, and
-these only northern species, are used as food, the flesh of the tropical
-forms being generally poisonous, and that often in a higher degree than
-any other fishes whatever.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 355.—Skeleton of the Cowfish, _Lactophrys tricornis_ (Linnæus).
-]
-
-=The Triodontidæ.=—The most generalized family is that of the
-_Triodontidæ_. These fishes approach the _Balistidæ_ in several regards,
-having the body compressed and covered with rough scales. The teeth form
-a single plate in the lower jaw, but are divided on the median line
-above. The compressed, fan-like, ventral flap is greatly distensible.
-_Triodon bursarius_, of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the
-sole species of the family.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 356.—Silvery Puffer, _Lagocephalus lævigatus_ (Linnæus).
-    Virginia.
-]
-
-=The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.=—In the _Tetraodontidæ_ (globefishes,
-or puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture. The dorsal and anal
-are short, and the ventrals are reduced in number, usually fifteen to
-twenty (7 + 13 to 7 + 9). The walls of the belly are capable of
-extraordinary distension, so that when inflated, the fish appears like a
-globe with a beak and a short tail attached. The principal genus
-_Spheroides_ contains a great variety of forms, forming a closely
-intergrading series. In some of these the body is smooth, in others more
-or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted. In some the form is
-elongate, the color silvery, and the side of the belly with a
-conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal is lunate and the
-other fins falcate, and with numerous rays. But these forms (called
-_Lagocephalus_) pass by degrees into the short-bodied forms with small
-rounded fins, and no clear line has yet been drawn separating the group
-into genera. In these species each nostril has a double opening.
-_Lagocephalus lagocephalus_, large and silvery, is found in Europe.
-_Lagocephalus lævigatus_ replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North
-America. In Japan are numerous forms of this type, the venomous
-_Lagocephalus sceleratus_ being one of the best known. Numerous other
-Japanese species, _Spheroides xanthopterus_, _rubripes_, _pardalis_,
-_ocellatus_, _vermiculatus_, _chrysops_, etc., mark the transition to
-typical _Spheroides_. _Spheroides maculatus_ is common on our Atlantic
-coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the coastwise boys who tease it to
-cause it to swell. _Spheroides spengleri_ and _S. testudineus_ abound in
-the West Indies. _Spheroides politus_ on the west coast of Mexico.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 357.—Puffer, inflated, _Spheroides spengleri_ (Bloch). Wood's
-    Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 358.—Puffer, _Spheroides maculatus_ (Schneider). Noank, Conn.
-]
-
-In _Tetraodon_ the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening, its tip
-being merely spongy. The species of this genus are even more inflatable
-and are often strikingly colored, the young sometimes having the belly
-marked by concentric stripes of black which disappear with age.
-_Tetraodon hispidus_ abounds in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii
-to India. In Hawaii, it is regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes
-(muki-muki) and it is said that its gall was once used to poison arrows.
-_Tetraodon fahaka_ is a related species, the first known of the family.
-It is found in the Nile. _Tetraodon lacrymatus_, black with white spots,
-is common in Polynesia. _Tetraodon aërostaticus_, with black spots, is
-frequently taken in Japan, and _Tetraodon setosus_ is frequent on the
-west coast of Mexico. This species is subject to peculiar changes of
-color. Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is sometimes deep blue,
-sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed shades. Specimens showing
-these traits were obtained about Clarion Island of the Revillagigedos.
-No _Tetraodon_ occurs in the West Indies. _Colomesus psittacus_, a river
-fish of the northern part of South America, resembles _Spheroides_, but
-shows considerable difference in the skull.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 359.—_Tetraodon meleagris_ (Lacépède). Riu Kiu Islands.
-]
-
-But few fossil _Tetraodontidæ_ have been recognized. These are referred
-to _Tetraodon_. The earliest is _Tetraodon pygmæus_ from Monte Bolca.
-
-The _Chonerhinidæ_ of the East Indies are globefishes having the dorsal
-and anal fins very long, the vertebræ more numerous (12 + 17),
-twenty-nine in number. _Chonerhinus naritus_ inhabits the rivers of
-Sumatra and Java.
-
-The little family of _Tropidichthyidæ_ is composed of small globefishes,
-with a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost, or quite, wanting.
-The teeth are as in the _Tetraodontidæ_. The skeleton differs
-considerably from that of _Spheroides_, apparently justifying their
-separation as a family. The species are all very small, three to six
-inches in length, and prettily colored. In the West Indies
-_Tropidichthys rostratus_ is found. _Tropidichthys solandri_ abounds in
-the South Seas, dull orange with blue spots. _Tropidichthys rivulatus_
-is common in Japan and several ether species are found in Hawaii.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 360.—Bristly Globefish, _Tetraodon setosus_ Rosa Smith. Clarion
-    Island, Mex.
-]
-
-Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Polynesia, and in
-the East Indies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 361.—Porcupine-fish, _Diodon hystrix_ (Linnæus). Tortugas
-    Islands.
-]
-
-=The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.=—In the remaining families of
-_Gymnodontes_, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth forming an
-undivided beak. The _Diodontidæ_, or porcupine-fishes, have the body
-spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp thorns, the bases of which
-are so broad as to form a continuous coat of mail. In some of them, part
-of the spines are movable, these being usually two-rooted; in others,
-all are immovable and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous,
-especially in the equatorial seas.
-
-In _Diodon_ the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at least,
-movable. The common porcupine-fish, _Diodon hystrix_, is found in all
-seas, and often in abundance. It is a sluggish fish, olive and spotted
-with black. It reaches a length of two feet or more, and by its long
-spines it is thoroughly protected from all enemies. A second species,
-equally common, is the lesser porcupine-fish, _Diodon holacanthus_. In
-this species, the frontal spines are longer than those behind the
-pectoral, instead of the reverse, as in _Diodon hystrix_. Many species
-of _Diodon_ are recorded from the Eocene, besides numerous species from
-later deposits. One of these, as _Heptadiodon heptadiodon_ from the
-Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly represents a
-distinct family. _Diodon erinaceus_ is found in the Eocene of Monte
-Bolca and _Progymnodon hilgendorfi_ in the Eocene of Egypt.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 362.—Rabbit-fish, _Chilomycterus schœpfi_ (Walbaum). Noank, Conn.
-]
-
-In the rabbit-fishes (_Chilomycterus_) the body is box-shaped, covered
-with triangular spines, much shorter and broader at base than those of
-_Diodon_. Numerous species are known.
-
-_Chilomycterus schœpfi_ is the common rabbit-fish, or swell-toad of our
-Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black lines. The
-larger, _Chilomycterus affinis_, with the pectoral fin spotted with
-black, is widely diffused through the Pacific. It is rather common in
-Japan, where it is the torabuku, or tiger puffer. It is found also in
-Hawaii, and it is once recorded by Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro,
-California, and once by Snodgrass and Heller, from the Galapagos.
-
-=The Head-fishes: Molidæ.=—The headfishes, or _Molidæ_, also called
-sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the dorsal, anal,
-and caudal fins seem to be attached to the posterior outline of the
-head. This feature, constituting the so-called gephyrocercal tail is a
-trait of specialized degradation.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 363.—Headfish (adult), _Mola mola_ (Linnæus). Virginia.
-]
-
-_Mola mola_, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occasionally in
-all tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost circular, having
-been compared by Linnæus to a mill-wheel (mola), and its surface is
-covered with a rough, leathery skin. It swims very lazily at the surface
-of the water, its high dorsal often rising above the surface. It is
-rarely used as food, though not known to be poisonous. The largest
-example known to the writer was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by
-Mr. Thomas Shooter, of Los Angeles. This specimen was 8 feet 2 inches in
-length, and weighed 1200 pounds. Another, almost as large, was taken at
-San Diego, in April, 1904. No difference has been noticed among
-specimens from California, Cape Cod, Japan, and the Mediterranean. The
-young, however, differ considerably from the adult, as might be expected
-in a fish of such great size and extraordinary form. (See Figs. 109 and
-110, Vol. I.)
-
-Fragments named _Chelonopsis_, and doubtfully referred to _Mola_, are
-found in the Pliocene of Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age,
-attributed to _Mola_, probably belong, according to Woodward, to a
-turtle.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 364.—The King of the Mackerel, _Ranzania makua_ Jenkins, from
-    Honolulu. (After Jenkins.)
-]
-
-In the genus _Ranzania_, the body is more elongate, twice as long as
-deep, but as in _Mola_, the body appears as if bitten off and then
-provided with a fringe of tail. The species are rarely taken. _Ranzania
-truncata_ is found in the Mediterranean and once at Madeira. _Ranzania
-makua_, known as the king of the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully
-colored brown and silvery. This species has been taken once in Japan.
-
-In Hawaii it is believed that all the Scombroid fishes are subject to
-the rule of the makua and that they will disappear if this fish be
-killed. By a similar superstition, _Regalecus glesne_ is "king of the
-herrings" in Norway and about Cape Flattery, _Trachypterus rex
-salmonorum_ is "king of the salmon."
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXV
-                  PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES
-
-
-=THE Mailed-cheek Fishes.=—The vast group of _Pareioplitæ_ (_Loricati_)
-or mailed-cheek fishes is characterized by the presence of a "bony stay"
-or backward-directed process from the third suborbital. This extends
-backward across the cheek toward the preopercle. In the most generalized
-forms this bony stay is small and hidden under the skin. In more
-specialized forms it grows larger, articulates with the preopercle, and
-becomes rough or spinous at its surface. Finally, it joins the other
-bones to form a coat of mail which covers the whole head. In degenerate
-forms it is again reduced in size, finally becoming insignificant.
-
-The more primitive _Pareioplitæ_ (παρεία, cheek; ὁπλιτής, armed) closely
-resemble the _Percomorphi_, having the same fins, the same type of
-shoulder-girdle, and the same insertion of the ventral fins. In the more
-specialized forms the ventral fins remain thoracic, but almost all other
-parts of the anatomy are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as
-known to the writer, the hypercoracoid is perforate as in the
-_Percomorphi_. There are numerous points of resemblance between the
-_Cirrhitidæ_ and the _Scorpænidæ_, and it is probable that the
-_Scorpænidæ_ with all the other _Pareioplitæ_ sprang from some perciform
-stock allied to _Cirrhitidæ_ and _Latrididæ_.
-
-Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little light on
-the origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the _Cottidæ_.
-_Lepidocottus_, recorded from the Miocene and Oligocene, seems to be the
-earliest genus.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 365.—Rosefish, _Sebastes marinus_ Linnæus. Cape Cod.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 366.—Skull of _Scorpænichthys marmoratus_ Girard, showing the
-    suborbital stay (_a_).
-]
-
-=The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.=—The vast family of _Scorpænidæ_, or
-scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms as almost to defy
-diagnosis. The more primitive types are percoid in almost all respects,
-save in the presence of the subocular stay. Their scales are ctenoid and
-well developed. The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral
-fins are complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong
-spines. The cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and the five
-spines on the preoperculum are not very different from those seen in
-some species of bass. The gill-arches are, however, different, there
-being but 3½ gills and no slit behind the last. Otherwise the mouth and
-pharanx show no unusual characters. In the extremes of the group,
-however, great changes take place, the head becomes greatly distorted
-with ridges and grooves, the anal spines are lost, and the dorsal spines
-variously modified. The scales may be lost or replaced by warts or
-prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced. Still the changes
-are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the group into smaller
-families.
-
-The most primitive existing genus is doubtless _Sebastes_. The familiar
-rosefish, _Sebastes marinus_, is found on both shores of the north
-Atlantic. It is bright red in color and is valued as food. As befits a
-northern fish, it has an increased number of vertebræ (31) and the
-dorsal spines number 15. From its large haddock-like eye it has been
-called the Norway haddock. It is an important food-fish in New England
-as well as in northern Europe.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 367.—_Sebastolobus altivelis_ Gilbert. Alaska.
-]
-
-In the north Pacific _Sebastes_ gives place to _Sebastolobus_, with
-three species (_macrochir_, _altivelis_, and _alascanus_), all
-bright-red fishes of soft substance and living in rather deep water.
-_Sebastolobus_ is characterized by its two-lobed pectoral fin, the lower
-rays being enlarged.
-
-The genus _Sebastodes_, with its rougher-headed ally _Sebastichthys_,
-with 13 dorsal spines and the vertebræ 27, ranges farther south than
-_Sebastes_ and forms one of the most characteristic features of the
-fauna of California and Japan, 50 species occurring about California and
-25 being already known from Japan. One species (_Sebastichthys
-capensis_) is recorded from the Cape of Good Hope, and two,
-_Sebastichthys oculatus_ and _S. darwini_, from the coast of Chile.
-
-Within the limits of _Sebastodes_ and _Sebastichthys_ is a very large
-range of form and color, far more than should exist within the range of
-a natural genus. On the other hand, all attempts at generic subdivision
-have failed because the species form a number of almost perfectly
-continuous series. At one extreme are species with large mouths, small
-scales, relatively smooth cranium, and long gill-rakers. At the other
-extreme are robust species, with the head very rough, the mouth
-moderate, the scales larger, and the gill-rakers short and thick. Still
-other species have slender cranial spines and spots of bright pink in
-certain specialized localities. These approach the genus _Helicolenus_
-as other species approach _Scorpæna_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 368.—Priest-fish, _Sebastodes mystinus_ Jordan & Gilbert.
-    Monterey, Cal.
-]
-
-The various species are known in California as rockfish, or rock-cod, in
-Japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they form a large part of the
-bulk of food-fishes, the flesh being rather coarse and of moderate
-flavor. All the species so far as known are ovoviviparous, the young
-being brought forth in summer in very great number, born at the length
-of about ¼ of an inch. The species living close to shore are brown,
-black, or green. Those living in deeper waters are bright red, and in
-still deeper waters often creamy or gray, with the lining of the mouth
-and the peritoneum black. The largest species reach a length of two or
-three feet, the smallest eight or ten inches. None are found between
-Lower California and Peru and none south of Nagasaki in Japan. Of the
-California species the following are of most note: _Sebastodes
-paucispinis_, the Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an
-elongate fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In
-deeper waters are _Sebastodes jordani_ and _Sebastodes goodei_, the
-former elongate and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright
-crimson color. _Sebastodes ovalis_, the viuva, and _Sebastodes
-entomelas_ are grayish in hue, and the related _Sebastodes proriger_ is
-red. The green rockfish _Sebastodes flavidus_ is common along the shore,
-as also the black rockfish, known as pêche prêtre or priestfish,
-_Sebastodes mystinus_. Less common is _Sebastodes melanops_. Similar to
-this but more orange in color is the large _Sebastodes miniatus_.
-Somewhat rougher-headed is the small grass rockfish, _Sebastodes
-atrovirens_. On the large red rockfish, _Sebastichthys ruberrimus_, the
-spinous ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large
-_Sebastichthys levis_ these ridges are smooth. Both these species are
-bright red in color. _Sebastichthys rubrovinctus_, called the
-Spanish-flag, is covered with broad alternating bands of deep crimson
-and creamy pink. It is the most handsomely colored of our marine fishes
-and is often taken in southern California. _Sebastichthys elongatus_ is
-a red species with very large mouth. Several other species small in size
-are red, with three or four spots of bright pink. The commonest of these
-is the corsair, _Sebastichthys rosaceus_, plain red and golden. Another
-species is the green and red flyfish, _Sebastichthys rhodochloris_.
-_Sebastichthys constellatus_ is spotted with pink and _Sebastichthys
-chlorostictus_ with green. To this group with pink spots the South
-American and African species belong, but none of the Japanese.
-_Sebastodes aleutianus_ is a large red species common in Alaska and
-_Sebastodes ciliatus_ a green one. About the wharves in California and
-northward the brown species called _Sebastichthys auriculatus_ is
-abundant. In the remaining species the spinous ridges are progressively
-higher, though not so sharp as in some of those already named.
-_Sebastichthys maliger_ has very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch
-on the back. In _Sebastichthys caurinus_ and especially _Sebastichthys
-vexillaris_ the spines are very high, but the coloration is different,
-being reddish brown. _Sebastichthys nebulosus_ is blue-black with golden
-spots. _Sebastichthys chrysomelas_ is mottled black and yellow.
-_Sebastichthys carnatus_ is flesh-color and green. _Sebastichthys
-rastrelliger_ is a small, blackish-green species looking like
-_Sebastodes atrovirens_, but with short gill-rakers. _Sebastichthys
-hopkinsi_ and _Sebastichthys gilberti_ are small species allied to it.
-The treefish, _Sebastichthys serriceps_, has very high spines on the
-head, and the olive body is crowned by broad black bands. Still more
-striking is the black-banded rockfish, _Sebastichthys nigrofasciatus_,
-with very rough head and bright red body with broad cross-bands of
-black.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 369.—_Sebastichthys serriceps_ Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey, Cal.
-]
-
-Of the Japanese species the commonest, _Sebastodes inermis_, the Mebaru,
-much resembles _Sebastodes flavidus_. _Sebastodes fuscescens_ looks like
-_Sebastodes melanops_, as does also _Sebastodes taczanowskii_.
-_Sebastodes matsubaræ_ and _S. flammeus_ and _S. iracundus_, bright-red
-off-shore species, run close to _Sebastodes aleutianus_. _Sebastichthys
-pachycephalus_ suggests _Sebastichthys chrysomelas_. _Sebastodes
-steindachneri_ and _S. itinus_ are brighter-colored allies of
-_Sebastodes ovalis_ and _Sebastodes scythropus_ and _Sebastodes joyneri_
-represent _Sebastodes proriger_. _Sebastichthys trivittatus_, green,
-striped with bright golden, bears some resemblance to _Sebastichthys
-maliger_. _Sebastichthys elegans_, _Sebastichthys oblongus_, and
-_Sebastichthys mitsukurii_, dwarf species, profusely spotted, have no
-analogues among the American forms. _Sebastodes glaucus_ of the Kurile
-Islands has 14 dorsal spines and is not closely related to any other.
-Fourteen dorsal spines are occasionally present in _Sebastichthys
-elegans_. All the other species show constantly 13.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 370.—Banded Rockfish, _Sebastichthys nigrocinctus_ (Ayres).
-    Straits of Fuca.
-]
-
-The genus _Sebastiscus_ has the general appearance of _Sebastodes_, and
-like the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It however agrees with
-_Scorpæna_ in the possession of but 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ.
-The two known species are common in Japan. _Sebastiscus marmoratus_,
-mottled brown, is everywhere abundant along the coast, and the pretty
-_Sebastiscus albofasciatus_, pink, violet, and golden, represents it in
-equal abundance in deeper water.
-
-The genus _Sebastopsis_ differs from _Sebastodes_ only in having no
-teeth on the palatines. The species, all of small size and red or varied
-coloration, are confined to the Pacific. _Sebastopsis xyris_ occurs in
-lower California and _Sebastopsis guamensis_ and _S. scaber_ in
-Polynesia. Species of this genus are often found dried in Chinese insect
-boxes.
-
-_Helicolenus_ differs from _Sebastiscus_ only in the total absence of
-air-bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very handsome,
-and live in deep water. _Helicolenus dactylopterus_ is rather common in
-the Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken in the Gulf Stream, and also
-in Japan, where two or three other species occur.
-
-_Neosebastes_ is much like _Sebastodes_, but the suborbital stay bears
-strong spines and the dorsal is very high. _Neosebastes panda_ is found
-in Australia, and _N. entaxis_ in Japan. _Setarches_ is distinguished by
-the cavernous bones of its head. Species are found in both the Atlantic
-and Pacific in deep water. Several other peculiar or transitional genera
-are found in different parts of the Pacific.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 371.—Florida Lion fish, _Scorpæna grandicornis_ Cuv. & Val. Key
-    West.
-]
-
-In _Scorpæna_ the head is more uneven in outline than in _Sebastodes_
-and _Sebastichthys_, skinny flaps are often present on head and body,
-the air-bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ,
-and on each dorsal spine is a small venom-secreting gland. The species
-are very numerous, highly varied in color, and found in all warm seas,
-being known as scorpion-fishes or _Rascacios_. Two species, _Scorpæna
-scrofa_ and _Scorpæna porcus_, are common in the Mediterranean, being
-regarded as good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen.
-
-Of the numerous West Indian species, _Scorpæna plumieri_, _Scorpæna
-grandicornis_, and _Scorpæna brasiliensis_ are best known. _Scorpæna
-guttata_ is common in southern California and is an excellent food-fish.
-_Scorpæna mystes_ is found on the west coast of Mexico. _Scorpæna
-onaria_ and _S. izensis_ are found in Japan. Fossil remains referred to
-_Scorpæna_ are recorded from the Tertiary rocks.
-
-In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species less than three
-inches long, which have been set apart as a separate genus,
-_Sebastapistes_. The longest known of these is _Sebastapistes
-strongensis_, named from Strong Island, abundant in crevices in the
-corals throughout Polynesia, and much disliked by fishermen.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Fig. 372._—Sea-scorpion, _Scorpæna mystes_ Jordan. Mazatlan.
-]
-
-The genus _Scorpænopsis_ differs from _Scorpæna_ in the absence of
-palatine teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color.
-_Scorpænopsis cirrhosa_, _Scorpænopsis fimbriata_, and other species are
-widely distributed through the East Indies and Polynesia.
-
-The lion-fishes (_Pterois_) of the tropical Pacific are remarkable for
-their long pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like
-coloration. The numerous species are fantastic and handsomely colored,
-but their poisoned, needle-like spines are dreaded by fishermen. They
-lurk in crevices in the coral reefs, some of them reaching a foot in
-length.
-
-_Inimicus japonicus_, common in Japan, has a depressed and monstrous
-head and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually black in color
-but is largely bright red when found among red algæ. A related species,
-_Inimicus aurantiacus_, is blackish when near shore, but lemon-yellow in
-deep water. (See frontispiece.) A related species in the East Indies is
-_Pelor filamentosum_, called _Nohu_ or _Gofu_ in Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 373.—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed),
-    _Pterois volitans_ (Linnæus). Family _Scorpænidæ_. (From a specimen
-    from Samoa.)
-]
-
-Still more monstrous are the species of _Synanceia_, short, thick-set,
-irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines reach a high
-degree of venom. The flesh in all these species is wholesome, and when
-the dorsal spines are cut off the fishes sell readily in the markets.
-These fishes lie hidden in cavities of the reefs, being scarcely
-distinguishable from the rock itself. (See Fig. 168, Vol. I.)
-
-The black _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_ of Tahiti lies in crevices of lava,
-and could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular lump of lava-rock.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 374.—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, _Emmydrichthys vulcanus_ Jordan.
-    A species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava
-    among which it lives. Family _Scorpænidæ_. From Tahiti.
-]
-
-A related form, _Erosa erosa_, the daruma-okose of Japan, is monstrous
-in form but often beautifully colored with crimson and gray.
-
-In _Congiopus_ the very strong dorsal spines begin in the head, and the
-mouth is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus the type of a distinct
-family, _Congiopodidæ_.
-
-Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison-fishes,
-called okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from Tokio to Hindostan
-and the Red Sea. Some of these are handsomely colored, others are
-fantastically formed. _Paracentropogon rubripinnis_ and _Minous adamsi_
-are the commonest species in Japan. _Trachicephalus uranoscopus_ abounds
-in the bays of hina. _Snyderina yamanokami_ occurs in Southern Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 375.—_Snyderina yamanokami_ Jordan & Starks. Family _Scorpænidæ_.
-    Satsuma, Japan.
-]
-
-But few fossil _Scorpænidæ_ are recorded. _Scorpænopterus siluridens_, a
-mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty head, seems to belong
-to this group, and _Ampheristus toliapicus_, with a broad, depressed
-head, is found in the London Eocene, and various Miocene species have
-been referred to _Scorpæna_. _Sebastodes rosæ_ is based on a fragment,
-probably Pleistocene, from Port Harford, California.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 376.—_Trachicephalus uranoscopus_. Family _Scorpænidæ_. From
-    Swatow, China.
-]
-
-The small family of the _Caracanthidæ_ consists of little fishes of the
-coral reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form, and the skin
-is rough with small prickles, the head being feebly armed. The species
-are rare and little known, brown in color with pale spots.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 377.—Skilfish, _Anoplopoma fimbria_ (Pallas). California.
-]
-
-=The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.=—The small family of skilfishes or
-_Anoplopomidæ_ consists of two species found on the coast of California
-and northward. These resemble the _Scorpænidæ_, having the usual form of
-nostrils, and the suborbital stay well developed. The skull is, however,
-free from spines, the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek,
-dark-colored body has suggested resemblance to the mackerel or hake.
-_Anoplopoma fimbria_, known as skilfish, beshow, or coalfish, is rather
-common from Unalaska to Monterey, reaching a length of two feet or more.
-In the north it becomes very fat and is much valued as food. About San
-Francisco it is dry and tasteless.
-
-=The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.=—The curious family of greenlings,
-_Hexagrammidæ_, is confined to the two shores of the North Pacific. The
-species vary much in form, but agree in the unarmed cranium and in the
-presence of but a single nostril on each side, the posterior opening
-being reduced to a minute pore. The vertebræ are numerous, the scales
-small, and the coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous
-and usually valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks in
-California and Japan and along the shores of Siberia and Alaska. The
-atka-fish (_Pleurogrammus monopterygius_) is one of the finest of
-food-fishes. This species reaches a length of eighteen inches. It is
-yellow in color, banded with black, and the flesh is white and tender,
-somewhat like that of the Lake whitefish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_), and
-is especially fine when salted. This fish is found about the Aleutian
-Islands, especially the island of Atka, from which it takes its name. It
-is commercially known as Atka mackerel.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 378.—Atka-fish, _Pleurogrammus monopterygius_ (Pallas). Atka
-    Island.
-]
-
-In this genus there are numerous lateral lines, and the dorsal fin is
-continuous. In _Hexagrammos_, the principal genus of the family, the
-dorsal is divided into two fins, and there are about five lateral lines
-on each side.
-
-_Hexagrammos decagrammus_ is common on the coast of California, where it
-is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout. It is a well-known
-food-fish, reaching a length of eighteen inches. The sexes are quite
-unlike in color, the males anteriorly with blue spots, the females
-speckled with red or brown.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 379.—Greenling, _Hexagrammos decagrammus_ (Pallas). Sitka.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 380.—Cultus Cod, _Ophiodon elongatus_ (Girard). Sitka, Alaska.
-]
-
-_Hexagrammos octogrammus_, the common greenfish of Alaska, and the
-greenling _Hexagrammos stelleri_, are also well-known species. Close to
-the latter species is the _Abura ainame_, or fat cod, _Hexagrammos
-otakii_, common throughout Japan. The red rock-trout, _Hexagrammos
-superciliosus_, is beautifully variegated with red, the color being
-extremely variable. Other species are found in Japan and Kamchatka.
-_Agrammus agrammus_ of Japan differs in the possession of but one
-lateral line. _Ophiodon elongatus_, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo
-cod of California, is a large fish of moderate value as food, much
-resembling a codfish, but with larger mouth and longer teeth. The flesh
-and bones are deeply tinged with bluish green. _Cultus_ is the Chinook
-name for worthless. _Zaniolepis latipinnis_ is a singular-looking fish,
-very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally taken on the California coast.
-_Oxylebius pictus_ is a small, handsome, and very active little fish,
-whitish with black bands, common among rocks and algæ on the California
-coast. It is, however, rarely brought into the markets, as it shows
-great skill in escaping the nets.
-
-No fossil _Hexagrammidæ_ are known.
-
-=The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.=—The family of _Platycephalidæ_
-consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened, rough heads and the
-body covered with small, rough scales. About fifty species occur in the
-East Indian region, where the larger ones are much valued as food. The
-most abundant species and usually the largest in size is _Platycephalus
-insidiator_, the kochi of the Japanese. The genus _Insidiator_ contains
-smaller species with larger scales. In all these the head is very much
-depressed, a feature which separates them from all the _Scorpænidæ_.
-_Hoplichthys langsdorfi_, the nezupo or rat-tail of Japan, is the type
-of a separate family, _Hoplichthyidæ_, characterized by a bony armature
-of rough plates. _Bembras japonicas_, another little Japanese fish, with
-the ventrals advanced in position and the skin with rough plates, is the
-type of the family of _Bembradidæ_.
-
-=The Sculpins: Cottidæ.=—The great family of _Cottidæ_ or sculpins is
-one especially characteristic of the northern seas, where a great
-variety of species is found. These differ in general from the
-_Scorpænidæ_, from which they are perhaps derived, in the greater number
-of vertebræ and in the relative feebleness or degeneration of the
-spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and the scales. In all these regards great
-variation exists. In the most primitive genus, _Jordania_, the body is
-well scaled, the spinous dorsal well developed, and the ventral rays I,
-5. In _Hemitripterus_ a large number of dorsal spines remains, but the
-structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most degraded
-types, _Cottunculus_, _Psychrolutes_, _Gilbertidia_, which are also
-among the most specialized, there is little trace of spinous dorsal, the
-scales are wholly lost, and the ventral fin is incomplete. Most of the
-species of _Cottidæ_ live on the bottom in shallow seas. Some are found
-in deep water and a few swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or
-subarctic, none being found to the south of Italy, Virginia, California,
-and Japan. None are valued as food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely any
-are found fossil.
-
-Of the multitude of genera of _Cottidæ_ we notice a few of the most
-prominent. _Jordania zonope_, a pretty little fish of Puget Sound, is
-the most primitive in its characters, being closely allied to the
-_Hexagrammidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 381.—_Jordania zonope_ Starks. Puget Sound.
-]
-
-_Scorpænichthys marmoratus_, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of
-California reaches a length of 2½ feet. It has the ventral rays I, 5,
-although almost in all the other sculpins the rays are reduced to I, 3
-or I, 4. The flesh has the livid blue color seen in the cultus cod
-_Ophiodon elongatus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 382.—_Astrolytes notospilotus_ (Girard). Puget Sound.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 383.—Irish Lord, _Hemilepidotus jordani_ Bean. Unalaska.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 384.—_Triglops pingeli_ Kröyer. Chebucto, Canada.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 335.—Buffalo Sculpin, _Enophrys bison_ (Girard). Puget Sound.
-]
-
-To _Icelinus_, _Artedius_, _Hemilepidotus_, _Astrolytes_, and related
-genera belong many species with the body partly scaled. These are
-characteristic of the North Pacific, in which they drop to a
-considerable depth. _Icelus_, _Triglops_, and _Artediellus_ are found
-also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of which is derived almost
-entirely from Pacific sources. The genus _Hemilepidotus_ contains coarse
-species, with bands of scales. The "Irish lord," _Hemilepidotus
-jordani_, a familiar and fantastic inhabitant of Bering Sea, is much
-valued by the Aleuts as a food-fish, although the flesh is rather tough
-and without much flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is the red
-sculpin, _Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus_, and the still rougher
-_Ceratocottus diceraus_. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin,
-_Enophrys bison_, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the
-preopercle, is found about Puget Sound and southward. In all these large
-rough species from the North Pacific the preopercle is armed with long
-spines which are erected when the fish is disturbed. This makes it
-almost impossible for any larger fish to swallow them.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 386.—_Ceratocottus diceraus_ (Cuv. & Val.). Tolstoi Bay, Alaska.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 387.—_Elanura forficata_ Gilbert. Bering Sea.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 388.—Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, _Cottus punctulatus_ (Gill).
-    Yellowstone River.
-]
-
-The genera _Cottus_ and _Uranidea_ include the miller's thumbs, also
-called in America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern rivers. These
-little fishes are found in Europe, Asia, and America wherever trout are
-found. They lurk under weeds and stones, moving with the greatest
-swiftness when disturbed. They are found in every cold stream of the
-region north of Virginia, and they vie with the sticklebacks in their
-destruction of the eggs and fry of salmon and trout. _Cottus gobio_ is
-the commonest species of Europe. _Cottus ictalops_ is the most abundant
-of the several species of the eastern United States, and _Cottus asper_
-in streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many other species exist in
-each of these regions. The genus _Uranidea_ is found in America. It is
-composed of smaller species with fewer teeth and fin-rays, the ventrals
-I, 3. _Uranidea gracilis_ is the commonest of these, the miller's thumb
-of New England. _Rheopresbe fujiyamæ_ is a large river sculpin in Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 389.—Miller's Thumb, _Uranidea tenuis_ Evermann & Meek. Klamath
-    Falls.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 390.—_Cottus evermanni_ Gilbert. Lost River, Oregon.
-]
-
-_Trachidermus ansatus_ is another river species, the "mountain-witch"
-(yamanokami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet brand on its cheek,
-conspicuous in life.
-
-The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is _Myoxocephalus_, containing
-large marine species, in structure much like the species of _Cottus_.
-_Myoxocephalus bubalis_ is the European fatherlasher, or proach; the
-European sculpin is _Myoxocephalus scorpius_. The very similar daddy
-sculpin of New England is _Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus_. This species
-swarms everywhere from Cape Cod northward.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 391.—California Miller's Thumb, _Cottus gulosus_ Girard. McCloud
-    River, Cal. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
-]
-
-According to Fabricius, _Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus_ is "abundant in all
-the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a stony coast clothed with
-seaweed. It approaches the shore in spring and departs in winter. It is
-very voracious, preying on everything that comes in its way and pursuing
-incessantly the smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species,
-and devouring crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does
-not come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of other
-fish. It spawns in December and January and deposits its red-colored roe
-on the seaweed. It is easily taken with a bait, and constitutes the
-daily food of the Greenlanders, who are very fond of it. They eat the
-roe raw."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 392.—Pribilof Sculpin, _Myoxocephalus niger_ (Bean). St. Paul
-    Island, Bering Sea.
-]
-
-The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is
-_Myoxocephalus æneus_, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is
-_Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus_. Still more numerous and varied are
-the sculpins of the North Pacific, _Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus_
-being the best known and most widely diffused. _Oncocottus quadricornis_
-is the long-horned sculpin of the Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of
-Russia and British America. _Triglopsis thompsoni_ of the depths in our
-own Great Lakes seems to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of
-_Oncocottus_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 393.—18-spined Sculpin, _Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus_
-    (Mitchill). Beasley Point, N. J.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 394.—_Oncocottus quadricornis_ (L.). St. Michael, Alaska.
-]
-
-The genus _Zesticelus_ contains small soft-bodied sculpins from the
-depths of the North Pacific. _Zesticelus profundorum_ was taken in 664
-fathoms off Bogoslof Island and _Zesticelus bathybius_ off Japan. In
-this genus the body is very soft and the skeleton feeble, the result of
-deep-sea life. Another deep-water genus less degraded is _Cottunculus_,
-from which by gradual loss of fins the still more degraded
-_Psychrolutes_ (_paradoxus_) and _Gilbertidia_ (_sigolutes_) are perhaps
-descended. In sculpins of this type the liparids, or sea-snails, may
-have had their origin. Among the remaining genera _Gymnocanthus_
-(_tricuspis_, etc.) has no vomerine teeth. _Leptocottus_ (_armatus_) and
-_Clinocottus_ (_analis_) abound on the coast of California, and
-_Pseudoblennius_ (_percoides_) is found everywhere along the shores of
-Japan. _Vellitor centropomus_ of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for
-its compressed body and long snout. _Dialarchus snyderi_ of the
-California rock-pools is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin,
-_Blepsias_ (_cirrhosus_), _Nautichthys_ (_oculofasciatus_), and
-_Hemitripterus_ (_americanus_), the sea-raven, among the most fantastic.
-In the last-named genus the spinous dorsal is many-rayed, as in
-_Scorpænidæ_, a fact which has led to its separation by Dr. Gill as a
-distinct family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in
-_Jordania_, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid series.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 395.—_Blepsias cirrhosus_ Pallas. Straits of Fuca.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 396.—Sea raven, _Hemitripterus americanus_ (Gmelin). Halifax,
-    Nova Scotia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 397.—_Oligocottus maculosus_ Girard. Sitka.
-]
-
-In _Ascelichthys_ (_rhodorus_), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools of
-the Oregon region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. _Ereunias
-grallator_, a deep-water sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and with
-free rays below its pectorals, should perhaps represent a distinct
-family, _Ereuniidæ_.
-
-The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in _Psychrolutes_ and
-_Gilbertidia_ of the North Pacific has been already noticed. These
-genera seem to lead directly from _Cottunculus_ to _Liparis_.
-
-Fossil _Cottidæ_ are few. _Eocottus veronensis_, from the Eocene of
-Monte Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays I, 5. It is
-apparently related to _Jordania_, but is still more primitive.
-_Lepidocottus_ (_aries_ and numerous other species, mostly from the
-Miocene) is covered with scales, but apparently has less than five soft
-rays in the ventrals. Remains of _Oncocottus_, _Icelus_, and _Cottus_
-are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The family as a whole is
-evidently of recent date.
-
-The _Rhamphocottidæ_ consist of a single little sculpin with a large
-bony and singularly formed head, found on the Pacific Coast from Sitka
-to Monterey. The species is called _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_.
-
-=The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.=—The sea-poachers or alligator-fishes,
-_Agonidæ_, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by a series of
-overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or the catfishes of
-the family _Loricariidæ_. So far as structure goes, these singular
-fishes are essentially like the _Cottidæ_, but with a different and more
-perfect armature. The many species belong chiefly to the North Pacific,
-a few in the Atlantic and on the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in
-considerable depth of water. All are too small to have value as food and
-some have most fantastic forms. Only a few of the most prominent need be
-noticed. The largest and most peculiar species is _Percis japonicus_ of
-the Kurile Islands. Still more fantastic is the Japanese _Draciscus
-sachi_ with sail-like dorsal and anal. _Agonus cataphractus_, the
-sea-poacher, is the only European species. _Podothecus acipenserinus_,
-the alligator-fish, is the commonest species of the North Pacific.
-_Pallasina barbata_ is as slender as a pipefish, with a short beard at
-the chin. _Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ of the Atlantic and other
-similar species of the Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 398.—_Ereunias grallator_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 399.—Sleek Sculpin, _Psychrolutes paradoxus_ (Günther). Puget
-    Sound.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 400.—_Gilbertidia sigolutes_ (Jordan). Puget Sound.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 401.—Richardson's Sculpin, _Rhamphocottus richardsoni_ (Günther).
-    Puget Sound.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 402.—_Stelgis vulsus_ (Jordan & Gilbert). Point Reyes, Cal.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 403.—_Draciscus sachi_ Jordan & Snyder. Family _Agonidæ_. Aomori,
-    Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 404.—Agonoid-fish, _Pallasina barbata_ (Steindachner). Port
-    Mulgrave, Alaska.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 405.—_Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ (Bloch). Halifax.
-]
-
-No fossil _Agonidæ_ are known.
-
-=The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.=—The lump-suckers, _Cyclopteridæ_, are
-structurally very similar to the _Cottidæ_, but of very different habit,
-the body being clumsy and the movements very slow. The ventral fins are
-united to form a sucking disk by which these sluggish fishes hold fast
-to rocks. The skeleton is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly
-or partly lost, the skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender
-suborbital stay indicates the relation of these fishes with the
-_Cottidæ_. The species are chiefly Arctic, the common lumpfish or "cock
-and hen paddle," _Cyclopterus lumpus_, abounding on both shores of the
-North Atlantic. It reaches a length of twenty inches, spawning in
-eel-grass where the male is left to watch the eggs. _Cyclopterichthys
-ventricosus_ is a large species with smooth skin from the North Pacific.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 406.—Lumpfish, _Cyclopterus lumpus_ (Linnæus). Eastport, Me.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 407.—Liparid, _Crystallias matsushimæ_, (Jordan and Snyder).
-    Family _Liparididæ_. Matsushima Bay, Japan.
-]
-
-=The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.=—The sea-snails, _Liparididæ_ are closely
-related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate, tadpole
-shaped, covered with very lax skin, like the "wrinkled skin on scalded
-milk." In structure the liparids are still more degenerate than the
-lumpfishes. Even the characteristic ventral disk is lost in some species
-(_Paraliparis_; _Amitra_) and in numerous others the tail is drawn out
-into a point (leptocercal), a character almost always a result of
-degradation. The dorsal spines are wanting or imbedded in the loose
-skin, and all trace of spines on the head is lost, but the
-characteristic suborbital stay is well developed. The numerous species
-are all small, three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic
-waters, often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very
-soft. One genus, _Enantioliparis_, is found in the Antarctic. In the
-principal genus, _Liparis_, the ventral disk is well developed, and the
-spinous dorsal obsolete. _Liparis liparis_ is found on both shores of
-the North Atlantic, and is subject to large variations in color.
-_Liparis agassizi_ is abundant in Japan and northward, and _Liparis
-pulchellus_ in California. In the most primitive genus, _Neoliparis_, a
-notch in the fin indicates the separation of the spinous dorsal.
-_Neoliparis montagui_ is common in Europe, replaced in New England by
-_Neoliparis atlanticus_. _Careproctus_, with numerous elongate species,
-inhabits depths of the North Pacific. In _Paraliparis_ (or
-_Hilgendorfia_) _ulochir_, the ventral disk is gone and the lowest stage
-of degradation of the Loricate or _Scorpæna-Cottus_ type of fishes is
-reached. No fossil lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although
-remains of _Cyclopterus lumpus_ are found in nodules of glacial clay in
-Canada.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 408.—Snailfish, _Neoliparis mucosus_ (Ayres). San Francisco.
-]
-
-=The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.=—The family of _Comephoridæ_ includes
-_Comephorus baikalensis_, a large fresh-water fish of Lake Baikal in
-Siberia, having no near affinities with any other existing fish, but now
-known to be a mail-cheek fish related to the _Cottidæ_. The body is
-elongate, naked, with soft flesh and feeble skeleton. The mouth is
-large, with small teeth, and the skull has a cavernous structure. There
-are no ventral fins. The spinous dorsal is short and low, the second
-dorsal and anal many-rayed, and the pectoral fins are excessively long,
-almost wing-like; the vertebræ number 8 + 35 = 43, and unlike most
-fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-bladder. Little is known of
-the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is recently described
-under the name of _Cottocomephorus_.
-
-=Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.=—A remarkable offshoot from
-the _Pareioplitæ_ is the suborder of gurnards, known as _Craniomi_
-(κράνιον, skull; ὤμος, shoulder). In these fishes the suborbital stay is
-highly developed, much as in the _Agonidæ_, bony externally and covering
-the cheeks. The shoulder-girdle is distorted, the post-temporal being
-solidly united to the cranium, while the postero-temporal is crowded out
-of place by the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes
-resemble the other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps
-closest with the _Agonidæ_ or certain aberrant _Cottidæ_ as _Ereunias_.
-
-In the true gurnards or _Triglidæ_ the head is rough and bony, the body
-covered with rough scales and below the pectoral fin are three free rays
-used as feelers by the fish as it creeps along the bottom. These free
-rays are used in turning over stones, exploring shells and otherwise
-searching for food. The numerous species are found in the warm seas. In
-Europe, the genus _Trigla_, without palatine teeth and with the lateral
-line armed, is represented by numerous well-known species. _Trigla
-cuculus_ is a common form of the Mediterranean. _Chelidonichthys_,
-similar to _Trigla_ but larger and less fully armed, is found in Asia as
-well as in Europe. Several species occur in the Mediterranean.
-_Chelidonichthys kumu_ is a common species in Japan, a large fish with
-pectorals of a very brilliant variegated blue, like the wings of certain
-butterflies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 409.—Sea-robin, _Prionotus evolans_ (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-_Lepidotrigla_, with larger scales, has many species on the coasts of
-Europe as well as in China and Japan. _Lepidotrigla alata_, a red fish
-with a peculiar bony, forked snout, is common in Japan. The American
-species of gurnards, having teeth on the palatine, belong to the genus
-_Prionotus_. Northward these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the
-shores in shallow water. In the tropics they descend to deeper water,
-assuming a red color. _Prionotus carolinus_ is the commonest species in
-New England. _Prionotus strigatus_, the striped sea-robin, and
-_Prionotus tribulus_, the rough-headed sea-robin, are common species
-along the Carolina coast. None have much value as food, being dry and
-bony. Numerous fossil species referred to Trigla are found in the
-Miocene. _Podopteryx_, from the Italian Miocene, with small pectorals
-and very large ventrals, perhaps belongs also to this family, but its
-real affinities are unknown.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 410.—Flying Gurnard, _Cephalacanthus volitans_ (L.). Virginia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 411.—_Peristedion miniatum_ Goode & Bean. Depths of the Gulf
-    Stream.
-]
-
-=The Peristediidæ.=—The _Peristediidæ_ are deep-water sea-robins, much
-depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail, and two free feelers on
-the pectoral fin instead of three. The species of _Peristedion_ are
-occasionally taken with the dredge. _Peristedion cataphractum_ is rather
-common in Europe. The extinct _Peristedion urcianense_ is described from
-the Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany.
-
-=The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.=—The flying gurnards,
-_Cephalacanthidæ_, differ in numerous respects and are among the most
-fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head is short and bony, the body
-covered with firm scales, and the very long, wing-like pectoral fin is
-divided into two parts, the posterior and larger almost as long as the
-rest of the body. This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish
-red. The first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more
-or less prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much alike,
-ranging widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight power of
-flight. The flying robin, or batfish, called in Spanish volador or
-murcielago, _Cephalacanthus volitans_, is common on both coasts of the
-Atlantic, reaching a length of eighteen inches. _Cephalacanthus
-peterseni_ is found in Japan and _Cephalacanthus orientalis_ in the East
-Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The immature fishes have the pectoral fins
-much shorter than in the adult, and differ in other regards.
-_Cephalacanthus pliocenicus_ occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Orciano,
-Tuscany.
-
-_Petalopteryx syriacus_, an extinct flying gurnard found in the
-Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, is an ally of _Cephalacanthus_. The body is
-covered with four-angled bony plates, and the first (free) spine of the
-dorsal is enlarged.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXVI
-                 GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI
-
-
-=SUBORDER Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.=—The great family of
-_Gobiidæ_, having no near relations among the spiny-rayed fishes, may be
-here treated as forming a distinct suborder.
-
-The chief characteristics of the family are the following: The ventral
-fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine and five soft rays,
-in some cases reduced to four, but never wanting. The ventral fins are
-inserted very close together, the inner rays the longest, and in most
-cases the two fins are completely joined, forming a single roundish fin,
-which may be used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The
-shoulder-girdle is essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is
-usually depressed, the bones being without serrature. There is no
-lateral line, the gill-openings are restricted to the sides, and the
-spinous dorsal is always small, of feeble spines, and is sometimes
-altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the preopercle. The small
-pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebræ usually in normal number, 10
-+ 14 = 24.
-
-The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and temperate zones,
-being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and bays, never far out in the
-sea, and usually in shallow water. Many of them burrow in the mud
-between or below tide-marks. Others live in swift waters like the
-darters, which they much resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or
-two, but most of the species rarely exceed three inches, and some of
-them are mature at half an inch.
-
-The largest species, _Philypnus dormitor_, the guavina de rio, is found
-in the rivers of Mexico and the West Indies. It reaches a length of
-nearly two feet and is valued as food. Unlike most of the others, in
-this species there are teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the
-subfamily of _Eleotrinæ_, having the ventral fins separate, are
-_Eleotris pisonis_, a common river-fish everywhere in tropical America;
-_Eleotris fusca_, a river-fish abounding from Tahiti and Samoa to
-Hindostan; _Dormitator maculatus_, the stout-bodied guavina-mapo of the
-West Indian regions, with the form of a small carp. _Guavina guavina_ of
-Cuba is another species of this type, and numerous other species having
-separate ventrals are found in the East Indies, the West Indies, and in
-the islands of Polynesia. Some species, as _Valenciennesia strigata_ of
-the East Indies and _Vireosa hanæ_ of Japan, are very gracefully
-colored. One genus, _Eviota_, is composed of numerous species, all
-minute, less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in
-coral-heads. _Eviota epiphanes_ is found in Hawaii, the others farther
-south. _Hypseleotris guntheri_, of the rivers and springs of Polynesia,
-swims freely in the water, like a minnow, never hugging the bottom as
-usual among gobies.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 412.—Guavina de Rio, _Philypnus dormitor_ (Bloch & Schneider).
-    Puerto Rico.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 413.—Dormeur, _Eleotris pisonis_ Gmelin. Tortugas, Fla.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 414.—Guavina mapo, _Dormitator maculatus_ (Schneider). Puerto
-    Rico.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 415.—_Vireosa hanæ_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 416.—Esmeralda de Mar, _Gobionellus oceanicus_ (Pallas). Puerto
-    Rico.
-]
-
-Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can mention but a
-few of the myriad forms, different species being abundant alike in fresh
-and salt waters in all warm regions. In Europe _Gobius jozo_, _Gobius
-ophiocephalus_, and many others are common species. The typical genus
-_Gobius_ is known by its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken
-free rays on the upper part of the pectoral fin. _Mapo soporator_ swarms
-about coral reefs in both Indies. _Gobionellus oceanicus_, the esmeralda
-or emerald-fish, is notable for its slender body and the green spot over
-its tongue. _Gobiosoma alepidotum_ and other species are scaleless.
-_Barbulifer ceuthœcus_ lives in the cavities of sponges. _Coryphopterus
-similis_, a small goby, swarms in almost every brook of Japan. The
-species of _Pterogobius_ are beautifully colored, banded with white or
-black, or striped with red or blue. _Pterogobius virgo_ and _Pterogobius
-daimio_ of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of
-_Cryptocentrus_ are also very prettily colored.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 417.—_Pterogobius daimio_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 418.—Darter Goby, _Aboma etheostoma_ Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex.
-]
-
-Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is the long-jawed
-goby, _Gillichthys mirabilis_. In this species the upper jaw is greatly
-prolonged, longer than the head, as in _Opisthognathus_ and _Neoclinus_.
-In the "American Naturalist" for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says
-of the long-jawed goby:
-
-"I call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity consists in its
-tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw, and so has an
-alligator, and it is not unlikely that the title will call up in the
-minds of some who read this the idea of a terrible mouth, armed with a
-bristling row of teeth. This would be a great mistake, for our little
-fish has no teeth worth bragging about, and does not open his mouth any
-wider than a well-behaved fish should do. The great difference between
-his long jaws and those of a garpike is that the latter's project
-forward, while those of our goby are prolonged backward immensely.
-
-"The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Bay of
-San Diego, among seaweed growing on small stones at the wharf, and in
-such position that it must have been out of the water from three to six
-hours daily, though kept moist by the seaweed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 419.—Long-jawed Goby. _Gillichthys mirabilis_ Cooper. Santa
-    Barbara.
-]
-
-"On a recent occasion a single _Gillichthys_, much larger than any of
-the original types, was presented by a gentleman who said that the fish,
-which was new to him, was abundant upon his ranch in Richardson's Bay,
-in the northern part of the Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug
-them up and ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked,
-and found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels. The
-twelfth specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest of natural
-science. This gentleman had the opportunity of observing something of
-the mode of life of these fishes, and informed us that their holes,
-excavated in the muddy banks of tidal creeks, increase in size as they
-go downward, so that the lower portion is below the water-level, or at
-least sufficiently low to be kept wet by the percolation from the
-surrounding mud.
-
-"When the various specimens now acquired were placed side by side, the
-difference in the relative length of their jaws was very conspicuous,
-for while in the smallest it was about one-fifth of the total length, in
-the largest it exceeded one-third.
-
-"As the fish had now been found in two places in the bay, I thought I
-would try to find it also, and to this end sallied out one morning,
-armed with a spade, and commenced prospecting in a marsh at Berkeley,
-not far from the State University. For a long time I was unsuccessful,
-as I did not know by what outward signs their habitations could be
-distinguished, and the extent of mud-bank left bare by the retreating
-tide was, as compared with my powers of delving, practically limitless.
-
-"At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a small creek, in
-a stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of about a foot below a
-small puddle, I found five small fishes, which at first I believed to
-belong to an undescribed species, so little did they resemble the
-typical _G. mirabilis_, but which proved, upon a closer examination, to
-be the young of that species. There was the depressed, broad head, the
-funnel-shaped ventral 'disk' formed by the union of the two ventral
-fins, and the compressed tail of the long-jawed goby, but where were the
-long jaws? The jaws were, of course, in their usual place, but their
-prolongations had only just begun to grow along the sides of the head,
-and were not noticeable unless looked for. A comparison of the various
-specimens proved conclusively that the strange-looking appendage is
-developed during the growth of the fish, as will be seen by the
-following measurements of four individuals:
-
-"In the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends beyond the
-orbit for a distance about equal to that which intervenes between the
-anterior margin of the orbit and the tip of the snout; in No. 2 it
-reaches to the posterior margin of the preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends
-level with the gill-opening; while in the largest individual it passes
-the origin of the pectoral and ventral fins.
-
-"What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage, which is
-not attached to the head except where it joins the mouth, and which,
-from its gradual development and ultimate large dimensions, must
-certainly serve some useful purpose?
-
-"Do not understand that I mean that every part of a creature is of use
-to it in its present mode of life, for, as all naturalists know, there
-are in structural anatomy, just as in social life, cases of _survival_;
-remains of organs which were at some former time more developed,
-parallel in their nature to such survivals in costume as the two buttons
-on the back of a man's coat, once useful for the attachment of a
-sword-belt. But in this fish we have no case of survival, but one of
-unusual development; the family (_Gobiidæ_) to which it belongs presents
-no similar case, although its members have somewhat similar habits, and
-the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the subject, that the long
-jaws serve some useful purpose in the economy of the creature. In view
-of the half-terrestrial life led by this fish, I am inclined to suspect
-that the expansion of the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a
-small quantity of water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth
-and gills, keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a
-dry season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several
-hours, to reach the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be objected
-to this view that, were such an appendage necessary or even useful,
-other species of _Gobiidæ_, whose habits are similar, would show traces
-of a similar adaptation. This, however, by no means follows. Nature has
-many ways of working out the same end; and it must be remembered that
-every real species, when thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits
-from its congeners, or at least from its family friends. To take an
-illustration from the mammalia. The chimpanzee and the spider-monkey are
-both quadrumanous and both arboreal, yet the end which is attained in
-the former by its more perfect hands is reached in the latter by its
-prehensile tail.
-
-"Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the jaw of this rather
-abnormal member of the goby family be another mode of provision for the
-requirements of respiration?"
-
-Of the Asiatic genera, _Periophthalmus_ and _Boleophthalmus_ are
-especially notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are raised on a short
-stalk, the fins are strong, and the animal has the power of skipping
-along over the wet sands and mud, even skimming with great speed over
-the surface of the water. It chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves,
-and weeds, and out of the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species
-of these mud-skippers are known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia,
-_Periophthalmus barbarus_ and _Boleophthalmus chinensis_ being the best
-known. _Awaous crassilabris_ is the common oopu, or river goby, of the
-Hawaiian streams, and _Lentipes stimpsoni_ is the mountain oopu, capable
-of clinging to the rocks in the rush of torrents. _Paragobiodon
-echinocephalus_ is a short thick-set goby with very large head, found in
-crevices of coral reefs of Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 420.—Pond-skipper, _Boleophthalmus chinensis_ (Osbeck). Bay of
-    Tokyo, Japan. (Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 421.—Mud-skippy, _Periophthalmus oarbarus_ (L.). Mouth of
-    Vaisigono River, Apia, Samoa.
-]
-
-In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting or much
-reduced. The crystal goby, _Crystallogobius nilssoni_, of Europe is one
-of this type, with the body translucent. Equally translucent is the
-little Japanese shiro-uwo, or whitefish, _Leucopsarion petersi_.
-_Mistichthys luzonius_ of the Philippine Islands, another diaphanous
-goby, is said to be the smallest of all vertebrates, being mature at
-half an inch in length. This minute fish is so very abundant as to
-become an important article of food in Luzon. The rank of
-"smallest-known vertebrate" has been claimed in turn for the lancelet
-(_Asymmetron lucayanum_), the top minnow, _Heterandria formosa_, and the
-dwarf sunfish (_Elassoma zonatum_). _Mistichthys luzonius_ is smaller
-than any of these, but the diminutive gobies, called _Eviota_, found in
-interstices of coral rocks are equally small, and there are several
-brilliant but minute forms in the reefs of Samoa. The snake-like
-_Eutæniichthys gilli_ of Japanese rivers is scarcely larger, though over
-an inch long. _Typhlogobius californiensis_, "the blindfish of Point
-Loma," is a small goby, colorless and blind, found clinging in dark
-crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead Man's Island in southern
-California.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 422.—_Eutæniichthys gillii_ Jordan & Snyder. Tokyo, Japan.
-]
-
-Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being evidently
-associated with the peculiar habit of the species, which clings to the
-under side of stones in relative darkness, though in very shallow water.
-The flesh is also colorless, the animal appearing pink in life.
-
-In the Japanese species _Luciogobus guttatus_, common under stones and
-along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numerous other species,
-finally vanishes altogether. Other gobies are band-shaped or eel-shaped,
-the dorsal spines being continuous with the soft rays. Among these are
-the barreto of Cuba, _Gobioides broussoneti_, and in Japan _Tænioides
-lacepedei_ and _Trypauchen wakæ_, the latter species remarkable for its
-strong canines. Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few fragments,
-otoliths, and partial skeletons in southern Europe have been referred to
-_Gobius_, but no other genus is represented.
-
-The family of _Oxudercidæ_ contains one species, _Oxuderces dentatus_, a
-small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate fish, without ventral
-fins, and with very short dorsal and anal.
-
-=Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.=—Next to the
-gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the singular group of
-_Discocephali_ (δίσκος, disk; κεφαλή, head). In this group the first
-dorsal fin is transformed into a peculiar laminated sucking-disk, which
-covers the whole top of the head and the nape. In other respects the
-structure does not diverge very widely from the percoid type, there
-being a remarkable resemblance in external characters to the Scombroid
-genus _Rachycentron_. But the skeleton shows no special affinity to
-_Rachycentron_ or to any perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is
-simple, and in the depression of the head with associated modifications
-the _Discocephali_ approach the gobies and blennies rather than the
-mackerel-like forms.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 423.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, _Leptecheneis naucrates_
-    (Linnæus). Virginia.
-]
-
-The _Discocephali_ comprise the single family of shark-suckers or
-remoras, the _Echeneididæ_. All the species of this group are pelagic
-fishes, widely diffused in the warm seas. All cling by their cephalic
-disks to sharks, barracudas, and other free-swimming fishes, and are
-carried about the seas by these. They do not harm the shark except by
-slightly impeding its movement. They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on
-sardines, young herring, and the like. When a shark, taken on the hook,
-is drawn out of the water the sucking-fish leaves it instantly, and is
-capable of much speed in swimming on its own account. These fishes are
-all dusky in color, the belly as dark as the back, so as to form little
-contrast to the color of the shark.
-
-The commonest species, _Leptecheneis naucrates_, called pegapega or
-pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet and is almost
-cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively on the larger sharks,
-notably on _Carcharias lamia_. It has 20 to 22 plates in its disk, and
-the sides are marked by a dusky lateral band.
-
-Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora, or shark-sucker
-(_Echeneis remora_), with a stouter body and about 18 plates in the
-cephalic disk. This species is found in Europe, on the coast of New
-York, in the West Indies, in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere
-abundant. Another widely distributed species is _Remorina albescens_
-with 13 plates in its disk. _Remoropsis brachyptera_, with 15 plates and
-a long soft dorsal, is also occasionally taken. _Rhombochirus osteochir_
-is a rare species of the Atlantic with 18 plates, having the pectoral
-rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish (_Phtheirichthys lineatus_)
-is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates in its disk. It is
-found attached, not to sharks, but to barracudas and spearfishes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 424.—_Rhombochirus osteochir_ (Cuv. & Val.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in Glarus,
-Switzerland, under the name of _Opisthomyzon glaronensis_. It is
-characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted. Its vertebræ are
-10 + 13 = 24 only. Dr. Storms gives the following account of this
-species:
-
-"A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts of the skeleton
-of the fossil _Echeneis_ with those of the living forms, such as
-_Echeneis naucrates_ or _Echeneis remora_, shows that the fossil differs
-nearly equally from both, and that it was a more normally shaped fish
-than either of these forms. The head was narrower and less flattened,
-the preoperculum wider, but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The
-ribs, as also the neural and hæmal spines, were longer, the tail more
-forked, and the soft dorsal fin much longer. In fact it was a more
-compressed type, probably a far better swimmer than its living
-congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of the adhesive disk is
-taken into account."
-
-Concerning the relations of the _Discocephali_ Dr. Gill has the
-following pertinent remarks:
-
-"The family of _Scomberoides_ was constituted by Cuvier for certain
-forms of known organization, among which were fishes evidently related
-to _Caranx_, but which had free dorsal spines. Dr. Günther conceived the
-idea of disintegrating this family because, _inter alias_, the typical
-_Scomberoides_ (family _Scombridæ_) have more than 24 vertebræ and
-others (family _Carangidæ_) had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to
-the relationship of _Elacate_ (_Rachycentron_) was repeated, but
-inasmuch as it had 'more than 24 vertebræ' (it had 25 = 12 + 13) it was
-severed from the free-spined _Carangidæ_ and associated with the
-_Scombridæ_. _Elacate_ has an elongated body, flattened head, and a
-longitudinal lateral band; therefore _Echeneis_ was considered to be
-next allied to _Elacate_ and to belong to the same family. The very
-numerous differences in structure between the two were entirely ignored,
-and the reference of the _Echeneis_ to the _Scombridæ_ is simply due to
-assumption piled on assumption. The collocation need not, therefore,
-longer detain us. The possession by _Echeneis_ of the anterior oval
-cephalic disk in place of a spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate
-the isolation of the genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is
-associated with almost innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton
-and other parts, and in a logical system it must be removed far from the
-_Scombridæ_, and probably be endowed with subordinal distinction. In all
-essential respects it departs greatly from the type of structure
-manifested in the _Scombridæ_ and rather approximates—but very
-distantly—the _Gobioidea_ and _Blennioidea_. In those types we have in
-some a tendency to flattening of the head, of anterior development of
-the dorsal fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there is no
-close affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the
-spinous dorsal exhibited by _Echeneis_. In view of all these facts
-_Echeneis_, with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constituting not
-only a family but a suborder.... Who can consistently object to the
-proposition to segregate the _Echeneididæ_ as a suborder of
-teleocephalous fishes? Not those who consider that the development of
-three or four inarticulate rays (or even less) in the front of the
-dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differentiate a given form from
-another with only one or two such. Certainly the difference between the
-constituents of a disk and any rays or spines is much greater than the
-mere development or atrophy of articulations. Not those who consider
-that the manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the
-following, or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal
-importance; for such differences, again, are manifestly of less
-morphological significance than the factors of a suctorial disk.
-Nevertheless there are doubtless many who will passively resist the
-proposition because of a conservative spirit, and who will vaguely refer
-to the development of the disk as being a 'teleological modification,'
-and as if it were not an actual fact and a development correlated with
-radical modifications of all parts of the skeleton at least. But
-whatever may be the closest relations of _Echeneis_, or the systematic
-value of its peculiarities, it is certain that it is not allied to
-_Elacate_ any more than to hosts of scombroid, percoid, and kindred
-fishes, and that it differs _in toto_ from it notwithstanding the claims
-that have been made otherwise. It is true that there is a striking
-resemblance, especially between the young—almost as great, for example,
-as that between the placental mouse and the marsupial _Antechinomys_—but
-the likeness is entirely superficial, and the scientific ichthyologist
-should be no more misled than would be the scientific therologist by the
-likeness of the marsupial and placental mammals."
-
-=Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.=—The suborder _Tæniosomi_
-(ταινία, ribbon; σῶμα, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made up of strange
-inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant derivatives of the
-mackerel stock. The body is greatly elongate, much compressed, extremely
-fragile, covered with shining silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in
-the open sea, probably at no very great depth, but are almost never
-taken by collectors except when thrown on shore in storms or when
-attacked by other fishes and dragged above or below their depth. When
-found they are usually reported as sea-serpents, and although perfectly
-harmless, they are usually at once destroyed by their ignorant captors.
-The whole body is exceedingly fragile; the bones are porous, thin, and
-light, containing scarcely any calcareous matter. In the _Tæniosomi_ the
-ventral fins are thoracic, formed of one or a few soft rays. More
-remarkable is the character of the caudal fin, which is always distorted
-and usually not in line with the rest of the body. The teeth are small.
-The general structure is not very different from that of the
-cutlass-fishes, _Trichiuridæ_, and other degraded offshoots from the
-scombroid group. The species are few and, from the nature of things,
-very imperfectly known. Scarcely any specimens are perfectly preserved.
-When dried the body almost disappears, both flesh and bones being
-composed chiefly of water.
-
-=The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.=—The _Regalecidæ_, or oarfishes, have the
-caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long filaments,
-thickened at the tip. The species reach a length of twenty or thirty
-feet, and from their great size, slender forms, and sinuous motion have
-been almost everywhere regarded as sea-serpents. The very long anterior
-spines of the dorsal fin are tipped with red, and the fish is often and
-not untruthfully described as a sea-serpent "having a horse's head with
-a flaming red mane."
-
-The great oarfish, _Regalecus glesne_ (see Fig. 237, Vol. I) was long
-known to the common people of Norway as king of the herrings, it being
-thought that to harm it would be to drive the herring to some other
-coast. The name "king of the herrings" went into science as _Regalecus_,
-from _rex_, king, and _halec_, herring. The Japanese fancy, which runs
-in a different line, calls the creature "Dugunonuatatori," which means
-the "cock of the palace under the sea."
-
-The Atlantic oarfish is named _Regalecus glesne_, from the Norwegian
-farm of Glesnæs, where the first recorded specimen, described by
-Ascanius, was taken 130 years ago. Since then the species has been many
-times found on the shores of Great Britain and Norway, and once at
-Bermuda.
-
-In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like, light
-blue in color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the head has a long
-jaw and a high forehead, suggesting the head of a horse. The dorsal fin
-begins on the head, and the first few spines are very long, each having
-a red tuft on the end. When the animal is alive these spines stand up
-like a red mane.
-
-The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble in mind. It
-lives in the deep seas, all over the world. After great storms it
-sometimes comes ashore. Perhaps this is because for some reason it has
-risen above its depth and so lost control of itself. When a deep-water
-fish rises to the surface the change of pressure greatly affects it.
-Reduction of pressure bursts its blood-vessels, its swim-bladder swells,
-if it has one, and turns its stomach inside out. If a deep-water fish
-gets above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a surface fish is
-when it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile.
-
-Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore to escape from
-parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft flesh, or sharks that
-would tear it.
-
-Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and to these several
-names have been given, but the species are not at all clearly made out.
-The oldest name is that of _Regalecus russelli_, for the naturalist
-Patrick Russell, who took a specimen at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen
-two large examples of _Regalecus_ in the museum at Tokio, and several
-young ones have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina
-in southern California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately came
-ashore at Newport in Orange County, California. The story of its capture
-is thus told by Mr. Horatio J. Forgy, of Santa Ana, California:
-
-"On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported at Newport
-Beach that about one mile up the coast he had landed a sea-serpent, and
-as proof showed four tentacles and a strip of flesh about six feet long.
-A crowd went up to see it, and they said it was about twenty feet long
-and like a fish in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr.
-Remsberg and I, on the following day, went up to see it, and in a short
-time we gathered a crowd and with the assistance of Mr. Peabody prepared
-the fish and took the picture you have received.
-
-"It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length, and weighed
-about 500 or 600 pounds.
-
-"The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was alive and in
-the shallow water, and that he had landed it himself.
-
-"This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it was in a fine
-state of preservation and could have easily been shipped to you, but he
-had cut it to such an extent that shipment or preservation seemed out of
-the question when we first saw it.
-
-"At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar fishes and
-sharks were found. Among others, I found a small oarfish about three
-feet long in a bad state of preservation in a piece of kelp. One side of
-it was nearly torn off and the other side was decayed."
-
-Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oarfishes in
-southern California:
-
-"From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Catalina, which
-lies eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles County, southern
-California, is very interesting, many rare animals being found there.
-Every winter the dwellers of the island find numbers of argonaut-shells,
-and several living specimens have been secured, one for a time living in
-the aquarium which is maintained here for the benefit of students and
-the entertainment of visitors. A number of rare and interesting fishes
-wander inshore from time to time. Several years ago I found various
-Scopeloid fishes, which up to that time had been considered rare, and
-during the past few years I have seen one oarfish (_Regalecus russelli_)
-alive, while another was brought to me dead. From reports I judge that a
-number of these very rare fishes have been observed here. The first was
-of small size, not over two feet in length, and was discovered swimming
-in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay. I had an opportunity to
-observe the radiant creature before it died. Its 'topknot'—it can be
-compared to nothing else—was a vivid red or scarlet mass of seeming
-plumes—the dorsal fins, which merged into a long dorsal fin, extending
-to the tail. The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen splashed
-with equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a most
-striking appearance.
-
-"The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost of a fish,
-which swam along where the water gently lapped the sands with an
-undulatory motion, looking like one of its names—the ribbon-fish. The
-fortunate finder of this specimen could not be persuaded to give it up
-or sell it, and it was its fate to be pasted upon a piece of board,
-dried in the sun as a 'curio,' where, as if in retaliation at the
-desecration of so rare a specimen, it soon disappeared.
-
-"This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United States,
-so at least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time that it had not been
-reported. In 1899 another oarfish was brought to me, evidently having
-been washed in after a storm and found within a few yards of the former
-at Avalon. The discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to
-be properly preserved, or to donate or sell it to any one who would have
-sent it to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a 'curio,' also
-impaled it, the delicate creature evaporating under the strong heat of
-the semitropic sun.
-
-"This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during the past
-winter (1900) a fine large specimen came in at Newport Beach, being
-reported by H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The newspapers announced that a
-Mexican had found a young sea-serpent at Newport, and investigation
-showed that, as in hundreds of similar instances, the man had found a
-valuable prize without being aware of it. According to the account, the
-discoverer first saw the fish alive in the surf and hauled it ashore.
-Being ignorant of its value, he cut it up, bringing in a part of the
-scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he showed to some men, and
-led the way to where lay the mutilated remains of one of the finest
-oar-or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The specimen was twenty-one feet in
-length, and its weight estimated at five hundred pounds. The finder had
-so mutilated it that the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If he
-had packed it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the
-equivalent of several months' labor. Apparently the man had cut it up in
-wanton amusement.
-
-"This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion excavating at
-San Clemente Island, and had remarked that it was a singular fact that
-all the fine stone ollas were broken. 'Nothing strange about that,' said
-a half-breed, one of the party. 'I used to herd sheep here, and we
-smashed mortars and ollas to pass away time.'"
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 425.—Oarfish, _Regalecus russelli_, on the beach at Newport,
-    Orange Co., Cal. (Photograph by C. P. Remsberg.)
-]
-
-=The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.=—The family of _Trachypteridæ_ comprises
-the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery coloration,
-smaller than the oarfishes and more common, but of similar habit.
-
-Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be the king of
-the herrings and cherished as such, so among the Indians of Puget Sound
-another freak fish is held sacred as the king of the salmon. The people
-about Cape Flattery believe that if one does any harm to this fish the
-salmon will at once leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who
-first discovered this fish to give it its name of _Trachypterus
-rex-salmonorum_.
-
-In Europe a similar species (_Trachypterus atlanticus_) has long been
-known by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither of these names having
-any evident propriety.
-
-The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange creatures of
-the sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet. Its body is thin as
-a knife and would be transparent were it not covered over with a shining
-white pigment which gives to the animal the luster of burnished silver.
-On this white surface is a large black blotch or two, but no other
-colors. The head is something like that of the oarfish, to which animal
-the dealfish bears a close relationship. Both have small teeth and
-neither could bite if it would, and neither wants to, for they are
-creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the head of the dealfish,
-where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like fin. At the end
-of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin, is a long, slim fin
-which projects directly upwards at right angles to the direction of the
-back-bone. No other fish shows this strange peculiarity.
-
-The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of the water. It
-does not often come near shore, but it is occasionally blown on the
-beach by storms. _Trachypterus rex-salmonorum_ has been recorded two or
-three times from Puget Sound and twice from California. The finest
-specimen known, the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off
-the Farallones in 1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him sent
-to Stanford University. The specimen is perfect in all its parts, a
-condition rare with these fragile creatures, and its picture gives a
-good idea of the mysterious king of the salmon.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 426.—Dealfish, or King of the Salmon, _Trachypterus
-    rex-salmonorum_ Jordan & Gilbert. Family _Trachypteridæ_. (From a
-    specimen taken off the Farallones.)
-]
-
-Four of these fishes have been obtained on the coast of Japan, and have
-been described and figured by the present writer in the annals of the
-Imperial University of Tokyo. These are different from the California
-species and are named _Trachypterus ishikawæ_, but they show the same
-bright silver color and the same streamers on the head and tail.
-Probably they, too, in Japan are kings of something or other, or perhaps
-silver swans from the submarine palace, for along such lines the
-Japanese fancy is more likely to run.
-
-The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and the dorsal
-spines and ventral rays produced in very long streamers.
-
-According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are "true deep-sea fishes,
-which live at very great depths, and are only found when floating dead
-on the surface or washed ashore by the waves. Almost nothing is known of
-their habits except through Nilsson's observations in the far north.
-This naturalist, as well as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity
-of observing them in life. They say that they approach the shore at
-flood-tide on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the
-retreating waves. Nilsson's opinion is that its habits resemble those of
-the flatfishes, and that they move with one side turned obliquely
-upward, the other toward the ground; and he says that they have been
-seen on the bottom in two or three fathoms of water, where the fishermen
-hook them up with the implements employed to raise dead seals, and that
-they are slow swimmers. This is not necessarily the case, however, for
-the removal of pressure and the rough treatment by which they were
-probably washed ashore would be demoralizing, to say the least.
-_Trichiurus_, a fish similar in form, is a very strong, swift swimmer,
-and so is _Regalecus_. Whether or not the habits of _Trachypterus
-arcticus_, on which these observations were made, are a safe guide in
-regard to the other forms is a matter of some doubt, but it is certain
-that they live far from the surface, except near the Arctic Circle, and
-that they only come ashore accidentally. They have never been taken by
-the deep-sea dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very
-rare, the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin-rays
-exceedingly fragile. A considerable number of species have been
-described, but in most instances each was based on one or two specimens.
-It is probable that future studies may be as fruitful as that of Emery,
-who, by means of a series of twenty-three specimens, succeeded in
-uniting at least three of the Mediterranean species which for half a
-century or more had been regarded as distinct. The common species of the
-eastern Atlantic, _Trachypterus atlanticus_, is not rare, one or more
-specimens, according to Günther, being secured along the coast of
-northern Europe after almost every severe gale. We desire to quote the
-recommendation of Dr. Günther, and to strongly urge upon any one who may
-be so fortunate as to secure one of these fishes that no attempt should
-be made to keep it entire, but that it should be cut into short lengths
-and preserved in the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped separately in
-muslin."
-
-The family of _Stylephoridæ_ is known from a single specimen of the
-species, _Stylephorus chordatus_, taken off Cuba in 1790. In this form
-the tail ends in a long, whip-like appendage, twice as long as the head.
-
-No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XXVII
-                         SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA
-
-
-=THE Flatfishes.=—Perhaps the most remarkable offshoot from the order of
-spiny-rayed fishes is the great group of flounders and soles, called by
-Bonaparte _Heterosomata_ (ἔτερός, differing; σῶμα, body). The essential
-character of this group is found in the twisting of the anterior part of
-the cranium, an arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side of
-the head. This is accompanied by a great compression of the body, as a
-result of which the flounders swim horizontally or lie flat on the sand.
-On the side which is uppermost both eyes are placed, this side being
-colored, brown or gray or mottled. The lower side is usually plain
-white. In certain genera the right side is uppermost, in others the
-left. In a very few, confined to the coast of California, the eyes are
-on the right or left side indifferently.
-
-The process of the twisting of the head has been already described (see
-p. 174, Vol. I). The very young have the body translucent and
-symmetrical, standing upright in the water. Soon the tendency to rest on
-the bottom sets in, the body leans to left or right, and the lower eye
-gradually traverses the front of the head to the other side. This
-movement is best seen in the species of _Platophrys_, in which the final
-arrangement of the eyes is a highly specialized one.
-
-In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye turns over
-and pierces the cranium instead of passing across it. This opinion needs
-verification, and the process should be studied in detail in as many
-species as possible. The present writer has seen it in species of
-_Platophrys_ only, the same genus in which it was carefully studied by
-Dr. Carlo F. Emery of Bologna. In the halibut, and in the more primitive
-flounders generally, the process takes place at an earlier stage than in
-_Platophrys_.
-
-=Optic Nerves of Flounders.=—In the Bulletin of the Museum of
-Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H. Parker
-discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group of flounders or
-flatfishes.
-
-In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes of the
-brain, the one passing to the lobes of the opposite side simply lying
-over the other, without intermingling of fibers, such as takes place in
-the higher vertebrates and in the more primitive fishes.
-
-According to Parker's observations, in ordinary bony fishes the right
-nerve may be indifferently above or below the other. In 1000 specimens
-of ten common species, 486 have the left nerve uppermost and 514 the
-right nerve. In most individual species the numbers are practically
-equal. Thus, in the haddock, 48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the
-right nerve.
-
-In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this condition no
-longer obtains. In those species of flounder with the eyes on the right
-side 236 individuals, representing sixteen species, had the left nerve
-uppermost in all cases.
-
-Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals,
-representing nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 427.—Young Flounder, just hatched, with symmetrical eyes. (After
-    S. R. Williams.)
-]
-
-There are a few species of flounders in which reversed examples are so
-common that the species may be described as having the eyes on the right
-or left side indifferently. In all these species, however, whether
-dextral or sinistral, the relation of the nerves conforms to the type
-and is not influenced by the individual deviation. Thus the starry
-flounder (_Platichthys_) belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal
-specimens, the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the
-left nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes on the
-left. In 15 examples of the California bastard halibut (_Paralichthys
-californicus_), normally sinistral, the right eye is always uppermost.
-It is uppermost in 11 reversed examples.
-
-Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no longer obtains. In 49
-individuals of four species of dextral soles, the left nerve is
-uppermost in 24, the right nerve in 25. Among sinistral soles, or
-tongue-fishes, in 18 individuals of two species, the left nerve is
-uppermost in 13, the right nerve in 5.
-
-Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles are not
-degenerate flounders, but rather descended from primitive flounders
-which still retain the dimorphic condition as to the position of the
-optic nerves, a condition prevalent in all bony fishes except the
-flounders.
-
-The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore, deeper than
-the matter of the migration of the eye. The asymmetry of the mouth is an
-independent trait, but, like the migration of the eye, is an adaptation
-to swimming on the side. Each of the various traits of asymmetry may
-appear independently of the others.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 428.—Larval Flounder, _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_. (After S.
-    R. Williams.)
-]
-
-The development of the monomorphic arrangement in flounders Professor
-Parker thinks can be accounted for by the principle of natural
-selection. In a side-swimming fish the fixity of this trait has a
-mechanical advantage. The unmetamorphosed young of the flounder are not
-strictly symmetrical, for they possess the monomorphic position of the
-optic nerve. The reversed examples of various species of flounders
-(these, by the way, chiefly confined to the California fauna) afford
-"striking examples of discontinuous variation."
-
-A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession in nine of
-the California-Alaskan species of an accessory half-lateral line. This
-is found in two different groups, while near relatives in other waters
-lack the character. One species in Japan has this trait, which is not
-found in any Atlantic species, or in any other flounders outside the
-fauna of northern California, Oregon, and Alaska.
-
-=Ancestry of Flounders.=—The ancestry of the flounders is wholly
-uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders lack all
-fin-spines, they have been placed by some authors after the
-_Anacanthini_, or codfishes, and a common descent has been assumed. Some
-writers declare that the flounder is only a codfish with distorted
-cranium.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 429.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIGS. 429 and 430.—Larval stages of _Platophrys podas_, a flounder of
-    the Mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.)
-]
-
-A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that this
-supposition is without foundation. The flounders have thoracic ventrals,
-not jugular as in the cod. The tail is homocercal, ending in a large
-hypural plate, never isocercal, except in degraded soles, in which it is
-rather leptocercal. The shoulder-girdle, with its perforate
-hypercoracoid, has the normal perch-like form. The ventral fins have
-about six rays, as in the perch, although the first ray is never
-spinous. Pseudobranchiæ are developed, these structures being obsolete
-in the codfishes. The gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the
-perch.
-
-It is fairly certain that the _Heterosomata_ have diverged from the
-early spiny-rayed forms, _Zeoidei_, _Berycoidei_, or _Scombroidei_ of
-the Jurassic or Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to the
-development of the great perch stock.
-
-If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group, it would
-be to regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel-like forms, as
-the _Stromateidæ_, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid forms, as
-_Platycormus_, having the ventral fins wider than in the mackerel. Still
-more plausible is the recent suggestion of Dr. Boulenger that the
-extinct genus _Amphistium_ resembles the primitive flounder. But there
-is little direct proof of such relation, and the resemblance of larval
-flounders to the ribbon-fishes may have equal significance. But the
-ribbon-fishes themselves may be degenerate Scombroids. In any case both
-ribbon-fishes and flounders find their nearest living relatives among
-the _Berycoidei_ or _Zeoidei_, and have no affinity whatever with the
-isocercal codfish or with other members of the group called
-_Anacanthini_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 431.—_Platophrys lunatus_ (Linnæus), the Peacock Flounder. Family
-    _Pleuronectidæ_. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.)
-]
-
-The _Heterosomata_ are found in all seas, always close to the bottom and
-swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They are usually placed in a
-single family, but the degraded types known as soles may be regarded as
-forming a second family.
-
-=The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.=—In the flounders, or _Pleuronectidæ_,
-the membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large and well
-separated, the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws always
-provided with teeth. Among the 500 species of flounders is found the
-greatest variation in size, ranging in weight from an ounce to 500
-pounds. The species found in arctic regions are most degenerate and
-these have the largest number of vertebræ and of fin-rays. The halibut
-has 50 vertebræ (16 + 34), the craig-flounder 58, while in _Etropus_ and
-other tropical forms the number is but 34 (10 + 24). The common
-flounders of intermediate geographical range (_Paralichthys dentatus_,
-etc.) show intermediate numbers as 40 (10 + 30). The apparent
-significance of this peculiar series of fact is given on page 212, Vol.
-I. It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection
-in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the
-bones and consequently smaller number of the vertebræ.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 432.—Heterocercal tail of young Trout, _Salmo fario_ Linnæus.
-    (After Parker & Haswell.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 433.—Homocercal tail of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_.]
-]
-
-Fossil flounders are very few and give no clue as to the origin of the
-group. In the Eocene and Miocene are remains which have been referred to
-_Bothus (Rhombus)_. _Bothus minimus_ is the oldest species known,
-described by Agassiz from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. In the Miocene are
-numerous other species of _Bothus_, as also tubercles referable to
-_Scophthalmus_.
-
-On the testimony of fossils alone the genus _Bothus_, or one of its
-allies, would be the most primitive of the group. If it be so, the
-simpler structure of the halibut and its relatives is due to
-degeneration, which is probable, although their structure has the
-suggestion of primitive simplicity, especially in the greater approach
-to symmetry in the head and the symmetry in the insertion of the ventral
-fins.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 434.—Window-pane, _Lophopsetta maculata_. Virginia.
-]
-
-Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. _Solea kirchbergiana_
-of the Miocene is not very different from species now extant in southern
-Europe. No remains referable to allies of the halibut or plaice are
-found in Tertiary rocks, and these relatively simple types must be
-regarded as of recent origin.
-
-=The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.=—The turbot tribe have the mouth large, the
-eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral fins unlike, that of
-the left side being extended along the ridge of the abdomen. The species
-are found in the warm seas only. They are deeper in body than the
-halibut and plaice, and some of them are the smallest of all flounders.
-It is probable that these approach most nearly of existing flounders to
-the original ancestors of the group.
-
-Perhaps the most primitive genus is _Bothus_, species of which genus are
-found in Italian Miocene. The European brill, _Bothus rhombus_, is a
-common fish of southern Europe, deep-bodied and covered with smooth
-scales.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 435.—Wide-eyed Flounder, _Syacium papillosum_ Linnæus. Pensacola,
-    Fla.
-]
-
-Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translucent speckled
-flounder of our Atlantic coast (_Lophopsetta maculata_), popularly known
-as window-pane. This species is too small to have much value as food.
-Another species, similar to the brill in technical characters but very
-different in appearance, is the turbot, _Scophthalmus maximus_, of
-Europe. This large flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered
-with warty tubercles. It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and has a
-high value as a food-fish. There is but one species of turbot and it is
-found in Europe only, on sandy bottoms from Norway to Italy. In a turbot
-of twenty-three pounds weight Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine
-ounces, with 14,311,260 eggs. The young retains its symmetrical
-condition for a relatively long period. No true turbot is found in
-America and none in the Pacific. Other European flounders allied to the
-turbot and brill are _Zeugopterus punctatus_; the European whiff,
-_Lepidorhombus whiff-jagonis_; the topknot, _Phrynorhombus regius_; the
-lantern-flounder, _Arnoglossus laterna_, and the tongue-fish,
-_Eucitharus linguatula_, the last two of small size and feeble flesh.
-
-In the wide-eyed or peacock flounders, _Platophrys podas_ in Europe,
-_Platophrys lunatus_, etc., in America, _Platophrys mancus_ in
-Polynesia, the eyes in the old males are very far apart, and the changes
-due to age and sex are greater than in any other genera. The species of
-this group are highly variegated and lie on the sand in the tropical
-seas. Numerous small species allied to these abound in the West Indies,
-known in a general way as whiffs. The most widely distributed of these
-are _Citharichthys spilopterus_ of the West Indies, _Citharichthys
-gilberti_ and _Azevia panamensis_ of Panama, _Orthopsetta sordida_ of
-California, and especially the common small-mouthed _Etropus crossotus_
-found throughout tropical America. Numerous other genera and species of
-the turbot tribe are found on the coasts of tropical Asia and Africa,
-most of them of small size and weak structure.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 436.—_Etropus crossotus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla.
-]
-
-_Samaris cristatus_ of Asia is the type of another tribe of flounders
-and the peculiar hook-jawed _Oncopterus darwini_ of Patagonia represents
-still another tribe.
-
-=The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.=—In the great halibut tribe the mouth
-is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The arctic and subarctic
-species have the eyes and color on the right. Those of the warmer
-regions (bastard halibut) have the eyes and color on the left. These
-grow progressively smaller in size to the southward, the mouth being
-smaller and more feebly armed in southern species.
-
-The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far greatest
-importance, is the halibut (_Hippoglossus hippoglossus_). This species
-is found on both shores of both oceans, north of about the latitude of
-Paris, Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Matsushima Bay in Japan. Its
-preference is for off-shore banks of no great depth, and in very many
-localities it exists in great abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8
-feet and a weight of 600 pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and
-enters deeper waters than the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good
-quality, although none of the flatfishes have much flavor, the muscles
-being mostly destitute of oil. Small halibut, called "chicken halibut,"
-are highly esteemed.
-
-Dr. Goode states that the "history of the halibut fishery has been a
-peculiar one. At the beginning of the present century these fishes were
-exceedingly abundant on George's Banks; since 1850 they have partially
-disappeared from this region, and the fishermen have since been
-following them to other banks, and since 1874 out into deeper and deeper
-water, and the fisheries are now carried on almost exclusively in the
-gullies between the off-shore banks and on the outer edges of the banks,
-in water 100 to 350 fathoms in depth.
-
-"The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious fish, and
-probably would disdain few objects in the way of fresh meat it would
-come across. It is said, however, to feed more especially upon crabs and
-mollusks in addition to fish. These fish 'they waylay lying upon the
-bottom, invisible by reason of their flat bodies, colored to correspond
-to the general color of the sand or mud upon which they rest. When in
-pursuit of their prey they are active and often come quite to the
-surface, especially when in summer they follow the capelin to the shoal
-water near the land. They feed upon skates, cod, haddock, menhaden,
-mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins, grenadiers, turbot,
-Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything else that is eatable and can be
-found in the same waters.' Frequently halibut may be seen chasing
-flatfish over the bottom of the water. About Cape Sable their favorite
-food seems to be haddock and cusk. A very singular mode of attacking a
-cod has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced fisherman and
-good observer. They often kill their prey by blows of the tail, a fact
-which is quite novel and interesting. He has described an instance which
-occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island in 1877: 'The man at the
-wheel sang out that he saw a halibut flapping its tail about a quarter
-of a mile off our starboard quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and
-his statement was soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We
-hove out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a pair of
-gaff-hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the halibut, which was
-a fine one of about seventy pounds weight, but a small codfish which it
-had been trying to kill by striking it with its tail. The codfish was
-quite exhausted by the repeated blows and did not attempt to escape
-after its enemy had been captured. The halibut was so completely engaged
-in the pursuit of the codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and
-was easily captured.'
-
-"The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the year, and
-about July and August are ready to spawn, although 'some fishermen say
-that they spawn at Christmas' or 'in the month of January, when they are
-on the shoals.' The roe of a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds
-weighed 44 pounds, and indeed the 'ovaries of a large fish are too heavy
-to be lifted by a man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet
-or more in length.' A portion of the roe 'representing a fair average of
-the eggs, was weighed and found to contain 2185 eggs,' and the entire
-number would be 2,182,773."
-
-Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms with more
-elongate body. The Greenland halibut, _Reinhardtius hippoglossoides_,
-and the closely related species in Japan, _Reinhardtius matsuuræ_,
-differ from the halibut most obviously in the straight lateral line. The
-arrow-toothed halibut, _Atheresthes stomias_, lives in deeper waters in
-the North Pacific. Its flesh is soft, the mouth very large, armed with
-arrow-shaped teeth. The head in this species is less distorted than in
-any of the others, the upper eye being on the edge of the disk in front
-of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been supposed to be the most
-primitive of the living species, but these traits are doubtless elusive
-and a result of degeneration.
-
-_Eopsetta jordani_ is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on the coast
-of California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white flesh, sold in
-San Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous name of "English
-sole." Large numbers are dried by the Chinese for export to China. A
-similar species, _Hippoglossoides platessoides_, known as the
-"sand-dab," is common on both shores of the North Atlantic, and several
-related species are found in the North Pacific. _Verasper variegatus_ of
-Japan is notable for its bright coloration, the lower side being largely
-orange-red.
-
-In the bastard halibuts, _Paralichthys_, the eyes and color are on the
-left side. These much resemble the true halibut, but are smaller and
-inferior as food, besides differing in details of structure. The
-Monterey halibut (_Paralichthys californicus_) is the largest of these,
-reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This species and one other from
-California (_Xystreurys liolepis_), normally left-sided, differ from all
-the other flounders in having the eyes almost as often on the right side
-as on the left side, as usual or normal in their type. The summer
-flounder (_Paralichthys dentatus_) replaces the Monterey halibut on the
-Atlantic Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives
-way to the Southern flounder (_Paralichthys lethostigma_) and the Gulf
-flounder, _Paralichthys albigutta_. In Japan _Paralichthys olivaceus_ is
-equally common, and in western Mexico _Paralichthys sinaloæ_. The
-four-spotted flounder of New England, _Paralichthys oblongus_, belongs
-to this group. Similar species constituting the genus _Pseudorhombus_
-abound in India and Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 437.—Halibut, _Hippoglossus hippoglossus_ Linnæus. Marmot I.,
-    Alaska.
-]
-
-=The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.=—The plaice tribe pass gradually into
-the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the small mouth, in which
-the blunt teeth are mostly on the blind side. The eyes are on the right
-side, the vertebræ are numerous, and the species live only in the cold
-seas, none being found in the tropics. In most of the Pacific species
-the lateral line has an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus
-_Pleuronichthys_, or frog-flounders, has the teeth in bands.
-_Pleuronichthys cornutus_ is common in Japan and three species,
-_Pleuronichthys cœnosus_ being the most abundant, are found on the coast
-of California. Closely related to these is the diamond-flounder,
-_Hypsopsetta guttulata_ of California. _Parophrys vetulus_ is a small
-flounder of California, so abundant as to have considerable economic
-value. _Lepidopsetta bilineata_, larger and rougher, is almost equally
-common. It is similar to the mud-dab (_Limanda limanda_) of northern
-Europe and the rusty-dab (_Limanda ferruginea_) of New England.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 438.—Wide mouthed Flounder, _Paralichthys dentatus_ (L.). St.
-    George I., Md.
-]
-
-The plaice, _Pleuronectes platessa_, is the best known of the European
-species of this type, being common in most parts of Europe and valued as
-food. Closely related to the plaice is a second species of southern
-Europe also of small size, _Flesus flesus_, to which the name flounder
-is in England especially applied. The common winter flounder of New
-England, _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, is also very much like the
-plaice, but with more uniform scales. It is an important food-fish, the
-most abundant of the family about Cape Cod. The eel-back flounder,
-_Liopsetta putnami_, also of New England, is frequently seen in the
-markets. The males of this species have scattered rough scales, while
-the females are smooth. The great starry flounder of Alaska,
-_Platichthys stellatus_, is the largest of the small-mouthed flounders
-and in its region the most abundant. On the Pacific coast from Monterey
-to Alaska and across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch of
-flounders. The body is covered with rough scattered scales, the fins are
-barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty pounds. Living in
-shallow waters, it ascends all the larger rivers.
-
-An allied species in Japan is _Kareius bicoloratus_, with scattered
-scales. _Clidoderma asperrimum_, also of northern Japan, has the body
-covered with series of warts.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 439.—Eel-back Flounder, _Liopsetta putnami_ (Gill). Salem, Mass.
-]
-
-In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as smear-dab and
-flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (_Microstomus kitt_) is rather common in
-deep water. Its skin is very slimy, but the flesh is excellent. The same
-is true of the slippery sole, _Microstomus pacificus_, of California and
-Alaska, and of other species found in Japan. _Glyptocephalus
-cynoglossus_, the craig-fluke, or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic,
-is taken in great numbers in rather deep water on both coasts. Its flesh
-is much like that of the sole. A similar species (_Glyptocephalus
-zachirus_) with a very long pectoral on the right scale is found in
-California, and _Microstomus kitaharæ_ in Japan.
-
-=The Soles: Soleidæ.=—The soles (_Soleidæ_) are degraded flounders, the
-typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe, from which
-they may be derived. There are three very different groups or tribes of
-soles, and some writers have thought that these are independently
-derived from different groups of flounders. This fact has been urged as
-an argument against the recognition of the _Soleidæ_ as a family
-separate from the flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either
-be joined with the flounders in one family or else they should be
-divided into two or three, according to their supposed origin.
-
-The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the bones of
-the head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by scales. The
-gill-openings are much reduced, the eyes small and close together, the
-ventral fins often much reduced, and sometimes the pectoral or caudal
-also. The mouth is very small, much twisted, and with few teeth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 440.—Starry Flounder, _Platichthys stellatus_ (Pallas). Alaska.
-]
-
-The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy bottoms in the
-warm seas along the continents, very few being found about the Oceanic
-Islands. The three subfamilies, or tribes, may be designated as broad
-soles, true soles, and tongue-fishes.
-
-=The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.=—The American soles (_Achirinæ_), or broad
-soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe of flounders,
-having the ventral fin of the eyed side extended along the ridge of the
-abdomen. The eyes and color are, however, on the right side. The eyes
-are separated by a narrow interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the
-body is broad and covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less
-than six inches long, and nearly all are confined to the warmer parts of
-America, many of them ascending the rivers. A very few (_Aseraggodes_,
-_Pardachirus_) are found in Japan and China. Some are scaleless and some
-have but a single small gill-opening on the blind side. The principal
-genus is _Achirus_. _Achirus fasciatus_, the common American sole, or
-hog-choker, is abundant from Boston to Galveston. _Achirus lineatus_ and
-other species are found in the West Indies and on the west coast of
-Mexico. Almost all the species of _Achirus_ are banded with black and
-the pectorals are very small or wanting altogether. All these species
-are practically useless as food from their very small size.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 441.—Hog-choker Sole, _Achirus lineatus_ (L.). Potomac River.
-]
-
-=The European Soles (Soleinæ).=—The European soles are more elongate in
-form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended along the ridge of
-the abdomen. The eyes are on the right side with no bony ridge between
-them. No species of this type is certainly known from American waters,
-although numerous in Europe and Asia. The species have much in common
-with the plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same
-stock. One species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene.
-
-The common sole of Europe, _Solea solea_, is one of the best of
-food-fishes, reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty-six
-inches and a weight of nine pounds. As usually seen in the markets it
-rarely exceeds a pound. It is found from Norway to Italy, and when
-properly cooked is very tender and delicate, superior to any of the
-flounders. According to Dr. Francis Day, it appears to prefer sandy or
-gravelly shores, but is rather uncertain in its migrations, for,
-although mostly appearing at certain spots almost at a given time, and
-usually decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they
-disappear at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British
-seacoast they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the
-shallows about May if the weather is warm, their migrations being
-influenced by temperature. The food of the sole is to a considerable
-extent molluscous, but it is also said to eat the eggs and fry of other
-fishes and sea-urchins.
-
-The spawning season is late in the year and during the spring months.
-The ova are in moderate number; a sole of one pound weight has,
-according to Buckland, about 134,000 eggs. The newly hatched, according
-to Dr. Day, do not appear to be commonly found so far out at sea as some
-other species. They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and
-are very numerous in favorable localities.
-
-As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed of European
-fishes. In the words of Dr. Day, "the flesh of this fish is white, firm,
-and of excellent flavor, those from the deepest waters being generally
-preferred. Those on the west coast and to the south are larger, as a
-rule, than those towards the north of the British islands. In addition
-to its use as food, it is available for another purpose. The skin is
-used for fining coffee, being a good substitute for isinglass, and also
-as a material for artificial baits.
-
-"The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The principal English
-trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. They may be taken by
-spillers, but are not commonly captured with hooks; it is suggested that
-one reason may be that spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole
-is a night feeder. They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited
-with crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing is
-at night, after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land breeze
-answers better than a sea breeze."
-
-Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In Japan _Zebrias
-zebra_, black-banded, and _Usinosita japonica_, known as _Usinóshita_,
-or cow's tongue, are common. Farther south are numerous species of
-_Synaptura_ and other genera peculiar to the Indian and Australian
-regions.
-
-=The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.=—The tongue-fishes are soles having
-the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge, the two being
-very small and apparently in the same socket. The body is lanceolate,
-covered usually with rough scales, and as often with two or three
-lateral lines as with one. The species are mostly Asiatic. _Cynoglossus
-robustus_ and other species are found in Japan, and in India are many
-others belonging to _Cynoglossus_ and related genera. The larger species
-are valued as food. The single European species _Symphurus nigrescens_,
-common in the Mediterranean, is too small to have any value. _Symphurus
-plagiusa_, the tongue-fish of our coast, is common on our sandy shores
-from Cape Hatteras southward. _Symphurus plagusia_, scarcely different,
-replaces it in the West Indies. _Symphurus atricandus_ is found in San
-Diego Bay, and numerous other species of no economic importance find
-their place farther south.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 442.—_Symphurus plagiusa_ (L.). Beaufort, N. C.
-]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XXVIII
-                           SUBORDER JUGULARES
-
-
-=THE Jugular-fishes.=—In all the families of spiny-rayed fishes, as
-ranged in order in the present work, from the _Berycidæ_ to the
-_Soleidæ_, the ventrals are thoracic in position, the pelvis, if
-present, being joined to the shoulder-girdle behind the symphysis of the
-clavicles so that the ventral fin falls below or behind the pectoral
-fin. To this arrangement the families of _Bembradidæ_ and _Pinguipedidæ_
-offer perhaps the only exceptions.
-
-In all the families which precede the _Berycidæ_ in the linear series
-adopted in this work, the ventral fins when present are abdominal, the
-pelvis lying behind the clavicles and free from them as in the sharks,
-the reptiles, and all higher vertebrates.
-
-In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals are brought
-still farther forward to a point distinctly before the pectorals. This
-position is called jugular (Lat. _jugulum_, throat).
-
-The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six groups, orders,
-and suborders: _Jugulares_, _Haplodoci_, _Xenopterygii_, _Anacanthini_,
-_Opisthomi_, and _Pediculati_. The last two groups, and perhaps the
-_Anacanthini_ also, may well be considered as distinct orders, being
-more aberrant than the others.
-
-For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely defined of
-these groups we may retain the term applied by Linnæus to all of them,
-the name _Jugulares_. This group includes those jugular-fishes in which
-the position of the gills, the structure of the skull, and the form of
-the tail are essentially as in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely
-diversified and perhaps unnatural group, some of its members resembling
-_Opisthognathidæ_ and _Malacanthidæ_, others suggesting the mailed-cheek
-fishes, and still others more degenerate. The fishes having the fins
-thus placed were long ago set apart by Linnæus, under the name of
-"Jugulares," _Callionymus_ being the genus first placed by him in this
-group. Besides their anterior insertion, the ventrals in the _Jugulares_
-are more or less reduced in size, the rays being usually but not always
-less than I, 5 in number and more often reduced to one or two, or even
-wholly lost.
-
-In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared with the
-perch-like forms, but in certain regards they are often highly
-specialized. The groups showing this character are probably related one
-to another, but in some cases this fact is not clearly shown. In most of
-the jugular-fishes the shoulder-girdle shows some change or distortion.
-The usual foramen in the hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to
-the interspace between the coracoids, and the arrangement of the
-actinosts often deviates from that seen in the perciform fishes.
-
-=The Weevers: Trachinidæ.=—Of the various families the group of weevers,
-_Trachinidæ_, most approaches the type of ordinary fishes. In the words
-of Dr. Gill, these fishes are known by "an elongated body attenuated
-backward from the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very
-short, a deeply cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting
-backward from each operculum and strengthened by extension on the
-surface of the operculum, as a keel. The dorsal fins are distinct, the
-first composed of strong, pungent spines radiating from a short base and
-about six or seven in number. The second dorsal and anal are very long.
-The pectorals have the lower rays unbranched, and the ventrals are in
-advance of the pectorals, and have each a spine and five rays. The
-species of this family are mostly found along the European and western
-African coast; but singularly enough a species closely related to the
-Old World form is found on the coast of Chile. None have been obtained
-from the intermediate regions or from the American coast. Two species
-are found in England, and are known under the name of the greater weever
-(_Trachinus draco_), about twelve inches long, and the lesser weever
-(_Trachinus vipera_), about six inches long. They are perhaps the most
-dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formidable opercular spines
-are weapons of defense, and when seized by the fisherman the fish is apt
-to throw its head in the direction of the hand and lance a spine into
-it. The pungent dorsal spines are also defensive. Although without a
-poison gland, such as some fishes distantly related have at the base of
-the spines, they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur from
-tetanus. They are therefore divested of both opercular and dorsal spines
-before being exposed for sale. The various popular names which the
-weevers enjoy, in addition to their general designation, mostly refer to
-the armature of the spines, or are the result of the armature; such are
-adder-fish, stingfish, and sting-bull."
-
-No species of _Trachinidæ_ is known from North America or from Asia. In
-these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown, the hypercoracoid is
-without foramen, the usual perforation lying between this bone and the
-hypercoracoid. A similar condition exists in the _Anacanthini_, or
-codfishes, but it seems to have been developed independently in the two
-groups. In the relatives of the _Trachinidæ_ the position of this
-foramen changes gradually, moving by degrees from its usual place to the
-lower margin of the hypercoracoid. Species referred to _Trachinus_ are
-recorded from the Miocene as well as _Trachinus_.
-
-The extinct group of _Callipterygidæ_ found in the Eocene of Monte Bolca
-seems allied to the _Trachinidæ_. It has the dorsal fin continuous, the
-spines small, the soft rays high; the scales are very small or wanting.
-_Callipteryx speciosus_ and _C. recticandus_ are the known species.
-
-=The Nototheniidæ.=—In the family of _Nototheniidæ_ the foramen is also
-wanting or confluent with the suture between the coracoids. To this
-family belong many species of the Antarctic region. These are elongate
-fishes with ctenoid scales and a general resemblance to small
-_Hexagrammidæ_. In most of the genera there is more than one lateral
-line. These species are the antipodes of the _Cottidæ_ and
-_Hexagrammidæ_; although lacking the bony stay of the latter, they show
-several analogical resemblances and have very similar habits.
-
-The _Harpagiferidæ_, naked, with the opercle armed with spines, and
-resemble sculpins even more closely than do the _Nototheniidæ_.
-_Harpagifer_ is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of
-_Draconetta_ in the deeper waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific.
-These little fishes resemble _Callionymus_, but the opercle, instead of
-the preopercle, bears spines. The _Bovichthyidæ_ of New Zealand are also
-sculpin-like and perhaps belong to the same family. Dr. Boulenger places
-all these Antarctic forms with the foramen outside the hypercoracoid in
-one family, _Nototheniidæ_. Several deep-sea fishes of this type have
-been lately described by Dr. Louis Dollo and others from the Patagonian
-region. One of these forms, _Macrias amissus_, lately named by Gill and
-Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the largest deep-sea fish known.
-The family of _Percophidæ_, from Chile, is also closely allied to these
-forms, the single species differing in slight respects of osteology.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 443.—_Pteropsaron evolans_ Jordan & Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan.
-]
-
-Closely related to the family of _Nototheniidæ_ and perhaps scarcely
-distinct from it is the small family of _Pteropsaridæ_, which differs in
-having but one lateral line and the foramen just above the lower edge of
-the hypercoracoid. The numerous species inhabit the middle Pacific, and
-are prettily colored fishes, looking like gobies. _Pteropsaron_ is a
-Japanese genus, with high dorsal and anal fins; _Parapercis_ is more
-widely diffused. _Osurus schauinslandi_ is one of the neatest of the
-small fishes of Hawaii. Several species of _Parapercis_ and _Neopercis_
-occur in Japan and numerous others in the waters of Polynesia.
-_Pseudeleginus majori_ of the Italian Miocene must belong near
-_Parapercis_.
-
-The _Bathymasteridæ_, or ronquils, are perhaps allied to the
-_Nototheniidæ_; they resemble the _Opisthognathidæ_, but the jaws are
-shorter and they have a large number of vertebræ as befits their
-northern distribution. _Ronquilus jordani_ is found in Puget Sound and
-_Bathymaster signatus_ in Alaska. The ventral rays are I, 5, and the
-many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in front.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 444.—_Bathymaster signatus_ Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska.
-]
-
-=The Leptoscopidæ.=—The _Leptoscopidæ_ of New Zealand resemble the
-weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed, covered by thin skin.
-
-=The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.=—The _Uranoscopidæ_, or star-gazers,
-have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth almost vertical, the
-lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the flat upper surface of the
-head. The spinous dorsal is short and may be wanting. The hypercoracoid
-has a foramen, and the body is naked or covered with small scales. The
-appearance is eccentric, like that of some of the _Scorpænidæ_, but the
-anatomy differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes.
-
-The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food-fishes of
-some importance. One species, _Uranoscopus scaber_, abounds in the
-Mediterranean. _Uranoscopus japonicus_ and other species are found in
-Japan. _Astroscopus y-græcum_ is the commonest species on our Atlantic
-coast. The bare spaces on the top of the head in this species yield
-vigorous electric shocks. Another American species is _Astroscopus
-guttatus_. In Japan and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and
-varied. _Ichthyscopus lebeck_, with a single dorsal, is a fantastic
-inhabitant of the seas of Japan, and _Anema monopterygium_ in New
-Zealand.
-
-_Uranoscopus peruzzii_, an extinct star-gazer, has been described from
-the Pliocene of Tuscany.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 445.—A Star-gazer _Ariscopus iburius_ Jordan & Snyder. Iburi,
-    Japan.
-]
-
-=The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.=—Remotely allied to the _Uranoscopidæ_ is
-the interesting family of dragonets, or _Callionymidæ_. These are small
-scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle armed with a strong
-spine, the body bearing a general resemblance to the smaller and
-smoother _Cottidæ_. The gill-openings are very small, the ventral fins
-wide apart. The colors are highly variegated, the fins are high, often
-filamentous, and the sexes differ much in coloration and in the
-development of the fins. The species are especially numerous on the
-shores of Japan, where _Callionymus valenciennesi_, _Callionymus
-beniteguri_, and _Calliurichthys japonicus_ are food-fishes of some
-slight importance. Others are found in the East Indies, and several
-large and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean. _Callionymus
-draco_, the dragonet, or "sculpin," reaches the coast of England. In
-America but three species have been taken. These are dredged in deep
-water in the East Indies. In other parts of the world these fantastic
-little creatures are shore-fishes, creeping about in the shallow bays.
-Species of _Synchiropus_, colored like the coral sands, abound in the
-Polynesian coral reefs.
-
-A fossil species of _Callionymus_ (_C. macrocephalus_) are found in the
-Miocene of Croatia.
-
-The family of _Rhyacichthyidæ_ is a small group of Asiatic fishes allied
-to the _Callionymidæ_, but less elongate and differing in minor details.
-They are found not in the sea, but in mountain streams. _Rhyacichthys_
-(formerly called by the preoccupied name _Platyptera_) is the principal
-genus.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 446.—Star-gazer, _Astroscopus guttatus_ Abbott. (From life by Dr.
-    R. W. Shufeldt.)
-]
-
-The _Trichonontidæ_, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales, are
-also related to the _Callionymidæ_. The species are few, small, and
-confined to the Indian and Australian seas. Another small family closely
-related to this is the group of _Hemerocœtidæ_ of the same region.
-
-=The Dactyloscopidæ.=—In this and the preceding families of jugular
-fishes the ventral rays remain I, 5, as in the typical thoracic forms.
-In most of the families yet to be described the number is I, 3, a
-character which separates the little fishes of the family of
-_Dactyloscopidæ_ from the _Uranoscopidæ_ and _Leptoscopidæ_.
-_Dactyloscopus tridigitatus_ is a small fish of the coral sands of Cuba.
-The other species of this family are found mostly in the West Indies and
-on the west coast of Mexico. Several genera, _Myxodagnus_, _Gillellus_,
-_Dactylagnus_, etc., are recognized. In the structure of the
-shoulder-girdle these species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching
-the blennies, and their position is intermediate between _Trachinidæ_
-and _Blenniidæ_.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXIX
-                        THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 447.—Sarcastic Blenny, _Neoclinus satiricus_ Girard. Monterey.
-]
-
-THE great family of blennies, _Blenniidæ_, contains a vast number of
-species with elongate body, numerous dorsal spines, without suborbital
-stay or sucking-disk, and the ventrals jugular, where present, and of
-one spine and less than five soft rays. Most of them are of small size,
-living about rocks on the sea-shores of all regions. In general they are
-active fishes, of handsome but dark coloration, and in the different
-parts of the group is found great variety of structure. The tropical
-forms differ from those of arctic regions in the much shorter bodies and
-fewer vertebræ. These forms are most like ordinary fishes in appearance
-and structure and are doubtless the most primitive. Of the five hundred
-known species of blennies, we can note only a few of the most prominent.
-To _Clinus_ and related genera belong many species of the warm seas,
-scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most part. The largest of
-these is the great kelpfish of the coast of California, _Heterostichus
-rostratus_, a food-fish of importance, reaching the length of two feet.
-Others of this type scarcely exceed two inches. _Neoclinus satiricus_,
-also of California, is remarkable for the great length of the upper jaw,
-which is formed as in _Opisthognathus_. Its membranes are brightly
-colored, being edged with bright yellow. _Gibbonsia elegans_ is the
-pretty "señorita" of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California.
-_Lepisoma nuchipinne_, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very
-abundant in rock-pools of the West Indies. The species of
-_Auchenopterus_ abound in the rock-pools of tropical America. These are
-very small neatly colored fishes with but one soft ray in the long
-dorsal fin. Species of _Tripterygion_, _Myxodes_, _Cristiceps_, and
-other genera abound in the South Pacific.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 448.—Kelp Blenny, _Gibbonsia evides_ Jordan & Gilbert. San Diego.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 449.—_Blennius cristatus_ L. Florida.
-]
-
-In _Blennius_ and its relatives the body is scaleless and the slender
-teeth are arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most species long,
-fang-like posterior canines are developed in the jaws. _Blennius_ is
-represented in Europe by many species, _Blennius galerita_, _ocellaris_,
-and _basiliscus_ being among the most common. Certain species inhabit
-Italian lakes, having assumed a fresh-water habit. The numerous American
-species mostly belong to other related genera, _Chasmodes bosquianus_
-being most common. _Blennius yatabei_ abounds in Japan. In
-_Petroscirtes_ and its allies the gill-openings are much restricted. The
-species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very prettily colored.
-_Petroscirtes elegans_ and _P. trossulus_ adorn the Japanese rock-pools
-and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the coral reefs of
-Polynesia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 450.—Rock-skipper, _Alticus atlanticus_. San Cristobal, Lower
-    Cal.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 451.—Lizard-skipper, _Alticus saliens_ (Forster). A blenny which
-    lies out of water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with
-    great agility. From nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila
-    Island, Samoa. (About one-half size.)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 452.—_Emblemaria atlantica_ Jordan. Pensacola, Fla.
-]
-
-The rock-skippers (Salarias, Alticus, etc.) are herbivorous, with
-serrated teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live in the rock-pools of
-the tropics and leap from rock to rock when disturbed with the agility
-of lizards. They are dusky or gray in color with handsome markings. One
-of them, _Erpichthys_ or _Alticus saliens_ in Samoa, lives about lava
-rocks between tide-marks, and at low tide remains on the rocks, over
-which it runs with the greatest ease and with much speed, its movements
-being precisely like those of _Periophthalmus_. As in the species of the
-latter genus, otherwise wholly different, this _Alticus_ has short
-ventral fins padded with muscle.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 453.—_Scartichthys enosimæ_ Jordan & Snyder, a fish of the
-    rock-pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family
-    _Blenniidæ_.
-]
-
-_Erpichthys atlanticus_ is found in abundance on both coasts of tropical
-America. Many species abound in Polynesia and in both Indies. _Salarias
-enosimæ_ lives in the clefts of lava rocks on the shores of Japan.
-_Ophioblennius_ (_webbi_) is remarkable for its strong teeth,
-_Emblemaria_ (_nivipes_, _Atlantica_) for its very high dorsal. Many
-other genera allied to _Blennius_, _Clinus_, and _Salarias_ abound in
-the warm seas.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 454.—_Zacalles bryope_ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 455.—_Bryostemma tarsodes_ Jordan & Snyder. Unalaska.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 456.—_Exerpes asper_ Jenkins & Evermann. Guaymas, Mexico. Family
-    _Blenniidæ_.
-]
-
-=The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.=—The blennies of
-the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal fin more elongate,
-the dorsal fin usually but not always composed entirely of spines. The
-scales are small and the ventral fins generally reduced in size. These
-are divided by Dr. Gill into several distinct families, but the groups
-recognized by him are subject to intergradations.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 457.—Gunnel, _Pholis gunnellus_ (L.). Gloucester, Mass.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 458.—_Xiphistes chirus_ Jordan & Gilbert. Amchitka I., Alaska.
-]
-
-_Chirolophis_ (_ascanii_) of north Europe is remarkable for the tufted
-filaments on the head. These are still more developed in _Bryostemma_ of
-the North Pacific, _Bryostemma polyactocephalum_ and several other
-species being common from Puget Sound to Japan. _Apodichthys_
-(_flavidus_) of California is remarkable for a large quill-shaped anal
-spine and for the great variation in color, the hue being yellow,
-grass-green, or crimson, according to the color of the algæ about it.
-There is no evidence, however, that the individual fish can change its
-color, and these color forms seem to be distinct races within the
-species. _Xererpes fucorum_ of California lies quiescent in the seaweed
-(_Fucus_) after the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming
-to correspond exactly with those of the stems of algæ. _Pholis
-gunnellus_ is the common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both
-shores of the North Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific.
-Of these, _Enedrias nebulosus_, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially
-common in Japan. _Xiphidion_ and _Xiphistes_ of the California coast,
-and _Dictyosoma_ of Japan, among others, are remarkable for the great
-number of lateral lines, these extending crosswise as well as
-lengthwise. _Cebedichthys violaceus_, a large blenny of California, has
-the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays. _Opisthocentrus_ of
-Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines flexible, only the
-posterior ones being short and stiff. The snake-blennies (_Lumpenus_),
-numerous in the far North, are extremely slender, with well-developed
-pectorals and ventrals. _Lumpenus lampetræformis_ is found on both
-shores of the Atlantic. In _Stichæus_ a lateral line is present. There
-is none in _Lumpenus_, and in _Ernogrammus_ and _Ozorthe_ there are
-three. All these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and
-especially characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are
-almost unknown. _Pterygocephalus paradoxus_ of the Eocene resembles the
-living _Cristiceps_, a genus which differs from _Clinus_ in having the
-first few dorsal spines detached, inserted on the head. The first spine
-alone in _Pterygocephalus_ is detached and is very strong. A species
-called _Clinus gracilis_ is described from the Miocene near Vienna,
-_Blennius fossilis_ from the Miocene of Croatia, and an uncertain
-_Oncolepis isseli_ from Monte Bolca. The family is certainly one of the
-most recent in geologic times. The family of _Blenniidæ_, as here
-recognized, includes a very great variety of forms and should perhaps be
-subdivided into several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At present
-there is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 459.—_Ozorthe dictyogramma_ (Hertzenstein), a Japanese blenny
-    from Hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait
-    characteristic of many fishes of the north Pacific.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 460.—_Stichæus punctatus_ Fabricius. St. Michael, Alaska.
-]
-
-=The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.=—The _Ptilichthyidæ_, or quillfishes,
-are small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with very numerous
-fin-rays. _Ptilichthys goodei_ has 90 dorsal spines and 145 soft rays.
-Another group of very slender naked blennies is the small family of
-_Xiphasiidæ_ from the South Pacific. The jaws have excessively long
-canines; there are no ventral fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the
-caudal ends in a long thread.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 461.—_Bryostemma otohime_ Jordan & Snyder. Hakodate, Japan.
-    Family _Blenniidæ_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 462.—Quillfish, _Ptilichthys goodei_ Bean. Unalaska.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 463.—_Blochius longirostris_ Volta, restored. Upper Eocene of
-    Monte Bolca. (After Woodward.)
-]
-
-=The Blochiidæ.=—Of doubtful relationship is the extinct family of
-_Blochiidæ_. In this group the body is elongate, covered with keeled
-plates imbricated like shingles. The dorsal is composed of many slender
-spines, and the vertebræ much elongate. In _Blochius longirostris_
-(Monte Bolca Eocene) has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel
-regards the family as allied to the _Belonorhynchidæ_, but the
-prolongation of the jaws may be a character of analogy merely. Woodward
-places it next to the _Blenniidæ_, supposing it to have small and
-jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of ventral fins is uncertain,
-the position of the family cannot be ascertained and it may really
-belong in the neighborhood of _Ammodytes_. The dorsal rays are figured
-by Woodward as simple.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 464.—_Xiphasia setifera_ Swainson. India. (After Day.)
-]
-
-=The Patæcidæ etc.=—The _Patæcidæ_ are blenny-like fishes of Australia,
-having the form of _Congriopus_, the spinous dorsal being very high and
-inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. _Patæcus fronto_ is not rare
-in South Australia. The _Gnathanacanthidæ_ is another small group of
-peculiar blennies from the Pacific. The _Acanthoclinidæ_ are small
-blennies of New Zealand with numerous spines in the anal fin.
-_Acanthoclinus littoreus_ is the only known species.
-
-=The Gadopsidæ, etc.=—The family of _Gadopsidæ_ of the rivers of New
-Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single species, _Gadopsis
-marmoratus_, resembling the scaly blennies called _Clinus_, but with
-long ventrals of a single ray, and three spines in the anal fin besides
-other peculiarities. The species is locally very common and with various
-other fishes in regions where true trout are unknown, it is called
-"trout."
-
-The _Cerdalidæ_ are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific coast of
-Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually into soft rays. Three
-species are known.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 465.—Wrymouth, _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_. New York.
-]
-
-The wrymouths, or _Cryptacanthodidæ_, are large blennies of the northern
-seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the head cuboid. The wrymouth
-or ghostfish, _Cryptacanthodes maculatus_, is frequently taken from Long
-Island northward. It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure
-white. Other genera are found in the north Pacific.
-
-=The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.=—The wolf-fishes (_Anarhichadidæ_) are
-large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for their strong teeth.
-Those in front are conical canines. Those behind are coarse molars. The
-dorsal is high, of flexible spines. The species are large, powerful,
-voracious fishes, known as wolf-fishes. _Anarhichas lupus_ is the common
-wolf-fish of the north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet,
-the body marked by dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found
-both in the north Pacific and north Atlantic. _Anarhichas lepturus_,
-plain brown in color, is common about the Aleutian Islands.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 466.—Wolf-fish, _Anarhichas lupus_ (L.). Georges Bank.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 467.—Skull of _Anarrhichthys ocellatus_ Ayres.
-]
-
-In the wolf-eel (_Anarrhichthys ocellatus_) of the coast of California,
-the head is formed as in _Anarhichas_ but the body is band-shaped, being
-drawn out into a very long and tapering tail. This species, which is
-often supposed to be a "sea-serpent," sometimes reaches a length of
-eight feet. It is used for food. It feeds on sea-urchins and
-sand-dollars (_Echinarachinius_) which it readily crushes with its
-tremendous teeth.
-
-The skull of a fossil genus, _Laparus_ (_alticeps_), with a resemblance
-to _Anarhichas_, is recorded from the Eocene of England.
-
-=The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.=—The remaining blenny-like forms lack fin
-spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and their allies. In
-all of the latter, however, the hypercoracoid is imperforate, the
-pseudobranchiæ are obsolete, and the tail isocercal. The forms allied to
-_Zoarces_ and _Ophidion_, and which we may regard as degraded blennies,
-have homocercal (rarely leptocercal) tails, generally but not always
-well-developed pseudobranchiæ and the usual foramen in the
-hypercoracoid.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Fig. 463._—Eel-pout, _Zoarces anguillaris_ Peck. Eastport, Me.
-]
-
-The _Zoarcidæ_, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked, or covered
-with small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft rays and the
-gill-openings confined to the side. Most of the species live in rather
-deep water in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. _Zoarces viviparus_, the
-"mother of eels," is a common fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In
-the genus _Zoarces_, the last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff,
-like spines. The species are viviparous; the young being eel-like in
-form, the name "mother of eels" has naturally arisen in popular
-language. The American eel-pout, sometimes called mutton-fish, _Zoarces
-anguillaris_, is rather common north of Cape Cod, and a similar species,
-_Zoarces elongatus_, is found in northern Japan. _Lycodopsis pacifica_,
-without spines in the dorsal, replaces _Zoarces_ in California. The
-species of _Lycodes_, without spines in the dorsal, and with teeth on
-the vomer and palatines, are very abundant in the northern seas,
-extending into deep waters farther south. _Lycodes reticulatus_ is the
-most abundant of these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux
-and other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are recorded
-from deep-sea explorations, and several others occur about Tierra del
-Fuego. _Gymnelis_, small, naked species brightly colored, is represented
-by _Gymnelis viridis_ in the Arctic and by _Gymnelis pictus_ about Cape
-Horn.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 469.—Eel-pout, _Lycodes reticulatus_ Reinhardt. Banquereau.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 470.—_Lycenchelys verrilli_ (Goode & Bean). Chebucto, Nova
-    Scotia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 471.—_Scytalina cerdale_ Jordan & Gilbert. Straits of Fuca.
-]
-
-The family of _Scytalinidæ_ contains a single species, _Scytalina
-cerdale_, a small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel between
-tide-marks, on Waada Island near Cape Flattery in Washington, not having
-yet been found elsewhere. It dives among the wet stones with great
-celerity, and can only be taken by active digging.
-
-To the family of _Congrogadidæ_ belong several species of eel-shaped
-blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia. Another small
-family, _Derepodichthyidæ_, is represented by one species, a scaleless
-little fish from the shores of British Columbia.
-
-The _Xenocephalidæ_ consist of a single peculiar species, _Xenocephalus
-armatus_, from the island of New Ireland. The head is very large,
-helmeted with bony plates and armed with spines. The body is short and
-slender, the ventrals with five rays, the dorsal and anal short.
-
-=The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.=—The more important family of _Ophidiidæ_, or
-cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely anterior position of the
-ventral fins, which are inserted at the throat, each one appearing as a
-long forked barbel. The tail is leptocercal, attenuate, the dorsal and
-anal confluent around it. _Ophidion barbatum_ and _Rissola rochei_ are
-common in southern Europe. _Rissola marginata_ is the commonest species
-on our Atlantic coast, and _Chilara taylori_ in California. Other
-species are found farther south, and still others in deep water.
-_Genypterus_ contains numerous species of the south Pacific, some of
-which reach the length of five feet, forming a commercial substitute for
-cod. _Genypterus capensis_ is the klipvisch of the Cape of Good Hope,
-and _Genypterus australis_ the "Cloudy Bay cod" or "rock ling" of New
-England. Another large species, _Genypterus maculatus_, occurs in Chile.
-A few fragments doubtfully referred to _Ophidion_ and _Fierasfer_ occur
-in the Eocene and later rocks. The _Lycodapodidæ_ contain a few small,
-scaleless fishes (_Lycodapus_) dredged in the north Pacific.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 472.—Cusk-eel, _Rissola marginata_ (De Kay). Virginia.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 473.—_Lycodapus dermatinus_ Gilbert. Lower California.
-]
-
-=Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.=—Near the _Ophidiidæ_ are placed the small
-family of sand-lances (_Ammodytidæ_). This family comprises small,
-slender, silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical seas, living along
-shore and having the habit of burying themselves in the sand under the
-surf in shallow water. The jaws are toothless, the body scarcely scaly
-and crossed by many cross-folds of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is
-without spines, and the ventral fins when present are jugular. The
-species of the family are very much alike. From their great abundance
-they have sometimes much value as food, more perhaps as bait, still more
-as food for salmon and other fishes, from which they escape by plunging
-into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide leaves a sandy beach fairly
-covered with living "lants" looking like a moving foam of silver.
-_Ammodytes tobianus_ is the sand-lance or lant of northern Europe.
-_Ammodytes americanus_, scarcely distinguishable, replaces it in
-America; and _Ammodytes personatus_ in California, Alaska, and Japan.
-This is a most excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little
-things, value it highly.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 474.—Sand-lance, _Ammodytes americanus_ De Kay. Nantucket.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 475.—_Embolichthys mitsukurii_ (Jordan & Evermann). Formosa.
-]
-
-In the genus _Hyperoplus_ there is a large tooth on the vomer. In the
-tropical genera there is a much smaller number of vertebræ and the body
-is covered with ordinary scales instead of delicate, oblique cross-folds
-of skin. These tropical species must probably be detached from the
-_Ammodytidæ_ to form a distinct family, _Bleekeriidæ_. _Bleekeria
-kallolepis_ is found in India, _Bleekeria gilli_ is from an unknown
-locality, and the most primitive species of sand-lance, _Embolichthys
-mitsukurii_, occurs in Formosa. In this species, alone of the
-sand-lances, the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in
-position, as in the _Zoarcidæ_, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of
-this species makes it necessary to separate the _Ammodytidæ_ and
-_Bleekeriidæ_ widely from the _Percesoces_, and especially from the
-extinct families of _Crossognathidæ_ and _Cobitopsidæ_ with which its
-structure in other regards has led Woodward, Boulenger, and the present
-writer to associate it.
-
-Although an alleged sand-lance, _Rhynchias septipinnis_, with ventral
-fins abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas, no one has since
-seen it, and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it may belong among the
-_Percesoces_. The relation of _Ammodytes_ to _Embolichthys_ is too close
-to doubt their close relationship. According to Dr. Gill the
-_Ammodytidæ_ belong near the _Hemerocœtidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 476.—Pearlfish, _Fierasfer dubius_ Putnam, embedded in a layer of
-    mother-of-pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M.
-    Castro.)
-]
-
-=The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.=—In the little group of pearlfishes,
-called _Fierasferidæ_ or _Carapidæ_, the body is eel-shaped with a
-rather large head, and the vent is at the throat. Numerous species of
-_Fierasfer_ (_Carapus_) are found in the warm seas. These little fishes
-enter the cavities of sea-cucumbers (Holothurians) and other animals
-which offer shelter, being frequently taken from the pearl-oyster. In
-the Museum of Comparative Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is
-"one valve of a pearl-oyster in which a specimen of _Fierasfer dubius_
-is beautifully inclosed in a pearly covering deposited on it by the
-oyster." A photograph of a similar specimen is given above. The species
-found in Holothurians are transparent in texture, with a bright pearly
-luster. Species living among lava rocks, as _Jordanicus umbratilis_ of
-the south seas, are mottled black. Since this was written a specimen of
-this black species has been obtained from a Holothurian in Hilo, Hawaii,
-by Mr. H. W. Henshaw.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 477.—Pearlfish, _Fierasfer acus_ (Linnæus), issuing from a
-    Holothurian. Coast of Italy. (After Emery.)
-]
-
-=The Brotulidæ.=—The _Brotulidæ_ constitute a large family of fishes,
-resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of the
-hypercoracoid, as well as in the form of the tail. The resemblance
-between the two groups is largely superficial. We may look upon the
-_Brotulidæ_ as degraded blennies, but the _Gadidæ_ have an earlier and
-different origin which has not yet been clearly made out. Most of the
-_Brotulidæ_ live in deep water and are without common name or economic
-relations. Two species have been landlocked in cave streams in Cuba,
-where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their sight, a phenomenon
-which richly deserves careful study, and which has been recently
-investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind Brotulids, called Pez
-Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves in the county of San
-Antonio, where they reach a length of about five inches. As in other
-blindfishes, the body is translucent and colorless. These species are
-known as _Lucifuga subterranea_ and _Stygicola dentata_. They are
-descended from allies of the genera called _Brotula_ and
-_Dinematichthys_. _Brotula barbata_ is a cusk-like fish, occasionally
-found in the markets of Havana. Similar species, _Brotula multibarbata_
-and _Sirembo inermis_, are common in Japan, and _Brosmophycis
-marginatus_, beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen on the coast
-of California. Many other genera and species abound in the depths of the
-sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much variety in form and
-structure.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 478.—_Brotula barbata_ Schneider. Cuba.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 479.—Blind Brotula. _Lucifuga subterranea_ (Poey), showing
-    viviparous habit. Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by
-    Dr. Eigenmann.)
-]
-
-The _Bregmacerotidæ_ are small fishes, closely related to the Brotulids,
-having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with several minor
-peculiarities, the first ray of the dorsal being free and much elongate.
-They live near the surface in the open sea. _Bregmaceros macclellandi_
-is widely diffused in the Pacific.
-
-=Ateleopodidæ.=—The small family of _Ateleopodidæ_ includes long-bodied,
-deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling _Macrourus_, but with
-smooth scales. The group has the coracoids as in _Brotulidæ_, and the
-actinosts are united in an undivided plate. _Ateleopus japonicus_ is the
-species taken in Japan.
-
-=Suborder Haplodoci.=—We may here place the peculiar family of
-_Batrachoididæ_, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder of
-_Haplodoci_ (ἁπλόος, simple; δόκος, shaft) from the simple form of the
-post-temporal. This order is characterized by the undivided
-post-temporal bone and by the reduction of the gill-arches to three. A
-second bone behind the post-temporal connects the shoulder-girdle above
-to the vertebral column. The coracoid bones are more or less elongate,
-suggesting the arm seen in pediculate fishes.
-
-The single family has the general form of the _Cottidæ_, the body
-robust, with large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and short spinous
-dorsal fin. The shoulder-girdle and its structures differ little from
-the blennioid type. There are no pseudobranchiæ and the tail is
-homocercal. The species are relatively few, chiefly confined to the warm
-seas and mostly American, none being found in Europe or Asia. Some of
-them ascend rivers, and all are carnivorous and voracious. None are
-valued as food, being coarse-grained in flesh. The group is probably
-nearest allied to the _Trachinidæ_ or _Uranoscopidæ_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 480.—Leopard Toadfish, _Opsanus pardus_ (Goode & Bean).
-    Pensacola.
-]
-
-_Opsanus tau_, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our Atlantic
-coast, is very common in rocky places, the young clinging to stones by a
-sucking-disk on the belly, a structure which is early lost. It reaches a
-length of about fifteen inches. _Opsanus pardus_, the leopard toadfish,
-or sapo, of the Gulf coast, lives in deeper water and is prettily marked
-with dark-brown spots on a light yellowish ground.
-
-In _Opsanus_ the body is naked and there is a large foramen, or mucous
-pore, in the axil of the pectoral. In the _Marcgravia cryptocentra_, a
-large Brazilian toadfish, this foramen is absent. In _Batrachoides_, a
-South American genus, the body is covered with cycloid scales.
-_Batrachoides surinamensis_ is a common species of the West Indies.
-_Batrachoides pacifici_ occurs at Panama. The genus _Porichthys_ is
-remarkable for the development of series of mucous pores and luminous
-spots in several different lateral lines which cover the body. These
-luminous spots are quite unlike those found in the lantern-fishes
-(_Myctophidæ_) and other _Iniomi_. Their structure has been worked out
-in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, a summary of whose conclusions
-are given on page 191, Vol. I.
-
-The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of California is
-_Porichthys notatus_. This species, named midshipman from its rows of
-shining spots like brass buttons, is found among rocks and kelp and
-makes a peculiar quivering or humming noise with its large air-bladder.
-
-_Porichthys porosissimus_, the bagre sapo, is common on all coasts of
-the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. _Porichthys margaritatus_ is
-found about Panama and _Porichthys porosus_ in Chile.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 481.—Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, _Porichthys porosissimus_ (Cuv.
-    & Val.). Galveston.
-]
-
-The species of _Thalassophryne_ and _Thalassothia_, the poison
-toadfishes, are found along the coasts of South America, where they
-sometimes ascend the rivers. In these species there is an elaborate
-series of venom glands connected with the hollow spines of the opercle
-and the dorsal spines. Dr. Günther gives the following account of this
-structure as shown in _Thalassophryne reticulata_, a species from
-Panama:
-
-"In this species I first observed and closely examined the poison organ
-with which the fishes of this genus are provided. Its structure is as
-follows: (1) The opercular part: The operculum is very narrow,
-vertically styliform and very mobile; it is armed behind with a spine,
-eight lines long in a specimen of 10½ inches, and of the same form as
-the venom fang of a snake; it is, however, somewhat less curved, being
-only slightly bent upward. It has a longish slit at the outer side of
-its extremity which leads into a canal perfectly closed and running
-along the whole length of its interior; a bristle introduced into the
-canal reappears through another opening at the base of the spine,
-entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the basal half of
-the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and about double the size
-of an oat grain. Though the specimen had been preserved in spirits for
-about nine months it still contained a whitish substance of the
-consistency of thick cream, which on the slightest pressure freely
-flowed from the opening in the extremity of the spine. On the other
-hand, the sac could be easily filled with air or fluid from the foramen
-of the spine. No gland could be discovered in the immediate neighborhood
-of the sac; but on a more careful inspection I found a minute tube
-floating free in the sac, whilst on the left-hand side there is only a
-small opening instead of the tube. The attempts to introduce a bristle
-into this opening for any distance failed, as it appears to lead into
-the interior of the basal portion of the operculum, to which the sac
-firmly adheres at this spot. (2) The dorsal part is composed of the two
-dorsal spines, each of which is ten lines long. The whole arrangement is
-the same as in the opercular spines; their slit is at the front side of
-the point; each has a separate sac, which occupies the front of the
-basal portion; the contents were the same as in the opercular sacs, but
-in somewhat greater quantity. A strong branch of the lateral line
-ascends to the immediate neighborhood of their base. Thus we have four
-poison spines, each with a sac at its base; the walls of the sacs are
-thin, composed of a fibrous membrane, the interior of which is coated
-over with mucus. There are no secretory glands embedded between these
-membranes, and these sacs are probably merely the reservoirs in which
-the fluid secreted accumulates. The absence of a secretory organ in the
-immediate neighborhood of the reservoirs (an organ the size of which
-would be in accordance with the quantity of fluid secreted), the
-diversity of the osseous spines which have been modified into poison
-organs, and the actual communication indicated by the foramen in the sac
-lead me to the opinion that the organ of secretion is either that system
-of muciferous channels which is found in nearly the whole class of
-fishes, and the secretion of which has poisonous qualities in a few of
-them, or at least an independent portion of it. This description was
-made from the first example; through the kindness of Captain Dow I
-received two other specimens, and in the hope of proving the connection
-of the poison bags with the lateral-line system, I asked Dr. Pettigrew,
-of the Royal College of Surgeons, a gentleman whose great skill has
-enriched that collection with a series of the most admirable anatomical
-preparations, to lend me his assistance in injecting the canals. The
-injection of the bags through the opening of the spine was easily
-accomplished; but we failed to drive the fluid beyond the bag or to fill
-with it any other part of the system of muciferous channels. This,
-however, does not disprove the connection of the poison bags with that
-system, inasmuch as it became apparent that if there be minute openings
-they are so contracted by the action of the spirit in which the
-specimens were preserved as to be impassable to the fluid of injection.
-A great part of the lateral-line system consists of open canals;
-however, on some parts of the body, these canals are entirely covered by
-the skin; thus, for instance, the open lateral line ceases apparently in
-the suprascapular region, being continued in the parietal region. We
-could not discover any trace of an opening by which the open canal leads
-to below the skin; yet we could distinctly trace the existence of the
-continuation of the canal by a depressed line, so that it is quite
-evident that such openings do exist, although they may be passable only
-in fresh specimens. Thus likewise the existence of openings in the bags,
-as I believed to have found in the first specimen dissected, may be
-proved by examination of fresh examples. The sacs are without an
-external muscular layer and situated immediately below the loose thick
-skin which envelops their spines to their extremity. The injection of
-the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected by the
-pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine enters
-another body. Nobody will suppose that a complicated apparatus like the
-one described can be intended for conveying an innocuous substance, and
-therefore I have not hesitated to designate it as poisonous; and,
-Captain Dow informs me in a letter lately received, 'the natives of
-Panama seemed quite familiar with the existence of the spines and of the
-emission from them of a poison which, when introduced into a wound,
-caused fever, an effect somewhat similar to that produced by the sting
-of a scorpion; but in no case was a wound caused by one of them known to
-result seriously. The slightest pressure of the finger at the base of
-the spine caused the poison to jet a foot or more from the opening of
-the spine.' The greatest importance must be attached to this fact,
-inasmuch as it assists us in our inquiries into the nature of the
-functions of the muciferous system, the idea of its being a secretory
-organ having lately been superseded by the notion that it serves merely
-as a stratum for the distribution of peripheric nerves. Also the
-objection that the sting-rays and many Siluroid fishes are not poisonous
-because they have no poison organ cannot be maintained, although the
-organs conveying their poison are neither so well adapted for this
-purpose nor in such a perfect connection with the secretory mucous
-system as in _Thalassophryne_. The poison organ serves merely as a
-weapon of defense. All the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth on the palate
-and in the lower jaw feed on Mollusca and Crustaceans."
-
-No fossil _Batrachoididæ_ are known.
-
-=Suborder Xenopterygii.=—The clingfishes, forming the suborder
-_Xenopterygii_ (ξενός, strange; πτερύξ, fin), are, perhaps, allied to
-the toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays I, 4 or I, 5, and
-between them is developed an elaborate sucking-disk, not derived from
-modified fins, but from folds of the skin and underlying muscles.
-
-The structure of this disk in _Gobiesox sanguineus_ is thus described by
-Dr. Günther:
-
-"The whole disk is exceedingly large, subcircular, longer than broad,
-its length being (often) one-third of the whole length of the fish. The
-central portion is formed merely by skin, which is separated from the
-pelvic or pubic bones by several layers of muscles. The peripheric
-portion is divided into an anterior and posterior part by a deep notch
-behind the ventrals. The anterior peripheric portion is formed by the
-ventral rays, the membrane between them and a broad fringe which extends
-anteriorly from one ventral to the other. This fringe is a fold of the
-skin, containing on one side the rudimentary ventral spine, but no
-cartilage. The posterior peripheric portion is suspended on each side on
-the coracoid, the upper bone of which is exceedingly broad, becoming a
-free, movable plate behind the pectoral. The lower bone of the coracoid
-is of a triangular form, and supports a very broad fold of the skin,
-extending from one side to the other, and containing a cartilage which
-runs through the whole of that fold. Fine processes of the cartilage are
-continued into the soft striated margin, in which the disk terminates
-posteriorly. The face of the disk is coated with a thick epidermis, like
-the sole of the foot in higher animals. The epidermis is divided into
-many polygonal plates. There are no such plates between the roots of the
-ventral fins."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 482.—_Aspasma ciconiæ_ Jordan & Snyder. Wakanoura, Japan.
-]
-
-The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin is naked and
-there is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows several
-peculiarities; there is no suborbital ring, the palatine arcade is
-reduced, as are the gill-arches, the opercle is reduced to a spine-like
-projection, and the vertebræ are numerous. The species are found in
-tide-pools in the warm seas, where they cling tightly to the rocks with
-their large ventral disks.
-
-Several species of _Lepadogaster_ and _Mirbelia_ are found in the
-Mediterranean. _Lepadogaster gouani_ is the best-known European species.
-_Aspasma ciconiæ_ and _minima_ occur about the rocks in the bays of
-Japan.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 483.—Clingfish, _Caularchus mæandricus_ (Girard). Monterey, Cal.
-]
-
-Most of the West Indian species belong to _Gobiesox_, with entire teeth,
-and to _Arbaciosa_, with serrated teeth. Some of these species are deep
-crimson in color, but most of them are dull olive. _Gobiesox virgatulus_
-is common on the Gulf Coast. _Caularchus mæandricus_, a very large
-species, reaching a length of six inches, abounds along the coast of
-California. Other genera are found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially
-about New Zealand. _Chorisochismus dentex_, from the Cape of Good Hope,
-reaches the length of a foot.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXX
-                       OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI
-
-
-=ORDER Opisthomi.=—The order _Opisthomi_ (ὄπισθη, behind; ὤμος,
-shoulder) is characterized by the general traits of the blennies and
-other elongate, spiny-rayed fishes, but the shoulder-girdle, as in the
-Apodes and the _Heteromi_, is inserted on the vertebral column well
-behind the skull.
-
-The single family, _Mastacembelidæ_, is composed of eel-shaped fishes
-with a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting the waters of
-India, Africa, and the East Indies. They are small in size and of no
-economic importance. The dorsal is long, with free spines in front and
-there are no ventral fins. Were these fins developed, they should in
-theory be jugular in position. There is no air-duct in _Mastacembelus_
-and it seems to be a true spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation
-to either _Notacanthus_ or to the eels. Except for the separation of the
-shoulder-girdle from the skull, there seems to be no reason for
-separating them far from the Blennioid forms, and the resemblance to
-_Notacanthus_ seems wholly fallacious.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 484.—_Mastacembelus ellipsifer_ Boulenger. Congo River. (After
-    Boulenger.)
-]
-
-_Mastacembelus armatus_ is a common species of India and China. In
-_Rhynchobdella_ the nasal appendage or proboscis, conspicuous in
-_Mastacembelus_, is still more developed. _Rhynchobdella aculeata_ is
-common in India.
-
-=Order Anacanthini.=—We may separate from the other jugular fishes the
-great group of codfishes and their allies, retaining the name
-Anacanthini (ἄνακανθος, without spine) suggested by Johannes Müller. In
-this group the hypercoracoid is without foramen, the fenestra lying
-between this bone and the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal,
-the vertebræ in a right line and progressively smaller backward,
-sometimes degenerate or whip-like (leptocercal) at tip. Other characters
-are shown in the structure of the skull. There are no spines in any of
-the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales generally small, and the
-coloration dull or brownish. The numerous species live chiefly in the
-northern seas, some of them descending to great depths. The resemblance
-of these fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very strongly marked,
-but these likenesses seem analogical only and not indicative of true
-affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early offshoot from the
-ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of evolution is
-unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. Among recent fishes there is
-nothing structurally nearer than the _Nototheniidæ_ and _Brotulidæ_, but
-the line of descent must branch off much farther back than either of
-these. For the present, therefore, we may regard the codfishes and their
-allies (_Anacanthini_) as a distinct order.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 485.—Codfish, _Gadus callarias_ L. Eastport, Me.
-]
-
-=The Codfishes: Gadidæ.=—The chief family is that of the _Gadidæ_, or
-codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance to the
-common codfish, _Gadus callarias_. This is one of the best known of
-fishes, found everywhere on the shores of the North Atlantic, and the
-subject of economic fisheries of the greatest importance. Its flesh is
-white, flaky, rather tasteless, but takes salt readily, and is
-peculiarly well adapted for drying. The average size of the codfish is
-about ten pounds, but Captain Nathaniel Atwood of Provincetown records
-one with the weight of 160 pounds.
-
-According to Dr. Goode:
-
-"In the western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in
-considerable abundance as far south as the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay,
-latitude 37°, and stragglers have been observed about Ocracoke Inlet.
-The southern limits of the species may be safely considered to be Cape
-Hatteras, in latitude 35° 10´. Along the coast of New England, the
-Middle States, and British North America, and upon all the off-shore
-banks of this region, cod are found usually in great abundance, during
-part of the year at least. They have been observed also in the Gulf of
-Bothnia, latitude 70° to 75°, and in the southeastern part of Baffin's
-Land to the northward of Cumberland Sound, and it is more than probable
-that they occur in the waters of the Arctic Sea to the north of the
-American continent, or away around to Bering Strait."
-
-Dr. Gill says:
-
-"The ocean banks of moderate depths are the favorite resorts of the cod,
-but it is by no means confined to those localities. The fish, indeed,
-occasionally enters into fresh, or at least brackish, water. According
-to Canadian authorities, it is found 'well up the estuary of the St.
-Lawrence, though how far up is not definitely stated, probably not
-beyond the limits of brackish water.' Even as far south as the Delaware
-River it has been known to enter the streams. Dr. C. C. Abbott records
-that in January, 1876, 'a healthy, strong, active codfish, weighing
-nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-net in the Delaware River near
-Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach of the fish showed that it had been in
-river-water several days. Many of them had been taken about Philadelphia
-between 1856 and 1869.'
-
-"The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary fishes, and almost
-everything that is eatable, and some that is not, may find its way into
-its capacious maw. Years ago, before naturalists had the facilities that
-the dredge now affords, cods' stomachs were the favorite resort for rare
-shells, and some species had never been obtained otherwise than through
-such a medium, while many filled the cabinet that would not otherwise
-have been represented. In the words of Mr. Goode, 'codfish swallow
-bivalve fish of the largest size, like the great sea-clams, which are a
-favorite article of food on certain portions of the coast'; further,
-'these shells are nested, the smaller inside of the larger, sometimes
-six or seven in a set, having been packed together in this compact
-manner in the stomachs of the codfish after the soft parts have been
-digested out. Some of them had shreds of the muscles remaining in them
-and were quite fresh, having evidently been but recently ejected by the
-fish.' Even banks of dead shells have been found in various regions,
-which are supposed to be the remains of mollusks taken by the cod.
-Shell-fishes, however, form probably but the smaller portion of its
-diet, and fishes of its own class contribute materially to its food,—
-such as the herring family, the capelin, etc.
-
-"The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some interesting
-peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to spawn, as was once
-supposed, but its eggs are deposited in mid-sea and float to the
-surface, although it does really, in many cases, approach the land to do
-so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who has discovered its peculiarities, 'found cod
-at a distance of twenty to thirty Norwegian miles from the shore and at
-a depth of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty fathoms.' The eggs
-thus confided to the mercy of the waves are very numerous; as many as
-9,100,000 have been calculated in a seventy-five-pound fish. 'When the
-eggs are first seen in the fish they are so small as to be hardly
-distinguishable; but they continue to increase in size until maturity,
-and after impregnation have a diameter depending upon the size of the
-parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch. A
-five- to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a
-twenty-five-pound one has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.'
-There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to a pound avoirdupois.
-They are matured and ejected from September to November."
-
-Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait also found
-in the salmon family.
-
-The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great value in the
-medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation.
-
-The Alaska cod, _Gadus macrocephalus_, is equally abundant with the
-Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly, the air-bladder
-or sounds being smaller, according to the fishermen, and the head being
-somewhat larger. This species is found from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in
-Japan, and is very abundant about the Aleutian Islands and especially in
-the Okhotsk Sea. With equal markets it would be as important
-commercially as the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (_Gadus_) and related
-genera there are three dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the
-lateral line is pale and the lower jaw shorter than the upper.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 486.—Skull of Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 487.—Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_ (L.). Eastport, Me.
-]
-
-The haddock (_Melanogrammus æglifinus_) closely resembles the cod and is
-of similar quality as food. It is known at sight by the black lateral
-line. It is found on both shores of the Atlantic and when smoked is the
-"finnan haddie" of commerce.
-
-The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (_Pollachius carbonarius_) is also
-common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker than the cod
-and more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer, with a smaller barbel at
-tip. It is especially excellent when fresh.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 488.—Pollock, _Theragra chalcogramma_ (Pallas). Shumagin I.,
-    Alaska.
-]
-
-The whiting (_Merlangus merlangus_) is a pollack-like fish common on the
-British coasts, but not reaching the American shores. It is found in
-large schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack (_Theragra
-chalcogramma_) is a large fish with projecting lower jaw, widely
-diffused in the north Pacific and useful as a food-fish to the Aleutian
-peoples. It furnishes a large part of the food of the fur-seal
-(_Callorhinus alascanus_ and _C. ursinus_) during its migrations. The
-fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which swims near the bottom.
-The wall-eyed pollack (_Theragra fucensis_) is found about Puget Sound.
-Smaller codfishes of this type are the wachna cod (_Eleginus navaga_) of
-Siberia and the Arctic codling (_Boreogadus saida_), both common about
-Kamchatka, the latter crossing to Greenland.
-
-Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dorsal fins and
-a barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among these are the tomcod, or
-frostfish, of the Atlantic (_Microgadus tomcod_), the California tomcod
-(_Microgadus proximus_), and _Micromesistius poutassou_ of the
-Mediterranean. These little cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh
-is soft and without much flavor.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 489.—Tomcod, _Microgadus tomcod_ (Walbaum). Wood's Hole, Mass.
-]
-
-Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin. Many of
-these occur in deep water. Among those living near shore, and therefore
-having economic value, we may mention a few of the more prominent. The
-codlings (_Urophycis_) are represented by numerous species on both
-shores of the Atlantic. _Urophycis blennoides_ is common in the
-Mediterranean. _Urophycis regius_, on our South Atlantic coast, is said
-to exhibit electric powers in life, a statement that needs verification.
-In the Gulf of Mexico _Urophycis floridanus_ is common. Farther north
-are the more important species _Urophycis tenuis_, called the white
-hake, and _Urophycis chuss_, the squirrel-hake. The ling (_Molva molva_)
-is found in deep water about the North Sea.
-
-A related genus, _Lota_, the burbot, called also ling and, in America,
-the lawyer, is found in fresh waters. This genus contains the only
-fresh-water members of the group of _Anacanthini_.
-
-The European burbot, _Lota lota_, is common in the streams and lakes of
-northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish, coarse in flesh and
-rather tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled and soaked in vinegar or
-made into salad. It is dark olive in color, thickly marbled with
-blackish.
-
-The American burbot, or lawyer (_Lota maculosa_), is very much like the
-European species. It is found from New England throughout the Great
-Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a length of usually two or three feet and
-is little valued as food in the United States, but rises much in esteem
-farther north. The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia
-its skin is used instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to
-Dr. Dall, it reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty pounds.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 490.—Burbot, _Lota maculosa_ (Le Sueur). New York.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 491.—Four-bearded Rockling, _Enchelyopus cimbrius_ (Linnæus).
-    Nahant, Mass.
-]
-
-The rocklings (_Gaidropsarus_ and _Enchelyopus_) have the first dorsal
-composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single ray. The species are
-small and slender, abounding chiefly in the Mediterranean and the North
-Atlantic. The young have been called "mackerel-midges." Our commonest
-species is _Enchelyopus cimbrius_, found also in Great Britain.
-
-The cusk, or torsk, _Brosme brosme_, has a single dorsal fin only. It is
-a large fish found on both shores of the North Atlantic, but rather rare
-on our coasts.
-
-Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to belong to this
-family are found in English Eocene rocks.
-
-_Nemopteryx troscheli_, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three dorsal
-fins and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been referred with more
-or less doubt to _Gadus_, _Brosmius_, _Strinsia_, and _Melanogrammus_.
-
-Gill separates the "three-forked hake" (_Raniceps trifurcus_) of
-northern Europe as a distinct family, _Ranicipitidæ_. In this species
-the head is very large, broad and depressed, differing in this regard
-from the codlings and hakes, which have also two dorsal fins. The
-deep-water genus, _Bathyonus_, is also regarded as a distinct family,
-_Bathyonidæ_.
-
-=The Hakes: Merluciidæ.=—Better defined than these families is the
-family of hakes, _Merluciidæ_. These pike-like codfishes have the skull
-peculiarly formed, the frontal bones being paired, excavated above, with
-diverging crests continuous forward from the forked occipital crest. The
-species are large fishes, very voracious, without barbels, with the
-skeleton papery and the flesh generally soft. The various species are
-all very much alike, large, ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a
-ragged appearance, the flesh of fair quality. _Merluccius merluccius_,
-the hake or stock-fish, is common in Europe; _Merluccius bilinearis_,
-the silver hake, is common in New England, _Merluccius productus_ in
-California, and _Merluccius gayi_ in Chile.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 492.—California Hake, _Merluccius productus_ (Ayres). Seattle.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 493.—_Coryphænoides carapinus_ (Goode & Bean), showing leptoceral
-    tail. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-=The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.=—The large family of grenadiers, or
-rat-tails, _Macrouridæ_, is confined entirely to the oceanic depths,
-especially of the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is formed much as
-in the codfishes, with usually a barbel at the chin. There are two
-dorsals, the second like the anal being low, but the leptocercal tail is
-very long and tapering, ending in a filament without caudal fin. The
-scales are usually rough and spinous. The species are usually large in
-size, and dull gray or black in color.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 494.—Grenadier, _Cœlorhynchus carminatus_ Goode & Bean. Martha's
-    Vineyard.
-]
-
-The best-known genus is _Macrourus_. _Macrourus berglax_ is found on
-both shores of the north Atlantic. _Macrourus bairdi_ is abundant in
-off-shore dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba. _Macrourus cinereus_, the
-pop-eye grenadier, outnumbers all other fishes in the depths of Bering
-Sea. _Cœlorhynchus japonicus_ is often taken by fishermen in Japan.
-_Coryphænoides rupestris_ is common in the north Atlantic. _Bogoslovius
-clarki_ and _Albatrossia pectoralis_ were dredged by the _Albatross_
-about the volcanic island of Bogoslof. _Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus_
-is characteristic of the Mediterranean. _Nematonurus goodei_ is common
-in the Gulf Stream, and _Dolloa longifilis_ is found off Japan. Other
-prominent genera are _Bathygadus_, _Gadomus_, _Regania_, and
-_Steindachnerella_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 495.—_Steindachnerella argentea_ (Goode & Bean). Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-The _Murænolepidæ_ are deep-sea fishes, with minute eel-like scales, and
-no caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there are 10 pterygials.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XXXI
-                     ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS
-
-
-=THE Angler-fishes.=—The few remaining fishes possess also jugular
-ventral fins, but in other regards they show so many peculiarities of
-structure that we may well consider them as forming a distinct order,
-_Pediculati_ (_pedicula_, a foot-stalk), although the relation of these
-forms to the _Batrachoididæ_ seems a very close one.
-
-The most salient character of the group is the reduction and backward
-insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the pectoral fins, not in
-front of them as in all other fishes. The hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid
-are much elongate and greatly changed in form, so that the pectoral fin
-is borne on the end of a sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly
-more or less exserted. The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first
-spine being modified to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over
-the mouth with a fleshy pad, lure, or bait at its tip. The form of the
-body varies much in the different families. The scales are lost or
-changed to prickles and the whole aspect is very singular, and in many
-cases distinctly frog-like. The species are mostly tropical, some living
-in tide-pools and about coral reefs, some on sandy shores, others in the
-oceanic abysses.
-
-The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes are probably
-the _Batrachoididæ_. One species of _Lophiidæ_ is recorded among the
-fossils, _Lophius brachysomus_, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No
-fossil _Antennariidæ_ are known. Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of
-Patagonia are doubtfully named "_Lophius patagonicus_."
-
-=The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.=—In the most generalized family, that of
-the fishing-frogs (_Lophiidæ_), the body is very much depressed, the
-head the largest part of it. The mouth is excessively wide, with strong
-jaw-muscles, and strong sharp teeth. The skin is smooth, with dermal
-flaps about the head. Over the mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the
-first dorsal spine with a lure at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the
-bottom with sluggish movements except for the convulsive snap of the
-jaws. It has been denied that the bait serves to attract small fishes to
-their destruction, but the current belief that it does so is certainly
-plausible. As to this Dr. Gill observes:
-
-"The name 'angler' is derived from the supposition that by means of the
-foremost dorsal spine, which bears leaf-like tags, or appendages, at the
-end, it angles for fishes itself, lying upon the ground with its head
-somewhat upraised. According to Mr. S. Kent, however, this is at most
-only partly the case: 'That the fish deliberately uses this structure as
-a fisherman does his rod and line for the alluring and capture of other
-fish is a matter of tradition handed down to us from the time of Pliny
-and Aristotle, and which scarcely any authority since their time has
-ventured to gainsay. Nevertheless, like many of the delightful
-natural-history romances bequeathed to us by the ancient philosophers,
-this one of the angler-fish will have to be relegated to the limbo of
-disproved fiction. The plain and certain ground of facts, all the same,
-has frequently more startling revelations in store for us than the most
-fervid imaginations of philosophers, and that this assertion holds good
-in the case now under consideration must undoubtedly be admitted. It is
-here proposed to show, in fact, that the angler is one of the most
-interesting examples upon which Nature has exercised her handicraft, in
-the direction of concealing the identity of her protégé, such ingenuity
-being sometimes utilized with the object of protecting the organism from
-the attacks of other animals, or, as illustrated in the present
-instance, for the purpose of enabling it by stealth to obtain prey which
-it lacks the agility to hunt down after the manner of ordinary
-carnivorous fishes. To recognize the several details here described, it
-will not suffice to refer to examples simply, and usually most
-atrociously stuffed, nor even to those preserved in spirit, in which all
-the life colors are more or less completely obliterated and the various
-membranous appendages shrunk up and distorted. In place of this, a
-healthy, living example fresh from the sea, or, better still,
-acclimatized in the tanks of an aquarium, must be attentively examined,
-and whereupon it will be found that this singular fish, throughout the
-whole extent of its superficies, may be appropriately designated a
-living sham."
-
-It was, in the first place, observed by Mr. Kent "that the fish while
-quietly reclining upon the bottom of its tank presented a most
-astonishing resemblance to a piece of inert rock, the rugose prominences
-in the neighborhood of the head lending additional strength to this
-likeness. This resemblance being recognized, it was next found, on a
-little closer inspection, that the fish constituted, in connection with
-its color, ornamentations, and manifold organs and appendages, the most
-perfect facsimile of a submerged rock, with that natural clothing of
-sedentary animal and vegetable growths common to boulders lying beneath
-the water in what is known as the laminarian zone. In this manner the
-numerous simple or lobulated membranous structures dependent from the
-lower jaw and developed as a fringe along the lateral line of the body
-imitate with great fidelity the little flat calcareous sponges
-(_Grantia_), small compound ascidians, and other low organized zoophytic
-growths that hang in profusion from favorably situated submarine stones.
-That famous structure known as the angler's 'rod and bait' finds its
-precise counterpart in the early growing phase of certain sea-plants,
-such as the oarweed (_Laminaria_), while the more posterior dorsal
-fin-rays, having short lateral branchlets, counterfeit in a like manner
-the plant-like hydroid zoophytes known as _Sertulariæ_. One of the most
-extraordinary mimetic adaptations was, however, found in connection with
-the eyes, structures which, however perfectly the surrounding details
-may be concealed, serve, as a rule, to betray the animal's presence to a
-close observer. In the case of the angler, the eyes during life are
-raised on conical elevations the sides of which are separated by darker
-longitudinal stripes into symmetrical regions, the structure, as a
-whole, with its truncated summit upon which the pupil opens, reproducing
-with the most wonderful minuteness the multivalve shell of a rook
-barnacle (_Balanus_). To complete the simile the entire exposed surface
-of the body of the fish is mapped out by darker punctated lines into
-irregular polygonal areas, whose pattern is at once recognized by the
-student of marine zoology as corresponding with that of the flat,
-cushion-like expansions of the compound tunicate _Botryllus violaceus_.
-Thus disguised at every point, the angler has merely to lie prone, as is
-its wont, among the stones and débris at the bottom of the sea and to
-wait for the advent of its unsuspecting prey, which, approaching to
-browse from what it takes to be a flat rock—differing in no respect from
-that off which it obtained the last appetizing morsel of weed or worm—
-finds itself suddenly engulfed beyond recall within the merciless jaws
-of this marine impostor."
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 496.—Anko or Fishing-frog, _Lophius litulon_ (Jordan). Matsushima
-    Bay, Japan.
-]
-
-The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, _Lophius piscatorius_, is
-also known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth, wide-gape,
-kettleman, and bellows-fish. It is common in shallow water both in
-America and Europe, ranging southward to Cape Hatteras and to the
-Mediterranean. It reaches a length of three feet or more. A fisherman
-told Mr. Goode that "he once saw a struggle in the water, and found that
-a goosefish had swallowed the head and neck of a large loon, which had
-pulled it to the surface and was trying to escape. There is authentic
-record of seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach of one of
-them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize birds as they float upon
-the surface."
-
-"The angler, or goosefish, spawns in summer along the eastern Atlantic
-coast, and the result of its labor is quite remarkable. 'The eggs are
-very numerous, inclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous mass, about a foot
-in width and thirty or forty feet long, which floats near the surface.
-One of these ribbons will weigh perhaps forty pounds, and is usually
-partially folded together and visible a foot or eighteen inches from the
-top of the water, its color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in
-one of these has been estimated to be from forty to fifty thousand.' The
-growth of the young after exclusion from the egg is rather rapid, and
-Professor Goode saw 'young fish two or three inches long' while others
-were yet spawning, and these young fish were presumably the fry of those
-that had spawned the same year, only somewhat earlier. In a few days
-after hatching they present a striking appearance on account of the
-enormous development of the pectoral and ventral fins."
-
-Aristotle gives, according to Professor Horace A. Hoffman, this account
-of the angler: "'Inasmuch as the flat, front part is not fleshy, nature
-has compensated for this by adding to the rear and the tail as much
-fleshy substance as has been subtracted from the front.' The βάτραχος is
-called the angler. He fishes with the hair-like filaments hung before
-his eyes. On the end of each filament is a little knob, just as if it
-had been placed there for a bait. He makes a disturbance in sandy or
-muddy places, hides himself and raises these filaments. When the little
-fish strikes at them he leads them down with the filaments until he
-brings them to his mouth. The βάτραχος is one of the σελάχη. All the
-σελάχη are viviparous or ovoviviparous except the βάτραχος. The other
-flat σελάχη have their gills uncovered and underneath them, but the
-βάτραχος has its gills on the side and covered with skinny opercula, not
-with horny opercula like the fish which are not σελαχώδη. Some fishes
-have the gall-bladder upon the liver, others have it upon the intestine,
-more or less remote from the liver and attached to it by a duct. Such
-are βάτραχος, ἔλλοψ, συνάγρίς, σμύραινα, and ξιφίας. The βάτραχος is the
-only one of the σελάχη which is oviparous. This is on account of the
-nature of its body, for it has a head many times as large as the rest of
-its body, and spiny and very rough. For this same reason it does not
-afterwards admit its young into itself. The size and roughness of the
-head prevent them both from coming out (i.e., being born alive) and from
-going in (being taken into the mouth of the parent). The βάτραχος is the
-most prolific of the σελάχη, but it is scarce because the eggs are
-easily destroyed, for it lays them in a bunch near the shore."
-
-The genus _Lophius_ of northern range has a vertebral column of about
-thirty vertebræ. _Lophius litulon_ occurs in Japan. In the North Pacific
-is found _Lophiomus_, similar in appearance but smaller in size, ranging
-southward to the equator, a southern fish having but eighteen vertebræ.
-_Lophiomus setigerus_ is the common anko of Japan, and other species are
-recorded from Hawaii, and the Galapagos.
-
-=The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.=—The sea-devils, or _Ceratiidæ_, are
-degenerate anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the arctic
-seas. The body is compressed, the mouth vertical; the substance is very
-soft, and the color uniform black. Dr. Günther thus speaks of them:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 497.—_Cryptopsaras couesi_ Gill. Gulf Stream.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 498.—Deep-sea Angler, _Ceratias holbolli_ Kröyer. Greenland.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 499.—_Caulophryne jordani_ Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. Family
-    _Ceratiidæ_.
-]
-
-"The bathybial sea-devils are degraded forms of _Lophius_; they descend
-to the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones are of an extremely
-light and thin texture, and frequently other parts of their
-organization, their integuments, muscles, and intestines are equally
-loose in texture when the specimens are brought to the surface. In their
-habits they probably do not differ in any degree from their surface
-representative, _Lophius_. The number of the dorsal spines is always
-reduced, and at the end of the series of these species only one spine
-remains, with a simple, very small lamella at the extremity
-(_Melanocetus johnsonii_, _Melanocetus murrayi_). In other forms
-sometimes a second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the
-trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains the
-original function of a lure for other marine creatures, but to render it
-more effective a special luminous organ is sometimes developed in
-connection with the filaments with which its extremity is provided
-(_Ceratias bispinosus_, _Oneirodes eschrichtii_). So far as known at
-present these complicated tentacles attain to the highest degree of
-development in _Himantolophus_ and _Ægæonichthys_. In other species very
-peculiar dermal appendages are developed, either accompanying the spine
-on the back or replacing it. They may be paired or form a group of
-three, are pear-shaped, covered with common skin, and perforated at the
-top, a delicate tentacle sometimes issuing from the foramen."
-
-Of the fifteen or twenty species of _Ceratiidæ_ described, none are
-common and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge. _Caulophryne
-jordani_ is remarkable for its large fins and the luminous filaments,
-_Linophryne lucifer_ for its large head, and _Corynolophus reinhardti_
-(Fig. 143, Vol. I) for its luminous fishing-bulb.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 500.—Sargassum-fish, _Pterophryne tumida_ (Osbeck). Florida.
-    Family _Antennariidæ_.
-]
-
-=The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.=—The frogfishes, _Antennariidæ_, belong
-to the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the surface. Most of
-them abound about sand-banks or coral reefs, especially along the shores
-of the East and West Indies, where they creep along the rocks like
-toads. Some are pelagic, drifting about in floating masses of seaweed.
-All are fantastic in form and color, usually closely imitating the
-objects about them. The body is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical,
-and the skin either prickly or provided with fleshy slips.
-
-The species of _Pterophryne_ live in the open sea, drifting with the
-currents in masses of sargassum. Two species, _Pterophryne tumida_ and
-_Pterophryne gibba_, are found in the West Indies and Gulf Stream. Two
-others very similar, _Pterophryne histrio_ and _Pterophryne ranina_,
-live in the East Indies and drift in the Kuro Shiwo of Japan. All these
-are light olive-brown with fantastic black markings.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 501.—Fishing-frog, _Antennarius nox_ Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan.
-]
-
-The genus _Antennarius_ contains species of the shoals and reefs, with
-markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks. These fishes are
-firm in texture with a velvety skin, and the prevailing color is brown
-and red. There are many species wherever reefs are found. _Antennarius
-ocellatus_, the pescador, is the commonest West Indian species.
-_Antennarius multiocellatus_, with many ocellated spots, is the Martin
-Pescador of Cuba, also common.
-
-On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is _Antennarius
-strigatus_. In Japan, _Antennarius tridens_ abounds everywhere on the
-muddy bottoms of the bays. _Antennarius_ _nox_ is a jet-black species of
-the Japanese reefs, and _Antennarius sanguifluus_ is spotted with
-blood-red in imitation of coralline patches. Many other species abound
-in the East Indies and in Polynesia. The genus _Chaunax_ is represented
-by several deep-water species of the West Indies, Japan, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 502.—Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_
-    (Mitchill).
-]
-
-The _Gigactinidæ_ of the deep seas differ from the _Ogcocephalidæ_,
-according to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 503.—Frogfish, _Antennarus scaber_ (Cuvier). Puerto Rico.
-]
-
-=The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.=—The batfishes, _Ogcocephalidæ_, are
-anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard bony warts. The
-mouth is small and the bony bases of the pectoral and ventral fins are
-longer than in any other of the anglers. The species live in the warm
-seas, some in very shallow water, others descending to great depths, the
-deep-sea forms being small and more or less degenerate. These walk along
-like toads on the sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore
-legs and the pectorals extend behind them as hind legs.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 504.—_Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (L.). Florida.
-]
-
-The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, _Ogcocephalus
-vespertilio_, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red. It reaches
-the length of a foot. The angling spine is very short, hidden under the
-long stiff process of the snout. Farther north occurs the short-nosed
-batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_, very similar, but with the nostril
-process, or snout, blunt and short. _Zalieutes elater_, with a large
-black eye-like spot on each side of the back, is found on the west coast
-of Mexico. In deeper water are species of _Halieutichthys_ in the West
-Indies and of _Halieutæa_ in Japan. _Dibranchus atlanticus_ has the
-gills reduced to two pairs. _Malthopsis_ consists of small species, with
-the rostrum prominent, like a bishop's miter. Two species are found in
-the Pacific, _Malthopsis mitrata_ in Hawaii and _Malthopsis tiarella_ in
-Japan.
-
-                  *       *       *       *       *
-
-And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of centuries on
-centuries of specialization, degeneration, and adaptation, we close the
-long roll-call of the fishes, living and dead. And in their long
-genealogy is enfolded the genealogy of men and beasts and birds and
-reptiles and of all other back-boned animals of whom the fish-like forms
-are at once the ancestors, the cousins, and the younger brothers. When
-the fishes of the Devonian age came out upon the land, the potentiality
-of the higher methods of life first became manifest. With the new
-conditions, more varied and more exacting, higher and more varied
-specialization was demanded, and, in response to these new conditions,
-from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds and beasts and men that
-have dwelt upon the earth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 505.—Batfish, _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (L.). Florida.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 506.—Batfish, _Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ (Linnæus). Carolina
-    Coast.
-]
-
-                                THE END.
-
-
-
-
-                                 INDEX
-
-
- aal-mutter, ii, 144
-
- Abbott, i, 415, 419, 422; ii, 307, 534
-   on perch, ii, 307
-
- abdominal fishes, ii, 39
-
- Abdominales, i, 393; ii, 38, 39
-
- Abeona, ii, 375
-
- Abramis, ii, 167
-   figure of, ii, 168
-
- Aboma,
-   figure of, ii, 462
-
- abundance of food-fish, i, 329
-
- abura-ainame, ii, 440
-
- abura-bodzu, ii, 323
-
- aburazame, i, 524
-
- Acantharchus, ii, 297
-
- Acanthistius, ii, 323
-
- Acanthobatis, i, 553
-
- Acanthocephala, i, 344, 351
-
- Acanthocepola, ii, 363
-
- Acanthoclinidæ, ii, 516
-
- Acanthoclinus, ii, 516
-
- Acanthocybium, ii, 266
-
- Acanthodei, i, 65, 437, 447, 513, 519, 545, 561
-   Dean on, i, 517
-   families of, i, 516
-   order of, i, 514
-   Woodward on, i, 514
-
- Acanthoëssidæ, i, 515, 516
-
- Acanthoëssus, i, 446, 510-513
-   figure of, i, 515
-   scales of, figured, i, 521
-
- Acantholabrus, ii, 387
-
- Acanthonemus, ii, 286
-
- Acanthopteri, ii, 157
-
- Acanthopterygian, ii, 39, 293
-
- Acanthopterygii, i, 391; ii, 189, 208-214
-
- Acanthostracion, i, 377
-
- Acanthuridæ, i, 206; ii, 405, 407, 410, 411
-   family of, ii, 407
-
- Acanthurus, i, 268, 271; ii, 407, 409
-
- Acanus, ii, 330
-
- Acara, ii, 381
-
- Acentronura, ii, 236
-
- Acerina, ii, 241, 309
-
- Acentrophorus, ii, 23
-
- Achirinæ, ii, 495
-
- Achirus,
-   figure of, ii, 496
-
- Acipenser, i, 291, 332, 391, 452; ii, 18, 19, 20, 22
-   figure of, ii, 19, 20
-   larva of, figured, i, 141
-
- Acipenseridæ, i, 290; ii, 18
-
- Acipenseroidei, i, 382
-
- Acraniata, i, 484
-
- Acrocheilus, ii, 169
-
- Acrogaster, ii, 252
-
- Acrognathus, ii, 34
-
- Acropoma, ii, 317
-
- Acropomidæ, ii, 317
-
- Acrotidæ, ii, 285
-
- Acrotus, ii, 285
-
- Actinistia, i, 602
-   order of, i, 604
-
- Actinopteri, i, 451, 507, 599, 610; ii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 208
-
- Actinopterygii, i, 462; ii, 1
-
- Actinosts, ii, 1, 33
-
- actinotrichia, i, 80
-
- Adaptation of fishes, i, 177-225
-
- adaptive radiation,
-   law of, i, 296
-
- adder-fish, ii, 501
-
- Adelfisch, ii, 65
-
- Adelochorda, i, 461
-
- Adinia, ii, 199
-
- adipose fin, i, 25
-
- Ægæonichthys, ii, 549
-
- Æoliscus,
-   figure of, ii, 235
-
- Ærolepis, ii, 14
-
- Æthalion, ii, 41
-
- Ætheospondyli, ii, 24, 29
-
- Æthoprora,
-   figure of, i, 188
-
- Aëtobatis, i, 557
-   figure of, i, 558
-
- African catfish,
-   figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
-
- Agassiz, A., i, 405
-
- Agassiz, L., i, 419, 428, 614; ii, 1, 39, 183, 486
-   on dispersion, i, 284
-   on Embiotocidæ, ii, 378, 379
-   on embryology of garpike, ii, 31
-   on fish fauna of N. E., i, 302
-   on fossil fishes, i, 404
-   on ganoids, ii, 9
-   on high and low forms, i, 381
-   on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
-   on Onchus, i, 530
-   portrait of, i, 399
-   pupils of, i, 405
-   questions raised by, i, 284
-   sketch of, i, 404
-
- Age of fishes, i, 144-146
-
- agency of ocean currents, i, 243
-
- Agnatha, i, 508
-
- Agonidæ, i, 208; ii, 3, 185, 452, 453, 456
-   family of, ii, 449
-
- Agonoid fish,
-   figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
-
- Agonostomus, ii, 107, 222
-
- Agonus, i, 219; ii, 453
-
- Agrammus, ii, 440
-
- Ahl, i, 394
-
- aholehole, ii, 304
-
- air-bladder, i, 11
-   air-duct, i, 12
-   Aristotle on, 95
-   Borelli on, i, 95
-   of Carp, i, 93; ii, 159, 160
-   in Cœlacanthus, i, 604
-   defined, i, 92, 93
-   De Fosse on, i, 97
-   Delaroche on, i, 95
-   figure of, i, 93, 604
-   function of, i, 94
-   in ganoids, i, 101
-   gases in, i, 94
-   in Labyrinthici, i, 91
-   an organ of hearing, ii, 159
-   origin of, i, 98
-   position of, i, 35
-   Sörensen on, i, 97
-   Tower on, i, 95
-   use of, i, 12
-   wanting in sharks, i, 506
-   Weber on, i, 96
-
- akadai, ii, 344
-
- Alaska blackfish, i, 51, 147, 290
-   figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
-
- Alaska cod, ii, 536
-
- Alaska grayling,
-   figure of, i, 328; ii, 120
-
- Alaskan rivers,
-   fishes of, i, 304, 305
-
- Albacore, i, 210; ii, 136
-   figure of, ii, 263
-   Goode on, ii, 263
-   long fin, ii, 263
-
- Albatross, the i, 263, 408; ii, 60, 130, 138
-
- Albatrossia, ii, 541
-
- Albula, i, 142, 205; ii, 29, 46, 148
-   figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
-
- Albulidæ, ii, 41, 44
-
- Alburnus, ii, 167
-
- Alcock, i, 244, 408; ii, 290
-
- Aldrich,
-   photograph by, i, 303
-
- Aldrovandi, i, 388
-
- Aldrovandia,
-   figure of, ii, 138
-
- Alectis, i, 202; ii, 276
-
- aleihi, ii, 253
-
- Alepisauridæ, i, 134
-
- Alepocephalidæ, ii, 60
-
- Alepocephalus,
-   figure of, ii, 60
-
- alewife, ii, 49
-   figure of, ii, 50
-
- alfonsinos, ii, 251
-
- alimentary canal, i, 31
-
- alkaloid poisons, i, 182, 184, 185; ii, 411, 412
-
- allantiasis, i, 183
-
- alligator-fish, ii, 449, 453
-
- alligator-gar,
-   figure of, ii, 31
-
- allmouth, ii, 545
-
- Alopiidæ,
-   family of, i, 536
-
- Alosa, i, 204, 291; ii, 50
-
- Alticus,
-   figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
-
- Alutera, i, 206; ii, 414, 415
-
- amadai, ii, 363
-
- Amanses, ii, 415
-   figure of, ii, 414
-
- Amaræcium, i, 477
-
- Ambassis, ii, 317
-
- Ambassidæ, ii, 317
-
- amber-fish, ii, 272
-   figure of, i, 458; ii, 273
-
- amber-jack, ii, 274
-
- Amblodon, i, 302
-
- Ambloplites,
-   figure of, ii, 299
-   skull of, figured, ii, 296
-
- Amblyopsidæ, 290; ii, 204
-   family of, ii, 200
-
- Amblyopsis, i, 220, 314
-   figure of, i, 221, 222; ii, 203
-
- Amblypterus, ii, 14
-
- Amblystoma, i, 78
-
- Ameiurus, i, 283, 293, 310, 356; ii, 35, 183, 185, 186, 299
-   figure of, i, 344, 358; ii, 180, 181
-   parasites of, i, 344
-
- American charr, ii, 110
-
- American fishes,
-   Goode on, i, 335
-
- Amia, i, 33, 101, 102, 204, 291, 344, 391, 612, 623; ii, 8, 9, 11, 31,
-    33, 36, 41, 160
-   figure of, ii, 33, 35
-   lower jaw of, ii, 33
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
-   tail of, i, 82
-
- Amiatus, i, 394
-
- Amiidæ, i, 290; ii, 4, 34, 35, 36
-
- Amioidei,
-   Lütken on, ii, 33
-
- Amiopsis, ii, 36
-
- Amitra, ii, 454
-
- Ammocœtes, i, 142
-
- Ammocrypta, ii, 306
-   figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
-
- Ammodytes, ii, 224, 391, 514, 522
-   figure of, ii, 521
-
- Ammodytidæ, ii, 215, 520, 521
-
- Amphacanthi,
-   suborder of, ii, 409
-
- Ampheristus, ii, 436
-
- Amphibia, i, 393, 600, 606
-
- Amphibians, ii, 9
-   origin of, i, 600
-
- Amphicœlian, i, 49
-
- Amphiodon, i, 394
-
- Amphioxides, i, 483
-
- Amphioxus, i, 482, 495
-
- Amphiplaga, ii, 243
-
- Amphipnoidæ, 11, 141
-
- Amphipnous, ii, 141
-
- Amphiprion, ii, 384
-
- Amphisile, ii, 235
-
- Amphisticus, ii, 375
-
- Amphistiidæ,
-   family of, ii, 245, 247
-
- Amphistium, ii, 485
-   figure of, ii, 247
-
- Amyzon, ii, 175
-
- Anabantidæ, ii, 215, 370
-   Gill on, i, 366
-
- Anabas, i, 91, 103, 163
-   figure of, ii, 366
-
- Anableps, i, 117, 391; ii, 131
-   eye of, ii, 194
-   figure of, i, 117
-   Marsh on, ii, 194
-   Nelson on, ii, 196
-
- Anacanthini, i, 405; ii, 484, 485, 499, 501, 532, 533, 538
-   order of, ii, 532, 533
-
- anadromous fishes, i, 291
-
- anadromous salmon, ii, 68
-
- anal fin, i, 10
-   in Embiotocidæ, i, 125
-   as intromittent organ, i, 124
-   in Pœciliidæ, i, 125
-   in sword-tail minnow, i, 124
-
- analogy and homology, i, 368, 369
-   Coues on, i, 369
-
- Anampses, ii, 390
-
- Anarhichadidæ, ii, 517
-
- Anarhichas, i, 208, 391; ii, 518
-   figure of, ii, 517
-   food of, ii, 518
-
- Anarchias, ii, 153
-
- Anarrhichthys, i, 208, 364; ii, 518
-   skull of, ii, 517
-
- Anarthri, i, 509
-
- Anarthrodira, i, 584, 585, 590
-
- Anaspida, i, 573, 622
-   order of, i, 579
-
- anatomy of tunicates,
-   figure showing, i, 472
-
- Anchovia, i, 199, 205
-   figure of, ii, 54
-
- anchovy,
-   figure of, ii, 54
-
- anchovy, silvery,
-   figure of, ii, 54
-
- ancient outlet of Lake Bonneville,
-   photograph of, i, 303
-
- Ancylostylos, ii, 45
-
- Andaman Islands,
-   fishes of, i, 166
-
- Andrews, i, 428
-
- Anema, ii, 504
-
- angel-fishes, i, 547, 549
-   figure of, ii, 401, 404
-
- angler-fishes, i, 189, 206; ii, 542-553
-   carpels of, i, 51
-   figure of, i, 52
-   Gill on, ii, 543
-   habits of, ii, 543-545
-   Kent on, ii, 543
-
- anglers,
-   dorsal fin in, i, 202
-
- angling, i, 336
-   Young on, i, 337-339
-
- Anguilla, i, 127, 162, 211; ii, 143
-   figure of, ii, 142, 148
-
- Anguillidæ, i, 290; ii, 148
-   family of, ii, 142
-
- angular, i, 606
-
- Anisotremus, i, 271; ii, 341
-
- Anomalopidæ,
-   family of, ii, 317
-
- anko,
-   figure of, ii, 545
-
- Anomalops, ii, 317
-
- Anoplogaster, ii, 252
-
- Anoplopoma,
-   figure of, ii, 438
-
- Anoplopomidæ,
-   family of, ii, 438
-
- Anoplus, i, 260; ii, 333
-
- Antechinomys, ii, 471
-
- Antennariidæ, i, 52; ii, 542, 549, 553
-   Aristotle on, ii, 546
-   deep-sea, ii, 548
-   Goode on, ii, 545
-   habits of, ii, 544-546
-   Hoffmann on, ii, 546
-   spawning of, ii, 546
-
- Antennarius, i, 197, 206
-   figure of, ii, 550, 553
-
- Anthias, ii, 328
-
- Antiarcha, i, 573, 581, 590, 622
-   order of, i, 576
-
- Antigonia, i, 262
-
- Anyperodon, ii, 328
-
- ao, ii, 274
-
- Apeltes,
-   figure of, ii, 232
-
- Aphanopus, i, 210
-
- Aphareus,
-   figure of, ii, 339
-
- Aphredoderidæ, i, 290; ii, 243, 294
-
- Aphredoderus, ii, 204, 252, 291, 294, 296
-   figure of, ii, 295
-
- Apia,
-   coral reef of, figured, i, 234
-
- Apichthys, ii, 278
-
- Aplidiopsis,
-   figure of, i, 479
-
- Aploactis, i, 202
-
- Aplodactylidæ, ii, 363
-
- Aplodactylus, ii, 364
-
- Aplodinotus, i, 291, 302; ii, 354, 357
-
- Apocopodon, i, 558
-
- Apodes, i, 393, 611; ii, 40, 139-158, 532
-   order of, ii, 141
-
- Apodichthys, i, 227; ii, 512
-
- Apogon,
-   figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
-
- Apogonidæ,
-   family of, ii, 316
-
- Apomotis, i, 26, 310; ii, 301
-   figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
-
- Apostasis, ii, 406
-
- Apostolides, i, 412
-
- Appendicularia, i, 466
-   Brooks on, i, 480
-
- Appendiculariidæ, i, 474
-
- Aprion, i, 325; ii, 338
-
- Apsilus, ii, 338
-
- aquatic worms, ii, 143
-
- Aracana, ii, 417
-
- Arapaima, ii, 11, 56
-
- Arbaciosa,
-   species of, ii, 531
-
- Archæomænidæ, ii, 29
-
- Archæus, ii, 278
-
- Archencheli,
-   suborder of, ii, 141, 142
-
- archers, ii, 400
-
- archicercal tail, i, 81, 83
-
- archipterygium, i, 59-61, 68, 69, 73, 446, 459, 511, 512, 522, 598,
-    600, 601
-   Boulenger on, i, 79
-   Gegenbaur on, i, 60
-   Günther on, i, 60
-
- archnoid membrane, i, 109
-
- Archoplites, i, 179, 240; ii, 297
-   figure of, i, 258
-
- Archosargus, i, 324; ii, 346
-   figure of, i, 31; ii, 347
-
- Archoteuthis, ii, 410
-
- Arctic codling, ii, 537
-
- Arctic species,
-   in lakes, i, 316
-   Loven on, i, 317
-   Malmgren on, i, 317
-   Smith on, i, 317
-
- Arctoscopus, ii, 364
-
- Argentina, i, 391
-
- Argentinidæ, ii, 122, 124
-
- Argidæ, ii, 185
-
- Argyropelecus,
-   figure of, i, 190; ii, 137
-
- Argyrosomus, i, 315; ii, 62, 65, 67
-   figure of, ii, 66
-
- Ariscopus, i, 257
-   figure of, ii, 504
-
- Aristotle, ii, 146
-   on fishes of Greece, i, 387
-   on noises of fish, i, 95
-
- Arius, ii, 178, 186
-
- arm of frog, i, 601
-   figure of, i, 71
-
- ama-ama, ii, 221
-
- armado, i, 169
-
- arnillo, ii, 338
-
- Arnoglossus, ii, 488
-
- arrow-toothed halibut, ii, 491
-
- Artedi, i, 374, 390
-   on genera, i, 391
-
- Artediellus, ii, 442
-
- Artedius, ii, 442
-
- Arthrodira, i, 573, 584, 585, 590, 612
-   Dean on, i, 581
-   Jækel on, i, 591
-
- Arthrodires, i, 204, 241, 436, 437, 603, 622; ii, 3
-   classification of, i, 584
-   figure of, i, 445, 584
-   occurrence of, i, 583
-   relationships of, i, 588
-
- Arthropteridæ, i, 553
-
- Arthropterus, i, 553
-
- Arthrognathi, i, 581, 584, 585, 589, 590
-   Dean on, i, 584
-
- Arthrothoraci, i, 584, 586, 587
-
- articular, i, 606
-
- artificial impregnation,
-   Jacobian method, i, 150
-
- Ascanius, i, 396; ii, 472
-
- Ascelichthys, ii, 449
-
- Ascidia,
-   figure of, i, 474
-
- Ascidiacea, i, 474
-
- ascidians, i, 460, 467
-   Kingsley on, i, 474
-   Ritter on, i, 474
-
- Ascidiiæ, i, 474, 475
-
- Ascidina,
-   figure of, i, 475
-
- Aseraggodes, ii, 496
-
- Ashmead,
-   on leprosy transmission, i, 186
-
- Asineopidæ, ii, 243, 296, 317
-
- Asineops, ii, 243, 317
-
- Asmuss, i, 427
-
- Aspasma, ii, 531
-   figure of, ii, 530
-
- Aspidocephali, i, 568, 575
-
- Aspidoganoidei, i, 568
-
- Aspidophoroides,
-   figure of, ii, 453
-
- Aspidorhini, i, 568
-
- Aspidorhynchidæ, ii, 24, 29
-
- Aspidorhynchus, ii, 29
-
- Aspius, ii, 175
-
- Aspredo, ii, 184
-
- Aspro, ii, 307, 310
-   figure of, ii, 309
-
- aspron, ii, 309
-   figure of, ii, 310
-
- Asterolepidæ, i, 576, 623
-
- Asterolepis, i, 577, 591
-
- Asterospondyli, i, 447, 510, 513, 532
-   order of, i, 525
-
- asterospondylous, i, 49
-
- Asterosteidæ, i, 584, 585
-
- Asterosteus, i, 585
-
- Asterropteryx, i, 263
-
- Astrodermiidæ, i, 551
-
- Astrodermus, i, 551
-
- Astrolabe, the, i, 408
-
- Astrolytes,
-   figure of, ii, 442
-
- Astronesthidæ, ii, 128
-
- Astrape, i, 554
-
- Astroscopus, ii, 503
-   Gilbert on, i, 187
-   electric organs of, i, 187
-
- Asymmetron, i, 483; ii, 467
-
- Ateleaspis, i, 574
-
- Atheresthes, i, 205; ii, 491
-
- Atherina, i, 393; ii, 216
-
- Atherinidæ, i, 290; ii, 215
-
- Atherinops, ii, 218
-
- Atherinopsis,
-   figure of, ii, 218
-
- Atherinosoma, ii, 218
-
- Athlennes, ii, 211
-
- Atka fish,
-   figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
-
- Atka mackerel, ii, 439
-
- Atlantic creek, i, 308, 309
-
- Atlantic oarfish, ii, 472
-
- Atlantic salmon, ii, 89
-
- attenuate, i, 19
-
- Atthey, i, 426
-
- Auchenopterus, ii, 508
-
- atule, ii, 275
-
- auditory ossicles, ii, 160
-
- Aulichthys, ii, 233
-
- Aulolepis, ii, 48
-
- Aulopidæ, ii, 130, 132
-
- Aulopus, i, 259; ii, 190
-
- Aulorhamphus, ii, 406
-
- Aulorhynchidæ,
-   family of, ii, 232
-
- Aulorhynchus, ii, 233
-
- Aulostomidæ,
-   family of, ii, 233
-
- Aulostomus, ii, 233
-   figure of, ii, 234
-
- Australia, ii, 363
-
- Australian flying-fish,
-   figure of, i, 341
-
- Australian lung-fish, i, 100
-
- autochthonous, i, 245
-
- autostylic skull, i, 561; ii, 8
-
- Auxis, ii, 262
-
- awa, ii, 45, 221
-
- awaawa, ii, 43
-
- awaous, i, 254; ii, 465
-
- aweoweo, ii, 333
-
- Axinurus, ii, 409
-
- axonasts, i, 604, 605; ii, 17
-
- Ayres, i, 419, 428
-
- ayu, i, 256; ii, 115, 117, 118
-   figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
-   fishing for figured, i, 333, 335
-
- Azevia, i, 271; ii, 489
-
- d'Azyr, i, 390
-
- Azygostei, i, 581
-
- azygous, i, 88
-
-
- Baer, i, 428
-
- Bagarius, ii, 186
-
- bagonado, ii, 344
-
- bagre, ii, 182
-
- bagre de Rio, ii, 182
-
- Bagrus, ii, 183
-
- Baikal cods, ii, 455
-
- Baird, i, 419; ii, 142
-   on bluefish, ii, 279-282
-   on eel migrations, ii, 142
-   portrait of, i, 407
-
- Bairdiella, ii, 355
-   figure of, ii, 355
-
- Bakker, i, 428
-
- Balanoglossidæ, i, 465
-
- Balanglossus, i, 461
-
- Balanus, ii, 544
-
- balaos, ii, 212
-
- Balfour, i, 428, 511, 513; ii, 8
-   finfold theory, i, 69, 514
-   lateral-fold theory, i, 71-73
-   on paired fins, ii, 8
-   on sharks, i, 511
-
- Balfour and Parker,
-   on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
-
- Balistapus, i, 181; ii, 413
-
- Balistes, i, 206, 391, 611; ii, 22
-   figure of, i, 184; ii, 412
-
- Balistidæ, ii, 413, 418
-   family of, ii, 412
-
- Ballou,
-   on eels, ii, 417
-
- banded rockfish,
-   figure of, ii, 432
-
- banded sunfish,
-   figure of, ii, 299
-
- bandfishes, ii, 363
-
- bandfishes,
-   the crested, ii, 291
-
- Banks, i, 395
-
- barbels, i, 115; ii, 170
-   organs of touch, i, 122
-
- barber-fish, ii, 328
-
- barbero, ii, 408
-
- barbudos, ii, 256
-
- Barbulifer, ii, 462
-
- Barbus, ii, 170, 175
-
- Barkas, i, 426
-
- Barneville, i, 412
-
- Barracuda, ii, 34, 39, 215, 266, 317, 469
-
- Barracuda,
-   family of, ii, 222
-   figure of, ii, 223
-
- Barramunda, i, 116, 614, 615
-   Günther on, i, 615
-
- barreto, ii, 467
-
- barriers,
-   Alleghanies, i, 311
-   artificial dams, i, 300
-   Cape of Good Hope, i, 268
-   checks to movement, i, 240
-   crossing by fishes, i, 302
-   to dispersion, i, 297
-   Isthmus of Panama, i, 269
-   local, i, 298
-   mountain chains, i, 310
-   Rocky Mountains, i, 305
-   the Sierras, i, 310
-   silt-bearing streams, i, 301
-   species absent from, i, 239
-   temperature, i, 298
-   waterfalls, i, 300
-   watersheds, i, 205
-
- basal bone,
-   of dorsal fin, i, 49
-   figure of, i, 49, 56
-   of pectoral fin, i, 59
-
- baseosts, ii, 17
-
- basilar, i, 88
-
- Basilevsky, i, 411
-
- basking shark, i, 539
-   figure of, i, 540
-   largest of fishes, i, 539
-
- bass, i, 4, 21, 47, 290, 323, 440; ii, 316-350
-   black, i, 303, 304
-   white, i, 321
-   yellow, i, 321
-
- bassalian fishes, i, 245, 246; ii, 128
-
- Bassani, i, 427
-
- Bassozetus,
-   figure of, i, 456
-
- bastard halibut, ii, 489
-
- Bateson, i, 463
-
- batfish, ii, 402, 458
-   figure of, ii, 553
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 88; ii, 551
-
- Bathyclupeidæ, ii, 290
-
- Bathygadus, ii, 541
-
- Bathylagus, ii, 127
-
- Bathymaster, ii, 502
-   figure of, ii, 503
-
- Bathymasteridæ, ii, 502
-
- Bathyonidæ, ii, 540
-
- Bathyonus, ii, 540
-
- Bathypteroidæ, ii, 130
-
- Bathypterois, ii, 131
-
- Batoidei, i, 519
-   suborder of, i, 549
-
- Batrachians, i, 85, 87, 88
-
- Batrachoides, i, 394; ii, 526
-
- Batrachoides,
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
-
- Batrachoididæ, i, 182, 192; ii, 525, 529, 542
-
- Batrachoids, ii, 529
-
- Batrictius, i, 394
-
- Bdellostoma, i, 490
-
- Beagle, the, i, 408
-
- Bean, i, 408, 419
-
- Beardslee, ii, 101
-
- Beardslee trout, ii, 101
-
- Belemnobatis, i, 551
-
- Bellotti, i, 412
-
- bellows fish, ii, 545
-
- Belon,
-   on fishes of Mediterranean, i, 388
-
- Belone, ii, 210, 211
-
- Belonidæ,
-   family of, ii, 210
-
- Belonorhynchidæ, ii, 514
-
- Belonorhynchus, ii, 17
-
- Belostomus, ii, 29
-
- Bembradidæ, ii, 441, 499
-
- Bembras, ii, 441
-
- Benecke,
-   on spawning of eels, ii, 146
-
- Beneden, i, 427
-
- benimasu, ii, 72
-
- Bennett, i, 408, 416
-
- Bentenia, ii, 286
-
- Benthosauridæ, ii, 130
-
- Benthosaurus, ii, 131
-
- Berg, i, 415
-   portrait of, i, 409
-
- Berndt,
-   opah taken by, ii, 244
-   photograph by, i, 323
-
- Berycidæ, i, 206; ii, 294, 499
-   family of, ii, 251
-
- Berycoidei, ii, 40, 245, 290, 484, 485
-   suborder of, ii, 250-257
-
- Berycoid fishes, ii, 250
-   figure of, i, 439; ii, 253
-   Starks on, ii, 250
-
- Berycoids, ii, 247
-
- Berycopsis, ii, 285
-
- Beryx, i, 259, 263, 438; ii, 249, 289
-   figure of, ii, 251
-
- beshow, ii, 438
-
- Betta, i, 163; ii, 370
-
- biajaiba, ii, 336
-
- Bianconi, i, 412
-
- Bibron, i, 412
-
- big-eye, ii, 333
-   figure of, ii, 332
-
- big-eyed scad, ii, 275
-
- Birkenia, i, 580
-   figure of, i, 579
-
- Birkeniidæ, i, 579
-
- bishop-fish, i, 361
-
- bishop-fish,
-   figure of, i, 361
-
- Björnson,
-   on fishing villages of Norway, i, 329
-
- black angel, ii, 405
-
- black angel-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 403
-
- black bass, i, 209; ii, 168, 301, 328
-   Hallock on, ii, 302
-   Henshall on, ii, 302
-   large-mouthed, ii, 304
-   small-mouthed, ii, 303
-
- black bream, ii, 206
-
- Black Current of Japan, sharks in, i, 536
-
- black escolar, 338
-
- black-fin snapper, ii, 336
-
- blackfish, ii, 387
-
- black grouper, ii, 323, 325
-
- black-horse, ii, 173
-
- Blackiston's line,
-   relation to fishes, i, 257
-
- black-jack, ii, 276
-
- black nohu,
-   figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
-   stinging spines of, i, 180
-
- black-nosed dace,
-   figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
-   parasites on, i, 342
-
- black rockfish, ii, 429
-
- black ruff, ii, 284
-
- black sea-bass, ii, 329
-
- black-sided darter,
-   figure of, ii, 311
-
- blacksmith, ii, 381
-
- black-spotted sailor's choice, ii, 341
-
- black-spotted trout, ii, 95
-
- black swallower,
-   figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
-
- black tai, ii, 344
-
- black will, ii, 328
-
- black wrasse, ii, 387
-
- Blainville, i, 400
-   on Palæoniscum, ii, 14
-
- Blake, i, 60, 408
-
- Blanchard, i, 412
-
- blanquillos, ii, 361, 362
-
- blastoderm, i, 135
-
- blastomeres, i, 135
-
- blastopore, i, 138
-
- blastula, i, 131, 132
-
- bleak, ii, 163, 167
-
- Bleeker, i, 376, 412, 414
-
- Bleekeria, ii, 521
-
- Bleekeriidæ, ii, 522
-
- Blenniidæ, i, 208, 276, 290; ii, 506-531
-
- Blennioidea, ii, 470
-
- Blennius, i, 208, 391; ii, 511, 513
-
- Blennius,
-   figure of, i, 508
-
- blenny, i, 209, 230, 290, 429; ii, 507-531
-   figure of, ii, 509, 511
-   Japanese, i, 9; ii, 513
-   kelp, ii, 507
-   northern, ii, 511
-   sarcastic, ii, 507
-   snake, ii, 512
-
- Blepsias,
-   figure of, ii, 448
-
- blind Brotula,
-   figure of, i, 222
-
- blind catfish, ii, 181
-
- blind cavefish,
-   figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
-
- blindfish, i, 290; ii, 202, 524
-   descent of, ii, 202
-   Eigenmann on, i, 117; ii, 202
-   habits of, ii, 202
-   theories regarding origin, ii, 202
-
- blindfish of Mammoth Cave, ii, 202, 203
-   Eigenmann on, i, 221, 222
-   figure of, i, 221
-
- blind goby, ii, 467
-
- blob, ii, 444
-
- Bloch, i, 389, 397
-
- Blochiidæ, ii, 514
-
- Blochius,
-   figure of, ii, 514
-
- Blossom, the, i, 408
-
- blue-back, ii, 71, 73-76
-
- blue-back salmon, ii, 68, 69
-
- blue-breasted darter, i, 231; ii, 314
-   figure of, i, 231
-
- blue cod, ii, 440
-
- bluefin, ii, 66
-
- bluefin cisco,
-   figure of, ii, 66
-
- bluefish, ii, 278, 354
-   Baird on, i, 279-282
-   destructiveness of, ii, 281
-   figure of, i, 324; ii, 279
-   food of, ii, 280
-
- bluegill,
-   figure of, ii, 300
-
- blue-green sunfish, i, 26
-   figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
-
- blue parrot-fish, ii, 396
-   figure of, ii, 394
-   figure of jaws, ii, 393
-
- blue sharks, i, 534, 542
-
- blue smelt,
-   figure of, ii, 218
-
- blue-spotted guativere, ii, 324
-
- blue surf-fish, ii, 375
-
- blue tang, ii, 408
-   figure of, ii, 407
-
- Blyth, i, 396
-
- boarfishes, ii, 135, 398
-
- bobo,
-   figure of, ii, 222
-
- boccaccio, ii, 429
-
- Bocage, i, 414
-
- Bocourt, i, 412
-
- Bodianus, i, 207, 271; ii, 388
-
- boga, ii, 347, 348
-
- Bogoslovius, ii, 541
-
- Bohr, i, 97
-
- Boleophthalmus, ii, 465
-   figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
-
- Boleosoma, i, 302; ii, 313
-
- Bollman, i, 420
-
- Boltenia, i, 475
-
- Bombay-duck, ii, 131
-
- bonaci-arará, ii, 325
-
- bonaci-cardenal, ii, 325
-
- Bonaparte, i, 412
-
- bones of the fish,
-   actinosts, i, 42
-   alisphenoid, i, 38, 39, 40, 53
-   anal fin, i, 48
-   angular, i, 42, 43, 54
-   articular, i, 42, 43, 54
-   basibranchial, i, 46
-   basihyal, i, 42, 45
-   basioccipital, i, 36, 38, 39, 40, 53
-   basisphenoid, i, 36, 38, 39, 53
-   branchiostegals, i, 42, 45
-   carpals, i, 51
-     of anglers, i, 51
-   caudal fin, i, 48
-   caudal vertebræ, i, 48
-   ceratobranchial, i, 46
-   ceratohyal, i, 42, 45
-   clavicle, i, 42, 50, 52
-     figured, i, 52
-   coracoid, i, 50, 51
-     of cranium, i, 39
-   dentary, i, 42, 43, 54
-   dorsal fin, i, 48
-   epihyal, i, 42, 45
-   epibranchial, i, 46
-   epioccipital, i, 36
-   epiotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
-   epipleurals, i, 48
-   ethmoid, i, 36, 37, 53
-   exoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
-   frontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
-   glossihyal, i, 42
-   hæmal spine, i, 48
-   hæmaphysis, i, 48
-   hyoid arch, i, 42
-   hyomandibular, i, 42, 44, 54
-   hypercoracoid, i, 42, 52
-   hypobranchial, i, 46
-   hypocoracoid, i, 42, 43, 52
-   hypural, i, 48, 49
-   infraclavicle, i, 51
-   interclavicle, i, 51
-   interhæmals, i, 49
-   interhyal, i, 42, 45
-   interneural, i, 48
-   interopercle, i, 42, 45, 54
-   interspinals, i, 49
-   isthmus, i, 45
-   maxillary, i, 41, 42
-   mesopterygoid, i, 41, 42
-   metapterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
-   nasal, i, 42, 53
-   neural spine, i, 48
-   neuropophysis, i, 48
-   opercle, i, 42, 54
-   opisthotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40
-   palatine, i, 41, 42, 54
-   parapophysis, i, 48
-   parietal, i, 36, 37, 39, 40, 53
-   parsasphenoid, i, 36, 38, 53
-   pectoral fin, i, 42
-   pelvic girdle, i, 42
-   pharyngeals, i, 46, 47
-     figure of, i, 47
-     lower, i, 46
-     suspensory, i, 46
-     upper, i, 46
-   postclavicle, i, 42, 51
-     figured, i, 52
-   postero-temporal, i, 50
-   post-temporal, i, 42, 52
-   prefrontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
-   premaxillary, i, 42
-   preopercle, i, 42, 54
-   preorbital, i, 41, 42
-   prootic, i, 36, 38, 53
-   proscapula, i, 50
-   pterotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
-   pterygials, i, 51
-   pterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
-   quadrate, i, 42, 43, 54
-   ribs, i, 48
-   scapula, i, 50
-   shoulder-girdle, i, 42, 50, 51, 52
-   sphenotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
-   subopercle, i, 42, 54
-   suborbital, i, 42
-   supraclavicle, i, 42, 50
-   supraoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
-   suprascapula, i, 50
-   supratemporal, i, 42, 50
-     figured, i, 51
-   symplectic, i, 42, 54
-   urohyal, i, 42, 54
-   ventral fin, i, 42
-   vomer, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
-   zygapophysis, i, 48
-
- bonito, ii, 264
-
- bonnaterre, i, 397
-
- bony fish, i, 204, 454, 506; ii, 37
-   classification of, ii, 38
-   development of, i, 135
-   figure of, ii, 438
-   specialized, figured, i, 456
-
- bony scales, i, 21
-
- Boops, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
-
- Borassus, ii, 367
-
- Borelli, i, 390
-   on air-bladder, i, 95
-
- Boreogadus, ii, 537
-
- botolism, i, 183
-
- Bothinæ, ii, 487
-
- Bothriocephalus, i, 345
-
- Bothriolepis, i, 577
-
- Bothus, ii, 486
-
- Botryllidæ, i, 476
-
- Botryllus, i, 476; ii, 545
-   figure of, i, 477, 478, 479
-
- bottle-nosed chimæra,
-   eggs of, figured, i, 127
-
- Bougainville, i, 395
-
- Boulenger, i, 360, 364, 370, 414, 428, 513, 600, 601, 606, 608, 609;
-    ii, 41, 48, 128, 129, 136, 138, 158, 190, 485, 502, 522, 551
-   on Archipterygium, i, 79
-   on Galaxias, ii, 205
-   catalogue of fishes, i, 402
-   on opahs, ii, 243
-   portrait of, i, 403
-   on vertebræ, i, 213
-   on zooid fishes, ii, 245
-
- Bovichthyidæ, ii, 502
-
- bowfin, i, 290, 440; ii, 33, 34
-   figure of, ii, 35
-   tail of, figured, i, 82
-
- Bowring,
-   on noises by fishes, i, 168
-
- Brachydirus, i, 590
-
- Brachyistius, ii, 375
-
- Brachymystax, ii, 62, 67
-
- brain,
-   of chimæra, i, 410, 411
-   figures of, i, 110, 111
-   Günther on, i, 109
-   in hagfish, i, 112
-   of lamprey, i, 112
-   of perch, i, 111
-   of pike, i, 109
-   of primitive fishes, i, 112
-   reflex action of, i, 153
-   of shark, i, 110, 111
-
- Brama, ii, 135, 286
-
- Bramidæ, ii, 291
-   family of, ii, 286
-
- branch herring, ii, 49
-
- branchial bones, i, 46
-
- Branchiostegi, i, 391
-
- Branchiostoma, i, 34, 35, 120, 383, 483
-   eggs of, i, 131
-   figure of, i, 484
-
- Branchiostomidæ, i, 484
-
- Brandt, i, 412
-
- Branner, i, 415
-
- Brayton, i, 420
-
- bream, ii, 163, 167
-
- Bregmaceros, ii, 524
-
- Bregmacerotidæ, ii, 524
-
- Brevoort, i, 416
-
- Brevoortia, ii, 51
-   figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
-
- brit, ii, 216, 217
-
- broad-shad, ii, 347
-
- broad-soles, ii, 495
-
- Brongniart, i, 427, 428
-
- brook lamprey,
-   figure of, i, 120, 505
-   larva of, figured, i, 492
-   mouth of, figured, i, 492
-
- Brooks,
-   on Appendicularia, i, 480
-
- brook trout, ii, 99, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115
-   figure of, ii, 111
-
- Brosme, ii, 539
-
- Brosmius, ii, 539
-
- Brosmophycis, ii, 524
-
- Brotula,
-   figure of, ii, 524
-   blind, figured, ii, 524
-
- Brotulidæ, i, 314; ii, 523, 533
-
- Brotulids, ii, 39, 524
-
- Broussonet, i, 396
-
- Brown, i, 426
-
- Browne, i, 389
-
- brown tang,
-   figure of, i, 181; ii, 408
-
- Brünnich, i, 394
-
- Bryactinus, i, 565
-
- Brycon,
-   figure of, ii, 162
-
- Bryostemma,
-   figure of, ii, 511, 514
-
- Bryttosus, i, 256; ii, 297, 320
-
- buccal cirri, i, 595
-
- Buchanan,
-   on hunting of Chaca, i, 170
-
- Buckland, i, 423
-   on soles, ii, 497
-   on turbot roe, ii, 488
-
- Bucklandium, ii, 186
-
- budai, ii, 390
-
- buffalo-cod, ii, 440
-
- Buffalo Creek, i, 309
-
- buffalo-fish, ii, 160, 172
-   figure of, ii, 173
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 51
-
- buffalo sculpin,
-   figure of, ii, 443
-
- bulbus arteriosus, ii, 10, 11
-
- bullhead, i, 356
-
- bullhead shark,
-   figure of, i, 526
-
- bumpers, ii, 276
-
- Bunocephalidæ, ii, 184
-
- burbot, i, 209; ii, 538
-   figure of, ii, 539
-
- Bürger, i, 414
-
- butter-fish, ii, 283, 284, 324, 512
-
- butterfly fish, i, 440; ii, 381
-   figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
-
- butterfly ray, i, 556
-
- butterfly sculpin,
-   figure of, i, 288
-
-
- caballerote, ii, 335
-
- cabezon, ii, 442
-
- cabra mora,
-   figure of, i, 20
-
- cabrilla, ii, 324, 328, 329
-
- cachucho,
-   figure of, ii, 337
-
- Cælorhynchus,
-   figure of, ii, 541
-
- Cæsio, ii, 342
-
- cagon de le alto, ii, 337
-
- cají, ii, 336
-
- Calamoichthys, i, 76, 89, 608
-
- Calamostoma, ii, 236
-
- Calamus, i, 49, 238; ii, 344
-   figure of, ii, 345, 347
-
- calico-bass, ii, 297
-
- calico-salmon, ii, 72
-
- California lancelet,
-   figure of, i, 484
-
- California miller's thumb,
-   figure of, ii, 446
-
- California hake,
-   figure of, ii, 540
-
- California pampano, ii, 283
-
- California sucker,
-   figure of, ii, 174
-
- Callbreath,
-   on running of salmon, ii, 86
-
- Callechelys, ii, 150
-
- Callichthyidæ, ii, 185
-
- Callichthys, i, 290
-
- calling the fishes, i, 167, 168
-   in Indian temples, i, 167
-   in basins of Tuileries, i, 167
-
- Callionymidæ, ii, 506
-
- Callionymus, i, 246, 257, 259, 263, 393, 500, 504
-
- Callipterygidæ, ii, 501
-
- Callipteryx, ii, 501
-
- Calliurus, i, 302
-
- Callorhynchus, i, 565, 566
-   egg of figured, i, 127
-
- Callorhinus, ii, 537
-
- Calotomus, ii, 390, 391
-
- Camper, i, 389
-
- Campostoma, ii, 164
-   figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
-
- Campyloprion, i, 529
-
- candil, ii, 255
-
- candle-fish, ii, 124
-
- Canestrini, i, 412
-
- Canobius, ii, 14
-
- Canthidermis, ii, 413
-
- Canthigaster, i, 206
-
- Cantor, i, 416
-   on fighting-fish, i, 163
-
- Cape of Good Hope,
-   as barrier, i, 269
-
- capelin,
-   figure of, ii, 126
-
- capello, i, 414
-
- capitaine,
-   figure of, ii, 387
-
- Capros, ii, 135, 398, 400
-
- Caracanthidæ, ii, 438
-
- Carangidæ, i, 144, 149, 210; ii, 15, 278, 470
-   family of, ii, 272
-
- Carangopsis, ii, 278
-
- Carangus, i, 169, 324; ii, 275, 276, 285
-
- Carapidæ, ii, 522
-
- Caraproctus, ii, 455
-
- Carapus, ii, 520, 522
-
- Carassius, ii, 171
-   figure of, i, 151
-
- Caranx, ii, 245, 275, 470, 542
-
- Carboniferous,
-   fishes, i, 437
-   sharks, i, 224
-
- Carcharias, i, 447, 534, 543; ii, 468
-   figure of, i, 542
-
- Carchariidæ, i, 532, 534, 540, 542, 543
-
- carcharioid sharks, i, 540
-
- Carcharodon, i, 538
-
- Carcharopsis, i, 522
-
- cardenal, ii, 316
-
- cardiform teeth, i, 29
-
- cardinal fishes, the, ii, 316
-   figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
-
- cardinal vein, i, 108
-
- Carencheli, ii, 140, 153, 155
-
- caribe,
-   Günther on, ii, 161
-
- carnivorous fishes, i, 29
-
- carp, i, 21, 53, 93, 290; ii, 162, 164
-   air-bladder of, figured, ii, 160
-   native of China, ii, 170
-   domestication of, ii, 170
-
- Carpiodes, i, 302
-   figure of, ii, 173
-
- carp-sucker,
-   figure of, ii, 173
-
- carrying eggs in mouth, i, 170-173
-   by catfish, i, 170
-
- casabe, ii, 276
-
- Cassiquiare,
-   Branner on, i, 307
-   crossing by fishes, i, 307
-
- Castelnau, i, 415
-
- Castour, i, 396
-
- Castro,
-   photograph by, ii, 522
-
- catadromous fishes, i, 162, 291; ii, 143
-
- Catalina flying-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 214
-
- catalineta, ii, 341
-
- Catalogue,
-   of Panama fishes, i, 272
-
- catalufa de lo alto,
-   figure of, ii, 289
-
- catalufa, ii, 288, 333
-   figure of, ii, 331
-
- Catesby, i, 389
-
- catfish, i, 4, 20, 53, 119, 122,128, 169, 290, 440; ii, 159, 160,
-    177-187
-   African, ii, 185
-   channel, ii, 179
-   clavicle in, i, 87
-   Cope on, i, 180
-   descent from, ii, 186
-   destroyed by lampreys, i, 357
-   electric, ii, 183
-   electric, figured, i, 186
-   fossil, ii, 186
-   of India, ii, 184
-   Japanese, ii, 183
-   Old World, ii, 182
-   poison glands of, i, 180
-   poison spine of, i, 179
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
-   spines of, i, 179
-   transfer to Sacramento, i, 310
-
- Catopteridæ, ii, 16
-
- Catopterus, ii, 16
-
- Catostomidæ, i, 46, 290; ii, 172, 175
-   family of, ii, 171
-   figure of, i, 315
-
- Catostomus, i, 198, 283, 302, 304, 316, 346; ii, 56
-   figure of, i, 348; ii, 171
-   pharyngeal teeth of, ii, 175
-
- cat shark, i, 533
-
- Catulus, i, 533
-
- caudal fin, i, 10
-
- caudal lancet, ii, 409
-
- Caularchus,
-   figure of, i, 198, 531
-
- Caulolatilus, ii, 362
-
- Caulolepis, ii, 252, 253
-
- Caulophryne,
-   figure of, i, 276, 548
-
- causes of dispersion, i, 318
-
- cavalla, ii, 266, 272-292
-
- cavefish, ii, 201, 523, 524
-   Eigenmann on, ii, 524
-   figure of, i, 117
-
- Cebedichthys, ii, 512
-
- Centaurus,
-   larva of figured, i, 143
-
- centers of distribution, i, 244
-
- Centrarchidæ, i, 209, 232, 290; ii, 304, 320, 327, 380
-   family of, ii, 297
-
- Centrarchus, i, 302; ii, 297
-
- Centriscidæ, ii, 227, 235
-   family of, ii, 234
-
- Centriscus, i, 393; ii, 235
-
- Centrogenys, ii, 320
-
- Centrolepis, ii, 14
-
- Centrolophiidæ, ii, 283
-
- Centrolophius, i, 260; ii, 286
-
- Centrophoroides, i, 546
-
- Centrophorus, i, 546
-
- Centropomidæ, ii, 319
-
- Centropomus, i, 271, 273; ii, 309
-   figure of, i, 324; ii, 319
-
- Centropristes, i, 136; ii, 328, 329
-   eggs of, figured, i, 135
-
- Centroscymnus, i, 546
-
- Centrolabrus, ii, 387
-
- Cephalacanthidæ, i, 208
-   family of, ii, 458
-
- Cephalacanthus, ii, 458
-   figure of, ii, 456
-
- Cephalaspidæ, i, 576, 623
-
- Cephalaspis, i, 444, 569, 571
-   figure of, i, 576, 577, 579
-
- Cephalopholis, ii, 324, 325
-
- Cephaloscyllium, i, 197
-
- Cepola, i, 260, 264, 393; ii, 363
-
- Cepolidæ, the, ii, 363
-
- Ceratacanthus, ii, 414
-
- Ceratias,
-   figure of, ii, 548
-
- Ceratiidæ, i, 276
-
- Ceratobatis, i, 560
-
- Ceratocottus, ii, 443
-
- Ceratodontidæ, i, 600, 612
-   family of, i, 613
-
- Ceratodus, i, 77, 85, 613-616
-
- Ceratoscopelus,
-   figure of, ii, 133
-
- Ceratiidæ, ii, 547-549
-
- Cerdale, i, 271
-
- Cerdalidæ, ii, 516
-
- cestodes, i, 344
-
- Cestraciont shark, i, 526, 527, 530
-   Eastman on, i, 529
-   teeth, figured, i, 527
-
- Cestraciontes, i, 438, 519, 566
-   Eastman on, i, 529
-   families of, i, 528
-   suborder of, i, 526
-   teeth of figured, i, 527, 529
-
- Cetomimidæ, ii, 132
-
- Cetomimus,
-   figure of, ii, 132
-
- Cetorhinus,
-   figure of, i, 540
-
- Cetorhinidæ,
-   family of, i, 539
-
- Cette, i, 396
-
- Chaca, i, 170
-
- Chacidæ, ii, 184
-
- Chænobryttus, i, 302; ii, 300
-
- Chætobranchus, ii, 381
-
- Chætodipterus,
-   figure of, i, 325, 401
-
- Chætodon, i, 235, 242, 267, 391; ii, 400, 403, 405, 406
-   figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
-
- Chætodontidæ, i, 206; ii, 245, 291, 381, 398, 402, 404, 405
-
- Chætodonts, ii, 247
-
- Chalacodus, i, 566
-
- Challenger, the, ii, 60, 130
-
- Champsodon, ii, 361
-
- Champsodontidæ, ii, 361
-
- Chanos, i, 205; ii, 221
-   figure of, ii, 45
-
- Chanidæ,
-   family of, ii, 44
-
- Channa,
-   figure of, ii, 370
-
- channel bass, ii, 355
-
- channel catfish,
-   figure of, i, 280
-
- channel-cats, the, ii, 179, 182
-
- Channomuræna, ii, 153
-
- Chanoides, ii, 44
-
- Chapala Lake,
-   fishes of, ii, 216
-
- Characidæ, ii, 161, 162
-
- Characin, i, 290
-
- Characinidæ, i, 205, 290; ii, 381
-
- Characins, ii, 61, 160-162, 186
-
- Characodon, ii, 201
-
- characters,
-   of Elasmobranchs, i, 507
-   of species, i, 292
-
- Charitosomus, ii, 56
-
- charr, ii, 67, 99, 107, 114, 122
-
- Charlevoix, ii, 64
-
- Chasmistes, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
-
- Chasmodes, ii, 509
-
- Chauliodontidæ, ii, 129
-
- Chauliodus,
-   figure of, ii, 129
-
- Chaunax, ii, 551
-
- Cheilio, ii, 390
-
- Cheilinus, ii, 390
-
- Cheilodipteridæ,
-   family of, ii, 278
-
- Cheilodipterus, ii, 278
-   figure of, ii, 279
-
- Cheiracanthus, i, 517
-
- Cheirodopsis, ii, 15
-
- Cheirodus, ii, 14
-
- Cheirolepis, ii, 14
-
- Chelidonichthys, i, 260; ii, 456
-
- Chelmo, ii, 404
-
- Chelonichthyidæ, i, 586
-
- Chelonopsis, ii, 425
-
- Chonerhinus, ii, 419
-
- cherna, ii, 324
-
- chevron, ii, 89
-
- chiasma, ii, 4
-
- Chiasmodon, ii, 136
-   figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
-
- Chiasmodontidæ, ii, 215, 360
-
- Chilobranchidæ, ii, 141
-
- Chilomycterus,
-   figure of, ii, 423
-
- Chiloscyllium, i, 56, 533
-   pectoral fin of, i, 66
-
- Chimæra, i, 23, 35, 85, 204, 393, 435, 437, 448, 507, 509, 512-514,
-    545, 561-567, 595, 610
-   of California, i, 564
-   Dean on, i, 563
-   figure of, i, 449, 564, 565
-   Parker on, i, 563
-
- Chimæridæ,
-   family of, i, 564
-
- Chimæroids, i, 224, 583
-
- Chimæropsis, i, 566
-
- China fish,
-   snake-headed, ii, 371
-
- Chinese whitebait, ii, 127, 128
-
- chinook, ii, 69
-
- chirivita, ii, 405
-
- Chirocentridæ, ii, 46
-
- Chirocentrus, ii, 46, 48
-
- Chirolophis, ii, 512
-
- Chiropterygium, i, 600, 605
-
- Chirostoma,
-   figure of, i, 329; ii, 217
-
- Chirothricidæ, ii, 133
-
- Chirothrix,
-   figure of, ii, 46, 134
-
- chisel-mouth, ii, 169
-
- Chlamydoselachidæ,
-   family of, i, 525
-
- Chlamydoselachus, i, 361, 447, 448, 509, 521, 536
-   figure of, i, 523
-
- Chlarias, i, 98, 290; ii, 186, 187
-   figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
-
- Chlariidæ, ii, 184, 185
-
- Chlevastes, ii, 150
-   figure of, i, 232
-
- Chloropthalmus, i, 260; ii, 130
-
- Chloroscombrus, ii, 276
-
- chochouwo, ii, 403
-
- chogset, ii, 387
-
- Chologaster, i, 203, 204, 223
-   Eigenmann on, ii, 203
-   figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
-   Garman on, ii, 202
-   Hoppin on, ii, 203
-
- Chondrenchelys, i, 521
-
- Chondropterygians, i, 508
-
- Chondropterygii, i, 391
-
- Chondrostei, i, 623, 624; ii, 2, 5, 13
-   order of, ii, 17
-
- Chondrosteidæ, ii, 17, 18
-
- Chondrosteus, i, 622
-
- Chonerhinidæ, ii, 419
-
- Chopa, ii, 344, 350
-   figure of, ii, 349
-
- Chordata, i, 460
-
- Chordate animals, i, 460
-   lowest forms figured, i, 465
-
- Chordates, i, 508, 584, 597; ii, 1
-
- Chorisochismus, ii, 531
-
- Chriodorus, ii, 212
-
- Chromides,
-   suborder of, ii, 380
-
- Chromis, i, 166; ii, 381
-
- Chrondrosteus,
-   figure of, ii, 18
-
- Chrosomus, i, 304; ii, 164, 167
-
- chub, ii, 118, 147, 163
-   figure of, ii, 169
-   of Great Basin, ii, 169
-   of Pacific, ii, 169
-
- chub of Great Basin,
-   figure of, i, 287
-
- chub-mackerel, i, 94
-
- chub-sucker, i, 292
-   figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
-
- chum, ii, 72
-
- cichla, ii, 380
-
- Cichlasoma, ii, 381
-
- cichlid, i, 290
-
- Cichlidæ, i, 209, 290; ii, 380, 381
-   organs of smell in, i, 115
-
- cigar-fish, ii, 274
-
- ciguatera, i, 182-185; ii, 335, 411, 413
-
- Cimolichthys, ii, 133
-
- Ciona, i, 481
-
- Cirrhilabrus, ii, 390
-
- Cirrhitidæ, the, ii, 363, 426
-
- Cirrhitus, i, 271
-   figure of, ii, 364
-
- Cirrostomi, i, 482, 595
-
- cisco, ii, 65
-
- Citharichthys, i, 274; ii, 489
-
- Citharinus, ii, 162
-
- Citula, i, 202; ii, 276
-
- Cladistia, i, 602
-   order of, i, 605
-
- Cladodontidæ, i, 520, 522
-
- Cladodus, i, 65, 80, 437
-   pectoral fin of, i, 521
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 521
-   teeth of, figured, i, 522
-
- Cladoselache, i, 64, 66, 79, 80, 437, 446, 448, 510, 571, 573, 623
-   Dean on, i, 518
-   figure of, i, 65, 514, 515
-   primitive character of, i, 514
-   teeth of, figured, i, 515
-   ventral view of, i, 515
-
- Cladoselachidæ, i, 514
-   family of, i, 523
-
- clam-cracker, i, 556
-
- Clark,
-   on eulachon, ii, 125
-
- Clarke, i, 416
-
- claspers, i, 124, 125
-
- classification,
-   Coues on, i, 370
-   of Elasmobranchs, i, 509, 510
-   of fishes, i, 367-386
-   of instincts, i, 154
-   morphological, i, 371
-   natural, i, 370
-   terms used in, i, 462
-
- Clastes,
-   Eastman on, ii, 32
-
- Clavellinidæ, i, 475
-
- clavicle,
-   figure of, i, 87
-   of sea catfish, i, 87
-
- Claypole, i, 426
-   portrait of, i, 409
-
- cleavages, i, 135
-
- Clepticus, ii, 388
-
- Clidoderma, ii, 494
-
- Climatius, i, 446
-   figure of, i, 518
-
- climbing-fish, ii, 367
-
- climbing-perch,
-   figure of, ii, 366
-
- clingfish, ii, 529
-   figure of, i, 198; ii, 531
-   Günther on, ii, 529, 530
-   sucking-disk in, i, 198
-
- Clinocottus, ii, 448
-
- Clinton, ii, 64
-
- Clinus, i, 208; ii, 507, 511, 513, 516
-
- Cloquet, i, 397
-
- Cloudy Bay cod, ii, 520
-
- Clupanodon, ii, 53
-
- Clupea, i, 204, 329, 391
-   figure of, i, 331, ii, 49
-
- Clupeidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 49, 52, 53
-
- clupeiform, ii, 11
-
- clupeoid, ii, 10
-
- Clupeidea, the, ii, 41
-
- coalfish, i, 209; ii; 438, 537
-
- Coal measures,
-   fishes of, i, 223
-   teeth found in, i, 65
-
- Costa, i, 412
-
- coast lines,
-   effect on distribution, i, 248
-
- cobbler-fish, ii, 276
-
- cobia, ii, 282
-
- Cobitidæ, ii, 175, 185
-
- Cobitis, i, 391; ii, 176
-
- Cobitopsidæ,
-   family of, ii, 224
-
- Cobitopsis,
-   figure of, ii, 224
-
- Coccoderma, i, 605
-
- Coccosteans, i, 581
-
- Coccosteidæ, i, 622, 623, 584, 586
-
- Coccosteus, i, 583, 584, 587, 590, 593, 596, 623
-   figure of, i, 582
-
- cochino, ii, 413
-
- Cochliodontidæ, i, 530
-   family of, i, 531
-
- Cochliodus,
-   lower jaw figured, i, 531
-
- cock-and-hen paddle, ii, 453
-
- cock-of-palace-under-sea, ii, 472
-
- cockeye pilot,
-   figure of, ii, 382
-
- Coccolepis, ii, 14
-
- cod, ii, 51
-
- codfish, i, 122, 128, 290; ii, 481, 501, 532, 533
-   figure of, i, 331; ii, 535
-   Gill on, ii, 534
-   Goode on, ii, 534
-   pectoral fin of, i, 66
-   reproduction of, ii, 535
-   Sars on, ii, 535
-
- codling, ii, 538
-
- Cœlacanthidæ, i, 605
-
- Cœlacanthus,
-   figure of, i, 604
-
- Cœlolepia, i, 573
-
- Cœlodus, ii, 22
-
- Cœlolepidæ, i, 573
-
- coho, ii, 72
-
- collection of fishes, i, 429-434
-   by explosives, i, 430
-   by poison, i, 430
-   tackle for, i, 430
-
- Collett, i, 408, 427
-   portrait of, i, 403
-
- Collie, i, 564
-
- Collins,
-   on catastrophe to tilefishes, ii, 362
-   on halibut, ii, 490
-
- Cololabis, ii, 212
-
- Colocephali, ii, 140-142, 153
-   suborder of, ii, 152
-
- Colomesus, ii, 421
-
- Colorado trout,
-   figure of, ii, 106
-
- colors of fishes, i, 226-236
-   of coral-fishes, i, 235
-   fading of, in spirits, i, 235
-   intensity of, i, 232
-   nuptial, i, 230
-   protective, i, 226-229
-   sexual, i, 230
-   variation of, i, 235
-
- Columbia,
-   figure of, ii, 242
-
- Comephoridæ, the, ii, 455
-
- Comephorus, ii, 524
-
- Commerson, i, 395
-
- commissure, i, 112
-
- common eel,
-   figure of, ii, 143
-
- common skate,
-   figure of, i, 552
-
- common sucker,
-   figure of, ii, 174
-
- common sunfish,
-   figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
-
- conceptions of genus, i, 375
-
- Conchopona, i, 613
-
- conclusions,
-   of Cope on dispersion, i, 286
-   of Evermann, i, 274
-   of Hill, 277-279
-   as to Isthmus of Suez, i, 269
-   of Jenkins, i, 274
-
- conger eels, ii, 149, 151
-   figure of, ii, 150
-
- Congiopodidæ, ii, 436
-
- Congiopus, ii, 436
-
- Congo River,
-   fishes from, i, 78, 607
-
- Congriopus, ii, 514
-
- Congrogadidæ, ii, 519
-
- Connoly,
-   on calling fishes, i, 168
-
- Conocara, ii, 60
-
- Conodontes, i, 487
-   figure of, i, 488
-
- Conorhynchus, i, 128
-
- constantino, ii, 320
-
- Cooper, i, 419
-   on long-jawed goby, ii, 463
-
- Cope, i, 84, 311, 419, 428, 512, 602; ii, 1, 4, 13, 24, 35, 56, 159
-   on classification, i, 406
-   conclusions of, 286
-   on dispersion, i, 286, 287
-   on eels, ii, 139
-   on fossil forms, ii, 32
-   on isocercal tail, i, 84
-   on ostracophores, ii, 569
-   portrait of, i, 407
-   sketch of, i, 406
-
- Copeland, i, 420
-   portrait of, i, 421
-
- Copelandellus, ii, 315
-
- Coquille, i, 408
-
- coracoid, i, 88, 90
-
- coraco-scapular, i, 87
-
- coral reefs,
-   at Apia, figured, i, 234
-   fishes of, i, 235, 297
-   fish life in, i, 215
-
- Corax,
-   teeth of, figured, i, 543
-
- Coregoni, ii, 67
-
- Coregonus, i, 291, 305, 316, 322, 391; ii, 62, 65, 439
-   figure of, i, 321; ii, 63
-
- Coreoperca, ii, 320
-
- Coris, ii, 390
-
- cormorant-fishing, ii, 116-119
-   illustrations of, i, 333, 335
-
- cornet-fishes, ii, 390
-   family of, ii, 233
-
- Cornide, i, 396
-
- coronado, ii, 274
-
- corpus vestiforme, i, 112
-
- corsair, ii, 430
-
- Corvula, ii, 355
-
- Corynolophus, i, 189; ii, 549
-   figure of, i, 188
-   luminous bulb in, i, 188
-
- Coryphæna, i, 210, 391
-   figure of, ii, 287
-
- Coryphænidæ,
-   family of, ii, 286
-
- Coryphænoides,
-   figure of, i, 83; ii, 541
-   leptocercal, tail of, i, 83
-
- Coryphopterus, ii, 462
-
- Corythroichthys, ii, 236
-
- Costa, i, 412
-
- Cottidæ, i, 208, 290; ii, 363, 442, 449, 453, 455, 501, 504, 525
-   family of, i, 441
-   fossil forms, i, 449
-
- Cottocomephorus, ii, 525
-
- Cottogaster, i, 300
-
- Cottunculus, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
-
- Cottus, i, 169, 219, 312, 391; ii, 443, 445, 449
-   figure of, ii, 444, 445, 446
-
- Couch, i, 410
-   on fighting-fish, i, 165
-   on skippers, ii, 21
-
- Coues,
-   on classification, i, 368
-   on meaning of species, i, 379
-   on synonymy, i, 374
-
- cowfish,
-   figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
-   skeleton of figured, i, 215; ii, 418
-
- cow's tongue, ii, 497
-
- crab-eater, ii, 282
-
- Cragin, i, 171
-
- craig-fluke, ii, 494
-
- Cramer, i, 408, 420, 422
-
- cramp-fishes, i, 554
-
- cranial nerves,
-   figure of, i, 111
-
- Craniomi,
-   suborder of, ii, 456
-
- Craniotes, i, 588
-
- cranium,
-   bones of, i, 36-39
-   inferior view, i, 38
-   lateral view, i, 36
-   posterior view, i, 40
-   of Roccus, figured, i, 36-39
-   of Sebastolobus, i, 53
-   superior view, i, 37
-
- crappie, ii, 168, 297
-   figure of, ii, 297
-   photograph of, ii, 298
-
- Cratinus, i, 271
-
- cravo, ii, 244
-
- crawl-a-bottom, ii, 312
-
- crayfish, ii, 147
-
- creek fish,
-   figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
-
- Crenilabrus, i, 207, 260, 267; ii, 387
-
- creole-fish, ii, 328, 329
-
- Crescent lake trout, ii, 101
-
- Cricodus, i, 603
-
- Cristiceps, i, 208; ii, 508, 513
-
- Cristivomer, i, 291; ii, 62, 115
-   figure of, ii, 114
-
- croaker, ii, 353, 355
-
- Cromeriidæ, ii, 56
-
- cross-bow shooter, ii, 413
-
- Crossognathidæ, ii, 215, 521
-   family of, ii, 224
-
- Crossopholis, ii, 21
-
- Crossopterygians, i, 78, 79, 89, 91, 204, 436, 457, 511-515, 591, 602,
-    623, 624; ii, 38
-   figure of, i, 451
-   fins of, i, 601
-
- Crossopterygii, i, 382, 462, 599, 600, 601, 608
-
- crustacean parasites, i, 340
-
- Cryptacanthididæ, ii, 516
-
- Cryptacanthodes,
-   figure of, i, 516
-
- Cryptocentrus, i, 264; ii, 462
-
- Cryptopsaras,
-   figure of, ii, 547
-
- Cryptotomus,
-   figure of, ii, 391
-
- crystal darter,
-   figure of, ii, 313
-
- crystal goby, ii, 466
-
- Crystallias,
-   figure of, i, 218; ii, 454
-
- Crystallogobius, ii, 466
-
- Ctenochætus, ii, 409
-
- Ctenodentex, ii, 340
-
- Ctenodipterini,
-   order of, i, 612
-
- Ctenodontidæ, i, 613
-
- Ctenodus, i, 613
-
- ctenoid scales, i, 20, 21; ii, 39
-
- Ctenoidei, ii, 39, 209
-
- Ctenolabrus, ii, 387
-
- Ctenolates, ii, 320
-
- Ctenoptychius, i, 555
-
- Ctenothrissa,
-   figure of, ii, 48
-
- Ctenothrissidæ,
-   figure of, ii, 48
-
- cuatro ojos, ii, 194
-
- Cuban fishes, i, 314
-
- cubero, ii, 335
-
- cuboid, i, 19
-
- cub-shark,
-   figure of, i, 542
-
- cuckold, ii, 417
-   figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
-
- cucugo, ii, 413
-
- cultus cod, ii, 442
-   figure of, ii, 440
-
- Cunias, i, 541
-
- cunner, ii, 387
-
- Cunningham,
-   on eye of flounder, i, 176
-
- Curimatus, ii, 162
-
- cusk-eel, i, 187, 314; ii, 539
-   figure of, ii, 520
-
- cutlass-fishes, i, 149, 210; ii, 267
-   figure of, ii, 268
-   species of, ii, 472
-
- cutthroat trout, ii, 95-97, 102, 104, 106
-
- Cuvier, i, 103, 105, 400, 404, 428; ii, 39, 307
-   Günther on, i, 400
-   Lyman on, i, 401
-   portrait of, i, 399
-
- Cycleptus, ii, 173
-
- Cycliæ, i, 204, 437, 462, 592, 593
-   subclass of, i, 591
-
- Cyclobatis, i, 557
-
- Cycloganoidei, ii, 34
-
- cycloid scales, i, 20, 22; ii, 39
-
- Cycloidei, ii, 39
-
- Cyclopterichthys, ii, 454
-
- Cyclopteridæ, i, 198, 208
-   family of, ii, 453
-
- Cyclopterus, i, 391; ii, 453, 455
-   figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
-
- Cyclospondyli, i, 510, 543
-   order of, i, 545
-
- cyclospondylous, i, 49
-
- cyclospondylous sharks, i, 549
-
- Cyclostomata, i, 593
-
- Cyclostomes, i, 113, 443, 486-505, 570, 596, 592, 617
-   extinct forms, i, 487
-
- Cyclostomi, i, 462, 584
-
- Cyclothone, ii, 129
-
- Cyclurus, ii, 36
-
- Cymatogaster, ii, 376
-   figure of, i, 125; ii, 372
-
- Cymolutes, ii, 390
-
- Cymothoa, i, 340
-
- Cynoglossinæ, ii, 497
-
- Cynoglossus, ii, 497
-
- Cynoscion, i, 94, 324; ii, 107
-   figure of, ii, 353
-
- Cynthia,
-   figure of, i, 476
-
- Cynthiidæ, i, 475
-
- Cyprinidæ, i, 33, 46, 205, 230, 251, 285, 287, 290, 406; ii, 65, 161,
-    162, 164-171
-   fossil forms, ii, 174
-   species of, ii, 165
-
- Cyprinodon, ii, 198, 201
-   figure of, ii, 196
-
- Cyprinodontes, ii, 194
-
- Cyprinodontidæ, i, 290
-
- Cyprinus, i, 391; ii, 170, 174
-
- Cypselurus, ii, 213
-   figure of, i, 157, 440
-
- Cyrthaspis, i, 575
-
- Cyttoides, ii, 249
-
- Cyttus, ii, 249
-
-
- dabonawa, i, 430
-
- dace, i, 251; ii, 118, 162, 166, 168
-
- Dactylagnus, ii, 506
-
- Dactyloscopidæ, ii, 506
-
- Dactyloscopus, ii, 506
-
- daddy sculpin, ii, 445
-
- Dalatias, i, 546
-
- Dalatiidæ, i, 548
-
- Daldorf,
-   on capture of Anabas, i, 163
-   on climbing-fish, ii, 367
-
- Dale, ii, 539
-
- Dallia, i, 51
-   figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
-
- Dalliidæ, i, 290; ii, 206
-
- Damalichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 374
-
- damsel-fish, ii, 381
-   figure of, ii, 382
-
- Dapediidæ, ii, 25
-
- Dapedium,
-   figure of, ii, 25
-
- Dapedoglossus, ii, 56
-
- darters, i, 209, 231, 300, 304; ii, 166, 306, 310-315
-
- darter goby,
-   figure of, ii, 462
-
- Darwin, i, 408
-   on noises of catfish, i, 168
-
- daruma-okose, ii, 436
-
- Dasyatidæ,
-   family of, i, 555
-
- Dasyatis,
-   figure of, i, 247, 556
-
- Dasyscopelus, ii, 133
-
- Davis, H. S., ii, 81, 84
-   on chinook salmon, ii, 85
-
- Davis, J. W., i, 426
-   on fossil teeth, i, 525
-
- Dawson, i, 427, 594
-
- Day, i, 416; ii, 90, 92, 95
-   on calling fishes, i, 168
-   on electric eel, i, 170
-   on grayling, ii, 121
-   on Labyrinthici, ii, 365
-   on sole, ii, 496, 497
-
- day chub,
-   head of, figured, ii, 167
-
- dealfish, ii, 477, 480
-   figure of, ii, 478
-
- Dean, i, 512, 591, 594, 595
-   on Acanthodei, i, 517, 518
-   on Arthrodira, i, 518, 588
-   on Chimæras, i, 563
-   on fin migration, i, 75
-   on fossil forms, i, 422
-   on lateral line, i, 23
-   on lung-fish, i, 618
-   on Ostracophores, i, 571
-   portrait of, i, 417
-   on sharks, i, 511, 531
-   on Teleosts, i, 135
-
- Deania, i, 546
-
- deathfish, i, 183
-
- Death Valley fish,
-   figure of, ii, 199
-
- Decapterus, ii, 274
-
- decurrent flounder,
-   figure of, i, 441
-
- deep-sea angler,
-   figure of, ii, 548
-
- deep-sea Chimæra,
-   figure of, i, 449
-
- deep-sea fishes, i, 246, 247, 408; ii, 129
-
- degenerate fishes, i, 210, 211, 216, 218
-
- degeneration,
-   of eye, i, 220
-   in fishes, i, 54
-   in lamprey, i, 217
-   of structure, i, 216
-   in tunicates, i, 480
-
- Delaroche, i, 95
-
- Dekay, i, 418
-
- Delfin,
-   on hagfishes, i, 489
-
- Deltistes, ii, 172
-
- Deltodus, i, 531
-
- Dendrodus, i, 603
-
- dentary, i, 606
-
- Dentex, i, 94; ii, 338, 340
-
- Dercetes, ii, 136
-
- Dercetidæ, ii, 136, 137, 158
-
- Derepodichthyidæ, ii, 520
-
- Derichthyidæ, ii, 155
-
- Derichthys, ii, 153
-   figure of, ii, 156
-
- Dermopteri, i, 486
-
- Desmarest, i, 396
-
- development, i, 217
-   of bony fishes, i, 135
-   Dean on, i, 135
-   embryonic, i, 133
-   of flounders, i, 144
-   heredity in, i, 134
-   of horsehead-fish, i, 148
-   of paired fins, i, 66
-
- devil ray,
-   figure of, i, 559
-
- De Vis, i, 416
-
- Devonian,
-   fishes, i, 436
-   lamprey, i, 563
-   sharks from, i, 65
-
- Diabasis, i, 375
-
- diablo, ii, 552
-
- Dialarchus, ii, 448
-
- Dialommus, i, 117
-
- diamond,
-   fishes, ii, 398
-   flounder, ii, 493
-   snapper, ii, 337
-
- Diaphus, ii, 133
-   figure of, ii, 132
-
- Dibothrium, 345
-   figure of, ii, 103
-
- Dibranchus, i, 207; ii, 552
-
- Dicentrodus, i, 522
-
- Dicentrarchus, i, 324; ii, 321, 330
-
- dichotomous rays, i, 596
-
- Dicranodus, i, 521
-
- Dictyorhabdidæ, i, 565
-
- Dictyorhabdus, i, 435, 565, 578
-
- Dictyopyge, ii, 16
-
- Dictyopygidæ, ii, 14
-
- Dictyosoma, 512
-
- Didemnidæ, i, 477
-
- Didymaspis, i, 576
-
- Didymodus, i, 521, 525
-
- Dinematichthys, ii, 524
-
- Dinichthyidæ, i, 587
-
- Dinichthys, i, 587, 589
-   figure of, i, 445, 584
-   jaws of figured, i, 583
-
- Diodon, i, 273, 393, 394
-   figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
-
- Diodontidæ,
-   family of, ii, 422
-
- diœcious fishes, i, 124
-
- diphycercal tail, i, 49, 81, 83, 84, 507, 513, 516, 598
-   Boulenger on, i, 84
-   Dollo on, i, 84
-
- Diplacanthidæ, i, 517, 518
-
- Diplacanthus,
-   figure of, i, 517
-
- Diplectrum, ii, 329
-
- Diplesion,
-   figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
-
- Diplodus, ii, 347
-   figure of, ii, 346
-
- Diplognathus, i, 584, 589
-
- Diplomystes, ii, 178
-
- Diplomystidæ, ii, 178
-
- Diplomystus,
-   figure of, i, 205, 453; ii, 52
-
- Diploneumoni, i, 612, 619
-
- Diploprion, ii, 327
-
- Diplopterus, i, 82, 604
-
- Diplospondyli, i, 509, 523
-
- Diplurus, i, 605
-
- Dipneusti, i, 405, 462, 582, 599, 601, 605, 607, 622, 624; ii, 4
-   relationship of, i, 609, 610
-   subclass of, i, 609-622
-
- Dipnoans, i, 436, 512, 572, 582, 583; ii, 3, 8
-   air-bladder in, i, 101
-   classification of, i, 612
-   ear sac in, i, 120
-   figure of, i, 449
-   pectoral fin in, i, 60
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 86, 88
-
- Dipnoi, i, 77, 85, 89, 382
-
- Diptera, ii, 306
-
- Dipteridæ, i, 612
-
- Dipterus, i, 612
-   figure of, i, 437, 449
-
- Discobatis, i, 553
-
- Discocephali, ii, 459-480
-   Gill on, ii, 470
-   suborder of, ii, 468
-
- diseases of fishes, i, 340-358
-   contagious, i, 340
-   parasitic, i, 342
-   remedies for, i, 342
-
- Dismal Swamp fish,
-   figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
-
- dispersion of fishes,
-   Agassiz on, i, 284
-   barriers to, i, 297, 310, 311
-   causes of, i, 318
-   Cope on, i, 286
-   by floods, i, 301
-   of fresh-water fishes, 282-296
-   of river fishes, 297-319
-
- dissection of the fish, i, 26-33
-
- Distomidæ, i, 477
-
- distribution of fishes,
-   affected by coast line, i, 247, 261
-   agency of currents in, i, 242
-   centers of, i, 243
-   determined by temperature, i, 241
-   of fresh-water forms, i, 249
-   general laws of, i, 238
-   of marine forms, i, 245
-   Panama, barrier to, i, 266
-   of shore fishes, i, 263-265
-   Suez, barrier to, i, 266
-   zones of, i, 249, 251, 252
-
- Ditrema, ii, 375
-
- Dittodus, i, 521, 525
-
- doctor-fish, ii, 408
-
- Döderlein, i, 411, 416
-
- dogfishes, i, 519
-   figure of, i, 545
-
- dogoro, ii, 381
-
- dog salmon, ii, 71-73, 80, 81
-
- dog snapper, ii, 336
-
- Dolichoglossus, i, 463
-
- Doliolum, i, 479
-
- dollar-fish, ii, 283
-
- Dollo, i, 415, 427, 600, 601; ii, 502
-   portrait of, i, 413
-   on tail forms, i, 84
-
- Dolloa, ii, 541
-
- Dolly Varden trout, i, 305; ii, 112, 113
-   figure of, i, 327; ii, 114
-
- dolphins, i, 210; ii, 286, 362
-   figure of, ii, 287
-
- Doncella,
-   figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
-
- Donovan, i, 410
-
- dorados, ii, 286
-   figure of, ii, 287
-
- Doras, ii, 183
-
- Doratonotus, ii, 388
-
- Dormeur,
-   figure of, ii, 460
-
- Dormitator,
-   figure of, ii, 461
-
- dorsal fin, i, 10, 603
-   figured, i, 49
-
- Dorosoma, i, 32, 300
-   figure of, ii, 53
-
- Dorosomatidæ, ii, 53
-
- Dorosomidæ, i, 290
-
- Doryichthys, ii, 236
-
- Dorypteridæ, ii, 14-16
-
- Dorypterus, ii, 15, 16
-
- Draciscus,
-   figure of, ii, 452
-
- Draconetta, ii, 506
-
- Draconettidæ, ii, 506
-
- dragonets, i, 246; ii, 504
-
- drawing net at Milo,
-   photograph of, i, 281
-
- Drepane, ii, 401
-
- Drepanaspidæ, i, 574
-
- Drepanaspis, i, 570
-   figure of, i, 574
-
- Drepanidæ, ii, 401
-
- Drepaniodus, i, 488
-
- drum, i, 290
-   figure of, ii, 358
-
- duck-billed eels, ii, 150, 151
-
- Ductor, ii, 278
-
- ducts, i, 28
-
- ductus cholidechus, i, 32
-
- Dufosse,
-   on air-bladder, i, 97
-
- Dugès, i, 90, 420
-
- Dugunonutatatori, ii, 472
-
- Duméril, i, 398, 401
-
- duodenum, i, 32
-
- Dussumieriidæ, ii, 52
-
- Dussumieria, ii, 52
-
- Duverncy, i, 390
-
- Duymæria, i, 260; ii, 390
-
- dwarf,
-   herring, ii, 54
-   perch, ii, 306
-   salmon, ii, 117
-   sunfish, ii, 467
-
- Dybowsky, i, 411
-
- Dynatobatis, i, 553
-
- Dysommidæ, ii, 150
-
- Dytiscus, ii, 144
-
-
- eagle ray,
-   figure of, i, 558
-
- early writers on fishes, i, 272, 422, 423
-
- earliest sharks, i, 436, 443
-
- ear of fish, i, 119-121
-
- ear sac, i, 119, 120
-
- ear stones, i, 119
-
- earthquakes,
-   fatal to fishes, i, 356; ii, 137
-
- Eastman, i, 427, 428
-   on Cestraciont shark, i, 529
-   on Clastes, ii, 32
-   on Neoceratodus, i, 619
-   portrait of, i, 425
-   on teeth of Edestus, i, 530
-
- Ebisu, the god of fishes, ii, 344
-   figure of, ii, 343
-
- Ebisus, ii, 323
-
- Echeneididæ, ii, 468, 470
-
- Echeneis, i, 391; ii, 468, 470, 471
-
- Echidna, i, 211; ii, 152, 153
-
- Echidnocephalus, ii, 138
-
- Echinorhinidæ,
-   family of, i, 547
-
- Echinorhinus, i, 547
-
- Echiodon, i, 84
-
- economic fishes, i, 333
-
- ectoblast, i, 152
-
- ectocoracoid, i, 87
-
- ectoderm, i, 139
-
- ectopterygoid, i, 606
-
- Edaphodon, i, 565
-
- Edestus,
-   teeth of, figured, i, 529
-
- eel-back flounder,
-   figure of, ii, 494
-
- eel-fairs, ii, 142
-
- eel-like fishes, ii, 137-158
-
- eel-mother, ii, 144
-
- eel-pouts,
-   figure of, ii, 518, 519
-
- eels, i, 21, 210, 217, 268, 290; ii, 40, 44, 147, 153, 157
-   Cope on, ii, 139
-   Günther on, ii, 141
-   larva of, figured, ii, 148
-   migration of, ii, 142
-   reproduction of, ii, 143
-   species of, ii, 148
-   shoulder-girdle in, ii, 142
-   Woodward on, ii, 140
-
- effects on distribution,
-   of shore line, i, 262
-   of temperature, i, 149
-
- Egerton, i, 423
-
- Egertonia, ii, 396
-
- eggs of fish,
-   artificial impregnation of, i, 150
-   of bottle-nosed chimæra, i, 127
-   care of, i, 128
-   carrying of, i, 128, 171
-   of Embiotocidæ, i, 127
-   embryo of, i, 128
-   fertilization of, i, 125
-   figures of, i, 127
-   germ disk in, i, 135
-   hatching of, i, 125
-   of herring, i, 125
-   month incubation of, i, 170, 171
-   transportation of, i, 171
-
- Eichwald, i, 411, 427
-
- Eigenmann, i, 415, 420; ii, 147, 148, 376
-   on blind fishes, i, 117, 221, 222; ii, 202, 523
-   on Nematognathi, ii, 178
-   photograph by, i, 222
-   portrait of, i, 417
-
- Eigenmannia, ii, 187
-
- eighteen-spined sculpin,
-   figure of, ii, 447
-
- Ekström, i, 410
-
- Elacate, ii, 282, 470, 471
-
- Elagatis, ii, 274
-
- Elanura,
-   figure of, ii, 444
-
- Elasmobranchiates, i, 384
-
- Elasmobranchii, i, 462, 507, 584; ii, 7
-
- Elasmobranchs, i, 92, 102, 204, 506-522, 571, 583, 588, 589
-   characters of, i, 506-508
-   classification of, i, 507-510
-   ear sac in, i, 120
-   geological distribution of, i, 459
-   notochord in, i, 57
-   subclass of, i, 507
-
- Elassoma, i, 290; ii, 296, 307, 467
-   figure of, ii, 295
-
- Elassomidæ, i, 290; ii, 296
-   family of, ii, 295
-
- elastic spring, i, 96
-
- Elater, i, 582
-
- electric catfish,
-   figure of, ii, 183
-
- electric cells, i, 553
-
- electric eel, i, 186; ii, 140
-   Day on, i, 170
-
- electric organs, i, 25, 186, 187
-
- electrophores, ii, 187, 188
-
- Electrophoridæ, ii, 187
-
- Electrophorus, i, 170, 186
-
- Eleotrids, ii, 460
-
- Eleotris, i, 254
-   figure of, ii, 460
-
- Elera, i, 414
-
- Eleginus, ii, 537
-
- elephant sharks, i, 540
-   figure of, i, 565
-
- Elliott,
-   on trout, ii, 105
-
- Elonichthys, ii, 14
-
- Elopidæ, i, 43; ii, 35, 41-44
-
- Elopopsis, ii, 43
-
- Elops, i, 205, 393; ii, 43, 221
-   figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
-
- Embiotoca, i, 404
-
- Embiotocidæ, i, 207, 290; ii, 373
-   Agassiz on, i, 377-379
-   anal fin in, i, 125
-   viviparity of, i, 376, 377
-
- Emblemaria,
-   figure of, ii, 510
-
- embryo, i, 136, 138, 139
-
- embryology and growth, i, 131-151
-
- Embolichthys, ii, 522
-   figure of, ii, 521
-
- emerald-fish, ii, 462
-
- Emery, i, 412; ii, 480, 481
-
- Emmelichthys, i, 262; ii, 346, 347
-
- Emmydrichthys,
-   figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
-
- Empetrichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 199
-
- Empo, ii, 137
-
- Enantioliparis, ii, 455
-
- Enchelurus, ii, 138
-
- Enchelycephali, ii, 140, 141, 147, 152
-   suborder of, ii, 142
-
- Enchelynassa, ii, 153
-
- Enchelyopus,
-   figure of, ii, 539
-
- Enchodontidæ, ii, 136, 137
-
- Enchodus, ii, 136
-
- Endoskeleton, i, 439
-
- Enedrias, ii, 512
-
- Engraulididæ, ii, 54
-
- Engraulis, i, 205; ii, 54
-
- Enneacanthus, ii, 301
-
- Enophrys,
-   figure of, ii, 443
-
- Enoplosidæ, ii, 317
-
- Enoplosus, i, 268; ii, 317
-
- Enteropneusta, i, 457, 461, 462
-   classification of, i, 464
-
- entoderm, i, 138
-
- Entosphenus, i, 490
-
- entozoa, i, 348
-
- Eocottus, ii, 449
-
- Eomyrus, ii, 150
-
- Eopsetta, i, 205; 491
-
- Eothynnus, ii, 266
-
- Epelasmia, ii, 397, 398
-
- Eperlanus, ii, 123
-
- Ephippidæ, ii, 400
-
- Ephippus, i, 268; ii, 400
-
- epiblast, ii, 5
-
- Epigonichthys, i, 483
-
- Epigonus, ii, 317
-
- Epinephelus, i, 19; ii, 323, 330
-   figure of, i, 20; ii, 324-326, 328
-
- Epiphysis, i, 112
-   figure of, i, 111
-
- Eptatretidæ, i, 489
-
- Eptatretus, i, 490
-   figure of, i, 198
-
- equatorial fishes,
-   specialization of, i, 248
-
- equatorial zone, i, 251
-
- Eques, ii, 357
-
- Equula, ii, 287
-
- Erebus, i, 408
-
- Ereunias,
-   figure of, ii, 450
-
- Ereuniidæ, ii, 449
-
- Ericymba,
-   figure of, ii, 165
-
- Erimyzon, i, 292; ii, 175
-   figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
-
- Eriptychius, i, 435, 603, 578
-
- Erisichthe, ii, 34
-
- Erismatopteridæ, ii, 242, 296
-
- Erismatopterus, ii, 243
-   figure of, ii, 242
-
- Ernogrammus, ii, 513
-
- Erosa, ii, 436
-
- Erpetichthys, i, 204
-
- Erpetoichthys, i, 450
-   figure of, i, 608
-
- Erpichthys, i, 608; ii, 510
-
- Erythrichthys, ii, 347
-
- Erythrinidæ, ii, 162
-
- Erythrinus, ii, 160
-
- escolars, ii, 267, 317
-
- Esmarck, i, 410
-
- Esmeralda, ii, 462
-
- esmeralda de mar,
-   figure of, ii, 461
-
- Esocidæ, i, 290; ii, 190, 192
-
- Esox, i, 109, 253, 315, 327, 391; ii, 190, 194
-   figure of, i, 328; ii, 192
-
- Etelis, i, 262; ii, 338
-   figure of, ii, 337
-
- Etheostoma, i, 129, 283; ii, 310, 315
-   figure of, i, 231; ii, 314
-
- Etheostominæ, i, 230, 232; ii, 166, 306, 307, 310
-
- ethmoid, ii, 142
-
- Etmopterus,
-   figure of, i, 189, 546
-
- etrumei-iwashi, ii, 52
-
- Etrumeus, ii, 52
-
- Eucalia, ii, 232
-
- Eucitharus,
-   figure of, ii, 488
-
- Eucinostomus, ii, 347
-
- Eugnathidæ, ii, 26
-
- eulachon, i, 321; ii, 19, 125, 126
-   figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
-
- Euleptorhamphus, ii, 212
-
- Eumicrotremus, ii, 135
-
- Euphaneropidæ, i, 576
-
- Euphrosen, i, 396
-
- Eupomotis, i, 283
-   figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
-
- European chub,
-   pharyngeals of, i, 48
-   teeth of, figured, ii, 164
-
- European lancelet,
-   figure of, i, 120
-
- European sculpin,
-   figure of, i, 219
-
- European soles, ii, 496
-
- Eurylepis, ii, 14
-
- Eurynotus,
-   figure of, ii, 15
-
- Eurypharyngidæ, ii, 156
-
- Eurypharynx, ii, 156
-
- Eurypholis,
-   figure of, ii, 136, 137
-
- Euselachii, i, 532
-
- Eusthenopteron, i, 603
-
- Eutæniichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 467
-
- Euthynotus, ii, 34
-
- Evenchelys, ii, 153
-
- Eventognathi, i, 405; ii, 160, 162
-
- everglade minnow,
-   figure of, ii, 197
-
- everglade pigmy perch,
-   figure of, ii, 295
-
- Evermann, ii, 69, 100, 103, 354
-   on Panama fishes, i, 274
-   portrait of, i, 421
-   on Two Ocean Pass, i, 307-310
-
- Evermannellidæ, ii, 135
-
- Evermannella, ii, 136
-
- Eviota, ii, 460, 467
-
- evolution of fishes, i, 223-225, 435-459
-   Dean on, i, 223
-
- Exerpes,
-   figure of, i, 276; ii, 511
-
- Exocœtidæ, ii, 210, 211, 214
-
- Exocœtoididæ, ii, 134
-
- Exocœtoides, ii, 133
-
- Exocœtus, i, 391; ii, 213
-
- Exoglossum,
-   head of, figured, ii, 167
-
- Exonautes, ii, 213
-
- exoskeleton, i, 20
-
- Exostoma, ii, 184
-
- extension of Indian fauna, i, 267
-
- exterior of fish, i, 16-25
-
- external gills,
-   figure of, i, 78, 602
-   Kerr on, i, 76
-   Mauer on, i, 77
-   Orr on, i, 77
-   Rusconi on, i, 77
-
- extinction of species, i, 240
-   causes of, i, 241
-
- Eyclesheimer, i, 428
-
- Eydoux, i, 408
-
- eye of fish, i, 119
-
- eye of flounder,
-   in larval stage, i, 174
-   migration of, i, 173-176
-   Williams on, i, 174-178
-
- eye-of-the-sea, ii, 361
-
-
- Faber, i, 396
-
- Fabricius, i, 394
-
- Facciola, i, 412
-
- factors of extinction, i, 442
-
- fading of pigment in spirits, i, 235
-
- fair maid, ii, 344
-
- fallfish, i, 311; ii, 167
-
- fall-salmon, ii, 80
-
- family,
-   definition of, i, 373
-
- fan-tailed darter, ii, 315
-
- Farquhar,
-   on Opah, ii, 244
-
- fat cod, ii, 440
-
- fat head, ii, 388
-
- fatherlasher, ii, 445
-
- faunal areas,
-   minor, i, 248
-   of Japanese fishes, i, 257
-
- faunal resemblances, i, 259, 260
-
- faunal differences, i, 260, 261
-
- favorable waters have most species, i, 301
-
- fear in fishes, i, 163
-   expressions of, i, 165
-
- Felichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 179
-
- fiatola, ii, 283
-
- Fierasfer, i, 84; ii, 520
-   figure of, i, 159; ii, 522, 523
-
- Fierasferidæ, ii, 158, 522
-
- fighting-fish, ii, 370
-   of Siam, i, 163
-
- filefish, ii, 413-415
-   figure of, i, 182
-
- filiform, i, 19
-
- Filippi, i, 412
-
- finfold, i, 63, 64
-   Balfour's theory of, i, 69
-
- fin migration,
-   Dean on, i, 75
-   of Heterodontus, i, 75
-
- finnan haddie, ii, 537
-
- fins of fishes,
-   described, i, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25
-   migration of, i, 75
-   morphology of, i, 62-90
-   origin of, i, 62
-
- fin-spines, i, 528, 529; ii, 39
-   of Hybodus, i, 528, 529
-   of Onchus, figured, i, 509
-
- Fischer,
-   on fishes of Panama, i, 275
-
- Fish Commission,
-   fish stocking by, i, 346
-
- fisheries,
-   economic, i, 337
-   salmon, i, 81, 87
-
- fishes,
-   in action, i, 11
-   adaptation to environment, i, 156
-   affection of, i, 167
-   affected by temperature, i, 149
-   age of, i, 144, 146
-   air-bladder of, i, 12, 92, 93
-   alimentary canal in, i, 31
-   anadromous, i, 156, 160, 291
-   anger of, i, 165
-   in aquaria, i, 150, 165
-   blood of, i, 11
-   body form of, i, 16
-   bones of, i, 10
-   bony, i, 454, 506
-   brain of, i, 12, 14, 109, 112
-   breathing of, i, 5, 91, 103
-   of British Museum, i, 402
-   burrowing of, ii, 463, 465
-   care of eggs by, i, 128
-   catadromous, i, 162, 291
-   catalogues of, i, 402
-   channel, i, 291
-   circulatory organs of, i, 26
-   classification of, i, 367-386
-   of Coal Measures, i, 223
-   collecting of, i, 429
-   color and coloration of, i, 6, 129, 226-236
-   conditions of life of, i, 215
-   of coral reefs, i, 235
-   currents affecting, i, 243, 244
-   deep sea, i, 408
-   definition of, i, 3
-   degeneration in, i, 54, 216, 218-220; ii, 547
-   digestion and digestive organs of, i, 11, 26
-   diœcious, i, 124
-   dispersion of, i, 318
-   diseases of, i, 340-358
-   dissection of, i, 26, 27
-   distortion in, i, 129
-   distribution of, i, 237-255, 435
-   domestication of, i, 149, 151
-   ear of, i, 8, 119-121
-   earliest forms of, i, 443
-   eggs of, i, 125-135
-   electric organs of, i, 25; ii, 187
-   embryology of, i, 131-151
-   evolution in, i, 223, 435-459
-   exterior of, i, 16-25
-   extinct, i, 224
-   eye of, i, 6, 119
-   eye-stalks of, ii, 466
-   face of, i, 5
-   fins of, i, 9, 10, 24
-   flight of, i, 167
-   flow of blood in, i, 107
-   as food for man, i, 320-339
-   food of, i, 11, 29
-   form of, i, 4
-   fossil, i, 422-428
-   fresh-water, i, 250
-   gall-bladder in, i, 26
-   generalized forms of, i, 224
-   gills of, i, 92
-   growth of, i, 30, 144
-   habits of, i, 152
-   hearing of, i, 8, 119
-   heart of, i, 11, 28, 106
-   herbivorous, i, 30, 155; ii, 364
-   hermaphrodite, i, 124
-   homologies of bones in, i, 34
-   hybridism in, i, 144
-   instincts of, i, 154
-   intestines of, i, 33
-   intromittent organ in, i, 124
-   with jugular fins, i, 456
-   kidneys of, i, 11, 28
-   killed by earthquakes, i, 356
-   Labyrinthine, ii, 365
-   larval forms, i, 142, 620, 621
-   lateral line of, i, 9
-   life cycle of, i, 3-5, 152
-   lowland, i, 291
-   luminous organs of, i, 188-190
-   lungs of, i, 98
-   measurements of, i, 19
-   migration of, i, 160
-   monstrosities among, i, 151
-   mortality among, i, 357
-   mountain, i, 291
-   mouth of, i, 29
-   muscles of, i, 25
-   mythology of, i, 359
-   naturalization of, i, 150
-   nerves of, i, 12, 14, 109, 113; ii, 368
-   nests and nest-building of, i, 15, 167, 128; ii, 184, 229-231
-   noises of, i, 121, 168
-   nostril of, i, 6
-   nuptial colors in, i, 155, 156
-   nutrition organs of, i, 29
-   organs of,
-     locomotion, i, 24
-     phosphorescence, i, 194
-     reproduction, i, 28, 124-130
-     sense, i, 115-123
-     sight, i, 6, 116
-     smell, i, 115
-     taste, i, 121
-     touch, i, 122
-   ovaries, i, 26
-   oviparous, i, 125
-   ovoviviparous, i, 125
-   pain, sense of, in, i, 123
-   parasites of, i, 340-344
-   parasitic, i, 198
-   pectoral limb of, i, 50
-   pelagic, i, 156
-   pineal eye in, i, 111
-   poisonous, i, 180-185, 236; ii, 177, 411, 413, 421, 433,436, 526
-   postembryonic development, i, 132
-   posterior limbs of, i, 53
-   preservation of, i, 431
-   problem of highest, i, 383
-   protection of young by, i, 128
-   pugnacity of, i, 162
-   recognition marks in, i, 7, 232, 236
-   records of, i, 433
-   scales of, i, 20
-   sensitiveness to change, i, 150
-   sexual modifications in, i, 129
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 50, 52
-   skeleton of, i, 10, 214, 215
-   specialization in, i, 219, 220, 224, 249; ii, 438
-   spinal cord of, i, 112
-   spineless, i, 25
-   spiral valve in, i, 32
-   tail of, i, 49
-   teeth of, i, 5, 29
-   tenacity of life in, i, 146, 147
-   timidity of, i, 166
-   tongue of, i, 6, 31
-   upland, i, 291
-   variety in tropics, i, 333
-   viscera of, i, 26
-   viviparous, i, 125; ii, 376
-   voices of, i, 121
-   where found, i, 158, 159
-   zeoid, ii, 245
-
- fishes as food, i, 320-339
-
- fishes of Panama,
-   Evermann on, i, 274
-   Fischer on, i, 275
-   Günther on, i, 272, 273
-   Hill on, i, 277
-   Upham on, i, 276
-   Wright on, i, 275
-
- fish faunas,
-   genera in, i, 262, 263
-   Indian, i, 267
-   of Japan, i, 255, 256, 259
-   of Mediterranean, i, 259
-   of Panama, i, 267
-   separated by barriers, i, 255-281
-
- fish fighting, i, 162
-
- fish god of Japan,
-   figure of, ii, 343
-
- fish guano, i, 538
-
- Fish-Hawk, the, i, 408; ii, 147
-
- fishing,
-   apparatus for, i, 335
-   for ayu, i, 333
-   for tai, figured, i, 338
-   with cormorants, i, 333, 335
-   methods of, i, 334
-
- fishing-frog, i, 202; ii, 542
-   capture of prey by, i, 169
-   figure of, i, 18; ii, 545, 550
-
- fish-like vertebrates, i, 34
-
- fish of Paradise, ii, 369
-
- Fistularia, i, 85, 393; ii, 233, 390
-   shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
-
- Fistulariidæ, ii, 227
-   family of, ii, 233
-
- Flammeo, ii, 254
-
- flashers, ii, 331
-
- flatfish family, i, 177; ii, 48
-
- flatheads, ii, 441
-
- Flesus, ii, 493
-
- Fleurieu's whirlpool, ii, 242
-
- flier, ii, 297
-
- flight of fishes, i, 157
-
- Floeberg, ii, 110
-
- Florida jewfish,
-   figure of, ii, 323
-
- Florida lion-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 433
-
- flounder, i, 117, 178, 203, 440; ii, 483-485, 488, 493, 494
-   development of, i, 144
-   diamond, ii, 493
-   eel-back, ii, 493
-   eyes of, i, 118, 174-178
-   frog, ii, 493
-   lantern, ii, 488
-   larval form, i, 176; ii, 483, 484
-   migration of eye, figured, ii, 484
-   newly hatched, figured, i, 177
-   osteology of, ii, 484
-   peacock, ii, 488
-   pole, ii, 494
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
-   starry, ii, 493
-   tail of, figured, ii, 486
-   vertebræ in, i, 205
-   wide-eyed, ii, 488
-   wide-eyed, figured, i, 175
-   young, figured, i, 175; ii, 482
-
- flower of the surf,
-   figure of, ii, 218
-
- flow of blood in fish, i, 107
-
- flukes, ii, 494
-
- flying-fish, ii, 211-214
-   figure of, i, 157, 341, 440
-   parasites of, i, 342
-
- flyfish, ii, 429
-
- flying gurnard, ii, 456, 458
-   figure of, i, 457
-
- flying robin, ii, 458
-
- Fodiator,
-   figure of, ii, 213
-
- food-fishes,
-   abundance of, i, 329
-   relative rank of, i, 320
-
- food of lampreys, i, 491
-
- foolfishes, i, 206; ii, 413
-
- Foot-notes to Evolution,
-   reference to, i, 302
-
- foramen, i, 92
-
- forelle, i, 327
-
- Forcipiger, ii, 404
-
- Forgy,
-   on oarfish, ii, 473
-
- Forbes, i, 419
-   on fish epidemics, i, 340
-
- formalin,
-   as preservative, i, 432
-
- Forskål, i, 394
-
- Forster, i, 395
-
- fossil capelin, ii, 126, 127
-
- fossil darters, ii, 315
-
- fossil fishes, i, 205; ii, 48, 52, 53, 56, 174
-   Agassiz on, i, 422, 423
-   Dean on, i, 422
-   earliest forms, i, 568
-   figure of, i, 436, 454; ii, 47, 59
-   first period of, i, 423
-   from Green River, ii, 59
-   morphological work on, i, 427
-   second period, i, 424
-   study of, i, 424
-   third period, i, 427
-
- fossil gobies, ii, 467
-
- fossil herring,
-   figure of, i, 453; ii, 52
-
- fossil trout, ii, 62, 118
-
- four-eyed fish,
-   figure of, i, 117
-
- four-spined stickleback,
-   figure of, ii, 232
-
- Fowler, i, 422
-
- fox shark, i, 536
-
- Frère Jacques, ii, 255
-
- fresh-water eels, ii, 149
-
- fresh-water fishes, i, 209; ii, 157, 160, 161
-   dispersion of, i, 282-296
-   distribution of, i, 249
-   Günther on, i, 249
-   of Japan, i, 256
-   of North America, i, 290
-
- fresh-water minnows, i, 33
-
- fresh-water perch,
-   figure of, ii, 373
-
- Friar Odoric,
-   on fear in fishes, i, 166
-
- Fries, i, 410
-
- frilled shark, i, 361, 516
-   figure of, i, 525
-
- Fritsch, i, 427, 428, 512
-
- frog,
-   arm of, figured, i, 601
-
- frogfish, i, 197; ii, 549
-   figure of, ii, 551
-
- frog flounder, ii, 493
-
- frostfish, ii, 537
-
- Fucus, ii, 512
-
- Fullarton, i, 177
-
- function of lateral line, i, 23
-
- Fundulus, ii, 194, 199
-   figure of, i, 198
-
- fur seal,
-   food of, ii, 127, 537
-
-
- Gadidæ, i, 290; ii, 522, 533
-
- Gadopsidæ, ii, 516
-
- Gadus, i, 209, 391
-   figure of, i, 331; ii, 533
-
- Gazza, ii, 287
-
- gaff-topsail cat,
-   figure of, ii, 179
-
- Gaidropsarus, i, 209; ii, 539
-
- Gaimard, i, 406
-
- galafata, ii, 413
-
- Galaxias, i, 223, 252, 253, 254
-   Boulenger on, ii, 204, 205
-
- Galaxiidæ,
-   family of, ii, 204
-
- Galei, i, 532
-
- Galeidæ, i, 540
-
- Galeichthys, i, 128, 242, 271, 273; ii, 178
-   figure of, ii, 179
-
- Galeocerdo, i, 541, 542
-
- Galeoid sharks, i, 519
-
- Galeorhinidæ, i, 532, 540
-
- Galeorhinus, i, 454
-
- Galeus,
-   figure of, i, 541
-
- gall-bladder, i, 26
-
- galliwasp, ii, 130
-
- galo, ii, 394
-
- Gambusia, i, 64, 66, 67; ii, 199
-
- Ganocephala, i, 85, 86
-
- Ganoidei, i, 444, 599, 616; ii, 2, 3, 13
-
- Ganoids, i, 22, 38, 88, 91, 139, 157, 159, 186, 204, 384, 569, 622; ii,
-    1-36
-   Agassiz on, ii, 9
-   air-bladder in, i, 109
-   classification of, ii, 13
-   Gill on, ii, 9
-   as a group, ii, 4, 9
-
- ganoid fish, i, 582
-   figure of, i, 452, 453
-
- Garden, i, 390
-
- Garibaldi,
-   figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
-
- garfish, ii, 147, 210, 211
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 59
-
- Garman, i, 405, 408, 420; ii, 183
-   on blind fish, ii, 202
-   on frilled shark, i, 525
-   on Sunapee trout, ii, 109
-
- garpike, i, 290; ii, 30-32
-   figure of, ii, 27
-   fossil, ii, 32
-   tail of, i, 82
-   vertebræ of, i, 48
-
- garrupa, ii, 323
-
- gaspergou, ii, 354
-
- Gasteronemus, ii, 288
-   figure of, ii, 289
-
- Gasterosteidæ, i, 128, 290
-   family of, ii, 228, 232
-
- Gasterosteus, i, 161, 172, 391; ii, 229, 231, 236
-   Lord on, ii, 230
-   figure of, ii, 232
-
- Gastrostomus,
-   figure of, ii, 156
-
- gastrula, i, 131, 132
-
- Gaudry,
-   on leptocercal tail, i, 84
-
- Gay, i, 415
-
- Gegenbaur, i, 428, 511, 512, 591, 594, 601
-   on archipterygium, i, 60
-   on morphology, i, 68
-   on pectoral fin, i, 67
-   theory of, i, 73
-
- Gempylidæ,
-   family of, ii, 267
-
- Gempylus, ii, 267
-
- general laws,
-   of development, i, 133
-   of distribution, i, 239
-
- generalization and specialization, i, 380
-
- genital organs, i, 124
-
- genus, i, 375
-   definition of, i, 372
-
- Genyonemus, ii, 356
-
- Genypterus, ii, 520
-
- geographical distribution, i, 237-259
-   of sharks, charted, i, 459
-
- geological evidence of submergence, i, 268
-
- Geophagus, ii, 381
-
- Geotria, i, 491
-
- Gephyrura, ii, 201
-
- Gephyroberyx, ii, 252
-
- gephyrocercal tail, i, 84, 604
-   figure of, i, 85
-
- German carp, ii, 175
-
- germ-cells, i, 124
-
- Germo, 210; ii, 262, 266
-   figure of, ii, 263
-
- Gerres, i, 271, 273
-   figure of, ii, 349
-
- Gerridæ, i, 206; ii, 372
-   family of, ii, 347
-
- Gervais, i, 408
-
- ghost-fishes, ii, 150, 516
-
- giant bass, ii, 324
-
- Gibbes, i, 426
-
- Gibbons, i, 419
-   on Embiotocidæ, ii, 377
-
- Gibbonsia,
-   figure of, ii, 508
-
- gibbus, ii, 45
-
- Gigactinidæ, ii, 551
-
- Giglioli, i, 412
-
- Gila, i, 304; ii, 169
-
- Gilbert, i, 408, 415, 420; ii, 239
-   on Astroscopus, i, 187
-   on coracoid plate, ii, 206
-   on flight of fishes, i, 157
-   on island forms, i, 240
-   on larval forms, i, 142
-   portrait of, i, 421
-
- Gilbertidia, ii, 441, 447, 449
-   figure of, ii, 451
-
- Gill, i, 408, 419, 448, 528, 591, 594, 600; ii, 24, 34, 40, 52, 317,
-    365, 366, 502, 511
-   on anglers, ii, 543
-   on Discocephali, ii, 470, 471
-   on eels, ii, 143, 156
-   on high and low forms, i, 383
-   on work of Lacépède, i, 398
-   on New Zealand fauna, i, 252
-   on paired limbs, i, 85
-   portrait of, i, 407
-   on Selachii, i, 509
-   on shoulder-girdle, i, 86-89
-   sketch of, i, 405
-   on soles, ii, 496
-   on swallowers, ii, 360, 361
-   on tilefish, ii, 361, 362
-
- gill,
-   arches, i, 45, 91, 508
-   basket, figured, i, 92, 485
-   covers, i, 44
-   filaments, i, 107
-   offices of, i, 11
-   openings, i, 91
-   rakers, i, 31, 46
-   septum, i, 73
-   slits, i, 508
-
- Gillellus, ii, 506
-
- Gillichthys, ii, 462
-   figure of, ii, 463
-
- Gillicus, ii, 48
-
- Ginglymodi, ii, 24, 30
-
- Ginglymostoma, i, 533
-
- Ginglymostomidæ, i, 533
-
- Girard, i, 405, 419; ii, 378, 379
-
- girdle in Dipnoans, i, 86
-
- Girella, ii, 348
-
- gisu, ii, 46
-
- gizzard-shad, i, 290; ii, 51, 53
-
- glacial epoch,
-   effect on dispersion, i, 316
-
- Glaucosoma, ii, 323, 340
-
- Glandiceps, i, 465
-
- Glanencheli, ii, 187
-
- glassy darter, ii, 313
-
- glenoid, i, 90
-
- Glesnæs oarfish, ii, 472
-   figure of, i, 363
-
- globefishes, i, 197, 440, 455; ii, 419
-   figure of, i, 244; ii, 422
-
- Globulodus, ii, 15
-
- Glossobalanus,
-   figure of, i, 464
-   larva of, figured, i, 463
-
- glut-herring, ii, 50
-
- Glyphisodon, i, 267
-   figure of, ii, 383
-
- Glyptocephalus, i, 206; ii, 494
-
- Glyptolepis, i, 603
-
- Glyptopomus, i, 604
-
- Gmelin, i, 395, 397
-
- Gnathanacanthidæ, ii, 514
-
- Gnathodentex, ii, 341
-
- Gnathonemus,
-   figure of, ii, 189
-
- Gnathostomata, i, 78
-
- Gnathostomes, i, 35, 572, 573
-
- Gnathostomi, i, 508, 570
-
- Gnathypops,
-   figure of, ii, 359
-
- goatfish, i, 198; ii, 351, 379
-   figure of, i, 122
-
- gobies, i, 428; ii, 459
-
- Gobiesox, ii, 529, 530, 531
-
- Gobiidæ, i, 22, 206, 290; ii, 306
-   family of, ii, 459
-
- Gobius, i, 208, 273, 391; ii, 461, 467
-
- Gobio, ii, 167, 175
-
- Gobioides, ii, 467
-
- Gobioidea, ii, 470
-
- Gobioidei, 11, 459-480
-   suborder of, ii, 459
-
- Gobiomorus,
-   figure of, i, 160
-
- Gobionellus, i, 208
-   figure of, ii, 461
-
- Gobiosoma, i, 313; ii, 462
-
- goblin sharks,
-   figures of, i, 535
-
- goby, i, 290; ii, 462, 466
-
- gofu, ii, 434
-   figure of, i, 229
-
- goggler, ii, 275
-
- golden,
-   shiner, ii, 167
-   goldsinny, ii, 387
-   surmullet,
-     figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
-   trout, ii, 99
-
- goldfish, ii, 170, 171
-   of Japan, i, 151
-
- Gomphosus, ii, 390
-
- Goniistius, ii, 363
-
- Goniognathus, ii, 287
-
- Gonioplectrus, ii, 323
-
- Gonorhynchidæ, ii, 54-56
-
- Gonorhynchus, ii, 56
-
- Gonostoma, ii, 129
-
- Gonostomidæ, ii, 129
-
- Gonzalez, i, 414
-
- Goodea, ii, 199, 201
-   figure of, i, 126; ii, 200
-   with young, figured, i, 126
-
- Goodsira, i, 476
-
- goody, ii, 356
-
- goosefish, ii, 545
-
- Gorbuscha, ii, 73
-
- Goode, i, 408, 419; ii, 307, 308
-   on albacore, ii, 267
-   on American fisheries, i, 335
-   on codfish, ii, 534
-   estimate of herring product, i, 330
-   on fishing-frog, ii, 545
-   on habits of mullets, ii, 219, 220
-   on mackerel, ii, 260, 264, 265
-   on menhaden, ii, 51
-   portrait of, i, 407
-   on swordfish, ii, 270
-
- Gordiichthys, i, 211; ii, 153
-
- Gordius, ii, 143, 144
-
- Gosfordia, i, 613
-
- Gosse, i, 415
-
- Gouan, i, 397
-
- gatasami, ii, 361
-
- Gottsche, i, 428
-
- goujon, ii, 182
-
- gourami, ii, 369
-
- gouramy,
-   nest of, i, 167
-
- Grammicolepidæ,
-   family of, ii, 249
-
- Grammicolepis, ii, 249
-
- Grammistes, ii, 330
-
- grande écaille,
-   figure of, ii, 43
-
- Granodus, i, 565
-
- Grantea, ii, 544
-
- Graphiurus, i, 605
-
- Grassi, i, 428
-
- grass rockfish, ii, 429
-
- Gray, i, 416
-
- grayling, i, 150, 305; ii, 120-138
-
- gray snapper, ii, 335
-   figure of, ii, 334
-
- Great Basin,
-   chub of, i, 287
-   dispersion of fishes in, i, 316
-   fishes of, i, 302
-
- great blue cat, ii, 180
-
- great oarfish, ii, 472
-
- Greeley, i, 422
-
- Green,
-   on Sacramento perch, i, 179
-
- green-backed trout, ii, 104
-   figure of, ii, 105
-
- green cod, ii, 537
-
- Greene,
-   on Porichthys, i, 190-197; ii, 526
-
- greenfish, ii, 348
-
- Greenland char, ii, 109
-
- Greenland halibut, ii, 491
-
- Greenland shark, i, 547
-
- greenling, ii, 439
-   figure of, ii, 440
-
- green mackerel,
-   figure of, ii, 275
-
- Green River shales, i, 205; ii, 52, 57-59
-
- green rockfish, ii, 429
-
- green-sided darter,
-   figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
-
- green wrasse, ii, 387
-
- Gregarinidia, i, 242
-
- grenadier, i, 84; ii, 540
-   figure of, ii, 541
-
- grilse, ii, 91
-
- grindle, ii, 35
-
- griset,
-   figure of, i, 523
-
- Gronias, ii, 181
-
- Gronovius, i, 390
-
- groupers, ii, 323
-
- grubby, ii, 446
-
- grunt, i, 239
-   figure of, ii, 340
-
- grunters, ii, 340
-
- gruntfishes, i, 121
-
- Grystes, i, 302
-
- Guacamaia, ii, 394
-   figure of, i, 330
-
- guahu, ii, 266
-
- guasa, ii, 323
-
- guavina de rio, ii, 459
-   figure of, ii, 460
-
- Guaymas,
-   fishes of, i, 274
-
- gudgeon, i, 122; ii, 167
-
- Guichenot, i, 412, 415
-
- guipo, ii, 512
-
- guitar-fishes, i, 550
-   figure of, i, 551
-
- gular plate, i, 43; ii, 33
-
- Güldenstadt, i, 395
-
- Gulf Stream, i, 239
-   deep-sea fish of, i, 276
-
- gulper-eel, ii, 156
-
- gulpers, ii, 155
-
- gunnel,
-   figure of, ii, 512
-
- Gunner, i, 396; ii, 245
-
- Günther, i, 88, 255, 259, 404; ii, 3, 95, 135, 161, 183, 229, 371
-   on archipterygium, i, 60
-   on Barramunda, i, 615
-   catalogue of, i, 402
-   on work of Cuvier, i, 400
-   on deep-sea fishes, ii, 136
-   on dispersion, i, 289
-   on eels, ii, 141
-   on electrophores, ii, 188
-   estimate of eggs by, i, 128
-   on fishes of Panama, i, 272, 273
-   on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
-   on month gestation, i, 173
-   on pain in fishes, i, 123
-   on poison glands, i, 180; ii, 527-529
-   portrait of, i, 403
-   on respiration, i, 91
-   on salmon, ii, 92
-   on sea-devils, ii, 547
-   on trout, ii, 94
-   on variation in vertebræ, i, 210
-   on zones of distribution, i, 249, 251
-
- gunwale, ii, 512
-
- Gurley,
-   on parasitic diseases, i, 342
-
- gurnard, i, 122, 198, 208, 209; ii, 456
-
- gurry shark, i, 547
-
- Gymnarchidæ, ii, 188
-
- Gymnarchus, ii, 188
-
- Gymnelis, i, 209; ii, 519
-
- Gymnocanthus, ii, 448
-
- Gymnocephalus, ii, 241, 310
-
- Gymnodontes, ii, 398, 411, 418, 422
-
- Gymnosarda, ii, 262
-
- Gymnothorax, i, 211, 274; ii, 152
-   figure of, i, 458; ii, 154, 155
-
- Gymnonoti, ii, 159-161, 188
-   order of, ii, 187
-
- Gymnotidæ, ii, 187
-
- Gymnotus, i, 391
-
- Gyrinidæ, ii, 222
-
- Gyrodus,
-   figure of, ii, 22
-
- Gyrolepis, ii, 14
-
- Gyrosteus, ii, 18
-
- Gyroptychius, i, 82
-   figure of, i, 604
-
-
- habits of fishes, i, 152
-
- haddock, ii, 537
-   figure of, ii, 536
-   skull of, figured, ii, 536
-
- Hadrodus, ii, 22
-
- Hadropterus, i, 300
-   figure of, ii, 311
-
- haë, ii, 117, 118
-
- Hæckel, i, 411, 511
-   on origin of fins, i, 62
-
- hæmal arch, ii, 6
-
- Hæmapophyres, i, 48
-
- Hæmulidæ, i, 206; ii, 340, 342, 359
-   family of, ii, 340
-
- Hæmulon, i, 121, 238, 271, 274, 375
-   figure of, ii, 340
-
- hagfishes, i, 28, 488
-   Delfin on feeding of, i, 489
-   egg of, figured, i, 127
-   figure of, i, 199, 489
-   and lampreys, i, 189
-
- hair-worm, ii, 144
-
- hake, ii, 136, 539, 540
-   isocercal tail of, i, 83
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
-
- hakone dace, i, 257
-
- Haldeman, i, 419
-
- Halec, ii, 33, 136
-
- Halecomorphi, ii, 13, 23, 24, 29, 35
-   order of, ii, 33
-
- half-beak,
-   figure of, ii, 212
-
- half-moon fish, ii, 350
-
- halibut, 128; ii, 149, 489, 491
-   figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
-   fishery, ii, 490
-
- Halichœres, i, 207, 257, 297; ii, 180, 388-390
-   figure of i, 297; ii, 396
-
- Halientichthys, ii, 552
-
- Hallock,
-   on black bass, ii, 302
-   on Esox, ii, 192
-
- Halosauridæ, ii, 158
-
- Halosaurus, ii, 138
-
- Hamilton, i, 416
-
- hammerhead shark, i, 543
-   figure of, i, 544
-
- Hancock, i, 415
-
- handsaw-fish, ii, 135
-
- Hansen,
-   on Chinook salmon, ii, 85
-
- Haplistia, i, 602
-
- Haplochiton, ii, 128
-
- Haplochitonidæ, ii, 129, 204
-
- Haplodoci, ii, 499
-   sub order of, ii, 525
-
- Haplomi, i, 405; ii, 34, 40, 41, 129, 188-207, 224, 250
-   mesocoracoid arch in, ii, 189
-   ventral fin, i, 67
-
- Haplopagrus, i, 271
-
- hard-tails, ii, 169
-
- Hardwicke,
-   on affection in fishes, i, 167
-
- harelip-sucker, ii, 174
-
- Harengula ii, 51
-
- Harpagiferidæ, ii, 501
-
- Harpodon, ii, 131
-
- Harrimania,
-   figure of, i, 465
-
- Harrimaniidæ,
-   family of, i, 465
-   low organization of, i, 465
-
- Harriottia, i, 199, 566
-   figure of, i, 449
-
- harvest-fish, ii, 283
-   figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
-
- Hasse, i, 428, 543
-   on Elasmobranchs, i, 509
-   on ossicles, i, 96
-   on sharks, i, 509, 530, 561
-
- Hasselquist, i, 389
-
- Hatta, i, 418
-
- Hauy, i, 397
-
- Hawaii,
-   fish fauna of, i, 243
-
- Hay, i, 419, 427, 581; ii, 4 34, 36
-   on fossil eels, ii, 22
-   on Pycnodonti, ii, 22
-   on varieties of sharks, i, 528, 529
-
- hazé, ii, 118
-
- headfishes, i, 19, 84, 206
-   figure of, ii, 424
-   larva of, figured, i, 143
-
- headlight-fish,
-   figure of, i, 188; ii, 132
-
- Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
-   Linton on, i, 348-350
-
- heart of the fish, i, 106
-
- Hector, i, 416
-
- Helicolemus, i, 259; ii, 429, 432
-
- Helicoprion,
-   teeth of, figured, i, 530
-
- Heller, i, 422
-
- Helodus, i, 531
-
- Helostoma, ii, 370
-
- Helostomidæ, ii, 370
-
- Hemerocœtidæ, ii, 506
-
- Hemianthias, ii, 330
-
- Hemibranchii, ii, 40, 157, 209, 227-240
-   sub order of, ii, 227
-
- Hemichordata, i, 461
-
- Hemicyclaspis, i, 576
-
- Hemiexocœtus, ii, 213
-
- Hemigymnus, ii, 390
-
- Hemilepidotus, ii, 442
-   figure of, ii, 443
-
- Hemipteronotus, ii, 390
-
- Hemiramphus, ii, 214, 268
-   figure of, ii, 212
-
- Hemiscylliidæ, i, 533
-
- Hemitripterus, i, 595; ii, 441
-   figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
-
- Heniochus, ii, 404
-
- Henle, i, 405
-
- Henshall,
-   on black bass, ii, 302
-
- Henshaw, ii, 523
-   photograph by, i, 281
-
- hepatic sinus, i, 108
-
- Heptadiodon, ii, 423
-
- Heptanema, i, 605
-
- Heptatrema, i, 490
-
- Heptranchias, i, 447, 509, 536
-   pectoral fin in, figured, i, 57
-   skull of, i, 56
-   teeth of, figured, i, 524
-
- Herald, i, 408
-
- Herbert,
-   on lake trout-fishing, ii, 115
-
- herbivorous fishes, i, 30; ii, 364
-
- Herdmania, i, 474
-
- hermaphrodite fish, i, 124
-
- Heros, i, 314; ii, 381
-
- Herpetichthys, i, 608
-
- herring, i, 21, 204, 290, 429, 440; ii, 33, 38, 43, 46, 49, 52, 73,
-    123, 159
-   figure of, i, 331; ii, 48
-   Goode on, i, 330
-   product of, i, 330
-
- Hertwig, i, 112
-
- Herzenstein, i, 411
-
- Heterandria, i, 314; ii, 194, 201, 467
-
- Heterobranchus, ii, 186
-
- heterocercal tail, i, 49, 507, 513, 516, 602
-   of Acipenser, figured, i, 80
-   of Amia, figured, i, 82
-   of garpike, figured, i, 82
-   of Lepisosteus, figured, i, 82
-   of Salmo, i, 83
-   of sturgeon, figured, i, 80
-   of young trout, i, 83
-
- Heterocongridæ, ii, 150
-
- Heterodontus, i, 128, 447, 536
-   eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
-   figure of, i, 75, 526
-   lower jaw, figured, i, 526
-   pectoral fin of, figured, i, 57
-
- Heterodontidæ, i, 65, 127, 447, 511, 523, 529, 530, 545
-   family of, i, 527
-
- Heterognathi, ii, 161, 162
-
- Heteromi, i, 405, 611; ii, 12 138, 532
-   order of, ii, 157
-
- Heteropleuron, i, 483
-
- Heterostichus, ii, 507
-
- Heterosomata, ii, 247, 481-498
-
- Heterosteus, i, 586
-
- Heterostraci, i, 568, 571, 622; ii, 13
-   order of, i, 573
-
- Heterotis, ii, 56
-
- Hexagrammidæ, ii, 442, 501
-   family of, ii, 439
-   organs of smell in, i, 115
-
- Hexagrammos, i, 257; ii, 107, 439
-   figure of, ii, 440
-
- Hexanchidæ, i, 509, 528
-   family of, i, 524
-
- Hexanchus, i, 447, 524
-   figure of, i, 523
-
- hickory shad,
-   figure of, ii, 53
-
- high and low forms,
-   Agassiz on, i, 380, 381
-   Gill on, i, 383
-   Traquair on, i, 381, 382
-
- Hilgendorf, i, 411, 416
-   portrait of, i, 417
-
- Hilgendorfia, ii, 455
-
- Hill, i, 415
-   conclusions of, i, 277, 279
-
- Himantolophus, ii, 549
-
- hinalea, i, 158
-
- hingio, ii, 128
-
- Hiodon, i, 291, 394; ii, 45, 46
-   figure of, ii, 45
-
- Hiodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 45
-
- Hippocampus, i, 19; ii, 236
-   figure of, i, 17, 250; ii, 238
-
- Hippoglossinæ, ii, 489
-
- Hippoglossoides, i, 205; ii, 491
-
- Hippoglossus, i, 205, 329; ii, 489
-   figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
-
- hirondelle, i, 408; ii, 60
-
- His, i, 428
-
- Histiopteridæ, ii, 398
-
- Histiopterus, i, 260; ii, 333
-
- Histiothrissa, ii, 52
-
- history of ichthyology, i, 387-428
-
- Hoffman, i, 412; ii, 546
-
- hog-choker,
-   figure of, ii, 496
-
- hogfish, ii, 388
-   figure of, ii, 387
-
- Holacanthus, ii, 403
-   figure of, ii, 404, 405
-   skeleton of, figured, i, 214
-
- Holbrook, i, 419
-
- Holcolepis,
-   figure of, i, 454; ii, 43
-
- Holconoti, ii, 365, 379, 380
-   suborder of, ii, 372
-
- Holconotus, i, 404; ii, 375
-
- Holden, ii, 291
-
- Holder, ii, 409, 474
-   on oarfish, ii, 474
-
- Holostei, i, 624; ii, 24
-
- Holotrachys, ii, 256
-
- Hollard, i, 412
-
- Hollardia, ii, 412
-
- Holocentridæ,
-   family of, ii, 253
-
- Holocentrus, i, 267; ii, 253, 255
-   figure of, ii, 254
-
- Holocephali, i, 448, 508, 519, 520, 561-567
-
- Holopterus, ii, 41
-
- Holoptychiidæ, i, 602, 603, 624
-
- Holoptychius,
-   basal fin of, figured, i, 603
-   dorsal fin of, figured, i, 49
-   figure of, i, 451
-
- Holostomi, ii, 140, 141
-
- Holothurian, ii, 522
-   Fierasfer issuing from, i, 159
-
- Holurus, ii, 14
-
- Homalopteridæ, ii, 176
-
- Hombron, i, 408
-
- Home, i, 396
-
- Homistius, i, 586
-
- homocercal tail, i, 49, 81-83, 602
-   figure of, i, 84
-   of flounder, i, 84
-
- homologies,
-   of bones, i, 34, 35
-   of pectoral limb, i, 85
-
- Homonotus, ii, 253
-
- homoplasy, i, 296
-
- Homosoma, ii, 283
-
- Hooker,
-   on fishes prey of birds, i, 166
-
- Hoplias, ii, 162
-
- Hoplichthyidæ, ii, 441
-
- Hoplichthys, ii, 441
-
- Hoplopagrus, i, 271
-
- Hoplopteryx,
-   figure of, i, 438; ii, 253
-
- Hoplostethus, i, 260, 263; ii, 252
-
- Hoppin,
-   on blind fish, ii, 202, 203
-
- Hornbaum-Hornschuch, ii, 144
-
- horn-dace, i, 122, 283; ii, 167
-   figure of, i, 285; ii, 168
-
- horned pout, ii, 35, 180
-   figure of, ii, 181
-
- horned trunkfish, i, 374
-   figure of, i, 373, 376; ii, 416
-
- hornfish, ii, 412
-
- hornless trunkfish, i, 378; ii, 418
-   face view of, i, 379
-   figure of, i, 378; ii, 416
-
- horse-eye-jack, ii, 276
-
- horsehead-fish, ii, 276
-   figure of, i, 148
-
- horse-mackerel, ii, 135
-   figure of, ii, 274
-
- horseshoe-crab,
-   figure of, i, 572
-
- Houttuyn, i, 394, 416
-
- how fish cross watersheds, i, 306
-
- how fishes breathe, i, 91
-
- how to secure fish, i, 429
-
- Hoy, i, 419; ii, 64
-
- huchen, ii, 106
-
- Hucho, i, 253; ii, 62, 106
-   figure of, ii, 107
-
- Humboldt, i, 410
-   on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95
-
- humpback salmon, ii, 68, 72, 80
-   figure of, ii, 70, 72
-
- humpback sucker, ii, 174
-
- humpback whitefish, ii, 65
-
- Hutton, i, 416
-
- Huxley, i, 424, 428, 593, 601; ii, 3
-   on herring product, i, 330
-   on Lepidostei, ii, 23
-
- Hybocladodus, i, 522
-
- Hybodus, i, 528, 529
-   eggs of, figured, i, 527
-   fin-spine of, figured, i, 528, 529
-
- Hybopsis, ii, 167
-
- hybridism, i, 144; ii, 94
-
- Hydrocyon, ii, 162
-
- Hydrolagus, i, 564
-
- Hyodon, i, 302
-
- Hyoganoidea, ii, 24
-
- Hyoganoids, ii, 11
-
- hyomandibular, i, 508, 521, 606
-
- hyostylic skull, i, 508, 561; ii, 7
-   figure of, i, 56
-
- Hypamia, ii, 36
-
- hypercoracoid, i, 89; ii, 1, 12
-
- Hyperoartia, i, 488, 490, 593
-
- Hyperoplus, ii, 521
-
- Hyperotreta, i, 488, 593
-
- Hyperprosopon, ii, 375
-
- hypocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
-
- Hypocritichthys,
-   figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
-
- Hypohomus, ii, 312
-
- Hypophthalmidæ, ii, 185
-
- Hypoplectrus, i, 235, 271; ii, 237
-   figure of, ii, 329
-
- Hyporhamphus, ii, 212
-
- Hypostomides, ii, 227-240
-   suborder of, ii, 239
-
- Hypotrema, i, 549
-
- hypural, ii, 142
-
- Hypseleotris, ii, 460
-
- Hypsoblennius, i, 242
-
- Hypsopsetta, ii, 493
-
- Hypsurus, ii, 375
-   figure of, ii, 373
-
- Hypsycormus, ii, 34
-
- Hypsypops,
-   figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
-
- Hyrtl, i, 428
-
- Hysterocarpus, i, 304; ii, 374
-   figure of, ii, 373, 379
-
-
- Icarus, ii, 43
-
- icefish, i, 146; ii, 123, 127
-   figure of, i, 149; ii, 128
-
- Icelinus, ii, 442
-
- Icelus, ii, 442, 449
-
- Icosteidæ, ii, 285
-
- Icosteus, ii, 285
-
- Ictalurus, i, 291, 292; ii, 179-181
-   figure of, i, 280
-
- ichthyized fishes, i, 210
-
- Ichthyocephali, ii, 140, 141
-
- Ichthyodectes, ii, 48
-
- Ichthyodectidæ, ii, 48
-
- Ichthyodorolites, i, 516, 529, 566
-
- ichthyologists,
-   portraits of, i, 399, 403, 407, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425, 513, 516,
-      525, 545, 561, 599, 601
-
- ichthyology,
-   Aristotle on, i, 387
-   history of, i, 387-428
-
- Ichthyotomi, i, 437, 446
-   order of, i, 519
-   Parker & Haswell on, i, 520
-
- Ichthyomyzon, i, 491
-
- Ichthyopsida, i, 601
-
- Ichthyosism, i, 183
-
- Ichthysauroides, i, 586
-
- Icthyscopus, ii, 503
-
- Ictiobus, i, 291; ii, 172
-   figure of, ii, 173
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 51; ii, 160
-
- id, ii, 168
-
- Idiacanthidæ, ii, 138
-
- Idus, ii, 168
-
- igami, ii, 390
-
- Ilarches, ii, 400
-
- Ilarchidæ, ii, 291, 400, 401
-
- Ilarchus, ii, 398
-
- Ilisha, i, 271; ii, 52
-
- Ilyophidæ, ii, 150
-
- imaginary garpike, i, 364
-
- incisor teeth, figured, i, 31
-
- inconnu,
-   figure of, ii, 67
-
- Indian fauna, i, 267
-   extension of, i, 265
-
- Indian fish, ii, 405
-
- Indian sawfish,
-   figure of, i, 200
-
- Indian parrot-fish,
-   figure of pharyngeals, ii, 393
-
- Indigo damsel-fish
-   figure of, ii, 384
-
- infraclavicles, ii, 13
-
- infundibulum, ii, 6
-
- Iniistius, ii, 389, 390
-
- Inimicus, i, 236; ii, 434
-   figure of, frontispiece, II. Vol.
-
- Iniomi, i, 405; ii, 38, 40, 41, 138, 189, 190, 204, 526
-   suborder of, ii, 129
-
- iniomous fishes,
-   photophores of, i, 189
-
- instincts in fishes,
-   basis of, i, 154
-   classification of, i, 154
-   of courtship, i, 155
-   heredity in, i, 154
-   of migration, i, 156
-   variability of, i, 155, 156
-   Whitman on, i, 156
-
- intensity of coloration, i, 232
-
- interclavicle,
-   Starks on, ii, 227
-
- interhæmals, i, 49; ii, 348
-
- interneurals, i, 49; ii, 15
-
- intestine of fish, i, 33
-
- intromittent organ, i, 124
-
- Investigator, the, i, 408; ii, 60
-
- Ioa, ii, 313
-
- Ionoscopus, ii, 36
-
- Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
-
- Ipnops,
-   figure of, i, 181; ii, 131
-
- Irish lord, ii, 442
-   figure of, ii, 443
-
- Irish Pampano,
-   figure of, ii, 349
-
- isabelita,
-   figure of, ii, 404
-
- Isaciella, i, 270
-
- isaki, ii, 342
-
- Ischnacanthidæ, i, 517
-
- Ischnacanthus, i, 517
-
- Ischyodus, i, 565
-
- ishigakidai, ii, 360
-
- Ishikawa, i, 416
-
- ishinagi, ii, 323
-
- Iso,
-   figure of, ii, 218
-
- isocercal tail, i, 49, 83, 602
-   Cope on, i, 84
-   figure of, i, 83
-
- Isopholidæ, ii, 26
-
- Isopholis, ii, 26
-   figure of, ii, 27
-
- Isospondyli, i, 204, 406; ii, 26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37-60, 128, 129,
-    138, 139, 142, 148, 159, 160, 188-190, 209, 250
-   order of, ii, 38
-
- Isotœnia, i, 565
-
- isthmus, i, 45
-
- isthmus barriers, i, 255-281
-
- Isthmus of Panama,
-   as barrier, i, 269
-   fish fauna of, i, 266, 271
-   species of shores, i, 269
-
- Isthmus of Suez, i, 255, 258
-   as barrier, i, 266
-   submergence of, i, 267
-
- Istiæus,
-   figure of, ii, 46
-
- Istiophoridæ, ii, 268
-
- Istiophorus, ii, 269
-
- Istlarius, ii, 182
-
- Isuropsis,
-   figure of, i, 537
-
- Isurus, i, 537, 538
-
- Italian parrot-fish, i, 48
-   figure of, ii, 391
-
- ito,
-   figure of, ii, 107
-
- itoryori, ii, 340
-
- iwana, ii, 114
-
-
- jack mariddle, ii, 43
-
- Jackson,
-   on Embiotocidæ, ii, 375, 393
-
- Jacobi,
-   artificial impregnation by, i, 150
-
- Jacoby,
-   on origin of eels, ii, 144, 145
-
- Jacquinot, i, 408
-
- Jadgeska hatchery, ii, 86
-
- Jækel, i, 427, 428, 591
-
- jallao, ii, 341
-
- Janassa,
-   teeth of, i, 554
-
- Japan,
-   Black Current of, i, 255, 256, 258
-   fishes of, i, 256
-   fresh-water fauna of, i, 256
-
- Japan and Mediterranean
-   fish faunas, i, 259, 260
-
- Japanese blenny,
-   figure of, i, 9; ii, 513
-
- Japanese catfish, ii, 183
-
- Japanese dace, ii, 170
-
- Japanese filefish,
-   figure of, i, 241
-
- Japanese samlet,
-   figure of, i, 321
-
- Japanese sea-horse,
-   figure of, i, 250
-
- jaqueta, ii, 383
-
- jara-bakka, i, 171
-
- jawfish,
-   figure of, ii, 359
-
- jaws, i, 201
-   of Amia, i, 43
-   bones of, i, 41, 43
-   figured, i, 30, 43, 583; ii, 39
-   of parrot-fish, i, 30; ii, 391, 393
-   of shark, i, 35
-
- Jenkins, i, 420; ii, 52
-   on fishes of Panama, i, 274
-
- Jenkinsia, ii, 52
-
- Jenyns, i, 408
-
- Jerdon, i, 416
-
- Jerusalem haddock, ii, 244
-
- Jeude, i, 414
-
- jewfishes, ii, 321, 323
-
- jiguagua, ii, 276
-
- jocu, ii, 336
-
- John,
-   on climbing-fish, ii, 367
-
- John dories, ii, 245, 247
-   figure of, ii, 248
-
- Johnny darter, ii, 313
-
- John Paw,
-   figure of, ii, 325
-
- Johnson, i, 410
-   on interbreeding of trout, ii, 94
-
- Johnston, i, 428
-
- jolt-head porgy,
-   figure of, ii, 344
-
- Jordan, i, 348, 408; ii, 522
-   on parent stream theory, ii, 81
-   portrait of, i, 421
-   on return of salmon to spawning grounds, ii, 83
-
- Jordanella, i, 314; ii, 198
-   figure of, ii, 197
-
- Jordania, ii, 441, 449
-   figure of, ii, 442
-
- Jordanicus, ii, 522
-
- jorobado, ii, 276
-
- joturo, ii, 26
-   figure of, ii, 28, 222
-
- Joturus,
-   figure of, ii, 222
-
- Jugulares, i, 393
-   suborder of, i, 499-506; ii, 39, 499, 534
-
- Julis, i, 158, 235; ii, 389, 390
-
- jurel, ii, 276
-
-
- kæpra, i, 171
-
- kajika, ii, 118
-
- kaku, ii, 221
-
- Kalm, i, 390
-
- Kamchatka lamprey,
-   figure of, i, 495
-
- Kamloops trout, ii, 101
-
- Kansas River,
-   blue-green sunfish from, i, 26
-
- Kareius, ii, 494
-
- Karpinsky, i, 529
-
- Kaup, i, 411
-
- kawamasu, ii, 95
-
- kawamuki, ii, 415
-
- Kellogg's Zoology, i, 26
-
- Kelly
-   on otoliths, i, 120
-
- kelpfish, ii, 389, 390, 507
-
- kelts, ii, 91
-
- Kent,
-   on anglers, ii, 543, 544
-
- Kerr, i, 619
-   on Balfour's theory, i, 72
-   on fin migration, i, 74
-   on Gegenbaur theory, i, 73
-   on external gill, i, 76, 78
-   on Lepidosiren, i, 61, 620
-   on morphology, i, 68
-
- Kessler, i, 411
-
- Kessleria, i, 252, 452; ii, 18, 20
-
- keta, ii, 73
-
- Kettleman, ii, 545
-
- kihi kihi, ii, 406
-
- killer, i, 361
-
- killifish, i, 290, 304; ii, 194, 198
-   hearing of, i, 121
-
- king crab,
-   figure of, i, 572
-
- king darter,
-   figure of, ii, 311
-
- kingfish, ii, 266, 356
-   figure of, ii, 357
-
- king of salmon, ii, 425
-   figure of, ii, 478
-
- king of herrings, ii, 425, 472
-
- king of mackerels,
-   figure of, ii, 425
-
- king salmon, ii, 68, 69
-   anadromous instinct of, i, 160
-   grilse, figured, ii, 70, 72
-
- Kingsley,
-   on ascidians, i, 474
-   on degeneration, i, 460
-   on sense organs, i, 175
-   on tunicates, i, 466-468
-
- Kirsch, i, 422
-
- Kirtland, i, 418; ii, 35
-
- Kirtlandia,
-   figure of, ii, 217
-
- Kishinouye, i, 418
-
- kisugo, ii, 358
-
- Kittlitz, i, 410
-
- Klein, i, 390
-
- Klunzinger, i, 411
-
- Kner, i, 410, 411, 427
-   on Ganoids, ii, 10
-
- Kneriidæ,
-   family of, ii, 204
-
- knightfish, ii, 257
-
- Knox, ii, 477
-
- kobini-iwashi, ii, 52
-
- kochi, ii, 441
-
- Koenen, i, 427
-
- Koken, i, 427
-
- kokopu, ii, 204
-
- kokos, ii, 71
-
- Kolliker, i, 428
-
- Konwick, i, 427
-
- konoshiro, ii, 53
-
- Kölreuter, i, 396
-
- Kowala, ii, 51
-
- Kowalevskia, i, 474
-
- Kowalevsky, i, 428
-
- Krascheninnikov, i, 395; ii, 68
-
- Krefft, i, 614
-
- Kröyer, i, 410
-
- Kuhlia, ii, 304
-
- Kuhliidæ, ii, 297, 354
-
- kumu, i, 322; ii, 352
-
- Kundscha, ii, 114
-
- Kuppfer's vesicle, i, 138
-
- kurodai, ii, 343
-
- kuromutsu,
-   figure of, ii, 213
-
- Kuro Shiwo, i, 242, 251, 258
-   fishes in, i, 239
-   goblin shark of, i, 534
-
- Kurtidæ, ii, 287
-
- Kurtus, ii, 288
-
- Kyphosidæ, ii, 349, 364, 398
-
- Kyphosus, ii, 350
-   figure of, ii, 349
-
-
- Labidesthes, i, 313; ii, 218
-
- Labrodon, ii, 385
-
- Labrax, ii, 330
-
- Labridæ, i, 207; ii, 372, 385, 390, 396
-
- Labrus, i, 207, 260, 267, 391; ii, 385, 387
-
- labyrinthine fishes, ii, 365, 370
-
- Labyrinthinci, i, 149; ii, 365, 379
-   Day on, ii, 365
-   Gill on, ii, 365
-
- Labyrinthodontidæ, i, 86
-
- lac de marbre, ii, 109
-
- Lacépède, i, 376, 389
-   portrait of, i, 399
-
- Lachnolæmus, ii, 388
-   figure of, ii, 387
-
- Lactariidæ, ii, 356
-
- Lactarius, ii, 358
-
- Lactophrys, ii, 417
-   figure of, i, 214, 373, 377, 378; ii, 416, 417
-   skeleton of, figured, ii, 418
-
- ladyfish, i, 117, 198; ii, 388
-   figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
-   transformations in, i, 147
-
- La Favorite, the, i, 408
-
- Lafayette, ii, 356
-
- Lagocephalus,
-   figure of, ii, 419
-
- Lagodon, ii, 344
-
- Lake Bonneville,
-   ancient outlet of, i, 303
-
- lake herring, ii, 65-67
-
- lake lamprey,
-   head of, figured, i, 111
-   mouth figured, i, 492
-
- Lake Nicaragua,
-   shark from, i, 542
-
- Lake Patzcuaro,
-   viviparous fishes from, i, 126
-
- Lake Pontchartrain,
-   fish fauna of, i, 314
-
- lake trout, ii, 66, 115
-   figure of, ii, 114
-
- lake whiting, ii, 65
-
- Lamdodus, i, 522
-
- Laminaria, ii, 544
-
- Lamnidæ, i, 532, 537, 538, 542
-
- Lamna, i, 534, 538
-   teeth of, figured, i, 537
-   figure of, 447
-
- lamnoid sharks, i, 519, 533
-   distinguished, i, 534
-   families of, i, 534
-
- Lampetra, i, 491
-   figure of, i, 120, 492
-
- lamprey, i, 28, 35, 56, 111, 204, 249, 290, 490, 506
-   ascending brook figured, i, 496
-   brain of, i, 112
-   catfishes destroyed by, i, 358
-   extinct forms, i, 487
-   fate of, i, 504
-   food of, i, 491
-   gill-basket of, figured, i, 92, 485
-   Kamchatka, i, 495
-   method of attack, i, 493
-   migration of, i, 494
-   orders of, i, 488
-   parasites of, i, 354
-   Reighard on, i, 491
-   spawning of, i, 498, 500
-   structure of, i, 486
-   Surface on, i, 491
-
- Lamprididæ, ii, 16
-   family of, ii, 243
-
- Lampris, i, 210, 322; ii, 228, 245, 288
-   figure of, i, 323
-   shoulder-girdle, figured, ii, 243
-
- Lanarkia, i, 570, 622
-   figure of, i, 574
-
- lancelet, i, 28, 31, 121, 204, 482-485, 506; ii, 467
-   characteristics of, i, 482
-   figure of, i, 484
-   habits of, i, 483
-   vertebral column of, i, 55
-
- lancet-fish, ii, 408
-   figure of, ii, 135
-
- lancet of surgeon-fish, i, 181
-
- lane-snapper,
-   figure of, ii, 336
-
- Lankester, i, 61, 87, 426, 571, 593
-
- lantern-fishes, ii, 41, 61, 128, 129, 525
-   figure of, ii, 133
-
- lantern-flounder, ii, 488
-
- laolach, i, 620
-
- Laparus, ii, 518
-
- large-mouthed black bass,
-   figure of, ii, 305
-
- Larimus, ii, 355
-
- Larvacea, i, 470, 473
-   figure of, i, 480
-
- larval development of fishes, i, 139-141, 143-147, 174-176
-   Dean on, i, 139
-   in common eel, i, 141
-   Gilbert on, i, 142
-   figures showing, i, 140-142
-   in brook lamprey, i, 140
-   in sturgeon, i, 141
-
- larval flounder,
-   figure of, ii, 483
-
- larval forms,
-   of Chætodon, i, 144
-   figures of, i, 140-142
-   of flounder, figured, i, 147, 175, 176
-   of ladyfish, i, 147
-   of Lepidosiren, i, 620, 621
-   of Mola, i, 143, 145
-   of sailfish, i, 140
-   of swordfish, i, 139
-
- Lasianius,
-   figure of, i, 580
-
- Lateolabrax, i, 324; ii, 320
-
- lateral fold, i, 64
-   Balfour on, i, 71-73
-   Kerr on, i, 72
-   Mollier on, i, 71
-
- lateral line, i, 9, 22, 23
-   a mucous channel, i, 22
-   Dean on, i, 23
-   function of, i, 23
-   relation to touch, i, 122
-   in singing-fish, figured, i, 23
-
- Lates, ii, 320, 330
-
- Latham, i, 396
-
- Latilidæ, the, ii, 361, 363
-
- Latilus, ii, 362
-
- Latrididæ, ii, 363, 364, 426
-
- Latris, ii, 363
-
- lavaret, ii, 65
-
- lawyer, ii, 335, 538
-
- Lay, i, 409
-
- Leach, i, 396
-
- leather-carp, i, 151
-
- leather-jackets, ii, 272, 413
-
- Lebias, ii, 198, 201
-
- lectocephalous condition,
-   Günther on, i, 142
-
- Leidy, i, 426
-
- Leiognathidæ, ii, 287, 348
-
- Leiognathus, ii, 287
-
- Leiostomus, ii, 356
-
- Leiuranus, ii, 150
-
- length of intestine, i, 33
-
- Lentipes, ii, 466
-
- leopard toadfish,
-   figure of, ii, 525
-
- Lepadogaster, i, 263; ii, 531
-
- Lepechin, i, 396
-
- Lepidaplois, ii, 390
-   figure of, ii, 389
-
- Lepidocottus, ii, 426, 449
-
- Lepidopidæ,
-   family of, ii, 267
-
- Lepidopsetta, ii, 493
-
- Lepidopus, i, 210; ii, 267
-
- Lepidorhombus, i, 206; ii, 488
-
- Lepidosiren, i, 60, 73, 85, 89, 100, 149, 450, 619, 621, 622
-   adult male, figured, i, 620
-   larval forms, figured, i, 620
-     at 3 days, i, 620
-     at 30 days, i, 621
-     at 40 days, i, 621
-     at three months, i, 621
-   pectoral fin in, i, 60
-
- Lepidosirenidæ, i, 88, 612, 619
-
- Lepidostei, ii, 13, 26
-   Huxley on, ii, 23
-   Zittel on, ii, 23, 24
-
- Lepidosteids, ii, 32
-
- Lepidosteoidei, i, 382
-
- Lepidotidæ, ii, 24
-
- Lepidotes, ii, 24
-
- Lepidotrigla, i, 259; ii, 456
-
- Lepisoma, i, 208; ii, 508
-
- Lepisosteidæ, i, 290; ii, 11, 29, 30
-
- Lepisosteus, i, 32, 66, 85, 101, 102, 291, 314, 357, 604, 623; ii, 5,
-    6, 23, 29, 30, 32
-   Agassiz on, ii, 5
-   Balfour and Parker on, ii, 5
-   Eastman on, ii, 32
-   figure of, i, 452; ii, 31
-   Günther on, ii, 5, 7
-   Müller on, ii, 517
-   tail of, figured, i, 82
-
- Lepomis, i, 302; ii, 301
-   figure of, i, 4; ii, 300
-
- Leptecheneis,
-   figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
-
- leptocardial tail, i, 81, 83
-
- Leptocardians, i, 383
-
- Leptocardii, i, 55, 482-485
-
- Leptocephalidæ, ii, 149
-
- Leptocephalus, i, 211; ii, 148, 149
-   figure of, ii, 150
-
- leptocercal tail, i, 50, 81, 83, 507, 602
-   Agassiz on, i, 81
-   figure of, i, 82
-   Gaudry on, i, 84
-
- Leptocottus, ii, 448
-
- Leptolepidæ, ii, 36, 41
-
- Leptolepis, ii, 42
-   figure of, ii, 41
-
- Leptomylus, i, 565
-
- Leptops, ii, 182
-
- Leptoscopidæ, the, ii, 503, 506
-
- Leptosmus, ii, 53
-
- Leptotrachelus, ii, 136
-
- Lepturus, i, 391
-
- lesser-weaver, i, 169
-
- Lesson, i, 408
-
- Le Sueur, i, 418
-
- Lethrinus, i, 268; ii, 347
-
- Leuciscus, i, 254, 256, 346; ii, 168, 169
-   figure of, i, 287; ii, 169
-   pharyngeals of, i, 47
-   teeth of, figured, ii, 163, 175
-
- Leuckart, i, 609
-
- Leucopsarion, ii, 467
-
- Lias, ii, 14
-
- Libys, i, 605
-
- Ligul, a, i, 348
-
- Lilljeborg, i, 410
-
- Limanda, ii, 493
-
- little roncador, ii, 356
-
- Limulus, i, 569
-   figure of, i, 572
-
- Lindström, i, 427
-
- ling, ii, 538
-
- Linnæus, i, 375, 390; ii, 410, 424, 499
-   followers of, i, 394
-   Systema Naturæ of, i, 392
-
- Linophryne, ii, 549
-
- Linton,
-   on parasitic diseases, i, 343-348
-
- Liodesmidæ, ii, 34
-
- Liodesmus, ii, 34
-
- lion-fish, ii, 434
-   figure of, ii, 433, 435
-
- Liopsetta, ii, 493
-   figure of, ii, 494
-
- liparid, ii, 447, 454
-   figure of, ii, 413, 454
-
- Liparididæ,
-   family of, ii, 454
-
- Liparididæ, i, 189, 208, 218; ii, 313
-
- Liparis, i, 202, 217, 219, 375, 380; ii, 449, 455
-   figure of, i, 218
-
- Lipogenyidæ, ii, 158
-
- Lipogenys, ii, 158
-
- Lister, i, 373, 375, 376
-
- lithographic shales, ii, 42
-
- Litholepis, i, 364
-
- littoral fishes,
-   distribution of, i, 247
-
- Liuranus,
-   figure of, i, 233
-
- Liza, ii, 221
-
- lizard-fishes, ii, 61
-   figure of, ii, 130
-
- lizard-skipper,
-   figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
-
- loach, i, 290; ii, 185
-   fossil, ii, 175, 176
-
- Lobotes,
-   figure of, ii, 331
-
- Lobotidæ,
-   family of, ii, 331
-
- local barriers, i, 298
-
- Lockington, i, 419
-   on long-jawed goby, ii, 462-465
-
- log-perch,
-   figure of, ii, 311
-
- Lohest, i, 427
-
- lok-sild, ii, 67
-
- longe, ii, 114
-
- long-eared sunfish, i, 3-15
-   figure of, i, 2, 3; ii, 300
-
- long-jawed goby, ii, 462, 463
-   Cooper on, ii, 463
-   figure of, ii, 463
-   Lockington on, ii, 462
-
- long-horned sculpin, ii, 447
-
- long-jaw, ii, 66
-
- long-necked eels, ii, 153
-
- lophobranchii, ii, 9, 209, 227-240
-
- lophobranchs, i, 92
-   suborder of, ii, 235
-
- Lophogobius, i, 208
-
- Lophiidæ, i, 206; ii, 542
-
- Lophiomus, i, 207, 271; ii, 547
-
- Lophius, i, 169, 202, 206, 391; ii, 542, 545, 547, 548
-   figure of, i, 18; ii, 545
-
- lophocercal tail, i, 81, 83
-
- Lopholatilus, i, 94, 357; ii, 361
-
- Lophopsetta, ii, 488
-   figure of, ii, 487
-
- Lophotes, i, 260, 263; ii, 291
-
- Lophotidæ, ii, 292
-   family of, ii, 291
-
- Loricaria, i, 393
-   figure of, ii, 186
-
- Loricariidæ, ii, 185, 186, 449
-
- Loricati, ii, 426, 455
-
- loro, ii, 394, 396
-
- Lota, i, 109, 209, 316; ii, 538
-   figure of, ii, 539
-
- Lotella, i, 259
-
- louse-fish, ii, 469
-
- louvar,
-   figure of, ii, 290
-
- Loven,
-   on Arctic species, i, 317
-
- Lowe, i, 410
-
- Lowell,
-   on trout, ii, 108
-
- lower jaw,
-   figure of, i, 526
-   of Cochliodus figured, i, 531
-   of Neoceratodus figured, i, 616
-   of Polypterus figured, i, 606
-
- lower pharyngeals,
-   figure of, ii, 171
-
- Lower Silurian,
-   shark teeth from, i, 508
-
- lowland fishes,
-   dispersion of, i, 313
-
- Luciæ, i, 477
-
- Lucifuga, i, 314; ii, 524
-   figure of, i, 222; ii, 524
-
- Lucigobius, ii, 467
-
- Luciocephalidæ, ii, 370
-
- Luciocephalus, ii, 370
-
- Lucioperca, ii, 315
-
- Lucas,
-   on Therobromus, ii, 127
-
- luminous organs, i, 187
-   von Lendenfeld on, i, 189
-   of Porichthys, figured, i, 191
-
- Lumpenus, i, 209; ii, 513
-
- lumpfish, i, 208; ii, 135, 453, 454
-   figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
-
- lump-sucker, ii, 453, 455
-
- lung-fish, i, 100, 458, 609-622
-
- lungs of the fish,
-   origin of, i, 98, 99
-   Morris on, i, 98
-
- lurking-fishes,
-   Whitmee on, i, 169
-
- Lutianidæ, ii, 323, 335
-   family of, i, 333; ii, 340
-
- Lutianus, i, 324; ii, 330, 333, 335, 336
-   figure of, i, 331; ii, 333, 335, 336
-
- Lütken, i, 410; ii, 33, 133
-   on Selene, i, 144
-   on flying-fish, ii, 214
-
- Luvaridæ, ii, 291
-
- Luvarus, ii, 291
-   figure of, ii, 290
-
- Lycenchelys,
-   figure of, ii, 519
-
- Lycodapodidæ, ii, 520
-
- Lycodes, ii, 518
-   figure of, ii, 519
-
- Lycodapus,
-   figure of, ii, 520
-
- Lycodopsis, ii, 518
-
- Lycodes, i, 209
-
- Lycoptera, ii, 41
-
- Lyman,
-   on the museum at Paris, i, 401
-
- Lyomeri,
-   order of, ii, 140, 155
-
- Lyopomi, ii, 138, 158, 189
-
- Lyopsetta, i, 205
-
- Lyrifera, i, 462, 508
-
- Lysopteri, i, 623; ii, 13
-
-
- maaji, ii, 274
-
- maccaroni piatti, i, 351
-
- Macleay, i, 416, 428
-
- Macdonald, i, 419
-
- Macdonaldia, ii, 157
-
- Mackenzie salmon, ii, 67
-
- mackerel, i, 19, 117, 156, 210; ii, 258, 259
-   figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
-   fishery, ii, 260, 261
-   Goode on, ii, 260
-
- mackerel-midges, ii, 539
-
- mackerel-scads, ii, 274
-
- mackerel-shark, i, 533
-   figure of, i, 447, 537
-
- Mackinaw trout, ii, 114
-
- Macrias, ii, 502
-
- Macrodon, ii, 354
-
- Macropetalichthyidæ,
-   family of, i, 585
-
- Macropetalichthys, i, 583, 585, 589, 590
-
- Macropharyngodon, ii, 390
-
- Macrophthalmia, i, 491
-
- Macropistius, ii, 26
-
- Macropodus, ii, 369, 370
-
- Macropoma, i, 605
-
- Macrorhamphosidæ, ii, 227, 234, 235
-
- Macrorhamphosus, i, 259
-   figure of, ii, 234
-
- Macrosemiidæ, ii, 26, 28
-
- Macrosemius, ii, 26
-
- Macrouridæ, i, 84; ii, 541
-   vertebræ in, 209; ii, 540
-
- mademoiselle,
-   figure of, ii, 355
-
- mad tom, ii, 182
-   figure of, i, 179; ii, 182
-
- Mænidæ,
-   family of, ii, 347
-
- magifi, ii, 288
-
- mahogany snapper, ii, 337
-
- maigre, ii, 355
-
- mail-cheek fishes, ii, 426
-
- makrede, i, 171
-
- makua, ii, 425
-
- Malacanthidæ, ii, 361, 499
-
- Malacanthus, ii, 361
-
- Malacopterygii, i, 391; ii, 208
-
- Malacopterygium, ii, 39
-
- Malacorhinus, i, 553
-
- Malacosteidæ, ii, 128, 134
-
- Malapterurus, ii, 183
-
- malau, ii, 253
-
- Mallotus,
-   figure of, ii, 126
-
- Malm, i, 410
-
- malma, i, 326
-   figure of, ii, 112
-
- Malmgren, i, 410
-   on Arctic species, i, 317
-
- Malpighi, i, 390
-
- Malthe, i, 206
-
- Malthopsis, ii, 552
-
- mandible,
-   suspensorium of, i, 43, 120
-
- mandibular rami, i, 589
-
- man-eating shark, i, 538
-
- Maner,
-   on external gill, i, 77
-
- mangrove snapper, ii, 335
-
- man-of-war fish, ii, 285
-
- Manta, i, 448, 560
-   figure of, i, 559
-
- map of continents, i, 270
-
- Mapo, ii, 461
-
- Marcgraf, i, 389
-
- Marcgravia, ii, 526
-
- Marcusen, i, 428
-
- marine blenny, i, 118
-
- marine fishes,
-   checked by barriers, i, 241
-   distribution of, i, 246
-
- Mariposa, ii, 244, 403
-
- Marquette, ii, 64
-
- Marsh,
-   on eye of Anableps, ii, 195
-
- Marsiobranch, i, 592, 593
-
- Marsipobranchi, i, 486
-
- Martin pescador, ii, 550
-
- Mason, ii, 73
-
- Mastacembelidæ, ii, 532
-
- Mastacembelus, ii, 157
-   figure of, ii, 532
-
- Masticura, i, 555
-
- masu, ii, 68, 73
-   figure of, ii, 71, 72
-
- matajuelo, ii, 252, 253
-
- matajuelo blanco, ii, 361
-
- matao, ii, 249
-
- matodai, ii, 333
-
- matsubara, i, 418
-
- Matthew, i, 427
-
- Mauer,
-   on external gill, i, 77
-
- Maurolicidæ,
-   family of, ii, 134
-
- Maurolicus, ii, 134
-
- maxillary,
-   figure of, i, 55
-   of Sebastolobus, i, 55
-
- mayfish,
-   figure of, ii, 198
-
- McClelland, i, 416
-
- McCoy, i, 82, 410, 581
-
- McGregor, i, 422
-
- McKay, i, 420
-
- McMurrich, i, 428
-
- meaji, ii, 275
-
- meaning of species, i, 293
-   Coues on, i, 379
-
- measurements of the fish, i, 19
-
- mebaru, ii, 429, 431
-
- Meckel's cartilage, i, 44, 57, 507, 596, 606
-
- Meda, ii, 169
-
- Meddagh,
-   photograph by, i, 164
-
- Medialuna, ii, 350
-
- medregal, ii, 274
-
- Meek,
-   on trout, ii, 105
-
- Megalaspis, ii, 274
-
- Megalichthyidæ, i, 602, 603
-
- Megalichthys,
-   figure of, i, 604
-
- Megalops, ii, 43
-
- Megalurus,
-   figure of, ii, 36
-
- Megaperca, ii, 322
-
- Megaprotodon, ii, 404
-
- mejenidai, ii, 348
-
- Melamphaës, ii, 252
-
- Melaniris, ii, 218
-
- Melanocetus, ii, 548
-
- Melanogrammus, i, 209; ii, 539
-   figure of, ii, 536
-   skull of, figured, ii, 536
-
- Melanotænia, ii, 218
-
- Melanotæniidæ, ii, 218
-
- Melichthys, ii, 413
-
- Melletes,
-   figure of, i, 288
-
- membrane bone of face, i, 44
-
- Mene,
-   figure of, ii, 288
-
- menhaden,
-   figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
-
- Menidia, ii, 218
-
- Menidæ,
-   family of, ii, 218
-
- Menomonee whitefish, ii, 63
-
- Menopneumona, i, 612
-
- Menticirrhus,
-   figure of, ii, 357
-
- mergate fish, ii, 341
-
- Merlangus, i, 209; ii, 537
-
- Merluccius, i, 209; ii, 136
-   figure of, ii, 540
-   isocercal tail of, i, 83
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
-
- Merluciidæ, ii, 540
-
- mermaid, i, 359
-
- merou, ii, 323, 324
-
- Merriam,
-   on fossil trout, ii, 62
-
- Mesencephalon,
-   figured, i, 109, 110
-
- mesentary, i, 32
-
- Mesichthys, ii, 190
-
- mesocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
-
- mesoderm, i, 138
-
- Mesodon, ii, 22
-
- Mesogonistius, ii, 301
-   figure of, ii, 299
-
- Mesolepis, ii, 15
-
- mesopterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
-
- Mesopus, ii, 124
-   Swan on, ii, 123
-
- Mesozoic fishes, i, 437
-
- metameral characters, i, 23
-
- metapterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
-
- metencephalon, figured, i, 109
-
- Michigan grayling,
-   figure of, ii, 122
-
- Microbranchium, i, 577
-
- Microcanthus, ii, 404
-
- Microdesmus, i, 271
-
- Microdon, i, 204
-
- Microgadus, ii, 537
-   figure of, ii, 538
-
- Microlepidotus, i, 271
-
- Microperca, ii, 307, 315
-
- Micropogon, i, 271; ii, 356
-
- Micropterus, i, 291, 302; ii, 297, 302, 304
-   figure of, i, 325; ii, 303, 305
-
- Microspathodon, i, 271; ii, 384, 385
-   figure of, ii, 384
-
- Microstoma, ii, 127
-
- Microstomidæ, ii, 127
-
- Microstomus, ii, 494
-
- midshipman, i, 121, 189; ii, 526
-   luminous organs of, i, 191
-
- migratory fishes, i, 160
-
- milkfish,
-   figure of, ii, 45
-
- milktschitsch, ii, 73
-
- Miller, i, 426
-
- miller's thumb, ii, 444
-   California, ii, 446
-   figure of, ii, 445
-   Yellowstone, ii, 444
-
- Milner, i, 419
-   on whitefish, ii, 64
-
- minnow, i, 33, 124, 304; ii, 118, 161, 163, 193, 196-199
-   treatment of eggs by, i, 129
-
- Minous, ii, 436
-
- Mioplosus, ii, 315
-
- Mirbelia, ii, 531
-
- mirror carp, i, 151; ii, 17
-
- Misaki,
-   tide pools of, i, 161
-
- Misgurnus, i, 98; ii, 176
-
- Mississippi Valley,
-   blind fishes of, i, 117, 220
-   stone-roller of, i, 33
-
- Missouri sucker, ii, 173
-
- Mistichthys, ii, 467
-
- Mitchill, i, 376, 418
-   on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
-   on Spanish mackerel, ii, 264
-
- Mitchillina, ii, 60
-
- Mitsukurina, i, 199, 536, 566
-   figures of, i, 535
-
- Mitsukurinidæ, i, 534
-
- Mitsukuri, i, 418
-   on phosphorescent shark, i, 189
-   portrait of, i, 417
-
- Mivart,
-   on paired limbs, i, 70
-
- monana, ii, 353
-
- Mobula, i, 448
-   fœtus of, i, 560
-
- Mobulidæ, i, 559
-
- mojarra, ii, 348
-   figure of, ii, 348
-
- mojarra cardenal, ii, 254
-
- mojarra de las piedras, ii, 405
-
- mojarra de ley, ii, 348
-
- mojarra verde, ii, 381
-
- Mola, i, 19, 84, 142, 206, 272; ii, 424, 425
-   figure of, ii, 424
-   larva of, figured, i, 143
-
- Molgula, i, 474
-
- Molgulidæ, i, 474
-
- Molidæ, ii, 424
-
- Molina, i, 396
-
- Mollier,
-   on lateral fold, i, 71
-
- Mollienesia, ii, 199
-
- Mollusca, ii, 529
-
- Molva, i, 209; ii, 538
-
- Monacanthidæ, i, 242
-   family of, ii, 413
-
- Monacanthus, i, 181, 206; ii, 414
-
- du Monceau, i, 396
-
- Mondini, ii, 144
-
- mongrel whitefish, ii, 67
-
- monkfish, i, 359; ii, 545
-   brain of, figured, i, 547
-   pectoral fin, figured, i, 56
-
- Monocentridæ, ii, 250
-   family of, ii, 257
-   Houttuyn, discoverer of, ii, 257
-
- Monocentrus, i, 260
-   figure of, ii, 257
-
- Monoceros, i, 268; ii, 409
-
- Monodactylus, ii, 398
-   figure of, ii, 397
-
- Monolene, i, 206
-
- Monopteridæ, ii, 141
-
- Monopterus, ii, 141
-
- Monorhinus, i, 593
-
- Monotaxis, ii, 344
-
- Monro, i, 390
-
- monstre marin, i, 360, 361
-
- monstrosities among fishes, i, 150
-
- monstrous goldfish,
-   figure of, i, 151
-
- Montagu, i, 396
-
- month incubation, i, 170, 171, 172
-   Günther on, i, 173
-
- Moorish idols, ii, 406
-   figure of, ii, 406
-
- Moodeliar,
-   on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
-
- mooneye, i, 290; ii, 45
-
- moonfishes, i, 144; ii, 243, 244, 276, 401
-   figure of, i, 323
-
- morays, ii, 152, 153
-   figure of, i, 458; ii, 155
-
- Mordacia, i, 491
-
- Mordaciidæ, i, 491
-
- Moreau, i, 95, 412
-
- Morgan, i, 428
-
- Moringua, ii, 153, 189
-
- Moringuidæ, ii, 188, 189
-   family of, ii, 153
-
- Mormyrus, i, 393
-
- Morone, ii, 321
-   figure of, ii, 322
-
- morphology, i, 511
-   of fins, i, 62-90
-
- Morris,
-   on lungs of fishes, i, 98-106
-
- mortality of filefish, i, 357
-
- Moseley,
-   on Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
-
- Moser,
-   on catching salmon, ii, 85
-
- moss-bunker, ii, 51
-
- motor nerves, i, 153
-
- mountain chains,
-   as barriers, i, 310
-
- mountain-oopu, ii, 466
-
- mountain-witch, ii, 445
-
- Mount Whitney,
-   golden trout of, ii, 99
-
- Moxostoma, ii, 174
-
- mu, ii, 344
-
- mucous channels, i, 22, 23
-
- mud-bass, ii, 297
-
- mud-dab, ii, 493
-
- mud-minnows, i, 290; ii, 35, 193, 194
-
- mud-minnows,
-   figure of, ii, 193
-   tenacity of life in, i, 147
-
- mud-skippers, ii, 465
-   figure of, ii, 466
-
- muffle jaws, ii, 444
-
- Mugil, i, 32, 157, 343, 391; ii, 144, 219
-   figure of, i, 330; ii, 221
-
- Mugilidæ, i, 206; ii, 219
-
- muki-muki, i, 183; ii, 420
-
- Müller, i, 384, 396, 405, 415, 428, 609, 613; ii, 3, 24, 39, 40, 144,
-    533
-   on elastic spring, i, 96
-   on ganoids, ii, 9
-   on gas in swim-bladder, i, 96
-   on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
-   portrait of, i, 399
-
- Mullerian duct, i, 28
-
- mullets, i, 117, 268, 328; ii, 39, 144, 215, 219, 221
-   Goode on, ii, 219, 220
-
- Mullidæ, i, 206; ii, 257, 351-379
-
- Mullus, i, 261, 393; ii, 256
-   figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
-
- Munster, i, 423
-
- munu, i, 322; ii, 352
-
- Muræna, i, 211, 391; ii, 152
-   figure of, ii, 153
-
- Murænesocidæ, ii, 150
-
- Murænesox, i, 211; ii, 150
-
- Murænidæ, i, 211; ii, 152, 155
-
- Murænolepidæ, ii, 541
-
- Murchison, i, 423
-
- murcielago, ii, 458
-
- muroaji, ii, 274
-
- muscles of the fish, i, 25
-
- muskallonge,
-   figure of, ii, 192
-
- Musquaw whitefish, ii, 65
-
- Mustelus, i, 71, 541
-
- mutsu, ii, 317
-
- mutton-fish, i, 324; ii, 518
-
- mutton-snapper, ii, 335
-   figure of, i, 331
-
- Mycteroperca, 271; ii, 325, 327
-   figure of, ii, 327
-
- Myctophidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 132-134, 526
-
- Myctophum, i, 195; ii, 133, 134
-   figure of, ii, 133
-
- Myliobatis, i, 557, 558
-
- Mylognathus, i, 565
-
- Mylostoma, i, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590
-
- Mylostomidæ, i, 587
-
- myotomes, i, 71
-
- Myoxocephalus, ii, 445
-   figure of, i, 219; ii, 446, 447
-
- Myriacanthidæ, i, 566
-
- Myriacanthus, i, 566; ii, 255
-
- Myrichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 151
-
- Myridæ, ii, 148, 150
-
- Myriolepis, ii, 14
-
- Myripristis, i, 162, 268, 271; ii, 254-256
-
- Myrocongridæ, ii, 153
-
- Myrophis, i, 313
-
- Myrus, i, 259, 263; ii, 150
-
- Mysis, i, 317
-
- Mysore,
-   walking-fish of, i, 167
-
- mythology of fishes, i, 359-366
-
- Myxine, i, 198, 490, 593
-
- Myxinidæ, i, 489
-
- Myxobolus, i, 343
-
- Myxocyprinus, ii, 173
-
- Myxodagnus, ii, 506
-
- Myxodes, ii, 508
-
- Myxosporidia, i, 342, 344
-
- Myzontes, i, 486
-
-
- Nagg's head-fish, i, 375, 376
-
- Naisia, ii, 32
-
- namazu, ii, 188
-
- names of bones, i, 39
-
- names of fishes, i, 372
-
- nami-ho-hana, ii, 218
-
- Nandidæ, ii, 358
-
- Nannocharax, ii, 162
-
- Nansenia, ii, 127
-
- Narcine,
-   figure of, i, 185, 553
-
- Narcobatidæ,
-   family of, i, 553
-
- Narcobatis, i, 553
-
- Nardo, i, 412
-
- Nassau,
-   figure of, ii, 324
-
- natural selection,
-   effect of, i, 318
-   in fishes, i, 218
-   process of, i, 297
-   species changed by, i, 240
-
- Naucrates, ii, 272, 278
-   figure of, ii, 273
-
- Nantichthys, ii, 448
-
- Nebris, ii, 355
-
- Necturus, i, 157, 600
-
- needle-bearing filefish,
-   figure of, ii, 414
-
- needle-fishes, i, 128
-   figure of, ii, 210
-
- negro-chub, ii, 167
-
- negro-fish, ii, 324
-
- Nelson, i, 419
-   on Anableps, ii, 196, 197
-
- Nemachilus, ii, 176
-
- Nematognathi, i, 405; ii, 9, 40, 161, 177, 178
-
- Nematistiidæ, ii, 278
-
- Nematocentrus, ii, 218
-
- Nematodes, i, 344
-   Linton on, i, 352
-
- Nematonurus, ii, 541
-
- Nemichthyidæ, ii, 151
-
- Nemichthys, i, 211; ii, 151
-   figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
-   jaws figured, i, 156
-
- Nemipterus, ii, 340
-
- Nemopteryx, ii, 539
-
- Neoceratodus, i, 79, 80, 100, 116, 204, 450, 613
-   eggs of, i, 618
-   figure of, i, 614
-   lower jaw of, figured, i, 616
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 68, 609
-   skull of, i, 67
-
- Neochanna, i, 252; ii, 206
-
- Neoclinus, ii, 462
-   figure of, ii, 507
-
- Neoditrema, ii, 375
-
- Neoliparis, ii, 455
-   figure of, ii, 455
-
- Neopercis, ii, 502
-
- Neosebastes, ii, 433
-
- nerka, ii, 73
-
- nerve cells and fibres, i, 152
-
- nerves of fishes, i, 113, 114
-
- nervous system, i, 109-114
-
- nest-building, ii, 229
-   of sticklebacks, ii, 230, 231
-
- nest of fish, i, 14, 172
-
- Nettastoma, i, 211, 259; ii, 151
-
- Nettastomidæ, ii, 148, 151
-
- neurentric canal, i, 138
-
- Newberry, i, 426, 428, 584, 589
-
- New England,
-   scanty fauna of, i, 302
-
- Newton, i, 426
-
- New Zealand,
-   fauna of, i, 252
-
- nezupo, ii, 441
-
- nictitating membrane, i, 540
-
- nijinge-rijinge, i, 171, 172
-
- Nieuhof, i, 396
-
- Nilsson, i, 410
-
- Niphon, ii, 320
-
- nohu, ii, 434
-
- noises of fishes, i, 168, 169
-
- Nomeidæ, ii, 283
-
- nomenclature, i, 173
-   beginning of, i, 374
-   trinomial, i, 378
-   of trunkfishes, i, 373
-
- Nordmann, i, 410
-
- northern blennies, ii, 511
-
- northern zone, i, 250
-
- Norway haddock, ii, 428
-
- Notacanthidæ, ii, 157
-
- Notacanthus, ii, 157, 532
-   figure of, ii, 158
-
- Notæus, ii, 36
-
- Notagogus, ii, 26
-   figure of, ii, 28
-
- Notelops, ii, 44
-
- Notidiani, i, 447, 513, 519, 526
-   order of, i, 523
-
- Notidanoid shark, i, 438
-   skull of, figured, i, 56
-
- Notidanus, i, 523, 524
-
- notochord, i, 55, 56, 509
-   in Chimæras, i, 59
-   in Elasmobranchs, i, 57
-
- Notogeneus, i, 456
-   figure of, ii, 55
-
- Notopteridæ, ii, 48, 49
-
- Notopterus, ii, 49
-
- Nototheniidæ, ii, 501, 502, 533
-
- Notropis, i, 129, 283, 304, 307, 311, 313; ii, 164
-   figure of, i, 343, 457; ii, 165, 167
-
- Noturus, i, 180; ii, 177, 182
-
- Novaculichthys, ii, 390
-
- Novara, i, 410
-
- Nozawa, i, 418
-
- numbers of genera, i, 262
-
- numbfish,
-   figure of, i, 185, 553
-
- number of vertebræ, i, 202-204
-
- nuptial colors, i, 155, 156
-
- nuptial tubercles, i, 33
-   figure showing, ii, 167
-
- Nyström, i, 416
-
-
- oarfish, i, 361; ii, 472
-   figure of, i, 362; ii, 476
-   Forgy on, ii, 473
-   Glesnæs, ii, 472
-   Holder on, ii, 474
-
- Oatka Creek, i, 282
-
- Oblata, i, 260; ii, 348
-
- ocean currents,
-   agency of, i, 242
-
- Ocyurus,
-   figure of, ii, 337
-
- Odacidæ, ii, 388
-
- Odax, ii, 390
-
- Odontaspididæ, i, 533
-
- Odontaspis, i, 534
-
- Odontoscion, ii, 355
-
- Odontostomus, ii, 136
-
- Odontotodontidæ, i, 576
-
- Odontotodus,
-   figure of, i, 570
-
- Ogcocephalidæ, ii, 551
-
- Ogcocephalus,
-   figure of, ii, 551-553
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 88
-
- Ogilby, i, 408, 416
-   on ragfishes, ii, 285
-
- oil shark, i, 524
-
- Oikopleura, i, 474
-
- ojanco, ii, 337
-
- okose, i, 236, 429; ii, 436
-
- oldwench, ii, 413
-
- oldwife, ii, 413
-
- Old World catfish, ii, 182
-
- olfactory lobe,
-   figure of, i, 111
-
- Oligocottus, ii, 447, 449
-   figure of, ii, 449
-
- Oligopleuridæ, ii, 36, 41
-
- Oligopleurus, ii, 36
-
- Oligoplites, ii, 272
-
- Oligorus, ii, 320
-
- ombre chevalier, ii, 108, 109
-
- Omosoma, ii, 284
-
- Omosudis, ii, 136
-
- Onchus,
-   Agassiz on, i, 530
-   fin-spine of, i, 509
-
- Oncobatis, i, 553
-
- Oncottus, i, 317; ii, 447, 449
-   figure of, ii, 447
-
- Oncolepis, ii, 513
-
- Oncopterus, ii, 489
-
- Oncorhynchus, i, 146, 160, 301, 329, 332; ii, 68, 70, 89, 94
-   figure of, 354; ii, 69, 71, 72, 76
-
- ontogeny, i, 511
-
- ontology, i, 63
-
- oopu, ii, 465
-
- Onychodontidæ, i, 602, 604
-
- Onychodus, i, 604
-
- opahs, i, 210; ii, 243
-   taken by Berndt, ii, 244
-   Farquhar on, ii, 244
-   figure of, i, 323
-
- opercle, i, 7, 45
-
- opercula,
-   used in climbing, ii, 367
-
- operculum, ii, 7
-
- Ophicephalidæ, ii, 370
-
- Ophidiidæ, ii, 520
-
- Ophidion, i, 391, 612
-
- Ophichthyidæ, i, 211; ii, 150
-
- Ophichthus,
-   figure of, ii, 151
-
- Ophiocephalidæ, i, 103, 104; ii, 215
-
- Ophiocephalus, i, 149
-   figure of, i, 150
-
- Ophiodon, ii, 442, 518, 520
-   figure of, ii, 440
-
- Ophioblennius, ii, 510
-
- Ophiopsis, ii, 26
-
- Ophocephalus,
-   figure of, ii, 370
-
- Opistharthri, i, 509
-
- Opisthocentrus, ii, 512
-
- Opisthocœlian, i, 49; ii, 29
-
- Opisthocœlous, ii, 6
-
- Opisthognathidæ, ii, 330, 359, 499, 502
-
- Opisthognathus, ii, 462, 508
-   figure of, ii, 360
-
- Opisthomi, i, 611; ii, 499, 532-542
-
- Opisthomyzon, ii, 469
-   Storms on, ii, 469
-
- Opisthonema, ii, 51, 53
-
- opisthure, i, 84
-
- Oplegnathus, i, 260
-
- Opsanus, ii, 525
-   figure of, ii, 524
-
- Opsariichthys, ii, 165
-
- optic nerves,
-   of flounders, ii, 482
-
- orbitophenoid, ii, 40
-
- orca, i, 361, 536
-
- order,
-   defined, i, 373
-
- organs of the fish,
-   electric, i, 25
-   of hearing, i, 119-121
-   nutritive, i, 29
-
- Orectolobus, i, 533
-
- Orestias, ii, 200
-
- Oregon lamprey,
-   figure of, i, 496
-
- Oregon sucker,
-   teeth of, figured, ii, 175
-
- Ordovician deposits,
-   figure of, i, 435
-
- origin,
-   of air-bladder, i, 98
-   of fins, i, 62, 64, 67
-   of lungs, i, 98
-
- origin of lancelets,
-   Willey on, i, 484
-
- Orodontidæ, i, 65, 66, 447, 528
-
- Orr,
-   on external gill, i, 77
-
- Ortmann, i, 238, 256, 270
-   map of continents, i, 270
-
- Orthacanthus, i, 521
-
- Orthodon, ii, 165
-
- Orthopristis, ii, 342
-
- Orthopsetta, i, 206; ii, 489
-
- Orthostœchus, i, 271
-
- Osbeck, i, 389
-
- Osbeckia, ii, 414
-   figure of, ii, 414
-
- Osborn,
-   on extinction of species, i, 239, 442
-   on law of radiation, i, 296
-
- Osmeroides, ii, 44, 134
-
- Osmerus, i, 391; ii, 123, 127
-   figure of, ii, 123
-
- Osphromenidæ, ii, 368, 370
-
- Osphromenus, ii, 368
-
- ossicles,
-   Hasse on, i, 96
-
- Ostariophysi, i, 120; ii, 38, 40, 140, 209
-   series of, ii, 159-165
-
- Osteoglossidæ, ii, 56, 60, 160
-
- Osteoglossum, ii, 11, 41, 42, 56, 57
-
- Osteolepis, i, 602-604
-
- Osteostraci, i, 568, 571, 573, 590
-   order of, i, 575
-
- Ostichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 255
-
- Ostraciidæ, i, 568
-   family of, ii, 415
-
- Ostracion, i, 206, 373, 391; ii, 416-418
-   figure of, i, 16, 376; ii, 416
-
- Ostracodermi, i, 568; ii, 398, 411, 415
-
- Ostracophores, i, 240, 242, 246, 444, 488, 568, 581, 582, 590, 603; ii,
-    3
-   figure of, i, 444
-   nature of, i, 569
-   order of, i, 573
-
- Ostracophori, i, 462
-   class of, i, 568, 569
-
- Osurus, ii, 502
-
- Otaki, i, 418, 422
-
- Otodus, i, 538
-
- otoliths, i, 119-121; 354
-
- Otsego bass, ii, 64
-
- Ouananiche, ii, 92, 93
-
- Overland Monthly,
-   reference to, ii, 69
-
- oviducts, ii, 6
-
- oviparous fishes, i, 125
-
- ovoviviparous fishes, i, 125, 550
-
- Owen, i, 88, 90, 424, 428
-   on swordfish, ii, 270, 271
-
- Owsjannikow, i, 428
-
- Owston,
-   sharks taken by, i, 534
-
- Oxuderces, ii, 468
-
- Oxudercidæ, ii, 468
-
- Oxygnathus, ii, 14
-
- Oxylabracidæ, ii, 320, 327
-   family of, ii, 319
-
- Oxylabrax, ii, 320, 355
-   figure of, ii, 319
-
- Oxylebius, ii, 440
-
- Oxyjulis, ii, 388
-
- Oxymonacanthus, ii, 415
-
- Oxynotidæ, i, 546
-
- Oxynotus, i, 546
-
- Oxystomus, i, 259
-
- oyster-fish, ii, 525
-
- Ozorthe, ii, 513
-   figure of, i, 9; ii, 513
-
-
- Pachycormidæ, ii, 34
-
- Pachycormus, ii, 34
-
- Pachylebias, ii, 201
-
- Pachyrhizodontidæ, ii, 44
-
- Pachyrhizodus, ii, 44
-
- Pacific Creek, i, 308, 309
-
- paddle-fish, i, 199, 253, 290; ii, 20
-
- Pagellus, i, 260, 267; ii, 344, 346
-
- Pagrus, i, 94, 259, 263, 324; ii, 343, 344, 346
-   figure of, ii, 342
-
- paired fins,
-   in Acanthodei, i, 515
-   Balfour on, ii, 8
-   migration of, i, 75
-   origin of, i, 64
-   Ryder on, i, 66
-
- paired limbs,
-   Dean on, i, 81
-   Mivart on, i, 70
-   relation of, i, 69
-   Thacker on, i, 70
-   Gill on, i, 85
-
- palæichthyologists, i, 424, 426, 427
-
- palæichthyology, i, 426
-
- Palæichthys, ii, 3
-
- Palæobalistum, ii, 22
-
- Palæoniscidæ, i, 452, 580; ii, 4, 14, 15, 23
-
- Palæoniscum, i, 437, 622
-   Blainville on, ii, 14
-   figure of, i, 453; ii, 14
-
- palæontology, evidence of, i, 64
-
- Palæorhynchidæ,
-   family of, ii, 268
-
- Palæorhynchus, ii, 268
-   figure of, ii, 268
-
- Palæospinax, i, 528
-
- Palæospondylidæ, i, 593
-
- Palæospondylus, i, 204, 437, 444, 593, 595, 596
-   figure of, i, 591
-   relationships of, i, 593
-
- palatines, i, 6
-
- palatopterygoid arch, ii, 152, 155
-
- palato-quadrate apparatus, i, 508, 509, 523
-
- Palinurichthys, ii, 284
-
- Pallas, ii, 67, 135, 428, 522
-
- Pallasina, ii, 453
-   figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
-
- Palœaspis, i, 575
-
- palometa, i, 324; ii, 283
-
- pampano, i, 210, 324; ii, 272-292
-   gaff-topsail, ii, 277
-   great, ii, 277
-   round, ii, 277
-   true, ii, 277
-
- panai feri, ii, 367
-
- Panama,
-   as barrier, i, 270
-   final hypothesis as to, i, 279
-
- pancreas, i, 32
-
- Pander, i, 427
-
- pan fish, ii, 355
-
- Panicum, ii, 369
-
- Pantodon, ii, 60
-
- Pantodontidæ, ii, 57
-
- Pantosteus, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
-
- papagallo, ii, 278
-
- papilla, i, 115
-
- Pappichthys, ii, 36
-
- Parabatrachus, i, 604
-
- Paracentropogon, ii, 436
-
- Paracentropristis, ii, 328
-
- Paracirrhites, ii, 363
-
- paraglenal, i, 90; ii, 12
-
- Paragobiodon, ii, 466
-
- Paralabrax, ii, 328
-
- Paralepidæ, ii, 136
-
- Paralichthys, i, 206; ii, 482, 486, 492
-   figure of, ii, 493
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
-   tail of, figured, i, 83; ii, 486
-
- Paraliparis, i, 202, 219; ii, 454, 455
-
- Paramia, ii, 317
-
- Paranguilla, ii, 150
-
- Paranthias, ii, 328
-
- Paraphyllodus, ii, 396
-
- Parapristipoma, ii, 342
-
- Parapegasus, ii, 240
-
- Parapercis, ii, 502
-
- Parasilurus, ii, 183
-
- parasites of fishes,
-   crustaceans, i, 340
-   figures illustrating, i, 341-344
-   fungi, i, 353
-   Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
-   hosts of, i, 343
-   internal, i, 342
-   protozoans, i, 342
-
- parasitic diseases,
-   Gurley on, i, 342
-   Linton on, i, 343
-   Megnin on, i, 343
-   Railliet on, i, 343
-   Stiles on, i, 343
-   Ward on, i, 343
-
- parasitic fungi, i, 353
-
- parasitic worms,
-   acanthocephala, i, 344
-   cestodes, i, 344
-   an article of food, i, 351
-   nematodes, i, 344
-   trematodes, i, 344
-
- Paratrachichthys, i, 439; ii, 295
-   figure of, ii, 253
-
- Paraxus, i, 517
-
- Pareioplitæ, ii, 426-458
-
- parental affection in fishes, i, 166, 167
-
- Parexocœtus, ii, 214
-
- parent-stream theory, ii, 81
-
- Parequula, ii, 287
-
- pargo criollo, i, 324; ii, 335
-
- pargo de lo alto, ii, 336
-
- pargo guachinango, ii, 335
-
- pargos, ii, 333
-
- Park, i, 393
-
- Parker, i, 90, 428, 594; ii, 160, 482
-   on Chimæras, i, 563
-   on hearing of fishes, i, 121, 122
-   optic nerve of flounder, ii, 482, 483
-   on soles, ii, 483
-
- Parnell, i, 410
-
- Parophrys, ii, 493
-
- Parr, ii, 91
-
- Parra, i, 396
-
- parrot-fish, i, 21; ii, 56, 360, 385, 390, 393
-   figure of, i, 330; ii, 392, 394, 395
-   jaws of, figured, i, 30; ii, 391
-   pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
-
- parts of skeleton, i, 35
-
- paru, ii, 405
-
- Patæcidæ, ii, 516
-
- Patæcus, ii, 514
-
- patao, ii, 348
-
- Patten, i, 428
-   on Ostracophores, i, 569
-
- pesce re, ii, 218
-
- peacock flounders, ii, 488
-
- pearlfish, i, 84, 159; ii, 522
-   figure of, i, 522, 523
-
- pêche prêtre, ii, 429
-
- Peck, i, 419
-
- pecten, ii, 6
-
- pectoral fin, i, 10, 521
-   of Chiloscyllium, i, 66
-   of codfish, i, 66
-   figure of, i, 57, 66
-   Gegenbaur on, i, 66, 67
-   of Heptranchias, i, 57
-   origin of, i, 67
-
- pectoral limb, i, 50
-   of Dipnoan, i, 60
-   figure of, i, 85
-   Kerr on, i, 61
-   in shark, i, 60
-
- peculiar,
-   jaws and teeth, i, 201
-   larval forms, i, 142
-
- pediculates, i, 51, 206, 207, 405; ii, 40, 499
-   order of, ii, 542-553
-
- Pegador,
-   figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
-
- pegapega, ii, 468
-
- Pegasidæ, ii, 240
-   family of, ii, 239
-
- Pegasus, i, 393; ii, 240
-
- peixe rey, ii, 216
-
- pelagic fishes, i, 245
-   vertebræ in, i, 209
-
- Pelamis, i, 364
-
- Pelargorhynchus, ii, 136
-
- Pelates, ii, 342
-
- Pelecanus, i, 345
-
- Pelecopterus, ii, 34
-
- pelican,
-   fish parasites in, i, 345
-
- pelican-eel, ii, 156
-
- Pellegrin, i, 412
-   on poisonous fishes, i, 182-184
-
- Pelor, i, 180; ii, 434
-
- Peltacephalata, i, 568
-
- pelvic girdle, i, 42
-
- Pempheridæ, ii, 288
-
- Pempheris, ii, 289
-   figure of, ii, 289, 290
-
- penfishes, ii, 344
-
- Penella, i, 242
-
- Pennant, i, 396
-   on parental affection in fishes, i, 166
-
- Pentacerotidæ,[14] ii, 333
-
-Footnote 14:
-
-  This family should stand as _Histiopteridæ_, the name _Pentaceros_,
-  _Pentacerotidæ_, being used earlier for starfishes.
-
- pentadactyle limb, i, 79
-
- Pentapus, ii, 341
-
- Peprilus, ii, 285
-   figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
-
- Perca, 391; ii, 307, 315, 367
-   brain of, i, 111
-   figure of, ii, 308
-
- Percalates, ii, 320
-
- Percarina, ii, 310
-
- Percesoces, ii, 157, 208, 228, 290, 360, 370, 521, 522
-   order of, ii, 215
-
- perches, i, 21, 209, 290, 304; ii, 168, 258, 304, 307, 310
-   brain of, figured, i, 111
-   European, ii, 307
-   everglade pigmy, figured, ii, 295
-   white, ii, 304
-   yellow, ii, 307, 308
-
- Percichthys, ii, 320
-
- Percidæ, i, 209, 248, 290, 406; ii, 171, 258, 294, 304, 309, 320
-   family of, ii, 304
-
- Percilia, ii, 320
-
- Percina, ii, 306, 310
-   figure of, ii, 311
-
- Percis, ii, 453
-
- Percoidea, ii, 293-315
-
- Percoidei, ii, 398
-
- percoid fishes, ii, 293-315
-
- Percomorphi, ii, 258-271, 365, 397, 398, 426
-   suborder of, ii, 258
-
- Percophidæ, ii, 502
-
- Percopsidæ, i, 290; ii, 241
-   family of, ii, 241
-
- Percopsis, i, 316; ii, 296
-   figure of, ii, 241
-
- periblast, i, 136
-
- Periophthalmus, i, 117; ii, 465, 510
-   figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
-
- Peristediidæ, i, 208; ii, 457
-
- Peristedion, i, 219
-   figure of, i, 299; ii, 457
-
- peritoneum, i, 32
-
- Permian, ii, 14, 23
-   sharks from, i, 517
-
- Perugia, i, 412
-
- pescado azul, ii, 382
-
- pescadillo del red, ii, 354
-
- pescado blanco, i, 328; ii, 216
-   figure of, i, 217, 329
-
- pescado del rey, ii, 216
-
- pesce rey, ii, 216
-
- Petalodontidæ, i, 531
-   family of, i, 554
-   teeth of, figured, i, 555
-
- Petalodus, i, 554
-
- Petalopteryx, ii, 26, 458
-
- Peters, i, 411
-
- peto, ii, 266
-
- Petromyzon, i, 132, 142, 357, 372, 391, 490, 618
-   figure of, i, 491
-   mouth figured, i, 492
-   head of, figured, i, 111
-
- Petromyzonidæ, i, 290, 373, 490
-
- Petroscirtes, ii, 509
-
- pez ciego, ii, 524
-
- pez del rey,
-   figure of, ii, 218
-
- pez de pluma, ii, 344
-
- pez puerco, ii, 413
-
- Phæbodus, i, 522
-
- Phanerodon, ii, 375
-
- Phaneropleuron, i, 612
-   figure of, i, 613
-
- Phanerosteon, i, 580
-
- Phareodus, ii, 56, 57
-   figures of, ii, 57-59
-   fossils of, ii, 58, 59
-
- pharyngeals, i, 5, 48
-   figure of, i, 47
-   of Italian parrot-fish, ii, 391
-   of parrot-fish, figured, ii, 391
-   use in voice, i, 121
-
- pharyngeal teeth,
-   figured, ii, 175
-
- Pharyngognathi, i, 405; ii, 259, 380, 396
-   suborder of, ii, 384
-
- Philippi, i, 415
-
- Philypnus, ii, 459
-   figure of, ii, 460
-
- Pholidophoridæ, ii, 26, 29, 36, 41
-
- Pholidophorus, ii, 28
-   figure of, ii, 29
-
- Pholidurus, ii, 22
-
- Pholis, i, 209; ii, 512
-   figure of, ii, 512
-
- phosphorescent groups, i, 187
-
- phosphorescent organs,
-   artificial stimulation of, i, 191
-   chemical action in, i, 196
-   cross-section of, i, 193
-   Greene on, i, 194, 196, 197
-   Lendenfeld on, i, 194, 195
-   of Porichthys, i, 194
-
- photophores, i, 187, 189
-
- Phoxinus, ii, 167
-
- Phractolamidæ, ii, 48
-
- Phrynorhombus, ii, 488
-
- Phtheirichthys, ii, 469
-
- Phthinobranchii, i, 227-240
-
- Phyllodus, ii, 396
-
- Phyllolepidæ, i, 584
-
- phylogeny, i, 63, 79
-
- Phylopteryx, ii, 238
-
- Phylyctænaspis, i, 586
-
- Physoclysti, i, 405; ii, 39, 209
-
- physostome, ii, 10
-
- Physostomi, i, 405; ii, 39, 40
-
- picarel, ii, 347
-
- pickerel, i, 4; ii, 147
-
- pigfish, ii, 342
-
- pigmentation, i, 226
-   effect of spirits on, i, 235
-
- pigmy sunfishes, ii, 296
-
- pike, i, 209, 239, 250, 290, 304, 328, 440; ii, 190
-   figure of, i, 203, 328; ii, 191
-   skeleton of, i, 203
-
- pike-perch, ii, 309
-
- pilchard, ii, 50
-
- pilot-fish, i, 63; ii, 272
-   figure of, ii, 273
-
- Pimelodus, ii, 183, 186
-
- Pimelometopon, ii, 388, 389
-   figure of, ii, 389
-
- pineal organ, i, 111
-   Dean on, i, 112
-   figure of, i, 111
-
- pine-cone-fish,
-   figure of, i, 16; ii, 257
-
- pinfish, ii, 344
-
- ping, ii, 91
-
- Pinguipedidæ, ii, 363, 499
-
- pink, ii, 72
-
- pintado, ii, 266
-
- pipefish, i, 64, 128, 440
-   family of, ii, 236
-
- pirate-perch, i, 290; ii, 294
-   figure of, ii, 295
-
- Pisces, i, 393, 588
-   characteristics of, i, 506
-
- Piso, i, 389
-
- placoderm, i, 462, 584, 590, 591, 593
-
- Placodermi, i, 568, 622, 623
-
- placoid scales, i, 21
-
- Placopharynx, ii, 174
-   lower pharyngeal figured, ii, 171
-
- Plagioscion, ii, 354
-
- Plagiostomi, i, 507
-
- Plagiuri, i, 392
-
- Plagyodontidæ, ii, 134, 136
-
- Plagyodus, ii, 136
-   figure of, ii, 135
-
- plaice, ii, 487, 493
-
- plaice tribe, ii, 492
-
- pla-kat, ii, 370
-
- Platacidæ, ii, 398, 400, 401
-
- Platax, i, 240, 268; ii, 243, 245, 398, 401
-
- Platophrys,
-   figure of, i, 174, 175
-   larval form, i, 174
-
- Platichthys, ii, 482, 493
-   figure of, ii, 495
-
- Platophrys, ii, 481, 482, 488
-   larval stages of, figured, ii, 484
-
- Platycephalidæ, i, 267
-   family of, ii, 441
-
- Platycephalus, ii, 441
-
- Platycormus, ii, 283, 284, 485
-
- Platyglossus, ii, 390
-
- Platyptera, ii, 506
-
- Platysomidæ, ii, 4, 14, 15
-
- Platysomus, ii, 15
-   figure of, i, 452
-
- Platystacus, i, 128; ii, 184
-
- Platyurus, i, 364
-
- Playfair, i, 416
-
- Plecoglossus, i, 260; ii, 62, 115, 117
-   figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
-
- plectognath fishes, i, 206
-
- Plectognathi, ii, 9, 40
-   series of, ii, 411
-
- Plectognaths, ii, 291, 411
-
- Plectorhynchus, ii, 341
-
- Plectospondyli, ii, 40, 161, 162
-
- plectospondylous, i, 48
-
- Plectromus, ii, 253
-
- Plectropoma, ii, 323
-
- Plesiops, ii, 330, 359
-
- Plethodus, ii, 44
-
- Pleuracanthus, i, 65, 66, 204, 437, 510, 511, 513
-   diphycercal tail of, i, 80
-   figures of, i, 74, 519, 520
-   headbones and teeth of, figured, i, 520
-
- Pleurocanthidæ, i, 519, 520, 522, 566
-
- Pleurogrammus, i, 209
-   figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
-
- Pleuronectidæ, i, 290
-   family of, ii, 485
-
- Pleuronectinæ, ii, 492
-
- Pleuronectes, i, 391; ii, 493
-
- Pleuronichthys, i, 206, 257; ii, 493
-   figure of, i, 441
-
- Pleuropholis, ii, 29
-
- Pleuropterygii, i, 513, 514, 518
-
- Plioplarchus, ii, 304
-
- Plotosidæ, ii, 184
-
- Plotosus, ii, 184
-
- Plumier, i, 389
-
- Pneumatosteus, ii, 32
-
- Podopteryx, ii, 457
-
- Podothecus, ii, 453
-
- pond-skipper,
-   figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
-
- Pœcilia, ii, 199
-
- Pœciliidæ, 22, 125; ii, 194, 198, 199, 201, 213
-   figure of, i, 126
-
- Pœcilodus, i, 531
-
- Poey, i, 376, 415
-   portrait of, i, 413
-
- Pogonias, i, 595; ii, 354, 357
-   figure of, ii, 358
-
- Pogonichthys, ii, 169
-
- poison fishes, i, 180-185, 236
-   figure of, i, 229; ii, 436
-
- poison glands, ii, 177, 527
-   in catfishes, ii, 182
-   Günther on, ii, 527, 528, 529
-
- poisonous fishes, ii, 325, 335
-   diseases arising from, i, 183
-   varieties of, i, 180, 182, 183
-
- Polistotrema,
-   figure of, i, 489
-
- Pollachius, i, 209; ii, 537
-
- pollack,
-   figure of, ii, 537
-
- Pollard, i, 595, 600
-
- Polycentridæ, ii, 358
-
- Polyclinidæ, i, 477
-
- Polydactylus,
-   figure of, ii, 225
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
-
- Polygnathus,
-   figure of, i, 486
-
- Polymixia, i, 122; ii, 257
-
- Polymixiidæ,
-   family of, ii, 256
-
- Polynemidæ, i, 122; 11, 215, 224
-
- Polynemus, i, 393
-
- Polyodon, i, 199, 253, 302, 452, 534, 566, 622, 623; ii, 22
-   figure of, ii, 22
-
- Polyodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 20, 21, 22
-
- Polyospondyli, i, 509, 530, 561
-
- Polypteridæ, i, 602, 605
-   Boulenger on, i, 608
-
- Polypterus, i, 76, 79, 88, 89, 204, 450, 600, 601, 603, 606, 616; ii, 2
-   figure of, i, 79, 602, 607
-   shoulder-girdle of, figured, i, 600
-
- Polyrhizodus, i, 555
-
- Polystylidæ, i, 476
-
- Pomacanthus, ii, 403, 405
-   figure of, ii, 403
-
- Pomacentridæ, i, 206, 209; ii, 380, 381, 382
-   organs of smell in, i, 115
-
- Pomacentrus, i, 235; ii, 383
-   figure of, ii, 382
-   species of, ii, 383
-
- Pomadasis, ii, 341, 342
-
- Pomatomidæ, ii, 278
-
- Pomatomus, ii, 278
-   figure of, i, 324
-
- pomfret, ii, 286
-
- Pomolobus, i, 300; ii, 49, 53
-   figure of, i, 455; ii, 50
-
- Pomotis, i, 302; ii, 379
-
- Pomoxis, i, 302; ii, 297
-   figure of, ii, 297, 298
-
- pompon, ii, 341
-
- pond-skipper,
-   figure of, i, 118
-
- pond-smelt, ii, 124
-
- poolfishes, i, 159
-
- pope, ii, 309
-
- poppy-fish, ii, 283
-
- Popular Science Monthly,
-   reference to, ii, 69
-
- porbeagle, i, 537
-
- porc des rivières, ii, 369
-
- porcupine-fish, i, 19, 197; ii, 422, 423
-   figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
-
- porgy, i, 239; ii, 342
-   varieties of, ii, 344
-
- Porichthys, i, 121, 190, 191, 192; ii, 526
-   figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
-   Greene on, i, 190; ii, 526
-   luminous organs of, i, 172
-   phosphorescent organs of, i, 191
-
- porkfish, ii, 341
-   figure of, ii, 341
-
- portal vein, i, 108
-
- Portheus, ii, 48
-   skeleton of, ii, 47
-
- Port Jackson shark,
-   eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
-
- portugais, ii, 405
-
- Portuguese man-of-war,
-   figure of, i, 160
-
- Porcus, ii, 183
-
- postembryonic development of fishes, i, 132
-
- posterior limbs, i, 53
-
- postero-temporal, i, 90
-
- post-temporal, i, 88, 90
-
- Potamorrhaphis, ii, 211
-
- Powrie, i, 424
-
- predatory fishes, i, 116; ii, 164
-
- premaxillary,
-   figure of, i, 55
-
- preopercle, i, 45
-
- preservation of fishes,
-   Günther on, i, 431
-   methods of, i, 431, 432
-
- Priacanthidæ, ii, 333
-
- Priacanthus, ii, 333
-   figure of, ii, 331
-
- Pribilof sculpin,
-   figure of, ii, 446
-
- Priem, i, 427
-
- priestfish,
-   figure of, ii, 430
-
- Prime,
-   on crab-eater as game fish, ii, 282
-
- primitive fishes,
-   brain of, i, 112
-   skeleton of, i, 54
-
- primitive herring-like fishes, i, 454
-
- primitive sharks, i, 511
-   orders of, i, 513
-
- Prionace, i, 542
-
- Prionodus, i, 488
-
- Prionodes, ii, 329
-
- Prionotus, i, 246; ii, 283
-   figure of, ii, 456
-
- Prionurus, ii, 409
-
- Priscacara, ii, 381
-
- Pristipoma, i, 375
-
- Pristididæ, i, 549
-
- Pristodontidæ, i, 555
-
- Pristiophoridæ,
-   family of, i, 548, 549
-
- Pristiophorus, i, 199
-   figure of, i, 201, 548
-
- Pristis, i, 199, 548
-   figure of, i, 200
-
- Pristiurus, i, 70
-
- proach, ii, 445
-
- Proantigonia, ii, 400
-
- Proballostomus, ii, 201
-
- problem of highest fishes,
-   Gill on, i, 383
-
- problem of Oatka Creek, i, 282
-
- process of natural selection, i, 297, 302
-
- Prochanos, ii, 45
-
- Prognathodes, ii, 404
-
- Progymnodon, ii, 423
-
- Prolebias, ii, 201
-
- Promethichthys, ii, 267
-
- Promicrops, ii, 323
-
- pronephros, i, 619; ii, 5, 8
-
- Pronotocanthus, ii, 157
-
- Propristis, i, 550
-
- propterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523
-
- Prosarthri, i, 509, 526
-
- proscapula, i, 89
-
- prosencephalon, i, 109
-   figure of, i, 111
-
- Protamia, ii, 36
-
- Protaulopsis, ii, 233
-
- protection,
-   through poisonous flesh, i, 182
-   of young, i, 128
-
- protective,
-   coloration, i, 226
-   markings, i, 228
-
- Proteus, i, 600
-
- Protocatostomus, ii, 56
-
- protocercal tail, i, 81, 598
-   Wyman on, i, 81
-
- Protochordata, i, 460-466
-
- Protonotacanthidæ, ii, 157
-
- Protopterus, i, 82, 85, 100, 204, 450, 613, 616, 617
-   figure of, i, 622
-
- Protoselachii, i, 523
-
- Protosphyræna, ii, 34
-
- Protosphyrænidæ, ii, 34
-
- Prostospondyli, ii, 23, 34
-
- Protosyngnathus, ii, 233
-
- Prototroctes, i, 252; ii, 128
-
- protozoan parasites, i, 342
-
- Provençal i, 95
-
- Psammobatis, i, 553
-
- Psammodus, i, 558, 559
-
- Psammosteidæ, i, 574
-
- Psenes, ii, 285
-
- Psenopsis, ii, 284
-
- Psephodus, i, 531
-
- Psephurus, i, 199, 253, 452, 622, 623
-   figure of, ii, 21
-
- Psettidæ, ii, 291
-
- Psettus, ii, 398, 400
-   figure of, ii, 399
-
- Pseudecheneis, ii, 184
-
- Pseudeleginus, ii, 502
-
- Pseudobagrus, ii, 183
-
- Pseudoberyx, ii, 52
-
- Pseudoblennius, i, 260; ii, 448
-
- pseudobranch, ii, 7
-
- pseudobranchiæ, i, 92
-
- Pseudocheilinus, ii, 390
-
- Pseudochromipidæ, ii, 359
-
- Pseudogaleus, i, 533
-
- Pseudojulis, ii, 389
-
- Pseudolabrus, ii, 390
-
- Pseudomonacanthus, ii, 415
-
- Pseudopleuronectes, i, 174; ii, 493
-   larval figures of, i, 176; ii, 483
-
- Pseudopriacanthus, ii, 332, 333
-   figure of, ii, 332
-
- Pseudorhombus, ii, 492
-
- Pseudoscaphirhynchus, ii, 18, 20
-
- Pseudoscarus, i, 329; ii, 394, 396
-   figure of, i, 330
-
- Pseudosciæna, i, 169; ii, 355, 356
-
- Pseudotriakidæ,
-   family of, i, 536
-
- Pseudotriakis, i, 536
-
- Pseudovomer, ii, 278, 286
-
- Pseudogobio, i, 416
-
- Pseudupeneus, ii, 352
-   figure of, i, 122, 329; ii, 351
-
- Psychrolutes, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
-   figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
-
- Psychromaster, ii, 315
-
- Pteraclidæ, ii, 286, 291
-
- Pteraclis, ii, 286
-
- Pteraspidæ, i, 570
-
- Pteraspis, i, 569, 571, 591, 622
-   figure of, i, 575
-
- Pterichthyodes, i, 444, 622
-   figure of, i, 576
-
- Pterichthys, i, 581
-
- Pterogobius,
-   figure of, ii, 462
-
- Pterois, i, 180, 202; ii, 434
-   figure of, ii, 435
-
- Pterophryne, ii, 550
-   figure of, ii, 549
-   species of, ii, 550
-
- Pteroplatea, i, 556
-
- Pteropsaridæ, ii, 502
-
- Pteropsaron,
-   figure of, ii, 502
-
- Pterothrissidæ, ii, 46
-   described, ii, 46
-
- Pterothrissus, ii, 46
-
- Pterophryne,
-   figure of, i, 52
-
- pterygials, ii, 1
-
- Pterygocephalus, ii, 513
-
- pterygoid, i, 606
-
- Ptilichthyidæ, ii, 513
-
- Ptilichthys,
-   figure of, ii, 514
-
- Ptychochelius, i, 164, 304; ii, 169
-   figure of, i, 162
-
- Ptychoderidæ, i, 465
-
- Ptychodus, i, 557
-
- Ptycholepis, ii, 26
-   figure of, ii, 28
-
- ptychopterygium, i, 510, 512
-
- Ptychodus, i, 566
-
- pudding-wife, ii, 388
-
- pudiano, ii, 388
-
- puffer, inflated,
-   figure of, ii, 420
-
- puffers, i, 206, 236;
-   figure of, ii, 419, 420
-   silver, ii, 419
-   tiger, ii, 423
-
- pugnacity of fishes, i, 162
-
- pug-nosed eel, ii, 148
-   figure of, ii, 149
-
- Putnam, i, 405; ii, 522
-
- Pycnodonti, ii, 13
-
- Pycnodontidæ, ii, 22
-
- Pycnodus, ii, 22
-
- Pygæidæ, ii, 405
-
- Pygæus, ii, 405, 410
-
- Pygidiidæ, ii, 185, 186
-
- Pygopterus, ii, 14
-
- Pygosteus, ii, 231
-
- pyloric cæca, i, 26, 32
-
- Pyrosoma, i, 477
-
- Pyrosomidæ, i, 477
-
-
- quadrate, i, 606
-
- Quassilabia, ii, 174
-
- Quensel, i, 396
-
- Querimana, ii, 222
-
- questions,
-   by Agassiz, i, 284
-   by Cope, i, 288
-
- quiescent fishes, i, 158
-
- quillfish,
-   the, ii, 513
-   figure of, ii, 514
-
- quinnat salmon, i, 150, 301; ii, 68, 73-76
-   figure of, i, 354; ii, 69, 79
-   young male figured, i, 355
-
-
- rabbit-fishes,
-   figure of, ii, 423
-
- Rabirubia, ii, 337
-
- Rachycentridæ,
-   family of, ii, 282
-
- Rachycentron, ii, 470, 468
-   figure of, ii, 282
-
- Rafinesque, i, 395; ii, 315
-   on imaginary garpike, i, 364, 366
-
- ragfishes, the, ii, 285
-   Ogilby on, ii, 285
-
- rainbow darter, ii, 315
-
- rainbow trout, ii, 96-98, 100
-   figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99
-
- Raja, i, 72, 129, 391, 549
-   figure of, i, 448, 552
-
- Rajidæ, i, 551, 553
-
- Ranicipitidæ, ii, 539
-
- Rangeley trout, ii, 109
-   figure of, i, 326
-
- Raniceps, ii, 539
-
- Ranzania, i, 84, 412
-   figure of, ii, 425
-
- Rapp, i, 411
-
- Rascasio, ii, 433
-
- ratfish, i, 564
-
- Rathke, i, 428; ii, 144
-
- rat-tail, i, 209; ii, 441, 540
-
- Ray, i, 390
-
- ray, i, 9, 24, 35, 117, 508, 509, 549
-   electric organs of, i, 186
-
- razor-back sucker, ii, 174
-   figure of, ii, 175
-
- razor-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 388
-
- recognition marks, i, 7, 231, 232
-
- records of fishes, i, 433
-
- red charr, ii, 108
-
- red drum,
-   figure of, ii, 356
-
- redeye, ii, 168
-
- Redfield, i, 423
-
- redfin, ii, 166
-
- Redfieldius, ii, 16
-
- redfish, ii, 68, 324, 355, 388
-   figure of, ii, 389
-
- red goatfish, ii, 35
-   figure of, i, 329
-
- red grouper, ii, 324
-   figure of, ii, 325
-
- red hind, ii, 324
-   figure of, ii, 326
-
- red-mouth grunt, ii, 340
-
- red mullet, ii, 352
-
- red mumea, ii, 335
-
- red parrot-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 393
-
- red porgy, ii, 343
-
- red rockfish, ii, 429
-
- red rock-trout, ii, 440
-   skeleton of, figured, i, 214
-
- red salmon, ii, 69, 71, 82
-   figure of, ii, 70, 76
-
- red snapper, ii, 330, 335
-
- red tai, ii, 349
-   figure of, ii, 342
-
- red-throated trout, ii, 102
-
- red voraz, ii, 338
-
- red wrasse, ii, 387
-
- Reed, ii, 112, 113
-   on trout-fishing, ii, 112
-
- Regalecidæ,
-   family of, i, 472
-
- Regalecus, i, 361; ii, 425, 472, 473, 479
-   figure of, i, 362, 363
-
- Regan, ii, 291
-   on Teleostomi, i, 622, 623
-
- Règnè Animal, i, 400
-
- Reighard, i, 428
-   on lampreys, i, 491
-
- Reinhardt, i, 410; ii, 127
-   portrait of, i, 409
-
- Reinhardtius, ii, 491
-
- Reis, i, 427, 428, 571
-
- relations of fish faunas,
-   Japan and Mediterranean, i, 270
-
- relationships,
-   of Chimæras, i, 563
-   of Palæspondylus, i, 593, 595
-
- relation of vertebræ to temperature, i, 202
-
- Remora, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
-
- Remorina, ii, 469
-
- Remoropsis, ii, 469
-
- Remsberg,
-   photograph by, i, 362
-
- Renard, i, 396
-
- reproduction of lost parts, i, 150
-
- Requins, i, 540
-
- resemblances of fish faunas, i, 259, 260
-
- respiration, i, 91-108
-
- Retropinna, i, 252; ii, 123
-
- Retzius, i, 428
-
- Rhabdofario, ii, 62, 118
-
- Rhacochilus, ii, 375
-   figure of, ii, 374
-
- Rhacolepis, ii, 44
-
- Rhadinichthys, ii, 14
-
- Rhamphognathus, ii, 218
-
- Rhamphocottidæ, ii, 449
-
- Rhamphocottus, ii, 449
-   figure of, ii, 451
-
- Rhamphosidæ, ii, 234
-
- Rhamphosus, ii, 234
-
- Rhegnopteri,
-   order of, ii, 224
-
- Rheopresbe, i, 256; ii, 445
-
- Rhina, i, 551
-
- Rhinæ,
-   suborder of, i, 547
-
- Rhineastes, ii, 186
-
- Rhinellidæ, ii, 134
-
- Rhinellus, ii, 134
-   figure of, ii, 134
-
- Rhineodon, i, 540
-
- Rhineodontidæ, i, 540
-
- Rhinesomus, i, 377
-
- Rhinichthys, i, 283, 307
-   figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
-
- Rhinidæ, i, 551
-
- Rhinobatidæ, i, 551
-   family of, i, 550
-
- Rhinobatis, i, 553
-   figure of, i, 551
-
- Rhinochimæra, i, 199, 566
-
- Rhinochimæridæ, i, 565
-
- Rhinoptera, i, 557
-
- Rhinotriacis, i, 541
-
- Rhipidistia, i, 602
-
- Rhizodontidæ, i, 603
-
- Rhizodopsis, i, 603
-
- Rhodeus, i, 129; ii, 164
-
- Rhombochirus,
-   figure of, ii, 469
-
- Rhomboganoidea, ii, 24
-
- Rhomboplites, ii, 337
-
- Rhombus, ii, 486
-
- Rhyacichthyidæ, ii, 504
-
- Rhyacichthys, ii, 504
-
- Rhynchias, ii, 522
-
- Rhynchobdella, ii, 532
-
- Rhynchodus, i, 566
-
- Rhynchorhinus, ii, 150
-
- ribbon-fish, ii, 471, 475, 485
-   Goode on, ii, 475
-
- rice-field eels, ii, 141
-
- Richardson, i, 408, 418; ii, 64
-   on whitefish, i, 322
-
- Richardson's sculpin,
-   figure of, ii, 451
-
- Rio Grande trout,
-   figure of, ii, 106
-
- Risso, i, 395
-
- Rissola,
-   figure of, ii, 520
-
- Ritter,
-   on ascidians, i, 474
-   on Enteropneusta, i, 464
-
- river-bullhead,
-   spawning of, i, 166
-
- river-drum, ii, 354, 355
-
- river-fishes,
-   dispersion of, i, 297-319
-
- river-ruff, ii, 309
-
- river-sculpin, ii, 445
-
- river-sheepshead, ii, 354
-
- river-trout, ii, 94
-
- river-wolf, ii, 190
-
- Rivulus, i, 314
-
- roach, ii, 163, 168
-
- robalito, ii, 320
-
- robalo, the, i, 320, 355
-   figure of, ii, 319, 324
-
- Roccus, i, 291, 324; ii, 321, 330
-   bones of, i, 35
-   cranium of, i, 36-39
-   figures of, i, 35-39, 46, 48
-
- Roche, i, 396
-
- rock-bass, i, 4; ii, 297
-   figure of, ii, 299
-   skull of, figured, ii, 296
-
- rock-beauty, ii, 404
-   figure of, ii, 405
-
- rock-cod, i, 203; ii, 429
-
- rock-cook, ii, 387
-
- rockfish, i, 94, 125, 159; ii, 321, 429, 431
-   figure of, i, 218
-
- rock-hind, i, 19; ii, 324
-   figure of, i, 29
-
- rocklings, i, 209; ii, 520, 539
-
- rock-pilots, the, ii, 381
-
- rock-pool fishes,
-   figure of, i, 294
-
- rock-skipper, ii, 510
-   figure of, ii, 509
-
- Rocky Mountains,
-   barriers to dispersion, i, 305
-
- Rohon, i, 427, 428
-
- romero, ii, 272
-
- roncador, ii, 353, 355, 356
-
- ronco amarilla, ii, 340
-
- ronco arará, ii, 340
-
- Rondelet, i, 361, 388
-   on sea-monster, i, 360
-
- Rondeletiidæ, ii, 132
-
- Ronquilus, ii, 502
-
- ronquils, ii, 502
-
- rosefishes, i, 125; ii, 428
-   figure of, ii, 427
-
- Rosenthal, i, 428
-
- rothfisch, ii, 106
-
- rough-headed sea-robin, ii, 457
-
- roundfish, ii, 63
-
- round-herring, ii, 52
-
- round-minnow,
-   figure of, ii, 196
-
- round-robin, ii, 274
-
- rousettes, i, 533
-
- Rudarius,
-   figure of, i, 241
-
- rudder-fish, ii, 273, 285, 349, 350
-   figure of, ii, 349
-
- runners, ii, 272
-
- Rüppell, i, 411
-
- Rusconi,
-   on external gills, i, 77
-
- Russell, i, 396; ii, 473
-
- rusty-dab, ii, 493
-
- Rutilus, ii, 164, 168
-
- Rutter, i, 422; ii, 69, 84
-   photograph by, i, 355
-
- Ruvettus, ii, 267
-
- Ryder, i, 408, 428
-   on embryos, i, 64
-   on nest-building, ii, 229
-   on paired limbs, i, 66
-   on tail forms, i, 81, 84
-
- Rypticus,
-   figure of, ii, 330
-
-
- saboti, ii, 304
-
- Saccopharynx, ii, 136, 157
-
- Sacramento perch, i, 179
-   figure of, i, 258
-
- Sagenodus, i, 613
-
- sailfish, ii, 268
-
- sailor-fish, i, 199
-
- St. Ambrose, ii, 120
-   on Thymallus, ii, 120
-
- St. Hilaire, i, 396, 428
-
- St. John, i, 426
-
- Salangidæ, ii, 127
-
- Salanx, i, 146; ii, 123, 127, 128
-   figure of, i, 147; ii, 128
-
- sälbling, ii, 108
-
- Salar, ii, 90, 93
-
- Salarias, i, 208, 271; ii, 510, 511
-
- salema, ii, 346
-
- Salmo, i, 291, 304, 305, 316-318, 332, 345, 346, 378, 391; ii, 62, 68,
-    89, 94-96, 98
-   figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99, 101, 104-106
-   general description, ii, 89
-   tail of, figured, ii, 486
-
- salmon, i, 21, 25, 28, 39, 53, 146, 204, 209, 249, 256, 290, 440; ii,
-    67-69, 94, 107, 128, 159
-   artificial propagation of, ii, 88
-   ascent of cascades, ii, 76
-   Callbreath on, ii, 89
-   colors of, ii, 78
-   family of, i, 61-119
-   habits in ocean, ii, 73
-   method of descent of stream, ii, 78
-   mutilation of, ii, 75, 76
-   nest of, ii, 78
-   packing of, ii, 87
-   scales of, i, 21
-   sexual distortion in, i, 129
-   spawning changes in, ii, 89
-   spawning of, ii, 78-80
-   spring running, ii, 73
-   white-meated, ii, 78
-   of Yukon, i, 73
-
- salmonete, i, 329
-   figure of, ii, 351
-
- salmon fishery,
-   of Japan, ii, 81
-   output of, ii, 87
-
- salmon fry,
-   liberation of, ii, 84
-   marking of, ii, 84
-
- Salmonidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 61-119, 127, 130, 161, 190
-
- Salmonoidea, ii, 41, 61
-
- salmonoids, ii, 94, 107
-
- salmon pack,
-   estimate of, ii, 80
-
- salmon roe, ii, 76
-
- salmon shark, i, 447, 537
-
- salmon trout, ii, 94, 105, 114
-
- Salmopercæ, ii, 241-249
-   suborder of, ii, 241
-
- Salpa, i, 477; ii, 348
-
- Salpidæ, i, 477
-
- Salvelini, ii, 95, 106
-
- Salvelinus, i, 282, 306, 307, 311; ii, 62, 95, 99, 107, 108-110,
-    112-114
-   description of, ii, 107
-   figure of, i, 326; ii, 110, 111
-
- samarang, i, 408
-
- Samaris, ii, 489
-
- samlet,
-   figure of, ii, 116
-
- Sancassini, ii, 144
-
- Sandalodus, i, 531
-
- sand-dab, ii, 491
-
- sand-darter, ii, 313
-   figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
-
- sandfishes, ii, 364
-   figure of, ii, 364
-
- sand-lance,
-   figure of, ii, 521
-
- sand-pike, ii, 308
-
- sand-roller,
-   figure of, ii, 241
-
- Sandroserrus, ii, 309
-
- Sandrus, ii, 309
-
- sandstone,
-   fragment figured, i, 435
-
- sand-sucker, ii, 357
-
- sand-whiting, ii, 357
-
- San Pedro fish, ii, 244
-
- São Paulo, ii, 162
-
- Saprolegnia, i, 353; ii, 76
-   surface on, i, 354
-
- sarcastic blenny,
-   figure of, ii, 507
-
- Sarda, i, 210; ii, 264
-
- Sardinella, i, 204, 327, 332; ii, 50
-
- sardines, i, 199, 268; ii, 50
-
- Sardinia, i, 204
-
- Sardiniodes, ii, 134
-
- Sardinius, ii, 44
-
- Sargassum fish,
-   figure of, i, 52; ii, 549
-
- sargo, ii, 345
-
- Sars, ii, 535
-
- saucer-eye porgy,
-   figure of, ii, 345
-
- sauger,
-   figure of, ii, 309
-
- Sauripterus, i, 603
-
- Saurocephalus, ii, 48
-
- Saurodon, ii, 48
-
- Saurodontidæ, ii, 48
-
- Sauropsida, i, 601
-
- Sauropsis, ii, 34
-
- Saurorhynchidæ, ii, 17
-
- Saurorhynchus, ii, 17
-
- saury,
-   figure of, ii, 212
-
- sausolele,
-   figure of, ii, 435
-
- Sauvage, i, 412, 427
-
- savalo, ii, 43
-
- sawfish, i, 199, 548
-   figure of, i, 550
-
- saw-shark, i, 549
-   figure of, i, 201, 548
-
- scabbard-fishes, ii, 267
-
- Scænidæ, i, 206
-
- scales of fish,
-   classification of, i, 20
-   figure of, i, 21, 22
-
- scamp, ii, 327
-
- Scapanorhinus,
-   snout figured, i, 536
-
- Scaphirhynchus, i, 253, 452; ii, 18, 20
-
- Scardinius, ii, 168
-
- Scaridæ, ii, 390, 393, 396
-
- Scaridea, ii, 391
-
- Scartichthys,
-   figure of, i, 294; ii, 510
-
- Scarus, ii, 352, 391, 393, 396
-   figure of, ii, 394
-   jaws of, figured, ii, 393
-   pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
-
- Scatophagus, ii, 400
-
- Scaumenacia, i, 612
-
- Schedophilus, ii, 285
-
- Schilbiosus,
-   figure of, i, 179
-
- Schilbeodes, i, 180, 202; ii, 177, 182
-   figure of, ii, 182
-   structure of, ii, 177
-
- Schizocardium, i, 465
-
- Schlegel, i, 414
-
- Schmidt, i, 411
-
- Schnäbel, ii, 63
-
- Schnapper, ii, 343
-
- Schneider, i, 398
-
- schoolmaster, ii, 336
-
- schoolmaster-snapper,
-   figure of, i, 440
-
- Schomburgk, i, 415
-
- Schöpf, i, 395
-
- Sciæna, i, 391; ii, 356-358
-
- Sciænidæ, i, 290; ii, 225, 353-355, 358
-
- Sciænops, ii, 355
-   figure of, ii, 356
-
- Sclerodermi, ii, 398, 411, 412
-
- scleroderms, ii, 412, 415
-
- Scoliodon, i, 542
-
- Scolopsis, ii, 342
-
- Scomber, i, 94, 210, 391; ii, 260, 262, 266
-   figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
-
- Scomberoides, ii, 272, 470
-
- Scomberomorus, i, 210, 322; ii, 264, 266
-   figure of, ii, 264
-
- Scomberosomus,
-   figure of, i, 322
-
- Scomberidea, ii, 258, 271
-
- Scombramphodon, ii, 266
-
- Scombresox, ii, 211, 214
-   figure of, i, 212
-
- Scombridæ, i, 210; ii, 258, 272, 470
-   family of, ii, 259
-
- scombriform fishes, i, 209
-
- Scombrinus, ii, 266
-
- Scombroclupea, ii, 52
-
- Scombroidea,
-   suborder of, ii, 258
-
- Scombroidei, ii, 291, 484, 485
-
- scombroids, ii, 485
-
- Scombropidæ, ii, 317
-
- Scombrops, ii, 317
-
- scopeloid, ii, 474
-
- Scopelus, ii, 133
-
- Scophthalmus, ii, 486, 488
-
- Scopoli, i, 396
-
- Scorpæna, i, 180, 211, 391; ii, 429, 432, 433, 438
-   figure of, i, 433, 434
-
- Scorpænichthys, ii, 442
-   skull of, figured, i, 427
-
- Scorpænidæ, i, 94, 207, 211; ii, 363, 426, 435, 441, 503
-   family of, i, 426, 448
-
- Scorpænopsis, ii, 434
-
- Scorpænopterus, ii, 436
-
- Scorpididæ, ii, 397, 398, 400
-
- Scorpis, ii, 398, 400
-
- scorpion-fishes, i, 207, 429; ii, 426, 433
-
- Scudder, i, 405
-
- sculpin, i, 21, 219, 257, 290, 429, 440; ii, 363, 441, 445, 447-449
-   buffalo, ii, 443
-   daddy, ii, 445
-   eighteen-spined, ii, 446
-   great, ii, 442
-   little, ii, 446
-   long-horned, ii, 447
-   Pribilof, ii, 446
-   red, ii, 443
-   Richardson's, ii, 451
-   river, ii, 445
-   sleek, ii, 451
-   stone, ii, 443
-
- scup, ii, 344
-   figure of, ii, 343
-
- scutes, i, 570
-
- Scuticaria, ii, 153
-
- Scymnorhinus, i, 546
-
- Scyliorhinidæ, i, 127, 532, 533
-
- Scyliorhinoid shark,
-   skull of, figured, i, 56
-
- Scyliorhinus, i, 447, 533
-
- Scyphophori, ii, 188, 207
-   order of, ii, 188, 189
-
- Scytalina,
-   figure of, ii, 519
-
- Scytalinidæ, ii, 519
-
- sea-bass, i, 135; ii, 320, 323
-   figure of, i, 137
-
- sea-bat, ii, 552
-
- sea-catfish, ii, 178
-   eggs of, hatched in mouth, ii, 179
-   figure of, ii, 179
-
- sea-devil, i, 559; ii, 547
-
- sea-drum, ii, 357
-
- sea-horse, i, 19, 64, 128; ii, 449
-   family of, i, 236
-   figure of, i, 17
-
- Seale, i, 422
-
- sea-mink, ii, 356
-
- sea-moth, ii, 239
-   figure of, ii, 240
-
- sea-poacher, i, 208; ii, 449, 453
-
- sea-raven,
-   figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
-
- sea-robin, i, 246; ii, 457
-   figure of, ii, 456
-   rough-headed, ii, 457
-   striped, ii, 457
-
- sea-scorpion, ii, 363
-   figure of, ii, 434
-
- sea-serpent, i, 361; ii, 471, 473
-
- sea-snail, i, 217; ii, 39, 454
-
- sea-trout, ii, 94
-
- sea-waifs, ii, 133
-
- sea weed, ii, 512
-
- sebago, ii, 92
-
- Sebastapistes, ii, 434
-
- Sebastes, i, 125, 211; ii, 428
-   figure of, i, 218; ii, 427
-
- Sebastichthys, ii, 428, 429, 433
-   figure of, ii, 431, 432
-
- Sebastiscus, ii, 432
-
- Sebastodes, i, 125, 211, 219, 375; ii, 428, 429, 431-433, 438
-   figure of, ii, 429
-   skeleton of, figured, i, 214
-
- Sebastolobus, i, 52-55, 211
-   cranium of, i, 53
-   figure of, ii, 428
-   lower jaw of, i, 54
-   maxillary of, i, 55
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 52
-
- Sebastopsis, i, 271; ii, 432
-
- Sectator, i, 271; ii, 350
-
- Seeley, i, 410
-
- Segemehl, i, 97
-
- segments of Dibothrium figured, ii, 103
-
- selachians, i, 572, 592
-
- Selachii, i, 382, 507-509; ii, 9
-
- Selachostomi, i, 623; ii, 13
-   order of, ii, 20
-
- Selenaspis,
-   clavicle of, i, 87
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 86
-
- Selene, ii, 276
-   development of, figured, i, 148
-   Lütken on, i, 144
-   skeleton of, figured, i, 55
-
- Selenichthyes, ii, 241-249
-   suborder of, ii, 243
-
- Selenosteus, i, 588
-
- Selenosteidæ, i, 587
-
- Semicossyphus, ii, 390
-
- Semionotidæ, ii, 23, 24, 26
-
- Semionotus,
-   figure of, ii, 24
-
- Semiophoridæ, ii, 245
-
- Semiophorus, ii, 245
-   figure of, ii, 246
-
- Semon, i, 428
-
- Semotilus, i, 282; ii, 167
-   figure of, i, 285; ii, 268
-
- señorita, ii, 388
-
- sense organs, i, 115-123
-
- sense of pain, i, 123
-
- sense of taste, i, 121
-
- sense of touch, i, 121
-
- sensorium, i, 153
-
- sensory nerves, i, 153
-
- Sergeant Baker, ii, 130
-
- sergeant-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 282
-
- Seriola, ii, 272, 278
-   figure of, i, 459; ii, 273
-
- Seriphus, ii, 354
-
- serran, ii, 329
-
- Serrana, ii, 357
-
- Serranellus, ii, 329
-
- Serranidæ, i, 206, 209, 259, 290; ii, 258, 293, 319, 320, 324, 327,
-    328, 330, 331, 333, 359, 363
-
- serrano, ii, 327, 328
-
- Serranus, ii, 328, 363
-
- Serrasalmo, ii, 161, 162
-
- Sertulariæ, ii, 544
-
- sese de lo alto, ii, 336
-
- sesele, ii, 304
-
- Setarches, ii, 433
-
- setiform, i, 30
-
- sexual coloration, i, 230
-
- sexual modification,
-   in colors, i, 129
-   in structure, i, 129
-
- shad, ii, 50, 53, 147
-
- shad waiter, ii, 63
-
- shagreen grains, i, 570
-
- sharks, i, 21, 23, 24, 28, 53, 75, 445, 446, 519, 523, 542, 543, 545,
-    546
-   air-bladder wanting in, i, 506
-   distribution of, i, 459
-   eggs of, i, 127, 433
-   fossil teeth of, i, 546
-   jaws of, i, 35
-   pectoral limbs of, i, 60, 66
-   phosphorescent, i, 189
-   primitive, i, 510, 511
-   shoulder-girdle in, i, 507
-   skull of, i, 56, 57
-
- shark-sucker, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
-
- sharp-nosed flying-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 213
-
- Shasta, ii, 97
-
- Shaw, i, 398
-
- sheatfish, ii, 182, 183
-
- sheepshead, i, 30, 324; ii, 345, 346
-   figure of, i, 31; ii, 346
-
- shibi, ii, 263
-
- shiner, i, 283; ii, 163, 168
-   figure of, ii, 168
-
- shiro-uwo, ii, 127, 467
-
- Shooter,
-   head-fish taken by, ii, 424
-
- shore-fishes, i, 245
-   distribution of, i, 263-265
-
- short-nosed garpike,
-   figure of, i, 452
-
- shoulder girdle, i, 42, 50
-   of batfish, ii, 551
-   of buffalo-fish, ii, 160
-   figure of, i, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 69, 70, 86, 88, 89, 600; ii, 225,
-      227
-   figure of fossil, i, 521
-   of flounder figured, i, 58; ii, 2
-   of Ictiobus ii, 160
-   inner view of, ii, 160
-   of Neoceratodus, i, 609
-   of Opah figured, ii, 243
-   of Polypterus, i, 70
-   of Sebastolobus figured, i, 52
-   in sharks, i, 507
-   in true eel, ii, 141
-
- shovel-nosed sturgeon i, 253
-
- shrimp, ii, 147
-
- shrimpfishes, ii, 234
-   figure of, ii, 235
-
- Shufeldt,
-   photographs by, i, 7, 13, 137; ii, 181, 305, 333
-
- Siebold, i, 411, 414
-
- sierra, ii, 266
-
- Siganidæ, ii, 409, 410
-
- Siganus, ii, 410
-
- sight organs, i, 116-118
-
- significance,
-   of resemblance, i, 259
-   of rare forms, i, 262
-
- Sillaginidæ, ii, 358
-
- sillago, ii, 358
-
- silk-snapper, ii, 336
-
- Siluridæ, i, 149, 205, 280, 290, 293; ii, 60, 178, 182, 186
-
- siluroid, i, 290; ii, 529
-
- Silurus, i, 391; ii, 182
-
- silverfin,
-   figure of, i, 457; ii, 166
-
- silver-jaw minnow, ii, 165
-   figure of, ii, 165
-
- silver-jenny, ii, 348
-
- silver-king, ii, 43
-
- silver-perch, ii, 342
-
- silver-salmon, ii, 68, 71, 73, 87
-
- silversides, i, 290; ii, 215
-   figure of, ii, 217
-
- silver surf-fish,
-   figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
-
- silver-tail, ii, 512
-
- silvery anchovy,
-   figure of, ii, 54
-
- silvery puffer,
-   figure of, ii, 419
-
- Simenchelyidæ, ii, 148
-
- Simenchelys, ii, 148
-   figure of, ii, 149
-
- Sindo, i, 418, 422
-
- singing-fish, i, 121
-   figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
-   species of, ii, 526
-
- Siniperca, ii, 320
-
- sinus impar, i, 120
-
- sinus venosus, i, 108
-
- Siphonognathidæ, ii, 390
-
- Siphonognathus, ii, 390
-
- Siphonostoma, ii, 236
-
- Sirembo, ii, 524
-
- Sirenoidei, i, 612
-   order of, i, 613
-
- sisco, ii, 66, 67
-
- siscowet, ii, 66, 115
-
- Sisoridæ, ii, 184
-
- skates, i, 28, 551, 552
-
- skeleton of cowfish,
-   figure of, ii, 418
-
- skeleton of fish, i, 10, 34-61
-   of cowfish, i, 215
-   of Chimæra, i, 564
-   parts of, i, 35, 36
-   primitive, i, 54
-   of pike figured, i, 203
-   of red rockfish, i, 214
-   of Selene figured, i, 55
-   of shark, i, 57
-   of spiny-rayed fish, i, 214
-
- skilfishes, ii, 438
-   figure of, ii, 438
-
- skin-peeler, ii, 415
-
- skipjack, ii, 50
-
- skippers,
-   Couch on, ii, 211
-
- skipping-goby, i, 117
-
- skittle-dogs, i, 545
-
- skull,
-   of Anarrhichthys, ii, 517
-   autostylic, i, 57
-   figure of, ii, 296
-   of haddock, ii, 536
-   hyostylic, i, 56, 508
-   of rock-bass, ii, 296
-   of Scorpænichthys figured, ii, 427
-   of shark figured, i, 56
-
- sleek-sculpin,
-   figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
-
- sleeper-shark, i, 547
-
- sleepy Argentine, ii, 134
-
- slippery Dick, ii, 388
-   figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
-
- Sloane, i, 389
-
- small-mouthed bass,
-   figure of, i, 325; ii, 303
-
- smear-dab, ii, 494
-
- smelt, ii, 66, 91, 120-138
-   figure of, ii, 123
-
- Smerdis, ii, 310, 330
-
- Smith, i, 416, 419, 608
-   on Arctic species, i, 317
-
- Smitt, i, 410
-
- snailfish, ii, 455
-
- snake-blennies, ii, 512
-
- snake-eels, ii, 150
-   figure of, i, 233
-
- snake-headed China-fish, ii, 371
-   figure of, i, 150; ii, 371
-
- snake-headed mullets, ii, 370
-
- snapper, ii, 333, 335, 338
-   diamond, ii, 337
-   gray, ii, 334, 335
-   lane, ii, 336
-   mahogany, ii, 337
-   mangrove, ii, 335
-   mutton, ii, 335
-   red, ii, 335
-   silk, ii, 336
-   true, ii, 337
-   yellow-tail, ii, 337
-
- snipe-eels, ii, 151
-
- snipefishes, ii, 234
-
- Snodgrass, i, 422; ii, 423
-
- snooks, ii, 282, 320
-
- snowy grouper,
-   figure of, ii, 329
-
- Snyder, i, 418, 420
-
- Snyderina,
-   figure of, ii, 437
-
- soapfishes, ii, 330
-   figure of, ii, 330
-
- sobaco, ii, 413
-
- sockeye, ii, 69
-
- soft-rayed fishes, i, 204; ii, 39
-
- soi, ii, 429
-
- soldados, ii, 253
-
- Solander, i, 395
-
- soldier-fish, ii, 315
-   family of, ii, 253
-   figure of, ii, 254
-
- Solea, i, 327; ii, 487, 496
-
- Soleidæ, i, 290; ii, 495, 499
-
- Soleinæ, ii, 496
-
- Solenostomidæ,
-   family of, ii, 236
-
- Solenostomus, i, 128; ii, 236
-   figure of, ii, 237
-
- soles, ii, 495
-   broad, ii, 495
-   Day on, ii, 496, 497
-   European, ii, 496
-   Gill on, ii, 496
-   habits of, ii, 496
-   hog-choker, ii, 498
-   Parker on, ii, 483
-
- Sonnerat, i, 395
-
- Sörensen,
-   on elastic spring, i, 97
-
- sounds of fishes, i, 168-170
-   Bowring on, i, 168
-
- soup-fin sharks,
-   figure of, i, 541
-
- southern zone, i, 253
-
- spadefish, ii, 400
-   figure of, i, 325; ii, 401
-
- Spaniodon, ii, 43
-
- Spaniodontidæ, ii, 47
-
- Spanish-flag, ii, 323, 429
-
- Spanish-mackerel, i, 64, 210, 322
-   figure of, i, 322; ii, 264
-   Goode on, ii, 264, 265
-   Mitchill on, ii, 264
-
- Sparidæ, i, 206; ii, 342, 344, 346, 372
-   family of, ii, 342
-
- Sparisoma, i, 268; ii, 352, 391, 392, 396
-   figure of, ii, 392
-   jaws figured, i, 30
-
- Sparnodus, ii, 347
-
- Sparus, i, 259, 263, 391; ii, 346
-
- Spathiurus, ii, 36
-
- Spaulding, ii, 84
-   marking of fry by, ii, 84
-
- spawning-grounds,
-   return to, ii, 82
-
- spawning of salmon, i, 160
-
- special creation impossible, i, 295
-
- spearfish, i, 199; ii, 469
-
- specialized fishes, i, 249
-
- species, i, 371
-   absent through barriers, i, 238
-   changed through natural
-   selection, ii, 239
-   characters of, i, 292
-   conditions favorable to, i, 301
-   extinction of, i, 239
-   meaning of, i, 293, 379
-   special creation, i, 295
-   transfer of, i, 312
-
- speckled flounder, ii, 488
-
- speckled hind, ii, 324
-   figure of, ii, 325
-
- speckled trout,
-   figure of, i, 326; ii, 110
-
- Spengel,
-   on Enteropneusta, i, 464
-
- Spengelia, i, 465
-
- Spengeliidæ, i, 465
-
- sperling, ii, 123
-
- Sphærodon, i, 268
-
- Sphagebranchus, ii, 151
-
- Sphagepæa, i, 565
-
- sphenial, i, 606
-
- Sphenocephalus, ii, 252
-
- Spheroides, i, 206; ii, 419-421
-   figure of, i, 420
-
- Sphyrænidæ, i, 206
-   family of, ii, 222
-
- Sphyræna, ii, 221
-   figure of, ii, 223
-
- Sphyrænodus, ii, 266
-
- Sphyrna, i, 543
-   figure of, i, 544
-
- Sphyrnidæ, i, 543
-
- Spicara, i, 260; ii, 347
-
- Spinacanthidæ, ii, 415
-
- Spinacanthus, ii, 415
-
- Spinachia, ii, 232
-
- spinal cord, i, 112
-
- spineless trunkfish,
-   figure of, i, 378; ii, 417
-
- spines of catfish, i, 179
-
- spiny eels, ii, 157
-
- spiny-rayed fishes, i, 21, 206-208; ii, 39, 208, 307
-   skeleton of, figured, i, 214
-
- spiracle, i, 92
-
- Spiraculis, i, 393
-
- spiral valve, i, 32
-
- splenial, i, 43
-
- split-tail, ii, 169
-
- Spondyliosoma, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
-
- spookfishes, i, 564
-
- spot, ii, 356
-
- spotted trout, ii, 105
-
- spotted trunkfish, ii, 416
-   figure of, i, 377; ii, 417
-
- spotted weakfish,
-   figure of, ii, 353
-
- sprat, i, 204; ii, 50, 123
-
- spring salmon, ii, 80
-
- Squalidæ, i, 531, 543, 545, 546, 566
-
- Squaloraja, i, 566
-
- Squalorajidæ, i, 566
-
- Squalus, i, 391
-   figure of, i, 545
-
- Squamipinnes, ii, 209, 411
-
- Squamipinus, ii, 397-410
-
- square-tails, ii, 291
-
- Squatina, i, 548
-   brain of, figured, i, 547
-   pectoral fin figured, i, 56
-
- Squatinidæ, i, 549, 554
-
- squawfish,
-   figure of, i, 162; ii, 169
-   spawning journey of, i, 164
-
- squeteague, ii, 353
-
- squirrel-fish, ii, 253, 329
-
- Stannius, i, 428
-
- star-gazer, ii, 364, 503
-   figure of, i, 187, 504
-
- Starks, C. L.
-   drawings of fishes i, 36-39
-
- Starks, E. C., i, 420
-   on berycoid skull, ii, 250
-   on fish skeleton, i, 39
-
- starry-flounder, ii, 493
-   figure of, ii, 495
-
- star-spined ray,
-   figure of, i, 448
-
- Stearns, i, 419
-
- steelhead, ii, 94, 96, 99, 100
-   figure of, ii, 101
-
- steelhead-trout,
-   figure of, i, 327
-
- Steenstrup, i, 410
-
- Stegocephali, i, 606
-
- Stegostoma, i, 533
-
- Stegothalami, i, 584
-   Dean on, i, 585
-
- Steindachnerella, ii, 541
-
- Steindachner, i, 411, 414, 427
-   portrait of, i, 403
-
- Steindachneria,
-   figure of, ii, 541
-
- Steinegeria, ii, 286
-
- Steinegeriidæ, ii, 286
-
- Stelgis,
-   figure of, ii, 451
-
- Steller, i, 395; ii, 135
-   on quinnat salmon, ii, 68
-
- Stellifer, i, 271; ii, 355
-
- Stenodus, ii, 62, 68
-   figure of, ii, 67
-
- Stenotomus, ii, 344
-   figure of, ii, 343
-
- Stephanoberycidæ,
-   family of, ii, 223
-
- Stephanoberyx, ii, 223
-
- Stephanolepis, ii, 414, 415
-   figure of, i, 182, 415
-
- Stereobalanus, i, 465
-
- Stereolepis, ii, 321
-
- Sternoptychidæ, ii, 137
-
- Sternoptyx, i, 357; ii, 137
-
- Stethojulis, ii, 390
-
- Stichæiniæ, ii, 511
-
- Stichæus, ii, 513
-   figure of, ii, 513
-
- stickleback, i, 51, 128, 250, 290; ii, 157, 215, 228, 229, 232
-   fighting of, i, 165
-   figure of, ii, 232
-   shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
-   spines of, i, 179
-
- Stieda, i, 428
-
- Stiles,
-   on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
-
- stingaree, i, 556
-
- sting-bull, ii, 501
-
- stingfish, ii, 501
-
- sting-rays, i, 84, 267, 549
-   figure of, i, 246, 555
-   spines of, i, 182
-
- Stizostedion, ii, 308
-   figure of, ii, 309
-
- Stolephorus, ii, 52
-
- Stomias,
-   figure of, ii, 128
-
- Stomiatidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 128
-
- Stone, ii, 80
-   on rate of travel of salmon, ii, 80
-
- stone-bass, ii, 323
-
- stone-cats, ii, 182
-
- stone-roller, i, 157; ii, 166
-   figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
-
- stone-sculpin, ii, 443
-
- stonewall perch, ii, 359, 360
-
- stony-flounder, ii, 482
-
- Storer, i, 418
-
- Storms, i, 427
-   on fossil remora, ii, 469
-
- Stratodontidæ, ii, 137
-
- Stratodus, ii, 137
-
- Strinsia, ii, 539
-
- striped-bass, i, 48, 53; ii, 37, 321
-   bones of, i, 39, 45
-   figure of, i, 35
-   tail of, i, 49
-   vertebral column of, i, 48
-
- striped-mullet,
-   figure of, i, 330
-
- striped sea-robin, ii, 457
-
- Ström, i, 396
-
- Stromateidæ, i, 160; ii, 215, 259, 284, 291, 398, 485
-   family of, ii, 283
-
- Stromateus, i, 391; ii, 283, 291
-
- sturgeon, i, 128, 204, 250, 257, 290; ii, 18-21, 159, 160, 182, 186
-   child swallowed by, ii, 182
-   of Danube, ii, 182
-   figure of, ii, 19, 20
-   larva of, figured, i, 141
-
- Styela,
-   figure of, i, 475, 476
-
- Stygicola, i, 314; ii, 524
-
- Stylephoridæ, ii, 480
-
- Stylephorus, ii, 480
-
- subgenus, i, 373
-
- suborbital stay, i, 44
-
- subspecies, i, 294
-
- sucker, i, 156, 198, 290, 304; ii, 56, 171, 172, 174
-   California, ii, 174
-   carp, ii, 173
-   common, ii, 174
-   figure showing parasites, i, 348
-   Oregon, ii, 175
-   razor-backed, figured, ii, 175
-
- sucking-disks,
-   of clingfish, i, 198
-
- sucking-fish,
-   figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
-
- Suckley, i, 419
-
- Sudis, ii, 9, 136
-
- Suez Canal, i, 268
-
- sukkegh, ii, 69
-
- Suletind watershed, i, 307
-
- Sulphur, the, i, 408
-
- summer herring,
-   figure of, i, 455
-
- Sunapee trout,
-   figure of, ii, 109
-
- sunfish, i, 3-15, 28, 209, 290; ii, 37, 297, 424
-   banded, ii, 299
-   blue-green, i, 26
-   common figured, i, 7; ii, 301
-   description of, i, 4
-   dwarf, ii, 467
-   figure of, i, 2, 4, 27
-   food of, i, 11
-   long-eared, i, 3; ii, 300
-   nine-spined, ii, 301
-   photograph of, i, 13
-   pigmy, ii, 297
-
- supraclavicle, i, 89
-
- Surface,
-   on destruction of fish, i, 357
-   on lampreys, i, 491-505
-   on Saprolegnia, i, 354-356
-
- surf-fish, i, 125, 207, 290; ii, 372, 373
-   blue, ii, 375
-   silver, ii, 375
-   thick-lipped, ii, 374
-   wall-eye, ii, 375
-   white, ii, 374
-
- surf-shiner, ii, 376
-
- surf-smelt, ii, 123, 124, 127
-
- surf-whiting, ii, 357
-
- surgeon-fish, ii, 407
-   lancet of, i, 181
-
- surmullets, i, 122, 198, 322; ii, 351-379
-
- suspensorium of mandible, i, 43
-
- susuki, i, 324; ii, 320
-
- Swain, i, 422
-
- Swainson, i, 410
-
- swallowers, ii, 360
-
- Swammerdam, i, 390
-
- swampy watersheds, i, 314
-
- Swan, ii, 123
-   on Mesopus, ii, 123
-
- sweetfish, ii, 115
-
- sweet-perch, ii, 363
-
- swell-sharks, i, 197, 533
-
- swell-toad, ii, 420, 423
-
- swim-bladder, ii, 95
-
- swordfish, i, 169, 199, 210; ii, 269
-   adult, figured, ii, 270
-   Goode on, ii, 270
-   Owen on, ii, 270, 271
-   vessels struck by, ii, 270
-   young, figured, ii, 269
-
- swordtail-minnow,
-   figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
-
- Syacium,
-   figure of, ii, 488
-
- Syllæmus, ii, 224
-
- Symbranchia, ii, 140
-   order of, ii, 140
-
- Symbranchidæ, ii, 141
-
- Symbranchus, ii, 141
-
- Symphodus, i, 268; ii, 387
-
- Symphurus,
-   figure of, ii, 498
-
- symplectic bone, ii, 156
-
- Synagrops, ii, 317
-
- Synanceia, i, 180; ii, 434
-   figure of, i, 229
-
- Synaphobranchidæ, ii, 149
-
- Synaphobranchus, ii, 149
-   figure of, ii, 149
-
- Synaptura, ii, 497
-
- Synchiropus, ii, 506
-
- Synechodus,
-   eggs of, i, 527
-
- Synentognathi, ii, 190, 208-214
-   suborder of, ii, 209
-
- Syngnathidæ,
-   family of, i, 236
-
- Syngnathus, i, 170, 391; ii, 236
-
- Synodontidæ, ii, 130, 133
-
- Synodontis, ii, 182
-
- Synodus, ii, 190
-   figure of, ii, 130
-
- synonymy and priority,
-   Coues on, i, 374
-
- Syntegmodus, ii, 44
-
- Syrski, ii, 144, 145
-   on eels, ii, 145
-
- Systema Naturæ, i, 373
-
-
- Tachysurus, ii, 178, 179, 86
-
- Tænioides, ii, 467
-
- Tæniosomi, ii, 292, 459-480
-   suborder of, ii, 471, 472
-
- Tæniotoca, ii, 375
-
- Tæniura, i, 557
-
- tahanohadai, ii, 363
-
- Tahoe trout,
-   figure of, i, 327; ii, 104
-
- tai-fishing,
-   illustration of, i, 338
-
- tail forms, i, 49, 50, 80-85
-
- taiva, ii, 342
-
- Talisman, i, 408; ii, 60
-
- Talismania, ii, 60
-
- Tamiobatidæ, i, 532
-
- Tamiobatis, i, 551
-
- tangs, ii, 407
-
- Tantogolabrus, ii, 387
-
- Tarpon, i, 157, 205; ii, 35, 51
-   figure of, ii, 43
-
- Tarrassiidæ, i, 602
-
- Tarrassius, i, 602
-
- tarwhine, ii, 344
-
- tautog, ii, 387
-   figure of, ii, 385, 386
-
- Tautoga, i, 207; ii, 385
-
- taxonomy, i, 367, 368
-
- Tectospondyli, i, 448, 510, 513, 519, 545, 549
-   order of, i, 543
-   Woodward on, i, 543
-
- tectospondylous, i, 49
-
- teeth, i, 29, 30, 201
-   of Ceratodus figured, i, 614
-   of Chimæra, i, 562
-   of Corax, i, 543
-   figured, i, 522, 524
-   of Janassa, i, 554
-   of sharks, i, 515, 527, 529, 537
-
- Teleocephali, i, 405; ii, 39, 40, 209
-
- Teleosteans, i, 384
-
- Teleostei, i, 66, 204, 622, 624; ii, 2, 5, 37
-   sympathetic system of, i, 114
-
- Teleostomes, i, 599
-
- Teleostomi, i, 462, 572, 583, 598, 599, 603
-   Regan on, i, 622
-
- teleosts, i, 35, 135, 139, 141, 204, 569; ii, 1, 3, 4, 159
-
- Telepholis, ii, 133
-
- Telescopias, ii, 317
-   figure of, ii, 318
-
- teleotemporal, i, 90
-
- Temnothoraci, i, 584, 586
-
- temperature,
-   affecting distribution, i, 242
-
- tenacity of life in fishes, i, 146, 147, 149
-
- tench, ii, 168
-
- tengudai, ii, 333
-
- tengusame, i, 534
-
- ten-pounder, ii, 35, 43
-   figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
-
- Terapon, ii, 342
-
- Teraponidæ, ii, 342
-
- Tertiary fishes, i, 440
-
- Tertiary ganoids, ii, 140
-
- tessellated darter,
-   figure of, ii, 312
-
- tessellated teeth, i, 30, 549
-
- Tetragonolepis, i, 24
-   figure of, ii, 26
-
- Tetragonopterus, i, 314; ii, 161, 162, 381
-
- Tetragonuridæ, ii, 215
-   family of, ii, 291
-
- Tetragonurus, ii, 291
-
- Tetraodon, i, 169, 197, 206, 236, 393, 611; ii, 420
-   figure of, i, 183, 244; ii, 421, 422
-
- Tetraodontidæ, i, 182; ii, 421
-   family of, ii, 419
-
- Tetrapturus, i, 257; ii, 269
-
- Tetrarhynchus, ii, 134
-
- Tetronarce, i, 554
-
- Teuthidæ, ii, 291
-
- Teuthididæ, ii, 407, 409
-
- Teuthis, i, 268, 271, 293; ii, 407
-   figure of, i, 181; ii, 407, 408
-
- Thacher,
-   on paired limbs, i, 70
-
- thalamencephalon, ii, 6, 8
-
- Thalassoma, i, 207, 267, 271; ii, 389
-
- Thalassophryne, i, 180; ii, 526, 527
-   poison organ of, ii, 528, 529
-   structure of, ii, 527, 528
-
- Thalassothia, ii, 526
-
- Thaleichthys, ii, 124
-   figure of, i, 320; ii, 19, 124
-   sketch of, ii, 125
-
- Thaliacea, i, 477
-
- Thaumaturus, ii, 119
-
- Thelodontidæ, i, 574, 579
-
- Thelodus, i, 570, 573
-
- Theragra, i, 209
-   figure of, ii, 537
-
- Therobromus, ii, 127
-
- Thetis, the, i, 410
-
- thick-lipped surf-fish,
-   figure of, i, 374
-
- Tholichthys, i, 144; ii, 402
-
- Thollière, i, 427
-
- Thompson, i, 410, 418
-
- Thoracici, i, 393; ii, 39
-
- Thoracies, ii, 209
-
- Thoreau, ii, 190, 308
-
- thread-eel, ii, 151, 152
-   figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
-
- threadfins, i, 122; ii, 215, 224
-   figure of, ii, 225
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
-
- threadfish, ii, 276
-
- threadhead worms, i, 351
-
- thread-herring, ii, 51, 53
-
- three-forked hake, ii, 539
-
- three-spined stickleback,
-   figure of, ii, 232
-
- thresher-shark, i, 536
-
- Thrissopater, ii, 43
-
- Thrissops, ii, 41
-
- Thryptodontidæ, ii, 44
-
- Thryptodus, ii, 44
-
- Thunberg, i, 416
-
- thunder-pumper, ii, 354, 355
-
- Thunnus, i, 210, 272; ii, 262
-
- Thursius, i, 604
-
- Thwaite shad, ii, 50
-
- Thyestes, i, 576
-
- Thymallidæ, ii, 120
-
- Thymallus, i, 305; ii, 120, 121, 122
-   figure of, i, 328; ii, 120, 122
-
- Thyrsites, ii, 267
-
- Thyrsitocephalus, ii, 267
-
- tide pools of Misaki,
-   view of, i, 161
-
- tiger-puffer, ii, 423
-
- tiger-sharks, i, 533
-
- Tilapia, ii, 380
-
- tilefish, ii, 361
-   catastrophe to, ii, 362
-   Collins on, ii, 362
-   Gill on, ii, 361, 362
-
- Tilesius, i, 396, 416
-
- Tinca, i, 345; ii, 168, 175
-
- tiñosa, ii, 276
-
- Tiphle, ii, 236
-
- Titanichthyidæ, i, 587
-
- Titanichthys, i, 583, 587, 589
-
- Titicaca Lake,
-   peculiar fish from, ii, 201
-
- toadfish, ii, 525, 526
-   Brazilian, ii, 526
-   poison, ii, 526
-   poison-organs of, i, 180
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
-
- tomcod, ii, 537
-   figure of, ii, 538
-
- tomtates, ii, 341
-
- tongue-fish, ii, 488, 497
-
- tooth,
-   of Hybodus, figured, i, 528
-   of Lamnidæ, i, 538
-
- topknot, ii, 488
-
- top-minnow, i, 118; ii, 198, 199, 467
-   figure of, ii, 198
-
- toque, ii, 114
-
- torabuku, ii, 423
-
- tori, ii, 6
-
- Tornaria,
-   figure of, i, 463
-
- torpedo, i, 268; ii, 183, 188
-   figure of, i, 186; ii, 183
-   fin rudiments in, i, 71
-
- torsk, ii, 539
-
- toto, ii, 398
-
- totuava, ii, 354
-
- Townsend, ii, 502
-
- Tower,
-   on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95, 96
-   on weakfish, i, 94
-
- Toxotes, i, 240, 268; ii, 400
-
- Toxotidæ, ii, 400
-
- Trachicephalus,
-   figure of, i, 456; ii, 438
-
- Trachichthyidæ, ii, 253
-
- Trachichthys, i, 263; ii, 252
-
- Trachidermus, ii, 445
-
- Trachinidæ, ii, 500, 501, 506, 525
-
- Trachinotus, i, 322; ii, 276
-
- Trachinus, i, 169, 180, 391; ii, 500, 501
-   Boulenger on, ii, 501
-
- Trachosteus, i, 583, 588, 589, 590
-
- Trachurops, ii, 275
-
- Trachurus, i, 210, 274
-   figure of, ii, 274
-
- Trachypteridæ,
-   family of, ii, 477
-   Goode and Bean on, ii, 479
-
- Trachypterus, i, 144; ii, 425, 477
-   figure of, ii, 478
-   Günther on, ii, 480
-
- Trachyrhynchus, ii, 541
-
- trahira, ii, 162
-
- transportation of fishes, i, 150
-
- Trautschold, i, 427
-
- Traquair, i, 426, 428
-   on Gnasthome, i, 573
-   on high and low forms, i, 381, 382
-   on Ostracophores, i, 569-571
-   on Palæospondylus, i, 591
-   portrait of, i, 425
-   on sharks, i, 512
-
- Traquairia, i, 517
-
- Travailleur, the, i, 408; ii, 60
-
- tree-climber of India,
-   Daldorf on, i, 163
-
- treefish, ii, 431
-
- Tremataspidæ, i, 576
-
- trematodes, i, 344
-
- Triakis, i, 541
-
- Triacanthidæ, ii, 412
-
- Triacanthodes, ii, 412
-
- Triacanthus, ii, 412
-
- Trichina, i, 352
-
- Trichiurichthys, ii, 268
-
- Trichiuridæ, i, 210; ii, 472
-   family of, ii, 267
-
- Trichiurides, ii, 32
-
- Trichiurus, ii, 268, 479
-   figure of, ii, 268
-
- Trichodon,
-   figure of, ii, 364
-
- Trichodontidæ, ii, 364, 506
-
- trinomial nomenclature, i, 378
-
- trigger-fishes, i, 440; ii, 412, 413
-   figure of, i, 184, 412
-
- Trigla, i, 169, 391; ii, 456, 457
-   air-bladder of, i, 97
-
- Triglidæ, i, 122, 208; ii, 455
-   family of, ii, 455
-
- Triglops, ii, 442
-   figure of, ii, 443
-
- Triglopsis, i, 317; ii, 447
-
- Trigonodon, ii, 347
-
- Triodon, ii, 419
-
- Triodontidæ, ii, 418
-
- Tripterygian, ii, 508
-
- Tristichopterus, i, 603
-
- Trochocopus, ii, 388
-
- Troglichthys, i, 220, 222; ii, 202, 203
-
- tropical fishes,
-   species of, i, 271
-   variety among, i, 333
-
- Tropidichthyidæ, ii, 421
-
- Tropidichthys, i, 115; ii, 422
-
- Troschel, i, 415
-
- trout, i, 156, 250, 290, 304, 326, 327; ii, 38, 41, 61, 89, 90, 107,
-    121, 128, 147, 168
-   tail figure of, ii, 486
-   of Utah basin, ii, 104
-   of Yellowstone, i, 345
-
- trout-perch, i, 241, 290; ii, 61
-   figure of, ii, 242
-
- trout-spotted darter, ii, 314
-
- trout-worm, ii, 103
-   figure of head, ii, 103
-   segments of, figured, ii, 103
-
- trucha, ii, 320
-
- true eels, ii, 141
-   shoulder-girdle in, ii, 141
-
- true perches, ii, 304
-
- true sharks, i, 523-560
-
- true snapper, ii, 337
-
- trumpeter, ii, 363
-
- trumpet-fish, i, 51, 440
-   family of, i, 233
-   figure of, i, 234
-
- truncate, i, 19
-
- truncus arteriosus, ii, 6
-
- trunkfishes, i, 16, 19, 206, 373, 375, 378, 429; ii, 415-417
-   figure of, i, 373, 376, 377
-   horned, ii, 416
-   hornless, ii, 419
-   spineless, ii, 417
-   spotted, ii, 416
-
- Trypauchen, ii, 467
-
- tschawytscha, ii, 73
-
- Tschudi, i, 415
-
- tsuzume, ii, 402
-
- tullibee, ii, 67
-
- tunicates, i, 460, 462, 467-481
-   adult, figured, i, 480
-   anatomy, figured, i, 472
-   Kingsley on, i, 467, 468, 469
-   larva, figured, i, 471
-   Ritter on, i, 474
-
- tunny, i, 19, 210
-   great, ii, 262
-
- turbots, i, 206, 328; ii, 488, 489
-   tribe, the, ii, 487
-
- Turner,
-   on Dallia, ii, 207
-
- Turton, i, 410
-
- Tutuila Island,
-   lizard skipper from, i, 230
-
- Twin Lakes,
-   trout of, i, 241
-
- Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307, 308, 309, 310
-   Evermann on, i, 307
-
- tyee, ii, 69
-
- Tylosurus, i, 128
-   figure of, ii, 210
-   shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
-
- Typhlichthys, i, 220, 314; ii, 201, 202
-   figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
-
- Typhlogobius, i, 198; ii, 467
-
- Typodus, ii, 222
-
-
- uku, i, 325; ii, 338
-
- Ulæma, i, 271
-
- ulchen, ii, 124
-   figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
-
- Umbra, i, 253; ii, 35
-   figure of, ii, 193
-
- Umbridæ, i, 290; ii, 193, 194
-
- Umbrina, ii, 356, 357
-   figure of, ii, 357
-
- umiuma, i, 429
-
- uncertain conclusions, i, 79
-
- Undina, i, 204, 605
-
- unicorn-fish, ii, 409, 415
-
- U. S. Fish Commission, ii, 69
-
- Upeneus, ii, 353
-
- Upham,
-   on glacial effects, i, 275
-
- upland fishes, i, 311
-
- Uranidea, ii, 443, 445
-   figure of, ii, 445
-
- Uranoplosus, ii, 22
-
- Uranoscopus, i, 259, 260, 393; ii, 361, 364, 503, 504
-
- Uranoscopidæ, ii, 503, 504, 506, 525
-
- Urenchelyidæ, ii, 142
-
- Urenchelys, ii, 142
-
- ureters, ii, 6
-
- Urochordata, i, 460
-
- Urodela, i, 76
-
- Urolophus, i, 555-557
-
- Uronemidæ, i, 612
-
- Uronemus, i, 612
-
- Urophycis, i, 187; ii, 538
-
- Uropterygius, ii, 153
-
- urosome, i, 84, 85
-
- Urosphen, ii, 234
-
- Urosphenidæ, ii, 234
-
- urostyle, i, 84
-
- Usinosita, ii, 498
-
- uu, i, 162
-
-
- vaca, i, 235; ii, 327
-
- Vahl, i, 396
-
- Vaillant, i, 412
-   portrait of, i, 413
-
- Valenciennellus, ii, 134
-
- Valenciennes, i, 401, 404
-
- Valenciennesia, ii, 460
-
- Valentyn, i, 396
-
- Valisneri, ii, 144
-
- Valisneria, ii, 144
-
- Van Dyke, ii, 93
-   on Ouananiche, ii, 93
-
- vaqueta de dos colores, ii, 404
-
- variability of instinct,
-   Whitman on, i, 156
-
- variation in colors, i, 235
-
- variation in fin-rays, i, 211
-
- Variola, ii, 327
-
- vasa efferentia, ii, 6
-
- vas deferens, i, 28
-
- Velifer, ii, 286
-
- Vellitor, i, 260; ii, 448
-
- vendace, ii, 67
-
- venomous spines,
-   of catfish, i, 179
-   of scorpion-fish, i, 180
-
- ventral fins, i, 10
-
- Venustodus, i, 531
-
- Verasper, ii, 492
-
- ver blanc, i, 351
-
- Verilus, ii, 338
-
- vertebræ, i, 203, 205
-
- vertebræ in fishes, i, 212
-   Boulenger on, i, 213
-   figure of, i, 510
-
- vertebral column, i, 46-48
-   figure of, i, 48
-
- vertebral column,
-   of lancelet, i, 55
-   of Roccus, i, 48
-
- verrugato, ii, 356
-
- vessels engaged in fish-collecting, i, 408, 410
-
- villiform teeth, i, 29
-
- Vinciguerra, ii, 408
-   portrait of, i, 413
-
- Vinciguerria, ii, 134
-
- Vinson,
-   on Gourami, ii, 369
-
- Violante, the, i, 408; ii, 60
-
- viper-fish, ii, 129
-
- Vireosa, ii, 460
-   figure of, ii, 461
-
- viscera of fish, i, 26, 28
-
- viviparous fishes,
-   figure of, i, 125, 126, 222; ii, 200
-
- viviparous perch,
-   figure of, ii, 379
-
- voices of fishes, i, 121
-
- Vogmar, ii, 477
-
- Vogt, i, 428
-
- Volador, ii, 458
-
- Vomer, ii, 276
-
- vomer, i, 6
-
- Vomeropsis, ii, 278
-
-
- wachna cod, ii, 537
-
- Wagner, i, 427
-
- Waha Lake, ii, 104
-
- Waite, i, 408, 416
-   portrait of, i, 409
-
- Walbaum, i, 397; ii, 68
-
- Walcott, i, 428, 603
-   on fossil chimæroids, i, 565
-   on oldest forms, i, 435
-
- walking-fish, i, 167
-
- wall-eye, ii, 307
-
- wall-eyed surf-fish, ii, 375
-
- Walton, i, 336, 337
-
- Ward,
-   on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
-
- Wardichthys, ii, 15
-
- water-beetle, ii, 144
-
- water-pig, ii, 369
-
- watersheds, i, 305
-   the Cassiquiare, i, 307
-   how fishes cross, i, 306
-   the Suletind, i, 306
-   swampy, i, 314
-   Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307
-
- weakfish, ii, 353
-
- Weber, i, 428
-   on swim-bladder, i, 96
-
- Weberian apparatus, i, 93, 96, 97; ii, 160
-   figure of, i, 93; ii, 160
-
- weevers, ii, 500
-   Gill on, i, 500
-
- weissfelchen, ii, 65
-
- weissfisch, ii, 65
-
- wels, ii, 182
-
- welshmen, ii, 253
-
- West Indian fish, i, 235
-
- whale-shark, i, 540
-
- whiff, ii, 488, 489
-
- whips, i, 206
-
- whiptail rays, i, 549
-
- Whiteaves, i, 427
-
- whitebait, ii, 123, 127, 216
-
- white bass, ii, 321
-
- white bullhead, ii, 180
-
- white catfish,
-   figure of, i, 344
-
- white channel-cat, ii, 180
-
- white chub,
-   figure of, ii, 165
-
- whitefish, i, 62-64, 305, 322; ii, 115, 362, 467
-   figure of, i, 321
-
- white-mouthed drummers, ii, 356
-
- white perch, ii, 321
-   figure of, ii, 322
-
- white sea-bass, ii, 354
-
- white sharks, i, 534
-
- white shiner,
-   figure showing parasites, i, 343
-
- white surf-fish,
-   figure of, ii, 374
-   with young figured, i, 125; ii, 372
-
- whiting, ii, 537
-
- Whitman, i, 428
-   on instincts, i, 156
-
- Whitmee,
-   on aquarium fishes, i, 165
-
- Whitney, ii, 116
-
- wide-eyed flounder,
-   figure of, ii, 488
-
- wide-gape, ii, 545
-
- wide-mouthed flounder,
-   figure of, ii, 493
-
- Wiedersheim, i, 513
-
- Williams,
-   on eye of flounder, i, 174-178
-
- Williamson, i, 423
-
- Williston, i, 427
-
- willow-cat, ii, 180
-
- Willughby, i, 390
-
- Winckler, i, 427
-
- window-pane fish, ii, 488
-   figure of, ii, 487
-
- wine-colored eel, ii, 153
-
- wolf-eel, ii, 517
-
- wolf-fish, ii, 517
-   figure of, ii, 517
-
- Wolffian duct, i, 28
-
- Woodward, i, 426, 428, 519, 543, 554, 582, 584, 591, 594, 602; ii, 4,
-    13, 24, 26, 34, 36, 43, 48, 140, 425, 514, 522
-   on Acanthodei, i, 514, 516
-   on Chondrostei, ii, 17
-   on Dorypterus, ii, 16
-   on eels, ii, 140
-   on fossil fishes, i, 439
-   on fossil garpike, ii, 32
-   on Isospondyli, ii, 38
-   portrait of, i, 425
-   on Pycnodonti, ii, 23
-
- Woolman, i, 422
-
- worm-like eels, ii, 150
-
- worm of the Yellowstone, i, 345
-
- Worthen, i, 426
-
- wrasse, i, 203; ii, 385, 387
-
- wreckfish, ii, 323
-
- Wright, i, 427, 428
-   on fishes of Panama, i, 275
-
- wrymouths,
-   figure of, ii, 516
-
- Wyman,
-   on month gestation, i, 170
-   on protocercal tail, i, 81
-
-
- Xanthichthys, ii, 413
-
- Xererpes, ii, 512
-   figure of, ii, 511
-
- Xenichthys, i, 271; ii, 338
-
- Xenistius, i, 271; ii, 338
-   figure of, ii, 338
-
- Xenocephalidæ, ii, 520
-
- Xenocephalus, ii, 520
-
- Xenocys, i, 271; ii, 338
-
- Xenomi, i, 405; ii, 157
-   order of, ii, 206
-
- Xenopterygii, ii, 499
-   suborder of, ii, 529
-
- Xesurus, ii, 409
-
- Xiphasia,
-   figure of, ii, 515
-
- Xiphasiidæ, ii, 513
-
- Xiphias, i, 210, 329, 391; ii, 269
-   figure of, ii, 270
-
- Xiphidiinæ, ii, 511
-
- Xiphidion, ii, 512
-
- Xiphiidæ,
-   family of, ii, 269
-
- Xiphiorhynchus, ii, 269
-
- Xiphorphorus,
-   figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
-
- Xiphistes,
-   figure of, ii, 512
-
- Xyrauchen, ii, 172, 174
-   figure of, ii, 175
-
- Xyrias,
-   figure of, ii, 151
-
- Xyrichthys, i, 207; ii, 388-390
-   figure of, ii, 388
-
- Xystæma, ii, 348
-   figure of, ii, 347
-
- Xystreurys, ii, 492
-
- Xystrodus, i, 531
-
-
- yamabe, i, 327; ii, 95
-
- yamanokami, ii, 445
-
- Yarrell, i, 410
-   on fishing-frog, i, 169
-   on sounds, i, 168
-
- yellowback rockfish,
-   figure of, i, 218
-
- yellow bass, ii, 321
-
- yellow catfish, ii, 182
-
- yellow-fin grouper, ii, 325
-   figure of, ii, 327
-
- yellow-fin trout, ii, 105
-   figure of, ii, 105
-
- yellow-fish, ii, 324
-
- yellow goatfish, ii, 352
-
- yellow grunt, ii, 340
-
- yellow mackerel, ii, 276
-
- yellow perch, ii, 307
-
- Yellowstone Lake,
-   trout of, i, 310, 345-347
-
- Yellowstone Miller's Thumb,
-   figure of, ii, 444
-
- yellow-tail, ii, 273
-
- yellow-tail roncador, ii, 356
-   figure of, ii, 357
-
- yellow-tail snapper,
-   figure of, ii, 337
-
- yezomasu, ii, 71, 72
-
- Young, i, 426
-   on angling, i, 337-339
-
-
- Zacalles,
-   figure of, ii, 511
-
- Zacco, ii, 164
-
- zakko, ii, 117, 120
-
- Zalarges, ii, 134
-
- Zalembrius, ii, 374, 376
-
- Zalieutes, ii, 552
-
- Zalises,
-   figure of, ii, 240
-
- Zanclidæ, ii, 406
-   family of, ii, 406
-
- Zanclus, i, 240, 268; ii, 406
-   figure of, ii, 406
-
- Zaniolepis, ii, 440
-
- Zander, ii, 309
-
- Zaprora, ii, 286
-
- Zaproridæ, ii, 286
-
- Zebrasoma, ii, 408, 409
-
- Zebrias, ii, 497
-
- Zeidæ, ii, 398
-   family of, ii, 247
-
- Zenarchopterus, ii, 212
-
- Zenion, ii, 249
-
- Zenopsis, ii, 249
-
- Zeoidea, i, 241-249
-   suborder of, ii, 245
-
- Zeoidei, ii, 484
-
- zeoid fishes, ii, 245
-
- Zeorhombi, ii, 245
-
- Zesticelus, ii, 447
-
- Zeugopterus, ii, 488
-
- Zeus, i, 259, 263, 267, 391; ii, 243, 249, 398
-   figure of, ii, 248
-
- Zigno, i, 427
-
- Zingel, ii, 307
-   figure of, ii, 310
-
- Zittel, i, 427; ii, 13, 514
-   on Lepidostei, ii, 23
-   on Ostracophores, i, 569
-   portrait of, i, 425
-
- Zoarces, ii, 144, 518
-   figure of, ii, 518
-
- Zoarcidæ, ii, 518, 522
-
- zoogeography, i, 237
-
- zooids, i, 479
-
- zootomists, i, 90
-
- Zostera, i, 476
-
- Zuieuw, i, 396
-
- Zygonectes, ii, 199
-   figure of, ii, 198
-
-
-
-
-                                 FERNS
-
-                  A MANUAL FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES
-                   WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS BASED ON THE
-                    STALKS AND ON THE FRUCTIFICATION
-
-    _With over two hundred illustrations from original drawings and
-                              photographs_
-
-                         BY CAMPBELL E. WATERS
-
-        302 pages, square 8vo. Boxed, $3.00 net; by mail, $3.34
-
-This book is thoroughly authoritative, and is written in popular style.
-It covers all the ferns in the region embraced either in Britton's or in
-Gray's Manuals.
-
-"This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. =No
-finer examples of fern photography have ever been produced.= Dr. Waters
-brings to his work fifteen years of experience in field and herbarium
-study, and the book may be expected to prove of permanent scientific
-value, as well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but
-imperfectly filled."—_Plant World._
-
-"For all who study or wish to study our native ferns Dr. Waters has
-prepared a book which is sure to prove =both helpful and inspiring=.
-Especially charming and significant are the views showing typical habits
-and habitats."—_The American Naturalist._
-
-"There could hardly be a better book for those interested in the
-subject."—_Boston Literary World._
-
-
-                            OUR NATIVE FERNS
-
-                            AND THEIR ALLIES
-
-       _WITH SYNOPTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN PTERIDOPHYTA
-                            NORTH OF MEXICO_
-
-                         BY LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
-
-                    PROFESSOR IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
-
-                  Revised. xii + 156 pages, 12mo $1.00
-
-"The elementary part is clear and well calculated to introduce beginners
-to the study of the plants treated of. The excellent key makes the
-analysis of ferns comparatively easy. The writer cordially commends the
-book. It should be in the hands of all who are especially interested in
-the vascular cryptogams of the United States."—_Bulletin of the Torrey
-Botanical Club, N. Y._
-
-                         Henry Holt and Company
-
-                      29 West 23d Street, New York
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-                                GEOLOGY
-
-             Vol I. "Geologic Processes and Their Results"
-
-                     BY Prof. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN
-
-                                  AND
-
-                       Prof. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY
-
-    Heads of the Departments of Geology and Geography, University of
-                     Chicago; Members of the United
-      States Geological Survey; Editors of the Journal of Geology
-
-       With numerous illustrations, including 24 colored maps and
-                  3 tables. 654 pages, 8vo, $4.00 net
-
-               Vol. II. "Earth History." _In preparation_
-
-CHAS. D. WALCOTT, _Director of U. S. Geological Survey_: "I am impressed
-with the admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in
-which geological principles and processes and their results have been
-presented. The text is written in an entertaining style and is
-supplemented by admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail
-to obtain a clear idea of nature and the work of geological agencies, of
-the present status of the science, and of the spirit which actuates the
-working geologist."
-
-T. A. JAGGAR, Jr., _Harvard University_: "An excellent statement of
-modern American geology, with abundant new illustrative material based
-upon the most recent work of government and other surveys."
-
-HENRY S. WILLIAMS, _Yale University_: "It is the best treatise on this
-part of the subject which we have seen in America."
-
-R. S. WOODWARD, _Columbia University_: "It is admirable for its science,
-admirable for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled
-illustrations."
-
-ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, _University of Michigan_. "I deem it an epoch-making
-book and one that will vastly extend the study of geology."
-
-
-                              BUTTERFLIES
-
-                            BY S. H. SCUDDER
-
-              THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES
-
- _With Special Reference to American Forms. Being an Application of the
-                              "Doctrine of
-  Descent" to the Study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of Practical
-                              Instruction_
-
-                             12mo $1.50 net
-
-        Brief Guide to the Commoner Butterflies of the Northern
-                        United States and Canada
-
-     Being an Introduction to the Knowledge of their Life-Histories
-
-   _New edition. With 21 plates, containing in all 97 illustrations_
-
-                               12mo $1.50
-
-
-                        THE LIFE OF A BUTTERFLY
-
-          A CHAPTER IN NATURAL HISTORY FOR THE GENERAL READER
-
-                               16mo $1.00
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-                         Henry Holt and Company
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-                      29 West 23d Street, New York
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-                     The Natural History of Plants
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-                   THEIR FORMS, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION
-                            AND DISTRIBUTION
-
-                           FROM THE GERMAN OF
-
-                       ANTON KERNER VON MARILAUN
-
-           _Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna_
-
-                            BY F. W. OLIVER
-
-       _Quain Professor of Botany in University College, London_
-
-                         WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
-
-                     MARIAN BUSH AND MARY E. EWART
-
-                4to. New edition. 2 vols. The set $11.00
-
-A work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the
-modern sense, thoroughly scientific. The new edition is practically
-identical with the former four-volume edition except that the colored
-plates in the latter have been omitted. The wood-engravings, over two
-thousand in number, have been retained.
-
-_Prof. John M. Coulter_, in THE DIAL: "Prof. Kerner has brought the most
-recent researches within reach of the intelligent reader, and in a style
-so charming that even the professional teacher may learn a lesson in the
-art of presentation.... =It is such books as this that will bring botany
-fairly before the public as a subject of absorbing interest=; that will
-illuminate the botanical lecture-room."
-
-_Prof. Chas. R. Barnes_, in THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE: "This lucidity, and
-the excellent illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical
-reader to the science of botany, but =should serve as a lesson to the
-professional botanist in the art of presentation=."
-
-_The Nation_: "He has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the
-phenomena of vegetation which is practically without any rival."
-
-
-                     GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS
-                        AND A TREATISE ON THOSE
-                   INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS
-
-                             FOR THE USE OF
-
-              _COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURISTS_
-
-                      BY ALPHEUS S. PACKARD, M.D.
-
-  With 685 illustrations. Ninth edition. xii + 715 pp., 8vo, $5.00 net
-
-
-                            PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
-
-                          BY GEORGE J. PEIRCE
-
-               _Professor in Leland Stanford University_
-
-                       vi + 291 pages, 8vo $2.00
-
-A modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles
-of plant physiology, intended for the student or general reader
-acquainted with the elements of botany.
-
-_Science_: "The volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite
-markedly from the old-time works devoted to plant physiology."
-
-_William F. Ganong, Professor in Smith College_: "I am much pleased with
-the clearness, proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject.
-It seems to me =an admirable exposition of the principles of plant
-physiology= as they are understood at the present day, and it should
-have a wide use."
-
-                         Henry Holt and Company
-
-                      29 West 23d Street, New York
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-                                MUSHROOMS
-
-                        BY GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON
-
- _Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the Cornell
-                                University
-                           Experiment Station_
-
-        =Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms.= By MRS. SARAH TYSON RORER
-
-         =Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms.= By J. F. CLARK
-
-  _With 230 illustrations from photographs, including 15 colored plates_
-
-                320 pages, 8vo. $3.00 net; by mail, $3.23
-
-_Educational Review_:—"It would be difficult to conceive of a more
-attractive and useful book.... In addition to its general attractiveness
-and the beauty of its illustrations, it is written in a style well
-calculated to win the merest tyro."
-
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-                     Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms
-
-                         BY LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
-
-                   _Professor in Columbia University_
-
-                       iv + 236 pages, 12mo $1.50
-
-_Bradley M. Davis_, in the BOTANICAL GAZETTE:—"Wonderfully free from the
-dry diagnoses of most systematic descriptions, and everywhere combined
-with interesting accounts of life-habits and activities.... A marvel in
-its compactness, with a wonderfully uniform tone throughout, condensed
-and yet very clear."
-
-
-                Flora of the Northern States and Canada
-
-                       BY PROFESSOR N. L. BRITTON
-
-              _Director of the New York Botanical Garden_
-
-                    x + 1080 pages, large 12mo $2.25
-
-This manual is published in response to a demand for a handbook suitable
-for ordinary school use, which shall meet modern requirements and
-outline modern conceptions of the science. It is based on _An
-Illustrated Flora_ prepared by Professor Britton in co-operation with
-Judge Addison Brown, in three volumes. The text has been revised and
-brought up to date, and much of novelty has been added, but all
-illustrations are omitted.
-
-  CONWAY MACMILLAN, _Professor in the University of Minnesota_, in
-  SCIENCE:—"There is no work extant in the whole series of American
-  botanical publications which deals with descriptions of the
-  flowering plants that can for a moment be compared with it, either
-  for a skillful and delightful presentation of the subject-matter or
-  for modern, scientific, and accurate mastery of the thousandfold
-  mass of detail of which such a work must consist."
-
-  V. M. SPALDING, _Professor in the University of Michigan_:—"I regard
-  the book as one that we cannot do without and one that will
-  henceforth take its place as a necessary means of determination of
-  the plant species within its range."
-
-                         Henry Holt and Company
-
-                      29 West 23d Street, New York
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                          TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
-
-
- 1. Corrected the ERRATA listed on p. xxiii with the exception of the
-    table of changes in generic names.
- 2. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical
-    errors.
- 3. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
- 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
- 5. Enclosed bold font in =equals=.
-
-
-
-
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2
-(of 2), by David Starr Jordan
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
-
-Author: David Starr Jordan
-
-Release Date: April 9, 2016 [EBook #51702]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO STUDY OF FISHES, VOL 2 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and
-the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class='tnotes covernote'>
-
-<p class='c000'>  <strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>  The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='ph1'>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div>GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_frontis.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES<br /><br />The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, <em>Inimicus japonicus</em> (Cuv. and Val.), from Wakanoura, Japan. From nature by Kako Morita.<br /><br />Surface coloration about lava rocks.<br /><br />Coloration of specimens living among red algæ.<br /><br />Coloration in deep water; <em>Inimicus aurantiacus</em> (Schlegel).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div>
-  <h1 class='c002'><span class='xlarge'>A GUIDE</span><br /> <span class='small'>TO</span><br /> THE STUDY OF FISHES</h1>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='large'>DAVID STARR JORDAN</span></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='small'><em>President of Leland Stanford Junior University</em></span></div>
-    <div class='c003'><em>With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations</em></div>
-    <div class='c003'>IN TWO VOLUMES</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>Vol II.</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-r'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>"I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge</div>
-      <div class='line'>and the better qualified for all fortunes</div>
-      <div class='line'>for knowing that there is a minnow in that</div>
-      <div class='line'>brook."—<em>Thoreau</em></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_title.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>NEW YORK</div>
-    <div><span class='large'>HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY</span></div>
-    <div>1905</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div>Copyright, 1905</div>
-    <div class='c004'>BY</div>
-    <div class='c004'>HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY</div>
-    <div class='c003'>Published March, 1905</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS<br />VOL. II.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE GANOIDS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c007'></th>
-    <th class='c008'>PAGE</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a Natural&nbsp;Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE GANOIDS (<em>Continued</em>).</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The Palæoniscidæ.—The Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The Dictyopygidæ.—Order Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Order Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of the Garpike.—Fossil Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.—The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>ISOSPONDYLI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.—The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The Elopidæ.—The Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ.—The Ctenothrissidæ.—The Notopteridæ.—The Clupeidæ.—The Dorosomatidæ.—The Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The Osteoglossidæ.—The Pantodontidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SALMONIDÆ.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream Theory.—The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>CHAPTER V.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SALMONIDÆ (<em>Continued</em>).</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.—The Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of Western America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho, the Huchen.—Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—The Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—Fossil Salmonidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The Microstomidæ.—The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.—Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.—Chirothricidæ.—Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The Sternoptychidæ.—Order Lyopomi.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.—Suborder Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family Anguillidæ.—Reproduction of the Eel.—Food of the Eel.—Larva of the Eel.—Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.—Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.—Order Heteromi.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The Cyprinidæ.—Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—The Carp and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ.—The Sea Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The Mad-toms.—The Old World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The Hypophthalmidæ or Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The Callichthyidæ.—Fossil Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>CHAPTER X.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The Pikes.—The Mud minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.—Kneriidæ, etc.—The Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The Mullets: Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—Stephanoberycidæ.—Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—Suborder Rhegnopteri.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII, AND</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>HYPOSTOMIDES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The Lophobranchs.—The Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.—Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.—Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John Dories: Zeidæ.—Grammicolepidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XV.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>BERYCOIDEI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>CHAPTER XVI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>PERCOMORPHI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—The Escolars: Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.—The Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XVII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.—The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_272'>272</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XVIII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—Crappies and Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—The True Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters to Perches.—The Perches.—The Darters: Etheostominæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_293'>293</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIX.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The Asineopidæ—The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers: Lutianidæ.—The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XX.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR RELATIVES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: Sciænidæ.—The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—The Malacanthidæ.—The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.—The Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_351'>351</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>CHAPTER XXI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.—Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The Embiotocidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_365'>365</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_380'>380</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXIII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE SQUAMIPINNES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_397'>397</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXIV.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SERIES PLECTOGNATHI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.—The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The Spinacanthidæ.—The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—The Head-fishes: Molidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_411'>411</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXV.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.—The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_426'>426</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXVI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_459'>459</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>CHAPTER XXVII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of Flounders.—The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—The Soles: Soleidæ.—The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European Soles (Soleinæ).—The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_481'>481</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXVIII.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>SUBORDER JUGULARES.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The Nototheniidæ.—The Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.—The Dactyloscopidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_499'>499</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXIX.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ, etc.—The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—The Brotulidæ.—Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—Suborder Xenopterygii.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_507'>507</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXX.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ.—The Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_532'>532</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XXXI.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006' colspan='2'>ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_542'>542</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS<br />VOL. II.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table1' summary='LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS'>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c007'></th>
-    <th class='c008'>PAGE</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, <em>Paralichthys californicus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Palæoniscum frieslebenense</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eurynotus crenatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Dorypterus hoffmani</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chondrosteus acipenseroides</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Acipenser sturio</em>, Common Sturgeon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Acipenser rubicundus</em>, Lake Sturgeon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus</em>, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Polyodon spathula</em>, Paddle-fish, side-view</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Polyodon spathula</em>, Paddle-fish, view from below</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Psephurus gladius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gyrodus hexagonus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mesturus verrucosus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Semionotus kapffi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Dapedium politum</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tetragonolepis semicinctus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Isopholis orthostomus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lepisosteus osseus</em>, Long-nosed Garpike</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Caturus elongatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Notagogus pentlandi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ptycholepis curtus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pholidophorus crenulatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lepisosteus tristœchus</em>, Alligator-gar</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Lower Jaw of <em>Amia calva</em>, showing the gular plate</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Amia calva</em>, Bowfin (female)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Megalurus elegantissimus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Leptolepis dubius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Elops saurus</em>, Ten-pounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Holcolepis lewesiensis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tarpon atlanticus</em>, Tarpon or Grand Écaille</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Albula vulpes</em>, Lady-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chanos chanos</em>, Milkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hiodon tergisus</em>, Mooneye</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Istieus grandis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chirothrix libanicus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xii'>xii</span>Skeleton of <em>Portheus molossus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ctenothrissa vexillifera</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Clupea harengus</em>, Herring</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pomolobus pseudoharengus</em>, Alewife</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Brevoortia tyrannus</em>, Menhaden</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Diplomystus humilis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Dorosoma cepedianum</em>, Hickory-shad</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anchovia perthecata</em>, Silver Anchovy</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Notogoneus osculus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Phareodus testis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing <em>Phareodus</em>, at Fossil, Wyoming</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Alepocephalus agassizii</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Coregonus williamsoni</em>, Rocky Mountain Whitefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Coregonus clupeiformis</em>, Whitefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Argyrosomus nigripinnis</em>, Bluefin Cisco</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stenodus mackenziei</em>, Inconnu</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, Quinnat Salmon (female)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, King-salmon (grilse)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em>, Male Red Salmon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</em>, Humpback Salmon (female)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus masou</em>, Masu</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em>, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after spawning)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, Quinnat Salmon (dying after spawning)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, Quinnat Salmon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo irideus shasta</em>, Rainbow Trout (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo irideus shasta</em>, Rainbow Trout (female)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo rivularis</em>, Steelhead Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Head of Adult Trout-worm, <em>Dibothrium cordiceps</em>. From intestine of white pelican</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Median segments of <em>Dibothrium cordiceps</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo henshawi</em>, Tahoe Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo stomias</em>, Green-back Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo macdonaldi</em>, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo clarkii spilurus</em>, Rio Grande Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salmo clarkii pleuriticus</em>, Colorado River Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hucho blackistoni</em>, Ito</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus oquassa</em>, Rangeley Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus aureolus</em>, Sunapee Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>, Speckled Trout (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>, Speckled Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus malma</em>, Malma Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salvelinus malma</em>, Dolly Varden Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cristivomer namaycush</em>, Great Lake Trout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Plecoglossus altivelis</em>, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span><em>Thymallus signifer</em>, Alaska Grayling</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Thymallus tricolor</em>, Michigan Grayling</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Osmerus mordax</em>, Smelt</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Thaleichthys pretiosus</em>, Eulachon or Ulchen</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon (<em>Thaleichthys pacificus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mallotus villosus</em>, Capelin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Salanx hyalocranius</em>, Icefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stomias ferox</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chauliodus sloanei</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Synodus fætens</em>, Lizard-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ipnops murrayi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cetomimus gillii</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Diaphus lucidus</em>, Headlight-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Myctophum opalinum</em>, Lantern-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ceratoscopelus madeirensis</em>, Lantern-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rhinellus furcatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Plagyodus ferox</em>, Lancet-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eurypholis sulcidens</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eurypholis freyeri</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Argyropelecus olfersi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aldrovandia gracilis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anguilla chrisypa</em>, Common Eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anguilla chrisypa</em>, Larva of Common Eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Simenchelys parasiticus</em>, Pug-nosed Eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Synaphobranchus pinnatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Leptocephalus conger</em>, Conger-eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Larva of Conger-eel, <em>Leptocephalus conger</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xyrias revulsus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Myrichthys pantostigmius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ophichthus ocellatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Nemichthys avocetta</em>, Thread-eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Jaws of <em>Nemichthys avocetta</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Muræna retifera</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gymnothorax berndti</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gymnothorax jordani</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gymnothorax moringa</em>, Moray</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Derichthys serpentinus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gastrostomus bairdi</em>, Gulper-eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Notacanthus phasganorus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (<em>Ictiobus bubalus</em>), showing the mesocoracoid</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Brycon dentex</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, <em>Leuciscus cephalus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span><em>Rhinichthys dulcis</em>, Black-nosed Dace</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Notropis hudsonius</em>, White Chub</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ericymba buccata</em>, Silver-jaw Minnow</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Notropis whipplei</em>, Silverfin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Campostoma anomalum</em>, Stone-roller</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Head of Day-chub, <em>Exoglossum maxillingua</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Semotilus atromaculatus</em>, Horned Dace</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Abramis chrysoleucus</em>, Shiner</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ptychocheilus grandis</em>, Squawfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Leuciscus lineatus</em>, Chub of the Great Basin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Lower Pharyngeal of <em>Placopharynx duquesnii</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Erimyzon sucetta</em>, Creekfish or Chub-sucker</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ictiobus cyprinella</em>, Buffalo-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Carpiodes cyprinus</em>, Carp-sucker</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Catostomus commersoni</em>, Common Sucker</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Catostomus occidentalis</em>, California Sucker</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, <em>Catostomus macrocheilus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xyrauchen cypho</em>, Razor-back Sucker</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Felichthys felis</em>, Gaff-topsail Cat</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Galeichthys milberti</em>, Sea Catfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ictalurus punctatus</em>, Channel Catfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ameiurus nebulosus</em>, Horned Pout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Schilbeodes furiosus</em>, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral spine</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Torpedo electricus</em>, Electric Catfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chlarias breviceps</em>, African Catfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Loricaria aurea</em>, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gnathonemus curvirostris</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Esox lucius</em>, Pike</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Esox masquinongy</em>, Muskallunge</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Umbra pygmæa</em>, Mud-minnow</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anableps dovii</em>, Four-eyed Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cyprinodon variegatus</em>, Round Minnow</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_196'>196</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Jordanella floridæ</em>, Everglade Minnow</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Fundulis majalis</em>, Mayfish (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Fundulis majalis</em>, Mayfish (female)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zygonectes notatus</em>, Top-minnow</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Empetrichthys merriami</em>, Death Valley Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xiphophorus helleri</em>, Sword-tail Minnow (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Goodea luitpoldi</em>, a Viviparous Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chologaster cornutus</em>, Dismal Swamp Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Typhlichthys subterraneus</em>, Blind Cave-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Amblyopsis spelæus</em>, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Dallia pectoralis</em>, Alaska Blackfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tylosurus acus</em>, Needle-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scombresox saurus</em>, Saury</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span><em>Hyporhamphus unifasciatus</em>, Halfbeak</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Fodiator acutus</em>, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cypselurus californicus</em>, Catalina Flying-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chirostoma humboldtianum</em>, Pescado blanco</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Kirtlandia vagrans</em>, Silverside or Brit</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Atherinopsis californiensis</em>, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Iso flos-maris</em>, Flower of the Waves</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mugil cephalus</em>, Striped Mullet</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Joturus pichardi</em>, Joturo or Bobo</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_222'>222</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sphyræna barracuda</em>, Barracuda</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cobitopsis acuta</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_224'>224</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, <em>Polydactylus approximans</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Polydactylus octonemus</em>, Threadfin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of <em>Fistularia petimba</em>, showing greatly extended interclavicle, the surface ossified</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>, Three-spined Stickleback</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Apeltes quadracus</em>, Four-spined Stickleback</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aulostomus chinensis</em>, Trumpet-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Macrorhamphosus sagifue</em>, Japanese Snipefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Æoliscus strigatus</em>, Shrimp-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_235'>235</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Æoliscus heinrichi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_235'>235</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Solenostomus cyanopterus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hippocampus hudsonius</em>, Sea-horse</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zalises umitengu</em>, Sea-moth</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Percopsis guttatus</em>, Sand-roller</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Erismatopterus endlicheri</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Columbia transmontana</em>, Oregon Trout-perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, <em>Lampris guttatus</em> (<em>Brünnich</em>), showing the enlarged infraclavicle</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Ligatures<em>Semiophorus velifer</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Amphistium paradoxum</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zeus faber</em>, John Dory</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skull of a Berycoidfish, <em>Beryx splendens</em>, showing the orbitosphenoid</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Beryx splendens</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_251'>251</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hoplopteryx lewesiensis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_252'>252</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Paratrachichthys prosthemius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Holocentrus ascenscionis</em>, Soldier-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Holocentrus ittodai</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_254'>254</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ostichthys japonicus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Monocentris japonicus</em>, Pine-cone Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scomber scombrus</em>, Mackerel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_260'>260</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Germo alalunga</em>, Long-fin Albacore</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scomberomorus maculatus</em>, Spanish Mackerel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trichiurus lepturus</em>, Cutlass-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span><em>Palæorhynchus glarisianus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xiphias gladius</em>, Young Swordfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xiphias gladius</em>, Swordfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_270'>270</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Naucrates ductor</em>, Pilot-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Seriola lalandi</em>, Amber-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trachurus trachurus</em>, Saurel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Carangus chrysos</em>, Yellow Mackerel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trachinotus carolinus</em>, the Pampano</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_277'>277</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cheilodipterus saltatrix</em>, Bluefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_279'>279</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rachycentron canadum</em>, Sergeant-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Peprilus paru</em>, Harvest-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_284'>284</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gobiomorus gronovii</em>, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_285'>285</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Coryphæna hippurus</em>, Dolphin or Dorado</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mene maculata</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_288'>288</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gasteronemus rhombeus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pempheris mulleri</em>, Catalufa de lo Alto</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pempheris nyctereutes</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_290'>290</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Luvarus imperialis</em>, Louvar</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_290'>290</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aphredoderus sayanus</em>, Pirate Perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_295'>295</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Elassoma evergladei</em>, Everglade Pigmy Perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_295'>295</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skull of the Rock Bass, <em>Ambloplites rupestris</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_296'>296</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pomoxis annularis</em>, Crappie</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pomoxis annularis</em>, Crappie (from life)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_298'>298</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ambloplites rupestris</em>, Rock Bass</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_299'>299</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mesogonistius chætodon</em>, Banded Sunfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_299'>299</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lepomis pallidus</em>, Blue-gill</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lepomis megalotis</em>, Long-eared Sunfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eupomotis gibbosus</em>, Common Sunfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_301'>301</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, Small Mouth Black Bass</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_303'>303</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, Large Mouth Black Bass</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_305'>305</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Perca flavescens</em>, Yellow perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_308'>308</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stizostedion canadense</em>, Sauger</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_309'>309</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aspro asper</em>, Aspron</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_309'>309</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zingel zingel</em>, Zingel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_310'>310</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Percina caprodes</em>, Log-perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_311'>311</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hadropterus aspro</em>, Black-sided Darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_311'>311</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Diplesion blennioides</em>, Green-sided Darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_312'>312</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Boleosoma olmstedi</em>, Tessellated Darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_312'>312</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Crystallaria asprella</em>, Crystal Darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_313'>313</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ammocrypta clara</em>, Sand-darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_313'>313</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Etheostoma jordani</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_314'>314</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Etheostoma camurum</em>, Blue-breasted Darter</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_314'>314</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Apogon retrosella</em>, Cardinal-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Telescopias gilberti</em>, Kuromutsu</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_318'>318</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Apogon semilineatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span><em>Oxylabrax undecimalis</em>, Robalo</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Morone americana</em>, White Perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_322'>322</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Promicrops itaiara</em>, Florida Jewfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_323'>323</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Epinephelus striatus</em>, Nassau Grouper: <em>Cherna criolla</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_324'>324</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Epinephelus drummond-hayi</em>, John Paw or Speckled Hind</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Epinephelus morio</em>, Red Grouper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Epinephelus adscensionis</em>, Red Hind</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_326'>326</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mycteroperca venenosa</em>, Yellow-fin Grouper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_327'>327</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_328'>328</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Epinephelus niveatus</em>, Snowy Grouper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_329'>329</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rypticus bistrispinus</em>, Soapfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_330'>330</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lobotes surinamensis</em>, Flasher</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_331'>331</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Priacanthus arenatus</em>, Catalufa</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_331'>331</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pseudopriacanthus altus</em>, Bigeye</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_332'>332</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lutianus griseus</em>, Gray Snapper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_334'>334</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lutianus apodus</em>, Schoolmaster</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_335'>335</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hoplopagrus guntheri</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_336'>336</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lutianus synagris</em>, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_336'>336</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ocyurus chrysurus</em>, Yellow-tail Snapper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Etelis oculatus</em>, Cachucho</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_337'>337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xenocys jessiæ</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_338'>338</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aphareus furcatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_339'>339</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hæmulon plumieri</em>, Grunt</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_340'>340</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anisotremus virginicus</em>, Porkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_341'>341</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pagrus major</em>, Red Tai of Japan</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_342'>342</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ebisu</em>, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_343'>343</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stenotomus chrysops</em>, Scup</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Calamus bajonado</em>, Jolt-head Porgy</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_345'>345</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Calamus proridens</em>, Little-head Porgy</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_345'>345</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Diplodus holbrooki</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_346'>346</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Archosargus unimaculatus</em>, Salema, Striped Sheepshead</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_347'>347</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xystæma cinereum</em>, Mojarra</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_348'>348</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gerres olisthostomus</em>, Irish Pampano</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_349'>349</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Kyphosus sectatrix</em>, Chopa or Rudder-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_349'>349</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Apomotis cyanellus</em>, Blue-green Sunfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pseudupeneus maculatus</em>, Red Goatfish or Salmonete</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_351'>351</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mullus auratus</em>, Golden Surmullet</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_352'>352</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cynoscion nebulosus</em>, Spotted Weakfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_353'>353</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Bairdiella chrysura</em>, Mademoiselle</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_355'>355</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sciænops ocellata</em>, Red Drum</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_356'>356</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Umbrina sinaloæ</em>, Yellow-fin Roncador</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_357'>357</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Menticirrhus americanus</em>, Kingfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_357'>357</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pogonias chromis</em>, Drum</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_358'>358</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gnathypops evermanni</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_359'>359</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Opisthognathus macrognathus</em>, Jawfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_359'>359</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span><em>Opisthognathus nigromarginatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_360'>360</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chiasmodon niger</em>, Black Swallower</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_360'>360</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cirrhitus rivulatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_364'>364</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trichodon trichodon</em>, Sandfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_364'>364</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anabas scandens</em>, Climbing Perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_366'>366</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Channa formosana</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_371'>371</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ophicephalus barca</em>, Snake-headed China-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_371'>371</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cymatogaster aggregatus</em>, White Surf-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_372'>372</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hysterocarpus traski</em>, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_373'>373</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hypsurus caryi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_373'>373</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Damalichthys argyrosomus</em>, White Surf-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_374'>374</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rhacochilus toxotes</em>, Thick-lipped Surf-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_374'>374</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hypocritichthys analis</em>, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_375'>375</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hysterocarpus traski</em>, Viviparous Perch (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_379'>379</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hypsypops rubicunda</em>, Garibaldi</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_382'>382</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pomacentrus leucostictus</em>, Damsel-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_382'>382</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Glyphisodon marginatus</em>, Cockeye Pilot</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_383'>383</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Microspathodon dorsalis</em>, Indigo Damsel-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_384'>384</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tautoga onitis</em>, Tautog</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_384'>384</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tautoga onitis</em>, Tautog</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_386'>386</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lachnolaimus falcatus</em>, Capitaine or Hogfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_387'>387</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xyrichthys psittacus</em>, Razor-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_388'>388</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pimelometopon pulcher</em>, Redfish (male)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_389'>389</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lepidaplois perditio</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_389'>389</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, <em>Sparisoma cretense</em>. <em>a</em>, Upper; <em>b</em>, Lower</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_391'>391</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Jaws of Parrot-fish, <em>Calotomus xenodon</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_391'>391</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cryptotomus beryllinus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_391'>391</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sparisoma hoplomystax</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_392'>392</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sparisoma abildgaardi</em>, Red Parrot-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_392'>392</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus cæruleus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_393'>393</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus strongylocephalus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_393'>393</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus strongylocephalus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_393'>393</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scarus emblematicus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_394'>394</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scarus cæruleus</em>, Blue Parrot-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_394'>394</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scarus vetula</em>, Parrot-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_395'>395</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Halichæres bivittatus</em>, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the coral-reefs</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_399'>399</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Monodactylus argenteus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_397'>397</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Psettus sebæ</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_399'>399</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chætodipterus faber</em>, Spadefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_401'>401</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chætodon capistratus</em>, Butterfly-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_402'>402</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pomacanthus arcuatus</em>, Black Angel-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_403'>403</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Holacanthus ciliaris</em>, Angel-fish or Isabelita</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_404'>404</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Holacanthus tricolor</em>, Rock Beauty</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_405'>405</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zanclus canescens</em>, Moorish Idol</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_406'>406</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Teuthis cæruleus</em>, Blue Tang</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_407'>407</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span><em>Teuthis bahianus</em>, Brown Tang</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_408'>408</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Balistes carolinensis</em>, Trigger-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_412'>412</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Osbeckia lævis</em>, File-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_414'>414</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Amanses scopas</em>, Needle-bearing File-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_414'>414</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stephanolepis hispidus</em>, Common File-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_415'>415</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lactophrys tricornis</em>, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_416'>416</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ostracion cornutum</em>, Horned Trunkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_416'>416</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lactophrys bicaudalis</em>, Spotted Trunkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_416'>416</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lactophrys bicaudalis</em>, Spotted Trunkfish (face view)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_417'>417</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lactophrys triqueter</em>, Spineless Trunkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_417'>417</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lactophrys trigonus</em>, Hornless Trunkfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_418'>418</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skeleton of the Cowfish, <em>Lactophrys tricornis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_418'>418</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lagocephalus lævigatus</em>, Silvery Puffer</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_419'>419</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Spheroides spengleri</em>, Puffer, Inflated</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_420'>420</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Spheroides maculatus</em>, Puffer</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_420'>420</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tetraodon meleagris</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_421'>421</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Tetraodon setosus</em>, Bristly Globefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_422'>422</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Diodon hystrix</em>, Porcupine-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_422'>422</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Chilomycterus schœpfi</em>, Rabbit-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_423'>423</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mola mola</em>, Headfish (adult)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_424'>424</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ranzania makua</em>, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_425'>425</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sebastes marinus</em>, Rosefish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_427'>427</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skull of <em>Scorpænichthys marmoratus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_427'>427</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sebastolobus altivelis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_428'>428</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sebastodes mystinus</em>, Priest-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_430'>430</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sebastichthys serriceps</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_431'>431</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Sebastichthys nigrocinctus</em>, Banded Rockfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_432'>432</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scorpæna grandicornis</em>, Lion-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_433'>433</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scorpæna mystes</em>, Sea-scorpion</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_434'>434</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pterois volitans</em>, Lion-fish or Sausolele</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_435'>435</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Emmydrichthys vulcanus</em>, Black Nohu or Poison-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_436'>436</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Snyderina yamanokami</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_437'>437</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trachicephalus uranoscopus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_438'>438</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>, Skilfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_438'>438</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pleurogrammus monopterygius</em>, Atka-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_439'>439</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hexagrammos decagrammus</em>, Greenling</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_440'>440</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ophiodon elongatus</em>, Cultus Cod</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_440'>440</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Jordania zonope</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_442'>442</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Astrolytes notospilotus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_442'>442</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hemilepidotus jordani</em>, Irish Lord</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Triglops pingeli</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Enophrys bison</em>, Buffalo Sculpin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ceratocottus diceraus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_444'>444</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Elanura forficata</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_444'>444</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cottus punctulatus</em>, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_444'>444</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span><em>Uranidea tenuis</em>, Miller's Thumb</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_445'>445</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cottus evermanni</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_445'>445</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cottus gulosus</em>, California Miller's Thumb</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_446'>446</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Myxocephalus niger</em>, Pribilof Sculpin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_446'>446</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus</em>, 18-spined Sculpin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_447'>447</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oncocottus quadricornis</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_447'>447</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Blepsias cirrhosus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_448'>448</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hemitripterus americanus</em>, Sea-raven</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_448'>448</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Oligocottus maculosus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_449'>449</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ereunias grallator</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_450'>450</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Psychrolutes paradoxus</em>, Sleek Sculpin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_451'>451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gilbertidia sigolutes</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_451'>451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rhamphocottus richardsoni</em>, Richardson's Sculpin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_451'>451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stelgis vulsus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_451'>451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Draciscus sachi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_452'>452</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pallasina barbata</em>, Agonoid-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_453'>453</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aspidophoroides monopterygius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_453'>453</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cyclopterus lumpus</em>, Lumpfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_454'>454</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Crystallias matsushimæ</em>, Liparid</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_454'>454</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Neoliparis mucosus</em>, Snailfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_455'>455</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Prionotus evolans</em>, Sea-robin</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_456'>456</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cephalacanthus volitans</em>, Flying Gurnard</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_457'>457</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Peristedion miniatum</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_457'>457</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Philypnus dormitor</em>, Guavina de Rio</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_460'>460</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eleotris pisonis</em>, Dormeur</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_460'>460</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Dormitator maculatus</em>, Guavina mapo</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_461'>461</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Vireosa hanæ</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_461'>461</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gobionellus oceanicus</em>, Esmeralda de Mar</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_461'>461</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pterogobius daimio</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_462'>462</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aboma etheostoma</em>, Darter Goby</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_462'>462</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gillichthys mirabilis</em>, Long-jawed Goby</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_463'>463</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Boleophthalmus chinensis</em>, Pond-skipper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_466'>466</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em>, Mud-skippy</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_466'>466</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Eutæniichthys gillii</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_467'>467</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Leptecheneis naucrates</em>, Sucking-fish or Pegador</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_468'>468</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rhombochirus osteochir</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_469'>469</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Regalecus russelli</em>, Glesnæs Oarfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_476'>476</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Trachypterus rex-salmonorum</em>, Dealfish or King of the Salmon</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_478'>478</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Young Flounder just hatched</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_482'>482</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pseudopleuronectes americanus</em>, Larval Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_483'>483</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Larval Stages of <em>Platophrys podas</em>, a Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_484'>484</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Platophrys lunatus</em>, Peacock Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_485'>485</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, <em>Salmo fario</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_486'>486</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, <em>Paralichthys californicus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_486'>486</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lophopsetta maculata</em>, Window-pane</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_487'>487</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xxi'>xxi</span><em>Syacium papillosum</em>, Wide-eyed Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_488'>488</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Etropus crossotus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_489'>489</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Hippoglossus hippoglossus</em>, Halibut</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_492'>492</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>, Wide-mouthed Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_493'>493</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Liopsetta putnami</em>, Eel-back Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_494'>494</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Platichthys stellatus</em>, Starry Flounder</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_495'>495</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Achirus lineatus</em>, Hog-choker Sole</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_496'>496</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Symphurus plagiusa</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_498'>498</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pteropsaron evolans</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_502'>502</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Bathymaster signatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_503'>503</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ariscopus iburius</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_504'>504</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Astroscopus guttatus</em>, Star-gazer</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_505'>505</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Neoclinus satiricus</em>, Sarcastic Blenny</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_507'>507</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gibbonsia evides</em>, Kelp Blenny</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_508'>508</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Blennius cristatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_508'>508</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Alticus atlanticus</em>, Rock-skipper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_509'>509</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Alticus saliens</em>, Lizard-skipper</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_509'>509</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Emblemaria atlantica</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_510'>510</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scartichthys enosimæ</em>, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_510'>510</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zacalles bryope</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_511'>511</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Bryostemma tarsodes</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_511'>511</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Exerpes asper</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_511'>511</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pholis gunnellus</em>, Gunnel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_512'>512</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xiphistes chirus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_512'>512</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ozorthe dictyogramma</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_513'>513</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Stichæus punctatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_513'>513</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Bryostemma otohime</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_514'>514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ptilichthys goodei</em>, Quillfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_514'>514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Blochius longirostris</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_514'>514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Xiphasia setifera</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_515'>515</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cryptacanthodes maculatus</em>, Wrymouth</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_516'>516</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Anarhichas lupus</em>, Wolf-fish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_517'>517</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skull of <em>Anarrhichthys ocellatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_517'>517</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Zoarces anguillaris</em>, Eel-pout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_518'>518</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lycodes reticulatus</em>, Eel-pout</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_519'>519</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lycenchelys verrilli</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_519'>519</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Scytalina cerdale</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_519'>519</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Rissola marginata</em>, Cusk-eel</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_520'>520</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lycodapus dermatinus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_520'>520</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ammodytes americanus</em>, Sand-lance</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_521'>521</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Embolichthys mitsukurii</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_521'>521</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Fierasfer dubius</em>, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_522'>522</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Fierasfer acus</em>, Pearlfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_523'>523</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Brotula barbata</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_524'>524</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xxii'>xxii</span><em>Lucifuga subterranea</em>, Blind Brotula</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_524'>524</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Opsanus pardus</em>, Leopard Toadfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_525'>525</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Porichthys porosissimus</em>, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines)</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_526'>526</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Aspasma ciconiæ</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_530'>530</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Caularchus mæandricus</em>, Clingfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_531'>531</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Mastacembelus ellipsifer</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_532'>532</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Gadus callarias</em>, Codfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_533'>533</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Skull of Haddock, <em>Melanogrammus æglifinus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_536'>536</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Melanogrammus æglifinus</em>, Haddock</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_536'>536</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Theragra chalcogramma</em>, Pollock</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_537'>537</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Microgadus tomcod</em>, Tomcod</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_538'>538</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lota maculosa</em>, Burbot</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_539'>539</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Enchelyopus cimbrius</em>, Four-bearded Rockling</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_539'>539</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Merluccius productus</em>, California Hake</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_540'>540</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Coryphænoides carapinus</em>, showing leptocercal tail</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_540'>540</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cælorhynchus carminatus</em>, Grenadier</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_541'>541</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Steindachnerella argentea</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_541'>541</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Lophius litulon</em>, Anko or Fishing-frog</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_545'>545</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Cryptopsaras couesi</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_547'>547</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ceratias holbolli</em>, Deep-sea Angler</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_548'>548</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Caulophryne jordani</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_548'>548</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Pterophryne tumida</em>, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_549'>549</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Antennarius nox</em>, Fishing-frog</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_550'>550</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'>Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, <em>Ogcocephalus radiatus</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_551'>551</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Antennarius scaber</em>, Frogfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_551'>551</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em></td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_552'>552</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em>, Batfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_553'>553</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c007'><em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em>, Batfish</td>
-    <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_553'>553</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiii'>xxiii</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>ERRATA<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c009'><sup>[1]</sup></a><br /><span class='sc'>Vol. II</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table2' summary='ERRATA'>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>Page</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>line</td>
-    <td class='c010'>7,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Ophicæphalus</em> read <em>Ophicephalus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>37,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Mononactylus</em> read <em>Monodactylus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>33,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Trachicephales</em> read <em>Trachicephalus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xx'>xx</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>37,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Regaleaus glesneacsanius</em> read <em>Regalecus russelli</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>2,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Etopus</em> read <em>Etropus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>35,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Zoacres</em> read <em>Zoarces</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>7,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> jaws <em>read</em> jaw</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>9,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> hetercoercal <em>read</em> heterocercal</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>3,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Evermannellus</em> read <em>Evermannella</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>11,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> the fin <em>read</em> the dorsal fin</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>10,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> have <em>read</em> has</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_303'>303</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>legend,</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> Lacepède <em>read</em> Lacépède</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_307'>307</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>line</td>
-    <td class='c010'>14,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> vertebrate <em>read</em> vertebral</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_311'>311</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>12,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least developed in those species which cling closest to the bottom of the stream</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>legend,</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Apomotes</em> read <em>Apomotis</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_355'>355</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>line</td>
-    <td class='c010'>18,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> ours <em>read</em> our</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_357'>357</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>14,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> chætodon <em>read</em> Chætodon</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_358'>358</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>17,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Scriænidæ</em> read <em>Sciænidæ</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_360'>360</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>14,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Percesoces</em> read <em>Percesoces</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_409'>409</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>16,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>naseus</em> read <em>Naseus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_419'>419</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>23,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> of the generic of this group <em>read</em> separating the group into genera</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_440'>440</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>17,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> Chinnook <em>read</em> Chinook</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_459'>459</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>24,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> but the most <em>read</em> but most</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_459'>459</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>25,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>for</em> thme <em>read</em> them</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_467'>467</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>"</td>
-    <td class='c010'>14,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>for <em>Typhogobius</em> read <em>Typhlogobius</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_472'>472</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>lines</td>
-    <td class='c010'>34, 35,</td>
-    <td class='c011'><em>omit</em> "but never in the United States". Specimens of <em>Regalecus</em> have been taken at Anclote Key, Florida, and at the Tortugas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_580'>580</a>,</td>
-    <td class='c006'>col.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>3,</td>
-    <td class='c011'>line 17, <em>for</em> 165 <em>read</em> 105</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology necessitates a
-few changes in generic names used in this book.</p>
-
-<table class='table3' summary='changes in generic names'>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>Thus</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Amia</em> (ganoid)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Amiatus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Apogon</em></td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Amia</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Scarus</em></td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Callyodon</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Teuthis</em></td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Hepatus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Acanthurus</em></td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Monoceros</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Paramia</em></td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Cheilodipterus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Centropomus</em> (<em>Oxylabrax</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>remains</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Centropomus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Lucioperca</em> (<em>Centropomus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>becomes</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Sander</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Pomatomus</em> (<em>Cheilodipterus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>remains</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Pomatomus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Nomeus</em> (<em>Gobiomorus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>remains</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Nomeus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Galeus</em> (<em>Galeorhinus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>remains</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Galeus</em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em>Carcharias</em> (<em>Carcharhinus</em>)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>remains</td>
-    <td class='c013'><em>Carcharias</em></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest of Dr. B. W.
-Evermann.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br />THE GANOIDS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_001dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Subclass</span> Actinopteri.</strong>—In our glance over the taxonomy
-of the earlier Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates,
-we have detached from the main stem one after another
-a long series of archaic or primitive types. We have first
-set off those with rudimentary notochord, then those with retrogressive
-development who lose the notochord, then those without
-skull or brain, then those without limbs or lower jaw.
-The residue assume the fish-like form of body, but still show
-great differences among themselves. We have then detached
-those without membrane-bones, or trace of lung or air-bladder.
-We next part company with those having the air-bladder a
-veritable lung, and those with an ancient type of paired fins,
-a jointed axis fringed with rays, and those having the palate
-still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left only those
-having fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the
-modern fish. For all these in all their variety, as a class or
-subclass, the name <em>Actinopteri</em>, or <em>Actinopterygii</em>, suggested by
-Professor Cope, is now generally adopted. The shorter form,
-<em>Actinopteri</em>, being equally correct is certainly preferable. This
-term (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ακτίς</span>, ray; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερόν</span> or <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερύξ</span>, fin) refers to the structure
-of the paired fins. In all these fishes the bones supporting
-the fin-rays are highly specialized and at the same time concealed
-by the general integument of the body. In general
-two bones connect the pectoral fin with the shoulder-girdle.
-The hypercoracoid is a flat square bone, usually perforated
-by a foramen. Lying below it and parallel with it is the irregularly
-formed hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones,
-the actinosts, or pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped,
-which actually support the fin-rays. In the more specialized
-forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts are few (four to six) in number,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>but in the more primitive types, or Ganoids, they may remain
-numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen in the Crossopterygians,
-and especially in <em>Polypterus</em>. Other variations may
-occur; the two coracoids
-sometimes are imperfect
-or specially modified, the
-upper sometimes without
-a foramen, and the actinosts
-may be distorted
-in form or position.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i_002.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 1.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, <em>Paralichthys californicus</em> (Ayres).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Series Ganoidei.</strong>—Among
-the lower <em>Actinopteri</em>
-many archaic
-traits still persist, and
-in its earlier representatives
-the group approaches
-closely to the
-<em>Crossopterygii</em>, although
-no forms actually intermediate
-are known either
-living or fossil. The
-great group of <em>Actinopteri</em>
-may be divided into two
-series or subclasses, the
-<em>Ganoidei</em>, or <em>Chrondrostei</em>,
-containing those forms,
-mostly extinct, which retain
-archaic traits of one
-sort or another, and the
-<em>Teleostei</em>, or bony fishes,
-in which most of the
-primitive characters have disappeared. Doubtless all of the
-<em>Teleostei</em> are descended from a ganoid ancestry.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Even among the <em>Ganoidei</em>, as the term is here restricted,
-there remains a very great variety of form and structure. The
-fossil and existing forms do not form continuous series, but represent
-the tips and remains of many diverging branches perhaps
-from some Crossopterygian central stock. The group constitutes
-at least three distinct orders and, as a whole, does not admit of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>perfect definition. In most but not all of the species the tail
-is distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of symmetry
-of the tail in some Teleosts being confined to the bones and not
-evident without dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the
-skeleton still cartilaginous, and in some it remains in a very
-primitive condition. Usually the Ganoids have an armature
-of bony plates, diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that
-developed on the teeth. In all of them the pectoral fin has
-numerous basal bones or actinosts. All of them have the air-bladder
-highly developed, usually cellular and functional as a
-lung, but connecting with the dorsal side of the gullet, not with
-the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms there
-is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms
-retain also the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral
-valve of the intestines found in the more archaic types of fishes.
-But traces of some or all of these structures are found in some
-bony fishes, and their presence in the Ganoids by no means
-justifies the union of the Ganoids with the sharks, Dipnoans,
-and Crossopterygians to form a great primary class, <em>Palæichthyes</em>,
-as proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of body
-may be found among the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these
-fishes were scarcely less varied and perhaps scarcely less abundant
-than the Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They far exceed the
-Crossopterygians in number and variety of forms. Transitional
-forms connecting the two groups are thus far not recognized. So
-far as fossils show, the characteristic actinopterous fin with its
-reduced and altered basal bones appeared at once without intervening
-gradations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The name <em>Ganoidei</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γάνος</span>, brightness; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">εἶδος</span>, resemblance),
-alluding to the enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to
-those forms, mostly extinct, which were covered with bony scales
-or hard plates of one sort or another. As the term was originally
-defined, mailed catfishes, sea-horses, <em>Agonidæ</em>, <em>Arthrodires</em>,
-<em>Ostracophores</em>, and other wholly unrelated types were included
-with the garpikes and sturgeons as Ganoids. Most of these
-intruding forms among living fishes were eliminated by Johannes
-Müller, who recognized the various archaic characters common
-to the existing forms after the removal of the mailed Teleosts.
-Still later Huxley separated the Crossopterygians as a distinct
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>group, while others have shown that the <em>Ostracophori</em> and <em>Arthrodira</em>
-should be placed far from the garpike in systematic classification.
-Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped the
-name Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through
-the many meanings attached to it. Others have kept it as
-a convenient group name for the orders of archaic <em>Actinopteri</em>.
-For these varied and more or less divergent forms it seems convenient
-to retain it. As an adjective "ganoid" is sometimes
-used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled scales, some-in
-the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?</strong>—Several writers have
-urged that the <em>Ganoidei</em>, even as thus restricted, should not be
-considered as a natural group, whether subclass, order, or group
-of orders. The reasons for this view in brief are the following:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>1. The group is heterogeneous. The <em>Amiidæ</em> differ more
-from the other Ganoids than they do from the herring-like
-Teleosts. The garpikes, sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge
-widely from each other and from the <em>Palæoniscidæ</em> and
-the <em>Platysomidæ</em>. Each of the living families represents the
-residue or culmination of a long series, in some cases advancing,
-as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps degenerating,
-as in the case of the sturgeons.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several
-(the cellular air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the
-spiral valve in the intestine, the heterocercal tail) are all possessed
-in greater or less degree by certain <em>Isospondyli</em> or allies
-of the herring. All these characters are still better developed
-in <em>Crossoptergyii</em> and <em>Dipneusti</em>, and each one disappears by
-degrees. Of the characters drawn from the soft parts we can
-know nothing so far as the extinct Ganoids are concerned.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>3. The optic chiasma, thus far characteristic of Ganoids
-as distinct from Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged
-that in closely related species of lizards some have the optic
-chiasma and others do not. This, however, proves nothing
-as to the value of the same character among fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the
-same character as the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed
-fishes, or that from fishes with a duct to the air-bladder
-to those without such duct.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient
-to retain the Ganoidei (or <em>Chrondrostei</em> if the older name be
-discarded on account of the many meanings attached to it)
-as a group equivalent to that of <em>Teleostei</em> within the class or
-subclass of <em>Actinopteri</em>. It comprises the transitional forms
-between the <em>Crossopterygii</em> and the bony fishes, and its members
-are especially characteristic of the Mesozoic age, ranging from
-the Devonian to the present era.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question
-we may quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass
-of Ganoids, the first by Francis M. Balfour and William
-Kitchen Parker, the second from the pen of Theodore Gill.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp.
-430-433) thus discuss the</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.</strong>—"Alexander Agassiz concludes
-his memoir on the development of <em>Lepidosteus</em> by pointing
-out that in spite of certain affinities in other directions
-this form is 'not so far removed from the bony fishes as has
-been supposed.' Our own observations go far to confirm Agassiz's
-opinion.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development
-of <em>Lepidosteus</em> is strikingly Teleostean. In addition
-to the general Teleostean features of the embryo and larva,
-which can only be appreciated by those who have had an opportunity
-of practically working at the subject, we may point to
-the following developmental features<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c009'><sup>[2]</sup></a> as indicative of Teleostean
-affinities:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel
-of the epiblast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic
-stratum.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(3) The mode of development of the gut.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though
-the pronephros of <em>Lepidosteus</em> has primitive characters not
-retained by Teleostei.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral
-column.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to <em>Lepidosteus</em>
-and Teleostei, but are always eminently characteristic of the latter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters
-there are not a few important adult characters:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of
-numerous so-called pancreatic cæca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of
-the cerebellum; the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores
-on the infundibulum, and of tori semi-circulares in the mid-brain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to
-which we have just called attention, a list containing not less
-important characters, both embryological and adult, separating
-<em>Lepidosteus</em> from the Teleostei, can be drawn up:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying
-the semen from the testes to the kidney, and through the tubules
-of the latter into the kidney-duct.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character
-may possibly break down with the extension of our knowledge.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon
-and the cerebral hemispheres.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(8) The absence of a pecten, and presence of a vascular
-membrane between the vitreous humor and the retina.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal
-arches of the tail with the processes of the vertebral column.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral
-and ventro-lateral divisions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate
-that Lepidosteus cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we
-hold that Müller's view is correct, according to which <em>Lepidosteus</em>
-is a true Ganoid.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however,
-recently been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>as Günther, and it may therefore be well to consider
-how far the group as defined by Müller is a natural one for
-living forms, and how far recent researches enable us to improve
-upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the
-characters of the Ganoids are thus shortly stated:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular
-or rounded cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates,
-or are quite naked. The fins are often, but not always, beset
-with a double or single row of spinous plates or splints. The
-caudal fin embraces occasionally in its upper lobe the end of the
-vertebral column, which may be prolonged to the end of the
-upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of
-Teleostei. The gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under
-an operculum, like those of Teleostei. Many of them have
-an accessory organ of respiration, in the form of an opercular
-gill, which is distinct from the pseudobranch, and can be present
-together with the latter; many also have spiracles like Elasmobranchii.
-They have many valves in the stem of the aorta
-like the latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the aorta.
-Their ova are transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts.
-Their optic nerves do not cross each other. The intestine
-is often provided with a spiral valve, like Elasmobranchii.
-They have a swimming-bladder with a duct, like many Teleostei.
-Their pelvic fins are abdominal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"'If we include in a definition only those characters which
-are invariable, the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being
-those fish with numerous valves to the stem of the aorta, which
-is also provided with a muscular coat, with free gills, and an
-operculum, and with abdominal pelvic fins.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to
-his paper, the presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a
-processus falciformis and a choroid gland.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we
-may probably add the following:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open
-by a common urogenital aperture behind the anus.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(2) Skull hyostylic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>though perhaps <em>Amia</em> may be found to resemble the Teleostei
-in this particular.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the
-larva.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is
-not divided behind into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided
-part being extremely thin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(7) Abdominal pores always present.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The great number of characters just given are amply
-sufficient to differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously
-enough, the only characters, amongst the whole series which
-have been given, which can be regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids
-are (1) the characters of the brain, and (2) the fact of the oviducts
-and kidney-ducts uniting together and opening by a
-common pore to the exterior.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an
-indication of how widely separated in organization are the
-different members of this great group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"At the same time, the only group with which existing
-Ganoids have close affinities is the Teleostei. The points they
-have in common with the Elasmobranchii are merely such as
-are due to the fact that both retain numerous primitive vertebrate
-characters,<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c009'><sup>[3]</sup></a> and the gulf which really separates them is
-very wide.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the frequent
-presence of a spiracle; (3) the frequent presence of a communication between
-the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4) the heterocercal tail.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"There is again no indication of any close affinity between
-the Dipnoans and, at any rate, existing Ganoids.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of
-a very primitive stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder
-into a true lung, the highly specialized character of their limbs,<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c009'><sup>[4]</sup></a>
-their peculiar autostylic skulls, the fact of their ventral nasal
-openings leading directly into the mouth, their multi-segmented
-bars (interspinous bars) directly prolonged from the neural
-and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays of the unpaired dorsal
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>and ventral fins, and their well-developed cerebral hemispheres,
-very unlike those of Ganoids and approaching the Amphibian
-type, they form a very well-defined group and one very distinctly
-separated from the Ganoids.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired
-Fins of Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed
-from the Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links
-uniting these Ganoids with the Teleostei have been so fully
-preserved in the existing fauna of the globe that the two groups
-almost run into each other. If, in fact, we were anxious to
-make any radical change in the ordinary classification of fishes,
-it would be by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather
-constituting the Teleostei into one of the subgroups of the
-Ganoids, equivalent to the Chondrostei. We do not recommend
-such an arrangement, which in view of the great preponderance
-of the Teleostei amongst living fishes would be
-highly inconvenient, but the step from <em>Amia</em> to the Teleostei
-is certainly not so great as that from the Chondrostei to Amia,
-and is undoubtedly less than that from the Selachii to the Holocephali."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.</strong>—Dr. Gill observes
-("Families of Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti)
-was originally framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal
-term for fishes having the scales (when present) angular and
-covered with enamel; and in the group so characterized were
-combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as the Teleostean
-orders Plectognathi, Lophobranchii, and Nematognathi,
-and (subsequently) the genus <em>Sudis</em> (<em>Arapaima</em>), the last being
-regarded as a Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with
-these limits or characters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy
-and classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated
-memoirs on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal
-name Ganoidei; those memoirs have left an impression on
-ichthyology perhaps more decided than made by any other
-contributions to science, and that published <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">in extenso</span></i> will
-ever be classical; numerous as have been the modifications since
-introduced into the system, no forms except those recognized
-by Müller (unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since
-among the Ganoids.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute
-a natural group, and that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic
-nerves and multivalvular bulbus arteriosus) alleged by Müller
-to be peculiar to the teleostomous forms combined therein are
-problematical, and only <em>inferentially</em> supposed to be common
-to the extinct Ganoids so called, and, finally, such objections
-couched in too strong language have culminated in the assertion
-that the characters in question are actually <em>shared</em> by other
-physostome fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"No <em>demonstration</em>, however, has been presented as yet
-that any physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma
-and multivalvular <em>bulbus arteriosus</em>, and the statement to the
-contrary seems to have been the result of a venial misapprehension
-of Prof. Kner's statements, or the offspring of impressions
-left on the memory by his assertions, in forgetfulness of his
-exact words.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters
-referred to, merely objects: (1) that they are <em>problematical</em>,
-are not confirmable for the extinct types, and were <em>probably</em>
-not existent in certain forms that have been referred to the
-Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of the valves of the
-<em>bulbus arteriosus</em> among recent Ganoids is so great as to show
-the unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is developed
-in the intestine of several osseous fishes ('genera of the so-called
-intermediate clupeoid groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and
-(4) the chiasma of the optic nerves in no wise furnishes a positive
-character for the Ganoids.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the
-case of the intestinal spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague.
-The failure of the intestinal spiral valve, as a diagnostic character,
-has long been conceded, and in this case only have the
-forms that <em>prove</em> the failure been referred to; in the other cases,
-where it would be especially desirable to have indicated the
-actual types falsifying the universality or exclusiveness of
-the characters, they have not been referred to, and the objections
-must be met as if they were not known to exist.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used,
-problematical, inasmuch as no examination can be made of
-the soft parts of extinct forms, but with equal force may it be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>urged that any characters that have not been or cannot be <em>directly</em>
-confirmed are problematical in the case of all other groups
-(e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied that the coordination
-of parts has been so invariably verified that all probabilities
-are in favor of similar coordination in any given case.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number
-of valves of the <em>bulbus arteriosus</em> among the various Ganoids,
-and even among the species of a single family (e.g., <em>Lepidosteidæ</em>),
-but the character of Ganoids lies not in the number,
-more or less, but in the greater number and relations (in contradistinction
-to the opposite pair of the Teleosts) in conjunction
-with the development of a <em>bulbus arteriosus</em>. In no other
-forms of Teleostomes have similar relations and structures
-been yet demonstrated.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already
-been conceded, and no great stress has ever been laid on the
-character.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all
-the known Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms
-(e.g., <em>Arapaima</em>, <em>Osteoglossum</em>, and <em>Clupeiform</em> types) agreeing
-with typical physostome Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc.,
-but which at the same time simulate most certain Ganoids
-(e.g., <em>Amia</em>) in form.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the
-arguments against the validity of title, to natural association,
-of the Ganoids, have to meet the positive evidence of the coordinations
-noted; the value of such characteristics and coordinations
-can only be affected or destroyed by the demonstration
-that in all other respects there is (1) very close agreement
-of certain of the constituents of the subclass with other forms,
-and (2) inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those forms
-from <em>any</em> (not all) other of the Ganoids, and consequently evidence
-<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ubi plurima nitent</span></i> against the taxonomic value of the
-characters employed for distinction.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance
-between the Hyoganoids (<em>Lepisosteus</em>, <em>Amia</em>, etc.) and ordinary
-physostome Teleosts than between the former and the other
-orders of Ganoids, but it is equally true that they agree in other
-respects than in the brain and heart with the more generalized
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1) the paraglenal elements
-undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid, hypocoracoid,
-and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided,
-that is, differentiated into metapterygium and mesopterygium);
-and (3) those with ossified skeletons agree in the greater number
-of elements in the lower jaw. Therefore, until these coordinates
-fail, it seems advisable to recognize the Ganoids as constituents
-of a natural series; and especially on account of the
-superior taxonomic value of modifications of the brain and
-heart in other classes of vertebrates, for the same reason, and
-to keep prominently before the mind the characters in question,
-it appears also advisable to designate the series, until further
-discovery, as a subclass.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized
-Teleosts at least <em>traces</em> of some of the characters now considered
-to be peculiar to the Ganoids may be discovered. In
-anticipation of such a possibility, the author had at first discarded
-the subclass, recognizing the group only as one of
-the 'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration
-convinces him of the propriety of classification representing
-known facts and legitimate inferences rather than too much
-anticipation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with
-increasing knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but
-little more than the expressions of our want of knowledge of
-the intermediate forms; it may in truth be said that ability
-to segregate a class into well-defined groups is in ratio to our
-ignorance of all the terms."</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br />THE GANOIDS—Continued</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_013dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Classification</span> of Ganoids.</strong>—The subdivision of the
-series of Ganoidei into orders offers great difficulty
-from the fact of the varying relationships of the members
-of the group and the fact that the great majority of the
-species are known only from broken skeletons preserved in the
-rocks. It is apparently easy to separate those with cartilaginous
-skeletons from those with these bones more or less ossified. It
-is also easy to separate those with bony scales or plates from
-those having the scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton
-grades into the other, and there is a bony basis even to the
-thinnest of scales found in this group. Among the multitude
-of names and divisions proposed we may recognize six orders,
-for which the names <em>Lysopteri</em>, <em>Chondrostei</em>, <em>Selachostomi</em>,
-<em>Pycnodonti</em>, <em>Lepidostei</em>, and <em>Halecomorphi</em> are not inappropriate.
-Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from the
-first primitive group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Lysopteri.</strong>—In the most primitive order, called <em>Lysopteri</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">λυσός</span>, loose; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερόν</span>, fin) by Cope, <em>Heterocerci</em> by Zittel
-and Eastman, and the "ascending series of Chondrostei" by
-Woodward, we find the nearest approach to the Chondropterygians.
-In this order the arches of the vertebræ are more or
-less ossified, the body is more or less short and deep, covered
-with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus is well
-developed, with numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are
-present, and the fins provided with fulcra. Dorsal and anal
-fins are present, with rays more numerous than their supports;
-ventral fin with basal supports which are imperfectly ossified;
-caudal fin mostly heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in
-form. All the members of this group are now extinct.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span><strong>The Palæoniscidæ.</strong>—The numerous genera of this order are
-referred to three families, the <em>Palæoniscidæ</em>, <em>Platysomidæ</em>, and
-<em>Dictyopygidæ</em>; a fourth family, <em>Dorypteridæ</em>, of uncertain relations,
-being also tentatively recognized. The family of
-<em>Palæoniscidæ</em> is the most primitive, ranging from the Devonian
-to the Lias, and some of them seem to have entered fresh
-waters in the time of the coal-measures. These fishes have
-the body elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin. The
-tail is heterocercal and the body covered with rhombic plates.
-Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like scales are developed on the
-upper edge of the caudal fin in most recent Ganoids, and often
-the back has a median row of undeveloped scales. A multitude
-of species and genera are recorded. A typical form is
-the genus <em>Palæoniscum</em>,<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c009'><sup>[5]</sup></a> with many species represented in the
-rocks of various parts of the world. The longest known species
-is <em>Palæoniscum frieslebenense</em> from the Permian of Germany
-and England. <em>Palæoniscum magnum</em>, sixteen inches long, occurs
-in the Permian of Germany. From <em>Canobius</em>, the most primitive
-genus, to <em>Coccolepis</em>, the most modern, is a continuous series,
-the suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique,
-the basal bones of the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther
-forward, and the scales more completely imbricate. Other
-prominent genera are <em>Amblypterus</em>, <em>Eurylepis</em>, <em>Cheirolepis</em>,
-<em>Rhadinichthys</em>, <em>Pygopterus</em>, <em>Elonichthys</em>, <em>Ærolepis</em>, <em>Gyrolepis</em>,
-<em>Myriolepis</em>, <em>Oxygnathus</em>, <em>Centrolepis</em>, and <em>Holurus</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This word is usually written <em>Palæoniscus</em>, but Blainville, its author (1818),
-chose the neuter form.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_014.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 2.</span>—<em>Palæoniscum frieslebenense</em> Blainville. Family <em>Palæoniscidæ</em>. (After Zittel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Platysomidæ.</strong>—The <em>Platysomidæ</em> are different in form,
-the body being deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>with very long dorsal and anal fins. In other respects they are
-very similar to the <em>Palæoniscidæ</em>, the osteology being the same.
-The <em>Palæoniscidæ</em> were rapacious fishes with sharp teeth, the
-<em>Platysomidæ</em> less active, and, from the blunter teeth, probably
-feeding on small animals, as crabs and snails.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and
-held together as a coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The
-most extreme form is <em>Platysomus</em>, with the body very deep.
-<em>Platysomus gibbosus</em> and other species occur in the Permian
-rocks of Germany. <em>Cheirodus</em> is similar to <em>Platysomus</em>, but
-without ventral fins. <em>Eurynotus</em>, the most primitive genus, is
-remarkable for its large pectoral fins. <em>Eurynotus crenatus</em> occurs
-in the Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are <em>Mesolepis</em>,
-<em>Globulodus</em>, <em>Wardichthys</em>, and <em>Cheirodopsis</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_015.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 3.</span>—<em>Eurynotus crenatus</em> Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family <em>Platysomidæ</em>. (After Traquair.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some of the <em>Platysomidæ</em> have the interneural spines projecting
-through the skin before the dorsal fin. This condition
-is found also in certain bony fishes allied to the <em>Carangidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Dorypteridæ.</strong>—<em>Dorypterus hoffmani</em>, the type of the singular
-Palæozoic family of <em>Dorypteridæ</em>, with thoracic or sub-jugular
-many-rayed ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appearance,
-with distinct resemblances to certain Scombroid forms,
-but with a heterocercal tail like a ganoid, imperfectly ossified
-back-bone, and other very archaic characters. The body is
-apparently scaleless, unlike the true <em>Platysomidæ</em>, in which the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>scales are highly developed. A second species, <em>Dorypterus
-althausi</em>, also from the German copper shales, has been described.
-This species has lower fins than <em>Dorypterus hoffmani</em>,
-but may be the adult of the same type.
-<em>Dorypterus</em> is regarded by Woodward as a specialized
-offshoot from the <em>Platysomidæ</em>. The
-many-rayed ventrals and the general form of the
-body and fins suggest affinity with the <em>Lampridæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id005'>
-<img src='images/i_016.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 4.</span>—<em>Dorypterus hoffmani</em> Germar, restored. (After Hancock and Howse.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Dictyopygidæ.</strong>—In the <em>Dictyopygidæ</em> (<em>Catopteridæ</em>),
-the body is gracefully elongate, less compressed,
-the heterocercal tail is short and abruptly
-turned upwards, the teeth are sharp and usually
-hooked, and the bony plates well developed. Of
-this group two genera are recognized, each containing
-numerous species. In <em>Redfieldius</em> (= <em>Catopterus</em>
-Redfield, not of Agassiz) the dorsal is inserted
-behind the anal, while in <em>Dictyopyge</em> this is not the case. <em>Redfieldius
-gracilis</em> and other species are found in the Triassic of
-the Connecticut River. <em>Dictyopyge macrura</em> is found in the same
-region, and <em>Dictyopyge catoptera</em> and other species in Europe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span><strong>Order Chondrostei.</strong>—The order <em>Chondrostei</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">χόνδρος</span>, cartilage;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὀστέον</span>, bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized
-by the persistence of the notochord in greater or less degree,
-the endoskeleton remaining cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts
-and baseosts of the median fins are arranged in simple regular
-series and the rays are more numerous than the supporting
-elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of infraclavicular
-plates. The pelvic fins have well-developed baseosts.
-The branchiostegals are few or wanting. In the living
-forms, and probably in all others, a matter which can never
-be ascertained, the optic nerves are not decussating, but form
-an optic chiasma, and the intestine is provided with a spiral
-valve. In all the species there is one dorsal and one anal fin,
-separate from the caudal. The teeth are small or wanting,
-the body naked or covered with bony plates; the caudal fin is
-usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To
-this order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids
-belong, as well as the modern degenerate forms known as sturgeons
-and perhaps the paddle-fishes, which are apparently derived
-from fishes with rhombic enameled scales. The species extend
-from the Upper Carboniferous to the present time, being most
-numerous in the Triassic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this point in Woodward's system diverges a descending
-series, characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and
-elongate form, this leading through the synthetic type of <em>Chondrosteidæ</em>
-to the modern sturgeon and paddle-fish, which are
-regarded as degenerate types.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Saurorhynchidæ</em> contains pike-like forms, with
-long jaws, and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is
-not heterocercal, but short-diphycercal; the bones of the head
-are covered with enamel, and those of the roof of the skull form
-a continuous shield. The opercular apparatus is much reduced,
-and there are no branchiostegals. The fins are all small, without
-fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal series of bony
-scutes, but is not covered with continuous scales. The principal
-genus is <em>Saurorhynchus</em> (= <em>Belonorhynchus</em>; the former being
-the earlier name) from the Triassic. <em>Saurorhynchus acutus</em> from
-the English Triassic is the best known species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Chondrosteidæ</em> includes the Triassic precursors
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>of the sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon,
-but the body is scaleless except on the upper caudal lobe, and
-there are no plates on the median line of the skull. The opercle
-and subopercle are present, the jaws are toothless, and there
-are a few well-developed caudal rays. The caudal has large
-fulcra. The single well-known species of this group, <em>Chondrosteus
-acipenseroides</em>, is found in the Triassic rocks of England and
-reaches a length of about three feet. It much resembles a
-modern sturgeon, though differing in several technical respects.
-<em>Chondrosteus pachyurus</em> is based on the tail of a species of much
-larger size and <em>Gyrosteus mirabilis</em>, also of the English Triassic,
-is known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18
-to 20 feet in length.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_018.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 5.</span>—<em>Chondrosteus acipenseroides</em> Egerton. Family <em>Chondrosteidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sturgeons constitute the recent family of <em>Acipenseridæ</em>,
-characterized by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and
-the presence of four barbels below the snout. In the <em>Acipenseridæ</em>
-there are no branchiostegals and a median series of plates
-is present on the head. The body is armed with five rows of
-large bony bucklers,—each often with a hooked spine, sharpest
-in the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are developed
-on the tail, besides large fulcra. The sturgeons are the youngest
-of the Ganoids, not occurring before the Lower Eocene, one
-species, <em>Acipenser toliapicus</em> occurring in the London clay.
-About thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred
-to three genera: <em>Acipenser</em>, found throughout the Northern
-Hemisphere, <em>Scaphirhynchus</em>, in the Mississippi Valley, and
-<em>Kessleria</em> (later called <em>Pseudoscaphirhynchus</em>), in Central Asia
-alone. Most of the species belong to the genus <em>Acipenser</em>, which
-abounds in all the rivers and seas in which salmon are found.
-Some of the smaller species spend their lives in the rivers, ascending
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons are marine,
-ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the
-spawning season. They range in length from 2½ to 30 feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse
-and beefy. From their large size and abundance they possess
-great economic value. The eggs of some species are prepared
-as caviar.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_019.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 6.</span>—Common Sturgeon, <em>Acipenser sturio</em> Mitchill. Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish.
-The mouth, underneath the long snout, is very protractile,
-sucker-like, and without teeth. Before it on the under side
-of the snout are four long feelers. Ordinarily the sturgeon feeds
-on mud and snails with other small creatures, but I have seen
-large numbers of Eulachon (<em>Thaleichthys</em>) in the stomach of
-the Columbia River sturgeon (<em>Acipenser transmontanus</em>). This
-fish and the Eulachon run in the Columbia at the same time,
-and the sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon will draw into it numbers
-of small fishes who may be unsuspiciously engaged in
-depositing their spawn. In the spawning season in June these
-clumsy fishes will often leap wholly out of the water in their
-play. The sturgeons have a rough skin besides five series of
-bony plates which change much with age and which in very
-old examples are sometimes lost or absorbed in the skin. The
-common sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is <em>Acipenser
-sturio</em>. <em>Acipenser huso</em> and numerous other species are found
-in Russia and Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia
-is <em>Acipenser transmontanus</em>, and the great sturgeon of Japan
-<em>Acipenser kikuchii</em>. Smaller species are found farther south,
-as in the Mediterranean and along the Carolina coast. Other
-small species abound in rivers and lakes. <em>Acipenser rubicundus</em>
-is found throughout the Great Lake region and the Mississippi
-Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six feet long, and
-at Sandusky, Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were taken
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>in the pound nets. A similar species, <em>Acipenser mikadoi</em>, is
-abundant and valuable in the streams of northern Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_020a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 7.</span>—Lake Sturgeon, <em>Acipenser rubicundus</em> Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Acipenser</em> the snout is sharp and conical, and
-the shark-like spiracle is still retained.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_020b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 8.</span>—Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. <em>Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus</em> (Rafinesque). Ohio River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The shovel-nosed sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus</em>)
-has lost the spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly
-bony, and the snout is broad and shaped like a shovel. The
-single species of <em>Scaphirhynchus</em> abounds in the Mississippi
-Valley, a fish more interesting to the naturalist than to the
-fisherman. It is the smallest of our sturgeons, often taken in
-the nets in large numbers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Scaphirhynchus</em> the tail is covered by a continuous coat
-of mail. In <em>Kessleria<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c009'><sup>[6]</sup></a> fedtschenkoi</em>, <em>rossikowi</em>, and other
-Asiatic species the tail is not mailed.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>These species have also been named <em>Pseudoscaphirhynchus</em>. <em>Kessleria</em>
-is the earlier name, left undefined by its describer, although the type was
-indicated.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.</strong>—Another type of
-Ganoids, allied to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate,
-is that of the paddle-fishes, called by Cope <em>Selachostomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σέλαχος</span>,
-shark; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">στόμα</span>, mouth). This group consists of a single family,
-<em>Polyodontidæ</em>, having apparently little in common with the
-other Ganoids, and in appearance still more suggestive of the
-sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is derived from
-the long flat blade in which the snout terminates. This extends
-far beyond the mouth, is more or less sensitive, and is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>used to stir up the mud in which are found the minute organisms
-on which the fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very minute
-barbels corresponding to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular
-names of spoonbill, duckbill cat, and shovel-fish are also derived
-from the form of the snout. The skin is nearly smooth, the tail
-is heterocercal, the teeth are very small, and a long fleshy flap
-covers the gill-opening. The very long and slender gill-rakers
-serve to strain the food (worms, leeches, water-beetles, crustaceans,
-and algæ) from the muddy waters from which they are
-taken. The most important part of this diet consists of Entomostracans.
-The single American species, <em>Polyodon spathula</em>,
-abounds through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger
-streams. It reaches a length of three or four feet. It is often
-taken in the nets, but the coarse tough flesh, like that of our
-inferior catfish, is not much esteemed. In the great rivers of
-China, the Yangtse and the Hoang Ho, is a second species,
-<em>Psephurus gladius</em>, with narrower snout, fewer gill-rakers, and
-much coarser fulcra on the tail. The habits, so far as known,
-are much the same.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_021a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 9.</span>—Paddle-fish, <em>Polyodon spathula</em> (Walbaum). Ohio River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_021b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 10.</span>—Paddle-fish. <em>Polyodon Spathula</em> (Walbaum). Ohio River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_021c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 11.</span>—<em>Psephurus gladius</em> Günther. Yangtse River. (After Günther.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Crossopholis magnicaudatus</em> of the Green River Eocene
-shales is a primitive member of the <em>Polyodontidæ</em>. Its rostral blade
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>is shorter than that of <em>Polyodon</em>, and the body is covered with
-small thin scales, each in the form of a small grooved disk with
-several posterior denticulations, arranged in oblique series but
-not in contact. The scales are quadrate in form, and more
-widely separated anteriorly than posteriorly. As in <em>Polyodon</em>,
-the teeth are minute and there are no branchiostegals. The
-squamation of this fish shows that <em>Polyodon</em> as well as <em>Acipenser</em>
-may have sprung from a type having rhombic scales. The tail
-of a Cretaceous fish, <em>Pholidurus disjectus</em> from the Cretaceous
-of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family of <em>Polyodontidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Pycnodonti.</strong>—In the extinct order <em>Pycnodonti</em>, as recognized
-by Dr. O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and without
-ossification, the body is very deep, the teeth are always
-blunt, the opercular apparatus is reduced, the dorsal fin many-rayed,
-and the fins without fulcra. The scales are rhombic,
-but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail. Many genera
-and species of <em>Pycnodontidæ</em> are described, mostly from Triassic
-and Jurassic rocks of Europe. Leading European genera are
-<em>Pycnodus</em>, <em>Typodus</em> (<em>Mesodon</em>), <em>Gyrodus</em>, and <em>Palæobalistum</em>. The
-numerous American species belong to <em>Typodus</em>, <em>Cœlodus</em>,
-<em>Pycnodus</em>, <em>Hadrodus</em>, and <em>Uranoplosus</em>. These forms have no
-affinity with <em>Balistes</em>, although there is some resemblance in
-appearance, which has suggested the name of <em>Palæobalistum</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_022.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 12.</span>—<em>Gyrodus hexagonus</em> Agassiz. Family <em>Pycnodontidæ</em>. Lithographic Shales.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>Woodward places these fishes with the <em>Semionotidæ</em> and <em>Halecomorphi</em>
-in his suborder of <em>Protospondyli</em>. It seems preferable,
-however, to consider them as forming a distinct order.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_023.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 13.</span>—<em>Mesturus verrucosus</em> Wagner. Family <em>Pycnodontidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Lepidostei.</strong>—We may place, following Eastman's edition
-of Zittel, the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single
-order, for which Huxley's name <em>Lepidostei</em> may well be used.
-In this group the notochord is persistent, and the vertebræ are
-in various degrees of ossification and of different forms. The
-opercles are usually complete, the branchiostegals present, and
-there is often a gular plate. There is no infraclavicle and the
-jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and the supports
-of the fins agree in number with the rays. The tail is more or less
-heterocercal. The scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique series,
-which are often united above and below with peg-and-socket
-articulations. This group contains among recent fishes only the
-garpikes (<em>Lepisosteus</em>). They are closely allied to the <em>Palæoniscidæ</em>,
-but the skeleton is more highly ossified. On the other
-hand they approach very closely to the ancestors of the bowfin,
-<em>Amia</em>. One genus, <em>Acentrophorus</em>, appears in the Permian;
-the others are scattered through Mesozoic and Tertiary
-rocks, the isolated group of gars still persisting. In the gars
-the vertebræ are concavo-convex, with ball-and-socket joints.
-In the others the vertebræ are incomplete or else double-concave,
-as in fishes generally.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>For the group here called <em>Lepidostei</em> numerous other names
-have been used corresponding wholly or in part. <em>Rhomboganoidea</em>
-of Gill covers nearly the same groups; <em>Holostei</em> of
-Müller and <em>Hyoganoidea</em> of Gill include the <em>Halecomorphi</em> also;
-<em>Ginglymodi</em> of Cope includes the garpikes only, while <em>Ætheospondyli</em>
-of Woodward includes the <em>Aspidorhynchidæ</em> and the
-garpikes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_024.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 14.</span>—<em>Semionotus kapffi</em> Fraas, restored. Family <em>Semionotidæ</em>. (After Fraas, per Nicholson.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Semionotidæ</em> (<em>Stylodontidæ</em>) are robust-bodied Ganoids,
-having the vertebræ developed as rings, the jaws with several
-rows of teeth, those of the outer row styliform.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Semionotus bergeri</em> is a well-known species, with the body
-moderately elongate. <em>Semionotus agassizi</em> and many other species
-occur in the Triassic of the Connecticut valley and in New
-Jersey. The body is very deep in the related genus <em>Dapedium</em>,
-and the head is covered with strong bony plates. <em>Dapedium
-politum</em> is a well-known species of the English Triassic. <em>Tetragonolepis</em>
-(<em>Pleurolepis</em>) is a similar form, very deep and compressed,
-with strong, firm scales.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the extinct family of <em>Lepidotidæ</em> the teeth are conical or
-chisel-shaped, while blunt or molar teeth are on the inside of
-the mouth, which is small, and the suspensorium of the mandible
-is vertical or inclined forward. The body is robust-fusiform,
-covered with rhomboid scales; the vertebræ form rings about
-the notochord; the teeth are either sharp or blunt. The dorsal
-fin is short, with large fulcra.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The best known of the numerous genera are <em>Lepidotes</em>,
-rather elongate in body, with large, blunt teeth. Of the many
-species of <em>Lepidotes</em>, <em>Lepidotes elvensis</em> abounds in the English
-and German Triassic, and <em>Lepidotes minor</em> in the English Triassic.
-Another well-known European species is <em>Lepidotes mantelli</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>
-<img src='images/i_025.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 15.</span>—<em>Dapedium politum</em> Leach, restored. Family <em>Semionotidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>The <em>Isopholidæ</em> (<em>Eugnathidæ</em>) differ from the families last
-named in the large pike-like mouth with strong teeth. The
-mandibular suspensorium is inclined backwards. The body is
-elongate, the vertebræ forming incomplete rings; the dorsal
-fin is short with large fulcra.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Isopholis dentosus</em> is found with numerous other species in
-the British Triassic. <em>Caturus furcatus</em> is especially characteristic
-of Triassic rocks in Germany. <em>Ptycholepis marshi</em> occurs in
-the Connecticut valley.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_026.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 16.</span>—<em>Tetragonolepis semicinctus</em> Brown. Lias. Family <em>Semionotidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Macrosemiidæ</em> are elongate fishes with long dorsal fin,
-the numerous species being found in the Triassic, Jurassic, and
-Cretaceous of Europe. <em>Macrosemius rostratus</em> has a very high,
-continuous dorsal. <em>Macropistius arenatus</em> is found in the
-Cretaceous of Texas, the only American species known. Prominent
-European genera are <em>Notagogus</em>, <em>Ophiopsis</em>, and <em>Petalopteryx</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>
-<img src='images/i_027a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 17.</span>—<em>Isopholis orthostomus</em> (Agassiz). Lias. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_027b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 18.</span>—The Long-nosed Garpike, <em>Lepisosteus osseus</em> (Linnæus). Fox River, Wisconsin. (From nature; D. S. Jordan and M. L. McDonald, 1874.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Intermediate between the allies of the gars and the modern
-herrings is the large extinct family of <em>Pholidophoridæ</em>, referred
-by Woodward to the <em>Isospondyli</em>, and by Eastman to the <em>Lepidostei</em>.
-These are small fishes, fusiform in shape, chiefly of
-the Triassic and Jurassic. The fins are fringed with fulcra,
-the scales are ganoid and rhombic, and the vertebræ reduced
-to rings. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and formed as
-in the <em>Isospondyli</em>. The caudal is scarcely heterocercal.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_028a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 19.</span>—<em>Caturus elongatus</em> Agassiz. Jurassic. Family <em>Isopholidæ</em>. (After Zittel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_028b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 20.</span>—<em>Notagogus pentlandi</em> Agassiz. Jurassic. Family <em>Macrosemiidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_028c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 21.</span>—<em>Ptycholepis curtus</em> Egerton. Lias. Family <em>Isopholidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of <em>Pholidophorus</em>, with scales joined by peg-and-socket joints
-and uniform in size, there are many species. <em>Pholidophorus
-latiusculus</em> and many others are found in the Triassic of England
-and the Continent. <em>Pholidophorus americanus</em> occurs in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Jurassic of South Dakota. <em>Pleuropholis</em>, with the scales on the
-lateral line, which runs very low, excessively deepened, is also
-widely distributed. I have before me a new species from the
-Cretaceous rocks near Los Angeles. The <em>Archæomænidæ</em> differ
-from <em>Pholidophoridæ</em> in having cycloid scales. In both families
-the vertebræ are reduced to rings about the notochord. From
-fishes allied to the <em>Pholidophoridæ</em> the earliest <em>Isospondyli</em> are
-probably descended.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_029.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 22.</span>—<em>Pholidophorus crenulatus</em> Egerton. Lias. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the <em>Aspidorhynchidæ</em> the snout is more or less produced,
-the mandible has a distinct presymphysial bone, the vertebræ
-are double-concave or ring-like, and the fins are without fulcra.
-This family constitutes the suborder <em>Ætheospondyli</em>. In form
-these fishes resemble <em>Albula</em> and other modern types, but have
-mailed heads and an ancient type of scales. Two genera are
-well known, <em>Aspidorhynchus</em> and <em>Belonostomus</em>. <em>Aspidorhynchus
-acutirostris</em> reaches a length of three feet, and is found in
-the Triassic lithographic stone of Bavaria. Other species
-occur in rocks of Germany and England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Belonostomus</em> has the snout scarcely produced. <em>Belonostomus
-sphyrænoides</em> is the best known of the numerous species,
-all of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Family Lepisosteidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Lepisosteidæ</em>, constituting
-the suborder <em>Ginglymodi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γιγγλυμός</span>, hinge), is characterized
-especially by the form of the vertebræ.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These are opisthocœlian, convex in front and concave behind,
-as in reptiles, being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail
-is moderately heterocercal, less so than in the <em>Halecomorphi</em>, and
-the body is covered with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>scales in structure similar to that of the teeth. A number of
-peculiar characters are shown by these fishes, some of them
-having often been regarded as reptilian traits. Notable features
-are the elongate, crocodile-like jaws, the upper the longer, and
-both armed with strong teeth. The mandible is without presymphysial
-bone. The fins are small with large fulcra, and
-the scales are nearly uniform in size.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>All the species belong to a single family, <em>Lepisosteidæ</em>, which
-includes the modern garpikes and their immediate relatives,
-some of which occur in the early Tertiary. These voracious
-fishes are characterized by long and slender cylindrical bodies,
-with enameled scales and mailed heads and heterocercal tail.
-The teeth are sharp and unequal. The skeleton is well ossified,
-and the animal itself is extremely voracious. The vertebræ,
-reptile-like, are opisthocœlian, that is, convex in front, concave
-behind, forming ball-and-socket joints. In almost all other
-fishes they are amphicœlian or double-concave, the interspace
-filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species, and perhaps
-all the extinct species also, belong to the single genus
-<em>Lepisosteus</em> (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled
-<em>Lepidosteus</em>). Of existing forms there are not many species,
-three to five at the most, and they swarm in the lakes, bayous,
-and sluggish streams from Lake Champlain to Cuba and along
-the coast to Central America. The best known of the species
-is the long-nosed garpike, <em>Lepisosteus osseus</em>, which is found
-throughout most of the Great Lake region and the Mississippi
-Valley, and in which the long and slender jaws are much longer
-than the rest of the head. The garpike frequents quiet waters
-and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often lies quiet for a long
-time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does not
-readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It
-feeds on crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly
-destructive, as its bad reputation indicates. Fishermen everywhere
-destroy it without mercy. Its flesh is rank and tough
-and unfit even for dogs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second
-dorsal and anal, the filamentous tip of the tail passing through
-and beyond it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The short-nosed garpike, <em>Lepisosteus platystomus</em>, is generally
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>common throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short
-broad snout like the alligator-gar, but seldom exceeds three feet
-in length. In size, color, and habits it agrees closely with the
-common gar, differing only in the form of the snout. The form
-is subject to much variation, and it is possible that two or more
-species have been confounded.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_031.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 23.</span>—Alligator-gar, <em>Lepisosteus tristœchus</em> (Bloch). Cuba.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great alligator-gar, <em>Lepisosteus tristœchus</em>, reaches a
-length of twenty feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of
-the streams about the Gulf of Mexico. Its snout is broad and
-relatively wide, and its teeth are very strong. It is very destructive
-to all sorts of food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and
-its enameled scales resist a spear or sometimes even shot.
-It breathes air to a certain extent by its lungs, but soon dies
-in foul water, not having the tenacity of life seen in <em>Amia</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Embryology of the Garpike.</strong>—Mr. Alexander Agassiz has
-given an account of the embryology of the garpike, of which the
-following is an abstract:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The garpike comes up the St. Lawrence in May, lays its
-eggs about the 20th, and then disappears. The eggs are large,
-viscous, stick fast in an isolated way to whatever they fall
-upon, and look much like those of toads, having a large outer
-membrane and a small yolk. Artificial fecundation failed,
-but about 500 naturally-laid eggs were secured, of which all
-but 30 perished through mold. The young began to hatch
-in six days. Out of 30 young hatched, 27 lived until the
-15th of July. Connection with the sharks appears in the
-similarity of the branchial arches and by the presence of the
-lateral fold in which the pectoral fins are formed; the way
-the tail is developed is very like that of the bony fishes.
-Among the Ganoids it appears, as well as in ordinary fishes,
-the dorsal cord is straight at first, then assumes a slightly upward
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>curve at the extremity, when finally there appears the
-beginning of a lobe underneath, pointing to a complete heterocercal
-tail. All this is as in the bony fishes, but this is the
-permanent condition of the garpike, while in the bony fishes
-the extremity of the dorsal cord becomes extinct. The mode
-of development of the pectoral lobe (very large in this species)
-furnishes another resemblance. In the brain, and in the mode
-of formation of the gills, a likeness to the sharks is noticeable.
-The young garpikes move very slowly, and seem to float quietly,
-save an exceedingly rapid vibration of the pectorals and the
-tip of the tail. They do not swim about much, but attach
-themselves to fixed objects by an extraordinary horseshoe-shaped
-ring of sucker-appendages about the mouth. These
-appendages remain even after the snout has become so extended
-that the ultimate shape is hinted at; and furthermore, it is
-a remnant of this feature that forms the fleshy bulb at the end
-of the snout in the adult. The investigations thus far show
-that the young garpike has many characteristics in common
-with the sharks and skates, but it is not so different from the
-bony fishes as has been supposed."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Fossil Garpikes.</strong>—A number of fossil garpikes, referred by
-Cope to the genus <em>Clastes</em> and by Eastman and Woodward to
-<em>Lepidosteus</em>, are found in the Eocene of Europe and America.
-The most perfect of these remains is called <em>Lepisosteus atrox</em>,
-upward of four feet long, as large as an alligator-gar, which the
-species much resembles. Although found in the Eocene, Dr.
-C. R. Eastman declares that "it has no positively archaic features.
-If we inquire into the more remote or pre-Eocene history of
-Lepidosteids, palæontology gives no answer. They blossom
-forth suddenly and fully differentiated at the dawn of the
-Tertiary, without the least clue to their ancestry, unheralded
-and unaccompanied by any intermediate forms, and they have
-remained essentially unchanged ever since."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another fossil species is <em>Lepisosteus fimbriatus</em>, from the
-Upper Eocene of England. Scales and other fragments of
-garpikes are found in Germany, Belgium, and France, in Eocene
-and Miocene rocks. On some of these the nominal genera
-<em>Naisia</em>, <em>Trichiurides</em>, and <em>Pneumatosteus</em> are founded. <em>Clastes</em>,
-regarded by Eastman as fully identical with <em>Lepisosteus</em>, is said
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>to have the "mandibular ramus without or with a reduced
-fissure of the dental foramen, and without the groove continuous
-with it in <em>Lepisosteus</em>. One series of large teeth, with
-small ones external to them on the dentary bone." Most of
-the fossil forms belong to <em>Clastes</em>, but the genus shows no difference
-of importance which will distinguish it from the ordinary
-garpike.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_033.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 24.</span>—Lower jaw of <em>Amia calva</em> Linnæus, showing the gular plate.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Halecomorphi.</strong>—To this order belong the allies, living
-or extinct, of the bowfin (<em>Amia</em>), having for the most part
-cycloid scales and vertebræ approaching those of ordinary
-fishes. The resemblance to the <em>Isospondyli</em>, or herring group,
-is indicated in the name (Halec, a herring; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">μορφή</span>, form). The
-notochord is persistent, the vertebræ variously ossified. The
-opercles are always complete. The branchiostegals are broad
-and there is always a gular plate. The teeth are pointed, usually
-strong. There is no infraclavicle. Fulcra are present or
-absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in number
-to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid,
-but bony at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible complex,
-with well-developed splenial rising into a coronoid process,
-which is completed by a distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin
-with more than five actinosts; scales ganoid or cycloid. In the
-living forms the air-bladder is connected with the œsophagus
-through life; optic chiasma present; intestine with a spiral
-valve. This group corresponds to the <em>Amioidei</em> of Lütken
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>and essentially to the <em>Cycloganoidei</em> of Gill. The <em>Protospondyli</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">προτός</span>, before; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σπόνδυλος</span>, vertebra) of Woodward contains
-essentially the same elements.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Pachycormidæ.</strong>—In the family of <em>Pachycormidæ</em> the notochord
-is persistent, the ethmoids and vomer fused and projecting
-between the maxillaries to form the prominent snout,
-the teeth large, the body fusiform, the dorsal short, with slender
-rays and few fulcra or none, and the scales are thin and rhombic.
-The numerous species are characteristic of the Triassic, Jurassic,
-and Cretaceous. In <em>Sauropsis</em> (<em>longimana</em>) the body is elongate,
-and the pectoral fins are large and sickle-shaped. <em>Euthynotus</em>
-has small fulcra. In <em>Pachycormus</em> (<em>macropterus</em>, <em>esocinus</em>,
-etc.) the form is robust and the ventral fins are wanting. In
-<em>Hypsycormus</em> ventrals are present, and the caudal deeply forked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the American family of <em>Protosphyrænidæ</em> the jaws are
-armed with very strong teeth, as in the Barracuda, which,
-however, the species do not resemble in other respects. <em>Protosphyræna
-nitida</em>, <em>perniciosa</em>, and numerous other extinct
-forms, some of them of large size, were voracious inhabitants
-of the Cretaceous seas, and are found fossil, especially in North
-Carolina and Kansas. Numerous species called <em>Erisichthe</em> and
-<em>Pelecopterus</em> are all referred by Hay to <em>Protosphyræna</em>. In
-this family the scapula and coracoids are ossified, and perhaps
-the vertebræ also, and, as Dr. Hay has recently suggested, the
-<em>Protosphyrænidæ</em> may really belong to the <em>Isospondyli</em>. In any
-event, they stand on the border-line between the most fish-like
-of the Ganoids and the most archaic of the bony fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Liodesmidæ</em> (genus <em>Liodesmus</em>) are much like <em>Amia</em>, but
-the notochord is persistent, its sheath without ossification.
-<em>Liodesmus gracilis</em> and <em>L. sprattiformis</em> occur in the lithographic
-stones of Bavaria. Woodward places <em>Liodesmus</em> with <em>Megalurus</em>
-among the <em>Amiidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Bowfins: Amiidæ.</strong>—The <em>Amiidæ</em> have the vertebræ more
-complete. The dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct
-fulcra. The diamond-shaped enameled scales disappear, giving
-place to cycloid scales, which gradually become thin and membranous
-in structure. A median gular plate is developed between
-the branchiostegals. The tail is moderately heterocercal,
-and the head covered with a bony coat of mail.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>The family of <em>Amiidæ</em> contains a single recent species,
-<em>Amia calva</em>, the only living member of the order <em>Halecomorphi</em>.
-The bowfin, or grindle, is a remarkable fish abounding in the
-lakes and swamps of the Mississippi Valley, the Great Lake
-region, and southward to Virginia, where it is known by the
-imposing but unexplained title of John A. Grindle. In the
-Great Lakes it is usually called "dogfish," because even the
-dogs will not eat it, and "lawyer," because, according to Dr.
-Kirtland, "it will bite at anything and is good for nothing
-when caught."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the
-male being smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated
-black spot on the tail. Both sexes are dark mottled green in
-color. The flesh of the species is very watery, pasty, much
-of the substance evaporating when exposed to the air. It is
-ill-flavored, and is not often used as food. The species is
-very voracious and extremely tenacious of life. Its well-developed
-lung enables it to breathe even when out of the water, and
-it will live in the air longer than any other fish of American
-waters, longer even than the horned pout (<em>Ameiurus</em>) or the
-mud-minnow (<em>Umbra</em>). As a game fish the grindle is one of
-the very best, if the angler does not care for the flesh of what he
-catches, it being one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_035.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 25.</span>—Bowfin (female), <em>Amia calva</em> Linnæus. Lake Michigan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Amiidæ</em> retain many of the Ganoid characters, though
-approaching more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the
-modern herring tribe. For this reason the name <em>Halecomorphi</em>
-(shad-formed) was given to this order by Professor Cope. The
-gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids reappears in
-the herring-like family of <em>Elopidæ</em>, which includes the tarpon
-and the ten-pounder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>Woodward unites the extinct genera called <em>Cyclurus</em>, <em>Notæus</em>,
-<em>Amiopsis</em>, <em>Protamia</em>, <em>Hypamia</em>, and <em>Pappichthys</em> with <em>Amia</em>.
-<em>Pappichthys</em> (<em>corsoni</em>, etc.), from the Wyoming Eocene, is doubtless
-a valid genus, having but one row of teeth in each jaw, and
-<em>Amiopsis</em> is also recognized by Hay. Woodward refers to
-<em>Amia</em> the following extinct species: <em>Amia valenciennesi</em>, from
-the Miocene of France; <em>Amia macrocephala</em>, from the Miocene
-of Bohemia; and <em>Amia ignota</em>, from the Eocene of Paris. Other
-species of Amia are known from fragments. Several of these
-are from the Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Some of
-them have a much shorter dorsal fin than that of <em>Amia calva</em>
-and may be generically different.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_036.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 26.</span>—<em>Megalurus elegantissimus</em> Wagner. Family <em>Amiidæ</em>. (After Zittel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Megalurus</em> differs from <em>Amia</em> in the still shorter
-dorsal fin, less than one-third the length of the back. The
-body is elongate and much depressed. <em>Megalurus lepidotus</em>
-and several other species are found in the lithographic stones
-of Bavaria and elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Oligopleuridæ.</strong>—In the extinct family <em>Oligopleuridæ</em>
-the scales are cycloid, the bones of the head scarcely enameled,
-and the vertebræ well ossified. Fulcra are present, and the
-mouth is large, with small teeth. The genera are <em>Oligopleurus</em>,
-<em>Ionoscopus</em>, and <em>Spathiurus</em>, the species not very numerous
-and chiefly of the Cretaceous. <em>Ionoscopus cyprinoides</em> of the
-lithographic shales of Bavaria is a characteristic species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From the three families last named, with the <em>Pholidophoridæ</em>,
-there is an almost perfect transition from the Ganoid fishes to
-teleosteans of the order of <em>Isospondyli</em>, the primitive order from
-which all other bony fishes are perhaps descended. The family
-of <em>Leptolepidæ</em>, differing from <em>Oligopleuridæ</em> in the absence of
-fulcra, is here placed with the <em>Isospondyli</em>, but it might about
-as well be regarded as Ganoid.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br />ISOSPONDYLI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_037dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.</strong>—The fishes which
-still remain for discussion constitute the great subclass
-or series of <em>Teleostei</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">τελεός</span>, true; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">οστέον</span>, bone),
-or bony fishes. They lack wholly or partly the Ganoid traits,
-or show them only in the embryo. The tail is slightly, if at all,
-heterocercal; the actinosts of the pectoral fins are few and large,
-rarely over five in number, except among the eels; the fulcra
-disappear; the air-bladder is no longer cellular, except in very
-rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration. The optic nerves
-are separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the
-skeleton is almost entirely bony, the notochord usually disappearing
-entirely with age; the valves in the arterial bulb
-are reduced in number, and the spiral valve of the intestines
-disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid traits may persist
-somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a distinct
-specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type,
-with the loss of characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and
-Ganoids. In a general way the skeleton of all Teleosts corresponds
-with that of the striped bass (see Figs. 22, 23, Vol. I), and
-the visceral anatomy is in all cases sufficiently like that of the
-sunfish (Fig. 16, Vol. I).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids,
-persists in the less specialized types of bony fishes, although
-no trace of it is found in the perch-like forms. With all this,
-there is developed among the bony fishes an infinite variety
-in details of structure. For this reason the <em>Teleostei</em> must be
-broken into many orders, and these orders are very different
-in value and in degrees of distinctness, the various groups being
-joined by numerous and puzzling intergradations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span><strong>Order Isospondyli.</strong>—Of the various subordinate groups of
-bony fishes, there can be no question as to which is most primitive
-in structure, or as to which stands nearest the orders of
-Ganoids. Earliest of the bony fishes in geological time is the
-order of <em>Isospondyli</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἴσος</span>, equal; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σπόνδυλος</span>, vertebra), containing
-the allies, recent or fossil, of the herring and the trout. This
-order contains those soft-rayed fishes in which the ventral
-fins are abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch is developed,
-and the anterior vertebræ are unmodified and essentially
-similar to the others. The orbitosphenoid is present in all
-typical forms. In certain forms of doubtful affinity (<em>Iniomi</em>) the
-mesocoracoid is wanting or lost in degeneration. Through
-the <em>Isospondyli</em> all the families of fishes yet to be considered
-are apparently descended, their ancestors being Ganoid fishes
-and, still farther back, the Crossopterygians.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Woodward gives this definition of the <em>Isospondyli</em>: "Notochord
-varying in persistence, the vertebral centra usually complete,
-but none coalesced; tail homocercal, but hæmal supports
-not much expanded or fused. Symplectic bone present, mandible
-simple, each dentary consisting only of two elements (dentary
-and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments of a splenoid on the
-inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the cranium; precoracoid
-(mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates
-wanting. Pelvic (ventral) fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only
-in the less specialized families. In the living forms air-bladder
-connected with the œsophagus in the adult; optic nerves decussating
-(without chiasma), and intestine either wanting spiral
-valve or with an incomplete representative of it."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Classification of the Bony Fishes.</strong>—The classification of
-fishes has been greatly complicated by the variety of names
-applied to groups which are substantially but not quite identical
-one with another. The difference in these schemes of classification
-lies in the point of view. In all cases a single character
-must be brought to the front; such characters never stand
-quite alone, and to lay emphasis on another character is to
-make an alteration large or small in the name or in the boundaries
-of a class or order. Thus the <em>Ostariophysi</em> with the <em>Isospondyli</em>,
-<em>Haplomi</em>, and a few minor groups make up the great
-division of the <em>Abdominales</em>. These are fishes in which the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>ventral fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that
-the pelvis is free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being
-attached to different parts of the skeleton. Most of the abdominal
-fishes are also soft-rayed fishes, that is, without consecutive
-spines in the dorsal and anal fins, and they show a number
-of other archaic peculiarities. The Malacopterygians (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">μαλακός</span>,
-soft; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερύξ</span>, fin) of Cuvier therefore correspond very nearly
-to the <em>Abdominales</em>. But they are not quite the same, as the
-spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets have abdominal ventrals,
-and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes, as the sea-snails
-and brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their
-fin-spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the
-slender tube connecting the air-bladder with the œsophagus
-persists through life. This character defines Müller's order
-of <em>Physostomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">φυσός</span>, bladder; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">στόμα</span>, mouth), as opposed to
-his <em>Physoclysti</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">φυσός</span>, bladder; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κλεῖστός</span>, closed), in which this
-tube is present in the embryo or larva only. Thus the <em>Thoracices</em>
-and <em>Jugulares</em>, or fishes having the ventrals thoracic or jugular,
-together correspond almost exactly to the Acanthopterygians,
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ακανθα</span>, spine; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερύξ</span>, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes of Cuvier, or to
-the <em>Physoclysti</em> of Müller. The Malacopterygians, the <em>Abdominales</em>,
-and the <em>Physostomi</em> are in the same way practically
-identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have mostly ctenoid
-scales, and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the <em>Physostomi</em>
-correspond roughly to Agassiz's <em>Cycloidei</em>, and the <em>Physoclysti</em>
-to his <em>Ctenoidei</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly
-exact, and in any system of classification we must choose characters
-for primary divisions so ancient and therefore so permanent
-as to leave no room for exceptions. The extraordinary
-difficulty of doing this, with the presence of most puzzling
-intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest that the great body
-of bony fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed, abdominal, thoracic,
-and jugular alike, be placed in a single great order which he
-calls <em>Teleocephali</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">τελεός</span>, perfect; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>, head). The aberrant
-forms with defective skull and membrane-bones he would separate
-as minor offshoots from this great mass with the name
-of separate orders. But while the divisions of <em>Teleocephali</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>are not strongly differentiated, their distinctive characters are
-real, ancient, and important, while those of the aberrant groups,
-called orders by Gill (as <em>Plectognathi</em>, <em>Pediculati</em>, <em>Hemibranchii</em>),
-are relatively modern and superficial, which is one reason why
-they are more easily defined. There seems to us no special
-advantage in the retention of a central order <em>Teleocephali</em>,
-from which the divergent branches are separated as distinct
-orders.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of
-most of the families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident
-that the relationships of the groups cannot be shown in any
-linear series or by any conceivable arrangement of orders and
-suborders. The living teleost fishes have sprung from many
-lines of descent, their relationships are extremely diverse, and
-their differences are of every possible degree of value. The
-ordinary schemes have magnified the value of a few common
-characters, at the same time neglecting other differences of
-equal value. No system of arrangement which throws these
-fishes into large groups can ever be definite or permanent.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Relationships of Isospondyli.</strong>—For our purposes we may divide
-the physostomous fishes as understood by Müller into several
-orders, the most primitive, the most generalized, and economically
-the most important being the order of <em>Isospondyli</em>. This order
-contains those bony fishes which have the anterior vertebræ
-unaltered (as distinguished from the <em>Ostariophysi</em>), the skull
-relatively complete, or at least not eel-like, the mesocoracoid
-typically developed, but atrophied in deep-sea forms and finally
-lost, the orbitosphenoid present. In all the species the ventral
-fins are abdominal and normally composed of more than six
-rays; the air-duct is developed. The scales are chiefly cycloid
-and the fins are without true spines. In many ways the order
-is more primitive than <em>Nematognathi</em>, <em>Plectospondyli</em>, or <em>Apodes</em>.
-It is certain that it began earlier in geological time than any
-of these. On the other hand, the <em>Isospondyli</em> are closely connected
-through the <em>Berycoidei</em> with the highly specialized fishes.
-The continuity of the natural series is therefore interrupted by
-the interposition of the side branches of Ostariophysans and eels
-before considering the <em>Haplomi</em> and the other transitional forms.
-The forms called <em>Iniomi</em>, which lack the mesocoracoid and the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the <em>Haplomi</em> by
-Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Ganoid traits are present in certain families of <em>Isospondyli</em>.
-Among these are the gular plate (found in <em>Amia</em> and the <em>Elopidæ</em>),
-doubtless derived from the similar structure in earlier Ganoids;
-additional valves in the arterial bulb in the cellular air-bladder
-of <em>Notopterus</em> and <em>Osteoglossum</em>, the spiral intestinal valve
-in <em>Chirocentridæ</em>, and the ganoid scales of the extinct <em>Leptolepidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Clupeoidea.</strong>—The <em>Isospondyli</em> are divisible into numerous
-families, which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions,
-<em>Clupeoidea</em>, the herring-like forms; the <em>Salmonoidea</em>, the trout-like
-forms; and the <em>Iniomi</em>, or lantern-fishes, and their allies. The
-last-named group should probably be removed from the order of
-<em>Isospondyli</em>. In the <em>Clupeoidea</em>, the allies of the great family
-of the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed, retaining
-the mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the
-post-temporal is articulated above with the cranium. The fishes
-in this group lack the adipose fin which is characteristic of most
-of the higher or salmon-like families.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_041.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 27.</span>—<em>Leptolepis dubius</em> Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Leptolepidæ.</strong>—Most primitive of the <em>Isospondyli</em> is the
-extinct family of <em>Leptolepidæ</em>, closely allied to the Ganoid families
-of <em>Pholidophoridæ</em> and <em>Oligopleuridæ</em>. It is composed of graceful,
-herring-like fishes, with the bones of the head thin but covered
-with enamel, and the scales thin but firm and enameled on their
-free portion. There are no fulcra and there is no lateral line.
-The vertebræ are well developed, but always pierced by the
-notochord. The genera are <em>Lycoptera</em>, <em>Leptolepis</em>, <em>Æthalion</em>,
-and <em>Thrissops</em>. In <em>Lycoptera</em> of the Jurassic of China the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>vertebral centra are feebly developed, and the dorsal fin short
-and posterior. In <em>Leptolepis</em> the anal is short and placed
-behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the
-Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found
-in the Cretaceous. <em>Leptolepis coryphænoides</em> and <em>Leptolepis
-dubius</em> are among the more common species. <em>Æthalion</em> (<em>knorri</em>)
-differs in the form of the jaws. In <em>Thrissops</em> the anal fin is
-long and opposite the dorsal. <em>Thrissops salmonea</em> is found
-in the lithographic stone; <em>Thrissops exigua</em> in the Cretaceous.
-In all these early forms there is a hard casque over the brain-cavity,
-as in the living types, <em>Amia</em> and <em>Osteoglossum</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_042a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 28.</span>—Ten-pounder, <em>Elops saurus</em> L. An ally of the earliest bony fishes. Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_042b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 29.</span>—A primitive Herring-like fish, <em>Holcolepis lewesiensis</em>, Mantell, restored. Family <em>Elopidæ</em>. English Chalk. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Elopidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Elopidæ</em> contains large fishes
-herring-like in form and structure, but having a flat membrane-bone
-or gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw, as
-in the Ganoid genus <em>Amia</em>. The living species are few, abounding
-in the tropical seas, important for their size and numbers,
-though not valued as food-fishes save to those who, like the
-Hawaiians and Japanese, eat fishes raw. These people prefer
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>for that purpose the white-meated or soft-fleshed forms like
-<em>Elops</em> or <em>Scarus</em> to those which yield a better flavor when cooked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The ten-pounder (<em>Elops saurus</em>), pike-like in form but with
-very weak teeth, is found in tropical America. <em>Elops machnata</em>,
-the jack mariddle, the awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in
-the Pacific, is scarcely if at all different.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_043.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 30.</span>—Tarpon or Grande Écaille, <em>Tarpon atlanticus</em> Cuv. &amp; Val. Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sable
-(<em>Tarpon atlanticus</em>), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of
-Florida and Carolina. It takes the hook with great spirit, and
-as it reaches a length of six feet or more it affords much excitement
-to the successful angler. The very large scales are much
-used in ornamental work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of
-the dorsal very much produced, is <em>Megalops cyprinoides</em> of the
-East Indies. Other species occur in the South Seas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous fossil genera related to <em>Elops</em> are found in the
-Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. <em>Holcolepis lewesiensis</em> (wrongly
-called <em>Osmeroides</em>) is the best-known European species. Numerous
-species are referred to <em>Elopopsis</em>. <em>Megalops prisca</em> and
-species of <em>Elops</em> also occur in the London Eocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In all these the large parietals meet along the median line
-of the skull. In the closely related family of <em>Spaniodontidæ</em>
-the parietals are small and do not meet. All the species of
-this group, united by Woodward with the <em>Elopidæ</em>, are extinct.
-These fishes preceded the <em>Elopidæ</em> in the Cretaceous period.
-Leading genera are <em>Thrissopater</em> and <em>Spaniodon</em>, the latter
-armed with large teeth. <em>Spaniodon blondeli</em> is from the Cretaceous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>of Mount Lebanon. Many other species are found in the
-European and American Cretaceous rocks, but are known from
-imperfect specimens only.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Sardinius</em>, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand
-near <em>Spaniodon</em>. <em>Rhacolepis buccalis</em> and <em>Notelops brama</em> are
-found in Brazil, beautifully preserved in concretions of calcareous
-mud supposed to be of Cretaceous age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The extinct family of <em>Pachyrhizodontidæ</em> is perhaps allied
-to the <em>Elopidæ</em>. Numerous species of <em>Pachyrhizodus</em> are found
-in the Cretaceous of southern England and of Kansas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Albulidæ.</strong>—The <em>Albulidæ</em>, or lady-fishes, characterized by
-the blunt and rounded teeth, are found in most warm seas.
-<em>Albula vulpes</em> is a brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food.
-The metamorphosis (see Fig. 112, Vol. I) which the larva undergoes
-is very remarkable. It is probably, however, more or less
-typical of the changes which take place with soft-rayed fishes
-generally, though more strongly marked in <em>Albula</em> and in certain
-eels than in most related forms. Fossils allied to <em>Albula</em>, <em>Albula
-oweni</em>, <em>Chanoides macropomus</em>, are found in the Eocene of Europe;
-<em>Syntegmodus altus</em> in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In <em>Chanoides</em>,
-the most primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in
-<em>Albula</em>. <em>Plethodus</em> and <em>Thryptodus</em>, with peculiar dental plates
-on the roof and floor of the mouth, probably constitute a distinct
-family, <em>Thryptodontidæ</em>. The species are found in European
-and American rocks, but are known from imperfect specimens
-only.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_044.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 31.</span>—The Lady-fish, <em>Albula vulpes</em> (Linnæus). Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Chanidæ.</strong>—The <em>Chanidæ</em>, or milkfishes, constitute another
-small archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>large, brilliantly silvery, toothless fishes, looking like enormous
-dace, swift in the water, and very abundant in the Gulf of
-California, Polynesia, and India. The single living species is
-the <em>Awa</em>, or milkfish, <em>Chanos chanos</em>, largely used as food
-in Hawaii. Species of <em>Prochanos</em> and <em>Chanos</em> occur in the
-Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene. Allied to <em>Chanos</em> is the
-Cretaceous genus <em>Ancylostylos</em> (<em>gibbus</em>), probably the type of
-a distinct family, toothless and with many-rayed dorsal.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_045a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 32.</span>—Milkfish, <em>Chanos chanos</em> (L.). Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_045b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 33.</span>—Mooneye, <em>Hiodon tergisus</em> Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Hiodontidæ.</strong>—The <em>Hiodontidæ</em>, or mooneyes, inhabit the
-rivers of the central portion of the United States and Canada.
-They are shad-like fishes with brilliantly silvery scales and very
-strong sharp teeth, those on the tongue especially long. They are
-very handsome fishes and take the hook with spirit, but the
-flesh is rather tasteless and full of small bones, much like that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>of the milkfish. The commonest species is <em>Hiodon tergisus</em>.
-No fossil <em>Hiodontidæ</em> are known.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_046a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 34.</span>—<em>Istieus grandis</em> Agassiz. Family <em>Pterothrissidæ</em>. (After Zittel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_046b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 35.</span>—<em>Chirothrix libanicus</em> Pictet &amp; Humbert. Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pterothrissidæ.</strong>—The <em>Pterothrissidæ</em> are sea-fishes like
-<em>Albula</em>, but more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live
-in deep or cold waters along the coasts of Japan, where they are
-known as gisu. The single species is <em>Pterothrissus gissu</em>. The
-fossil genus <em>Istieus</em>, from the Upper Cretaceous, probably belongs
-near the <em>Pterothrissidæ</em>. <em>Istieus grandis</em> is the best-known
-species. Another ancient family, now represented by a single
-species, is that of the <em>Chirocentridæ</em>, of which the living type
-is <em>Chirocentrus dorab</em>, a long, slender, much compressed herring-like
-fish, with a saw-edge on the belly, found in the East Indies,
-in which region <em>Chirocentrus polyodon</em> occurs as a fossil. Numerous
-fossil genera related to <em>Chirocentrus</em> are enumerated by
-Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family
-of <em>Ichthyodectidæ</em> (<em>Saurodontidæ</em>). Of these, <em>Portheus</em>, <em>Ichthyodectes</em>,
-<em>Saurocephalus</em> (<em>Saurodon</em>), and <em>Gillicus</em> are represented by
-numerous species, some of them fishes of immense size and great
-voracity. <em>Portheus molossus</em>, found in the Cretaceous of Nebraska,
-is remarkable for its very strong teeth. Species of other genera
-are represented by numerous species in the Cretaceous of both
-the Rocky Mountain region and of Europe.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>
-<img src='images/i_047.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 36.</span>—Gigantic skeleton of <em>Portheus molossus</em> Cope. (Photograph by Charles H. Sternberg.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span><strong>The Ctenothrissidæ.</strong>—A related family, <em>Ctenothrissidæ</em>, is
-represented solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group
-the body is robust with large scales, ctenoid in <em>Ctenothrissa</em>,
-cycloid in <em>Aulolepis</em>. The fins are large, the belly not serrated,
-and the teeth feeble. <em>Ctenothrissa vexillifera</em> is from Mount
-Lebanon. Other species occur in the European chalk. In the
-small family of <em>Phractolæmidæ</em> the interopercle, according to
-Boulenger, is enormously developed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_048.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 37.</span>—<em>Ctenothrissa vexillifera</em> Pictet, restored. Mt. Lebanon Cretaceous. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Notopteridæ.</strong>—The <em>Notopteridæ</em> is another small family
-in the rivers of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in
-a long and tapering fin, and, as usual in fishes which swim by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>body undulations, the ventral fins are lost. The belly is doubly
-serrate. The air-bladder is highly complex in structure, being
-divided into several compartments and terminating in two
-horns anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior horns being in
-direct communication with the auditory organ. A fossil <em>Notopterus</em>,
-<em>N. primævus</em>, is found in the same region.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Clupeidæ.</strong>—The great herring family, or <em>Clupeidæ</em>, comprises
-fishes with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales,
-and feeble dentition. From related families it is separated
-by the absence of lateral line and the division of the maxillary
-into three pieces. In most of the genera the belly ends in a
-serrated edge, though in the true herring this is not very evident,
-and in some the belly has a blunt edge. Some of the species
-live in rivers, some ascend from the sea for the purpose of spawning.
-The majority are confined to the ocean. Among all
-the genera, the one most abundant in individuals is that of
-<em>Clupea</em>, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are immense
-schools of <em>Clupea harengus</em>. In the North Pacific on
-both shores another herring, <em>Clupea pallasi</em>, is equally abundant,
-and with the same market it would be equally valuable. As
-salted, dried, or smoked fish the herring is found throughout
-the civilized world, and its spawning and feeding-grounds have
-determined the location of cities.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_049.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 38.</span>—Herring, <em>Clupea harengus</em> L. New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Clupea</em>, of northern distribution, has the vertebræ
-in increased number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer.
-Several other genera are very closely related, but ranging farther
-south they have, with other characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebræ.
-The alewife, or branch-herring (<em>Pomolobus pseudoharengus</em>),
-ascends the rivers to spawn and has become landlocked in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the Gulf of Mexico,
-<em>Pomolobus chrysochloris</em>, becomes very fat in the sea. The
-species becomes landlocked in the Ohio River, where it thrives
-as to numbers, but remains lean and almost useless as food. The
-glut-herring, <em>Pomolobus æstivalis</em>, and the sprat, <em>Pomolobus
-sprattus</em>, of Europe are related forms.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_050.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 39.</span>—Alewife, <em>Pomolobus pseudoharengus</em> (Wilson). Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very near also to the herring is the shad (<em>Alosa sapidissima</em>)
-of the eastern coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the
-shad of the Gulf of Mexico (<em>Alosa alabamæ</em>), the Ohio River
-shad (<em>Alosa ohiensis</em>), very lately discovered, the Allice shad
-(<em>Alosa alosa</em>) of Europe, and the Thwaite shad (<em>Alosa finta</em>).
-In the genus <em>Alosa</em> the cheek region is very deep, giving the
-head a form different from that seen in the herring.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, peculiarly
-delicate in flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree
-than occurs in any other good food-fish, its flesh is crowded
-with small bones. The shad has been successfully introduced
-into the waters of California, where it abounds from Puget
-Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the rivers to spawn in
-May as in its native region, the Atlantic coast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Sardinella</em> includes species of rich flesh and feeble
-skeleton, excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones
-and all. This condition favors their preservation in oil as
-"sardines." All the species are alike excellent for this purpose.
-The sardine of Europe is the <em>Sardinella pilchardus</em>, known
-in England as the pilchard. The "Sardina de España" of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>Cuba is <em>Sardinella pseudohispanica</em>, the sardine of California,
-<em>Sardinella cærulea</em>. <em>Sardinella sagax</em> abounds in Chile, and <em>Sardinella
-melanosticta</em> is the valued sardine of Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the tropical Pacific occur other valued species, largely
-belonging to the genus <em>Kowala</em>. The genus <em>Harengula</em> contains
-small species with very large, firm scales which do not fall when
-touched, as is generally the case with the sardines. Most
-common of these is <em>Harengula sardina</em> of the West Indies.
-Similar species occur in southern Europe and in Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_051.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 40.</span>—Menhaden, <em>Brevoortia tyrannus</em> (Latrobe). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Opisthonema</em>, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is
-much produced, as in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The
-two species known are abundant, but of little commercial importance.
-Of greater value are the menhaden, or the moss-bunker,
-<em>Brevoortia tyrannus</em>, inhabiting the sandy coasts from
-New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish, rarely
-eaten when adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable
-sardines. It is used chiefly for oil, the annual yield exceeding
-in value that of whale-oil. The refuse is used as manure, a
-purpose for which the fishes are often taken without preparation,
-being carried directly to the cornfields. From its abundance
-this species of inferior flesh exceeds in commercial value
-almost all other American fishes excepting the cod, the herring,
-and the quinnat salmon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G.
-Brown Goode on the "Natural and Economic History of Menhaden."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed
-bodies, dry and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>tropics and are largely salted and dried by the Chinese. Among
-these are <em>Ilisha elongata</em> of the Chinese coast. Related forms
-occur in Mexico and Brazil.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations
-on the belly, are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of <em>Dussumieriidæ</em>.
-These are mostly small tropical fishes used as food
-or bait. One of these, the Kobini-Iwashi of Japan (<em>Stolephorus
-japonicus</em>), with a very bright silver band on the side, has considerable
-commercial importance. Very small herrings of this
-type in the West Indies constitute the genus <em>Jenkinsia</em>, named
-for Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins, the first to study seriously the fishes
-of Hawaii. Other species constitute the widely distributed
-genera <em>Etrumeus</em> and <em>Dussumieria</em>. <em>Etrumeus sardina</em> is the
-round herring of the Virginia coast. <em>Etrumeus micropus</em> is
-the Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_052.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 41.</span>—A fossil Herring, <em>Diplomystus humilis</em> Leidy. (From a specimen obtained at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back lost in the specimen. Family <em>Clupeidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety,
-even among the <em>Clupeidæ</em> as at present restricted. <em>Histiothrissa</em>
-of the Cretaceous seems to be allied to <em>Dussumieria</em> and
-<em>Stolephorus</em>. Another genus, from the Cretaceous of Palestine,
-<em>Pseudoberyx</em> (<em>syriacus</em>, etc.), having pectinated scales, should
-perhaps constitute a distinct subfamily, but the general structure
-is like that of the herring. More evidently herring-like
-is <em>Scombroclupea</em> (<em>macrophthalma</em>). The genus <em>Diplomystus</em>,
-with enlarged scales along the back, is abundantly represented
-in the Eocene shales of Green River, Wyoming. Species of
-similar appearance, usually but wrongly referred to the same
-genus, occur on the coasts of Peru, Chile, and New South Wales.
-A specimen of <em>Diplomystus humilis</em> from Green River is here
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>figured. Numerous herring, referred to <em>Clupea</em>, but belonging
-rather to <em>Pomolobus</em>, or other non-Arctic genera, have been
-described from the Eocene and later rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus
-<em>Leptosomus</em>, as <em>Leptosomus percrassus</em>, are found in the Cretaceous
-of South Dakota.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species doubtfully referred to <em>Dorosoma</em>, but perhaps
-allied rather to the thread-herring (<em>Opisthonema</em>), being herrings
-with a prolonged dorsal ray, are recorded from the early Tertiary
-of Europe. Among these is <em>Opisthonema doljeanum</em> from
-Austria.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_053.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 42.</span>—Hickory-shad, <em>Dorosoma cepedianum</em> (Le Sueur). Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Dorosomatidæ.</strong>—The gizzard-shad, <em>Dorosomatidæ</em>, are
-closely related to the <em>Clupeidæ</em>, differing in the small contracted
-toothless mouth and reduced maxillary. The species are deep-bodied,
-shad-like fishes of the rivers and estuaries of eastern
-America and eastern Asia. They feed on mud, and the stomach
-is thickened and muscular like that of a fowl. As the stomach
-has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the common American
-species is often called hickory-shad. The gizzard-shad are all
-very poor food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of
-small bones. The belly is always serrated. In three of the
-four genera of <em>Dorosomatidæ</em> the last dorsal ray is much produced
-and whip-like. The long and slender gill-rakers serve as strainers
-for the mud in which these fishes find their vegetable and animal
-food. <em>Dorosoma cepedianum</em>, the common hickory-shad or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>gizzard-shad, is found in brackish river-mouths and ponds from
-Long Island to Texas, and throughout the Mississippi Valley
-in all the large rivers. Through the canals it has entered Lake
-Michigan. The Konoshiro, <em>Clupanodon thrissa</em>, is equally common
-in China and Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Engraulididæ.</strong>—The anchovies (<em>Engraulididæ</em>) are dwarf
-herrings with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth.
-They are small in size and weak in muscle, found in all warm
-seas, and making a large part of the food of the larger fish.
-The genus <em>Engraulis</em> includes the anchovy of Europe, <em>Engraulis
-encrasicholus</em>, with similar species in California, Chile, Japan,
-and Australia. In this genus the vertebræ are numerous, the
-bones feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species of
-<em>Engraulis</em> are preserved in oil, often with spices, or are made
-into fish-paste, which is valued as a relish. The genus <em>Anchovia</em>
-replaces <em>Engraulis</em> in the tropics. The vertebræ are fewer, the
-bones firm and stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as
-food for larger fish, these have little value, although existing
-in immense schools. Most of the species have a bright silvery
-band along the side. The most familiar of the very numerous
-species is the silver anchovy, <em>Anchovia browni</em>, which abounds
-in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several other genera
-occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but <em>Engraulis</em> only
-is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called <em>Engraulis</em> are
-recorded from the Tertiary of Europe.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_054.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 43.</span>—A Silver Anchovy, <em>Anchovia perthecata</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Tampa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>
-<img src='images/i_055.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 44.</span>—<em>Notogoneus osculus</em> Cope. Green River Eocene. Family <em>Gonorhynchidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span><strong>Gonorhynchidæ.</strong>—To the <em>Isospondyli</em> belongs the small primitive
-family of <em>Gonorhynchidæ</em>, elongate fishes with small mouth,
-feeble teeth, no air-bladder, small scales of peculiar structure
-covering the head, weak dentition, the dorsal fin small, and
-posterior without spines. The mesocoracoid is present as in
-ordinary <em>Isospondyli</em>. <em>Gonorhynchus abbreviatus</em> occurs in
-Japan, and <em>Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus</em> is found in Australia and
-about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species occur.
-<em>Charitosomus lineolatus</em> and other species are found in the Cretaceous
-of Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without
-teeth from the Oligocene of Europe and America are referred
-to the genus <em>Notogoneus</em>. <em>Notogoneus osculus</em> occurs in the
-Eocene fresh-water deposits at Green River, Wyoming. It
-bears a very strong resemblance in form to an ordinary sucker
-(<em>Catostomus</em>), for which reason it was once described by the
-name of <em>Protocatostomus</em>. The living <em>Gonorhynchidæ</em> are all
-strictly marine.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the small family of <em>Cromeriidæ</em> the head and body are naked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Osteoglossidæ.</strong>—Still less closely related to the herring
-is the family of <em>Osteoglossidæ</em>, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical
-rivers, armed with hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic.
-The largest of all fresh-water fishes is <em>Arapaima gigas</em> of the
-Amazon region, which reaches a length of fifteen feet and a
-weight of 400 pounds. It has naturally considerable commercial
-importance, as have species of <em>Osteoglossum</em>, coarse river-fishes
-which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and the East Indies.
-<em>Heterotis nilotica</em> is a large fish of the Nile. In some or all
-of these the air-bladder is cellular or lung-like, like that of a
-Ganoid.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the <em>Osteoglossidæ</em> is <em>Phareodus</em> (<em>Dapedoglossus</em>),
-a group of large shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of
-peculiar mosaic texture and with a bony casque on the head,
-found in fresh-water deposits of the Green River Eocene. In
-the perfect specimens of <em>Phareodus</em> (or <em>Dapedoglossus</em>) <em>testis</em> the
-first ray of the pectoral is much enlarged and serrated on its
-inner edge, a character which may separate these fishes as a
-family from the true <em>Osteoglossidæ</em>. It does not, however,
-appear in Cope's figures, none of his specimens having the
-pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very strong
-and sharp, the scales are very large and thin, looking like the
-scales of a parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal
-and similar to it, and the caudal is truncate. The end of the
-vertebral column is turned upward.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>Other species are <em>Phareodus acutus</em>, known from the jaws;
-<em>P. encaustus</em> is known from a mass of thick scales with reticulate
-or mosaic-like surface, much as in <em>Osteoglossum</em>, and
-<em>P. æquipennis</em> from a small example, perhaps immature.
-<em>Phareodus testis</em> is frequently found well preserved in the shales
-at Fossil Station, to the northwestward of Green River.
-Whether all these species possess the peculiar structure of the
-scales, and whether all belong to one genus, is uncertain.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_057.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 45.</span>—<em>Phareodus testis</em> (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long collected at Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming. (Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Eocene shales of England occurs <em>Brychætus muelleri</em>, a
-species closely related to <em>Phareodus</em>, but the scales smaller and
-without the characteristic reticulate or mosaic structure seen
-in <em>Phareodus encaustus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>
-<img src='images/i_058.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 46.</span>—Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing <em>Phareodus</em>, at Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Wilbur C. Knight.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>
-<img src='images/i_059.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 47.</span>—A day's catch of Fossil fishes, <em>Phareodus</em>, <em>Diplomystus</em>, etc. Green River Eocene Shales, Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span><strong>The Pantodontidæ.</strong>—The bony casque of <em>Osteoglossum</em> is
-found again in the <em>Pantodontidæ</em>, consisting of one species,
-<em>Pantodon buchholzi</em>, a small fish of the brooks of West Africa.
-As in the <em>Osteoglossidæ</em> and in the <em>Siluridæ</em>, the subopercle is
-wanting in <em>Pantodon</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_060.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 48.</span>—<em>Alepocephalus agassizii</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Alepocephalidæ</em> are deep-sea herring-like fishes very
-soft in texture and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses.
-Some species may be found in almost all seas below the depth
-of half a mile. <em>Alepocephalus rostratus</em> of the Mediterranean
-has been long known, but most of the other genera, <em>Talismania</em>,
-<em>Mitchillina</em>, <em>Conocara</em>, etc., are of very recent discovery,
-having been brought to the surface by the deep-sea dredging
-of the <em>Challenger</em>, the <em>Albatross</em>, the <em>Blake</em>, the <em>Travailleur</em>,
-the <em>Talisman</em>, the <em>Investigator</em>, the <em>Hirondelle</em>, and the <em>Violante</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV<br />SALMONIDÆ</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_061dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Salmon Family.</strong>—The series or suborder <em>Salmonoidea</em>,
-or allies of the salmon and trout, are characterized as a
-whole by the presence of the adipose fin, a structure
-also retained in Characins and catfishes, which have no
-evident affinity with the trout, and in the lantern-fishes, lizard-fishes,
-and trout-perches, in which the affinity is very remote.
-Probably these groups all have a common descent from some
-primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at least a fleshy fold on
-the back.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from
-almost every point of view is that of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, the salmon
-family. As now restricted, it is not one of the largest families,
-as it comprises less than a hundred species; but in beauty,
-activity, gaminess, quality as food, and even in size of individuals,
-different members of the group stand easily with the
-first among fishes. The following are the chief external characteristics
-which are common to the members of the family:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in
-scales of varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or somewhat
-inferior, varying considerably among the different species,
-those having the mouth largest usually having also the strongest
-teeth. Maxillary provided with a supplemental bone, and
-forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw. Pseudobranchiæ
-present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula complete.
-No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed
-near the middle of the length of the body. Adipose fin well
-developed. Caudal fin forked. Anal fin moderate or rather
-long. Ventral fins nearly median in position. Pectoral fins
-inserted low. Lateral line present. Outline of belly rounded.
-Vertebræ in large number, usually about sixty.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>The stomach in all the <em>Salmonidæ</em> is siphonal, and at the
-pylorus are many (15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric cœca.
-The air-bladder is large. The eggs are usually much larger
-than in fishes generally, and the ovaries are without special
-duct, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before
-exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of adhesiveness,
-and the readiness with which they may be impregnated,
-render the <em>Salmonidæ</em> peculiarly adapted for artificial culture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Salmonidæ</em> are peculiar to the north temperate and
-Arctic regions, and within this range they are almost equally
-abundant wherever suitable waters occur. Some of the species,
-especially the larger ones, are marine and anadromous, living
-and growing in the sea, and ascending fresh waters to spawn.
-Still others live in running brooks, entering lakes or the sea
-when occasion serves, but not habitually doing so. Still others
-are lake fishes, approaching the shore or entering brooks in
-the spawning season, at other times retiring to waters of considerable
-depth. Some of them are active, voracious, and
-gamy, while others are comparatively defenseless and will not
-take the hook. They are divisible into ten easily recognized
-genera: <em>Coregonus</em>, <em>Argyrosomus</em>, <em>Brachymystax</em>, <em>Stenodus</em>, <em>Oncorhynchus</em>,
-<em>Salmo</em>, <em>Hucho</em>, <em>Cristivomer</em>, <em>Salvelinus</em>, and <em>Plecoglossus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are recorded
-chiefly from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the
-name of <em>Rhabdofario lacustris</em>. We have also received from
-Dr. John C. Merriam, from ferruginous sands of the same region,
-several fragments of jaws of salmon, in the hook-nosed condition,
-with enlarged teeth, showing that the present salmon-runs have
-been in operation for many thousands of years. Most other
-fragments hitherto referred to <em>Salmonidæ</em> belong to some other
-kind of fish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Coregonus, the Whitefish.</strong>—The genus <em>Coregonus</em>, which includes
-the various species known in America as lake whitefish,
-is distinguishable in general by the small size of its mouth, the
-weakness of its teeth, and the large size of its scales. The teeth,
-especially, are either reduced to slight asperities, or else are
-altogether wanting. The species reach a length of one to three
-feet. With scarcely an exception they inhabit clear lakes,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>and rarely enter streams except to spawn. In far northern
-regions they often descend to the sea; but in the latitude of the
-United States this is never possible for them, as they are unable
-to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take the hook,
-and rarely feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties characterize
-the lakes of Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia
-and America. Largest and most desirable of all these as a
-food-fish is the common whitefish of the Great Lakes (<em>Coregonus
-clupeiformis</em>), with its allies or variants in the Mackenzie and
-Yukon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Coregonus</em> differ from each other in the form
-and size of the mouth, in the form of the body, and in the development
-of the gill-rakers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Coregonus oxyrhynchus</em>—the <em>Schnäbel</em> of Holland, Germany,
-and Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout
-projecting far beyond it. No species similar to this is found
-in America.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Rocky Mountain whitefish (<em>Coregonus williamsoni</em>) has
-also a small mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter
-and much shorter than in <em>C. oxyrhynchus</em>. This is a small
-species abounding everywhere in the clear lakes and streams of
-the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, from Colorado to
-Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and excellent as food.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_063.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 49.</span>—Rocky Mountain Whitefish, <em>Coregonus williamsoni</em> Girard.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely allied to <em>Coregonus williamsoni</em> is the pilot-fish,
-shad-waiter, roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (<em>Coregonus
-quadrilateralis</em>). This species is found in the Great Lakes, the
-Adirondack region, the lakes of New Hampshire, and thence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>northwestward to the Yukon, abounding in cold deep waters, its
-range apparently nowhere coinciding with that of <em>Coregonus
-williamsoni</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_064.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 50.</span>—Whitefish, <em>Coregonus clupeiformis</em> Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The common whitefish (<em>Coregonus clupeiformis</em>) is the largest
-in size of the species of <em>Coregonus</em>, and is unquestionably the
-finest as an article of food. It varies considerably in appearance
-with age and condition, but in general it is proportionately
-much deeper than any of the other small-mouthed <em>Coregoni</em>.
-The adult fishes develop a considerable fleshy hump at the
-shoulders, which causes the head, which is very small, to appear
-disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in November
-and December, on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food
-was ascertained by Dr. P. R. Hoy to consist chiefly of deep-water
-crustaceans, with a few mollusks, and larvæ of water
-insects. "The whitefish," writes Mr. James W. Milner, "has
-been known since the time of the earliest explorers as preeminently
-a fine-flavored fish. In fact there are few table-fishes
-its equal. To be appreciated in its fullest excellence it
-should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled. Father Marquette,
-Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for
-months at a time had to depend upon the whitefish for their
-staple article of food—bore testimony to the fact that they never
-lost their relish for it, and deemed it a special excellence that
-the appetite never became cloyed with it." The range of the
-whitefish extends from the lakes of New York and New England
-northward to the Arctic Circle. The "Otsego bass" of Otsego
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>Lake in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local
-form of the ordinary whitefish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the
-Lavaret, Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (<em>Coregonus
-lavaretus</em>), of the mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and
-Sweden. <em>Coregonus kennicotti</em>, the muksun, and <em>Coregonus nelsoni</em>,
-the humpback whitefish, are found in northern Alaska and in the
-Yukon. Several other related species occur in northern Europe
-and Siberia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting
-or Musquaw River whitefish (<em>Coregonus labradoricus</em>). Its
-teeth are stronger, especially on the tongue, than in any of our
-other species, and its body is slenderer than that of the whitefish.
-It is found in the upper Great Lakes, in the Adirondack region,
-in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes of Maine and New
-Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the Canadian lakes.
-This species runs up the St. Mary's River, from Lake Huron to
-Lake Superior, in July and August. Great numbers are snared
-or speared by the Indians at this season at the Sault Ste. Marie.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened
-or covered with small warts, as in the male <em>Cyprinidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.</strong>—In the genus <em>Argyrosomus</em>
-the mouth is larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but extending
-forward on its lower edge, and the body is more elongate
-and more evenly elliptical. The species are more active and
-predaceous than those of <em>Coregonus</em> and are, on the whole, inferior
-as food.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish
-is the cisco of Lake Michigan (<em>Argyrosomus hoyi</em>). It is a
-slender fish, rarely exceeding ten inches in length, and its scales
-have the brilliant silvery luster of the mooneye and the ladyfish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lake herring, or cisco (<em>Argyrosomus artedi</em>), is, next to
-the whitefish, the most important of the American species. It
-is more elongate than the others, and has a comparatively large
-mouth, with projecting under-jaw. It is correspondingly more
-voracious, and often takes the hook. During the spawning
-season of the whitefish the lake herring feeds on the ova of the
-latter, thereby doing a great amount of mischief. As food
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>this species is fair, but much inferior to the whitefish. Its
-geographical distribution is essentially the same, but to a greater
-degree it frequents shoal waters. In the small lakes around
-Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe, Geneva,
-Oconomowoc, etc.), the cisco has long been established; and
-in these waters its habits have undergone some change, as has
-also its external appearance. It has been recorded as a distinct
-species, <em>Argyrosomus sisco</em>, and its excellence as a game-fish has
-been long appreciated by the angler. These lake ciscoes remain
-for most of the year in the depths of the lake, coming to the
-surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow water
-only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance
-of the cisco has led to much foolish discussion as to the probability
-of their returning by an underground passage to Lake
-Michigan during the periods of their absence. One author, confounding
-"cisco" with "siscowet," has assumed that this underground
-passage leads to Lake Superior, and that the cisco is
-identical with the fat lake trout which bears the latter name.
-The name "lake herring" alludes to the superficial resemblance
-which this species possesses to the marine herring, a fish of quite
-a different family.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_066.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 51.</span>—Bluefin Cisco, <em>Argyrosomus nigripinnis</em> Gill. Sheboygan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely allied to the lake herring is the bluefin of Lake Michigan
-and of certain lakes in New York (<em>Argyrosomus nigripinnis</em>),
-a fine large species inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable
-by the blue-black color of its lower fins. In the lakes of central
-New York are found two other species, the so-called lake smelt
-(<em>Argyrosomus osmeriformis</em>) and the long-jaw (<em>Argyrosomus</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span><em>prognathus</em>). <em>Argyrosomus lucidus</em> is abundant in Great Bear
-Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the cisco
-type (<em>Argyrosomus laurettæ</em>, <em>A. pusillus</em>, <em>A. alascanus</em>); and in
-Europe very similar species are the Scotch vendace (<em>Argyrosomus
-vandesius</em>) and the Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as
-well as others less perfectly known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Tullibee, or "mongrel whitefish" (<em>Argyrosomus tullibee</em>),
-has a deep body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the
-ciscoes. It is found in the Great Lake region and northward,
-and very little is known of its habits. A similar species (<em>Argyrosomus
-cyprinoides</em>) is recorded from Siberia—a region which
-is peculiarly suited for the growth of the <em>Coregoni</em>, but in which
-the species have never received much study.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.</strong>—Another little-known
-form, intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon,
-is <em>Brachymystax lenock</em>, a large fish of the mountain streams of
-Siberia. Only the skins brought home by Pallas a century ago
-are yet known. According to Pallas, it sometimes reaches a
-weight of eighty pounds.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_067.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 52.</span>—Inconnu, <em>Stenodus mackenziei</em> (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still another genus, intermediate between the whitefish and
-the salmon, is <em>Stenodus</em>, distinguished by its elongate body,
-feeble teeth, and projecting lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mackenzie
-River salmon, known on the Yukon as "charr" (<em>Stenodus
-mackenziei</em>), belongs to this genus. It reaches a weight of twenty
-pounds or more, and in the far north is a food-fish of good
-quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse Rapids.
-Not much is recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>museums. A species of <em>Stenodus</em> called <em>Stenodus leucichthys</em>
-inhabits the Volga, Obi, Lena, and other northern rivers; but
-as yet little is definitely known of the species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.</strong>—The genus <em>Oncorhynchus</em>
-contains the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact,
-as well as in name, the king salmon. The genus is closely
-related to <em>Salmo</em>, with which it agrees in general as to the
-structure of its vomer, and from which it differs in the increased
-number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric cœca, and gill-rakers.
-The character most convenient for distinguishing
-<em>Oncorhynchus</em>, young or old, from all the species of <em>Salmo</em>, is
-the number of developed rays in the anal fin. These in <em>Oncorhynchus</em>
-are thirteen to twenty, in <em>Salmo</em> nine to twelve.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Oncorhynchus</em> have long been known as anadromous
-salmon, confined to the North Pacific. The species were
-first made known nearly one hundred and fifty years ago by that
-most exact of early observers, Steller, who, almost simultaneously
-with Krascheninnikov, another early investigator, described and
-distinguished them with perfect accuracy under their Russian
-vernacular names. These Russian names were, in 1792, adopted
-by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a
-scientific nomenclature. Five species of <em>Oncorhynchus</em> are well
-known on both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other
-in Japan. These have been greatly misunderstood by early
-observers on account of the extraordinary changes due to differences
-in surroundings, in sex, and in age, and in conditions connected
-with the process of reproduction.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There are five species of salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus</em>) in the waters
-of the North Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other
-which is known only from the waters of Japan. These species
-may be called: (1) the quinnat, or king-salmon, (2) the blue-back
-salmon, or redfish, (3) the silver salmon, (4) the dog-salmon,
-(5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the masu; or (1)
-<em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, (2) <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em>, (3) <em>Oncorhynchus
-milktschitsch</em>, (4) <em>Oncorhynchus keta</em>, (5) <em>Oncorhynchus
-gorbuscha</em>, (6) <em>Oncorhynchus masou</em>. All these species save the
-last are now known to occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as
-well as in those of Alaska and Oregon. These species, in all
-their varied conditions, may usually be distinguished by the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>characters given below. Other differences of form, color, and
-appearance are absolutely valueless for distinction, unless specimens
-of the same age, sex, and condition are compared.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The quinnat salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>),<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c009'><sup>[7]</sup></a> called
-quinnat, tyee, chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight
-of 22 pounds, but individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are
-occasionally taken. It has about 16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchiostegals,
-23 (9 + 14) gill-rakers on the anterior gill-arch, and
-140 to 185 pyloric cœca. The scales are comparatively large,
-there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal series. In the
-spring the body is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and caudal fin
-having more or less of round black spots, and the sides of the
-head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic luster. In the fall
-the color is often black or dirty red, and the species can then
-be distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by
-its technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red,
-becoming suddenly pale as the spawning season draws near.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is referred
-to papers by the late Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the <em>Albatross</em>,
-in the publications of the United States Fish Commission, the <em>Popular
-Science Monthly</em>, and the <em>Overland Monthly</em>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_069.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 53.</span>—Quinnat Salmon (female), <em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em> (Walbaum). Columbia River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>
-<img src='images/i_070a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 54.</span>—King-salmon grilse, <em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em> (Walbaum). (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_070b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 55.</span>—Male Red Salmon in September, <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> (Walbaum). Payette Lake, Idaho.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The blue-back salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em>),<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c009'><sup>[8]</sup></a> also called
-red salmon, sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8
-pounds. It has about 14 developed anal rays, 14 branchiostegals,
-and 75 to 95 pyloric cœca. The gill-rakers are more numerous
-than in any other salmon, the number being usually about
-39 (16 + 23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to 140 in
-the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded,
-and the color is a clear bright blue above, silvery below, and
-everywhere immaculate. Young fishes often show a few round
-black spots, which disappear when they enter the sea. Fall
-specimens in the lakes are bright crimson in color, the head clear
-olive-green, and they become in a high degree hook-nosed and
-slab-sided, and bear little resemblance to the spring run. Young
-spawning male grilse follow the changes which take place in the
-adult, although often not more than half a pound in weight.
-These little fishes often appear in mountain lakes, but whether
-they are landlocked or have come up from the sea is still unsettled.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>These dwarf forms, called kokos by the Indians and
-benimasu in Japan, form the subspecies <em>Oncorhynchus nerka
-kennerlyi</em>. The flesh in this species is firmer than that of any
-other and very red, of good flavor, though drier and less rich
-than the king-salmon.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader
-is referred to various papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the Bulletins
-of the United States Fish Commission and elsewhere.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The silver salmon, or coho (<em>Oncorhynchus milktschitsch</em>, or
-<em>kisutch</em>), reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 developed
-rays in the anal, 13 branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers,
-and 45 to 80 pyloric cœca. There are about 127 scales in the
-lateral line. The scales are thin and all except those of the
-lateral line readily fall off. This feature distinguishes the species
-readily from the red salmon. In color it is silvery in spring,
-greenish above, and with a few faint black spots on the upper
-parts only. In the fall the males are mostly of a dirty red.
-The flesh in this species is of excellent flavor, but pale in color,
-and hence less valued than that of the quinnat and the red
-salmon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in
-Japan (<em>Oncorhynchus keta</em>), reaches an average weight of about
-7 to 10 pounds. It has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals,
-24 (9 + 15) gill-rakers, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. There are
-about 150 scales in the lateral line. In spring it is dirty
-silvery, immaculate, or sprinkled with small black specks, the
-fins dusky, the sides with faint traces of gridiron-like bars. In
-the fall the male is brick-red or blackish, and its jaws are greatly
-distorted. The pale flesh is well flavored when fresh, but pale
-and mushy in texture and muddy in taste when canned. It is
-said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt dog-salmon are
-consumed in Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</em>),
-is the smallest of the American species, weighing from
-3 to 5 pounds. It has usually 15 anal rays, 12 branchiostegals,
-28 (13 + 15) gill-rakers, and about 180 pyloric cœca. Its scales
-are much smaller than in any other salmon, there being 180
-to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is bluish above, silvery
-below, the posterior and upper parts with many round black
-spots, the caudal fin always having a few large black spots
-oblong in form. The males in fall are dirty red, and are more
-extravagantly distorted than in any other of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>The flesh is softer than in the other species; it is pale in color,
-and, while of fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when
-canned.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_072a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 56.</span>—Humpback Salmon (female), <em>Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</em> (Walbaum). Cook's Inlet.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The masu, or yezomasu (<em>Oncorhynchus masou</em>), is very similar
-to the humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without
-black spots, the back usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller
-salmon, and is fairly abundant in the streams of Hokkaido,
-the island formerly known as Yezo.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_072b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig 57.</span>—Masu (female), <em>Oncorhynchus masou</em> (Brevoort). Aomori, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates
-in Frazer River and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, including
-all those which flow from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers
-of the world are the Nushegak and Karluk in Alaska, with the
-Columbia River, Frazer River, and Sacramento River farther
-south. The red and the silver salmon predominate in Puget
-Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the Sacramento, and
-the silver salmon in most of the smaller streams along the coast.
-All the species occur, however, from the Columbia northward;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>but the blue-back is not found in the Sacramento. Only the
-quinnat and the dog-salmon have been noticed south of San
-Francisco. In Japan <em>keta</em> is by far the most abundant species of
-salmon. It is known as saké, and largely salted and sold in the
-markets. <em>Nerka</em> is known in Japan only as landlocked in Lake Akan
-in northern Hokkaido. <em>Milktschitsch</em> is generally common, and
-with <em>masou</em> is known as masu, or small salmon, as distinguished
-from the large salmon, or saké. <em>Tschawytscha</em> and <em>gorbuscha</em> are
-unknown in Japan. <em>Masou</em> has not been found elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the "noble salmon,"
-habitually "run" in the spring, the others in the fall. The
-usual order of running in the rivers is as follows: <em>tschawytscha</em>,
-<em>nerka</em>, <em>milktschitsch</em>, <em>gorbuscha</em>, <em>keta</em>. Those which run first go
-farthest. In the Yukon the quinnat runs as far as Caribou
-Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. The red salmon runs
-to "Forty-Mile," which is nearly 1800 miles. Both ascend to
-the head of the Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and
-Taku rivers. The quinnat runs practically only in the streams
-of large size, fed with melting snows; the red salmon only in
-streams which pass through lakes. It spawns only in small
-streams at the head of a lake. The other species spawn in
-almost any fresh water and only close to the sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far
-greater than that of the other species, because they can be captured
-in numbers when at their best, while the others are usually
-taken only after deterioration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied.
-Quinnat and silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine
-at almost any season in Puget Sound and among the islands
-of Alaska. This would indicate that these species do not go
-far from the shore. The silver salmon certainly does not.
-The quinnat pursues the schools of herring. It takes the
-hook freely in Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a
-distance of six to eight miles out. We have reason to believe
-that these two species do not necessarily seek great depths,
-but probably remain not very far from the mouth of the rivers
-in which they were spawned. The blue-back or red salmon certainly
-seeks deeper water, as it is seldom or never taken with the
-seine along shore, and it is known to enter the Strait of Fuca in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>July, just before the running season, therefore coming in from
-the open sea. The great majority of the quinnat salmon, and
-probably all the blue-back salmon, enter the rivers in the spring.
-The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of March;
-it lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until
-the actual spawning season in November, the greatest run being
-in early June in Alaska, in July in the Columbia. The run
-begins earliest in the northernmost rivers, and in the longest
-streams, the time of running and the proportionate amount
-in each of the subordinate runs varying with each different
-river. In general the runs are slack in the summer and increase
-with the first high water of autumn. By the last of August
-only straggling blue-backs can be found in the lower course of
-any stream; but both in the Columbia and in the Sacramento
-the quinnat runs in considerable numbers at least till October.
-In the Sacramento the run is greatest in the fall, and more run
-in the summer than in spring. In the Sacramento and the
-smaller rivers southward there is a winter run, beginning in
-December. The spring quinnat salmon ascends only those
-rivers which are fed by the melting snows from the mountains
-and which have sufficient volume to send their waters well out
-to sea. Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults
-(supposed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn
-are no more developed than at the same time in others of
-the same species which have not yet entered the rivers. It
-would appear that the contact with cold fresh water, when
-in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and
-to run before there is any special influence to that end exerted
-by the development of the organs of generation. High water
-on any of these rivers in the spring is always followed by an
-increased run of salmon. The salmon-canners think—and this
-is probably true—that salmon which would not have run till
-later are brought up by the contact with the cold water. The
-cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We
-may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another way of
-expressing our ignorance. In general it seems to be true that
-in those rivers and during those years when the spring run is
-greatest the fall run is least to be depended on.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>beginning in late June in Chilcoot River, where some were
-found actually spawning July 15; beginning after the middle
-of July in Frazer River.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these
-species (quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and
-in the fall these young specimens are very numerous. We have
-thus far failed to notice any gradations in size or appearance
-of these young fish by which their ages could be ascertained.
-It is, however, probable that some of both sexes reproduce at
-the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat male
-grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running,
-the milt fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked
-jaws and dark colors of the older males. Females less than
-eighteen inches in length were not seen. All of either sex, large
-and small, then in the river had the ovaries or milt developed.
-Little blue-backs of every size, down to six inches, are also
-found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of
-generation fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young
-fish are males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red
-color of the old males. Apparently all these young fishes, like
-the old ones, die after spawning.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia,
-in the spring, is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about
-sixteen. Individuals weighing from forty to sixty pounds are
-frequently found in both rivers, and some as high as eighty or
-even one hundred pounds are recorded, especially in Alaska,
-where the species tends to run larger. It is questionable whether
-these large fishes are those which, of the same age, have grown
-more rapidly; those which are older, but have for some reason
-failed to spawn; or those which have survived one or more
-spawning seasons. All these origins may be possible in individual
-cases. There is, however, no positive evidence that any salmon
-of the Pacific survives the spawning season.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their
-ascent till death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubtless
-not one of them ever returns to the ocean, and a large proportion
-fail to spawn. They are known to ascend the Sacramento
-to its extreme head-waters, about four hundred miles.
-In the Columbia they ascend as far as the Bitter Root and Sawtooth
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is not known.
-This is a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon
-a few ascend to Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles.
-At these great distances, when the fish have reached the spawning
-grounds, besides the usual changes of the breeding season
-their bodies are covered with bruises, on which patches of white
-fungus (<em>Saprolegnia</em>) develop. The fins become mutilated,
-their eyes are often injured or destroyed, parasitic worms gather
-in their gills, they become extremely emaciated, their flesh
-becomes white from the loss of oil; and as soon as the spawning
-act is accomplished, and sometimes before, <em>all</em> of them die.
-The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia
-causes the injury or death of a great many salmon.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_076.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 58.</span>—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male, after spawning), <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait,
-and their stomachs are always found empty and contracted.
-In the rivers they do not feed; and when they reach the spawning
-grounds their stomachs, pyloric cœca and all, are said to
-be no larger than one's finger. They will sometimes take the
-fly, or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the clear waters of the
-upper tributaries, but this is apparently solely out of annoyance,
-snapping at the meddling line. Only the quinnat and blue-back
-(there called redfish) have been found at any great distance
-from the sea, and these (as adult fishes) only in late summer
-and fall.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>
-<img src='images/i_077.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 59.</span>—Young Male Quinnat Salmon, <em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em>, dying after spawning. Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>The spawning season is probably about the same for all the
-species. It varies for each of the different rivers, and for different
-parts of the same river. It doubtless extends from July to
-December, and takes place usually as soon as the temperature
-of the water falls to 54°. The manner of spawning is probably
-similar for all the species. In the quinnat the fishes pair off;
-the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad, shallow "nest"
-in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a depth
-of one to four feet and the female deposits her eggs in it.
-They then float down the stream tail foremost, the only
-fashion in which salmon descend to the sea. As already
-stated, in the head-waters of the large streams, unquestionably,
-all die; it is the belief of the writer that none ever survive.
-The young hatch in sixty days, and most of them return to
-the ocean during the high water of the spring. They enter the
-river as adults at the age of about four years.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted
-or not according to the species, and with the mouth about equally
-symmetrical in both sexes. As the spawning season approaches
-the female loses her silvery color, becomes more slimy, the
-scales on the back partly sink into the skin, and the flesh changes
-from salmon-red and becomes variously paler, from the loss of
-oil; the degree of paleness varying much with individuals and
-with inhabitants of different rivers. In the Sacramento the
-flesh of the quinnat, in either spring or fall, is rarely pale. In
-the Columbia a few with pale flesh are sometimes taken in
-spring, and an increasing number from July on. In Frazer
-River the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning
-purposes, because so many are "white-meated." In the spring
-very few are "white-meated"; but the number increases towards
-fall, when there is every variation, some having red streaks
-running through them, others being red toward the head and
-pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be distinguished
-externally, and the color is dependent on neither
-age nor sex. There is said to be no difference in the taste, but
-there is little market for canned salmon not of the conventional
-orange-color.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>
-<img src='images/i_079.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 60.</span>—Quinnat Salmon, <em>Oncorhynchus tschawytscha</em> (Walbaum). Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>As the season advances the difference between the males
-and females becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace
-with the development of the milt, as is shown by dissection.
-The males have (1) the premaxillaries and the tip of the lower
-jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws becoming finally
-strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either they
-shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth
-cannot be closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and
-canine-like, their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they
-are often half an inch long. (3) The teeth on the vomer and
-tongue often disappear. (4) The body grows more compressed
-and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is
-formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon, but
-is found in all. (5) The scales disappear, especially on the
-back, by the growth of spongy skin. (6) The color changes
-from silvery to various shades of black and red, or blotchy,
-according to the species. The blue-back turns rosy-red, the
-head bright olive; the dog-salmon a dull red with blackish bars,
-and the quinnat generally blackish. The distorted males are
-commonly considered worthless, rejected by the canners and
-salmon-salters, but preserved by the Indians. These changes
-are due solely to influences connected with the growth of the
-reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the
-action of fresh water. They take place at about the same time
-in the adult males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the
-rivers. At the time of the spring runs all are symmetrical.
-In the fall all males, of whatever species, are more or less distorted.
-Among the dog-salmon, which run only in the fall,
-the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they first
-enter the Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback,
-taken in salt water about Seattle, have the same peculiarities.
-The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and distorted, and is rejected
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>by the canners. No hook-jawed females of any species
-have been seen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing.
-They always head towards the current, and this appearance
-of playing may be simply due to facing the moving tide.
-Afterwards they enter the deepest parts of the stream and
-swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their rate of travel
-at Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles per
-day; on the Columbia at about three miles per day. Those
-which enter the Columbia in the spring and ascend to the mountain
-rivers of Idaho must go at a more rapid rate than this, as
-they must make an average of nearly four miles per day.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As already stated, the economic value of any species depends
-in great part on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally
-possible to capture salmon of any species in large numbers
-until they have entered the estuaries or rivers, and the
-spring salmon enter the large rivers long before the growth
-of the organs of reproduction has reduced the richness of the
-flesh. The fall salmon cannot be taken in quantity until their
-flesh has deteriorated; hence the dog-salmon is practically
-almost worthless except to the Indians, and the humpback
-salmon was regarded as little better until comparatively recently,
-when it has been placed on the market in cans as "Pink
-Salmon." It sells for about half the price of the red salmon
-and one-third that of the quinnat. The red salmon is smaller
-than the quinnat but, outside the Sacramento and the Columbia,
-far more abundant, and at present it exceeds the quinnat in
-economic value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted
-in 1902 to over two million cases (48 pounds each), worth wholesale
-about $4.00 per case, or about $8,000,000. The other species
-in Alaska yield about one million cases, the total wholesale value
-of the pack for 1902 being $8,667,673. The aggregate value of
-the quinnat is considerably less, but either species far exceed in
-value all other fishes of the Pacific taken together. The silver
-salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound for a
-considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and
-it may be taken in large numbers with seines before the season
-for entering the rivers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog-salmon,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>ascend streams but a short distance before spawning.
-They seem to be in great anxiety to find fresh water, and many
-of them work their way up little brooks only a few inches deep,
-where they perish miserably, floundering about on the stones.
-Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco to Bering
-Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of
-Japan is the cause of the relative unimportance of the river
-fisheries of the northern island of Japan, Hokkaido. It is
-not likely that either the quinnat or the red salmon can be
-introduced into these rivers, as they have no snow-fed streams,
-and few of them pass through lakes which are not shut off by
-waterfalls. For the same reason neither of these species is
-likely to become naturalized in the waters of our Eastern States,
-though it is worth while to bring the red salmon to the St.
-Lawrence. The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan,
-should thrive in the rivers and bays of New England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Parent-stream Theory.</strong>—It has been generally accepted
-as unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return
-to spawn to the very stream in which they were hatched. As
-early as 1880 the present writer placed on record his opinion
-that this theory was unsound. In a general way most salmon
-return to the parent stream, because when in the sea the parent
-stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and runways
-which directed their course to the sea may influence their
-return trip in the same fashion. When the salmon is mature
-it seeks fresh water. Other things being equal, about the same
-number will run each year in the same channel. With all this,
-we find some curious facts. Certain streams will have a run
-of exceptionally large or exceptionally small red salmon. The
-time of the run bears some relation to the length of the stream:
-those who have farthest to go start earliest. The time of running
-bears also a relation to the temperature of the spawning grounds:
-where the waters cool off earliest the fish run soonest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory
-may be considered under three heads:<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c009'><sup>[9]</sup></a> (1) Distinctive runs in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>various streams. (2) Return of marked salmon. (3) Introduction
-of salmon into new streams followed by their return.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the <em>Pacific Fisherman</em> for July,
-1903.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that
-they can distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the
-Lynn Canal red salmon are larger than those in most waters,
-and it is claimed that those of Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those
-of the sister stream at Chilcat. The red salmon of Red Fish Bay
-on Baranof Island are said to be much smaller than usual, and
-those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not more than one-third
-the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream near
-Nass River are more wiry than those of the neighboring large
-stream. The same claim is made for the different streams of
-Puget Sound, each one having its characteristic run. In all
-this there is some truth and perhaps some exaggeration. I have
-noticed that the Chilcoot fish seem deeper in body than those
-at Chilcat. The red salmon becomes compressed before spawning,
-and the Chilcoot fishes having a short run spawn earlier
-than the Chilcat fishes, which have many miles to go, the water
-being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river. Perhaps
-some localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes,
-while not attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well
-observes that "until a constant difference has been demonstrated
-by a careful examination of large numbers of fish from
-each stream taken <em>at the same time</em>, but little weight can be
-attached to arguments of this nature."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly
-all salmon return to the region in which they were spawned.
-Most of them apparently never go far away from the mouth of
-the stream or the bay into which it flows. It is true that salmon
-are occasionally taken well out at sea, and it is certain that the
-red salmon runs of Puget Sound come from outside the Straits
-of Fuca. There is, however, evidence that they rarely go so
-far as that. When seeking shore they do not reach the original
-channels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia,
-used the following words, which he has not had occasion to
-change:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some
-special instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>same spawning grounds where they were originally hatched.
-We fail to find any evidence of this in the case of the Pacific-coast
-salmon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems
-more probable that the young salmon hatched in any river
-mostly remain in the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty,
-or forty miles of its mouth. These, in their movements about
-in the ocean, may come into contact with the cold waters of
-their parent rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a considerable
-distance from the shore. In the case of the quinnat and
-the blue-back their 'instinct' seems to lead them to ascend
-these fresh waters, and in a majority of cases these waters will
-be those in which the fishes in question were originally spawned.
-Later in the season the growth of the reproductive organs leads
-them to approach the shore and search for fresh waters, and
-still the chances are that they may find the original stream.
-But undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend,
-streams in which no salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks
-about Puget Sound, where the water is not three inches deep,
-are often found dead or dying salmon which have entered them
-for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the Russian River
-and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time of
-low water in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand-bars,
-and that the salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them,
-frequently fling themselves entirely out of water on the beach.
-But this does not prove that the salmon are guided by a marvelous
-geographical instinct which leads them to their parent
-river in spite of the fact that the river cannot be found. The
-waters of Russian River soak through these sand-bars, and
-the salmon instinct, we think, leads them merely to search for
-fresh waters. This matter is much in need of further investigation;
-at present, however, we find no reason to believe that
-the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were
-spawned there, or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas
-River is more likely, on that account, to return to the Clackamas
-than to go up the Cowlitz or the Des Chûtes."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking
-the fry. But this is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost
-the only structure which can be safely mutilated is the adipose
-fin, and this is often nipped off by sticklebacks and other meddling
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>fish. The following experiments have been tried, according
-to Mr. Davis:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by
-cutting off the adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River.
-Nearly 400 of these marked fish are said to have been taken in
-the Columbia in 1898, and a few more in 1899. In addition a
-few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900 in the Sacramento
-River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia. In the
-Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where
-nearly all of the fishing was done, but a few were in the original
-stream, the Clackamas. It is stated that the fry thus set free
-in the Clackamas came from eggs obtained in the Sacramento—a
-matter which has, however, no bearing on the present case.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washington,
-2000 fry of the quinnat or king-salmon were marked in
-1899 by a V-shaped notch in the caudal fin. Numerous fishes
-thus marked were taken in the lower Columbia in 1901 and 1902.
-A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but some also at the
-hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the
-hatchery on Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream
-not being a tributary of the Columbia, but flowing into Shoalwater
-Bay. None were noticed in the Sacramento. The evidence
-shows that the most who are hatched in a large stream
-tend to return to it, and that in general most salmon return
-to the parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon hatched
-in one branch of a river tends to return there rather than to
-any other. Experiments of Messrs. Rutter and Spaulding in
-marking adult fish at Karluk would indicate that they roam
-rather widely about the island before spawning. An adult
-spawning fish, marked and set free at Karluk, was taken soon
-after on the opposite side of the island of Kadiak.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw
-some light on this question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young
-quinnat-salmon fry were set free in Papermill Creek near Olema,
-California. This is a small stream flowing into the head of
-Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a run of salmon.
-In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon appeared
-in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weighing
-about sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>identification. These fishes certainly returned to the parent
-stream, although this stream was one not at all fitted for their
-purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But this may be accounted for by the topography of the
-bay. Tomales Bay is a long and narrow channel, about twenty
-miles long and from one to five in width, isolated from other
-rivers and with but one tributary stream. Probably the
-salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not have left it
-at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to the
-same place.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools
-of king-salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring
-about in the channels of southeastern Alaska. A few years
-since Captain J. F. Moser, in charge of the <em>Albatross</em>, set gill-nets
-for salmon at various places in the sea off the Oregon and
-Washington coast, catching none except in the bays.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in
-Chinook River, which flows into the Columbia at Baker's Bay:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is a small, sluggish stream and has never been frequented
-by Chinook salmon, although considerable numbers
-of silver and dog salmon enter it late in the fall. A few years
-ago the State established a hatchery on this stream, and since
-1898 between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Chinook fry have been
-turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the pound-nets
-in Baker's Bay, towed into the river in crates and then
-liberated above the dike, which prevents their return to the
-Columbia. When ripe the salmon ascend to the hatchery,
-some two or three miles farther up the river, where they are
-spawned.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs
-me that in 1902, during November and December, quite a
-number of Chinook salmon ascended the Chinook River. About
-150 salmon of both sexes were taken in a trap located in the river
-about four miles from its mouth. At first thought it would
-appear that these were probably fish which, when fry, had been
-liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof
-that this was the case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season
-of 1902 was remarkable in that the salmon ran inshore in large
-schools, a thing which they had not done before for years. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>is possible that the fish, being forced in close to the shore, came
-in contact with the current from the Chinook River, which,
-since the stream is small and sluggish, would not be felt far from
-shore. Once brought under the influence of the current from
-the river, the salmon would naturally ascend that stream,
-whether they had been hatched there or not."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts
-at hand, is that salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great
-distance from the stream in which they are hatched, that most
-of them return to the streams of the same region, a majority to
-the parent stream, but that there is no evidence that they choose
-the parental spawning grounds in preference to any other, and
-none that they will prefer an undesirable stream to a favorable
-one for the reason that they happen to have been hatched in
-the former.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Jadgeska Hatchery.</strong>—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel,
-Alaska, has long conducted a very interesting but very costly
-experiment in this line. About 1890 he established himself
-in a small stream called Jadgeska on the west coast of Etolin
-Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet, Clarence Straits. This
-stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand red salmon
-spawned, besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and
-humpback salmon. Making a dam across the stream, he helped
-the red salmon over it, destroying all of the inferior kinds which
-entered the stream. He also established a hatchery for the
-red salmon, turning loose many fry yearly for ten or twelve
-years. This was done in the expectation that all the salmon
-hatched would return to Jadgeska in about four years. By
-destroying all individuals of other species attempting to run, it
-was expected that they would become extinct so far as the
-stream is concerned.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The result of this experiment has been disappointment.
-After twelve years or more there has been no increase of red
-salmon in the stream, and no decrease of humpbacks and other
-humbler forms of salmon. Mr. Callbreath draws the conclusion
-that salmon run at a much greater age than has been
-supposed—at the age of sixteen years, perhaps, instead of four.
-A far more probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined
-other bands bound for more suitable streams. It is indeed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>claimed that since the establishment of Callbreath's hatchery
-on Etolin Island there has been a notable increase of the salmon
-run in the various streams of Prince of Wales Island on the
-opposite side of Clarence Straits. But this statement, while
-largely current among the cannerymen, and not improbable,
-needs verification.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We shall await with much interest the return of the thousands
-of salmon hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may
-venture the prophecy that while a large percentage will return
-to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay, Karta Bay, Moira
-Sound, and other red salmon waters along the line of their
-return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Salmon-packing.</strong>—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing
-of the flesh in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was
-begun on the Columbia River by the Hume Brothers in 1866.
-In 1874 canneries were established on the Sacramento River,
-in 1876 on Puget Sound and on Frazer River, and in 1878 in
-Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon was packed; afterwards
-the red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally the
-humpback, known commercially as pink salmon. In most
-cases the flesh is packed in one-pound tins, forty-eight of
-which constitute a case. The wholesale price in 1903 was for
-quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red salmon $4.00, silver salmon
-$2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon $1.50. It costs
-in round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The very
-low price of the inferior brands is due to overproduction.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts
-to about fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting
-seven to nine millions of this amount. Of this amount the red
-salmon constitutes somewhat more than half, the quinnat about
-four-fifths of the rest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable
-diminution in numbers, although the evidence is sometimes
-conflicting. In Alaska this has been due to the vicious custom,
-now done away with, of barricading the streams so that the
-fish could not reach the spawning grounds, but might be all
-taken with the net. In the Columbia River the reduction
-in numbers is mainly due to stationary traps and salmon-wheels,
-which leave the fish relatively little chance to reach the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>spawning grounds. In years of high water doubtless many
-salmon run in the spring which might otherwise have waited
-until fall.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of
-salmon by means of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the
-fisheries of the Sacramento have been fully restored, those of the
-Columbia approximately maintained, and a hopeful beginning
-has been made in hatching red salmon in Alaska.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER V<br />SALMONIDÆ—(<em>Continued</em>)</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_089dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Salmo</span>, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.</strong>—The genus
-<em>Salmo</em> comprises those forms of salmon which have
-been longest known. As in related genera, the mouth
-is large, and the jaws, palatines, and tongue are armed with
-strong teeth. The vomer is flat, its shaft not depressed below
-the level of the head or chevron (the anterior end). There are
-a few teeth on the chevron; and behind it, on the shaft, there
-is either a double series of teeth or an irregular single series.
-These teeth in the true salmon disappear with age, but in
-the others (the black-spotted trout) they are persistent. The
-scales are silvery and moderate or small in size. There are 9
-to 11 developed rays in the anal fin. The caudal fin is truncate,
-or variously concave or forked. There are usually 40 to 70
-pyloric cœca, 11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8 + 12)
-gill-rakers. The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked
-than in <em>Oncorhynchus</em>; they are also greater in the anadromous
-species than in those which inhabit fresh waters. In general
-the male in the breeding season is redder, its jaws are prolonged,
-the front teeth enlarged, the lower jaw turned upwards at the
-end, and the upper jaw notched, or sometimes even perforated,
-by the tip of the lower. All the species of <em>Salmo</em> (like those of
-<em>Oncorhynchus</em>) are more or less spotted with black. Unlike
-the species of <em>Oncorhynchus</em>, the species of <em>Salmo</em> feed more or less
-while in fresh water, and the individuals for the most part
-do not die after spawning, although many old males do thus
-perish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Atlantic Salmon.</strong>—The large species of <em>Salmo</em>, called
-salmon by English-speaking people (<em>Salmo salar</em>, <em>Salmo trutta</em>),
-are marine and anadromous, taking the place in the North
-Atlantic occupied in the North Pacific by the species of <em>Oncorhynchus</em>.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>Two others more or less similar in character occur
-in Japan and Kamchatka. The others (trout), forming the
-subgenus <em>Salar</em>, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly
-or imperfectly anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout
-abound in all streams of northern Europe, northern Asia, and
-in that part of North America which lies <em>west</em> of the Mississippi
-Valley. The black-spotted trout are entirely wanting in eastern
-America—a remarkable fact in geographical distribution, perhaps
-explained only on the hypothesis of the comparatively recent
-and Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we may suppose, has
-not yet had opportunity to extend its range across the plains,
-unsuitable for salmon life, which separate the upper Missouri
-from the Great Lakes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The salmon (<em>Salmo salar</em>) is the only black-spotted salmonoid
-found in American waters tributary to the Atlantic.
-In Europe, where other species similarly colored occur, the
-species may be best distinguished by the fact that the teeth
-on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear with age. From
-the only other species positively known, the salmon trout (<em>Salmo
-trutta</em>), which shares this character, the true salmon may be
-distinguished by the presence of but eleven scales between the
-adipose fin and the lateral line, while <em>Salmo trutta</em> has about
-fourteen. The scales are comparatively large in the salmon,
-there being about one hundred and twenty-five in the lateral
-line. The caudal fin, which is forked in the young, becomes,
-as in other species of salmon, more or less truncate with age.
-The pyloric cœca are fifty to sixty in number.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is "superiorly of
-a steel-blue, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly
-a few rounded or X-shaped spots scattered above the lateral
-line and upper half of the head, being more numerous in the
-female than in the male. Dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins
-dusky; ventrals and anal white, the former grayish internally.
-Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are of a brilliant steel-blue
-along the back, which becomes changed to a muddy tinge
-when they enter rivers. After these fish have passed into the
-fresh waters for the purpose of breeding, numerous orange
-streaks appear in the cheeks of the male, and also spots or
-even marks of the same, and likewise of a red color, on the body.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>It is now termed a 'redfish.' The female, however, is dark
-in color and known as 'blackfish.' 'Smolts' (young river fish)
-are bluish along the upper half of the body, silvery along the
-sides, due to a layer of silvery scales being formed over the
-trout-like colors, while they have darker fins than the yearling
-'ping,' but similar bands and spots, which can be seen (as
-in the parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light.
-'Parr' (fishes of the year) have two or three black spots only
-on the opercle, and black spots and also orange ones along the
-upper half of the body, and no dark ones below the lateral line,
-although there may be orange ones which can be seen in its
-course. Along the side of the body are a series (12 to 15) of
-transverse bluish bands, wider than the ground color and crossing
-the lateral line, while in the upper half of the body the darker
-color of the back forms an arch over each of these bands, a
-row of spots along the middle of the rayed dorsal fin, and the
-adipose orange-tipped."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr
-are characteristic of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and
-nearly all the other <em>Salmonidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadromous
-fish, spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the
-streams in the fall for the purpose of reproduction. The time
-of running varies much in different streams and also in different
-countries. As with the Pacific species, these salmon are not
-easily discouraged in their progress, leaping cascades and other
-obstructions, or, if these prove impassable, dying after repeated
-fruitless attempts.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The young salmon, known as the "parr," is hatched in the
-spring. It usually remains about two years in the rivers, descending
-at about the third spring to the sea, when it is known
-as "smolt." In the sea it grows much more rapidly, and becomes
-more silvery in color, and is known as "grilse." The grilse
-rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some of them, as in
-the case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are capable of
-reproduction.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome
-in appearance, as in fact. They are then known as "kelts."
-The Atlantic salmon does not ascend rivers to any such distances
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>as those traversed by the quinnat and the blue-back.
-Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the act of spawning.
-Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in the
-rivers, and that, therefore, the destruction of the kelts might
-increase the supply of salmon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the
-quinnat salmon, neither better nor worse, so far as I can see,
-when equally fresh. In both the flesh is rich and finely flavored;
-but the appetite of man becomes cloyed with salmon-flesh sooner
-than with that of whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size the Atlantic
-salmon does not fall far short of the quinnat. The average
-weight of the adult is probably less than fifteen pounds. The
-largest one of which I find a record was taken on the coast of
-Ireland in 1881, and weighed 84¾ pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45°
-and 75°. In the United States it is now rarely seen south of
-Cape Cod, although formerly the Hudson and numerous other
-rivers were salmon-streams. Overfishing, obstructions in the
-rivers, and pollution of the water by manufactories and by
-city sewage are agencies against which the salmon cannot cope.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are
-recognized by Dr. Günther in Europe, and three in America.
-The landlocked forms, abundant in Norway, Sweden, and
-Maine, which cannot, or at least do not, descend to the sea, are
-regarded by him as distinct species. "The question," observes
-Dr Günther, "whether any of the migratory species can be
-retained by artificial means in fresh water, and finally accommodate
-themselves to a permanent sojourn therein, must be
-negatived for the present." On this point I think that the
-balance of evidence leads to a different conclusion. These
-fresh-water forms (<em>Sebago</em> and <em>Ouananiche</em>) are actually salmon
-which have become landlocked. I have compared numerous
-specimens of the common landlocked salmon (<em>Salmo salar
-sebago</em>) of the lakes of Maine and New Brunswick with landlocked
-salmon (<em>Salmo salar hardini</em>) from the lakes of Sweden,
-and with numerous migratory salmon, both from America and
-Europe. I see no reason for regarding them as specifically
-distinct. The differences are very trivial in kind, and not
-greater than would be expected on the hypothesis of recent
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have therefore on
-our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, <em>Salmo salar</em>. The
-landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is <em>Salmo salar sebago</em>.
-The <em>Ouananiche</em> of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of
-anglers, is <em>Salmo salar ouananiche</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Ouananiche.</strong>—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the
-<em>Ouananiche</em>: "But the prince of the pool was the fighting
-<em>Ouananiche</em>, the little salmon of St. John. Here let me chant
-thy praise, thou noblest and most high-minded fish, the cleanest
-feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest leaper, and the bravest
-warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin, the trout, in
-his purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more splendid
-armor than thy russet and silver mottled with black, but thine
-is the kinglier nature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The old salmon of the sea who begat thee long ago in these
-inland waters became a backslider, descending again to the
-ocean, and grew gross and heavy with coarse feeding. But thou,
-unsalted salmon of the foaming floods, not landlocked as men call
-thee, but choosing of thine own free will to dwell on a loftier
-level in the pure, swift current of a living stream, hath grown
-in grace and risen to a better life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality,
-and thy five pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of
-pounds of flesh less vitalized by spirit. Thou feedest on the
-flies of the air, and thy food is transformed into an aerial passion
-for flight, as thou springest across the pool, vaulting toward the
-sky. Thine eyes have grown large and keen by piercing through
-the foam, and the feathered hook that can deceive thee must
-be deftly tied and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins, by ceaseless
-conflict with the rapids, have broadened and strengthened,
-so that they can flash thy slender body like a living arrow up
-the fall. As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou among
-the fish, the plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all
-the water-folk."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these
-fishes, takes, in his memoir on "The Fishes of Great Britain
-and Ireland," and in other papers, a similar view in regard
-to the European species. Omitting the species with permanent
-teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus <em>Salar</em>), he finds
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>among the salmon proper only two species, <em>Salmo salar</em> and
-<em>Salmo trutta</em>. The latter species, the sea-trout or salmon-trout
-of England and the estuaries of northern Europe, is similar to
-the salmon in many respects, but has rather smaller scales,
-there being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose
-fin and the lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon,
-nor does it reach so large a size. Although naturally anadromous,
-like the true salmon, landlocked forms of the salmon-trout
-are not uncommon. These have been usually regarded
-as different species, while aberrant or intermediate individuals
-are usually regarded as hybrids. The salmon-trout of Europe
-have many analogies with the steelhead of the Pacific.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The present writer has examined many thousands of American
-<em>Salmonidæ</em>, both of <em>Oncorhynchus</em> and <em>Salmo</em>. While many
-variations have come to his attention, and he has been compelled
-more than once to modify his views as to specific distinctions,
-he has never yet seen an individual which he had
-the slightest reason to regard as a "hybrid." It is certainly
-illogical to conclude that every specimen which does not correspond
-to our closet-formed definition of its species must therefore
-be a "hybrid" with some other. There is no evidence worth
-mentioning, known to me, of extensive hybridization in a state
-of nature in any group of fishes. This matter is much in need
-of further study; for what is true of the species in one region,
-in this regard, may not be true of others. Dr. Günther observes:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already expressed
-his belief that the different salmonoids interbreed;
-and this view has since been shared by many who have observed
-these fishes in nature. Hybrids between the sewin
-(<em>Salmo trutta cambricus</em>) and the river-trout (<em>Salmo fario</em>) were
-numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales
-before salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions
-allowed to pass into these streams, and so variable in their
-characters that the passage from one species to the other could
-be demonstrated in an almost unbroken series, which might
-induce some naturalists to regard both species as identical.
-Abundant evidence of a similar character has accumulated,
-showing the frequent occurrence of hybrids between <em>Salmo
-fario</em> and <em>S. trutta</em>.... In some rivers the conditions appear
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>to be more favorable to hybridism than in others in which
-hybrids are of comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids between
-the salmon and other species are very scarce everywhere."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very similar to the European <em>Salmo trutta</em> is the trout of Japan
-(<em>Salmo perryi</em>), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu,
-or river-salmon. This species abounds everywhere in Japan,
-the young being the common trout of the brooks, black-spotted
-and crossed by parr-marks, the adult reaching a weight of ten
-or twelve pounds in the larger rivers and descending to the sea.
-In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted, salmon-like
-species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is <em>Salmo
-mykiss</em>, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of
-the Columbia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus <em>Salar</em>, differ
-from <em>Salmo salar</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em> in the greater development
-of the vomerine teeth, which are persistent throughout
-life, in a long double series on the shaft of the vomer. About
-seven species are laboriously distinguished by Dr. Günther
-in the waters of western Europe. Most of these are regarded
-by Dr. Day as varieties of <em>Salmo fario</em>. The latter species,
-the common river-trout or lake-trout of Europe, is found throughout
-northern and central Europe, wherever suitable waters
-occur. It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily, and is
-excellent as food. It is more hardy than the different species
-of charr, although from an æsthetic point of view it must be
-regarded as inferior to all of the <em>Salvelini</em>. The largest river-trout
-recorded by Dr. Day weighed twenty-one pounds. Such
-large individuals are usually found in lakes in the north, well
-stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed. Farther
-south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout-life,
-they become mature at a length of less than a foot, and a
-weight of a few ounces. These excessive variations in the size
-of individuals have received too little notice from students of
-<em>Salmonidæ</em>. Similar variations occur in all the non-migratory
-species of <em>Salmo</em> and of <em>Salvelinus</em>. Numerous river-trout have
-been recorded from northern Asia, but as yet nothing can be
-definitely stated as to the number of species actually existing.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Black-spotted Trout.</strong>—In North America only the region
-west of the Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Alaska, and the valley of Mackenzie River have species of
-black-spotted trout. There are few of these north of Sitka in
-Alaska, although black-spotted trout are occasionally taken on
-Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the Rocky
-Mountain region. If we are to follow the usage of the names
-"salmon" and "trout" which prevails in England, we should
-say that, in America, it is only these western regions which
-have any trout at all. Of the number of species (about twenty-five
-in all) which have been indicated by authors, certainly not
-more than about 8 to 10 can possibly be regarded as distinct
-species. The other names are either useless synonyms, or else
-they have been applied to local varieties which pass by degrees
-into the ordinary types.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Trout of Western America.</strong>—In the western part of America
-are found more than a score of forms of trout of the genus <em>Salmo</em>,
-all closely related and difficult to distinguish. There are representatives
-in the head-waters of the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South
-Platte, Missouri, and Colorado rivers; also in the Great Salt Lake
-basin, throughout the Columbia basin, in all suitable waters from
-southern California and Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol
-Bay, similar forms again appearing in Kamchatka and Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the various more or less tangible species that may
-be recognized, three distinct series appear. These have been
-termed the cutthroat-trout series (allies of <em>Salmo clarkii</em>), the
-rainbow-trout series (allies of <em>Salmo irideus</em>), and the steelhead
-series (allies of <em>Salmo rivularis</em>, a species more usually but
-wrongly called <em>Salmo gairdneri</em>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The steelhead, or <em>rivularis</em> series, is found in the coastwise
-streams of California and in the streams of Oregon and Washington,
-below the great Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and northward
-in Alaska along the mainland as far as Skaguay. The
-steelhead-trout reach a large size (10 to 20 pounds). They
-spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all the true steelheads
-the head is relatively very short, its length being contained
-about five times in the distance from tip of snout to base of
-caudal fin. The scales in the steelhead are always rather small,
-about 150 in a linear series, and there is no red under the throat.
-The spots on the dorsal fin are fewer in the steelhead (4 to 6
-rows) than in the other American trout.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of
-California and Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135
-in a lengthwise series) and the head is relatively large, forming
-nearly one-fourth of the length to base of caudal. These enter
-the sea only when in the small coastwise streams. Usually
-they have no red under the throat. The cutthroat forms are
-found from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka, in
-the coastwise streams of northern California, Oregon, Washington,
-and Alaska, and all the clear streams on both sides
-of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Great Basin and the
-head-waters of the Colorado. The cutthroat-trout have the
-scales small, about 180, and there is always a bright dash of
-orange-red on each side concealed beneath the branches of the
-lower jaw. Along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada there
-are also forms of trout with the general appearance of rainbow-trout
-and evidently belonging to that species, but with scales
-intermediate in number (in McCloud River), var. <em>shasta</em>, or with
-scales as small as in the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var.
-<em>gilberti</em>. In these small-scaled forms more or less red appears
-below the lower jaw, and they are doubtless what they appear to
-be, really intermediate between <em>clarkii</em> and <em>irideus</em>, although
-certainly nearest the latter. A similar series of forms occurs in
-the Columbia basin, the upper Snake being inhabited by <em>clarkii</em>
-and the lower Snake by <em>clarkii</em> and <em>rivularis</em>, together with a
-medley of forms apparently intermediate.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It seems probable that the American trout originated in
-Asia, extended its range to southeast Alaska, thence southward
-to the Fraser and Columbia, thence to the Yellowstone and
-the Missouri <em>via</em> Two-Ocean Pass; from the Snake River to the
-Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from the Missouri southward
-to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the Platte
-to the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and then from Oregon
-southward coastwise and along the Sierras to northern Mexico,
-thence northward and coastwise, the sea-running forms passing
-from stream to stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>
-<img src='images/i_098.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 61.</span>—Rainbow Trout (male), <em>Salmo irideus shasta</em> Jordan. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the American species the rainbow trout of California
-(<em>Salmo irideus</em>) most nearly approaches the European <em>Salmo
-fario</em>. It has the scales comparatively large, although rather
-smaller than in <em>Salmo fario</em>, the usual number in a longitudinal
-series being about 135. The mouth is smaller than in other
-American trout; the maxillary, except in old males, rarely
-extending beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well forked,
-becoming in very old fishes more nearly truncate. The head
-is relatively large, about four times in the total length. The
-size of the head forms the best distinctive character. The
-color, as in all the other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in
-the males, with a red lateral band, and reddish and dusky
-blotches. The head, back, and upper fins are sprinkled with
-round black spots, which are very variable in number, those
-on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens taken
-in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar conditions,
-is bright silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This
-species is especially characteristic of the waters of California.
-It abounds in every clear brook, from the Mexican line northward
-to Mount Shasta, or beyond, the species passing in the
-Columbia region by degrees into the species or form known as
-<em>Salmo masoni</em>, the Oregon rainbow trout, a small rainbow trout
-common in the forest streams of Oregon, with smaller mouth and
-fewer spots on the dorsal. No true rainbow trout have been
-anywhere obtained to the eastward of the Cascade Range or
-of the Sierra Nevada, except as artificially planted in the Truckee
-River. The species varies much in size; specimens from
-northern California often reach a weight of six pounds, while
-in the streams above Tia Juana in Lower California the southernmost
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>locality from which I have obtained trout, they seldom
-exceed a length of six inches. Although not usually an anadromous
-species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in
-the rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens
-being often taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been
-made to introduce it in Eastern streams, but it appears to seek
-the sea when it is lost. It is apparently more hardy and
-less greedy than the American charr, or brook-trout (<em>Salvelinus
-fontinalis</em>). On the other hand, it is distinctly inferior to the
-latter in beauty and in gaminess.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_099.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 62.</span>—Rainbow Trout (female), <em>Salmo irideus shasta</em> Jordan. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Three varieties of some importance have been indicated,
-<em>Salmo irideus stonei</em>, the Nissui trout of the Klamath, with spots
-on the posterior parts only, <em>Salmo irideus shasta</em> of the upper
-Sacramento, and the small-scaled <em>Salmo irideus gilberti</em> of the
-Kings and Kern rivers. In the head-waters of the Kern, in a
-stream called Volcano Creek or Whitney Creek, the waterfall sometimes
-called Agua-Bonita shuts off the movements of the trout.
-Above this fall is a dwarf form with bright golden fins, and the
-scales scarcely imbricated. This is the "golden trout of Mount
-Whitney," <em>Salmo irideus agua-bonita</em>. It will possibly be found to
-change back to the original type if propagated in different waters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>sprightliness when in the water, reckless dash with which it
-springs from the water to meet the descending fly ere it strikes
-the surface, and the mad and repeated leaps from the water
-when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever hold a very high rank.
-"The gamest fish we have ever seen," writes Dr. Evermann, "was
-a 16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch tributary
-of Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a
-broad and deep pool of exceedingly clear water. As the angler
-from behind a clump of willows made the cast the trout bounded
-from the water and met the fly in the air a foot or more above
-the surface; missing it, he dropped upon the water, only to
-turn about and strike viciously a second time at the fly just as
-it touched the surface; though he again missed the fly, the
-hook caught him in the lower jaw from the outside, and then
-began a fight which would delight the heart of any angler. His
-first effort was to reach the bottom of the pool, then, doubling
-upon the line, he made three jumps from the water in quick
-succession, clearing the surface in each instance from one to
-four feet, and every time doing his utmost to free himself from
-the hook by shaking his head as vigorously as a dog shakes a
-rat. Then he would rush wildly about in the large pool, now
-attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool, now
-trying the opposite direction, and often striving to hide under
-one or the other of the banks. It was easy to handle the fish
-when the dash was made up or down stream or for the opposite
-side, but when he turned about and made a rush for the protection
-of the overhanging bank upon which the angler stood it
-was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these
-were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But
-finally he was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever
-made."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The rainbow takes the fly so readily that there is no reason
-for resorting to grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is
-a fish whose gaminess will satisfy the most exacting of expert
-anglers and whose readiness to take any proper line will please
-the most impatient of inexperienced amateurs."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The steelhead (<em>Salmo rivularis</em>) is a large trout, reaching
-twelve to twenty pounds in weight, found abundantly in river
-estuaries and sometimes in lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>Barbara. The spent fish abound in the rivers in spring at the
-time of the salmon-run. The species is rarely canned, but is
-valued for shipment in cold storage. Its bones are much more
-firm than those of the salmon—a trait unfavorable for canning
-purposes. The flesh when not spent after spawning is excellent.
-The steelhead does not die after spawning, as all the Pacific
-salmon do.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_101.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 63.</span>—Steelhead Trout, <em>Salmo rivularis</em> Ayres. Columbia River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched
-in the brooks from eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain
-streams from six to thirty-six months, going down to the sea
-with the high waters of spring, after which they return to spawn
-as typical steelhead trout. I now regard this view as unfounded.
-In my experience the rainbow and the steelhead are
-always distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the rainbow
-trout is unknown; the scales in the steelhead are always
-smaller (about 155) than in typical rainbow trout; finally,
-the small size of the head in the steelhead is always distinctive.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper
-Columbia, seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the
-rivers away from the sea. Derived from the steelhead, but
-apparently quite distinct from it, are three very noble trout,
-all confined so far as yet known to Lake Crescent in northwestern
-Washington. These are the crescent trout, <em>Salmo crescentis</em>,
-the Beardslee trout, <em>Salmo beardsleei</em>, and the long-headed trout,
-<em>Salmo bathæcetor</em>. The first two, discovered by Admiral L. A.
-Beardslee, are trout of peculiar attractiveness and excellence.
-The third is a deep-water form, never rising to the surface,
-and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still uncertain, and
-it may be derived from some type other than the steelhead.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span><strong>Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.</strong>—This species has much
-smaller scales than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual
-number in a longitudinal series being 160 to 170. Its head is
-longer (about four times in length to base of caudal). Its
-mouth is proportionately larger, and there is always a narrow
-band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the tongue.
-These teeth are always wanting in <em>Salmo irideus</em> and <em>rivularis</em>
-in which species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The
-color in <em>Salmo clarkii</em> is, as in other species, exceedingly variable.
-In life there is always a deep-red blotch on the throat, between
-the branches of the lower jaw and the membrane connecting
-them. This is not found in other species, or is reduced to a
-narrow strip or pinkish shade. It seems to be constant in
-all varieties of <em>Salmo clarkii</em>, at all ages, thus furnishing a good
-distinctive character. It is the sign manual of the Sioux Indians,
-and the anglers have already accepted from this mark the name
-of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some species is
-found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of
-Utah, in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on
-both sides of the Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout
-Oregon, Washington, Idaho, British Columbia, the coastwise
-islands of southeastern Alaska (Baranof, etc.), to Kadiak and
-Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake suitable for trout-life
-being without it. In California the species seems to be comparatively
-rare, and its range rarely extending south of Cape
-Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads
-are sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Washington
-and Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget
-Sound it is a common fish. These sea-run individuals are more
-silvery and less spotted than those found in the mountain streams
-and lakes. The size of <em>Salmo clarkii</em> is subject to much variation.
-Ordinarily four to six pounds is a large size; but in certain
-favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the fjords of southeastern
-Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds are occasionally
-taken.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Those species or individuals dwelling in lakes of considerable
-size, where the water is of such temperature and depth as insures
-an ample food-supply, will reach a large size, while those
-in a restricted environment, where both the water and food are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>limited, will be small directly in proportion to these environing
-restrictions. The trout of the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach
-a weight of at least 17 pounds, while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature
-trout do not exceed 8 to 9¼ inches in total length or one-fourth
-pound in weight. In small creeks in the Sawtooth Mountains
-and elsewhere they reach maturity at a length of 5 or 6 inches,
-and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with the impression
-that they are a species different from the larger ones found in
-the lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations
-between these extreme forms may be found in the intervening
-and connecting waters, the differences are not even of sub-specific
-significance.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_103a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 64.</span>—Head of adult Trout-worm, <em>Dibothrium cordiceps</em> Leidy, a parasite of <em>Salmo clarkii</em>. From intestine of white pelican, Yellowstone Lake. (After Linton.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_103b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 65.</span>—Median segments of <em>Dibothrium cordiceps</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Evermann observes: "The various forms of cutthroat-trout
-vary greatly in game qualities; even the same subspecies
-in different waters, in different parts of its habitat, or at different
-seasons, will vary greatly in this regard. In general, however,
-it is perhaps a fair statement to say that the cutthroat-trout
-are regarded by anglers as being inferior in gaminess to the
-Eastern brook-trout. But while this is true, it must not by any
-means be inferred that it is without game qualities, for it is
-really a fish which possesses those qualities in a very high degree.
-Its vigor and voraciousness are determined largely, of course,
-by the character of the stream or lake in which it lives. The
-individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades and
-seething rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a
-fight which is rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in
-warmer and larger streams and lakes they may be very sluggish
-and show but little fight. Yet this is by no means always true.
-In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow very large and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>where they are often very logy, one is occasionally hooked
-which tries to the utmost the skill of the angler to prevent his
-tackle from being smashed and at the same time save the fish."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the various forms derived from <em>Salmo clarkii</em> some mere
-varieties, some distinct species, the following are among the
-most marked:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Salmo henshawi</em>, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries
-and outlet, Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt
-and the Carson and throughout the basin of the former glacial
-lake called Lake Lahontan. This is a distinct species from
-<em>Salmo clarkii</em> and must be regarded as the finest of all the cutthroat-trout.
-It is readily known by its spotted belly, the
-black spots being evenly scattered over the whole surface of
-the body, above and below. This is an excellent game-fish, and
-from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake it is brought in large numbers
-to the markets of San Francisco. In the depths of Lake
-Tahoe, which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra Nevada,
-occurs a very large variety which spawns in the lake, <em>Salmo
-henshawi tahoensis</em>. This reaches a weight of twenty-eight
-pounds.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_104.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 66.</span>—Tahoe Trout, <em>Salmo henshawi</em> Gill &amp; Jordan. Lake Tahoe, California.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close
-to the ordinary cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is
-derived. This is known as <em>Salmo clarkii virginalis</em>. In Utah
-Lake it reaches a large size.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found
-a small trout with peculiar markings called <em>Salmo clarkii bouvieri</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the head-waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is the
-small green-back trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>and large black spots. This is <em>Salmo clarkii stomias</em>, and it is
-especially fine in St. Vrain's River and the streams of Estes Park.
-In Twin Lakes, a pair of glacial lakes tributary of the Arkansas
-near Leadville, is found <em>Salmo clarkii macdonaldi</em>, the yellow-finned
-trout, a large and very handsome species living in deep
-water, and with the fins golden yellow. This approaches the
-Colorado trout, <em>Salmo clarkii pleuriticus</em>, and it may be derived
-from the latter, although it occurs in the same waters as the
-very different green-back trout, or <em>Salmo clarkii stomias</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_105a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 67.</span>—Green-back Trout, <em>Salmo stomias</em> Cope. Arkansas River, Leadville, Colo.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_105b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 68.</span>—Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, <em>Salmo macdonaldi</em> Jordan &amp; Evermann. Twin Lakes, Colo.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Two fine trout derived from <em>Salmo clarkii</em> have been lately
-discovered by Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a mountain
-lake near Lake Crescent, but not connected with it, the
-two separated from the sea by high waterfalls. These have
-been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as <em>Salmo jordani</em>, the
-"spotted trout" of Lake Southerland, and <em>Salmo declivifrons</em>,
-the "salmon-trout." These seem to be distinct forms or subspecies
-produced through isolation.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>
-<img src='images/i_106a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 69.</span>—Rio Grande Trout, <em>Salmo clarkii spilurus</em> Cope. Del Norte, Colo.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_106b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 70.</span>—Colorado River Trout, <em>Salmo clarkii pleuriticus</em> Cope. Trapper's Lake, Colo.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Rio Grande trout (<em>Salmo clarkii spilurus</em>) is a large and
-profusely spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio
-Grande, the mountain streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and
-as far south as the northern part of Chihuahua. Its scales are
-still smaller than those of the ordinary cutthroat-trout, and the
-black spots are chiefly confined to the tail. Closely related to
-it is the trout of the Colorado Basin, <em>Salmo clarkii pleuriticus</em>,
-a large and handsome trout with very small scales, much sought
-by anglers in western Colorado, and abounding in all suitable
-streams throughout the Colorado Basin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Hucho, the Huchen.</strong>—The genus <em>Hucho</em> has been framed
-for the Huchen or Rothfisch (<em>Hucho hucho</em>) of the Danube, a
-very large trout, differing from the genus <em>Salmo</em> in having no
-teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and from the <em>Salvelini</em> at least
-in form and coloration. The huchen is a long and slender,
-somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and strong teeth.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>The color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It reaches
-a size little inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to be
-an excellent food-fish. In northern Japan is a similar species,
-<em>Hucho blackistoni</em>, locally known as Ito, a large and handsome
-trout with very slender body, reaching a length of 2½ feet. It
-is well worthy of introduction into American and European
-waters.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_107.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 71.</span>—Ito, <em>Hucho blackistoni</em> (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Salvelinus, the Charr.</strong>—The genus <em>Salvelinus</em> comprises the
-finest of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, from the point of view of the angler or
-the artist. In England the species are known as charr or char,
-in contradistinction to the black-spotted species of <em>Salmo</em>, which
-are called trout. The former name has unfortunately been
-lost in America, where the name "trout" is given indiscriminately
-to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous other
-fishes (<em>Micropterus</em>, <em>Hexagrammos</em>, <em>Cynoscion</em>, <em>Agonostomus</em>)
-wholly unlike the <em>Salmonidæ</em> in all respects. It is sometimes
-said that "the American brook-trout is no trout, nothing but
-a charr," almost as though "charr" were a word of reproach.
-Nothing higher, however, can be said of a salmonoid than that
-it is a "charr." The technical character of the genus <em>Salvelinus</em>
-lies in the form of its vomer. This is deeper than in <em>Salmo</em>;
-and when the flesh is removed the bone is found to be somewhat
-boat-shaped above, and with the shaft depressed and out of the
-line of the head of the vomer. Only the head or chevron is
-armed with teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout.
-The body in all is covered with round spots which are paler
-than the ground color, and crimson or gray. The lower fins are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>usually edged with bright colors. The sexual differences are
-not great. The scales, in general, are smaller than in other
-<em>Salmonidæ</em>, and they are imbedded in the skin to such a degree
-as to escape the notice of casual observers and even of most
-anglers.</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c015'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>"One trout scale in the scales I'd lay</div>
-      <div class='line'>(If trout had scales), and 'twill outweigh</div>
-      <div class='line'>The wrong side of the balances."—<span class='sc'>Lowell.</span></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest
-of mountain streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature.
-They are not migratory, or only to a limited extent. In northern
-regions they descend to the sea, where they grow much more
-rapidly and assume a nearly uniform silvery-gray color. The
-different species are found in all suitable waters throughout the
-northern parts of both continents, except in the Rocky Mountains
-and Great Basin, where only the black-spotted trout
-occur. The number of species of charr is very uncertain, as,
-both in America and Europe, trivial variations and individual
-peculiarities have been raised to the rank of species. More
-types, however, seem to be represented in America than in
-Europe.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_108.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 72.</span>—Rangeley Trout, <em>Salvelinus oquassa</em> (Girard). Lake Oquassa, Maine.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The only really well-authenticated species of charr in European
-waters is the red charr, sälbling, or ombre chevalier (<em>Salvelinus
-alpinus</em>). This species is found in cold, clear streams in
-Switzerland, Germany, and throughout Scandinavia and the
-British Islands. Compared with the American charr or brook-trout,
-it is a slenderer fish, with smaller mouth, longer fins,
-and smaller red spots, which are confined to the sides of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>body. It is a "gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of
-taking the bait and feeding largely at night-time. It appears
-to require very pure and mostly deep water for its residence."
-It is less tenacious of life than the trout. It reaches a weight of
-from one to five pounds, probably rarely exceeding the latter
-in size. The various charr described from Siberia are far too
-little known to be enumerated here.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the American charr the one most resembling the European
-species is the Rangeley Lake trout (<em>Salvelinus oquassa</em>). The
-exquisite little fish is known in the United States only from
-the Rangeley chain of lakes in western Maine. This is very
-close to the Greenland charr, <em>Salvelinus stagnalis</em>, a beautiful
-species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is much slenderer
-than the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and
-smaller mouth. In life it is dark blue above, and the deep-red
-spots are confined to the sides of the body. The species rarely
-exceeds the length of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes, but in some
-other waters it reaches a much larger size. So far as is known
-it keeps itself in the depths of the lake until its spawning season
-approaches, in October, when it ascends the stream to spawn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_109.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 73.</span>—Sunapee Trout, <em>Salvelinus aureolus</em> Bean. Sunapee Lake, N. H.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout,
-<em>Salvelinus aureolus</em>, a beautiful charr almost identical with the
-European species, found in numerous ponds and lakes of eastern
-New Hampshire and neighboring parts of Maine. Mr. Garman
-regards this trout as the offspring of an importation of the ombre
-chevalier and not as a native species, and in this view he may
-be correct. <em>Salvelinus alipes</em> of the far north may be the same
-species. Another remarkable form is the Lac de Marbre trout
-of Canada, <em>Salvelinus marstoni</em> of Garman.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>In Arctic regions another species, called <em>Salvelinus naresi</em>, is
-very close to <em>Salvelinus oquassa</em> and may be the same.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another beautiful little charr, allied to <em>Salvelinus stagnalis</em>,
-is the Floeberg charr (<em>Salvelinus arcturus</em>). This species has
-been brought from Victoria Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the
-extreme northern part of Arctic America, the northernmost
-point whence any salmonoid has been obtained.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_110.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 74.</span>—Speckled Trout (male), <em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em> (Mitchill). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>
-<img src='images/i_111.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 75.</span>—Brook Trout, <em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em> (Mitchill), natural size. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>The American charr, or, as it is usually called, the brook-trout
-(<em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>), although one of the most beautiful
-of fishes, is perhaps the least graceful of all the genuine charrs.
-It is technically distinguished by the somewhat heavy head and
-large mouth, the maxillary bone reaching more or less beyond
-the eye. There are no teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least
-of such teeth being found in nearly all other species. Its color
-is somewhat different from that of the others, the red spots
-being large and the black more or less mottled and barred with
-darker olive. The dorsal and caudal fins are likewise barred
-or mottled, while in the other species they are generally uniform
-in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of the
-Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams
-of the Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the
-Chattahoochee River in northern Georgia northward at least
-to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the northern limits of its range
-being as yet not well ascertained. It varies greatly in size,
-according to its surroundings, those found in lakes being
-larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found
-farthest south, in the head-waters of the Chattahoochee,
-Savannah, Catawba, and French Broad, rarely pass the dimensions
-of fingerlings. The largest specimens are recorded from
-the sea along the Canadian coast. These frequently reach a
-weight of ten pounds; and from their marine and migratory
-habits, they have been regarded as forming a distinct variety
-(<em>Salvelinus fontinalis immaculatus</em>), but this form is merely
-a sea-run brook-trout. The largest fresh-water specimens rarely
-exceed seven pounds in weight. Some unusually large brook-trout
-have been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the largest known
-to me having a reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook-trout
-is the favorite game-fish of American waters, preëminent
-in wariness, in beauty, and in delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all
-clear and cold waters within its range, the large lakes and the
-smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks and the largest rivers; and
-when it can do so without soiling its aristocratic gills on the way,
-it descends to the sea and grows large and fat on the animals of
-the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary fish, and it often
-requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught, too, with
-artificial or natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms, grasshoppers,
-grubs, the spawn of other fish, or even the eyes or cut pieces of
-other trout. It spawns in the fall, from September to late in
-November. It begins to reproduce at the age of two years,
-then having a length of about six inches. In spring-time the
-trout delight in rapids and swiftly running water; and in the
-hot months of midsummer they resort to deep, cool, and shaded
-pools. Later, at the approach of the spawning season, they
-gather around the mouths of cool, gravelly brooks, whither they
-resort to make their beds.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c009'><sup>[10]</sup></a></p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Hallock.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through
-the agency of the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In
-the words of an excellent angler, the late Myron W. Reed of
-Denver: "This is the last generation of trout-fishers. The
-children will not be able to find any. Already there are well-trodden
-paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and in
-Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the
-side of which you will find no paper collar or other evidence of
-civilization. It is the Nameless River. Not that trout will
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>cease to be. They will be hatched by machinery and raised
-in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver, and grow flabby and
-lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will not cease to
-be. He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the
-fat and songless reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding
-and easy pond-life enervate and deprave him. The trout that
-the children will know only by legend is the gold-sprinkled,
-living arrow of the white water; able to zigzag up the cataract;
-able to loiter in the rapids; whose dainty meat is the glancing
-butterfly."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in artificial
-ponds. It has been successfully transported to Europe,
-and it is already abundant in certain streams in England, in California,
-and elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without
-red spots, called <em>Salvelinus agassizi</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_113.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 76.</span>—Malma Trout, or "Dolly Varden," <em>Salvelinus malma</em> (Walbaum). Cook Inlet, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The "Dolly Varden" trout, or malma (<em>Salvelinus malma</em>), is
-very similar to the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form,
-color, and habits. It is found always to the westward of the
-Rocky Mountains, in the streams of northern California, Oregon,
-Washington, and British Columbia, Alaska, and Kamchatka, as
-far as the Kurile Islands. It abounds in the sea in the northward,
-and specimens of ten to twelve pounds weight are not
-uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska. The Dolly
-Varden trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed than
-the Eastern brook-trout. The red spots are found on the back
-of the fish as well as on the sides, and the back and upper
-fins are without the blackish marblings and blotches seen in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span><em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>. In value as food, in beauty, and in gaminess
-<em>Salvelinus malma</em> is very similar to its Eastern cousin.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_114a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 77.</span>—The Dolly Varden Trout, <em>Salvelinus malma</em> (Walbaum). Lake Pend d'Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout,
-is very destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless
-numbers are taken in the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away
-as useless by the canners. In every coastwise stream of Alaska
-the water fairly "boils" with these trout. They are, however,
-not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan occurs <em>Salvelinus
-pluvius</em>, the iwana, a species very similar to the Dolly Varden,
-but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile region
-and Kamchatka is another large charr, <em>Salvelinus kundscha</em>,
-with the spots large and cream-color instead of crimson.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_114b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 78.</span>—Great Lake Trout, <em>Cristivomer namaycush</em> (Walbaum). Lake Michigan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.</strong>—Allied to the true charrs,
-but now placed by us in a different genus, <em>Cristivomer</em>, is the
-Great Lake trout, otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe,
-or togue (<em>Cristivomer namaycush</em>). Technically this fish differs
-from the true charrs in having on its vomer a raised crest behind
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>the chevron and free from the shaft. This crest is armed with
-strong teeth. There are also large hooked teeth on the hyoid
-bone, and the teeth generally are proportionately stronger than
-in most of the other species. The Great Lake trout is grayish in
-color, light or dark according to its surroundings; and the body
-is covered with round paler spots, which are gray instead of red.
-The dorsal and caudal fins are marked with darker reticulations,
-somewhat as in the brook-trout. This noble species is
-found in all the larger lakes from New England and New York to
-Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes
-tributary to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples
-from Lake Bennett, Lake Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass),
-and have seen specimens from Lake La Hache in British
-Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than any <em>Salvelinus</em>,
-specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being not
-uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to
-eighty pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be
-regarded as somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish.
-Compared with other salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a sluggish,
-heavy, and ravenous fish. It has been known to eat raw potato,
-liver, and corn-cobs,—refuse thrown from passing steamers.
-According to Herbert, "a coarse, heavy, stiff rod, and a powerful
-oiled hempen or flaxen line, on a winch, with a heavy sinker; a
-cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh, fish, or fowl,—is the most
-successful, if not the most orthodox or scientific, mode of capturing
-him. His great size and immense strength alone give him
-value as a fish of game; but when hooked he pulls strongly and
-fights hard, though he is a boring, deep fighter, and seldom if
-ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon or brook-trout."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake
-trout known as the Siscowet (<em>Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz</em>),
-remarkable for its extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of
-this difference lies probably in some peculiarity of food as yet
-unascertained.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Ayu, or Sweetfish.</strong>—The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan,
-<em>Plecoglossus altivelis</em>, resembles a small trout in form, habits,
-and scaling. Its teeth are, however, totally different, being
-arranged on serrated plates on the sides of the jaws, and the
-tongue marked with similar folds. The ayu abounds in all
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from the sea
-like a salmon. It reaches the length of about a foot. The
-flesh is very fine and delicate, scarcely surpassed by that of
-any other fish whatsoever. It should be introduced into clear
-short streams throughout the temperate zones.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_116.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 79.</span>—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, <em>Plecoglossus altivelis</em> Schlegel. Tamagawa, Tokyo, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams
-the ayu is fished for on a large scale by means of tamed cormorants.
-This is usually done from boats in the night by the
-light of torches.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Cormorant-fishing.</strong>—The following account of cormorant-fishing
-is taken, by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whitney,
-from an article contributed by the writer to <em>Outing</em>, April,
-1902:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer.
-It rises somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward
-of Musashi, among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees,
-and it flows across the plains bordered by rice-fields and mulberry
-orchards to the misty bay of Tokyo. It is, therefore, a
-river of Japan, and along its shores are quaint old temples, each
-guarding its section of primitive forest, picturesque bridges,
-huddling villages, and torii, or gates through which the gods
-may pass.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but
-it runs on a wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the
-snow melts in the mountains. And this broad flood-bed is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>filled with gravel, with straggling willows, showy day-lilies,
-orange amaryllis, and the little sky-blue spider-flower, which
-the Japanese call chocho, or butterfly-weed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the
-white ripples, dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little
-sculpins and gobies lurking under the stones. Trout dart
-through its upper waters, and at times salmon run up from the
-sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort
-of dwarf salmon, running in the spring and spawning in the
-rivers just as a salmon does. But it is smaller than any salmon,
-not larger than a smelt, and its flesh is white and tender, and
-so very delicate in its taste and odor that one who tastes it
-crisply fried or broiled feels that he has never tasted real fish
-before. In all its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a dwarf of its
-kind, one which our ancestors in England would have called
-a "samlet." Its scientific name is <em>Plecoglossus altivelis</em>. <em>Plecoglossus</em>
-means plaited tongue, and <em>altivelis</em>, having a high sail;
-for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious way,
-and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poetically
-inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the
-ayu are very peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged
-folds or plaits along the sides of the jaws, quite different from
-those of any other fish whatsoever.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches
-long. It is like a trout in build, and its scales are just as small.
-It is light yellowish or olive in color, growing silvery below.
-Behind its gills is a bar of bright shining yellow, and its adipose
-fin is edged with scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the dorsal
-fin shaded with black, while the anal fin is dashed with pale
-red.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go
-afishing. It is easy enough to find the place, for it is not more
-than ten miles out of Tokyo, on a fine old farm just by the ancient
-Temple of Tachikawa, with its famous inscribed stone, given by
-the emperor of China.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the farmhouse, commodious and hospitable, likewise clean
-and charming after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy
-who brings our fishing-tackle.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which
-we are to do our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with
-a white spot behind its eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing
-in the water, with which it says <em>y-eugh</em> whenever a stranger
-makes a friendly overture. The cormorants answer to the
-name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like the only word
-the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box together
-and we set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa. Arrived
-at the stream, the boy takes the three cormorants out of
-the box and adjusts their fishing-harness. This consists of a
-tight ring about the bottom of the neck, of a loop under each
-wing, and a directing line.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the
-stream, driving the little fishes—ayu, zakko, haë, and all the
-rest—before it. The boy with the cormorants goes in advance.
-The three birds are eager as pointer dogs, and apparently full
-of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left they plunge with
-lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish. When
-the bird's neck is full of fishes down to the level of the shoulders,
-the boy draws him in, grabs him by the leg, and shakes him
-unceremoniously over a basket until all the fishes have flopped
-out.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager
-eyes and much repeating of <em>y-eugh</em>, the only word they know.
-The ayu are not for them, and some of the kajikas and hazés
-were prizes of science. But zakko (the dace) and haë (the
-minnow) were made for the cormorant. The boy picks out
-the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then
-another. Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one
-gulp, for the ring is off his neck by this time, and then says
-<em>y-eugh</em>, which means that he likes the fun, and when we are
-ready will be glad to try again. And no doubt they have tried
-it many times since, for there are plenty of fishes in the Jewel
-River, zakko and haë as well as ayu.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Fossil Salmonidæ.</strong>—Fossil salmonidæ are rare and known
-chiefly from detached scales, the bones in this family being
-very brittle and easily destroyed. Nothing is added to our
-knowledge of the origin of these fishes from such fossils.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A large fossil trout or salmon, called <em>Rhabdofario lacustris</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>has been brought from the Pliocene at Catherine's Creek, Idaho.
-It is known from the skull only. <em>Thaumaturus luxatus</em>, from the
-Miocene of Bohemia, shows the print of the adipose fin. As
-already stated (p. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>), fragments of the hooked jaws of salmon,
-from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in the museum of the
-University of California.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VI<br />THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_120dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Grayling, or Thymallidæ.</strong>—The small family of
-<em>Thymallidæ</em>, or grayling, is composed of finely organized
-fishes allied to the trout, but differing in having the
-frontal bones meeting on the middle line of the skull, thus
-excluding the frontals from contact with the supraoccipital.
-The anterior half of the very high dorsal is made up of unbranched
-simple rays. There is but one genus, <em>Thymallus</em>,
-comprising very noble game-fishes characteristic of subarctic
-streams.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_120.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 80.</span>—Alaska Grayling, <em>Thymallus signifer</em> Richardson. Nulato, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The grayling, <em>Thymallus</em>, of Europe, is termed by Saint
-Ambrose "the flower of fishes." The teeth on the tongue,
-found in all the trout and salmon, are obsolete in the grayling.
-The chief distinctive peculiarity of the genus <em>Thymallus</em> is the
-great development of the dorsal fin, which has more rays (20
-to 24) than are found in any of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, and the
-fin is also higher. All the species are gaily colored, the dorsal
-fin especially being marked with purplish or greenish bands
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and bright rose-colored spots; while the body is mostly purplish
-gray, often with spots of black. Most of the species rarely
-exceed a foot in length, but northward they grow larger. Grayling
-weighing five pounds have been taken in England; and
-according to Dr. Day they are said in Lapland to reach a weight
-of eight or nine pounds. The grayling in all countries frequent
-clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter the sea, or even the
-larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the streams,
-and prefer those which have a succession of pools and shallows,
-with a sandy or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The
-grayling spawns on the shallows in April or May (in England).
-It is non-migratory in its habits, depositing its ova in the
-neighborhood of its usual haunts. The ova are far more delicate
-and easily killed than those of the trout or charr. The grayling
-and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not altogether
-in harmony. It is said that the grayling devours the
-eggs of the trout. It is certain that the trout feed on the
-young grayling. As a food-fish, the grayling of course ranks
-high; and it is beloved by the sportsman. They are considered
-gamy fishes, although less strong than the brook-trout, and
-perhaps less wary. The five or six known species of grayling
-are very closely related, and are doubtless comparatively recent
-offshoots from a common stock, which has now spread itself
-widely through the northern regions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The common grayling of Europe (<em>Thymallus thymallus</em>)
-is found throughout northern Europe, and as far south as the
-mountains of Hungary and northern Italy. The name <em>Thymallus</em>
-was given by the ancients, because the fish, when fresh, was
-said to have the odor of water-thyme. Grayling belonging to
-this or other species are found in the waters of Russia and Siberia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The American grayling (<em>Thymallus signifer</em>) is widely distributed
-in British America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is
-very abundant, rising readily to the fly. In several streams
-in northern Michigan, Au Sable River, and Jordan River in
-the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near Keweenaw in
-the northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species with
-shorter and lower dorsal fins, known to anglers as the Michigan
-grayling (<em>Thymallus tricolor</em>). This form has a longer head,
-rather smaller scales, and the dorsal fin rather lower than in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>the northern form (<em>signifer</em>); but the constancy of these characters
-in specimens from intermediate localities is yet to be proved.
-Another very similar form, called <em>Thymallus montanus</em>, occurs
-in the Gallatin, Madison, and other rivers of Western Montana
-tributary to the Missouri. It is locally still abundant and one
-of the finest of game-fishes. It is probable that the grayling
-once had a wider range to the southward than now, and that
-so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is
-tending toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being
-accelerated in Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The
-colonies of grayling in Michigan and Montana are probably
-remains of a post-glacial fauna.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_122.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 81.</span>—Michigan Grayling, <em>Thymallus tricolor</em> Cope. Au Sable River, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Argentinidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Argentinidæ</em>, or smelt, is
-very closely related to the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, representing a dwarf
-series of similar type. The chief essential difference lies in the
-form of the stomach, which is a blind sac, the two openings
-near together, and about the second or pyloric opening there
-are few if any pyloric cæca. In all the <em>Salmonidæ</em> the stomach
-has the form of a siphon, and about the pylorus there are very
-many pyloric cæca. The smelt have the adipose fin and the general
-structure of the salmon. All the species are small in size,
-and most of them are strictly marine, though some of them
-ascend the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do, but not going
-very far. A few kinds become landlocked in ponds. Most of
-the species are confined to the north temperate zone, and a
-few sink into the deep seas. All that are sufficiently abundant
-furnish excellent food, the flesh being extremely delicate and
-often charged with a fragrant oil easy of digestion.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>
-<img src='images/i_123.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 82.</span>—Smelt, <em>Osmerus mordux</em> (Mitchill). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The best-known genus, <em>Osmerus</em>, includes the smelt, or
-spirling (éperlan), of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food-fishes,
-although quickly spoiling in warm weather. <em>Osmerus
-eperlanus</em> is the European species; <em>Osmerus mordax</em> of our eastern
-coast is very much like it, as is also the rainbow-smelt, <em>Osmerus
-dentex</em> of Japan and Alaska. A larger smelt, <em>Osmerus albatrossis</em>,
-occurs on the coast of Alaska, and a small and feeble
-one, <em>Osmerus thaleichthys</em>, mixed with other small or delicate
-fishes, is the whitebait of the San Francisco restaurants. The
-whitebait of the London epicure is made up of the young of
-herrings and sprats of different species. The still more delicate
-whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish, <em>Salanx chinensis</em>.
-<em>Retropinna retropinna</em>, so called from the backward insertion
-of its dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand.
-All the other species belong to northern waters. <em>Mesopus</em>,
-the surf-smelt, has a smaller mouth than <em>Osmerus</em> and inhabits
-the North Pacific. The California species, <em>Mesopus pretiosus</em>,
-of Neah Bay has, according to James G. Swan, "the belly
-covered with a coating of yellow fat which imparts an oily
-appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed or
-washed and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish." This
-species spawns in late summer along the surf-line. According
-to Mr. Swan the water seems to be filled with them. "They
-come in with the flood-tide, and when a wave breaks upon the
-beach they crowd up into the very foam, and as the surf recedes
-many will be seen flapping on the sand and shingle, but
-invariably returning with the undertow to deeper water."
-The Quilliute Indians of Washington believe that "the first
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>surf-smelts that appear must not be sold or given away to be
-taken to another place, nor must they be cut transversely, but
-split open with a mussel-shell."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, <em>Mesopus
-japonicus</em>, in Japan. <em>Mesopus olidus</em>, the pond-smelt of Alaska,
-Kamchatka, and Northern Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_124.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 83.</span>—Eulachon, or Ulchen. <em>Thaleichthys pretiosus</em> Girard. Columbia River. Family <em>Argentinidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite
-species is the famous eulachon, or candle-fish (<em>Thaleichthys
-pacificus</em>). The Chinook name, usually written eulachon, is
-perhaps more accurately represented as ulchen. This little
-fish has the form of a smelt and reaches the length of nearly a
-foot. In the spring it ascends in enormous numbers all the
-rivers north of the Columbia, as far as Skaguay, for a short
-distance for the purpose of spawning. These runs take place
-usually in advance of the salmon-runs. Various predatory
-fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon during its runs,
-and even the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full
-of the little fishes, which they have taken in by their sucker-like
-mouths. At the time of the runs the eulachon are extremely
-fat, so much so that it is said that when dried and a
-wick drawn through the body they may be used as candles.
-On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their
-run is greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eulachon-oil
-from them. This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute
-for cod-liver oil in medicine. Whatever may be its merits in
-this regard, it has the disadvantage in respect to salability
-of being semi-solid or lard-like at ordinary temperatures, requiring
-melting to make it flow as oil. The eulachon is a favorite
-pan-fish in British Columbia. The writer has had considerable
-experience with it, broiled and fried, in its native region, and
-has no hesitation in declaring it to be the best-flavored food-fish
-in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy, and richly
-flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does
-not, however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska
-bury the eulachon in the ground in great masses. After the
-fish are well decayed they are taken out and the oil pressed
-from them. The odor of the fish and the oil is then very offensive,
-less so, however, than that of some forms of cheese eaten by
-civilized people.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id007'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>
-<img src='images/i_125.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 84.</span>—Page of William Clark's handwriting with sketch of the Eulachon (<em>Thaleichthys pacificus</em>), the first notice of the species. Columbia River, 1805. (Expedition of Lewis &amp; Clark.) (Reproduced from the original in the possession of his granddaughter Mrs. Julia Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of Messrs. Dodd, Mead &amp; Company, publishers of the "Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.")</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>The capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>) closely resembles the eulachon,
-differing mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar
-scales of the males. In the male fish a band of scales above
-the lateral line and along each side of the belly become elongate,
-closely imbricated, with the free points projecting, giving the
-body a villous appearance. It is very abundant on the coasts
-of Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific, and is
-an important source of food for the natives of those regions.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_126.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 85.</span>—Capelin, <em>Mallotus villosus</em> L. Crosswater Bay.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen
-them in August cast on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at
-Metlakahtla in 1897), living and dead, in numbers which seem
-incredible. The males are then distorted, and it seems likely
-that all of them perish after spawning. The young are
-abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate
-numbers are reported from the shores of Greenland.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food-fish,
-but to the natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it
-is a very important article of food. Fossil capelin are found
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>in abundance in recent shales in Greenland enveloped in nodules
-of clay. In the open waters about the Aleutian Islands a small
-smelt, <em>Therobromus callorhini</em>, occurs in very great abundance
-and forms the chief part of the summer food of the fur-seal.
-Strangely enough, no complete specimen of this fish has yet
-been seen by man, although thousands of fragments have been
-taken from seals' stomachs. From these fragments Mr. Frederick
-A. Lucas has reconstructed the fish, which must be an ally of
-the surf-smelt, probably spawning in the open ocean of the north.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The silvery species called <em>Argentina</em> live in deeper water
-and have no commercial importance. <em>Argentina silus</em>, with
-prickly scales, occurs in the North Sea. Several fossils have
-been doubtfully referred to <em>Osmerus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Microstomidæ.</strong>—The small family of <em>Microstomidæ</em> consists
-of a few degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth
-and but three or four branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep
-seas. <em>Nansenia grœnlandica</em> was found by Reinhardt off the
-coast of Greenland, and six or eight other species of <em>Microstoma</em>
-and <em>Bathylagus</em> have been brought in by the deep-sea explorations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.</strong>—Still more feeble and insignificant
-are the species of <em>Salangidæ</em>, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait,
-which may be described as <em>Salmonidæ</em> reduced to the lowest
-terms. The body is long and slender, perfectly translucent,
-almost naked, and with the skeleton scarcely ossified. The
-fins are like those of the salmon, the head is depressed, the jaws
-long and broad, somewhat like the bill of a duck, and within
-there are a few disproportionately strong canine teeth, those
-of the lower jaw somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary
-canal is straight for its whole length, without pyloric cæca.
-These little fishes, two to five inches long, live in the sea in
-enormous numbers and ascend the rivers of eastern Asia for
-the purpose of spawning. It is thought by some that they are
-annual fishes, all dying in the fall after reproduction, the species
-living through the winter only within its eggs. But this is
-only suspected, not proved, and the species will repay the careful
-study which some of the excellent naturalists of Japan are
-sure before long to give to it. The species of <em>Salanx</em> are known
-as whitebait, in Japan as <em>Shiro-uwo</em>, which means exactly the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>same thing. They are also sometimes called icefish (<em>Hingio</em>),
-which, being used for no other fish, may be adopted as a group
-name for <em>Salanx</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species are <em>Salanx chinensis</em> from Canton, <em>Salanx hyalo
-cranius</em> from Korea and northern China, <em>Salanx microdon</em> from
-northern Japan, and <em>Salanx ariakensis</em> from the southern island
-of Kiusiu. The Japanese fishes are species still smaller and
-feebler than their relatives from the mainland.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Haplochitonidæ.</strong>—The <em>Haplochitonidæ</em> are trout-like
-fishes of the south temperate zone, differing from the <em>Salmonidæ</em>
-mainly in the extension of the premaxillary until, as in the
-perch-like fishes, it forms the outer border of the upper jaw.
-The adipose fin is present as in all the salmon and smelt. <em>Haplochiton</em>
-of Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands is naked,
-while in <em>Prototroctes</em> of Australia and New Zealand the body,
-as in all salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with scales. <em>Prototroctes
-maræna</em> is the yarra herring of Australia. The closely
-related family of <em>Galaxiidæ</em>, also Australian, but lacking the
-adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_128a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 86.</span>—Icefish, <em>Salanx hyalocranius</em> Abbott. Family <em>Salangidæ</em>. Tientsin, China.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Stomiatidæ.</strong>—The <em>Stomiatidæ</em>, with elongate bodies, have
-the mouth enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of
-the several species <em>Stomias ferox</em> is best known. According to
-Dr. Boulenger, these fishes are true <em>Isospondyli</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_128b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 87.</span>—<em>Stomias ferox</em> Reinhardt. Banquereau.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Astronesthidæ</em> is another small group of small fishes naked
-and black, with long canines, found in the deep sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Malacosteidæ</em> is a related group with extremely distensible
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>mouth, the species capable of swallowing fishes much
-larger than themselves.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The viper-fishes (<em>Chauliodontidæ</em>) are very feeble and very
-voracious little fishes occasionally brought up from the depths.
-<em>Chauliodus sloanei</em> is notable for the length of the fangs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely
-related family of <em>Gonostomidæ</em>. <em>Gonostoma</em> and <em>Cyclothone</em>
-dwell in oceanic abysses. One species, <em>Cyclothone elongata</em>,
-occurs at the depth of from half a mile to nearly four miles
-almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is probably
-the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and
-most fragile, of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_129.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 88.</span>—<em>Chauliodus sloanei</em> Schneider. Grand Banks.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.</strong>—The suborder <em>Iniomi</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἰνίον</span>, nape; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in
-which the shoulder-girdle has more or less lost its completeness
-of structure as part of the degradation consequent
-on life in the abysses of the sea. These features distinguish
-these forms from the true <em>Isospondyli</em>, but only in a very few
-of the species have these characters been verified by actual
-examination of the skeleton. The mesocoracoid arch is wanting
-or atrophied in all of the species examined, and the orbitosphenoid
-is lacking, so far as known. The group thus agrees in
-most technical characters with the <em>Haplomi</em>, in which group they
-are placed by Dr. Boulenger. On the other hand the relationships
-to the <em>Isospondyli</em> are very close, and the <em>Iniomi</em> have many
-traits suggesting degenerate <em>Isospondyli</em>. The post-temporal
-has lost its usual hold on the skull and may touch the occiput
-on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the species are soft
-in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all that live
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>in the deep sea are provided with luminous spots or glands
-giving light in the abysmal depths. These spots are wanting in
-the few shore species, as also in those which approach most nearly
-to the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, these being presumably the most primitive
-of the group. In these also the post-temporal touches the back
-of the cranium near the side. In the majority of the <em>Iniomi</em>
-the adipose fin of the <em>Salmonidæ</em> is retained. From the phosphorescent
-spots is derived the general name of lantern-fishes
-applied of late years to many of the species. Most of these are
-of recent discovery, results of the remarkable work in deep-sea
-dredging begun by the <em>Albatross</em> and the <em>Challenger</em>. All
-of the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble
-muscles, are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed
-with veritable daggers and spears.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Aulopidæ.</strong>—Most primitive of the <em>Iniomi</em> is the family of
-<em>Aulopidæ</em>, having an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no
-luminous spots. The rough firm scales suggest those of the
-berycoid fishes. The few species of <em>Aulopus</em> and <em>Chlorophthalmus</em>
-are found in moderate depths. <em>Aulopus purpurissatus</em> is the
-"Sergeant Baker" of the Australian fishermen.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_130.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 89.</span>—Lizard-fish, <em>Synodus fætens</em> L. Charleston, S. C.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Lizard-fishes.</strong>—The <em>Synodontidæ</em>, or lizard-fishes, have
-lizard-like heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a
-character rare among the soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxillary
-is grown fast to the premaxillary, and the color is not black.
-Most of the species are shore-fishes and some are brightly colored.
-<em>Synodus fætens</em> is the common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of our
-Atlantic coast. <em>Synodus varius</em> of the Pacific is brightly
-colored, olive-green and orange-red types of coloration existing
-at different depths. Most of the species lie close to the
-bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A few occur in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>oceanic depths. The "Bombay duck" of the fishermen of
-India is a species of <em>Harpodon</em>, <em>H. nehereus</em>, with large mouth
-and arrow-shaped teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Benthosauridæ</em> are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but
-with distinct maxillaries. The <em>Bathypteroidæ</em>, of the deep seas,
-resemble <em>Aulopus</em>, but have the upper and lower pectoral rays
-filiform, developed as organs of touch in the depths in which
-the small eyes become practically useless.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Ipnopidæ.</strong>—In the <em>Ipnopidæ</em> the head is depressed above
-and the two eyes are flattened and widened so as to occupy
-most of its upper surface. These structures were at first supposed
-to be luminous organs, but Professor Moseley has shown
-them to be eyes. "They show a flattened cornea extending
-along the median line of the snout, with a large retina composed
-of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus
-destined undoubtedly to produce an image and to receive
-especial luminous rays." The single species, <em>Ipnops murrayi</em>,
-is black in color and found at the depth of 2½ miles in various
-seas.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_131.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 90.</span>—<em>Ipnops murrayi</em> Günther.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes destined
-to live in the dark abysses of the ocean seems at first contradictory,
-but we must remember that these singular forms
-are descendants of immigrants from the shore and from the
-surface. "In some cases the eyes have not been specially
-modified, but in others there have been modifications of a luminous
-mucous membrane leading on the one hand to phosphorescent
-organs more or less specialized, or on the other to such
-remarkable structures as the eyes of <em>Ipnops</em>, intermediate
-between true eyes and phosphorescent plates. In fishes which
-cannot see, and which retain for their guidance only the general
-sensibility of the integuments and the lateral line, these parts
-soon acquire a very great delicacy. The same is the case with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>tactile organs (as in <em>Bathypterois</em> and <em>Benthosaurus</em>), and experiments
-show that barbels may become organs of touch adapted
-to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest movements or the
-slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded fishes
-full cognizance of the medium in which they live."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Rondeletiidæ.</strong>—The <em>Rondeletiidæ</em> are naked black fishes with
-small eyes, without adipose fin and without luminous spots,
-taken at great depths in the Atlantic. The relationship of these
-fishes is wholly uncertain.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_132a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 91.</span>—<em>Cetomimus gillii</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Cetomimidæ</em> are near allies of the <em>Rondeletiidæ</em>, having
-the mouth excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the
-right whales, which these little fishes curiously resemble.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_132b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 92.</span>—Headlight Fish, <em>Diaphus lucidus</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Myctophidæ.</strong>—The large family of <em>Myctophidæ</em>, or lantern-fishes,
-is made up of small fishes allied to the <em>Aulopidæ</em>, but
-with the body covered with luminous dots, highly specialized
-and symmetrically arranged. Most of them belong to the
-deep sea, but others come to the surface in the night or during
-storms when the sunlight is absent. Through this habit they
-are often thrown by the waves on the decks of small vessels.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Largely from Danish merchant-vessels, Dr. Lütken has obtained
-the unrivaled collection of these sea-waifs preserved in the
-Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The species are
-all small in size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger
-fishes of the depths, from which their lantern-like spots and
-large eyes help them to escape. The numerous species are now
-ranged in about fifteen genera, although earlier writers placed
-them all in a single genus <em>Myctophum</em> (<em>Scopelus</em>).</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_133a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 93.</span>—Lantern-fish, <em>Myctophum opalinum</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Diaphus</em> (<em>Æthoprora</em>) there is a large luminous
-gland on the end of the short snout, like the headlight of an
-engine. In <em>Dasyscopelus</em> the scales are spinescent, but in most of
-the genera, as in <em>Myctophum</em>, the scales are cycloid and caducous,
-falling at the touch. In <em>Diaphus</em> the luminous spots are crossed
-by a septum giving them the form of the Greek letter <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">θ</span> (theta).
-One of the commonest species is <em>Myctophum humboldti</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_133b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 94.</span>—Lantern-fish, <em>Ceratoscopelus madeirensis</em> (Lowe). Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Chirothricidæ.</strong>—The remarkable extinct family of <em>Chirothricidæ</em>
-may be related to the <em>Synodontidæ</em>, or <em>Myctophidæ</em>.
-In this group the teeth are feeble, the paired fins much
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>enlarged, and the ventrals are well forward. The dorsal fin,
-inserted well forward, has stout basal bones. <em>Chirothrix libanicus</em>
-of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable for its excessively
-large ventral fins. <em>Telepholis</em> is a related genus. <em>Exocœtoides</em>
-with rounded caudal fin is probably the type of a
-distinct family, <em>Exocœtoididæ</em>, the caudal fin being strongly
-forked in <em>Chirothrix</em>. The small extinct group of <em>Rhinellidæ</em> is
-usually placed near the <em>Myctophidæ</em>. They are distinguished
-by the very long gar-like jaws; whether they possessed adipose
-fins or luminous spots cannot be determined. <em>Rhinellus furcatus</em>
-and other species occur in the Cretaceous of Europe and
-Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly related to the <em>Myctophidæ</em>
-are numerous. <em>Osmeroides monasterii</em> (wrongly called
-<em>Sardinioides</em>), from the German Cretaceous, seems allied to
-<em>Myctophum</em>, although, of course, luminous spots leave no trace
-among fossils. <em>Acrognathus boops</em> is remarkable for the large
-size of the eyes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_134.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 95.</span>—<em>Rhinellus furcatus</em> Agassiz. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Maurolicidæ.</strong>—The <em>Maurolicidæ</em> are similar in form and
-habit, but scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly
-specialized. <em>Maurolicus pennanti</em>, the "Sleppy Argentine," is
-occasionally taken on either side of the Atlantic. Other genera
-are <em>Zalarges</em>, <em>Vinciguerria</em>, and <em>Valenciennellus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Lancet-fishes.</strong>—The <em>Plagyodontidæ</em> (<em>Alepisauridæ</em>) contains
-the lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean
-depths with very high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with
-knife-like teeth. These large fish are occasionally cast up by
-storms or are driven to the shores by the torments of a parasite,
-<em>Tetrarhynchus</em>, found imbedded in the flesh.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced
-above their level by fishes which they have swallowed. In
-such cases they are destroyed through the reduction of pressure.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens
-are rare. The dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>feebly ossified, and the ligaments connecting the vertebræ are
-very loose and extensible, so that the body can be considerably
-stretched. "This loose connection of the parts of the body
-is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is merely the consequence
-of their withdrawal from the pressure of the water to
-which they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When
-within the limits of their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular,
-and fibrous parts of the body will have that solidity which is
-required for the rapid and powerful movements of a predatory
-fish. That the fishes of this genus (<em>Plagyodus</em>) belong to the
-most ferocious of the class is proved by their dentition and the
-contents of their stomach." (Günther.) Dr. Günther elsewhere
-observes: "From the stomach of one example have been
-taken several octopods, crustaceans, ascidians, a young <em>Brama</em>,
-twelve young boarfishes (<em>Capros</em>), a horse-mackerel, and one
-young of its own species."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_135.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 96.</span>—Lancet-fish, <em>Plagyodus ferox</em> (Lowe). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lancet-fish, <em>Plagyodus ferox</em>, is occasionally taken on
-either side of the Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish,
-called <em>Plagyodus æsculapius</em>, has been taken at Unalaska, off
-San Luis Obispo, and in Humboldt Bay. It does not seem to
-differ at all from <em>Plagyodus ferox</em>. The original type from Unalaska
-had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes (<em>Eumicrotremus
-spinosus</em>). This is the species described from Steller's manuscripts
-by Pallas under the name of <em>Plagyodus</em>. Another
-species, <em>Plagyodus borcalis</em>, is occasionally taken in the North
-Pacific.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Evermannellidæ</em> is a small family of small deep-sea fishes
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>with large teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary
-power of swallowing other fishes, scarcely surpassed by <em>Chiasmodon</em>
-or <em>Saccopharynx</em>. <em>Evermannella</em> (<em>Odontostomus</em>, the latter
-name preoccupied) and <em>Omosudis</em> are the principal genera.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Paralepidæ</em> are reduced allies of <em>Plagyodus</em>, slender,
-silvery, with small fins and fang-like jaws. As in <em>Plagyodus</em>,
-the adipose fin is developed and there are small luminous dots.
-The species are few and mostly northern; one of them, <em>Sudis
-ringens</em>, is known only from a single specimen taken by the
-present writer from the stomach of a hake (<em>Merluccius productus</em>),
-the hake in turn swallowed whole by an albacore in the
-Santa Barbara Channel. The <em>Sudis</em> had been devoured by the
-hake, the hake by the albacore, and the albacore taken on
-the hook before the feeble <em>Sudis</em> had been digested.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_136.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 97.</span>—<em>Eurypholis sulcidens</em> Pictet, restored. Family <em>Enchodontidæ</em>. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as <em>E. boissieri</em>.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Perhaps allied to the <em>Plagyodontidæ</em> is also the large family
-of <em>Enchodontidæ</em>, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of
-Syria, Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate,
-the teeth very strong, and the dorsal fin short. <em>Enchodus
-lewesiensis</em> is found in Mount Lebanon, <em>Halec sternbergi</em> in the
-German Cretaceous, and many species of <em>Enchodus</em> in Kansas;
-<em>Cimolichthys dirus</em> in North Dakota.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of
-<em>Dercetidæ</em> from the Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These
-are elongate fishes, the scales small or wanting, but with two
-or more series of bony scutes along the flanks. In <em>Dercetis
-scutatus</em> the scutes are large and the dorsal fin is very long. Other
-genera are <em>Leptotrachelus</em> and <em>Pelargorhynchus</em>. Dr. Boulenger
-places the <em>Dercetidæ</em> in the order <em>Heteromi</em>. This is an expression
-of the fact that their relations are still unknown. Probably
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>related to the <em>Dercetidæ</em> is the American family of <em>Stratodontidæ</em>
-with its two genera, <em>Stradodus</em> and <em>Empo</em> from the Cretaceous
-(Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. <em>Empo nepaholica</em> is one of the
-best-known species.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_137a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 98.</span>—<em>Eurypholis freyeri</em> Heckel. Family <em>Enchodontidæ</em>. Cretaceous. (After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_137b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 99.</span>—<em>Argyropelecus olfersi</em> Cuvier. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sternoptychidæ.</strong>—The <em>Sternoptychidæ</em> differ materially
-from all these forms in the short, compressed, deep body
-and distorted form. The teeth are small, the body bright
-silvery, with luminous spots. The species live in the deep
-seas, rising in dark or stormy weather. <em>Sternoptyx diaphana</em> is
-found in almost all seas, and species of <em>Argyropelecus</em> are almost
-as widely distributed. After the earthquakes in 1896, which
-engulfed the fishing villages of Rikuzen, in northern Japan,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>numerous specimens of this species were found dead, floating
-on the water, by the steamer <em>Albatross</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Idiacanthidæ</em> are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and
-without pectorals, related to the <em>Iniomi</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Lyopomi.</strong>—Other deep-sea fishes constitute the order
-or suborder <em>Lyopomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">λυός</span>, loose; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πῶμα</span>, opercle). These are
-elongate fishes having no mesocoracoid, and the preopercle
-rudimentary and connected only with the lower jaw, the large
-subopercle usurping its place. The group, which is perhaps to
-be regarded as a degenerate type of <em>Isospondyli</em>, contains the
-single family of <em>Halosauridæ</em>, with several species, black in
-color, soft in substance, with small teeth and long tapering
-tail, found in all seas. The principal genera are <em>Halosaurus</em>
-and <em>Aldrovandia</em> (<em>Halosauropsis</em>). <em>Aldrovandia macrochira</em> is
-the commonest species on our Atlantic coast.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_138.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 100.</span>—<em>Aldrovandia gracilis</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Guadaloupe Island, West Indies. Family <em>Halosauridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several fossil <em>Halosauridæ</em> are described from the Cretaceous
-of Europe and Syria, referred to the genera <em>Echidnocephalus</em>
-and <em>Enchelurus</em>. Boulenger refers the <em>Lyopomi</em> to the suborder
-<em>Heteromi</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VII<br />THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_139dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Eels.</strong>—We may here break the sequence from the
-<em>Isospondyli</em> to the other soft-rayed fishes, to interpolate
-a large group of uncertain origin, the series
-or subclass of eels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually regarded
-as constituting a single order, the Apodes (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἄ</span>, without; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ποῦς</span>,
-foot). The group as a whole is characterized by the almost
-universal separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by
-the absence of the mesocoracoid arch on the shoulder-girdle,
-by the presence of more than five pectoral actinosts, as in the
-Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of undifferentiated
-vertebræ, giving the body a snake-like form, by the
-absence in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living
-forms, by the absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures
-indicate a low organization. Some of them are certainly results
-of degeneration, and others are perhaps indications of primitive
-simplicity. Within the limits of the group are seen other
-features of degeneration, notably shown in the progressive loss
-of the bones of the upper jaw and the membrane-bones of the
-head and the degradation of the various fins. The symplectic
-bone is wanting, the notochord is more or less persistent, the
-vertebral centra always complete constricted cylinders, none
-coalesced. But, notwithstanding great differences in these
-regards, the forms have been usually left in a single order, the
-more degraded forms being regarded as descended from the
-types which approach nearest to the ordinary fishes. From
-this view Professor Cope dissents. He recognizes several orders
-of eels, claiming that we should not unite all these various fishes
-into a single order on account of the eel-like form. If we do so,
-we should place in another order those with the fish-like form.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>It is probable, though not absolutely certain, that the <em>Apodes</em>
-are related to each other. The loss among them, first, of the connection
-of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of the
-separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct
-maxillary and premaxillary; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must
-be regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation.
-The large number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord,
-the absence of spines, and the large numbers of vertebræ seem
-to be traits of primitive simplicity. Special lines of degeneration
-are further shown by deep-sea forms. What the origin
-of the <em>Apodes</em> may have been is not known with any certainty.
-They are soft-rayed fishes, with the air-bladder connected by
-a tube with the œsophagus, and with the anterior vertebræ not
-modified. In so far they agree with the <em>Isospondyli</em>. In some
-other respects they resemble the lower <em>Ostariophysi</em>, especially
-the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes. But these resemblances,
-mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we have
-no links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes
-with any of the other orders. Probably Woodward's suggestion
-that they may form a series parallel with the <em>Isospondyli</em>
-and independently descended from Tertiary Ganoids
-deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most satisfactory
-arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as constituting
-four distinct orders for which we may use the names <em>Symbranchia</em>
-(including <em>Ichthyocephali</em> and <em>Holostomi</em>), <em>Apodes</em> (including
-<em>Enchelycephali</em> and <em>Colocephali</em>), <em>Carencheli</em>, and <em>Lyomeri</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Symbranchia.</strong>—The <em>Symbranchia</em> are distinguished by
-the development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and
-premaxillary being well developed. The gill-openings are very
-small, and usually confluent below. These fresh-water forms
-of the tropics, however eel-like in form, may have no real
-affinity with the true eels. In any event, they should not be
-placed in the same order with the latter.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The eels of the suborder <em>Ichthyocephali</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ιχθύς</span>, fish; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>,
-head) have the head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, premaxillary,
-and palatines are well developed, and the shoulder-girdle
-is joined by a post-temporal to the skull. The body is
-distinctly eel-like, the tail being very short and the fins inconspicuous.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>The number of vertebræ is unusually large. The
-order contains the single family <em>Monopteridæ</em>, the rice-field eels,
-one species, <em>Monopterus albus</em>, being excessively common in
-pools and ditches from China and southern Japan to India.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The eels of the suborder <em>Holostomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὀλός</span>, complete; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">στόμα</span>,
-mouth) differ from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder-girdle
-from the skull, a step in the direction of the true eels.
-The <em>Symbranchidæ</em> are very close to the <em>Monopteridæ</em> in external
-appearance, small, dusky, eel-like inhabitants of sluggish ponds
-and rivers of tropical America and the East Indies. The gill-openings
-are confluent under the throat. <em>Symbranchus marmoratus</em>
-ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz, having much the
-habit of the rice-field eel of Japan and China. The <em>Amphipnoidæ</em>,
-with peculiar respiratory structures, abound in India.
-<em>Amphipnous cuchia</em>, according to Günther, has but three gill-arches,
-with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To
-supplement this insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like
-sac is developed on each side of the body behind the head, opening
-between the hyoid and the first branchial arch. The interior
-of the sac is abundantly provided with blood-vessels, the
-arterial coming from the branchial arch, whilst those issuing
-from it unite to form the aorta. <em>Amphipnous</em> has rudimentary
-scales. The other <em>Holostomi</em> and <em>Ichthyocephali</em> are naked and
-all lack the pectoral fin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Chilobranchidæ</em> are small sea-fishes from Australia, with
-the tail longer than the rest of the body, instead of much shorter
-as in the others.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No forms allied to <em>Symbranchus</em> or <em>Monopterus</em> are recorded
-as fossils.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Apodes, or True Eels.</strong>—In this group the shoulder-girdle
-is free from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced
-in number, through coalescence of the parts.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups perhaps
-worthy of still higher rank: <em>Archencheli</em>, <em>Enchelycephali</em>,
-and <em>Colocephali</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Archencheli.</strong>—The <em>Archencheli</em>, now entirely extinct,
-are apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain
-traits characteristic of the <em>Isospondyli</em>. They retain the separate
-caudal fin, with the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>Hay has recently found, in an example from the Cretaceous
-of Mount Lebanon, remains of distinct ventral fins. These
-traits seem to indicate an almost perfect transition from the
-<em>Isospondyli</em> to the <em>Archencheli</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One family may be recognized at present, <em>Urenchelyidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The earliest known eel, <em>Urenchelys avus</em>, occurs in the upper
-Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. It represents the family <em>Urenchelyidæ</em>,
-apparently allied to the <em>Anguillidæ</em>, but having a
-separate caudal fin. Its teeth are small, conical, blunt, in
-many series. There are more than 100 vertebræ, the last
-expanded in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales rudimentary;
-dorsal arising at the occiput. Branchiostegals slender,
-not curved around the opercle. <em>Urenchelys anglicus</em> is another
-species, found in the chalk of England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Enchelycephali.</strong>—The suborder <em>Enchelycephali</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔγχελυς</span>,
-eel; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>, head) contains the typical eels, in which
-the shoulder-girdle is free from the skull, the palatopterygoid
-arch relatively complete, the premaxillaries wanting or rudimentary,
-the ethmoid and vomer coalesced, forming the front
-of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the cranium with
-a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are present,
-and the cranium lacks the combined degradation and specialization
-shown by the morays (<em>Colocephali</em>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Family Anguillidæ.</strong>—The most primitive existing family is that
-of the typical eels, <em>Anguillidæ</em>, which have rudimentary scales
-oblong in form, and set separately in groups at right angles with
-one another. These fishes are found in the fresh and brackish
-waters of all parts of the world, excepting the Pacific coast of
-North America and the islands of the Pacific. In the upper Great
-Lakes and the upper Mississippi they are also absent unless introduced.
-The species usually spawn in the sea and ascend the
-rivers to feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in fresh
-water, and none go far into the sea, or where the water is entirely
-salt. The young eels sometimes ascend the brooks near the sea
-in incredible numbers, constituting what is known in England
-as "eel-fairs." They will pass through wet grass to surmount
-ordinary obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and
-according to Professor Baird "in the spring and summer the
-visitor who enters under the sheet of water at the foot of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>falls will be astonished at the enormous numbers of young
-eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in the
-seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads,
-as seen in the course of the perilous journey referred to, would
-hardly be considered excessive by those who have visited the
-spot at a suitable season of the year." "At other times large
-eels may be seen on their way down-stream, although naturally
-they are not as conspicuous then as are the hosts of the
-young on their way upstream. Nevertheless it is now a well-assured
-fact that the eels are catadromous, that is, that the
-old descend the watercourses to the salt water to spawn, and
-the young, at least of the female sex, ascend them to enjoy life
-in the fresh water."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_143.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 101.</span>—Common Eel, <em>Anguilla chrisypa</em> Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Reproduction of the Eel.</strong>—Dr. Gill ("Riverside Natural History,"
-p. 103) gives the following account of the reproduction
-of <em>Anguilla</em>:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The generation of the eel was long involved in great
-mystery, and the knowledge thereof is one of the recent acquisitions
-of scientific investigation. So late, indeed, as 1880 it
-was declared that 'their mode of propagation is still unknown.'
-In want of positive knowledge the rein has been given to loose
-hypothesis and conjecture. It has been variously asserted that
-eels were generated from slime, from dew, and from the skins
-of old eels or of snakes. The statement that they come from
-horse-hairs is familiar to many country boys, and the origin
-of this belief is due simply to the fact that there are certain
-aquatic worms, known under the generic name <em>Gordius</em>, which
-are elongated and apparently smooth like the eel, and which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>may be found in the same waters. It was one of the ideas of
-the Greek to attribute their paternity, as of many other doubtful
-offspring, to the convenient Jupiter. The statement that
-they are viviparous has arisen from two causes: one the existence
-of intestinal worms, and the other from the confusion of
-the eel with an elongated and consequently eel-like but otherwise
-very different form, the <em>Zoarces viviparus</em>. The <em>Zoarces</em>
-is indeed, in Germany as well as in the Scandinavian countries,
-generally known as the Aal-mutter, or eel-mother, and thus in
-its name perpetuates the fancy. Even where eels are to be
-found in extreme abundance, and where they are the objects
-of a special culture, like erroneous opinions prevail. Thus,
-according to Jacoby, about the lagoon of Comacchio there is
-an 'ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the eel is born
-of other fishes; they point to special differences in color and
-especially in the common mullet, <em>Mugil cephalus</em>, as the causes
-of variation in color and form among eels. It is a very ancient
-belief, widely prevalent to the present day, that eels pair with
-water-snakes. In Sardinia the fishermen cling to the belief that
-a certain beetle, the so-called water-beetle, <em>Dytiscus ræselii</em>, is
-the progenitor of eels, and they therefore call this "mother of
-eels."' The assignment of such maternity to the water-beetle
-is doubtless due to the detection of the hair-worm, or Gordius,
-in the insect by sharp-sighted but unscientific observers, and,
-inasmuch as the beetle inhabits the same waters as the eel, a
-very illogical deduction has led to connect the two together.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"All such beliefs as have been thus recounted are due to
-the inconspicuous nature of the generative organs in eels found
-in fresh waters and at most seasons—a characteristic which is
-in strong contrast to the development of corresponding parts
-in fishes generally. Nevertheless the ovaries of the eel were
-discovered, as long ago as 1707, by Dr. Sancassini of Comacchio,
-and described by the celebrated Valisneri (after whom the
-plant <em>Valisneria</em> was named) in 1710, again by Mondini in 1777,
-and almost contemporaneously by O. J. Müller of Denmark.
-Later the illustrious Rathke (in 1824, 1838, and 1850) and
-also Hornbaum-Hornschuch published the results of special
-investigations, and figured the eggs. But it was only in 1873
-(after several futile endeavors by others) that the male organ
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>of the eel was recognized, also by an Italian naturalist, Dr.
-Syrski, in small individuals of the species, and a previous idea
-that the eel was hermaphroditic thereby dispelled. The sexual
-differences are correlated with external ones, and generally the
-males and females, when adult, can be told apart. Jacoby
-testifies that he examined large numbers with a view to solve
-this question. The most important differences relate to (1)
-size; (2) form of the snout; (3) color; (4) dorsal fin; and
-(5) size of the eyes. (1) The males rarely attain a length of
-more than seventeen to nineteen inches, while adult females
-are generally much larger; (2) the snout in the male is attenuated
-and rather pointed, while in the female it is comparatively
-broad and blunt; (3) the male is of a deep darkish green, or
-often a deep black with a shining luster and a whitish
-belly, while the female has a clearer color, usually of a greenish
-hue on the back and yellowish on the belly; (4) the dorsal fin
-is lower and less developed in the male than in the female; and
-(5) the eye of the male is large and that of the female, as a rule,
-comparatively small. These characters, however, do not always
-hold good. Jacoby remarked that 'special reference having
-been paid to the height and narrowness of the dorsal fin, much
-success has been met with in picking out, in the fish-market
-of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski (that
-is, the male organ); absolute certainty, however, in recognizing
-them cannot be guaranteed. If one is searching among
-living eels with no characters in mind,—with the exception of
-the first, that of length,—he will find in every ten eels, on an
-average, eight females and two with the supposed male organ;
-but if the selection is made with a careful reference to all these
-marks of difference, the proportion changes, and out of every
-ten examples about eight will be found with the supposed
-male organ.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"According to Herr Benecke, 'it may be assumed with the
-greatest safety that the eel lays its eggs like most other fish,
-and that, like the lamprey, it spawns only once and then dies.
-All the eggs of a female show the same degree of maturity,
-while in the fish which spawn every year, besides the large
-eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next spawning
-period, there exist very many of much smaller size, which are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>destined to mature hereafter and be deposited in other years.
-It is very hard to understand how young eels could find room
-in the body of their mother if they were retained until they
-had gained any considerable size. The eel embryo can live and
-grow for a long time supported by the little yolk, but, when
-this is done, it can only obtain food outside of the body of its
-mother. The following circumstances lead us to believe that
-the spawning of the eel takes place only in the sea: (1) that the
-male eel is found only in the sea or brackish water, while female
-eels yearly undertake a pilgrimage from the inland waters to
-the sea, a circumstance which has been known since the time
-of Aristotle, and upon the knowledge of which the principal
-capture of eels by the use of fixed apparatus is dependent;
-(2) that the young eels, with the greatest regularity, ascend
-from the sea into the rivers and lakes.'"</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable,
-since the young eels never find their way into landlocked ponds
-in the course of their wanderings, while eels planted in such
-isolated bodies of water thrive and grow rapidly, but never
-increase in numbers. Another still more convincing argument
-is the fact that in lakes which formerly contained many eels,
-but which, by the erection of impassable weirs, have been cut
-off from the sea, the supply of eels has diminished, and after a
-time only scattering individuals, old and of great size, are taken
-in them. An instance of this sort occurred in Lake Muskengorf
-in West Prussia. If an instance of the reproduction of
-the eel in fresh water could be found, such occurrences as these
-would be quite inexplicable.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the
-eels begins in April or in May; in their lower stretches and
-shorter streams, later in the season. In all running waters the
-eel-fishery depends upon the downward migrations; the eels
-press up the streams with occasional halts, remaining here and
-there for short periods, but always make their way above.
-They appear to make the most progress during dark nights,
-when the water is troubled and stormy, for at this time they
-are captured in the greatest numbers. It is probable that after
-the eels have once returned to the sea and there deposited their
-spawn, they never can return into fresh water, but remain
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>there to die. A great migration of grown eels in spring or
-summer has never been reported, and it appears certain that
-all the female eels which have once found their way to the sea
-are lost to the fisherman.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Food of the Eel.</strong>—Eels, in the words of Mr. W. H. Ballou,
-are "among the most voracious of carnivorous fishes. They
-eat most inland fishes, except the garfish and the chub. Investigation
-of six hundred stomachs by Oswego fishermen showed
-that the latter bony fish never had a place in their bill of fare.
-They are particularly fond of game-fishes, and show the delicate
-taste of a connoisseur in their selection from choice trout, bass,
-pickerel, and shad. They fear not to attack any object when
-disposed, and their bite in human flesh shows even a vicious
-attitude towards man. On their hunting excursions they overturn
-huge and small stones alike, working for hours if necessary,
-beneath which they find species of shrimp and crayfish,
-of which they are exceedingly fond. Of shrimps they devour
-vast numbers. Their noses are poked into every imaginable
-hole in their search for food, to the terror of innumerable small
-fishes."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the opinion of Mr. Ballou, too, "eels are to the water
-what the fishhawk is to the air. They are, perhaps, the most
-powerful and rapid of natatorians. Again, they hide in the
-mud beneath some log or overhanging rock, and dart out with
-tremendous fury at the unsuspecting prey. They attack the
-spawn of other fishes open-mouthed, and are even said to suck
-the eggs from an impaled female. They fearlessly and rapidly
-dive head-foremost in the mud, disappearing from view in the
-twinkling of a star. They are owl-like in their habits, committing
-many of their depredations at night.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"No fish is yet reported to utilize a full-grown eel as food.
-Pickerel, garfish, and bass, which are particularly numerous
-in these lakes, are supposed to literally devour the young fry.
-Mr. Sawyer describes the operation of the pickerel darting
-through a long column of young eels open-mouthed and devouring
-vast numbers of them."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Larva of the Eel.</strong>—The translucent band-shaped larva of
-the common eel has been very recently identified and described
-by Dr. Eigenmann. It is probable that all true eels, <em>Enchelycephali</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>pass through a band-shaped or leptocephalous stage,
-as is the case with <em>Albula</em> and other <em>Isospondyli</em>. In the continued
-growth the body becomes firmer, and at the same time
-much shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the normal form
-of the species in question.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_148.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 102.</span>—Larva of Common Eel, <em>Anguilla chrisypa</em> (Rafinesque), called <em>Leptocephalus grassii</em>. (After Eigenmann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully
-reviewed the life-history of the eel. The common species live
-in fresh waters, migrating to the sea in the winter. They
-deposit in deep water minute eggs that float at the surface.
-The next year they develop into the band-shaped larva. The
-young eels enter the streams two years after their parents drop
-down to the sea. It is doubtful whether eels breed in fresh
-water. The male eel is much smaller than the female.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The eel is an excellent food-fish, the flesh being tender and
-oily, of agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its relatives.
-Eels often reach a large size, old individuals of five or
-six feet in length being sometimes taken.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Species of Eels.</strong>—The different species are very closely related.
-Not more than four or five of them are sharply defined, and
-these mostly in the South Seas and in the East Indies. The
-three abundant species of the north temperate zone, <em>Anguilla
-anguilla</em> of Europe, <em>Anguilla chrisypa</em> of the eastern United States,
-and <em>Anguilla japonica</em> of Japan, are scarcely distinguishable. In
-color, size, form, and value as food they are all alike.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species referred to the <em>Anguillidæ</em> are known from
-the early Tertiary. <em>Anguilla leptoptera</em> occurs in the Eocene
-of Monte Bolea, and <em>Anguilla elegans</em> in the Miocene of Œningen
-in Baden. Other fossil eels seem to belong to the <em>Nettastomidæ</em>
-and <em>Myridæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Pug-nosed Eels.</strong>—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel,
-<em>Simenchelys parasiticus</em>, constituting the family of <em>Simenchelyidæ</em>.
-This species is scaled like a true eel, has a short,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>blunt nose, and burrows its way into the bodies of halibut and
-other large fishes. It has been found in Newfoundland and
-Madeira. Another family possessing rudimentary scales is that
-of the <em>Synaphobranchidæ</em>, slender eels of the ocean depths, widely
-distributed. In these forms the gill-openings are confluent.
-<em>Synaphobranchus pinnatus</em> is the best-known species.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_149a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 103.</span>—Pug-nosed Eel, <em>Simenchelys parasiticus</em> Gill. Sable Island Bank.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_149b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 104.</span>—<em>Synaphobranchus pinnatus</em> (Gronow). Le Have Bank.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Conger-eels.</strong>—The <em>Leptocephalidæ</em>, or conger-eels, are very
-similar to the fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with
-a somewhat different mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the
-head.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal genus is <em>Leptocephalus</em>, including the common
-conger-eel (<em>Leptocephalus conger</em>) of eastern America and Europe
-and numerous very similar species in the tropics of both continents.
-These fishes are strictly marine and, reaching the
-length of five or six feet, are much valued as food. The eggs
-are much larger than those of the eel and are produced in great
-numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their numbers.
-Dr. Hermes calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female
-in an aquarium.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with
-very small heads formerly known as <em>Leptocephalus</em>, an ancient
-name which is now taken for the genus of congers, having
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>been first used for the larva of the common conger-eel. The
-loose watery tissues of these "ghost-fishes" grow more and more
-compact and they are finally transformed into young congers.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_150a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 105.</span>—Conger-eel, <em>Leptocephalus conger</em> (L.). Noank, Conn.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Murænesocidæ</em> are large eels remarkable for their strong
-knife-like teeth. <em>Murænesox savanna</em> occurs in the West
-Indies and in the Mediterranean, <em>Murænesox cinereus</em> in Japan,
-and <em>Murænesox coniceps</em> on the west coast of Mexico, all large
-and fierce, with teeth like shears. The <em>Myridæ</em> are small and
-worm-like eels closely allied to the congers, having the tail
-surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial. <em>Myrus myrus</em> is
-found in the Mediterranean. Species of <em>Eomyrus</em>, <em>Rhynchorhinus</em>,
-and <em>Paranguilla</em> apparently allied to <em>Myrus</em> occur in the
-Eocene. Other related families, mostly rare or living in the
-deep seas, are the <em>Ilyophidæ</em>, <em>Heterocongridæ</em>, and <em>Dysommidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_150b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 106.</span>—Larva of Conger-eel (<em>Leptocephalus conger</em>), called <em>Leptocephalus morrissi</em>. (After Eigenmann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Snake-eels.</strong>—Most varied of the families of eels is the
-<em>Ophichthyidæ</em>, snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the
-tail, which protrudes beyond the fins. Of the many genera found
-in tropical waters several are remarkable for the sharply defined
-coloration, suggesting that of the snake. Characteristic species
-are <em>Chlevastes colubrinus</em> and <em>Leiuranus semicinctus</em>, two beautifully
-banded species of Polynesia, living in the same holes in
-the reefs and colored in the same fashion. Another is <em>Callechelys
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>melanotænia</em>. The commonest species on the Atlantic
-coast is the plainly colored <em>Ophichthus gomesi</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_151a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig 107.</span>—<em>Xyrias revulsus</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Family <em>Ophichthyidæ</em>. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Sphagebranchus</em>, very slender eels of the reefs,
-the fins are almost wanting.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_151b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 108.</span>—<em>Myrichthys pantostigmius</em> Jordan &amp; McGregor. Clarion Island.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_151c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 109.</span>—<em>Ophichthus ocellatus</em> (Le Sueur). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels
-(<em>Nettastomidæ</em>) inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. <em>Nettastoma
-bolcense</em> occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. The produced
-snout forms a transition to the really extraordinary type
-of thread-eels or snipe-eels (<em>Nemichthyidæ</em>), of which numerous
-genera and species live in the oceanic depths. In <em>Nemichthys</em>
-the long, very slender, needle-like jaws are each curved backward
-so that the mouth cannot by any possibility be shut.
-The body is excessively slender and the fish swims with swift
-undulations, often near the surface, and when seen is usually
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>taken for a snake. The best-known species is <em>Nemichthys scolopaceus</em>
-of the Atlantic and Pacific. <em>Nemichthys
-avocetta</em>, very much like it, has been twice taken
-in Puget Sound.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id008'>
-<img src='images/i_152a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 110.</span>—Thread-eel, <em>Nemichthys avocetta</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Vancouver Island.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.</strong>—In the
-suborder <em>Colocephali</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κολός</span>, deficient; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>,
-head) the palatopterygoid arch and the membrane-bones
-generally are very rudimentary.
-The skull is thus very narrow, the gill-structures
-are not well developed, and in the chief
-family there are no pectoral fins. This group
-is very closely related to the <em>Enchelycephali</em>,
-from which it is probably derived.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_152b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 111.</span>—Jaws of <em>Nemichthys avocetta</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the great family of morays (<em>Murænidæ</em>)
-the teeth are often very highly developed. The
-muscles are always very strong and the spines
-bite savagely, a live moray being often able to
-drive men out of a boat. The skin is thick
-and leathery, and the coloration is highly
-specialized, the pattern of color being often
-elaborate and brilliant. In <em>Echidna zebra</em> for example the body
-is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden yellow. In <em>Muræna</em>
-each nostril has a barbel. <em>Muræna helena</em>, the oldest moray
-known, is found in Europe. In <em>Gymnothorax</em>, the largest genus,
-only the anterior nostrils are thus provided. <em>Gymnothorax
-mordax</em> of California is a large food-fish, as are also the brown
-<em>Gymnothorax funebris</em> and the spotted <em>Gymnothorax moringa</em> in
-the West Indies. These and many other species may coil themselves
-in crevices in the reefs, whence they strike out at their
-prey like snakes, taking perhaps the head of a duck or the finger
-of a man.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the
-mouth so filled with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be
-closed. This fact, however, renders no assistance to their prey,
-as the teeth are adapted for holding as well as for cutting.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Enchelynassa bleekeri</em>, a huge wine-colored eel of the South
-Seas, the teeth are larger than in any other species. <em>Evenchelys</em>
-(<em>macrurus</em>) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail,
-<em>Echidna</em> for its blunt teeth, and <em>Scuticaria</em>, <em>Uropterygius</em>, and
-<em>Channomuræna</em> for the almost complete absence of fins. In
-<em>Anarchias</em> (<em>allardicei</em>; <em>knighti</em>), the anal fin is absent. The flesh
-of the morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and
-not readily digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_153.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 112.</span>—<em>Muræna retifera</em> Garman. Charleston, S. C.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Myrocongridæ</em> are small morays with developed pectoral
-fins. The species are few and little known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Family Moringuidæ.</strong>—Structurally one of the most peculiar
-of the groups of eels is the small family of <em>Moringuidæ</em> of the
-East and West Indies. In these very slender, almost worm-like
-fishes the heart is placed very far behind the gills and
-the tail is very short. The fins are very little developed, and
-some forms, as <em>Gordiichthys irretitus</em> of the Gulf of Mexico, the
-body as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great number of
-vertebræ. <em>Moringua hawaiiensis</em> occurs in Hawaii, <em>M. edwardsi</em>
-in the Bahamas. This family probably belongs with the morays
-to the group of <em>Colocephali</em>, although its real relationships are
-not wholly certain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.</strong>—Certain offshoots from
-the Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must
-apparently be considered as distinct orders occur sparingly
-in the deep seas. One of these, <em>Derichthys serpentinus</em>, the
-long-necked eel, constitutes the sole known species of the suborder
-<em>Carencheli</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">καρά</span>, head; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔγχελυς</span>, eel). In this group
-the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in ordinary
-fishes, but united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As
-in true eels, the shoulder-girdle is remote from the skull. The
-head is set on a snake-like neck. The single species representing
-the family <em>Derichthyidæ</em> was found in the abysmal depths of
-the Gulf Stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>
-<img src='images/i_154.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 113.</span>—<em>Gymnothorax berndti</em> Snyder. Hawaii. Family <em>Murænidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>
-<img src='images/i_155a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 114.</span>—<em>Gymnothorax jordani</em> (Evermann &amp; Marsh). Family <em>Murænidæ</em>. Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_155b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 115.</span>—Moray, <em>Gymnothorax moringa</em> Bloch. Family <em>Murænidæ</em>. Tortugas.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>
-<img src='images/i_156a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 116.</span>—<em>Derichthys serpentinus</em> Gill. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_156b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 117.</span>—Gulper-eel, <em>Gastrostomus bairdi</em> Gill &amp; Ryder. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.</strong>—Still more aberrent and in many
-respects extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder
-<em>Lyomeri</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">λυός</span>, loose; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">μέρος</span>, part), known as "Gulpers."
-These are degenerate forms, possibly degraded from some conger-like
-type, but characterized by an extreme looseness of
-structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are reduced
-to five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the palatopterygoid
-arch is wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are
-wanting, as in all true eels, and the maxillaries loosely joined
-to the skull. The symplectic bone is wanting, and the lower jaw
-is so hinged to the skull that it swings freely in various directions.
-In place of the lateral line are singular appendages.
-Dr. Gill says of these fishes: "The entire organization is peculiar
-to the extent of anomaly, and our old conceptions of the characteristics
-of a fish require to be modified in the light of our
-knowledge of such strange beings." Special features are the
-extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger than
-that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small
-eye at the tip of the snout, and the relative length of the tail.
-The whole substance is excessively fragile as usual with animals
-living in great depths and the color is jet black. Three species
-have been described, and these have been placed in two families,
-<em>Saccopharyngidæ</em>, with the trunk (gill-opening to the vent) much
-longer than the head, and <em>Eurypharyngidæ</em>, with the trunk very
-short, much shorter than the head. The best-known species
-is the pelican eel (<em>Eurypharynx pelacanoides</em>), of the coast of
-Morocco, described by Vaillant in 1882. <em>Gastrostomus bairdi</em>,
-very much like it, occurs in the great depths under the Gulf
-Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>it is possible that all three are really the same species, for which
-the oldest name would be <em>Saccopharynx ampullaceus</em>. Of this
-form four specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of
-them six feet long, carried to the surface through having
-swallowed fishes too large to be controlled. To be carried above
-its depth in a struggle with its prey is one of the greatest dangers
-to which the abysmal fishes are subject.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Heteromi.</strong>—The order of <em>Heteromi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἑτερός</span>, different;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of
-a better place, as its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers
-have regarded it as allied to the eels; some have placed it among
-the Ganoids. Others have found affinities with the sticklebacks,
-and still others with the singular fresh-water fishes called
-<em>Mastacembelus</em>. The <em>Heteromi</em> agree with the eels, as well as
-with <em>Mastacembelus</em>, in having the scapular arch separate from
-the cranium. Unlike all the true eels, most of the species have
-true dorsal and anal spines, as in the <em>Percesoces</em> and <em>Hemibranchii</em>.
-The ventral fins, when present, are abdominal and
-each with several spines in front, a character not found among
-the <em>Acanthopteri</em>. There is no mesocoracoid.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in
-the <em>Xenomi</em>, are reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate.
-The two groups have little else in common, however, and this
-trait is possibly primitive in both cases, more likely to have
-arisen through independent degeneration. The separation of
-the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity with the eels,
-as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families are
-known, both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in
-which spines are not developed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Notacanthidæ</em> are elongate, compressed, ending in a band-shaped,
-tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and
-few or no soft rays, and the mouth is normal, provided with
-teeth. The species of <em>Notacanthus</em> are few and scantily preserved.
-Those of <em>Macdonaldia</em> are more abundant. <em>Macdonaldia
-challengeri</em> is from the North Pacific, being once taken
-off Tokio. The extinct family of <em>Protonotacanthidæ</em> differs in
-the total absence of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single species,
-<em>Pronotocanthus sahel-almæ</em>, originally described as a primitive
-eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>The <em>Lipogenyidæ</em> have a round, sucker-like mouth, with
-imperfect lower jaw, but are otherwise similar. <em>Lipogenys
-gilli</em> was dredged in the Gulf Stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_158.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 118.</span>—<em>Notacanthus phasganorus</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Grand Banks.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of <em>Heteromi</em>
-by the addition of the <em>Dercetidæ</em>, <em>Halosauridæ</em> (<em>Lyopomi</em>), and
-the <em>Fierasferidæ</em>. We can hardly suppose that all these forms
-are really allied to <em>Notacanthus</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VIII<br />SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_159dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Ostariophysi.</span></strong>—A large group of orders, certainly of
-common descent, may be brought together under the
-general name of <em>Ostariophysi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὀσταρίον</span>, a small bone;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">θυσός</span>, inflated). These are in many ways allied to the <em>Isospondyli</em>,
-but they have undergone great changes of structure,
-some of the species being highly specialized, others variously
-degenerate. A chief character is shared by all the species. The
-anterior vertebræ are enlarged, interlocked, considerably modified,
-and through them a series of small bones connect the air-bladder
-with the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently
-an organ of hearing through a form of connection which is
-lost in all the higher fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In all the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded
-eel-like forms called <em>Gymnonoti</em>, the mesocoracoid arch persists,
-a trait found in all the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the
-<em>Teleost</em> order of <em>Isospondyli</em>. Other traits of the Ostariophysan
-fishes are shared by the <em>Isospondyli</em> (herring, salmon) and other
-soft-rayed fishes. The air-bladder is large, but not cellular. It
-leads through life by an open duct to the œsophagus. The ventral
-fins are abdominal in position. The pectorals are inserted
-low. A mesocoracoid arch is developed on the inner side of
-the shoulder-girdle. (See Fig. 119.) There are no spines on
-the fins, except in many cases a single one, a modified soft ray
-at front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if present, are cycloid
-or replaced by bony plates.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Many of the species have an armature much like that of
-the sturgeon, but here the resemblance ends, the bony plates
-in the two cases being without doubt independently evolved.
-According to Cope, the affinities of the catfishes to the sturgeon
-are "seen in the absence of symplectic, the rudimentary maxillary
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the interclavicles. There is
-also a superficial resemblance in the dermal bones." But it is
-not likely that any real affinity exists.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id009'>
-<img src='images/i_160a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 119.</span>—Inner view of shoulder-girdle of the Buffalo-fish. <em>Ictiobus bubalus</em> Rafinesque, showing the mesocoracoid (59). (After Starks.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sturgeons lack the characteristic
-auditory ossicles, or "Weberian apparatus,"
-which the catfishes possess in
-common with the carp family, the <em>Characins</em>,
-and the <em>Gymnonoti</em>. These orders
-must at least have a common origin,
-although this origin is obscure, and fossil
-remains give little help to the solution of
-the problem. Probably the ancestors of
-the <em>Ostariophysi</em> are to be found among
-the allies of the <em>Osteoglossidæ</em>. Gill has
-called attention to the resemblance of
-<em>Erythrinus</em> to <em>Amia</em>. In any event, all the
-<em>Ostariophysi</em> must be considered together,
-as it is not conceivable that so complex
-a structure as the Weberian apparatus
-should have been more than once independently evolved.
-The branchiostegals, numerous among the <em>Isospondyli</em>, are
-mostly few among the <em>Ostariophysi</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_160b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 120.</span>—Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Günther, after Weber.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>To the <em>Ostariophysi</em> belong the vast majority of the fresh-water
-fishes of the world. Their primitive structure is shown in
-many ways; among others by the large number of vertebræ
-instead of the usual twenty-four among the more highly specialized
-families of fishes. We may group the <em>Ostariophysi</em> under
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>four orders: <em>Heterognathi</em>, <em>Eventognathi</em> (<em>Plectospondyli</em>), <em>Nematognathi</em>,
-and <em>Gymnonoti</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Heterognathi.</strong>—Of these the order of <em>Heterognathi</em> seems
-to be the most primitive, but in some ways the most highly developed,
-showing fewer traits of degeneration than any of the
-others. The presence of the adipose fin in this group and in
-the catfishes seems to indicate some sort of real affinity with
-the salmon-like forms, although there has been great change in
-other regards.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The order <em>Heterognathi</em>, or <em>Characini</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἕτερος</span>, different; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>,
-jaw), contains those <em>Ostariophysi</em> which retain the mesocoracoid
-and are not eel-like, and which have the lower pharyngeals
-developed as in ordinary fishes. In most cases an adipose
-fin is present and there are strong teeth in the jaws. There are
-no pseudobranchiæ, and, as in the <em>Cyprinidæ</em>, usually but three
-branchiostegals. The <em>Characidæ</em> constitute the majority of the
-fresh-water fishes in those regions which have neither <em>Cyprinidæ</em>
-nor <em>Salmonidæ</em>. Nearly four hundred species are known from
-the rivers of South America and Africa. A single species,
-<em>Tetragonopterus argentatus</em>, extends its range northward to the
-Rio Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or, with
-this single exception, in the United States. Most of them are
-small fishes with deep bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor-like
-teeth. Some are as innocuous as minnows, which they very
-much resemble, but others are extremely voracious and destructive
-in the highest degree. Of the caribe, belonging to the
-genus <em>Serrasalmo</em>, known by its serrated belly, Dr. Günther
-observes:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a
-perfect pest in many rivers of tropical America. In all the
-teeth are strong, short, sharp, sometimes lobed incisors, arranged
-in one or more series; by means of them they cut off a mouthful
-of flesh as with a pair of scissors; and any animal falling
-into the water where these fish abound is immediately attacked
-and cut to pieces in an incredibly short time. They assail
-persons entering the water, inflicting dangerous wounds before
-the victims are able to make their escape. In some localities
-it is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the hook and line, as
-the fish hooked is immediately attacked by the 'caribe' (as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>these fish are called), and torn to pieces before it can be withdrawn
-from the water. The caribes themselves are rarely
-hooked, as they snap the hook or cut the line. The smell of
-blood is said to attract at once thousands of these fishes to the
-spot."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Two families of <em>Heterognathi</em> are recognized: the <em>Erythrinidæ</em>,
-which lack the adipose fin, and the <em>Characidæ</em>, in which
-this fin is developed. The <em>Erythrinidæ</em> are large pike-like
-fishes of the South American rivers, robust and tenacious of
-life, with large mouths armed with strong unequal teeth. The
-best-known species is the <em>Trahira</em> (<em>Hoplias malabaricus</em>).</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_162.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 121.</span>—<em>Brycon dentex</em> Günther. Family <em>Characidæ</em>. Nicaragua.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the <em>Characidæ</em>, <em>Serrasalmo</em> has been already noticed.
-<em>Citharinus</em> in Africa has very few teeth, and <em>Curimatus</em> in South
-America none at all. <em>Nannocharax</em> in Africa is composed of
-very diminutive fishes, <em>Hydrocyon</em> exceedingly voracious ones,
-reaching a length of four feet, with savage teeth. Many of the
-species are allies of <em>Tetragonopterus</em>, small, silvery, bream-like
-fishes with flat bodies and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these
-are American. A related genus is <em>Brycon</em>, found in the streams
-about the Isthmus of Panama.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Extinct <em>Characins</em> are very rare. Two species from the Tertiary
-lignite of São Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to <em>Tetragonopterus</em>—<em>T. avus</em>
-and <em>T. ligniticus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Eventognathi.</strong>—The <em>Eventognathi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔυ</span>, well; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔν</span>, within;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>, jaw) are characterized by the absence of teeth in the
-jaws and by the high degree of specialization of the lower pharyngeals,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>which are scythe-shaped and in typical forms are armed
-with a relatively small number of highly specialized teeth of
-peculiar shape and arranged in one, two, or three rows. In
-all the species the gill-openings are restricted to the sides; there is
-no adipose fin, and the broad, flat branchiostegals are but three
-in number. In all the species the scales, if present, are cycloid,
-and the ventral fins, of course, abdominal. The modification
-of the four anterior vertebræ and their connection with the
-air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The name <em>Plectospondyli</em> is often used for this group (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πλεκτός</span>,
-interwoven; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σπόνδυλος</span>, vertebra), but that term originally included
-the <em>Characins</em> as well.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_163.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 122.</span>—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, <em>Leuciscus cephalus</em> (Linnæus). (After Seelye.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Cyprinidæ.</strong>—The chief family of the <em>Eventognathi</em> and the
-largest of all the families of fishes is that of <em>Cyprinidæ</em>, comprising
-200 genera and over 2000 species, found throughout the north temperate
-zone but not extending to the Arctic Circle on the north,
-nor much beyond the Tropic of Cancer on the south. In this
-family belong all the fishes known as carp, dace, chub, roach,
-bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The essential character of the
-family lies in the presence of one, two, or three rows of highly
-specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the main row containing
-4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of the
-main row differ in form according to the food of the fish. They
-may be coarse and blunt, molar-like in those which feed on shells;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>they may be hooked at tip in those which eat smaller fishes;
-they may be serrated or not; they may have an excavated
-"grinding surface," which is most developed in the species which
-feed on mud and have long intestines. In the <em>Cyprinidæ</em>, or
-carp family, the barbels are small or wanting, the head is naked,
-the caudal fin forked, the mouth is toothless and without sucking
-lips, and the premaxillaries form its entire margin. With
-a few exceptions the <em>Cyprinidæ</em> are small and feeble fishes.
-They form most of the food of the predatory river fishes, and
-their great abundance in competition with these is due to their
-fecundity and their insignificance. They spawn profusely and
-find everywhere an abundance of food. Often they check the
-increase of predatory fish by the destruction of their eggs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is
-very brilliant, rendering these little creatures for a time the
-most beautifully colored of fishes. In spring and early summer
-the fins, sides, and head in the males are often charged with pigment,
-the prevailing color of which is rosy, though often satin-white,
-orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or jet black. Among
-American genera <em>Chrosomus</em>, <em>Notropis</em>, and <em>Rhinichthys</em> are most
-highly colored. <em>Rhodeus</em>, <em>Rutilus</em>, and <em>Zacco</em> in the Old World
-are also often very brilliant.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_164.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 123.</span>—Black-nosed Dace, <em>Rhinichthys dulcis</em> Girard. Yellowstone River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In very many species, especially in America, the male in
-the breeding season is often more or less covered with small,
-grayish tubercles or pearly bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis.
-These are most numerous on the head and fall off after the
-breeding season. They are most developed in <em>Campostoma</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Cyprinidæ</em> are little valued as food-fishes. The carp,
-largely domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>tasteless. Most of the others are flavorless and full of small
-bones. One species, <em>Opsariichthys uncirostris</em>, of Japan is an
-exception in this regard, being a fish of very delicate flavor.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_165a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 124.</span>—White Chub, <em>Notropis hudsonius</em> (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake, Minn.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_165b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 125.</span>—Silver-jaw Minnow, <em>Ericymba buccata</em> Cope. Defiance, Ohio.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In America 225 species of <em>Cyprinidæ</em> are known. One hundred
-of these are now usually held to form the single genus
-<em>Notropis</em>. This includes the smaller and weaker species, from
-two to seven inches in length, characterized by the loss, mostly
-through degeneration, of special peculiarities of mouth, fins, and
-teeth. These have no barbels and never more than four teeth
-in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have so small
-a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its
-rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (<em>Orthodon</em>) has
-more than five teeth in the main row and none have more than
-two rows or more than two teeth in the lower row. By these
-and other peculiarities it would seem that the American species
-are at once less primitive and less complex than the Old World
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>forms. There is some evidence that the group is derived from
-Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms being
-much nearer the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the
-Mississippi Valley. Not many <em>Cyprinidæ</em> are found in Mexico,
-none in Cuba, South America, Australia, Africa, or the islands
-to the eastward of Borneo. Many species are very widely
-distributed, many others extremely local. In the genus <em>Notropis</em>,
-each river basin in the Southern States has its series of different
-and mostly highly colored species. The presence of <em>Notropis
-niveus</em> in the Neuse, <em>Notropis pyrrhomelas</em> in the Santee, <em>Notropis
-zonistius</em> in the Chattahoochee, <em>Notropis callistius</em>, <em>trichroistius</em>,
-and <em>stigmaturus</em> in the Alabama, <em>Notropis whipplei</em> in
-the Mississippi, <em>Notropis galacturus</em> in the Tennessee, and <em>Notropis
-cercostigma</em> in the Sabine forms an instructive series in this
-regard. These fishes and the darters (<em>Etheostominæ</em>) are, among
-American fishes, the groups best suited for the study of local
-problems in distribution.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_166.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 126.</span>—Silverfin, <em>Notropis whipplei</em> (Girard). White River, Indiana. Family <em>Cyprinidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Species of Dace and Shiner.</strong>—Noteworthy species in other
-genera are the following:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Largest and best known of the species of <em>Notropis</em> is the
-familiar shiner or redfin, <em>Notropis cornutus</em>, found in almost
-every brook throughout the region east of the Missouri River.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Campostoma anomalum</em>, the stone-roller, has the very long
-intestines six times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen
-coils around the air-bladder. This species feeds on mud and
-spawns in little brooks, swarming in early spring throughout
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>the Mississippi Valley, and is notable for its nuptial tubercles
-and the black and orange fins.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_167a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 127.</span>—Stone-roller, <em>Campostoma anomalum</em> (Rafinesque). Family <em>Cyprinidæ</em>. Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-bladder.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the negro-chub, <em>Exoglossum maxillingua</em> of the Pennsylvanian
-district, the rami of the lower jaw are united for their
-whole length, looking like a projecting tongue.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_167b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 128.</span>—Head of Day-chub, <em>Exoglossum maxillingua</em> (Le Sueur). Shenandoah River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The fallfish, <em>Semotilus corporalis</em>, is the largest chub of the
-Eastern rivers, 18 inches long, living in swift, clear rivers. It
-is a soft fish, and according to
-Thoreau "it tastes like brown
-paper salted" when it is cooked.
-Close to this is the horned dace,
-<em>Semotilus atromaculatus</em>, and the
-horny head, <em>Hybopsis kentuckiensis</em>,
-both among the most widely
-distributed of our river fishes.
-These are all allied to the gudgeon
-(<em>Gobio gobio</em>), a common boys' fish
-of the rivers of Europe, and much
-sought by anglers who can get
-nothing better. The bream,
-<em>Abramis</em>, represented by numerous species in Europe, has a deep
-compressed body and a very long anal fin. It is also well represented
-in America, the golden shiner, common in Eastern and
-Southern streams, being <em>Abramis chrysoleucus</em>. The bleak of
-Europe (<em>Alburnus alburnus</em>) is a "shiner" close to some of our
-species of <em>Notropis</em>, while the minnow of Europe, <em>Phoxinus
-phoxinus</em>, resembles our gorgeously colored <em>Chrosomus erythrogaster</em>.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>Other European forms are the roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>),
-the chub (<em>Leuciscus cephalus</em>), the dace (<em>Leuciscus leuciscus</em>),
-the id (<em>Idus idus</em>), the redeye (<em>Scardinius erythropthalmus</em>),
-and the tench (<em>Tinca tinca</em>). The tench is the largest of the
-European species, and its virtues with those of its more or less
-insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton.
-All of these receive more attention from anglers in England
-than their relatives receive in America. All the American
-<em>Cyprinidæ</em> are ranked as "boys' fish," and those who seek the
-trout or black bass or even the perch or crappie will not notice
-them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who treasures the yellow
-perch as a real fish: "So many unquestionable fish he counts,
-then so many chubs which he counts, then throws away."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_168a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 129.</span>—Horned Dace, <em>Semotilus atromaculatus</em> (Mitchill). Aux Plaines River, Ill. Family <em>Cyprinidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_168b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 130.</span>—Shiner, <em>Abramis chrysoleucus</em> (Mitchill). Hackensack River, N. J.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>
-<img src='images/i_169a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 131.</span>—The Squawfish, <em>Ptychocheilus grandis</em> Agassiz. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Chubs of the Pacific Slope.</strong>—In the Western waters are numerous
-genera, some of the species reaching a large size. The species
-of squawfish (<em>Ptychocheilus lucius</em> in the Colorado, <em>Ptychocheilus
-grandis</em> in the Sacramento, and <em>Ptychocheilus oregonensis</em> in the
-Columbia) reach a length of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These
-fishes are long and slender, with large toothless mouths and
-the aspect of a pike.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to these are the "hard tails" (<em>Gila elegans</em> and <em>Gila
-robusta</em>) of the Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely
-eatable, with lean bodies, flat heads, and expanded tails. The
-split-tail, <em>Pogonichthys macrolepidotus</em>, is found in the Sacramento.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_169b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 132.</span>—Chub of the Great Basin, <em>Leuciscus lineatus</em> (Girard). Heart Lake, Yellowstone Park. Family <em>Cyprinidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the chisel-mouth, <em>Acrocheilus alutaceus</em>, of the Columbia
-the lips have a hard cutting edge. In <em>Meda</em>, very small fishes
-of the Colorado Basin, the dorsal has a compound spine of
-peculiar structure. Many of the species of Western waters
-belong to the genus <em>Leuciscus</em>, which includes also many species
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace (<em>Leuciscus
-hakuensis</em>) is often found out in the sea, but, in general,
-<em>Cyprinidæ</em> are only found in fresh waters. The genus of
-barbels (<em>Barbus</em>) contains many large species in Europe and
-Asia. In these the barbel is better developed than in most
-other genera, a character which seems to indicate a primitive
-organization. <em>Barbus mosal</em> of the mountains of India is said
-to reach a length of more than six feet and to have "scales
-as large as the palm of the hand."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Carp and Goldfish.</strong>—In the American and European <em>Cyprinidæ</em>
-the dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species it is
-longer, having 15 to 20 rays and is often preceded by a serrated
-spine like that of a catfish. Of the species with long
-dorsal the one most celebrated is the carp (<em>Cyprinus carpio</em>).
-This fish is a native of the rivers of China, where it has been
-domesticated for centuries. Nearly three hundred years ago it
-was brought to northern Europe, where it has multiplied in
-domestication and become naturalized in many streams and
-ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the carp has attracted
-much attention in America. It has been generally satisfactory
-where the nature of the fish is understood and where expectations
-have not been too high.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tranquil,
-and weedy waters with muddy bottoms. Its food consists
-of water insects and other small animals, and vegetable
-matter, such as the leaves of aquatic plants. They can be
-fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens, and they
-bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and
-chickens do to wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very
-hardy fish, grows rapidly, and has immense fecundity, 700,000
-eggs having been found in the ovaries of a single individual.
-It reaches sometimes a weight of 30 to 40 pounds. As a food-fish
-the carp cannot be said to hold a high place. It is tolerated
-in the absence of better fish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The carp, either native or in domestication, has many enemies.
-In America, catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs
-or its young, as well as water-snakes, turtles, kingfishes, crayfishes,
-and many other creatures which live about our ponds
-and in sluggish streams. In domestication numerous varieties
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>of carp have been formed, the "leather-carp" (Lederkarpfen)
-being scaleless, others, "mirror-carp" (Spiegelkarpfen), having
-rows of large scales only along the lateral line or the bases of
-the fins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (<em>Carassius auratus</em>).
-This is also a common Chinese fish introduced in domestication
-into Europe and America. The golden-yellow color is found
-only in domesticated specimens, and is retained by artificial
-selection. The native goldfish is olivaceous in color, and where
-the species has become naturalized (as in the Potomac River,
-where it has escaped from fountains in Washington) it reverts
-to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the
-rivers of Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright
-colors as an ornamental fish. It has no beauty of form nor
-any interesting habits, and many of our native fishes (<em>Percidæ</em>,
-<em>Cyprinidæ</em>) far excel it in attractiveness as aquarium fishes.
-Unfortunately they are less hardy. Many varieties and monstrosities
-of the goldfish have been produced by domestication.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id010'>
-<img src='images/i_171.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 133.</span>—Lower pharyngeal of <em>Placopharynx duquesnii</em> (Le Sueur).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Catostomidæ.</strong>—The suckers, or <em>Catostomidæ</em>, are an offshoot
-from the <em>Cyprinidæ</em>, differing chiefly in the structure of the
-mouth and of the lower pharyngeal bones.
-The border of the mouth above is formed
-mesially by the small premaxillaries and
-laterally by the maxillaries. The teeth of
-the lower pharyngeals are small and very
-numerous, arranged in one series like the
-teeth of a comb. The lips are usually thick
-and fleshy, and the dorsal fin is more or less
-elongate (its rays eleven to fifty in number),
-characters which distinguish the suckers from
-the American <em>Cyprinidæ</em> generally, but not
-from those of the Old World.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>About sixty species of suckers are known,
-all of them found in the rivers of North
-America except two, which have been recorded
-on rather uncertain authority from
-Siberia and China. Only two or three of
-the species extend their range south of the
-Tropic of Cancer into Mexico or Central America, and none
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>occur in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring islands. The
-majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of the
-Rocky Mountains, although species of <em>Catostomus</em>, <em>Chasmistes</em>,
-<em>Deltistes</em>, <em>Xyrauchen</em>, and <em>Pantosteus</em> are found in abundance
-in the Great Basin and the Pacific slope.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_172.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 134.</span>—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, <em>Erimyzon sucetta</em> (Lacépède). Nipisink Lake, Illinois. Family <em>Catostomidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about
-three feet. As food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh
-of all being flavorless and excessively full of small bones. Most
-of them are sluggish fishes; they inhabit all sorts of streams,
-lakes, and ponds, but even when in mountain brooks they
-gather in the eddies and places of greatest depth and least
-current. They feed on insects and small aquatic animals,
-and also on mud, taking in their food by suction. They are not
-very tenacious of life. Most of the species swarm in the spring
-in shallow waters. In the spawning season they migrate up
-smaller streams than those otherwise inhabited by them. The
-large species move from the large rivers into smaller ones; the
-small brook species go into smaller brooks. In some cases
-the males in spring develop black or red pigment on the body
-or fins, and in many cases tubercles similar to those found in
-the <em>Cyprinidæ</em> appear on the head, body, and anal and caudal
-fins.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>
-<img src='images/i_173a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 135.</span>—Buffalo-fish, <em>Ictiobus cyprinella</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Normal, Ill.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_173b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 136.</span>—Carp-sucker, <em>Carpiodes cyprinus</em> (Le Sueur). Havre de Grace.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera
-<em>Ictiobus</em> and <em>Carpiodes</em>, are the largest of the <em>Catostomidæ</em>, and
-bear a considerable resemblance to the carp. They have the
-dorsal fin many rayed and the scales large and coarse. They
-abound in the large rivers and lakes between the Rocky Mountains
-and the Alleghanies, one species being found in Central America
-and a species of a closely related genus (<em>Myxocyprinus asiaticus</em>)
-being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely ascend the
-smaller rivers except for the purpose of spawning. Although
-so abundant in the Mississippi Valley as to be of importance
-commercially, they are very inferior as food-fishes, being coarse
-and bony. The genus <em>Cycleptu</em>s contains the black-horse, or
-Missouri sucker, a peculiar species with a small head, elongate
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>body, and jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller
-rivers tributary to the Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers
-in the spring. Most of the other suckers belong to the genera
-<em>Catostomus</em> and <em>Moxostoma</em>, the latter with the large-toothed
-<em>Placopharynx</em> being known, from the red color of the fins, as
-red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are very
-widely distributed, two of them (<em>Catostomus commersoni</em>, <em>Erimyzon
-sucetta</em>) being found in almost every stream east of the
-Rocky Mountains and <em>Catostomus catostomus</em> throughout Canada
-to the Arctic Sea. The most peculiar of the suckers in appearance
-is the harelip sucker (<em>Quassilabia lacera</em>) of the Western
-rivers. Very singular in form is the humpback or razor-back
-sucker of the Colorado, <em>Xyrauchen cypho</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_174a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 137.</span>—Common Sucker, <em>Catostomus commersoni</em> (Le Sueur). Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_174b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 138.</span>—California Sucker, <em>Catostomus occidentalis</em> Agassiz. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Fossil Cyprinidæ.</strong>—Fossil <em>Cyprinidæ</em>, closely related to existing
-forms, are found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the
-Tertiary, but rarely if ever earlier than the Miocene. <em>Cyprinus</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span><em>priscus</em> occurs in the Miocene of Germany, perhaps showing that
-Germany was the original home of the so-called "German carp,"
-afterwards actually imported to Germany
-from China. Some specimens referred to
-<em>Barbus</em>, <em>Tinca</em>, <em>Rhodeus</em>, <em>Aspius</em>, and
-<em>Gobio</em> are found in regions now inhabited
-by these genera, and many species are
-referred to the great genus <em>Leuciscus</em>, <em>Leuciscus
-œningensis</em> from the Miocene of
-Germany being perhaps the best known.
-Several species of <em>Leuciscus</em> or related
-genera are found in the Rocky Mountain
-region. Among these is the recently described
-<em>Leuciscus turneri</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id011'>
-<img src='images/i_175a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 139.</span>—Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, <em>Catostomus macrocheilus</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil <em>Catostomidæ</em> are very few and
-chiefly referred to the genus <em>Amyzon</em>,
-supposed to be allied to <em>Erimyzon</em>, but
-with a longer dorsal. <em>Amyzon commune</em>
-and other species are found in the Rocky
-Mountains, especially in the Miocene of the South Park in Colorado
-and the Eocene of Wyoming. Two or three species of
-<em>Catostomus</em>, known by their skulls, are found in the Pliocene
-of Idaho.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_175b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 140.</span>—Razor-back Sucker, <em>Xyrauchen cypho</em> (Lockington). Green River, Utah.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Loaches.</strong>—The <em>Cobitidæ</em>, or loaches, are small fishes, all
-less than a foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of
-Europe and Asia. In structure they are not very different from
-minnows, but they are rather eel-like in form, and the numerous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>long barbels about the mouth strongly suggest affinity with
-the catfishes. The scales are small, the pharyngeal teeth few,
-and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes, enclosed in a
-capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors,
-tenacious of life, feeding on insects and worms. The species
-often bury themselves in mud and sand. They lie quiet on
-the bottom and move very quickly when disturbed much after
-the manner of darters and gobies. Species of <em>Cobitis</em> and <em>Misgurnus</em>
-are widely distributed from England to Japan. <em>Nemachilus
-barbatulus</em> is the commonest European species. <em>Cobitis
-tænia</em> is found, almost unchanged, from England to the streams
-of Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from
-<em>Cobitis</em>, occur in the Miocene and more recent rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From ancestors of loaches or other degraded <em>Cyprinidæ</em> we
-may trace the descent of the catfishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Homalopteridæ</em> are small loaches in the mountain streams
-of the East Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number
-of pharyngeal teeth (10 to 16) is greater than in the loaches,
-carp, or minnows.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IX<br />THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_177dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Nematognathi.</strong>—The <em>Nematognathi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">νῆμα</span>, thread;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>, jaw), known collectively as catfishes, are
-recognized at once by the fact that the rudimentary
-and usually toothless maxillary is developed as the bony base
-of a long barbel or feeler. Usually other feelers are found around
-the head, suggesting the "smellers" of a cat. The body is
-never scaly, being either naked and smooth or else more or less
-completely mailed with bony plates which often resemble
-superficially those of a sturgeon. Other distinctive characters
-are found in the skeleton, notably the absence of the subopercle,
-but the peculiar development of the maxillary and its barbel
-with the absence of scales is always distinctive. The symplectic
-is usually absent, and in some the air-bladder is reduced to a
-rudiment inclosed in a bony capsule. In almost all cases a
-stout spine exists in the front of the dorsal fin and in the front
-of each pectoral fin. This spine, made of modified or coalescent
-soft rays, is often a strong weapon with serrated edges and
-capable of inflicting a severe wound. When the fish is alarmed,
-it sets this spine by a rotary motion in its socket joint. It can
-then be depressed only by breaking it. By a rotary motion
-upward and toward the body the spine is again lowered. The
-wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this fact is
-due not to a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the
-slime of the spine.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In two genera, <em>Noturus</em> and <em>Schilbeodes</em>, a poison-gland exists
-at the base of the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp
-pain like the sting of a hornet and almost exactly like the sting
-of a scorpion-fish. Most of the <em>Nematognathi</em> possess a fleshy
-or adipose fin behind the dorsal, exactly as in the salmon. In
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>a few cases the adipose fin develops an anterior spine and
-occasionally supporting rays.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>All the <em>Nematognathi</em> are carnivorous bottom feeders, devouring
-any prey they can swallow. Only a few enter the
-sea, and they occur in the greatest abundance in the Amazon
-region. Upward of 1200 species, arranged in 150 genera, are
-recorded. They vary greatly in size, from two inches to six feet
-in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but the species in
-the sea have very tough and flavorless flesh. Some of the
-others are extremely delicate, with finely flavored flesh and a
-grateful absence of small bones.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Families of Nematognathi.</strong>—According to Dr. Eigenmann's
-scheme of classification,<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c009'><sup>[11]</sup></a> the most primitive family of Nematognathi
-is that of <em>Diplomystidæ</em>, characterized by the presence
-of a well-developed maxillary, as in other soft-rayed fishes.
-The single species, <em>Diplomystes papillosus</em>, is found in the waters
-of Chile.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Similar to the <em>Diplomystidæ</em> in all other respects is the great
-central family of <em>Siluridæ</em>, by far the most numerous and important
-of all the divisions of <em>Nematognathi</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Siluridæ.</strong>—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly
-mailed, the barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short,
-inserted forward, the adipose fin without spine, and the lower
-pharyngeals separate. All the marine catfishes and most of
-the fresh-water species belong to this group, and its members,
-some 700 species, abound in all parts of the world where catfishes
-are known—"a bloodthirsty and bullying race of rangers
-inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready
-to do battle with their nearest neighbor."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea Catfish.</strong>—In the tropical seas are numerous species of
-catfishes belonging to <em>Tachysurus</em>, <em>Arius</em>, <em>Galeichthys</em>, <em>Felichthys</em>,
-and other related genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes
-covered with smooth skin, the head usually with a coat of mail,
-pierced by a central fontanelle. Some of them reach a considerable
-size, swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as food,
-being always tough and coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the
-pelican, which devour these catfishes are often destroyed by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>the sudden erection of the pectoral spines. None of these are
-found in Europe or in Japan. Of the very many American
-species the gaff-topsail catfish (<em>Felichthys felis</em>), noted for its
-very high spines, extends farthest north and is one of the
-very largest species. This genus has two barbels at the chin.
-Most others have four. The commonest sea catfish of the
-Carolina coast is <em>Galeichthys milberti</em>. In <em>Tachysurus</em> the teeth
-on the palate are rounded, in most of the others they are in
-villiform bands.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_179a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 141.</span>—Gaff-topsail Cat, <em>Felichthys felis</em> (L.). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_179b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 142.</span>—Sea Catfish, <em>Galeichthys milberti</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small
-peas, are taken into the mouth of the male and there cared
-for until hatched.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Channel Cats.</strong>—In all the rivers of North America east
-of the Rocky Mountains are found catfishes in great variety.
-The channel cats, <em>Ictalurus</em>, known most readily by the forked
-tails, are the largest in size and most valued as food. The technical
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>character of the genus is the backward continuation of the
-supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge to the base of the dorsal.
-The great blue cat, <em>Ictalurus furcatus</em>, abounds throughout the
-large rivers of the Southern States and reaches a weight of 150
-pounds or more. It is an excellent food and its firm flesh is readily
-cut into steaks. In the Great Lakes and northward is a very
-similar species, also of large size, which has been called <em>Ictalurus
-lacustris</em>. Another similar species is the willow cat, <em>Ictalurus
-anguilla</em>. The white channel-cat, <em>Ictalurus punctatus</em>, reaches a
-much smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift
-streams of the Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama,
-and the Gasconade. It is a very delicate food-fish, with tender
-white flesh of excellent flavor.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_180.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 143.</span>—Channel Catfish, <em>Ictalurus punctatus</em> (Rafinesque). Illinois River. Family <em>Siluridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Horned Pout.</strong>—The genus <em>Ameiurus</em> includes the smaller brown
-catfish, horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and
-the caudal fin is usually but not always rounded. The many
-species are widely diffused, abounding in brooks, lakes, and
-ponds. <em>Ameiurus nebulosus</em> is the best-known species, ranging
-from New England to Texas, known in the East as horned pout.
-It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento, where
-it abounds, as well as its congener, <em>Ameiurus catus</em> (see Fig.
-229, Vol. I), the white bullhead, brought with it from the Potomac.
-The latter species has a broader head and concave or notched tail.
-All the species are good food-fishes. All are extremely tenacious
-of life, and all are alike valued by the urchin, for they will bite
-vigorously at any sort of bait. All must be handled with care,
-for the sharp pectoral spines make an ugly cut, a species of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>wound from which few boys' hands in the catfish region are
-often free.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_181.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 144.</span>—Horned pout, <em>Ameiurus nebulosus</em> (Le Sueur). (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County,
-Pennsylvania, is a partly blind catfish, evidently derived from
-local species outside the cave. It has been named <em>Gronias
-nigrilabris</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, <em>Ictalurus</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span><em>meridionalis</em>, as far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of
-Guatemala.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition,
-known as <em>Istlarius balsanus</em>, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas.
-In Mexico all catfishes are known as Bagre, this species as
-Bagre de Rio.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Leptops</em> includes the great yellow catfish, or
-goujon, known at once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a
-mottled olive and yellow fish of repulsive exterior, and it reaches
-a very great size. It is, however, a good food-fish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Mad-toms.</strong>—The genera <em>Noturus</em> and <em>Schilbeodes</em> are
-composed of diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine
-armed at base, with a poison sac which renders its sting extremely
-painful though not dangerous. The numerous species
-of this genus, known as "mad-toms" and "stone cats," live
-among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of them
-rarely exceed three inches in length, and their varied colors
-make them attractive in the aquarium.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_182.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 145.</span>—Mad-tom, <em>Schilbeodes furiosus</em> Jordan &amp; Meek. Showing the poisoned pectoral spine. Family <em>Siluridæ</em>. Neuse River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Old World Catfishes.</strong>—In the catfishes of the Old World
-and their relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting.
-The chief species found in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels,
-<em>Silurus glanis</em>. This, next to the sturgeon, is the largest river fish
-in Europe, weighing 300 to 400 pounds. It is not found in England,
-France, or Italy, but abounds in the Danube. It is a lazy
-fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping from nets. It is very
-voracious, and many stories are told of the contents of its
-stomach. A small child swallowed whole is recorded from
-Thorn, and there are still more remarkable stories, but not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>properly vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in color, naked,
-sleek, and much like an American <em>Ameiurus</em> save that its tail
-is much longer and more eel-like. Another large catfish, known
-to the ancients, but only recently rediscovered by Agassiz and
-Garman, is <em>Parasilurus aristotelis</em> of the rivers of Greece. In
-China and Japan is the very similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish,
-<em>Parasilurus asotus</em>, often found in ponds and used as food.
-Numerous smaller related catfishes, <em>Porcus</em> (<em>Bagrus</em>), <em>Pseudobagrus</em>,
-and related genera swarm in the brooks and ponds of the
-Orient.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_183.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 146.</span>—Electric Catfish, <em>Torpedo electricus</em> (Gmelin). Congo River. (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Torpedo</em> (<em>Malapterurus</em>) the dorsal fin is wanting.
-<em>Torpedo electricus</em>, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species
-of much interest to anatomists. The shock is like that of a
-Leyden jar. The structures concerned are noticed on p. 186,
-Vol. I. The generic name <em>Torpedo</em> was applied to the electric
-catfish before its use for the electric ray.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster
-around the genus <em>Pimelodus</em>. Some of them have the snout
-very long and spatulate. Most of them possess a very long
-adipose fin. The species are generally small in size and with
-smooth skin like the North American catfishes. Still other
-species in great numbers are grouped around the genus <em>Doras</em>.
-In this group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at
-its end, and the lateral line is armed behind with spinous shields.
-All but one of the genera belong to the Amazon district, <em>Synodontis</em>
-being found in Africa.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Concerning <em>Doras</em>, Dr. Günther observes: "These fishes
-have excited attention by their habit of traveling during the
-dry season from a piece of water about to dry up in quest of a
-pond of greater capacity. These journeys are occasionally
-of such a length that the fish spends whole nights on the way,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so large that
-the Indians who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the
-prey thus placed in their hands. The Indians suppose that
-the fish carry a supply of water with them, but they have no
-special organs and can only do so by closing the gill-openings
-or by retaining a little water between the plates of their bodies,
-as Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they
-make regular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with
-care and defend them, male and female uniting in this parental
-duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed, at
-the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is sometimes
-placed in a hole scooped out of the beach."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sisoridæ.</strong>—The <em>Sisoridæ</em> are small catfishes found in
-swift mountain streams of northern India. In some of the
-genera (<em>Pseudecheneis</em>) in swift streams a sucking-disk formed
-of longitudinal plates of skin is formed on the breast. This
-enables these fishes to resist the force of the water. In one
-genus, <em>Exostoma</em>, plates of skin about the mouth serve the same
-purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Bunocephalidæ</em> are South American catfishes with the
-dorsal fin undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In
-<em>Platystacus</em> (<em>Aspredo</em>), the eggs are carried on the belly of the
-female, which is provided with spongy tentacles to which the
-eggs are attached. After the breeding season the ventral surface
-becomes again smooth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Plotosidæ.</strong>—The <em>Plotosidæ</em> are naked catfishes, largely
-marine, found along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the
-second dorsal is very long. <em>Plotosus anguillaris</em>, the sea catfish
-of Japan, is a small species striped with yellow and armed with
-sharp pectoral spines which render it a very disagreeable object
-to the fishermen. In sandy bays like that of Nagasaki it is
-very abundant. Allied to this is the small Asiatic family of
-<em>Chacidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Chlariidæ.</strong>—The <em>Chlariidæ</em> are eel-like, with a soft skeleton
-and a peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps
-and muddy streams of India, where some species reach a length
-of six feet. One species, <em>Chlarias magur</em>, has been brought
-by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it flourishes in the same
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>waters as <em>Ameiurus nebulosus</em>, brought from the Potomac and
-by Chinese carried from San Francisco.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Hypophthalmidæ and Pygidiidæ.</strong>—The <em>Hypophthalmidæ</em>
-have the minute air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule.
-The eyes are placed very low and the skin is smooth. The
-statement that this family lacks the auditory apparatus is not
-correct. The few species belong to northern South America.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_185.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 147.</span>—An African Catfish, <em>Chlarias breviceps</em> Boulenger. Congo River. Family <em>Chlariidæ</em>. (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to this group is the family <em>Pygidiidæ</em> with a differently
-formed bony capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous
-species are all South American, mostly of mountain streams
-of high altitude. Some are very small. Certain species are
-said to flee for protection into the gill-cavity of larger catfishes.
-Some are reported to enter the urethra of bathers,
-causing severe injuries. The resemblance of certain species
-to the loaches, or <em>Cobitidæ</em>, is very striking. This similarity
-is due to the results of similar environment and necessarily
-parallel habits. The <em>Argidæ</em> have the capsule of the air-bladder
-formed in a still different fashion. The few species are very
-small, inhabitants of the streams of the high Andes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Loricariidæ.</strong>—In the family of <em>Loricariidæ</em> the sides and
-back are armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder
-is still in a bony capsule, and the mouth is small with thick
-fringed lips. The numerous species are all small fishes of the
-South American waters, bearing a strong external resemblance
-to <em>Agonidæ</em>, but wholly different in anatomy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Callichthyidæ.</strong>—The <em>Callichthyidæ</em> are also small fishes
-armed with a bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely
-allied to the <em>Pygidiidæ</em>. The body is more robust than in the
-<em>Callichthyidæ</em> and the coat of mail is differently formed. The
-species swarm in the rivers of northern South America, where
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>with the mailed <em>Loricariidæ</em> they
-form a conspicuous part of the
-fish fauna.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id012'>
-<img src='images/i_186.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 148.</span>—<em>Loricaria aurea</em> Steindachner, a mailed Catfish from Rio Meta, Venezuela. Family <em>Loricariidæ</em>. (After Steindachner.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Fossil Catfishes.</strong>—Fossil catfishes
-are very few in number. <em>Siluridæ</em>,
-allied to <em>Chlarias</em>, <em>Bagarius</em>, <em>Heterobranchus</em>,
-and other fresh-water
-forms of India, are found in the late
-Tertiary rocks of Sumatra, and
-catfish spines exist in the Tertiary
-rocks of the United States. Vertebræ
-in the Canadian Oligocene have
-been referred by Cope to species of
-<em>Ameiurus</em> (<em>A. cancellatus</em> and <em>A.
-maconnelli</em>). <em>Rhineastes peltatus</em>
-and six other species, perhaps allied
-to <em>Pimelodus</em>, have been described
-by Cope from Eocene of Wyoming
-and Colorado. <em>Bucklandium diluvii</em>
-is found in the Eocene London
-clays, and several species apparently
-marine, referred to the neighborhood
-of <em>Tachysurus</em> or <em>Arius</em>, are
-found in Eocene rocks of England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is no evidence that the
-group of catfishes has any great
-antiquity, or that its members were
-ever so numerous and varied as at
-the present time. The group is
-evidently derived from scaly ancestors,
-and its peculiarities are due
-to specialization of certain parts
-and degeneration of others.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is not the slightest reason
-for regarding the catfishes as direct
-descendants of the sturgeon or
-other Ganoid type. They should
-rather be looked upon as a degenerate
-and highly modified offshoot
-from the primitive Characins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span><strong>Order Gymnonoti.</strong>—At the end of the series of <em>Ostariophysans</em>
-we may place the <em>Gymnonoti</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γυμνός</span>, bare; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">νῶτος</span>, back). This
-group contains about thirty species of fishes from the rivers
-of South America and Central America. All are eel-like in
-form, though the skeleton with the shoulder-girdle suspended
-from the cranium is quite unlike that of a true eel. There is
-no dorsal fin. The vent is at the throat and the anal is excessively
-long. The gill-opening is small as in the eel, and as
-in most elongate fishes, the ventral fins are undeveloped. The
-body is naked or covered with small scales.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance.
-The <em>Electrophoridæ</em> constitutes by itself Cope's order of <em>Glanencheli</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γλανίς</span>, catfish; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔγχελυς</span>, eel). This group he regards
-as intermediate between the eel-like catfishes (<em>Chlarias</em>) and
-the true eels. It is naked and eel-shaped, with a short
-head and projecting lower jaw like that of the true eel. The
-single species, <em>Electrophorus electricus</em>, inhabits the rivers of
-Brazil, reaching a length of six feet, and is the most powerful of
-all electric fishes. Its electric organs on the tail are derived
-from modified muscular tissue. They are described on p. 170,
-Vol. I.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Gymnotidæ</em> are much smaller in size, with compressed
-scaly bodies and the mouth at the end of a long snout. The
-numerous species are all fishes without electric organs. <em>Eigenmannia
-humboldti</em> of the Panama region is a characteristic
-species. No fossil <em>Gymnonoti</em> are recorded.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER X<br />THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_188dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Order</span> Scyphophori.</strong>—The <em>Scyphophori</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σκύφος</span>, cup;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">φορέω</span>, to bear) constitutes a small order which lies
-apparently between the <em>Gymnonoti</em> and the <em>Isospondyli</em>.
-Boulenger unites it with the <em>Isospondyli</em>. The species, about
-seventy-five in number, inhabit the rivers of Africa, where
-they are important as food-fishes. In all there is a deep
-cavity on each side of the cranium covered by a thin bony
-plate, the supertemporal bone. There is no symplectic bone,
-and the subopercle is very small or concealed. The gill-openings
-are narrow and there are no pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder
-connects with the ear, but not apparently in the same way as
-with the <em>Ostariophysan</em> fishes, to which, however, the <em>Scyphophori</em>
-are most nearly related. In all the <em>Scyphophori</em> the body
-is oblong, covered with cycloid scales, the head is naked, there
-are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the end of a long
-snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail,
-which with reference to a similar structure in <em>Torpedo</em> and
-<em>Electrophorus</em> is held to be a degenerate electric organ. According
-to Günther, "it is without electric functions, but evidently
-representing a transitional condition from muscular substance
-to an electric organ. It is an oblong capsule divided into
-numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa and containing
-a gelatinous substance."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Mormyridæ.</strong>—There are two families of <em>Scyphophori</em>.
-The <em>Mormyridæ</em> have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the
-<em>Gymnarchidæ</em> are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting.
-<em>Gymnarchus miloticus</em> of the Nile reaches a length of six feet,
-and it is remarkable as retaining the cellular structure of the
-air-bladder as seen in the garpike and bowfin. It doubtless
-serves as an imperfect lung.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>The best-known genus of <em>Scyphophori</em> is <em>Mormyrus</em>. Species
-of this genus found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by
-the ancient Egyptians and pictures of <em>Mormyrus</em> are often
-seen among the emblematic inscriptions. The Egyptians did not
-eat the <em>Mormyrus</em> because with two other fishes it was accused
-of having devoured a limb from the body of Osiris, so that Isis
-was unable to recover it when she gathered the scattered remains
-of her husband.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Mormyrus</em> the bones of the head are covered by skin,
-the snout is more or less elongated, and the tail is generally
-short and insignificant. One of the most characteristically
-eccentric species is <em>Gnathonemus curvirostris</em>, lately discovered
-by Dr. Boulenger from the Congo. Fossil <em>Mormyridæ</em> are unknown.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_189.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 149.</span>—<em>Gnathonemus curvirostris</em> Boulenger. Family <em>Mormyridæ</em>. Congo River. (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Haplomi.</strong>—In the groups called <em>Iniomi</em> and <em>Lyopomi</em>,
-the mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition
-which in some cases may be due to the degeneration produced by
-deep-sea life. In the eels a similar condition obtains. In the group
-called <em>Haplomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἁπλοός</span>, simple; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder), as in all the
-groups of fishes yet to be discussed, this arch is wholly wanting at
-all stages of development. In common with the <em>Isospondyli</em> and
-with soft-rayed fishes in general the air-bladder has a persistent
-air-duct, all the fins are without true spines, the ventral fins
-are abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The group is a
-transitional one, lying almost equidistant between the <em>Isospondyli</em>
-and the <em>Acanthopterygii</em>. Gill unites it with the latter and
-Woodward with the former. We may regard it for the present
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>as a distinct order, although no character of high importance
-separates it from either. Hay unites the <em>Haplom</em>i with the
-<em>Synentognathi</em> to form the order of <em>Mesichthyes</em>, or transitional
-fishes, but the affinities of either with other groups are quite
-as well marked as their relation to each other. Boulenger unites
-the <em>Iniomi</em> with the <em>Haplomi</em>, an arrangement which apparently
-has merit, for the most primitive and non-degenerate <em>Iniomi</em>, as
-<em>Aulopus</em> and <em>Synodus</em>, lack both mesocoracoid and orbitosphenoid.
-These bones are characteristic of the <em>Isospondyli</em>, but are
-wanting in <em>Haplomi</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is no adipose dorsal in the typical <em>Haplomi</em>, the dorsal
-is inserted far back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but
-not all of the species are of small size, living in fresh or brackish
-water, and they are found in almost all warm regions, though
-scantily represented in California, Japan, and Polynesia. The
-four families of typical <em>Haplomi</em> differ considerably from one
-another and are easily distinguished, although obviously related.
-Several other families are provisionally added to this
-group on account of agreement in technical characters, but
-their actual relationships are uncertain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pikes.</strong>—The <em>Esocidæ</em> have the body long and slender
-and the mouth large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp
-teeth of different sizes, some of them being movable. The
-upper jaw is not projectile, and its margin, as in the <em>Salmonidæ</em>,
-is formed by the maxillary. The scales are small, and the
-dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the stomach
-is without pyloric cæca. There is but a single genus, <em>Esox</em>
-(<em>Lucius</em> of Rafinesque), with about five or six living species.
-Four of these are North American, the other one being found
-in Europe, Asia, and North America.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destructive
-to other species which may happen to be their neighbors;
-"mere machines for the assimilation of other organisms."
-Thoreau describes the pike as "the swiftest, wariest, and most
-ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the river-wolf. It is
-a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the shadow of
-a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye; motionless
-as a jewel set in water, or moving slowly along to take up
-its position; darting from time to time at such unlucky fish
-or frog or insect as comes within its range, and swallowing it
-at one gulp. Sometimes a striped snake, bound for greener
-meadows across the stream, ends its undulatory progress in
-the same receptacle."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>
-<img src='images/i_191.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 150.</span>—The Pike, <em>Esox-lucius</em> L. (From life by R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>As food-fishes, all the <em>Esocidæ</em> rank high. Their flesh is
-white, fine-grained, disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The finest of the <em>Esocidæ</em>, a species to be compared, as a
-grand game fish, with the salmon, is the muskallunge (<em>Esox
-masquinongy</em>). Technically this species may be known by
-the fact that its cheeks and opercles are both naked on the
-lower half. It may be known also by its great size and by its
-color, young and old being spotted with black on a golden-olive
-ground.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_192.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 151.</span>—Muskallunge, <em>Esox masquinongy</em> Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region,
-where it inhabits the deeper waters, except for a short time
-in the spring, when it enters the streams to spawn. It often
-reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty to eighty
-pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare, for no small locality
-would furnish food for more than one such giant. It is, says
-Hallock, "a long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way
-formed for the life it leads, that of a dauntless marauder."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A second species of muskallunge, <em>Esox ohiensis</em>, unspotted
-but vaguely cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River
-and the upper Mississippi Valley. It is especially abundant
-in Chautauqua Lake.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pike (<em>Esox lucius</em>) is smaller than the muskallunge, and
-is technically best distinguished by the fact that the opercles
-are naked below, while the cheeks are entirely scaly. The
-spots and cross-bars in the pike are whitish or yellowish, and
-always paler than the olive-gray ground color. It is the most
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>widely distributed of all fresh-water fishes, being found from
-the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes, and New England
-to Alaska and throughout northern Asia and Europe. It
-reaches a weight of ten to twenty pounds or more, being a
-large strong fish in its way, inferior only to the muskallunge.
-In England <em>Esox lucius</em> is known as the pike, while its young
-are called by the diminutive term pickerel. In America the name
-pickerel is usually given to the smaller species, and sometimes
-even to <em>Esox lucius</em> itself, the word being with us a synonym
-for pike, not a diminutive.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the
-eastern United States. They are greenish in color and banded
-or reticulated, rather than spotted, and, in all, the opercles
-as well as the cheeks are fully covered with scales. One of
-these (<em>Esox reticulatus</em>) is the common pickerel of the Eastern
-States, which reaches a respectable size and is excellent as
-food. The others, <em>Esox americanus</em> along the Atlantic seaboard
-and <em>Esox vermiculatus</em> in the middle West, seldom exceed a foot
-in length and are of no economic importance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe,
-<em>Esox lepidotus</em> from the Miocene of Baden being one of the
-earliest and the best known; in this species the scales are much
-larger than in the recent species. The fossil remains would seem
-to indicate that the origin of the family was in southern Europe,
-although most of the living species are American.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_193.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 152.</span>—Mud-minnow, <em>Umbra pygmæa</em> (De Kay). New Jersey.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Mud-minnows.</strong>—Close to the pike is the family of <em>Umbridæ</em>,
-or mud-minnows, which technically differ from the pikes
-only in the short snout, small mouth, and weak dentition. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>mud-minnows are small, sluggish, carnivorous fishes living in
-the mud at the bottom of cold, clear streams and ponds. They
-are extremely tenacious of life, though soon suffocated in warm
-waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of the middle
-West (<em>Umbra limi</em>) often remains in dried sloughs and bog-holes,
-and has been sometimes plowed up alive. <em>Umbra pygmæa</em>,
-a striped species, is found in the Eastern States and <em>Umbra
-crameri</em> in bogs and brooks along the Danube. This wide break
-in distribution seems to indicate a former wide extension of
-the range of <em>Umbridæ</em>, perhaps coextensive with <em>Esox</em>. Fossil
-<em>Umbridæ</em> are, however, not yet recognized.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Killifishes.</strong>—Most of the recent <em>Haplomi</em> belong to the
-family of <em>Pœciliidæ</em> (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this
-group the small mouth is extremely protractile, its margin
-formed by the premaxillaries alone much as in the spiny-rayed
-fishes. The teeth are small and of various forms according
-to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms they are
-incisor-like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the
-species that eat insects or worms they are more firmly fixed.
-The head is scaly, the stomach without cæca, and the intestines
-are long in the plant-eating species and short in the
-others. There are nearly 200 species, very abundant from
-New England and California southward to Argentina, and
-in Asia and Africa also. In regions where rice is produced,
-they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some of them
-enter the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some
-are brilliantly colored, and in many species the males are quite
-unlike the females, being smaller and more showy. The largest
-species (<em>Fundulus</em>, <em>Anableps</em>) rarely reach the length of a foot,
-while <em>Heterandria formosa</em>, a diminutive inhabitant of the
-Florida rivers, scarcely reaches an inch. Some species are
-oviparous, but in most of the herbivorous forms, and some of
-the others, the eggs are hatched within the body, and the anal
-in the male is modified into a long sword-shaped intromittent
-organ, placed farther forward than the anal in the female.
-The young when born closely resemble the parent. Most of
-the insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving slowly
-with the eyes partly out of water. This habit in the genus
-<em>Anableps</em> (four-eyed fish, or <em>Cuatro ojos</em>) is associated with an
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>extraordinary structure of the eye. This organ is prominent
-and is divided by a horizontal partition into two parts, the
-upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air, the lower in the
-water. The few species of <em>Anableps</em> are found in tropical
-America. The species of some genera swim near the bottom,
-but always in very shallow waters. All are very tenacious of life,
-and none have any commercial value although the flesh is good.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_195.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 152</span><em>a</em>.—Four-eyed Fish, <em>Anableps dovii</em> Gill. Tehuantepec, Mexico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been
-carefully studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S.
-Fish Commission, who furnishes the following notes published
-by Evermann &amp; Goldsborough:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle,
-and parallel with the length of the body. This bar is darker
-than the other external portions of the eyeball and has its edges
-darker still. Dividing the external aspect of the eye equally,
-it has its lower edge on the same level as the back of the fish,
-which is flat and straight from snout to dorsal, or nearly the
-whole length of the fish; so that when the body of the fish is just
-submerged the level of the water reaches to this bar, and the
-lower half of the eye is in water, the upper half in the air. Upon
-dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it appears nearly round.
-A membranous sheath covers the external part and invests most
-of the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the
-external portion of the eye is seen to be upon this membrane,
-which may correspond to the conjunctiva. The back portion
-of the eyeball being cut off, one lens is found. The lining of the
-ball consists, in front, of one black layer, evidently choroid.
-Behind there is a retinal layer. The choroid layer turns up
-anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an iris. The
-free edge is chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A large
-pupil is left, but is divided by two flaps, continuations of the
-choroid coat, projecting from either side and overlapping.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>There are properly then two pupils, an upper and lower, separated
-by a band consisting of the two flaps, which may probably,
-by moving upward and downward, increase or diminish the
-size of either pupil; an upward motion of the flaps increasing
-the lower pupil at the expense of the other, and vice versa."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish,
-when swimming at the surface of the water, as is its usual custom,
-to see in the air with the upper portion and in the water
-with the lower. It is thus able to see not only such insects as
-are upon the surface of the water or flying in the air above,
-but also any that may be swimming beneath the surface.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_196.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 153.</span>—Round Minnow, <em>Cyprinodon variegatus</em> Lacépède. St. George Island, Maryland.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, "the individuals of this species
-swim always at the surface and in little schools arranged in
-platoons or abreast. They always swim headed upstream
-against the current, and feed upon floating matter which the
-current brings them. A platoon may be seen in regular formation
-breasting the current, either making slight headway
-upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui
-vive for any suitable food the current may bring. Now and
-then one may be seen to dart forward, seize a floating food
-particle, and then resume its place in the platoon. And thus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>they may be observed feeding for long periods. They are
-almost invariably found in running water well out in the stream,
-or at least where the current is strongest and where floating
-matter is most abundant, for it is upon floating matter that
-they seem chiefly to depend. They are not known to jump out
-of the water to catch insects flying in the air or resting upon
-vegetation above the water surface, nor do they seem to feed
-to any extent upon all small crustaceans or other portions of
-the plankton beneath the surface.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_197.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 154.</span>—Everglade Minnow, <em>Jordanella floridæ</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Everglades of Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily frightened—they
-escape by skipping or jumping over the water,
-2 or 3 feet at a skip. They rise entirely out of the water, and at
-a considerable angle, the head pointing upward. In descending
-the tail strikes the water first and apparently by a sculling
-motion new impetus is acquired for another leap. This skipping
-may continue until the school is widely scattered. When a
-school has become scattered, and after the cause of their fright
-has disappeared, the individuals soon rejoin each other. First
-two will join each other and one by one the others will join them
-until the whole school is together again. Rarely do they attempt
-to dive or get beneath the surface; when they do they
-have great difficulty in keeping under and soon come to the
-surface again."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>
-<img src='images/i_198a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 155.</span>—Mayfish, <em>Fundulus majalis</em> (L.) (male). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_198b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 156.</span>—Mayfish, <em>Fundulus majalis</em> (female). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_198c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 157.</span>—Top-minnow, <em>Zygonectes notatus</em> (Rafinesque). Eureka Springs, Ark.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>
-<img src='images/i_199a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 158.</span>—Death Valley Fish, <em>Empetrichthys merriami</em> Gilbert. Amargosa Desert, Cal. Family <em>Pœciliidæ</em>. (After Gilbert.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_199b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 159.</span>—Sword-tail Minnow, male, <em>Xiphophorus helleri</em> Heckel. The anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the many genera of <em>Pœciliidæ</em>, top-minnows, and killifishes
-we may mention the following: <em>Cyprinodon</em> is made
-up of chubby little fishes of eastern America with tricuspid,
-incisor teeth, oviparous and omnivorous. Very similar to
-these but smaller are the species of <em>Lebias</em> in southern Europe.
-<em>Jordanella floridæ</em> of the Florida everglades is similar, but with
-the dorsal fin long and its first ray enlarged and spine-like.
-It strongly resembles a young sunfish. Most of the larger forms
-belong to <em>Fundulus</em>, a genus widely distributed from Maine
-to Guatemala and north to Kansas and southern California.
-<em>Fundulus majalis</em>, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is the
-largest of the genus. <em>Fundulus heteroclitus</em>, the killifish, the
-most abundant. <em>Fundulus diaphanus</em> inhabits sea and lake
-indiscriminately. <em>Fundulus stellifer</em> of the Alabama is beautifully
-colored, as is <em>Fundulus zebrinus</em> of the Rio Grande. The
-genus <em>Zygonectes</em> includes dwarf species similar to <em>Fundulus</em>,
-and <em>Adinia</em> includes those with short, deep body. <em>Goodea
-atripinnis</em> with tricuspid teeth lives in warm springs in Mexico,
-and several species of <em>Goodea</em>, <em>Gambusia</em>, <em>Pœcilia</em>, and other
-genera inhabit hot springs of Mexico, Central America, and
-Africa. The genus <em>Gambusia</em>, the top-minnows, includes numerous
-species with dwarf males having the anal modified.
-<em>Gambusia affinis</em> abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in
-the southern lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It
-brings forth its brood in early spring. Viviparous and herbivorous
-with modified anal fin are the species of <em>Pœcilia</em>, abundant
-throughout Mexico and southward to Brazil; <em>Mollienesia</em> very
-similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin, showily marked, occurs
-from Louisiana southward, and <em>Xiphophorus</em>, with a sword-shaped
-lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; <em>Characodon</em> and
-<em>Goodea</em> (see Fig. 53, Vol. I) in Mexico have notched teeth, and
-finally, <em>Heterandria</em> contains some of the least of fishes, the
-handsomely colored males barely half an inch long.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>
-<img src='images/i_200.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 160.</span>—<em>Goodea luitpoldi</em> (Steindachner). A viviparous fish from Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico. Family <em>Pœciliidæ</em>. (After Meek.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (<em>Orestias</em>)
-without ventral fins. Still more peculiar is <em>Empetrichthys
-merriami</em> of the desert springs of the hot and rainless Death
-Valley in California, similar to <em>Orestias</em>, but with enormously
-enlarged pharyngeals and pharyngeal teeth, an adaptation to some
-unknown purpose. Fossil Cyprinodonts are not rare from the
-Miocene in southern Europe. The numerous species are allied
-to <em>Lebias</em> and <em>Cyprinodon</em>, and are referred to <em>Prolebias</em> and
-<em>Pachylebias</em>. None are American, although two American extinct
-genera, <em>Gephyrura</em> and <em>Proballostomus</em>, are probably allied to this
-group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Amblyopsidæ.</strong>—The cavefishes, <em>Amblyopsidæ</em>, are the most
-remarkable of the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is
-placed at the throat. The form is that of the <em>Pœciliidæ</em>, but
-the mouth is larger and not protractile. The species are viviparous,
-the young being born at about the length of a quarter of
-an inch.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_201.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 161.</span>—Dismal Swamp Fish, <em>Chologaster cornutus</em> Agassiz. Supposed ancestor of <em>Typhlichthys</em>. Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the primitive genus <em>Chologaster</em>, the fish of the Dismal
-Swamp, the eyes are small but normally developed. <em>Chologaster
-cornutus</em> abounds in the black waters of the Dismal Swamp
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>of Virginia, thence southward through swamps and rice-fields
-to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida. It is a small fish,
-less than two inches long, striped with black, and with the habit
-of a top-minnow. Other species of <em>Chologaster</em>, possessing
-eyes and color, but provided also with tactile papillæ, are found
-in cave springs in Tennessee and southern Illinois.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_202.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 162.</span>—Blind Cave-fish, <em>Typhlichthys subterraneus</em> Girard. Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>From <em>Chologaster</em> is directly descended the small blindfish
-<em>Typhlichthys subterraneus</em> of the caves of the Subcarboniferous
-limestone rocks of southern Indiana and southward to northern
-Alabama. As in <em>Chologaster</em>, the ventral fins are wanting.
-The eyes, present in the young, become defective and useless
-in the adult, when they are almost hidden by other tissues.
-The different parts of the eye are all more or less incomplete,
-being without function. The structure of the eye has been
-described in much detail in several papers by Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann.
-As to the cause of the loss of eyesight two chief
-theories exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance in the
-species of the results of disuse in the individual and the
-Weissmannian doctrine that the loss of sight is a result of
-panmixia or cessation of selection. This may be extended
-to cover reversal of selection, as in the depths of the great
-caves the fish without eyes would be at some slight advantage.
-Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but the
-evidence brought forward fails to convince the present writer
-that results of individual use or disuse ever become hereditary
-or that they are ever incorporated in the characters
-of a species. In the caves of southern Missouri is an independent
-case of similar degradation. <em>Troglichthys rosæ</em>, the
-blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of
-degeneration. It is thought to be separately descended from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>some other species of <em>Chologaster</em>. Of this species Mr. Garman
-and Mr. Eigenmann have given detailed accounts from somewhat
-different points of view.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Concerning the habits of the blindfish (<em>Troglichthys rosæ</em>),
-Mr. Garman quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth
-Hoppin, of Jasper County, Missouri: "For about two weeks
-I have been watching a fish taken from a well. I gave him
-considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in an
-uninhabited place subject to as few changes of temperature
-as possible. He seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when
-first taken from the well. If not capable of long fasts, he must
-live on small organisms my eye cannot discern. He is hardly
-ever still, but moves about the sides of the vessel constantly,
-down and up, as if needing the air. He never swims through
-the body of the water away from the sides unless disturbed.
-Passing the finger over the sides of the vessel under water I
-find it slippery. I am careful not to disturb this slimy coating
-when the water is changed.... Numerous tests convince
-me that it is through the sense of touch, and not through hearing,
-that the fish is disturbed; I may scream or strike metal
-bodies together over him as near as possible, yet he seems to
-take no notice whatever. If I strike the vessel so that the
-water is set in motion, he darts away from that side through
-the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I
-stir the water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his
-actions are the same."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_203.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 163.</span>—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, <em>Amblyopsis spelæus</em> (De Kay). Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, <em>Amblyopsis
-spelæus</em>, reaches a length of five inches. It possesses
-ventral fins. From this fact we may infer its descent from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>some extinct genus which, unlike <em>Chologaster</em>, retains these
-fins. The translucent body, as in the other blindfishes, is
-covered with very delicate tactile papillæ, which form a very
-delicate organ of touch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The anomalous position of the vent in <em>Amblyopsidæ</em> occurs
-again in an equally singular fish, <em>Aphredoderus sayanus</em>, which
-is found in the same waters throughout the same region in
-which <em>Chologaster</em> occurs. It would seem as if these lowland
-fishes of the southern swamps were remains of a once much
-more extensive fauna.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil allies of <em>Chologaster</em> are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Kneriidæ, etc.</strong>—The members of the order of <em>Haplomi</em>, recorded
-above, differ widely among themselves in various details of
-osteology. There are other families, probably belonging here,
-which are still more aberrant. Among these are the <em>Kneriidæ</em>,
-and perhaps the entire series of forms called <em>Iniomi</em>, most of
-which possess the osteological traits of the <em>Haplomi</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Kneriidæ</em> includes a few very small fishes of
-the rivers of Africa.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Galaxiidæ.</strong>—The <em>Galaxiidæ</em> are trout-like fishes of the
-southern rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the
-northern zones. The species lack the adipose fins and have
-the dorsal inserted well backward. According to Boulenger
-these fishes, having no mesocoraoid, should be placed among
-the <em>Haplomi</em>. Yet their relation to the <em>Haplochitonidæ</em> is very
-close and both families may really belong to the <em>Isospondyli</em>.
-<em>Galaxias truttaceus</em> is the kokopu, or "trout," of New Zealand.
-<em>Galaxias ocellatus</em> is the yarra trout of Australia. Several other
-species are found in southern Australia, Tasmania, Patagonia,
-and the Falkland Islands, and even in South Africa. This very
-wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has given
-rise to the suggestion of a former land connection between
-Australia and Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some
-geologists to believe in the existence of a former great continent
-called Antarctica, now submerged except that part which
-constitutes the present unknown land of the Antarctic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As intimated on p. 253, Vol. I, this distribution of <em>Galaxias</em>
-with similar anomalies in other groups could not if unsupported
-by geological evidence be held to prove the former extension
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>of the Antarctic continent. Dr. Boulenger<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c009'><sup>[12]</sup></a> has recently
-shown that <em>Galaxias</em> lives freely in salt water, a fact sufficient
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>to account for its wide distribution in the rivers of the southern
-hemisphere.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Dr. Boulenger (<em>Nature</em>, Nov. 27, 1902) has the following note on <em>Galaxias</em>:
-"Most text-books and papers discussing geographical distribution have made
-much of the range of a genus of small fishes, somewhat resembling trout, the
-<em>Galaxias</em>, commonly described as true fresh-water forms, which have long been
-known from the extreme south of South America, New Zealand, Tasmania,
-and southern Australia. The discovery, within the last few years, of a species
-of the same genus in fresh water near Cape Town, whence it had previously
-been described as a loach by F. de Castelnau, has added to the interest, and
-has been adduced as a further argument in support of the former existence
-of an Antarctic continent. In alluding to this discovery when discussing the
-distribution of African fresh-water fishes in the introduction to my work
-'Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo,' in 1901, I observed that, contrary to the
-prevailing notion, all species of <em>Galaxias</em> are not confined to fresh water, and
-that the fact of some living both in the sea and in rivers suffices to explain
-the curious distribution of the genus; pointing out that in all probability
-these fishes were formerly more widely distributed in the seas south of the
-tropic of Capricorn, and that certain species, adapting themselves entirely to
-fresh-water life, have become localized at the distant points where they are
-now known to exist. Although as recently as October last the distinguished
-American ichthyologist D. S. Jordan wrote (<cite>Science</cite>, xiv, p. 20): 'We know
-nothing of the power of <em>Galaxias</em> to survive submergence in salt water, if
-carried in a marine current': it is an established fact, ascertained some years
-ago by F. E. Clarke in New Zealand and by R. Vallentin in the Falkland Islands,
-that <em>Galaxias attenuatus</em> lives also in the sea. In New Zealand it periodically
-descends to the sea, where it spawns, from January to March, and returns
-from March to May. In accordance with these marine habits, this species
-has a much wider range than any of the others, being known from Chile, Patagonia,
-Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, New Zealand, Tasmania, and
-southern Australia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"I now wish to draw attention to a communication made by Captain F. W.
-Hutton in the last number of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute
-(xxxiv, p. 198), 'On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland Islands.' This
-fish, named <em>Galaxias bollansi</em>, was taken out of the mouth of a specimen of
-<em>Merganser australis</em> during the collection excursion to the southern islands
-of New Zealand made in January, 1901, by His Excellency the Earl of Ranfurly.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is hoped that by giving greater publicity to these discoveries the family
-<em>Galaxiidæ</em> will no longer be included among those strictly confined to fresh
-waters, and that students of the geographical distribution of animals will
-be furnished with a clue to a problem that has so often been discussed on
-insufficient data. As observed by Jordan (<em>l. c.</em>), all anomalies in distribution
-cease to be such when the facts necessary to understand them are at
-hand.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Of the fresh-water species of <em>Galaxias</em>, eight are known from New Zealand
-and the neighboring islands, seven from New South Wales, three or four from
-south Australia, one from west Australia, two from Tasmania, seven from South
-America, from Chile southwards, and one from the Cape of Good Hope."</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Neochanna</em> is an ally of <em>Galaxias</em> living in burrows in the
-clay or mud like a crayfish, often at a distance from water. As
-in various other mud-living types, the ventral fins are obsolete.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Xenomi.</strong>—We must place near the <em>Haplomi</em> the
-singular group of <em>Xenomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ξενός</span>, strange; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder),
-regarded by Dr. Gill as a distinct order. Externally these fish
-much resemble the mud-minnows, differing mainly in the very
-broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin and papery, the two
-coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate imperfectly divided.
-The pectorals are attached directly to this without the intervention
-of actinosts, but in the distal third, according to
-Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate begins to break up
-into a fringe of narrow cartilaginous strips. These about equal
-the very large number (33 to 36) of pectoral rays, the basal
-part of each ray being slightly forked to receive the tip of the
-cartilaginous strip.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_206.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 164.</span>—Alaska Blackfish, <em>Dallia pectoralis</em> (Bean). St. Michaels, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In the deep-sea eels of the order <em>Heteromi</em> there is a somewhat
-similar condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as
-the hypercoracoid and hypocoracoid though present are merely
-membranous elements surrounded by cartilage and the actinosts
-are greatly reduced. It seems probable that we are
-dealing in the two cases with independent degeneration of the
-shoulder-girdle and that the two groups (<em>Xenomi</em> and <em>Heteromi</em>)
-are not really related." (Gilbert.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the single family <em>Dalliidæ</em>, one species is known, the
-Alaska blackfish, <em>Dallia pectoralis</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length
-of eight inches and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of
-northwestern Alaska and westward through Siberia. It is found
-in countless numbers according to its discoverer, Mr. L. M.
-Turner, "wherever there is water enough to wet the skin of
-a fish," and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of the
-natives. Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will
-remain frozen in baskets for weeks and when thawed out are
-as lively as ever. Turner gives an account of a frozen individual
-swallowed by a dog which escaped in safety after being thawed
-out by the heat of the dog's stomach.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XI<br />ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_208dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Order</span> Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.</strong>—The
-most of the remaining bony fishes constitute a natural
-group for which the name <em>Acanthopterygii</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἄκανθα</span>,
-spine; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερύξ</span>, <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερόν</span>, fin or wing) may be used. This name
-is often written <em>Actinopteri</em>, a form equally correct and more
-euphonious and convenient. These fishes are characterized,
-with numerous exceptions, by the presence of fin spines, by
-the connection of the ventral fins with the shoulder-girdle,
-by the presence in general of more than one spine in the anterior
-part of dorsal and anal fins, and as a rule of one spine and
-five rays in the ventral fins, and by the absence in the adult
-of a duct to the air-bladder. Minor characters are these:
-the pectoral fins are inserted high on the shoulder-girdle, the
-scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper jaw is formed
-by the premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always toothless.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any
-single character or group of characters. It is connected with
-the <em>Malacopterygii</em> through the <em>Haplomi</em> on the one hand by
-transitional groups of genera which may lack any one of these
-characters. On the other hand, in the extreme forms, each
-of these distinctive characters may be lost through degeneration.
-Thus fin spines, ctenoid scales, and the homocercal tail
-are lost in the codfishes, the connection of ventrals with shoulder-girdle
-fails in the <em>Percesoces</em>, etc., and the development of the
-air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In one family
-even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and
-modifications the species have undergone.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The various transitional forms between the <em>Haplomi</em> and
-the perch-like fishes have been from time to time regarded as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>separate orders. Some of them are more related to the perch,
-others rather to ancestors of salmon or pike, while still others
-are degenerate offshoots, far enough from either.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and transitional,
-may well be placed in one order, which would include
-the primitive flying-fishes and mullets, the degraded globefishes,
-and the specialized flounders. As for the most part these are
-spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier's name <em>Acanthopterygii</em>, or <em>Acanthopteri</em>,
-will serve us as well as any. The <em>Physoclysti</em> of Müller, the
-<em>Thoracices</em> of older authors, and the <em>Ctenoidei</em> of Agassiz include
-substantially the same series of forms. The order <em>Teleocephali</em>
-of Gill (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">τελεός</span>, perfect; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>, head) has been lately
-so restricted as to cover nearly the same ground. In Gill's
-most recent catalogue of families, the order <em>Teleocephali</em> includes
-the <em>Haplomi</em> and rejects the <em>Hemibranchii</em>, <em>Lophobranchii</em>,
-<em>Plectognathi</em>, and <em>Pediculati</em>, all of these being groups characterized
-by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters
-not of the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order
-<em>Teleocephali</em> included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the
-<em>Ostariophysi</em> were first detached, and still later the <em>Isospondyli</em>
-were regarded by Dr. Gill as a separate order.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We may first take up serially as suborders the principal
-groups which serve to effect the transition from soft-rayed to
-spiny-rayed fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Synentognathi.</strong>—Among the transitional forms between
-the soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most
-important groups is that known as <em>Synentognathi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σύν</span>, together;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔν</span>, within; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>, jaw). These have, in brief, the fins
-and shoulder-girdle of <em>Haplomi</em>, the ventral fins abdominal, the
-dorsal and anal without spines. At the same time, as in the
-spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct and the
-pectoral fins are inserted high on the side of the body. With
-these traits are two others which characterize the group as a
-suborder. The lower pharyngeal bones are solidly united into
-one bone and the lateral line forms a raised ridge along the
-lower side of the body. These forms are structurally allied
-to the pikes (<em>Haplomi</em>), on the one hand, and to the mullets
-(<em>Percesoces</em>), on the other, and this relationship accords with
-their general appearance. In this group as in all the remaining
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in very
-nearly all of these families the duct to the air-bladder disappears
-at an early stage of development.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_210.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 165.</span>—Needle-fish, <em>Tylosurus acus</em> (Lacépède). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Garfishes: Belonidæ.</strong>—There are two principal groups
-or families among the <em>Synentognathi</em>, the <em>Belonidæ</em>, with strong
-jaws and teeth, and the <em>Exocœtidæ</em>, in which these structures
-are feeble. Much more important characters appear in the
-anatomy. In the <em>Belonidæ</em> the third upper pharyngeal is
-small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly soldered to
-the premaxillary. The vertebræ are provided with zygapophyses.
-The species of <em>Belonidæ</em> are known as garfishes, or needle-fishes.
-They resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing
-else in common. The body is long and slender, covered with
-small scales. Sharp, unequal teeth fill the long jaws and the
-dorsal is opposite the anal, on the hinder part of the body. These
-fishes are green in color, even the bones being often bright
-green, while the scales on the sides have a silvery luster. The
-species are excellent as food, the green color being associated
-with nothing deleterious. All are very voracious and some of
-the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be dangerous even to
-man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the thrust
-of the sharp snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes
-swim near the surface of the water and often move with great
-swiftness, frequently leaping from the water. The genus
-<em>Belone</em> is characterized by the presence of gill-rakers. <em>Belone
-belone</em> is a small garfish common in southern Europe. <em>Belone
-platura</em> occurs in Polynesia. The American species (<em>Tylosurus</em>)
-lack gill-rakers. <em>Tylosurus marinus</em>, the common garfish of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>the eastern United States, often ascends the rivers. <em>Tylosurus
-raphidoma</em>, <em>Tylosurus fodiator</em>, <em>Tylosurus acus</em>, and other species
-are very robust, with short strong jaws. <em>Athlennes hians</em> is a
-very large fish with the body strongly compressed, almost
-ribbon-like. It is found in the West Indies and across the
-Isthmus as far as Hawaii. Many other species, mostly belonging
-to <em>Tylosurus</em>, abound in the warm seas of all regions.
-<em>Tylosurus ferox</em> is the long tom of the Australian markets.
-<em>Potamorrhaphis</em> with the dorsal fin low is found in Brazilian
-rivers. A few fossil species are referred to <em>Belone</em>, <em>Belone flava</em>
-from the lower Eocene being the earliest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Exocœtidæ</em> includes
-the flying-fishes and several related forms more or less
-intermediate between these and the garfishes. In these fishes
-the teeth are small and nearly equal and the maxillary is separate
-from the premaxillary. The third upper pharyngeal is
-much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to the vertebræ.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The skippers (<em>Scombresox</em>) have slender bodies, pointed jaws,
-and, like the mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind
-dorsal and anal, although in other respects they show no affinity
-to the mackerel. The common skipper, or saury (<em>Scombresox
-saurus</em>), is found on both shores of the North Atlantic swimming
-in large schools at the surface of the water, frequently leaping
-for a little distance like the flying-fish. They are pursued by
-the mackerel-like fishes, as the tunny or bonito, and sometimes
-by porpoises. According to Mr. Couch, the skippers, when
-pursued, "mount to the surface in multitudes and crowd on
-each other as they press forward. When still more closely
-pursued, they spring to the height of several feet, leap over
-each other in singular confusion, and again sink beneath. Still
-further urged, they mount again and rush along the surface,
-by repeated starts, for more than one hundred feet, without
-once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch the water.
-At last the pursuer springs after them, usually across their course,
-and again they all disappear together. Amidst such multitudes—for
-more than twenty thousand have been judged to
-be out of the water together—some must fall a prey to the enemy;
-but so many hunting in company, it must be long before the
-pursuers abandon. From inspection we could scarcely judge
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>the fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though numerous,
-are small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle
-of their articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the
-direction of their motions to the surface."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A similar species, <em>Cololabis saira</em>, with the snout very much
-shorter than in the Atlantic skipper, is the <em>Samma</em> of the fishermen
-of Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The hard-head (<em>Chriodorus atherinoides</em>) has no beak at all
-and its tricuspid incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In
-this genus, as in the flying-fishes, there are no finlets. The hard-head
-is an excellent food-fish abundant about the Florida Keys
-but not yet seen elsewhere.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_212a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 166.</span>—Saury, <em>Scombresox saurus</em> (L.). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_212b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 167.</span>—Halfbeak, <em>Hyporhamphus unifasciatus</em> (Ranzani). Chesapeake Bay.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that
-of the halfbeaks, or balaos, <em>Hemirhamphus</em>, etc. These are also
-vegetable feeders, but with much smaller teeth, and the lower
-jaw with a spear-like prolongation to which a bright-red membrane
-is usually attached. Of the halfbeaks there are several
-genera, all of the species swimming near the surface in schools
-and sometimes very swiftly. Some of them leap into the air
-and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes, with which group
-the halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The commonest
-species along our Atlantic coast is <em>Hyporhamphus unifasciatus</em>;
-a larger species, <em>Hemirhamphus brasiliensis</em>, abounds
-about the Florida Keys. <em>Euleptorhamphus longirostris</em>, a ribbon-shaped
-elongate fish, with long jaw and long pectorals, is taken
-in the open sea, both in the Atlantic and Pacific, being common
-in Hawaii. The Asiatic genus <em>Zenarchopterus</em> is viviparous,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>having the anal fin much modified in the male, forming an
-intromittent organ, as in the <em>Pœciliidæ</em>. One species occurs in
-the river mouths in Samoa.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the
-pectoral fins much enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air
-for a longer or shorter distance.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_213.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 168.</span>—Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, <em>Fodiator acutus</em> (Val.). Panama.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach
-more nearly to the halfbeaks. <em>Fodiator acutus</em>, with sharp
-jaws, and <em>Hemiexocœtus</em>, with a short beak on the lower jaw,
-are especially intermediate. The flight of the flying-fishes is
-described in detail on p. 157, Vol. I.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Catalina flying-fish, <em>Cypselurus californicus</em>, of the shore
-of southern California is perhaps the largest of the known species,
-reaching a length of 18 inches. To this genus, <em>Cypselurus</em>,
-having a long dorsal and short anal, and with ventrals enlarged
-as well as pectorals, belong all the species strongest in
-flight, <em>Cypselurus heterurus</em> and <em>furcatus</em> of the Atlantic, <em>Cypselurus
-simus</em> of Hawaii and <em>Cypselurus agoo</em> in Japan. The very
-young of most of these species have a long barbel at the chin
-which is lost with age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Exonautes</em> the base of anal fin is long, as long
-as that of the dorsal. The species of this group, also strong
-in flight, are widely distributed. Most of the European flying-fishes,
-as <em>Exonautes rondeleti</em>, <em>Exonautes speculiger</em>, and <em>Exonautes
-vinciguerræ</em>, belong to this group, while those of <em>Cypselurus</em>
-mostly inhabit the Pacific. The large Australian species <em>Exonautes
-unicolor</em>, Fig. 226, Vol. I, belongs to this group. In the
-restricted genus <em>Exocœtus</em> the ventral fins are short and not
-used in flight. <em>Exocœtus volitans</em> (<em>evolans</em>) is a small flying-fish,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>with short ventral fins not used for flight. It is perhaps the
-most widely distributed of all, ranging through almost all warm
-seas. <em>Parexocœtus brachypterus</em>, still smaller, and with shorter,
-grasshopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An excellent
-account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given
-by Dr. C. F. Lütken (1876), the University of Copenhagen,
-which institution has received a remarkably fine series from
-trading-ships returning to that port. Later accounts have
-been given by Jordan and Meek, and by Jordan and Evermann.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_214.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 169.</span>—Catalina Flying-fish, <em>Cypselurus californicus</em> (Cooper). Santa Barbara.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very few fossil <em>Exocœtidæ</em> are found. Species of <em>Scombresox</em>
-and <em>Hemirhamphus</em> are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being
-<em>Hemirhamphus edwardsi</em> from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No
-fossil flying-fishes are known, and the genera, <em>Exocœtus</em>, <em>Exonautes</em>,
-and <em>Cypselurus</em> are doubtless all of very recent origin.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XII<br />PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_215dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Percesoces.</strong>—In the line of direct ascending
-transition from the <em>Haplomi</em> and <em>Synentognathi</em>, the
-pike and flying-fish, towards the typical perch-like
-forms, we find a number of families, perch-like in essential
-regards but having the ventral fins abdominal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and
-the barracuda, have been segregated by Cope as an order called
-<em>Percesoces</em> (Perca, perch; Esox, pike), a name which correctly
-describes their real affinities. In these typical forms, mullet,
-silverside, and barracuda, the affinities are plain, but in other
-transitional forms, as the threadfin and the stickleback, the
-relationships are less clear. Cope adds to the series of <em>Percesoces</em>
-the <em>Ophiocephalidæ</em>, which Gill leaves with the <em>Anabantidæ</em>
-among the spiny-rayed forms. Boulenger adds also the sand-lances
-(<em>Ammodytidæ</em>) and the threadfins (<em>Polynemidæ</em>), while
-Woodward places here the <em>Crossognathidæ</em>. In the present
-work we define the <em>Percesoces</em> so as to include all spiny-rayed
-fishes in which the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, excepting
-those having a reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts,
-or other peculiarities of the shoulder-girdle. The <em>Ammodytidæ</em>
-have no real affinities with the <em>Percesoces</em>. The <em>Crossognathidæ</em>
-and other families with abdominal ventrals and the dorsal spines
-wholly obsolete may belong with the <em>Haplomi</em>. Boulenger places
-the <em>Chiasmodontidæ</em>, the <em>Stromateidæ</em>, and the <em>Tetragonuridæ</em>
-among the <em>Percesoces</em>, an arrangement of very doubtful validity.
-In most of the <em>Percesoces</em> the scales are cycloid, the spinous
-dorsal forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct is
-wanting.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Silversides: Atherinidæ.</strong>—The most primitive of living
-<em>Percesoces</em> constitute the large family of silversides (<em>Atherinidæ</em>),
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>known as "fishes of the King," Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or
-Peixe Re, wherever the Spanish or Portuguese languages are
-spoken. The species are, in general, small and slender fishes
-of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on small animals. The mouth
-is small, with feeble teeth. There is no lateral line, the color
-is translucent green, with usually a broad lateral band of silver.
-Sometimes this is wanting, and sometimes it is replaced by
-burnished black. Some of the species live in lakes or rivers,
-others in bays or arms of the sea, but never at a distance from
-the shore or in water of more than a few feet in depth. The
-larger species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally
-delicate, are fried in numbers as "whitebait," but the bones are
-firmer and more troublesome than in the smelts and young
-herring. The species of the genus <em>Atherina</em>, known as "friars,"
-or "brit," are chiefly European, although some occur in almost
-all warm or temperate seas. These are small fishes, with the
-mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales rather large
-and firm. <em>Atherina hepsetus</em> and <em>A. presbyter</em> are common in
-Europe, <em>Atherina stipes</em> in the West Indies, <em>Atherina bleekeri</em>
-in Japan, and <em>Atherina insularum</em> and <em>A. lacunosa</em> in Polynesia.
-The genus <em>Chirostoma</em> contains larger species, with projecting
-lower jaw, abounding in the lakes of Mexico. <em>Chirostoma
-humboldtianum</em> is very abundant about Mexico City.
-Like all the other species of this genus it is remarkably excellent
-as food, the different species constituting the famous "Pescados
-Blancos" of the great lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of the
-western slope of Mexico. A very unusual circumstance is this:
-that numerous very closely related species occupy the same
-waters and are taken in the same nets. In zoology, generally,
-it is an almost universal rule that very closely related species
-occupy different geographical areas, their separation being
-due to barriers which prevent interbreeding. But in the lake
-of Chapala, near Guadalajara, Prof. John O. Snyder and the
-present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E. Meek, found ten
-distinct species of <em>Chirostoma</em>, all living together, taken in the
-same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful
-examination. Most of these species are very abundant throughout
-the lake, and all reach a length of twelve to fifteen inches.
-These species are <em>Chirostoma estor</em>, <em>Ch. lucius</em>, <em>Ch. sphyræna</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span><em>Ch. ocotlane</em>, <em>Ch. lermæ</em>, <em>Ch. chapalæ</em>, <em>Ch. grandocule</em>, <em>Ch. labarcæ</em>,
-<em>Ch. promelas</em>, and <em>Ch. bartoni</em>. A similar assemblage of species
-nearly all different from these was obtained by Dr. Seth E.
-Meek in the lake of Patzcuaro, farther south. In this lake
-were found <em>Ch. attenuatum</em>, <em>Ch. patzcuaro</em>, <em>Ch. humboldtianum</em>,
-<em>Ch. grandocule</em>, and <em>Ch. estor</em>. The lake of Zirahuen, near
-Chapala, contains <em>Ch. estor</em> and <em>Ch. zirahuen</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_217a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 170.</span>—Pescado blanco, <em>Chirostoma humboldtianum</em> (Val.). Lake Chalco, City of Mexico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_217b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 171.</span>—Silverside or Brit, <em>Kirtlandia vagrans</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still another species, <em>Ch. jordani</em>, is found about the city of
-Mexico, where it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts
-of Peru, Chile, and Argentina is found still another assemblage
-of fishes of the king, with very small scales, constituting the
-genera <em>Basilichthys</em> and <em>Gastropterus</em> (<em>Pisciregia</em>). <em>Basilichthys
-microlepidotus</em> is the common Pesca del Rey of Chile. The
-small silversides, or "brit," of our Atlantic coast belong to
-numerous species of <em>Menidia</em>, <em>Menidia notata</em> to the northward
-and <em>Menidia menidia</em> to the southward being most abundant.
-<em>Kirtlandia laciniata</em>, with ragged scales, is common along the
-Virginia coast, and <em>K. vagrans</em> farther south. Another small
-species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook silverside
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span><em>Labidesthes sicculus</em>, which swarms in clear streams from
-Lake Ontario to Texas. This species, three to four inches
-long, has the snout produced and a very bright silvery stripe
-along the side. Large and small species of silversides occur
-in the sea along the California coast, where they are known
-familiarly as "blue smelt" or "Peixe Re." The most important
-of these and the largest member of the family, reaching
-a length of eighteen inches, is <em>Atherinopsis californiensis</em>, an
-important food-fish throughout California, everywhere wrongly
-known as smelt. <em>Atherinops affinis</em> is much like it, but has
-Y-shaped teeth. <em>Iso flos-maris</em>, called Nami-no-hana, or
-flower of the surf, is a shining little fish with belly shape like
-that of a herring. It lives in the surf on the coast of Japan.
-<em>Melanotænia nigrans</em> of Australia (family <em>Melanotæniidæ</em>) has
-the lateral band jet-black, as has also <em>Melaniris balsanus</em> of the
-rivers of southern Mexico. <em>Atherinosoma vorax</em> of Australia has
-strong teeth like those of a barracuda.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_218a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 172.</span>—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, <em>Atherinopsis californiensis</em> Girard. San Diego.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_218b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 173.</span>—Flower of the waves, <em>Iso flos-maxis</em>, Jordan &amp; Starks. Enoshima, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species of <em>Atherina</em> occur in the Italian Eocene, the
-best known being <em>Atherina macrocephala</em>. Another species,
-<em>Rhamphognathus paralepoides</em>, allied to <em>Menidia</em>, occurs in the
-Eocene of Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span><strong>The Mullets: Mugilidæ.</strong>—The mullets (<em>Mugilidæ</em>) are more
-clumsy in form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads
-and stouter fin-spines. The ventral fins are abdominal but
-well forward, the pelvis barely touching the clavicle, a condition
-to be defined as "subabdominal." The small mouth
-is armed with very feeble teeth, often reduced to mere fringes.
-The stomach is muscular like the gizzard of a fowl and
-the species feed largely on the vegetation contained in mud.
-There are numerous species, mostly living in shallow bays
-and estuaries, but some of them are confined to fresh waters.
-All are valued as food and some of them under favorable conditions
-are especially excellent.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most of the species belong to the genera <em>Mugil</em>, the mullet of
-all English-speaking people, although not at all related to the
-red mullet or surmullet of the ancient Romans, <em>Mullus barbatus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long,
-with blunt heads, small mouths almost toothless, large scales,
-and a general bluish-silvery color often varied by faint blue
-stripes. The most important species is <em>Mugil cephalus</em>, the
-common striped mullet. This is found throughout southern
-Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from Monterey, California,
-to Chile, and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, and the Red
-Sea. Among specimens from all these regions we can detect no
-difference.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Professor Goode gives the following account of its habits:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The large mullets begin to assemble along the Florida
-coast in schools in the height of summer, probably preparatory
-to spawning, and at this time the eggs commence to mature.
-In this season they swim at the surface, and are then pursued
-by enemies in the water and the air, and also fall an easy prey to
-the fishermen. They appear to prefer to swim against the
-wind, and school best with a northeast wind. They also run
-against the tide. In Florida the spawning season seems to
-extend from the middle of November to the middle of January.
-Some of the fishermen say that they go on the mud-flats and
-oyster-beds at the mouth of the river to deposit their eggs.
-What becomes of them after this no one seems to know, but
-it is probable that they spread themselves over the whole surface
-of water-covered country in such a manner as not to be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>perceptible to the fisherman, who makes no effort at this time
-to secure the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find
-their way to the lakes and others remain wherever they find
-good feeding-ground, gathering flesh and recruiting strength
-for the great strain of the next spawning season."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Professor Goode informs us that the fishermen recognize
-"three distinct periods of schooling and separate runs of mullet.
-To what extent these are founded on tradition, or upon the
-necessity of change in the size of the mesh of their nets, it is
-impossible to say. The 'June mullet' average about five to
-the pound; the 'fat mullet,' which are taken from August 20
-to October 1, weigh about two pounds; these have, the fishermen
-say, a 'roe of fat' on each side as thick as a man's thumb.
-The 'roe mullet' weigh about two and a half pounds and are
-caught in November and until Christmas. Between the seasons
-of 'fat mullet' and 'roe mullet' there is an intermission of
-two or three weeks in the fishing." Professor Goode hazards
-the suggestion that "the 'fat mullet' of September are the
-breeding fish of November, with roes in an immature state,
-the ova not having become fully differentiated."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mullet feed on the bottom in quiet water, swimming
-head downward. The food is sifted over in the mouth, the
-mud rejected, and the plants, chiefly microscopic, retained.
-Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of mullets to barnyard
-fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich spot the others
-flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a sort of
-filter, stopping the sand and mud, the coarse parts being ejected
-through the mouth. Dr. Günther thus describes this apparatus:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The upper pharyngeals have a rather irregular form: they
-are slightly arched, the convexity being directed toward the
-pharyngeal cavity, tapering anteriorly and broad posteriorly.
-They are coated with a thick, soft membrane, which reaches
-far beyond the margin of the bone and is studded all over
-with minute horny cilia. Each branchial arch is provided
-with a series of long gill-rakers, which are laterally bent downward,
-each series closely fitting to the sides of the adjoining
-arch; they constitute together a sieve admirably adapted
-to permit a transit for the water, retaining at the same time
-every solid substance in the cavity of the pharynx."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the
-head at the surface of the water.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_221.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 174.</span>—Striped Mullet, <em>Mugil cephalus</em> (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>We are not able to distinguish from the common striped
-mullet of Europe and America the mullet of Hawaii, the famous
-Ama-ama, the most valued of Hawaiian fishes. This species
-is reared in mullet ponds, made by extending a stone wall
-across an arm of the sea. Through openings in the wall the
-young mullet enter, and in its protection they grow very fat on
-the abundant algæ and other vegetation. They thus become
-the most plentiful and most esteemed of the market fishes
-of Honolulu. The Awa (<em>Chanos</em>) and the Awa-awa (<em>Elops</em>)
-also enter these ponds and are reared with the mullet, being
-similarly but less valued. Unfortunately the kaku, or small
-barracuda (<em>Sphyræna helleri</em>), also enters with these helpless
-fishes and destroys many of the smaller individuals. Another
-striped species, also very similar to <em>Mugil cephalus</em> in appearance
-and value, in fact indistinguishable from the Hawaiian mullet,
-abounds in Japan and India.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but
-otherwise differ little. <em>Mugil curema</em> is the white mullet of
-tropical America, ranging occasionally northward, and several
-other species occur in the West Indies and the Mediterranean.
-The genus <em>Mugil</em> has the eye covered by thick transparent
-tissue called the adipose eyelid. In <em>Liza</em> the adipose eyelid is
-wanting. <em>Liza capito</em>, the big-headed mullet of the Mediterranean,
-is a well-known species. Most of the mullets of the south
-seas belong to the genus <em>Liza</em>. <em>Liza melinoptera</em> and <em>Liza</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span><em>cæruleomaculata</em> are common in Samoa. The genus <em>Querimana</em>
-includes dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long, known as
-whirligig-mullets. These little fishes gather in small schools
-and swim round and round on the surface like the whirligig-beetles,
-or <em>Gyrinidæ</em>, their habits being like those of the young
-mullets; some young mullets having been, in fact, described
-as species of <em>Querimana</em>. The genus <em>Agonostomus</em> includes fresh-water
-mullets of the mountain rivers of the East and West Indies
-and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout. <em>Agonostomus
-nasutus</em> of Mexico is the best-known species.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_222.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 175.</span>—Joturo or Bobo, <em>Joturus pichardi</em> Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Joturo, or Bobo, <em>Joturus pichardi</em>, is a very large robust
-and vigorous mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls
-in the mountain torrents of Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central
-America. It is a good food-fish, frequently taken about Jalapa,
-Havana, and on the Isthmus of Panama. Its lips are very
-thick and its teeth are broad, serrated, loosely inserted incisors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil mullets are few. <em>Mugil radobojanus</em> is the earliest
-from the Miocene of Croatia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.</strong>—The <em>Sphyrænidæ</em>, or barracudas,
-differ from the mullets in the presence of very strong
-teeth in the bones of the large mouth. The lateral line is also
-developed, there is no gizzard, and there are numerous minor
-modifications connected with the food and habits. The species
-are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in swimming and voracious
-to the last degree. Some of the species reach a length of
-six feet or more, and these are almost as dangerous to bathers
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>as sharks would be. The long, knife-like teeth render them
-very destructive to nets. The numerous species are placed
-in the single genus <em>Sphyræna</em>, and some of them are found in
-all warm seas, where they feed freely on all smaller fishes, their
-habits in the sea being much like those of the pike in the lakes.
-The flesh is firm, delicate, and excellent in flavor. In the larger
-species, especially in the West Indies, it may be difficult of
-digestion and sometimes causes serious illness, or "ichthyosism."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_223.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 176.</span>—Barracuda, <em>Sphyræna barracuda</em> Walbaum. Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Sphyræna sphyræna</em> is the spet, or sennet, a rather small
-barracuda common in southern Europe. <em>Sphyræna borealis</em> of
-our eastern coast is a similar but still feebler species rarely
-exceeding a foot in length. These and other small species are
-feeble folk as compared with the great barracuda (<em>Sphyræna
-barracuda</em>) of the West Indies, a robust savage fish, also known
-as picuda or becuna. <em>Sphyræna commersoni</em> of Polynesia is a
-similar large species, while numerous lesser ones occur through
-the tropical seas. On the California coast <em>Sphyræna argentea</em>
-is an excellent food-fish, slenderer than the great barracuda
-but reaching a length of five feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian
-Eocene, <em>Sphyræna bolcensis</em> being the earliest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Stephanoberycidæ.</strong>—We may append to the <em>Percesoces</em>, for
-want of a better place, a small family of the deep sea, its
-affinities at present unknown. The <em>Stephanoberycidæ</em> have the
-ventrals I, 5, subabdominal, a single dorsal without spine, and
-the scales cycloid, scarcely imbricated, each with one or two
-central spines. The mouth is large, with small teeth, the skull
-cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which group the normally
-formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to exclude it.
-<em>Stephanoberyx monæ</em> and <em>S. gilli</em> are found at the depth of a
-mile and a half below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>them with the <em>Percesoces</em>, but more recently suggests their relationship
-with the <em>Haplomi</em>. Perhaps, as supposed by Gill,
-they may prove to be degenerate berycoids in which the ventral
-fins have lost their normal connection.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Crossognathidæ.</strong>—A peculiar primitive group referred by
-Woodward to the <em>Percesoces</em> is the family of <em>Crossognathidæ</em>
-of the Cretaceous period. As in these fishes there are no fin-spines,
-they may be perhaps better placed with the <em>Haplomi</em>.
-The dorsal fin is long, without distinct spines, and the abdominal
-ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is small,
-with feeble teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed.
-<em>Crossognathus sabandianum</em> occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzerland
-and Germany, <em>Syllæmus latifrons</em> and other species in
-the Colorado Cretaceous, and <em>Syllæmus anglicus</em> in England.
-The <em>Crossognathidæ</em> have probably the lower pharyngeals separate,
-else they would be placed among the <em>Synentognathi</em>, a
-group attached by Woodward, not without reason, to the
-<em>Percesoces</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Cobitopsidæ.</strong>—Near the <em>Crossognathidæ</em> may be placed the
-extinct <em>Cobitopsidæ</em>, <em>Cobitopsis acuta</em> being recorded from the
-Oligocene of Puy-de-Dôme in France. In this species there
-is a short dorsal fin of about seventeen rays, no teeth, and
-the well-developed ventral fins are not far in front of the anal.
-This little fish bears a strong resemblance to <em>Ammodytes</em>, but
-the affinities of the latter genus are certainly with the
-ophidioid fishes, while the real relationship of <em>Cobitopsis</em> is
-uncertain.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_224.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 177.</span>—<em>Cobitopsis acuta</em> Gervais, restored. Oligocene of Puy-de-Dôme. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Rhegnopteri.</strong>—The threadfins (<em>Polynemidæ</em>) are allied
-to the mullets, but differ from them and from all other
-fishes in the structure of the pectoral fin and its basal bones,
-or actinosts.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>
-<img src='images/i_225a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 178.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, <em>Polydactylus approximans</em> (Lay &amp; Bennett).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_225b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 179.</span>—Threadfin, <em>Polydactylus octonemus</em> (Girard). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower composed
-of free or separate rays very slender and thread-like,
-sometimes longer than the body. Two of the actinosts of the
-pectoral support the fin, one is slender and has no rays, while
-the fourth is plate-like and attached to the coracoids, supporting
-the pectoral filaments. The body is rather robust, covered
-with large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The lateral
-line extends on the caudal fin as in the <em>Sciænidæ</em> which group
-these fishes resemble in many ways. The mouth is large,
-inferior, with small teeth. The species are carnivorous fishes
-of excellent flesh, abounding on sandy shores in the warm
-seas. They are not very active and not at all voracious. The
-coloration is bluish and silvery, sometimes striped with black.
-Most of the species belong to the genus <em>Polydactylus</em>. <em>Polydactylus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>virginicus</em>, the barbudo, with seven filaments, is common
-in the West Indies and Florida. <em>Polydactylus octonemus</em> with
-eight filaments is more rare, but ranges further north. <em>Polydactylus
-approximans</em>, the raton of western Mexico, with six
-filaments, reaches San Diego. <em>Polydactylus plebejus</em> is common
-in Japan and other species range through Polynesia. In India
-isinglass is made from the large air-bladder of species of <em>Polydactylus</em>.
-The rare <em>Polynemus quinquarius</em> of the West Indies
-have five pectoral filaments, these being greatly elongate, much
-longer than the body.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No extinct <em>Polynemidæ</em> are recorded.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XIII<br />PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII,<br />AND HYPOSTOMIDES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_227a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 180.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> Linnæus. (After Parker.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_227b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 181.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of <em>Fistularia petimba</em> Lacépède, showing greatly extended interclavicle, the surface ossified.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_227dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Hemibranchii.</strong>—Still another transitional
-group, the <em>Hemibranchii</em>, is composed of spiny-rayed
-fishes with abdominal ventrals. In this suborder
-there are other points of divergence, though none of
-high importance. In these fishes the bones of the shoulder-girdle
-are somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced or wanting,
-and the gill structures somewhat degenerate. The presence
-of bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles, below and behind
-the clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order of
-<em>Hemibranchii</em>. But this character has very slight importance.
-In two families, <em>Macrorhamphosidæ</em> and <em>Centriscidæ</em>, the interclavicles
-are absent altogether. In the <em>Fistulariidæ</em> they are
-very large. According to the studies of Mr. Edwin C. Starks,
-the bone in question is not a true infraclavicle. It is not identical
-with the infraclavicle of the Ganoids, but it is only a backward
-extension of the hypocoracoid, there being no suture between
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>the two bones. In those species which have bony plates instead
-of scales, this bone has a deposit of bony substance or
-ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives it an apparent
-prominence as compared with other bones of the skeleton,
-but it has no great taxonomic importance. Dr. Hay
-unites the suborders <em>Hemibranchii</em>, <em>Lophobranchii</em>, and <em>Hypostomides</em>
-to form the order <em>Phthinobranchii</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">φθινάς</span>, waning;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βράγχος</span>, gill), characterized by the reduction of the gill-arches.
-These forms are really nearly related, but their affinities with
-the <em>Percesoces</em> are so close that it may not be necessary to form
-a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites
-the <em>Hemibranchii</em> with <em>Lampris</em> to form a group, <em>Catosteomi</em>,
-characterized by the development of infraclavicles; but we
-cannot see that <em>Lampris</em> bears any affinity to the sticklebacks,
-or that the presence of infraclavicle has any high
-significance, nor is it the supposed infraclavicle of <em>Lampris</em>
-homologous with that of the <em>Hemibranchii</em>. The dorsal fin
-in the <em>Hemibranchii</em> has more or less developed spines; spines
-are also present in the ventral fins. The lower pharyngeals
-are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small and
-the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle
-and symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived
-from some transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the <em>Percesoces</em>.
-The Lophobranchs, another supposed order, represent simply
-a still further phase of degradation of gills and ventral fins.
-Dr. Gill separates these two groups as distinct orders and
-places them, as aberrant offshoots, near the end of his series
-of bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with the other transitional
-forms, not regarding their traits of divergence as of any
-great importance in the systematic arrangement of families.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.</strong>—The sticklebacks (<em>Gasterosteidæ</em>)
-are small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the
-<em>Fistulariidæ</em> so far as anatomy is concerned, but with very
-different appearance and habits. The body often mailed, the
-dorsal is preceded by free spines and the ventrals are each
-reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray. The jaws
-are short, bristling with sharp teeth, and these little creatures
-are among the most active, voracious, and persistent of all
-fishes. They attack the fins of larger fishes, biting off pieces,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>and at the same time they devour the eggs of all species accessible
-to them. In almost all fresh and brackish waters of the
-north temperate zone these little fishes abound. "It is scarcely
-to be conceived," Dr. Günther observes, "what damage these
-little fishes do, and how greatly detrimental they are to the
-increase of all the fishes among which they live, for it is with
-the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness that they seek
-out and destroy all the young fry that come their way."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the
-northern hemisphere, species essentially alike being found
-throughout northern Europe, Asia, and America. The same
-species is subject to great variation. The degree of development
-of spines and bony plates is greatest in individuals living
-in the sea and least in clear streams of the interior. Each of
-the mailed species has its series of half-mailed or even naked
-varieties found in the fresh waters. This is true in Europe,
-New England, California, and Japan. The farther the individuals
-are from the sea, the less perfect is their armature.
-Thus, <em>Gasterosteus cataphractus</em>, which in the sea has a full
-armature of bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will
-have in river mouths from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh
-water only 2 or 3 or even none at all.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building
-habits. The male performs this operation, and he is provided
-with a special gland for secretion of the necessary cement.
-Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A. Ryder an account of this
-process. The secretory gland is a "large vesicle filled with a
-clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon contact
-with water. It appears to open directly in front of the vent.
-As soon as it is ruptured, it loses its transparency, and whatever
-secretion escapes becomes whitish after being in contact
-with water for a short time. This has the same tough, elastic
-qualities as when spun by the animal itself, and is also composed
-of numerous fibers, as when a portion is taken that has been
-recently spun upon the nest. Thus provided, when the nuptial
-season has arrived the male stickleback prepares to build
-his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her eggs. How this
-nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the sticklebacks,
-have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>Lord, from observations on <em>Gasterosteus cataphractus</em> on Vancouver
-Island, although the source of his secretion was misunderstood:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants,
-where the water always flows but not too swiftly. He first
-begins by carrying small bits of green material which he nips
-off the stalks and tugs from out the bottom and sides of the
-bank; these he attaches by some glutinous material, that he
-clearly has the power of secreting, to the different stems destined
-as pillars for his building. During this operation he swims
-against the work already done, splashes about, and seems
-to test its durability and strength; rubs himself against the
-tiny kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his sides
-to mix with and act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then
-he thrusts his nose into the sand at the bottom, and, bringing
-a mouthful, scatters it over the foundation; this is repeated
-until enough has been thrown on to weight the slender fabric
-down and give it substance and stability. Then more twists,
-turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the
-materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of
-the house that has yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery,
-when completed is a hollow, somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped
-structure worked together much in the same way as the platform
-fastened to the water-plants; the whole firmly glued
-together by the viscous secretion scraped from off the body.
-The inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of plastering
-system; the little architect continually goes in, then, turning
-round and round, works the mucus from his body on to the
-inner sides of the nest, where it hardens like tough varnish.
-There are two apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole
-leading into a wren's nest, and not unlike it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish,
-and when completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he
-swims towards a group of the fair sex enjoying themselves
-amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best and brightest
-livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the most
-approved style of stickleback love-making this young and
-wealthy bachelor approaches the object of his affections, most
-likely tells her all about his house and its comforts, hints
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>delicately at his readiness and ability to defend her children
-against every enemy, vows unfailing fidelity, and in lover fashion
-promises as much in a few minutes as would take a lifetime to
-fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit; personal beauty,
-indomitable courage, backed by the substantial recommendations
-of a house ready built and fitted for immediate occupation,
-are gifts not to be lightly regarded.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her
-appreciation, and by sundry queer contortions declares herself
-his true and devoted spouse. Then the twain return to the
-nest, into which the female at once betakes herself and therein
-deposits her eggs, emerging, when the operation is completed,
-by the opposite hole. During the time she is in the nest (about
-six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and rubs
-his nose against it, and altogether appears to be in a state of
-defiant excitement. On the female leaving, he immediately
-enters, deposits the milt on the eggs, taking his departure through
-the back door. So far his conduct is strictly pure; but I
-am afraid morality in stickleback society is of rather a lax
-order. No sooner has this lady, his first love, taken her departure,
-than he at once seeks another, introduces her as he did
-the first, and so on, wife after wife, until the nest is filled with
-eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully deposited betwixt
-each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should be two
-holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished,
-so it is equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize
-fish-eggs, running water is the first necessity; and, as the holes
-are invariably placed in the direction of the current, a steady
-stream of water is thus directed over them."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To the genus <em>Gasterosteus</em> the largest species belong, those
-having three dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered
-with bony plates. <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> inhabits both shores of
-the Atlantic and the scarcely different <em>Gasterosteus cataphractus</em>
-swarms in the inlets from southern California to Alaska, Siberia,
-and northern Japan. Half-naked forms have been called by
-various names and one entirely naked in streams of southern
-California is named <em>Gasterosteus williamsoni</em>. Its traits are,
-however, clearly related to its life in fresh waters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Pygosteus pungitius</em>, a type of almost equally wide range,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>there are nine or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender.
-All kinds of waters of the north on both continents may yield
-this species or its allies and variations, mailed or naked. The
-naked, <em>Apeltes quadracus</em>, is found in the sea only, along the
-New England coast.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_232a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 182.</span>—Three-spined Stickleback, <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> L. Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_232b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 183.</span>—Four-spined Stickleback, <em>Apeltes quadracus</em> Mitchill. Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Eucalia inconstans</em> is the stickleback of the clear brook
-from New York to Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet
-black in spring with the sheen of burnished copper and he is
-intensely active in his work of protecting the eggs of his own
-species and destroying the eggs and fry of others. <em>Spinachia
-spinachia</em> is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many dorsal
-spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil <em>Gasterosteidæ</em> are recorded, and the family, while
-the least specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most
-primitive of the suborder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Aulorhynchidæ.</strong>—Closely related to the sticklebacks is
-the small family of <em>Aulorhynchidæ</em>, with four soft rays in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>ventral fins. <em>Aulorhynchus</em>, like <em>Spinachia</em>, has many dorsal
-spines and an elongate snout approaching that of a trumpet-fish.
-<em>Aulorhynchus flavidus</em> lives on the coast of California
-and <em>Aulichthys japonicus</em> in Japan. The extinct family of <em>Protosyngnathidæ</em>
-is near <em>Aulorhynchus</em>, with the snout tubular, the
-ribs free, not anchylosed as in <em>Aulorhynchus</em>, and with the first
-vertebræ fused, forming one large one as in <em>Aulostomus</em>. <em>Protosyngnathus
-sumatrensis</em> occurs in Sumatra. <em>Protaulopsis bolcensis</em>
-of the Eocene of Italy has the ventral fins farther back, and is
-probably more primitive than the sticklebacks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.</strong>—Closely related to the sticklebacks
-so far as structure is concerned is a family of very different
-habit, the cornet-fishes, or cornetas (<em>Fistulariidæ</em>). In
-these fishes the body is very long and slender, like that of a
-garfish. The snout is produced into a very long tube, which
-bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth are very small.
-There are no scales, but bony plates are sunk in the skin. The
-ventrals are abdominal, each with a spine and four rays. The
-four anterior vertebræ are very much elongate. There are
-no spines in the dorsal and the back-bone extends through the
-forked caudal, ending in a long filament. The cornet-fishes
-are dull red or dull green in color. They reach a length of
-two or three feet, and the four or five known species are widely
-distributed through the warm seas, where they swim in shallow
-water near the surface. <em>Fistularia tabaccaria</em>, the tobacco-pipe
-fish, is common in the West Indies, <em>Fistularia petimba</em>,
-<em>F. serrata</em>, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very
-small size, <em>Fistularia longirostris</em>, is known from the Eocene
-of Monte Bolca, near Verona. <em>Fistularia kœnigi</em> is recorded
-from the Oligocene of Glarus.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.</strong>—The <em>Aulostomidæ</em>, or trumpet-fishes
-are in structure entirely similar to the <em>Fistulariidæ</em>,
-but the body is band-shaped, compressed, and scaly,
-the long snout bearing the feeble jaws at the end. There
-are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the tail.
-<em>Aulostomus chinensis</em> (<em>maculatus</em>) is common in the West Indies,
-<em>Aulostomus valentini</em> abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where
-it is a food-fish of moderate importance. A species of <em>Aulostomus</em>
-(<em>bolcensis</em>) is found in the Italian Eocene. Allied to it is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>the extinct family <em>Urosphenidæ</em>, scaleless, but otherwise similar.
-<em>Urosphen dubia</em> occurs in the Eocene at Monte Bolca. <em>Urosphen</em>
-is perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of
-<em>Hemibranchii</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_234a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 184.</span>—Trumpet-fish, <em>Aulostomus chinensis</em> (L.) Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.</strong>—Very remarkable fishes
-are the snipefishes, or <em>Macrorhamphosidæ</em>. In these forms
-the snout is still tubular, with the short jaws at the end. The
-body is short and deep, partly covered with bony plates. The
-dorsal has a very long serrated spine, besides several shorter
-ones, and the ventral fins have one spine and five rays.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_234b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 185.</span>—Japanese Snipefish, <em>Macrorhamphosus sagifue</em> Jordan &amp; Starks. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, <em>Macrorhamphosus scolopax</em>,
-is rather common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar
-species (<em>M. sagifue</em>) occurs in Japan. The <em>Rhamphosidæ</em>, represented
-by <em>Rhamphosus</em>, an extinct genus with the ventrals
-further forward, are found in the Eocene rocks of Monte
-Bolca. <em>Rhamphosus vastrum</em> has minute scales, short dorsal,
-and the snout greatly attenuate.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.</strong>—One of the most extraordinary
-types of fishes is the small family of <em>Centriscidæ</em>, found
-in the East Indies. The back is covered by a transparent
-bony cuirass which extends far beyond the short tail, on which
-the two dorsal fins are crowded. Anteriorly this cuirass is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>composed of plates which are soldered to the ribs. The small
-toothless mouth is at the end of a long snout.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_235a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 186.</span>—Shrimp-fish, <em>Æoliscus strigatus</em> (Günther). Riu Kiu Islands, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very
-much like shrimps. <em>Centriscus scutatus</em> (<em>Amphisile</em>) with the
-terminal spine fixed is found in the East Indies, and <em>Æoliscus
-strigatus</em> with the terminal spine movable is found in southern
-Japan and southwards.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_235b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 187.</span>—<em>Æoliscus heinrichi</em> Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family <em>Centriscidæ</em>. (After Heckel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fossil species, <em>Æoliscus heinrichi</em>, is found in the Oligocene
-of various parts of Europe, and <em>Centriscus longirostris</em> occurs
-in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the <em>Centriscidæ</em> and <em>Macrorhamphosidæ</em> the expansions
-of the hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Lophobranchs.</strong>—The suborder <em>Lophobranchii</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">λοφός</span>,
-tuft; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βραγχός</span>, gill) is certainly an offshoot from the <em>Hemibranchii</em>
-and belongs likewise among the forms transitional
-from soft to spiny-rayed fishes. At the same time it is a
-degenerate group, and in its modifications it turns directly
-away from the general line of specialization.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills
-to small lobate tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The
-so-called infraclavicles are present, as in most of the <em>Hemibranchii</em>.
-Bony plates united to form rings take the place of
-scales. The long tubular snout bears the short toothless jaws at
-the end. The preopercle is absent, and the ventrals are seven-rayed
-or wanting. The species known as pipefishes and sea-horses
-are all very small and none have any economic value. They are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>numerous in all warm seas, mostly living in shallow bays among
-seaweed and eel-grass. The muscular system is little developed
-and all the species have the curious habit of carrying the eggs
-until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or tail; this
-structure is usually found in the male.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Solenostomidæ.</strong>—The <em>Solenostomidæ</em> of the East Indies
-are the most primitive of these fishes. They have the body
-rather short and provided with spinous dorsal, and ventral
-fins. The pretty species are occasionally swept northward to
-Japan in the Black Current. <em>Solenostomus cyanopterus</em> is a
-characteristic species. <em>Solenorhynchus elegans</em>, now extinct
-(with the trunk more elongate), preceded <em>Solenostomus</em> in the
-Eocene of Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.</strong>—The <em>Syngnathidæ</em> are very long
-and slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventral
-fins, the body covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish,
-<em>Syngnathus</em>, there are very many species on all northern coasts.
-<em>Syngnathus acus</em> is common in Europe, <em>Syngnathus fuscum</em>
-along the New England coast, <em>Syngnathus californiense</em> in
-California, and <em>Syngnathus schlegeli</em> in Japan. Numerous
-other species of <em>Syngnathus</em> and other genera are found further
-south in the same regions. <em>Corythroichthys</em> is characteristic
-of coral reefs and <em>Microphis</em> of the streams of the islands of
-Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the
-greater number of vertebræ and of bony rings. <em>Tiphle tiphle</em>
-is a large pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was
-preceded by <em>Tiphle albyi</em> (<em>Siphonostoma</em>) in the Miocene of
-Sicily. Other pipefishes, referred to as <em>Syngnathus</em> and <em>Calamostoma</em>,
-are found as fossils in Tertiary rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.</strong>—Both fossil and recent forms
-constitute a direct line of connection from the pipefishes to the
-sea-horses. In the latter the head has the form of the head
-of a horse. It is bent at right angles to the body like the head
-of a knight at chess. There is no caudal fin, and the tail in
-typical species is coiled and can hardly be straightened out.
-<em>Calamostoma</em> of the Eocene, <em>Gasterotokeus</em> of Polynesia, and
-<em>Acentronura</em> of Japan are forms which connect the true sea-horses
-with the pipefish. <em>Gasterotokeus</em> has the long head
-and slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile finless
-tail of a sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse
-belong to the genus <em>Hippocampus</em>. These little creatures
-have the egg-sac of the male under
-the abdomen. They range from
-two inches to a foot in length and
-some of the many species may be
-found in abundance in every warm
-sea. Some cling by the tails to
-floating seaweed and are swept to
-great distances; others cling to eel-grass
-and live very near the shore.
-The commonest European species
-is <em>Hippocampus hippocampus</em>. Most
-abundant on our Atlantic coast is
-<em>Hippocampus hudsonius</em>. <em>Hippocampus
-coronatus</em> is most common
-in Japan. The largest species are
-<em>Hippocampus ingens</em> of Lower California
-and <em>Hippocampus kelloggi</em>
-in Japan. Many species, especially
-of the smaller ones, have the spines
-of the bony plates of the body
-ending in fleshy flaps. These are
-sometimes so enlarged as to simulate
-leaves of seaweed, thus serving
-for the efficient protection of the
-species. These flaps are developed
-to an extreme degree in <em>Phyllopteryx
-eques</em>, a pipefish of the East Indies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>
-<img src='images/i_237.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 188.</span>—<em>Solenostomus cyanopterus</em> Bleeker. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figleft id013'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>
-<img src='images/i_238.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 189.</span>—Sea-horse, <em>Hippocampus hudsonius</em> Dekay. Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil sea-horses are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The following account of the breeding-habits of our smallest
-sea-horse (<em>Hippocampus zosteræ</em>) was prepared by the writer
-for a book of children's stories:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"He was a little bit of a sea-horse and his name was Hippocampus.
-He was not more than an inch long, and he had a
-red stripe on the fin on his back, and his head was made of bone
-and it had a shape just like a horse's head, but he ran out to a
-point at his tail, and his head and his tail were all covered with
-bone. He lived in the Grand Lagoon at Pensacola in Florida,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>where the water is shallow and warm and there are lots of
-seaweeds. So he wound his tail around a stem of seaweed
-and hung with his head down, waiting to see what would happen
-next, and then he saw another little sea-horse hanging on
-another seaweed. And the other sea-horse put out a lot of
-little eggs, and the little eggs all lay on the bottom of the sea
-at the foot of the seaweed. So Hippocampus crawled down
-from the seaweed where he was and gathered up all those little
-eggs, and down on the under side of his tail where the skin is
-soft he made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all
-the eggs into this pocket and fastened it together and stuck it
-with some slime. So he had all the other sea-horse's eggs in
-his own pocket.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his
-tail around it, and hung there with his head down to see what
-would happen next. The sun shone down on him, and by and
-by all the little eggs began to hatch out, and each one of the
-eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a sea-horse. And
-when he hung there with his head down he could feel all the
-little sea-ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by
-they squirmed so much that they pushed the pocket open,
-and then every one crawled away from him, and he couldn't get
-them back, and so he went along with them and watched to
-see that nothing should hurt them. And by and by they hung
-themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging there
-yet. And so he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and
-twisted his tail around it, and waited to see what would happen
-next. And what happened next was just the same thing over
-again."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.</strong>—The small
-suborder of <em>Hypostomides</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὑπό</span>, below; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">στόμα</span>, mouth) consists
-of the family of <em>Pegasidæ</em>. These "sea-moths" are
-fantastic little fishes, probably allied to the sticklebacks, but
-wholly unique in form. The slender body is covered with
-bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single plate. The
-small mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The preopercle
-and the symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals
-are abdominal, formed of two rays, and the very large pectoral
-fin is placed horizontally like a great wing.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>
-<img src='images/i_240.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig 190.</span>—Sea-moth, <em>Zalises umitengu</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan. (View from below.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea-dragons,
-rarely exceed four inches in length. They are found
-in the East Indies and drift with the currents northward to
-Japan. The genera are <em>Pegasus</em>, <em>Parapegasus</em>, and <em>Zalises</em>.
-The best-known species are <em>Zalises draconis</em> and <em>Pegasus volitans</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil species of <em>Pegasidæ</em> are known.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XIV<br />SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL<br />GROUPS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_241dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.</strong>—More
-ancient than the <em>Hemibranchii</em>, and still more
-distinctly in the line of transition from soft-rayed to
-spiny-rayed fishes, is the small suborder of <em>Salmopercæ</em>. This
-is characterized by the presence of the adipose fin of the salmon,
-in connection with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a perch.
-The premaxillary forms the entire edge of the upper jaw, the
-maxillary being without teeth. The air-bladder retains a
-rudimentary duct. The bones of the head are full of mucous
-cavities, as in the European perch called <em>Gymnocephalus</em> and
-<em>Acerina</em>. There are two spines in the dorsal and one or two
-in the anal, while the abdominal ventrals have each a spine and
-eight rays. Two species only are known among living fishes,
-these emphasizing more perfectly than any other known forms
-the close relation really existing between spinous and soft-rayed
-forms. The single family of <em>Percopsidæ</em> would seem to
-find its place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of
-to-day.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_241.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 191.</span>—Sand-roller, <em>Pecropsis guttatus</em> Agassiz. Okoboji Lake, Ia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span><em>Percopsis guttata</em>, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great
-Lakes, is a pale translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a
-length of six inches. It abounds in the Great Lakes and their
-tributaries and is occasionally found in the Delaware, Ohio,
-Kansas, and other rivers and northwestward as far as Medicine
-Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily taken with a hook
-from the piers at Chicago.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_242a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 192.</span>—Oregon Trout-perch, <em>Columbia transmontana</em> Eigenmann. Umatilla River, Oregon.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Columbia transmontana</em> is another little fish of similar type,
-but rougher and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in
-sandy or weedy lagoons throughout the lower basin of the
-Columbia, where it was first noticed by Dr. Eigenmann in 1892.
-From the point of view of structure and classification, this
-left-over form is one of the most remarkable of American fishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_242b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 193.</span>—<em>Erismatopterus endlicheri</em> Cope. Green River Eocene. (After Cope.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Erismatopteridæ.</strong>—Here should perhaps be placed the family of
-<em>Erismatopteridæ</em>, represented by <em>Erismatopterus levatus</em> and other
-species of the Green River Eocene shales. In <em>Erismatopterus</em> the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>short dorsal has two or three spines, there are two or three
-spines in the anal, and the abdominal ventrals are opposite
-the dorsal. Allied to <em>Erismatopterus</em>
-is <em>Amphiplaga</em> of
-the same deposits.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We cannot, however, feel
-sure that these extinct fragments,
-however well preserved,
-belonged to fishes having an
-adipose fin. Among spiny-rayed
-fishes the <em>Percopsidæ</em>
-alone retain this character, and
-the real affinities of <em>Erismatopterus</em>
-may be with <em>Aphredoderidæ</em>
-and other percoid
-forms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The relations of the extinct
-family of <em>Asineopidæ</em> are also
-still uncertain. This group
-comprises fresh-water fishes
-said to be allied to the <em>Aphredoderidæ</em>,
-but with the pelvic
-bones not forked. <em>Asineops
-pauciradiata</em>, <em>squamifrons</em> and
-<em>viridensis</em> are described from
-the Green River shales. With
-<em>Erismatopterus</em> all these fishes
-may belong to the suborder
-of <em>Salmopercæ</em>, but, as above
-stated, the possession of the adipose fin, the most characteristic
-trait of the <em>Salmopercæ</em>, cannot be verified in the fossil remains.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id010'>
-<img src='images/i_243.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 194.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, <em>Lampris guttatus</em> (Brünnich), showing the enlarged infraclavicle. (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.</strong>—We may bring
-together as constituting another suborder certain forms of uncertain
-relationship, but which seem to be transitional between
-deep-bodied extinct Ganoids and the forms allied to <em>Platax</em>,
-<em>Zeus</em>, and <em>Antigonia</em>. The name of <em>Selenichthyes</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σηλήνη</span>, moon;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἰχθύς</span>, fish) is suggested by Boulenger for the group of opahs,
-or moonfishes. These are characterized by the highly compressed
-body, the great development of a large hypocoracoid,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>and especially by the structure of the ventral fins,
-which are composed of about fifteen rays instead of the one
-spine and five rays characteristic of the specialized perch-like
-fishes. The living forms of this type are further characterized
-by the partial or total absence of the spinous
-dorsal, by the small oblique mouth, and the prominence of
-the ventral curve of the body. A thorough study of the
-osteology of these forms living and fossil will be necessary
-before the group can be properly defined. The large bone
-above mentioned was at first considered by Boulenger as
-the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the hypocoracoid being regarded
-by him as displaced, lying with the actinosts. But it
-is certain, from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this bone is the
-real hypocoracoid, which in this case is simply exaggerated in
-size, but placed as in ordinary fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The single living family, <em>Lamprididæ</em>, contains but one species,
-<em>Lampris guttatus</em>, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo,
-Jerusalem haddock, or San Pedro fish. This species reaches a
-length of six feet and a weight of 500 to 600 pounds. Fig. 199
-(Vol. I) is taken from a photograph of an example weighing
-317½ pounds taken near Honolulu by Mr. E. L. Berndt. The
-body is almost as deep as long, plump and smooth, without scales
-or bony plates. The vertebræ are forty-five in number, and the
-large ventrals contain about fifteen rays. The dorsal is without
-spines, the small mouth without teeth. The color is a "rich
-brocade of silver and lilac, rosy on the belly, everywhere with
-round silvery spots." The head and back have ultramarine
-tints, the jaws and fins are vermilion. On a drawing of this
-fish made at Sable Island in 1856, Mr. James Farquhar wrote
-(to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin): "Just imagine the body, a beautiful
-silver interspersed with spots of a lighter color about the
-size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a golden
-ring around them. You will then have some idea of the splendid
-appearance of the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen
-them I might have realized a fortune."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The
-flesh is of varying shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of
-a rich, exquisite flavor scarcely surpassed by any other fish
-whatsoever.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and
-ranging very widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed
-in Norway by Gunner, the good bishop of Throndhjem, about
-1780. It was soon after recorded from Elsinore, Torbay, and
-Madeira, and is occasionally taken in various places in Europe.
-It is also recorded from Newfoundland, Sable Island, Cuba,
-Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco), Santa Catalina,
-Honolulu, and Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The specimen studied by the writer came ashore at Monterey
-in an injured condition, having been worsted in a struggle
-with some better-armed fish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to <em>Lampris</em> is the imposing extinct species known as
-<em>Semiophorus velifer</em> from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Verona,
-the type of the extinct family of <em>Semiophoridæ</em>. This is
-a deep compressed fish, with very high spinous dorsal and
-very long, many-rayed ventrals. Other related species are
-known also from the Eocene. There is no evidence of any
-close relation between these fishes with <em>Caranx</em> or <em>Platax</em>, with
-which Woodward associates <em>Semiophorus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Semiophoridæ</em> differ from the <em>Lamprididæ</em> chiefly in the
-development of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of
-many slender rays.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Zeoidea.</strong>—Not far from the <em>Selenichthyes</em> and
-the <em>Berycoidei</em> we may place the singular group of John
-Dories, or zeoid fishes. These have the ventral fins thoracic
-and many-rayed, the dorsal fin provided with spines, and the
-post-temporal, as in the <em>Chætodontidæ</em>, fused with the skull.
-Dr. Boulenger calls attention to the close relation of these
-fishes to the flounders, and suggests the possible derivation of
-both from a synthetic type, the <em>Amphistiidæ</em>, found in the
-European Eocene. The <em>Amphistiidæ</em>, <em>Zeidæ</em>, and flounders
-are united by him to form the group or suborder <em>Zeorhombi</em>,
-characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays
-not I, 5 in number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin-spines
-and the progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing
-the two eyes to the same side of the head. It is not certain
-that the flounders are really derived from Zeus-like fishes, but
-no other guess as to their origin has more elements of probability.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id014'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>
-<img src='images/i_246.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 195.</span>—<em>Semiophorus velifer</em> Volta. Eocene. (After Agassiz, per Zittel.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>We may, however, regard the <em>Zeoidea</em> on the one hand and
-the <em>Heterosomata</em> on the other as distinct suborders. This is
-certain, that the flounders are descended from spiny-rayed
-forms and that they have no affinities with the codfishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_247.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 196.</span>—<em>Amphistium paradoxum</em> Agassiz. Upper Eocene. (Supposed ancestor of the flounders). (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Amphistiidæ.</strong>—The <em>Amphistiidæ</em>, now extinct, are deep-bodied,
-compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal fins in which
-a few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely
-differentiated from the soft rays. The form of body and the
-structure of the fins are essentially as in the flounders, from which
-they differ chiefly by the symmetry of the head, the eyes being
-normally placed. <em>Amphistium paradoxum</em> is described by Agassiz
-from the upper Eocene. It occurs in Italy and France.
-In its dorsal and anal fins there are about twenty-two rays,
-the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute or
-absent and there is a high supraoccipital crest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The John Dories: Zeidæ.</strong>—The singular family of <em>Zeidæ</em>,
-or John Dories, agrees with Chætodonts in the single character
-of the fusion of the post-temporal with the skull. The
-species, however, diverge widely in other regards, and their
-ventral fins are essentially those of the Berycoids. In all the
-species there are seven to nine soft rays in the ventral fins, as
-in the Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the fused
-post-temporal has been independently derived. The anterior
-vertebræ in <em>Zeus</em>, as in <em>Chætodon</em>, are closely crowded together.
-In the <em>Zeidæ</em> the spinous dorsal is well developed, the body
-naked or with very thin scales, and provided with bony warts
-at least around the bases of dorsal and anal fins. The species
-are mostly of small size, silvery in color, living in moderate
-depths in warm seas. The best-known genus is <em>Zeus</em>, which is
-a group of shore-fishes of the waters of Asia and Europe. The
-common John Dory (called in Germany Härings-König, or
-king of the herrings), <em>Zeus faber</em>, abounds in shallow bays on
-the coasts of Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot,
-and is a striking feature of the markets of southern Europe.
-The dorsal spines are high, the mouth large, and on the sides
-is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of the thumb of
-St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the mouth
-of this species. A black spot on several other species is associated
-with the same legend.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>
-<img src='images/i_248.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 197.</span>—The John Dory, <em>Zeus faber</em>. Linnæus. Devon, England.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish
-(<em>Zeus japonicus</em>), very similar to the European species and
-like it in form and color. <em>Zenopsis nebulosa</em> and <em>Zen itea</em> also
-occur on the coasts of Japan. The remaining <em>Zeidæ</em> (<em>Cyttus</em>,
-<em>Zenopsis</em>, <em>Zenion</em>, etc.) are all rare species occasionally dredged
-especially in the Australian region. <em>Zeus priscus</em> is recorded
-from the Tertiary, and <em>Cyttoides glaronensis</em> from the upper
-Eocene of Glavus.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Grammicolepidæ.</strong>—The <em>Grammicolepidæ</em>, represented by a
-single species, <em>Grammicolepis brachiusculus</em>, rarely taken off the
-coast of Cuba, is related to the <em>Zeidæ</em>. It has rough, ridged,
-parchment-like scales deeper than long. The ventrals are
-thoracic, with the rays in increased number, as in <em>Zeus</em> and
-<em>Beryx</em>, with each of which it suggests affinity.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XV<br />BERYCOIDEI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_250dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Berycoid Fishes.</strong>—We may place in a separate
-order a group of fishes, mostly spiny-rayed, which
-appeared earlier in geological time than any other
-of the spinous forms, and which in several ways represent the
-transition from the isospondylous fishes to those of the type of
-the mackerel and perch. In
-the berycoid fishes the ventral
-fins are always thoracic, the
-number of rays almost always
-greater than I, 5, and in all
-cases an orbitosphenoid bone
-is developed in connection
-with the septum between the
-orbits above. This bone is
-found in the <em>Isospondyli</em> and
-other primitive fishes, but according
-to the investigations
-of Mr. E. C. Starks it is wanting in all percoid and scombroid
-forms, as well as in the <em>Haplomi</em> and in all the higher fishes.
-This trait may therefore, among thoracic fishes, be held to define
-the section or suborder of <em>Berycoidei</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_250.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 198.</span>—Skull of a Berycoid fish, <em>Beryx splendens</em> Cuv. &amp; Val., showing the orbitosphenoid (OS), characteristic of all Berycoid fishes.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic types, were more
-abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene times than now. The
-possession of an increased number of soft rays in the ventral
-fins is archaic, although in one family, the <em>Monocentridæ</em>, the
-number is reduced to three. Most of the living <em>Berycoidei</em>
-retain through life the archaic duct to the air-bladder characteristic
-of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In some
-however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the fish series
-the number of twenty-four vertebræ appears. In most spiny-rayed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>fishes of the tropics, of whatever family, this number is
-retained.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin, and in
-certain cases the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses
-that of the most extreme perch-like forms. In geological
-times the Berycoids preceded all other perch-like fishes. They
-are probably ancestral to all the latter. All the recent species,
-in spite of high specialization, retain some archaic characters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.</strong>—The typical family, <em>Berycidæ</em>, is
-composed of fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or
-black in color, with the body short and compressed, the scales
-varying in the different genera. The single dorsal fin has a
-few spines in front, and there are no barbels. The suborbitals
-are not greatly developed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_251.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 199.</span>—<em>Beryx splendens</em> Lowe. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Beryx</em>, called in Spanish <em>Alfonsino</em>, <em>Beryx
-elegans</em> and <em>Beryx decadactylus</em>, are widely distributed at moderate
-depths, the same species being recorded from Portugal,
-Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf Stream, and Japan. The colors are
-very handsome, being scarlet with streaks of white or golden.
-These fishes reach the length of a foot or more and are valued
-as food where sufficiently common.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous species of <em>Beryx</em> and closely allied genera are
-found in all rocks since Cretaceous times; <em>Beryx dalmaticus</em>,
-from the Cretaceous of Dalmatia, is perhaps the earliest. <em>Beryx
-insculptus</em> is found in New Jersey, but no other Berycoids
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>are yet known as fossils from North America. <em>Sphenocephalus</em>,
-with four anal spines, is found in the chalk, as are also species
-of <em>Acrogaster</em> and <em>Pycnosterinx</em>, these being the earliest of fishes
-with distinctly spiny fins.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_252.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 200.</span>—<em>Hoplopteryx lewesiensis</em> (Mantell), restored. English Cretaceous Family <em>Berycidæ</em>. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Trachichthyidæ</em> are deep-sea fishes with short bodies,
-cavernous skulls, and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with
-a few spines in front. The suborbitals are very broad, often
-covering the cheeks, and the anal fin is shorter than the dorsal,
-a character which separates these fishes from the <em>Berycidæ</em>, in
-which group the anal fin is very long. The belly has often
-a serrated edge, and the coloration is red or black, the black
-species being softer in body and living in deeper water. Species
-of <em>Hoplostethus</em>, notably <em>Hoplostethus mediterraneus</em>, are found
-in most seas at a considerable depth. <em>Trachichthys</em>, a genus
-scarcely distinguishable from <em>Hoplostethus</em>, is found in various
-seas. The genus <em>Paratrachichthys</em> is remarkable for the anterior
-position of the vent, much as in <em>Aphredoderus</em>. Species occur
-in Japan and Australia. <em>Gephyroberyx</em>, with the dorsal fin
-notched, is known from Japan (<em>G. japonicus</em>) and Madeira (<em>G.
-darwini</em>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We may also refer to the <em>Trachichthyidæ</em> certain species
-of still deeper waters, black in color and still softer in texture,
-with smaller scales which are often peculiar in form. These
-constitute the genera <em>Caulolepis</em>, <em>Anoplogaster</em>, <em>Melamphaës</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>and <em>Plectromus</em>. In <em>Caulolepis</em> the jaws are armed with very
-strong canines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the <em>Trachichthyidæ</em> are also the fossil genera <em>Hoplopteryx</em>
-and <em>Homonotus</em>. <em>Hoplopteryx lewesiensis</em>, from the
-English chalk, is one of the earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_253.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 201.</span>—<em>Paratrachichthys prosthemius</em> Jordan &amp; Fowler, Misaki, Japan. Family <em>Trachichthyidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.</strong>—The soldier-fishes (<em>Holocentridæ</em>),
-also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados,
-matajuelos, malau, alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic
-of rocky banks in the tropical seas. In this family the flesh
-is firm and the large scales very hard and with very rough
-edges. There are eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the
-anal, the third being usually very long. The ventral fins have
-one spine and seven soft rays. The whole head and body are
-rough with prickles. The coloration is always brilliant, the
-ground hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines or stripes
-of white, black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and
-they furnish a large part of the beauty of coloration so characteristic
-of the fishes of the coral reefs. The species are active,
-pugnacious, carnivorous, but not especially voracious, the
-mouth being usually small.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>
-<img src='images/i_254a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 202.</span>—Soldier-fish, <em>Holocentrus ascenscionis</em> (Osbeck).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_254b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 203.</span>—Soldier-fish, <em>Holocentrus ittodai</em> Jordan &amp; Fowler. Riu Kiu Islands, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Holocentrus</em> is characterized by the presence of
-a large spine on the angle of the preopercle. Its species are
-especially numerous, <em>Holocentrus ascenscionis</em>, abundant in
-Cuba, ranges northward in the Gulf Stream. <em>Holocentrus
-suborbitalis</em>, the mojarra cardenal, is a small, relatively dull
-species swarming about the rocks of western Mexico. <em>Holocentrus
-spinosissimus</em> is a characteristic fish of Japan. Many
-other species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies,
-as well as in tropical America. <em>Holocentrus ruber</em> and <em>Holocentrus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>diadema</em> are common species of Polynesia and the East
-Indies. Other abundant species are <em>H. spinifer</em>, <em>H. microstomus</em>,
-and <em>H. violascens</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Holocentrus marianus</em> is the marian of the French West
-Indies. <em>Holocentrus sammara</em>, and related large-mouthed species
-occur in Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_255.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 204.</span>—<em>Ostichthys japonicus</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Giran, Formosa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Myripristis</em> the preopercular spine is wanting and the
-air-bladder is divided into two parts, the anterior extending
-to the ear. <em>Myripristis jacobus</em> is the brilliantly colored candil,
-or "Frère Jacques," of the West Indies. Species of <em>Myripristis</em>
-are known in Hawaii as <em>u-u</em>. A curious method of catching
-<em>Myripristis murdjan</em> is pursued on the Island of Hawaii.
-A living fish is suspended by a cord in front of a reef inhabited
-by this species. It remains with scarlet fins spread and glistening
-red scales. Its presence is a challenge to other individuals,
-who rush out to attack it. These are then drawn out by a
-concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a decoy.
-<em>Myripristis pralinius</em>, <em>M. multiradiatus</em>, and other species
-occur in Polynesia. <em>Ostichthys</em> is allied to <em>Myripristis</em> but
-with very large rough scales. <em>Ostichthys japonicus</em> is a large
-and showy fish of the waters of Japan. <em>Ostichthys pillwaxi</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>occurs at Honolulu. <em>Holotrachys lima</em> is a small, brick-red fish
-with small very rough scales found throughout Polynesia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species of <em>Holocentrus</em>, <em>Myripristis</em>, and related extinct
-genera occur in the Eocene and Miocene. <em>Holocentrus macrocephalus</em>,
-from Monte Bolca Eocene, is one of the best known.
-<em>Myricanthus leptacanthus</em> from the same region, has very slender
-spines in the fins.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_256.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 205.</span>—Pine-cone Fish, <em>Monocentris japonicus</em> (Houttuyn). Waka, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Polymixiidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Polymixiidæ</em>, or barbudos,
-is one of the most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewildering
-combination of characters belonging to different groups.
-With the general aspect of a Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7,
-and the single dorsal fin with a few spines, <em>Polymixia</em> has the
-scales rather smooth and at the chin are two long barbels which
-look remarkably like those of the family of <em>Mullidæ</em> or <em>Surmullets</em>.
-As in the <em>Mullidæ</em>, there are but four branchiostegals.
-In other regards the two groups seem to have little in common.
-According to Starks, the specialized feelers at the chin are
-different in structure and must have been independently
-developed in the two groups. In <em>Polymixia</em>, each barbel is
-suspended from the hypohyal; three rudimentary branchiostegals
-forming its thickened base. In <em>Mullus</em>, each barbel is suspended
-from the trip of a slender projection of the ceratohyal,
-having no connection with the branchiostegals. <em>Polymixia</em> possesses
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true berycoid, while
-the <em>Mullidæ</em> are genuine percoid fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Four species of <em>Polymixia</em> are recorded from rather deep
-water: <em>Polymixia nobilis</em> from Madeira, <em>Polymixia lowei</em> from
-the West Indies, <em>Polymixia berndti</em> from Hawaii, and <em>Polymixia
-japonica</em> from Japan. All are plainly colored, without
-red.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.</strong>—Among the most extraordinary
-of all fishes is the little family of <em>Monocentridæ</em>,
-or pine-cone fishes. <em>Monocentris japonicus</em>, the best-known
-species, is common on the coasts of Japan. It reaches the
-length of five inches. The body is covered with a coat of mail,
-made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put
-together. The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral
-fin is replaced by a very strong rough spine. The animal fully
-justifies the remark of its discoverer, Houttuyn (1782), that
-it is "the most remarkable fish which exists." It is dull golden
-brown in color, and in movement as sluggish as a trunkfish.
-A similar species, called knightfish, <em>Monocentris gloriæ-maris</em>,
-is found in Australia. No fossils allied to <em>Monocentris</em> are
-known.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XVI<br />PERCOMORPHI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_258dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.</strong>—We
-may place in a single suborder the various groups
-of fishes which cluster about the perches, and the
-mackerels. The group is not easily definable and may contain
-heterogeneous elements. We may, however, arrange
-in it, for our present purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes
-having the ventral fins thoracic, of one spine and five rays
-(the ventral fin occasionally wanting or defective, having a
-reduced number of rays), the lower pharyngeal bones separate,
-the suborbital chain without backward extension or bony
-stay, the post-temporal normally developed and separate from
-the cranium, the premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the
-cranium itself without orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure
-not greatly unlike that of perch or mackerel, and the back-bone
-primitively of twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased
-in arctic, pelagic, or fresh-water offshoots.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed
-forms, group themselves chiefly about two central families,
-the <em>Scombridæ</em>, or mackerels, and the <em>Serranidæ</em>, the sea-bass,
-with their fresh-water allies, the <em>Percidæ</em>, or perch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.</strong>—The two groups of <em>Percomorphi</em>,
-the mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no
-exact definition, as the one fully grades into the other. The
-mackerel-like forms, or <em>Scombroidea</em>, as a whole are defined by
-their adaptation for swift movement. The profile is sharp anteriorly,
-the tail slender, with widely forked caudal; the scales
-are usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a character as not
-to produce friction in the water.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In general the external surface is smooth, the skeleton
-light and strong, the muscles firm, and the species are carnivorous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>and predaceous. But among the multitude of forms are
-many variations, and some of these will seem to be exceptions
-to any definition of mackerel-like fishes which could possibly
-be framed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mackerels, or <em>Scombroidea</em>, have usually the tail very
-slender, composed of very strong bones, with widely forked
-fin. In the perch and bass the tail is stout, composed largely
-of flesh, the supporting vertebræ relatively small and spread out
-fan-fashion behind. Neither mackerels nor perch nor any of
-their near allies ever have more than five soft rays in the ventral
-fins, and the persistence of this number throughout the <em>Percomorphi</em>,
-<em>Squamipinnes</em>, <em>Pharyngognathi</em>, and spiny fishes
-generally must be attributed to inheritance from the primitive
-perch-like or mackerel-like forms. In almost all the groups
-to be considered in this work, after the <em>Berycoidea</em> the ventral
-rays are I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration, never more.
-In the central or primitive members of most of these groups
-there are twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased in certain
-forms, probably through repetitive degeneration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.</strong>—We may first consider
-the great central family of <em>Scombridæ</em>, or true mackerels,
-distinguished among related families by their swift forms,
-smooth scales, metallic coloration, and technically by the
-presence of a number of detached finlets behind the dorsal
-and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines
-in the fins are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong,
-the flesh oily, and the air-bladder reduced in size or altogether
-wanting. As in most swift-swimming fishes and fishes of
-pelagic habit, the vertebræ are numerous and relatively small,
-an arrangement which promotes flexibility of body. It is
-not likely that this group is the most primitive of the scombroid
-fishes. In some respects the <em>Stromateidæ</em> stand nearer the
-primitive stock. The true mackerels, however, furnish the
-most convenient point of departure in reviewing the great
-group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus of true mackerels, <em>Scomber</em>, the dorsal fins
-are well separated, the first being rather short, and the scales
-of the shoulders are not modified to form a corselet. There
-are numerous species, two of them of general interest. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>common mackerel, <em>Scomber scombrus</em>, is one of the best known
-of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the Atlantic, where
-on both shores it runs in vast schools, the movements varying
-greatly from season to season, the preference being for cool
-waters. The female mackerel produces about 500,000 eggs
-each year, according to Professor Goode. These are very
-minute and each is provided with an oil-globule, which causes
-it to float on the surface. About 400,000 barrels of mackerel
-are salted yearly by the mackerel fleet of Massachusetts. Single
-schools of mackerel, estimated to contain a million barrels,
-have been recorded. Captain Harding describes such a school
-as "a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles
-long."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_260.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 206.</span>—Mackerel, <em>Scomber scombrus</em> L. New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Professor Goode writes:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of
-many thousands of the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine.
-The success of the mackerel-fishery is much more uncertain
-than that of the cod-fishery, for instance, for the supply of
-cod is quite uniform from year to year. The prospects of
-each season are eagerly discussed from week to week in
-thousands of little circles along the coast, and are chronicled
-by the local press. The story of each successful trip is passed
-from mouth to mouth, and is a matter of general congratulation
-in each fishing community. A review of the results of the
-American mackerel-fishery, and of the movements of the fish
-in each part of the season, would be an important contribution
-to the literature of the American fisheries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The mackerel-fishery is peculiarly American, and its history
-is full of romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>American mackerel-schooners—yachts of great speed and
-unsurpassed for seaworthiness. The modern instruments of
-capture are marvels of inventive skill, and require the highest
-degree of energy and intelligence on the part of the fishermen.
-The crews of the mackerel-schooners are still for the
-most part Americans of the old colonial stock, although the
-cod and halibut fisheries are to a great extent given up to
-foreigners.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheepshead
-cannot vanquish him in a gastronomic tournament. In
-Holland, to be sure, the mackerel is not prized, and is accused
-of tasting like rancid fish-oil, and in England, even, they are
-usually lean and dry, like the wretched skeletons which are
-brought to market in April and May by the southern fleet,
-which goes forth in the early spring from Massachusetts to
-intercept the schools as they approach the coasts of Carolina
-and Virginia. They are not worthy of the name of mackerel.
-<em>Scomber Scombrus</em> is not properly in season until the spawning
-time is over, when the schools begin to feed at the surface in
-the Gulf of Maine and the 'North Bay.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drippings,
-or slightly corned in strong brine, caught at night and
-eaten in the morning, a mackerel or a bluefish is unsurpassable.
-A well-cured autumn mackerel is perhaps the finest of
-all salted fish, but in these days of wholesale capture by the
-purse-seine, hasty dressing and careless handling, it is very difficult
-to obtain a sweet and sound salt mackerel. Salt mackerel
-may be boiled as well as broiled, and a fresh mackerel
-may be cooked in the same manner. Americans will usually
-prefer to do without the sauce of fennel and gooseberry which
-transatlantic cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and lean,
-new or stale, mackerel are consumed by Americans in immense
-quantities, as the statistics show, and whatever their state,
-always find ready sale."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely
-distributed is the chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel,
-<em>Scomber japonicus</em> (Houttuyn, 1782), usually known by the
-later name of <em>Scomber colias</em> (Gmelin, 1788). In this species
-the air-bladder (absent in the common mackerel) is moderately
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>developed. It very much resembles the true mackerel,
-but is of smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and keeps
-nearer to the shore. It may be usually distinguished by the
-presence of vague, dull-gray spots on the sides, where the true
-mackerel is lustrous silvery.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic
-coast, on the coast of California, and everywhere in Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Scomber antarcticus</em> is the familiar mackerel of Australia.
-<em>Scomber loo</em>, silvery, with round black spots, is the common
-mackerel of the South Seas, locally known as <em>Ga</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Scomber priscus</em> is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Auxis thazard</em>, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the
-shoulders enlarged and somewhat coalescent, forming what is
-called a corselet. The species ranges widely through the seas
-of the world in great numbers, but very erratic, sometimes
-myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then none seen for years.
-It is more constant in its visits to Japan and Hawaii. Fossil
-species of <em>Auxis</em> are found in the Miocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Gymnosarda</em> has the corselet as in <em>Auxis</em>, but the
-first dorsal fin is long, extending backward to the base of the
-second. Its two species, <em>Gymnosarda pelamis</em>, the Oceanic
-bonito, and <em>Gymnosarda alleterata</em>, the little tunny, are found
-in all warm seas, being especially abundant in the Mediterranean,
-about Hawaii and Japan. These are plump fish of moderate
-size, with very red and very oily flesh.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (<em>Thunnus
-thynnus</em>) found in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight
-of 1500 pounds. These enormous fishes are much valued by
-anglers, a popular "Tuna Club" devoted to the sport of catching
-them with a hook having its headquarters at Avalon, on
-Santa Catalina Island, in California. They are good food,
-although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The name
-horse-mackerel is often given to these monsters on the New
-England coast. In California, the Spanish name of tuna has
-become current among fisherman.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore
-(<em>Germo alalonga</em>). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty
-pounds, and is known by its very long, almost ribbon-like pectoral
-fins. This species is common in the Mediterranean, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>about the Santa Barbara Islands, where it runs in great schools
-in March. The flesh of the albacore is of little value, unless,
-as in Japan, it is eaten raw. The Japanese shibi (<em>Germo germo</em>)
-is another large albacore, having the finlets bright yellow. It is
-found also at Hawaii.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bonito (<em>Sarda sarda</em>) wanders far throughout the Atlantic,
-abounding on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean,
-coming inshore in summer to spawn or feed. Its flesh is red
-and not very delicate, though it may be reckoned as a fair food-fish.
-It is often served under the name of "Spanish mackerel"
-to the injury of the reputation of the better fish.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_263.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 207.</span>—The Long-fin Albacore, <em>Germo alalunga</em> (Gmelin). Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Professor Goode writes:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength.
-Every line in its contour is suggestive of swift motion. The
-head is shaped like a minie bullet, the jaws fit together so
-tightly that a knife-edge could scarcely pass between, the eyes
-are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a perfect level with the
-adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and strong, the
-contours of the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly
-merging into the straighter lines in which the contour of the
-body slopes back to the tail. The dorsal fin is placed in a
-groove into which it is received, like the blade of a clasp-knife
-in its handle. The pectoral and ventral fins also fit into depressions
-in the sides of the fish. Above and below, on the posterior
-third of the body, are placed the little finlets, each a little
-rudder with independent motions of its own, by which the
-course of the fish may be readily steered. The tail itself is a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>crescent-shaped oar, without flesh, almost without scales, composed
-of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory.
-A single sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel
-the bonito a hundred yards, for the polished surfaces of its
-body can offer little resistance to the water. I have seen a
-common dolphin swimming round and round a steamship,
-advancing at the rate of twelve knots an hour, the effort being
-hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly seventy miles
-in an hour. Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It
-might be done by the aid of the electrical contrivances by which
-is calculated the initial velocity of a projectile. The bonitoes
-in our sounds to-day may have been passing Cape Colony or
-the Land of Fire day before yesterday."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another bonito, <em>Sarda chilensis</em>, is common in California;
-in Chile, and in Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines
-than the bonito of the Atlantic, but the same size, coloration,
-and flesh. Both are blue, with undulating black stripes along
-the side of the back.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Scomberomorus</em> includes mackerels slenderer in
-form, with larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively
-pale and free from oil.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_264.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 208.</span>—The Spanish Mackerel, <em>Scomberomorus maculatus</em> (Mitchill). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Scomberomorus maculatus</em>, the Spanish mackerel of the West
-Indies, is one of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography
-was written by Mitchill almost a century ago in these
-words:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Goode thus writes of it:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>of fishes. It appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of
-beauty, when we look upon it, as shown in Kilbourn's well-known
-painting, darting like an arrow just shot from the bow,
-its burnished sides, silver flecked with gold, thrown into bold
-relief by the cool green background of the rippled sea; the
-transparent grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks of its
-trembling fins enhance the metallic splendor of its body, until
-it seems to rival the most brilliant of tropical birds. Kilbourn
-made copies of his large painting on the pearly linings of seashells
-and produced some wonderful effects by allowing the
-natural luster of the mother-of-pearl to show through his transparent
-pigments and simulate the brilliancy of the life-inspired
-hues of the quivering, darting sea-sprite, whose charms even
-his potent brush could not properly depict.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which
-comes to us only in midsummer, and which disappears with
-the approach of cold, to some region not yet explored by ichthyologists.
-It is doubtless very familiar in winter to the
-inhabitants of some region adjacent to the waters of the Caribbean
-or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place shall have
-been discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with
-the bluefish and the mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical
-winter resort to which we send the migratory fishes whose
-habits we do not understand—the middle strata of the ocean,
-the floating beds of Sargassum, which drift hither and thither
-under the alternate promptings of the Gulf-stream currents
-and the winter winds."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate
-schools and is caught in abundance from Cape May southward.
-Its white flesh is most delicious, when properly grilled,
-and Spanish mackerel, like pampano, should be cooked in
-no other way.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A very similar species, <em>Scomberomorus sierra</em>, occurs on the
-west coast of Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as
-food by the Mexicans. In California, the Monterey Spanish
-mackerel (<em>Scomberomorus concolor</em>) is equally excellent as a
-food-fish. This fish lacks the spots characteristic of most
-of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay of Monterey,
-especially at Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the autumn
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>of 1879 and 1880. It has not, so far as is known, been seen
-since, nor is the species recorded from any other coast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots
-upon its sides. Almost exactly like it in appearance is the
-pintado, or sierra (<em>Scomberomorus regalis</em>), but in this species
-the spots are oblong in form. The pintado abounds in the
-West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate than that of the more
-true Spanish mackerel. The name <em>sierra</em>, saw, commonly
-applied to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been
-corrupted into <em>cero</em> in some books on angling.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on
-the coasts of India, Chile, and Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great kingfish, or cavalla (<em>Scomberomorus cavalla</em>), is
-a huge Spanish mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching
-a weight of 100 pounds. It is dark iron-gray in color, one
-of the best of food-fishes, and is unspotted, and its firm, rich
-flesh resembles that of the barracuda.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp-nosed,
-swift-swimming mackerel found in the East and West
-Indies, as well as in Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet
-and a weight of more than a hundred pounds. Its large
-knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and the color is
-almost black. <em>Acanthocybium solandri</em> is the species found in
-Hawaii and Japan. The American <em>Acanthocybium petus</em>,
-occasionally also taken in the Mediterranean, may be the
-same species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well
-as representatives of related genera now extinct, abound in
-the Eocene and Miocene, especially in northern Italy. Among
-them are <em>Scomber antiquus</em> from the Miocene, <em>Scombrinus
-macropomus</em> from the Eocene London clays, much like <em>Scomber</em>,
-but with stronger teeth, <em>Sphyrænodus priscus</em> from the same
-deposits, the teeth still larger, <em>Scombramphodon crossidens</em>,
-from the same deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of
-<em>Scomberomorus</em>. <em>Scomberomorus</em> is the best represented of
-all the genera as fossil, <em>Scomberomorus speciosus</em> and numerous
-other species occurring in the Eocene. A fossil species of
-<em>Germo</em>, <em>G. lanceolatus</em>, occurs at Monte Bolca in Eocene rocks.
-Another tunny, with very small teeth is <em>Eothynnus salmonens</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>from the lower Eocene near London. Several other tunny-like
-fishes occur in the lower Tertiary.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Escolars: Gempylidæ.</strong>—More predaceous than the mackerels
-and tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, <em>Gempylidæ</em>, known
-as <em>escolars</em> ("scholars"), with the body almost band-shaped
-and the teeth very large and sharp. Some of these, from
-the ocean depths, are violet-black in color, those near the
-surface being silvery. <em>Escolar violaceus</em> lives in the abysses
-of the Gulf Stream. <em>Ruvettus pretiosus</em>, the black escolar,
-lives in more moderate depths and is often taken in Cuba,
-Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very large fish, black,
-with very rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of
-oil; sometimes rated very high, and at other times too rank
-to be edible. The name <em>escolar</em> means <em>scholar</em> in Spanish, but
-its root meaning, as applied to this fish, comes from a word
-meaning <em>to scour</em>, in allusion to the very rough scales.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Promethichthys prometheus</em>, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so-called
-from its wariness, is caught in the same regions, being
-especially common about Madeira and Hawaii. <em>Gempylus
-serpens</em>, the snake-mackerel, is a still slenderer and more voracious
-fish of the open seas. <em>Thyrsites atun</em> is the Australian "barracuda,"
-a valued food-fish, voracious and predaceous.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Scabbard-and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.</strong>—The
-family of <em>Lepidopidæ</em>, or scabbard-fishes, includes degenerate
-mackerels, band-shaped, with continuous dorsal fin,
-and the long jaws armed with very small teeth. These are
-found in the open sea, <em>Lepidopus candatus</em> being the most
-common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet
-and comes to different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn.
-It lives in warm water and is at once chilled by the least cold;
-hence the name of frostfish occasionally applied to it. Several
-species of <em>Lepidopus</em> are fossil in the later Tertiary. <em>Lepidopus
-glarisianus</em> occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it
-<em>Thyrsitocephalus alpinus</em>, which approaches more nearly to the
-<em>Gempylidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still more degenerate are the <em>Trichiuridæ</em>, or cutlass-fishes,
-in which the caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like
-filament. The species are bright silvery in color, very slender,
-and very voracious, reaching a length of three to five feet.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span><em>Trichiurus lepturus</em> is rather common on our Atlantic coast.
-The names hairfish and silver-eel, among others, are often given
-to it. <em>Trichiurus japonicas</em>, a very similar species, is common
-in Japan, and other species inhabit the tropical seas. <em>Trichiurichthys</em>,
-a fossil genus with well-developed scales, precedes
-<em>Trichiurus</em> in the Miocene.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_268a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 209.</span>—Cutlass-fish, <em>Trichiurus lepturus</em> Linnæus. St. Augustine, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Palæorhynchidæ.</strong>—The extinct family of <em>Palæorhynchidæ</em>
-is found from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very
-long and slender fishes, with long jaws and small teeth, the
-dorsal fin long and continuous. The species resembles the
-<em>Escolar</em> on the one hand and the sailfishes on the other, and
-they may prove to be ancestral to the <em>Istiophoridæ</em>. <em>Hemirhynchus
-deshayesi</em> with the upper jaw twice as long as the
-lower, sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris; <em>Palæorhynchum
-glarisianum</em>, with the jaws both elongate, the lower longest, is
-in the Oligocene of Glarus. Several other species of both genera
-are recorded.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_268b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 210.</span>—<em>Palæorhynchus glarisianus</em> Blainville. Oligocene. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.</strong>—Remotely allied to the cutlass-fishes
-and still nearer to the <em>Palæorhynchidæ</em> is the family of
-sailfishes, <em>Istiophoridæ</em>, having the upper jaw prolonged into
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>a sword made of consolidated bones. The teeth are very feeble
-and the ventral fins reduced to two or three rays. The species
-are few in number, of large size, and very brilliant metallic
-coloration, inhabiting the warm seas, moving northward in
-summer. They are excellent as food, similar to the swordfish
-in this as in many other respects. The species are not well
-known, being too large for museum purposes, and no one having
-critically studied them in the field. <em>Istiophorus</em> has the dorsal
-fin very high, like a great sail, and undivided; <em>Istiophorus nigricans</em>
-is rather common about the Florida Keys, where it
-reaches a length of six feet. Its great sail, blue with black
-spots, is a very striking object. Closely related to this is
-<em>Istiophorus orientalis</em> of Japan and other less known species
-of the East Indies.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Tetrapturus</em>, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided
-into two parts. Its species are taken in most warm seas,
-<em>Tetrapturus imperator</em> throughout the Atlantic, <em>Tetrapturus amplus</em>
-in Cuba, <em>Tetrapturus mitsukurii</em> and <em>Tetrapturus mazara</em>
-in Japan. These much resemble swordfish in form and habits,
-and they have been known to strike boats in the same way.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil <em>Istiophoridæ</em> are known only from fragments of the
-snout, in Europe and America, referred provisionally to <em>Istiophorus</em>.
-The genus <em>Xiphiorhynchus</em>, fossil swordfishes from the
-Eocene, known from the skull only, may be referred to this
-family, as minute teeth are present in the jaws. <em>Xiphiorhynchus
-priscus</em> is found in the London Eocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.</strong>—The family of swordfishes,
-<em>Xiphiidæ</em>, consists of a single species, <em>Xiphias gladius</em>, of worldwide
-distribution in the warm seas. The snout in the swordfish
-is still longer, more perfectly consolidated, and a still more
-effective weapon of attack. The teeth are wholly wanting,
-and there are no ventral fins, while the second of the two fins
-on the back is reduced to a slight finlet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_269.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 211.</span>—Young Swordfish, <em>Xiphias gladius</em> (Linnæus). (After Lütken.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>The swordfish follows the schools of mackerel to the New
-England coasts. "Where you see swordfish, you may know
-that mackerel are about," Goode quotes from an old fisherman.
-The swordfish swims near the surface, allowing its dorsal fin
-to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal. It often leaps
-out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea can swim
-more swiftly.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_270.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 212.</span>—Swordfish, <em>Xiphias gladius</em> (Linnæus). (After Day.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The pointed head," says Goode, "the fins of the back and
-abdomen snugly fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals,
-the long, lithe, muscular body, sloping slowly to the tail, fit
-it for the most rapid and forcible movement through the water.
-Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England court in regard
-to its power, said:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"'It strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed
-hammers. Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot,
-and is as dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters
-of this fish with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships.
-What can be the inducement for it to attack objects so much
-larger than itself it is hard to surmise.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes
-possession of the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned,
-it should retaliate by attacking its assailant. An old swordfish
-fisherman told Mr. Blackford that his vessel had been
-struck twenty times. There are, however, many instances of
-entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at sea. Many of these
-are recounted in a later portion of this memoir. Their movements
-when feeding are discussed below, as well as their alleged
-peculiarities of movement during the breeding season.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>"It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two
-are never seen swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says
-that they are always distant from each other at least thirty
-or forty feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword.
-Without any special effort on my part numerous instances of
-their attacks upon vessels have in the last ten years found their
-way into the pigeon-hole labeled 'Swordfish.'"</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic
-wherever mackerel run. They do not breed on our shores,
-but probably do so in the Mediterranean and other warm seas.
-They are rare off the California coast, but five records existing
-(Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San Diego, off Cerros
-Island). The writer has seen two large individuals in the
-market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in Japan. As
-a food-fish, the swordfish is one of the best, its dark-colored
-oily flesh, though a little coarse, making most excellent steaks.
-Its average weight on our coast is about 300 pounds, the
-maximum 625.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of development,
-the very young having the head armed with rough
-spines and in nowise resembling the adult.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be distinguished
-from remains of <em>Istiophoridæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XVII<br />CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_272dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Pampanos: Carangidæ.</strong>—We next take up the great
-family of Pampanos, <em>Carangidæ</em>, distinguished from
-the <em>Scombridæ</em> as a whole by the shorter, deeper
-body, the fewer and larger vertebræ, and by the loss of the provision
-for swift movement in the open sea characteristic of the
-mackerels and their immediate allies. A simple mark of the
-<em>Carangidæ</em> is the presence of two separate spines in front of
-the anal fin. These spines are joined to the fin in the young.
-All of the species undergo considerable changes with age, and
-almost all are silvery in color with metallic blue on the back.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most like the true mackerel are the "leather-jackets," or
-"runners," forming the genera <em>Scomberoides</em> and <em>Oligoplites</em>.
-<em>Scomberoides</em> of the Old World has the body scaly, long, slender,
-and fitted for swift motion; <em>Scomberoides sancti-petri</em> is a widely
-diffused species, and others are found in Polynesia. In the
-New World genus <em>Oligoplites</em> the scales are reduced to linear
-ridges imbedded in the skin at different angles. <em>Oligoplites
-saurus</em> is a common dry and bony fish abounding in the West
-Indies and ranging north in summer to Cape Cod.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Naucrates ductor</em>, the pilot-fish, or romero, inhabits the
-open sea, being taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the
-West Indies, Hawaii, and Japan. It is marked by six black
-cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and it reaches a length of about
-two feet. In its development it undergoes considerable change,
-its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to disconnected spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The amber-fishes, forming the genus <em>Seriola</em>, are rather
-robust fishes, with the anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal.
-The sides of the tail have a low, smooth keel. From a
-yellow streak obliquely across the head in some species they
-receive their Spanish name of coronado. The species are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food, and
-range in length from two to six feet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_273a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 213.</span>—Pilot-fish, <em>Naucrates ductor</em> (Linnæus). New Bedford, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_273b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 214.</span>—Amber-fish, <em>Seriola lalandi</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Family <em>Carangidæ</em>. Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Seriola dorsalis</em> is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued
-by anglers for its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Barbara
-Islands in early summer. <em>Seriola zonata</em> is the rudder-fish,
-or shark's pilot, common on our New England coast. The
-banded young, abundant off Cape Cod, lose their marks with
-age. <em>Seriola hippos</em> is the "samson-fish" of Australia. <em>Seriola
-lalandi</em> is the great amber-fish of the West Indies, occasionally
-venturing farther northward, and <em>Seriola dumerili</em>
-the amber-jack, or coronado, of the Mediterranean. The deep-bodied
-medregal (<em>Seriola fasciata</em>) is also taken in the West
-Indies, as is also the high-finned <em>Seriola rivoliana</em>. Species
-very similar to these occur in Hawaii and Japan, where they
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>are known as <em>Ao</em>, or bluefishes. <em>Seriola lata</em> is fossil in the
-mountains of Tuscany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The runner, <em>Elegatis bipinnulatus</em>, differs from <em>Seriola</em> in
-having a finlet behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost
-all warm seas, ranging north once in a while to Long Island.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mackerel scads (<em>Decapterus</em>) have also a finlet, and on
-the posterior part of the body the lateral line is shielded with
-bony plates. In size and form these little fishes much resemble
-small mackerel, and they are much valued as food wherever
-abundant. <em>Decapterus punclatus</em>, known also as cigar-fish and
-round-robin, frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the West
-Indies, where it is abundant. <em>Decapterus russelli</em> is the <em>Maruaji</em>,
-highly valued in Japan for its abundance, while <em>Decapterus
-muroadsi</em> is the Japanese muroaji.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_274.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 215.</span>—The Saurel, <em>Trachurus trachurus</em> (Linnæus). Newport, R. I.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Megalaspis cordyla</em> abounds in the East Indies and Polynesia.
-It has many finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral
-line are developed to an extraordinary degree.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Trachurus</em> the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend
-the whole length of the lateral line. The species known as
-saurel and wrongly called horse-mackerel are closely related
-and some of them very widely distributed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Trachurus trachurus</em> common in Europe, extends to Japan
-where it is the abundant maaji. <em>Trachurus mediterraneus</em> is
-common in southern Europe and <em>Trachurus symmetricus</em> in
-California. <em>Trachurus picturatus</em> of Madeira is much the same
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>as the last named, and there is much question as to the right
-names and proper limits of all these species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Trachurops</em> the bony plates are lacking on the anterior
-half of the body, and there is a peculiar nick and projection
-on the lower part of the anterior edge of the shoulder-girdle.
-<em>Trachurops crumenophthalma</em>, the goggler, or big-eyed scad,
-ranges widely in the open sea and at Hawaii, as the <em>Akule</em>, is
-the most highly valued because most abundant of the migratory
-fishes. At Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being
-here <em>Atule</em>. <em>Trachurops torva</em> is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of
-the Japanese, always abundant.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_275.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 216.</span>—Yellow Mackerel, <em>Carangus chrysos</em> (Mitchill). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>To <em>Caranx</em>, <em>Carangus</em>, and a number of related genera, characterized
-by the bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a
-host of species may be referred. These fishes, known as cavallas,
-hard-tails, jacks, etc., are broad-bodied, silvery or metallic black
-in color, and are found in all warm seas. They usually move from
-the tropics northward in the fall in search of food and are especially
-abundant on our Atlantic coast, in Polynesia, and in Japan.
-About the Oceanic Islands they are resident, these being their
-chosen spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa they form a
-large part of the food-supply, the ulua (<em>Carangus forsteri</em>) and the
-malauli (<em>Carangus melampygus</em>) being among the most valuable
-food-fishes, large in size and excellent in flesh, unsurpassed in
-fish chowders. Of the American species <em>Carangus chrysos</em>,
-called yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging from Cape
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>Cod southward. This is an elongate species of moderate size.
-The cavalla, or jiguagua, <em>Carangus hippos</em>, known by the black
-spot on the opercle, with another on the pectoral fin, is a widely
-distributed species and one of the largest of the tribe. Another
-important food-fish is the horse-eye-jack, or jurel, <em>Carangus
-latus</em>, which is very similar to the species called ulua in the Pacific.
-The black jack, or tiñosa, of Cuba, <em>Carangus funebris</em>, is said to be
-often poisonous. This is a very large species, black in color,
-the sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets of
-Havana. The young of different species of <em>Carangus</em> are often
-found taking refuge under the disk of jelly-fishes protected by the
-stinging feelers. The species of the genus <em>Carangus</em> have well-developed
-teeth. In the restricted genus of <em>Caranx</em> proper, the
-jaws are toothless. <em>Caranx speciosus</em>, golden with dark cross-bands,
-is a large food-fish of the Pacific. <em>Citula armata</em> is another
-widely distributed species, with some of the dorsal rays produced
-in long filaments.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Alectis ciliaris</em>, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the armature
-of the tail is very slight and each fin has some of its rays
-drawn out into long threads. In the young these are very
-much longer than the body, but with age they wear off and
-grow shorter, while the body becomes more elongate. In
-<em>Vomer</em>, <em>Selene</em>, and <em>Chloroscombrus</em> the bony armature of the
-tail, feeble in <em>Alectis</em>, by degrees entirely disappears.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Vomer setipinnis</em>, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has
-the body greatly elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the
-fins, growing shorter with age, become finally very low. <em>Selene
-vomer</em>, the horse-head-fish, or look-down (see Fig. 113, Vol. I),
-is similarly but even more distorted. The fins, filamentous in
-the young, grow shorter with age, as in <em>Vomer</em> and <em>Alectis</em>.
-The skeleton in these fishes is essentially like that of <em>Carangus</em>,
-the only difference lying in the compression and distortion of
-the bones. <em>Chloroscombrus</em> contains the casabes, or bumpers,
-thin, dry, compressed fish, of little value as food, the bony
-armature of the tail being wholly lost.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To the genus <em>Trachinotus</em> belong the pampanos, broad-bodied,
-silvery fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered
-with small scales and with no bony plates.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The true pampano, <em>Trachinotus carolinus</em>, is one of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>finest of all food-fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and
-to be cooked in the same way, only by broiling. The flesh is
-white, firm, and flaky, with a moderate amount of delicate oil.
-It has no especial interest to the angler and it is not abundant
-enough to be of great commercial importance, yet few fish
-bring or deserve to bring higher prices in the markets of the
-epicures. The species is most common along our Gulf coast,
-ranging northward along the Carolinas as far as Cape Cod.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_277.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 217.</span>—The Pampano, <em>Trachinotus carolinus</em> (Linnæus). Wood's Hole.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the
-broad body of the fish. The spelling "pompano" should therefore
-be discouraged.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The other pampanos, of which there are several in tropical
-America and Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and
-relatively flavorless. <em>Trachinotus palometa</em>, the gaff-topsail pampano,
-has very high fins and its sides have four black bands
-like the marks of a grill. The round pampano, <em>Trachinotus
-falcatus</em>, is common southward, as is also the great pampano,
-<em>Trachinotus goodei</em>, which reaches a length of three feet. <em>Trachinotus
-ovatus</em>, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common in
-Polynesia and the East Indies. No pampanos are found in
-Europe, but a related genus, <em>Lichia</em>, contains species which much
-resemble them, but in which the body is more elongate and
-the mouth larger.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous fossils are referred to the <em>Carangidæ</em> with more
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>or less certainty. <em>Aipichthys pretiosus</em> and other species occur
-in the Cretaceous. These are deep-bodied fishes resembling
-<em>Seriola</em>, having the falcate dorsal twice as long as the anal and
-the ventral ridge with thickened scales. <em>Vomeropsis</em> (<em>longispina
-elongata</em>, etc.), also from the Eocene, with rounded caudal,
-the anterior dorsal rays greatly elongate, and the supraoccipital
-crest highly developed, probably constitutes with it a distinct
-family, <em>Vomeropsidæ</em>. Several species referable to <em>Carangus</em>
-are found in the Miocene. <em>Archæus glarisianus</em>, resembling
-<em>Carangus</em>, but without scales so far as known, is found in the
-Oligocene of Glarus; <em>Seriola prisca</em> and other species of <em>Seriola</em>
-occur in the Eocene; <em>Carangopsis brevis</em>, etc., allied to <em>Caranx</em>,
-but with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene
-of France and Italy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Ductor leptosomus</em> from the Eocene of Monte Bolca
-resembles <em>Naucrates</em>; <em>Trachinotus tenuiceps</em> is recorded from
-Monte Bolca, and a species of uncertain relationship, called
-<em>Pseudovomer minutus</em>, with sixteen caudal vertebræ is taken
-from the Miocene of Licata.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.</strong>—Very close to the <em>Carangidæ</em>,
-and especially to the genus <em>Seriola</em>, is the small family of
-<em>Nematistiidæ</em>, containing the papagallo, <em>Nematistius pectoralis</em>
-of the west coast of Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has
-the general appearance of an amber-fish, but the dorsal spines
-are produced in long filaments. The chief character of the
-family is found in the excessive division of the rays of the
-pectoral fins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.</strong>—Allied to the <em>Carangidæ</em> is
-the family of bluefishes (<em>Cheilodipteridæ</em>, or <em>Pomatomidæ</em>). The
-single species <em>Cheilodipterus saltatrix</em>, or <em>Pomatomus saltatrix</em>,
-known as the bluefish, is a large, swift, extremely voracious fish,
-common throughout most of the warmer parts of the Atlantic,
-but very irregularly distributed on the various coasts. Its
-distribution is doubtless related to its food. It is more abundant
-on our Eastern coast than anywhere else, and its chief
-food here is the menhaden. The bluefish differs from the
-<em>Carangidæ</em> mainly in its larger scales, and in a slight serration
-of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender and easily torn.
-As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few superiors.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but
-most of those taken are much smaller. It is one of the most
-voracious of all fish. Concerning this, Professor Baird observes:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_279.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 218.</span>—Bluefish, <em>Cheilodipterus saltatrix</em> (L.). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the
-bluefish among the marine species on our coast, whatever may
-be the case among some of the carnivorous fish of the South
-American waters. The bluefish has been well likened to an
-animated chopping-machine the business of which is to cut
-to pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a
-given space of time. All writers are unanimous in regard to
-the destructiveness of the bluefish. Going in large schools
-in pursuit of fish not much inferior to themselves in size, they
-move along like a pack of hungry wolves, destroying everything
-before them. Their trail is marked by fragments of fish
-and by the stain of blood in the sea, as, where the fish is too
-large to be swallowed entire, the hinder portion will be bitten
-off and the anterior part allowed to float away or sink. It is
-even maintained with great earnestness that such is the gluttony
-of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the contents
-are disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that
-it kills many more fish than it requires for its own support.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this
-function of destruction, and although they occasionally devour
-crabs, worms, etc., the bulk of their sustenance throughout
-the greater part of the year is derived from other fish. Nothing
-is more common than to find a small bluefish of six or eight
-inches in length under a school of minnows making continual
-dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the bluefish
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>of all sizes, with rare exceptions, are found loaded with
-the other fish, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty,
-either entire or in fragments.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that
-it is not merely the small fry that are thus devoured, and which
-it is expected will fall a prey to other animals, but that the food
-of the bluefish consists very largely of individuals which have
-already passed a large percentage of the chances against their
-reaching maturity, many of them, indeed, having arrived at
-the period of spawning. To make the case more clear, let us
-realize for a moment the number of bluefish that exist on our
-coast in the summer season. As far as I can ascertain by the
-statistics obtained at the fishing-stations on the New England
-coast, as also from the records of the New York markets, kindly
-furnished by Middleton &amp; Carman, of the Fulton Market, the
-capture of bluefish from New Jersey to Monomoy during the
-season amounts to no less than one million individuals, averaging
-five or six pounds each. Those, however, who have
-seen the bluefish in his native waters and realized the immense
-numbers there existing will be quite willing to admit that
-probably not one fish in a thousand is ever taken by man. If,
-therefore, we have an actual capture of one million, we may
-allow one thousand millions as occurring in the extent of our
-coasts referred to, even neglecting the smaller ones, which,
-perhaps, should also be taken into account.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not
-excessive, according to the testimony elicited from the fishermen
-and substantiated by the stomachs of those examined;
-this gives ten thousand millions of fish destroyed per day. And
-as the period of the stay of the bluefish on the New England
-coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have in
-round numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured
-in the course of a season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging
-five pounds, devours or destroys even half its own weight of
-other fish per day (and I am not sure that the estimate of some
-witnesses of twice this weight is not more nearly correct), we
-will have, during the same period, a daily loss of twenty-five
-hundred million pounds, equal to three hundred thousand
-millions for the season.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>"This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at
-least three to five pounds in weight. We must, however, allow
-for those of smaller size, and a hundred-fold or more in number,
-all engaged simultaneously in the butchery referred to.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however
-much we may diminish, within reason, the estimate of the
-number of bluefish and the average of their capture, there
-still remains an appalling aggregate of destruction. While the
-smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry, those of which
-we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of them,
-if not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or
-two years of that period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn
-deposited by any fish at a given time not more than 30 per
-cent. are hatched, and that less than 10 per cent. attain an age
-when they are able to take care of themselves. As their age
-increases the chances of reaching maturity become greater and
-greater. It is among the small residuum of this class that the
-agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever reasonable
-reduction may be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that
-they exert a material influence.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of
-the immense amount of food they must consume. The young
-fish which first appear along the shores of Vineyard Sound,
-about the middle of August, are about five inches in length.
-By the beginning of September, however, they have reached
-six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the second
-year they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this
-they increase in a still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes
-eastward from Vineyard Sound in the spring weighing five
-pounds is represented, according to the general impression,
-by the ten to fifteen-pound fish of the autumn. If this be the
-fact, the fish of three or four pounds which pass along the
-coast of North Carolina in March return to it in October weighing
-ten to fifteen pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the
-other inhabitants of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher;
-and it is able to contend successfully with any other species
-not superior to itself in size. It is not known whether an
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>entire school ever unite in an attack upon a particular object of
-prey, as is said to be the case with the ferocious fishes of the
-South American rivers; should they do so, no animal, however
-large, could withstand their onslaught.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish
-of all kinds, but perhaps more especially the menhaden,
-which they seem to follow along the coast, and which they
-attack with such ferocity as to drive them on the shore, where
-they are sometimes piled up in windrows to the depth of a
-foot or more."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.</strong>—The <em>Rachycentridæ</em>, or
-sergeant-fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes,
-with large mouths and small teeth, ranging northward from the
-warm seas. The dorsal spines are short and stout, separate
-from the fin, and the body is almost cylindrical, somewhat like
-that of the pike.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_282.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 219.</span>—Sergeant-fish, <em>Rachycentron canadum</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Rachycentron canadum</em>, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or
-sergeant-fish, reaches a length of about five feet. The last
-name is supposed to allude to the black stripe along its side,
-like the stripe on a sergeant's trousers. It is rather common
-in summer along our Atlantic coast as far as Cape Cod, especially
-in Chesapeake Bay. <em>Rachycentron pondicerrianum</em>, equally
-voracious, extends its summer depredations as far as Japan.
-The more familiar name for these fishes, <em>Elacate</em>, is of later date
-than <em>Rachycentron</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern
-pike, with a similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is
-dark green on the back, growing lighter on the sides, but the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>distinguishing characteristic is a broad, dark collar over the
-neck, from which two black stripes or straps, parting on the
-shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail. He looks as
-if harnessed with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a fly-rod
-is that of a wild horse. The first one that I struck, in the
-brackish water of Hillsborough River at Tampa, gave me a
-hitherto unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was not
-unfamiliar, but when the fierce fellow took the top of the water
-and went along lashing it with his tail, swift as a bullet, then
-descended, and with a short, sharp, electric shock left the line
-to come home free, I was for an instant confounded. It was
-all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that I struck after
-this behaved in the same way, and after I had got 'the hang
-of them' I took a great many."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.</strong>—The butter-fishes (<em>Stromateidæ</em>)
-form a large group of small fishes with short, compressed
-bodies, smooth scales, feeble spines, the vertebræ in increased
-number and especially characterized by the presence of a series
-of tooth-like processes in the œsophagus behind the pharyngeals.
-The ventral fins present in the young are often lost in
-the process of development.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely
-attached to the shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera <em>Platycormus</em>
-and <em>Homosoma</em>. This is perhaps a primitive feature,
-indicating the line of descent of these fishes from berycoid
-forms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We unite with the <em>Stromateidæ</em> the groups or families of
-<em>Centrolophidæ</em> and <em>Nomeidæ</em>, knowing no characters by which
-to separate them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Stromateus fiatola</em>, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an
-excellent food-fish of the Mediterranean. <em>Poronotus triacanthus</em>,
-the harvest-fish, or dollar-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a
-common little silvery fish six to ten inches, as bright and almost
-as round as a dollar. Its tender oily flesh has an excellent
-flavor. Very similar to it is the poppy-fish (<em>Palometa simillima</em>)
-of the sandy shores of California, miscalled the "California
-pampano," valued by the San Francisco epicure, who pays
-large prices for it supposing it to be pampano, although admitting
-that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer flesh and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>better flavor. The harvest-fish, <em>Peprilus paru</em>, frequently
-taken on our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins.
-<em>Stromateoides argenteus</em>, a much larger fish than any of these,
-is a very important species on the coasts of China.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_284.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 220.</span>—Harvest-fish, <em>Peprilus paru</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Psenopsis anomala</em> takes the place of our butter-fishes in
-Japan, and much resembles them in appearance as in flavor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To the <em>Stromateidæ</em> we also refer the black ruff of Europe,
-<em>Centrolophus niger</em>, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying
-to our coast. Allied to it is the black rudder-fish, <em>Palinurichthys
-perciformis</em>, common on the Massachusetts coast, where
-it is of some value as a food-fish. A specimen in a live-box
-once drifted to the coast of Cornwall, where it was taken uninjured,
-though doubtless hungry. Other species of ruff-and
-rudder-fish are recorded from various coasts.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the <em>Stromateidæ</em> are numerous fossil forms. <em>Omosoma
-sachelalmæ</em> and other species occur in the Cretaceous at
-Mount Lebanon. <em>Platycormus germanus</em>, with ctenoid scales
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>resembling a berycoid, but with the ventral rays I, 5, occurs
-in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely related to this is <em>Berycopsis
-elegans</em>, with smoother scales, from the English Chalk.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id015'>
-<img src='images/i_285.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 221.</span>—Portuguese Man-of-war Fish, <em>Gobiomorus gronovii</em>. Family <em>Stromateidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Gobiomorus gronovii</em> (usually called <em>Nomeus gronovii</em>), the
-Portuguese man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three
-inches long, common in the Gulf
-of Mexico and the Gulf Stream,
-where it hides from its enemies
-among the poisoned tentacles of
-the Portuguese man-of-war.
-Under the Portuguese man-of-war
-and also in or under large
-jelly-fishes several other species
-are found, notably <em>Carangus
-medusicola</em> and <em>Peprilus paru</em>.
-Many small species of <em>Psenes</em>,
-a related genus, also abound in
-the warm currents from tropical
-seas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.</strong>—Allied
-to the butter-fishes are
-the deep-water <em>Icosteidæ</em>, fishes
-of soft, limp bodies as unresistant
-as a wet rag, <em>Icosteus
-ænigmaticus</em> of the California
-coast being known as ragfish.
-<em>Schedophilus medusophagus</em> feeds
-on medusæ and salpa, living on
-the surface in the deep seas.
-Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a
-specimen taken in Ireland:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within
-twenty-four hours after its capture the skin of the belly and
-the intestines fell off when it was lifted, and it felt in the hand
-quite soft and boneless." A related species (<em>S. heathi</em>) has been
-lately taken by Dr. Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in California.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Acrotidæ</em> contains a single species of large size.
-<em>Acrotus willoughbyi</em>, allied to <em>Icosteus</em>, but without ventral fins
-and with the vertebræ very numerous. The type, five and one-quarter
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>feet long, was thrown by a storm on the coast of Washington,
-near the Quinnault agency.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Zaproridæ</em> contains also a single large species,
-<em>Zaprora silenus</em>, without ventrals, but scaly and firm in substance.
-One specimen 2½ feet long was taken at Nanaimo on
-Vancouver Island and a smaller one at Victoria.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.</strong>—The <em>Bramidæ</em> are broad-bodied
-fishes of the open seas, covered with firm adherent scales. The
-flesh is firm and the skeleton heavy, the hypercoracoid especially
-much dilated. Of the various species the pomfret, or
-black bream (<em>Brama raii</em>), is the best known and most widely
-diffused. It reaches a length of two to four feet and is sooty black
-in color. It is not rare in Europe and has been occasionally
-taken at Grand Bank off Newfoundland, at the Bermudas, off
-the coast of Washington, on Santa Catalina Island, and in Japan.
-It is an excellent food-fish, but is seldom seen unless driven
-ashore by storms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Steinegeria rubescens</em> of the Gulf of Mexico is a little-known
-deep-sea fish allied to <em>Brama</em>, but placed by Jordan and Evermann
-in a distinct family, <em>Steinegeriidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely related to the <em>Bramidæ</em> is the small family of <em>Pteraclidæ</em>,
-silvery fishes with large firm scales, living near the surface
-in the ocean currents. In these fishes the ventral fins
-are placed well forward, fairly to be called jugular, and the
-rays of the dorsal and anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are
-excessively prolonged. The species, none of them well known,
-are referred to four genera—<em>Pteraclis</em>, <em>Bentenia</em>, <em>Centropholis</em>,
-and <em>Velifer</em>. They are occasionally taken in ocean currents,
-chiefly about Japan and Madeira.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the <em>Bramidæ</em> are
-recorded from the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are <em>Acanthonemus</em>,
-and perhaps <em>Pseudovomer</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.</strong>—The dolphins, or dorados
-(<em>Coryphænidæ</em>), are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, compressed
-bodies, elevated heads, sharp like the cut-water of a
-boat, and with the caudal fin very strong. The long dorsal
-fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is without spines. The
-high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is developed only in
-the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as food.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>Its colors, golden-blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at
-death, though the extent of this change has been much exaggerated.
-Similar changes of color occur at death in most bright-colored
-fishes, especially in those with thin scales. The common
-dolphin, or dorado (<em>Coryphæna hippurus</em>), is found in all warm
-seas swimming near the surface, as usual in predatory fishes,
-and reaches a length of about six feet. The small dolphin,
-<em>Coryphæna equisetis</em>, rarely exceeds 2½ feet, and is much more
-rare than the preceding, from which the smaller number of
-dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young
-dolphins of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the
-head not elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very different
-from that of the adult. <em>Goniognathus coryphænoides</em> is an
-extinct dolphin of the Eocene.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_287.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 222.</span>—Dolphin or Dorado, <em>Coryphæna hippurus</em> Linnæus. New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The name dolphin, belonging properly to a group of small
-whales or porpoises, the genus <em>Delphinus</em>, has been unfortunately
-used in connection with this very different animal, which
-bears no resemblance to the mammal of the same name.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these
-occur in the warm seas. The <em>Leiognathidæ</em> are small, silvery
-fishes of the East Indies. <em>Leiognathus argentatus</em> (<em>Equula</em>) is
-very common in the bays of Japan, a small silvery fish of moderate
-value as food. <em>Gazza minuta</em>, similar, with strong teeth,
-abounds farther south. <em>Leiognathus fasciatum</em> is common in
-Polynesia. A fossil species called <em>Parequula albyi</em> occurs in the
-Miocene of Licata.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Kurtidæ</em> are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian
-seas, with some of the ribs immovably fixed between rings
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>formed by the ossified cover of the air-bladder and with the
-hypocoracoid obsolete. <em>Kurtus indicus</em> is the principal species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Menidæ.</strong>—Near the <em>Kurtidæ</em> we may perhaps place the
-family of <em>Menidæ</em>, of one species, <em>Mene maculata</em>, the moonfish
-of the open seas of the East Indies and Japan. This is a small
-fish, about a foot long, with the body very closely compressed,
-the fins low and the belly, through the extension of the pelvic
-bone, a good deal more prominent than the back. The ventral
-fins have the usual number of one spine and five soft rays, a
-character which separates <em>Mene</em> widely from <em>Lampris</em>, which
-in some ways seems allied to it.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_288.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 223.</span>—<em>Mene maculata</em> (Bloch &amp; Schneider). Family Menidæ. Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another species of <em>Menidæ</em> is the extinct <em>Gasteronemus
-rhombeus</em> of the Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same
-form, with long pubic bones. The very long ventral fins are,
-however, made of one spine and one or two rays. A second
-species, <em>Gasteronemus oblongus</em>, is recorded from the same rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pempheridæ.</strong>—The <em>Pempheridæ</em>, "deep-water catalufas,"
-or "magifi," are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in
-color, with very short dorsal, containing a few graduated spines,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>and with a very long anal fin. These inhabit tropical seas at
-moderate depths. <em>Pempheris</em> bears a superficial resemblance to
-<em>Beryx</em>, but, according to Starks, this resemblance is not borne
-out by the anatomy. <em>Pempheris mulleri</em> and <em>P. poeyi</em> are found
-in the West Indies. <em>Pempheris otaitensis</em> and <em>P. mangula</em> range
-through Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_289a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 224.</span>—<em>Gasteronemus rhombeus</em> Agassiz. (After Woodward.) Menidæ.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_289b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 225.</span>—Catalufa de lo Alto, <em>Pempheris mulleri</em> Poey. Havana.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>
-<img src='images/i_290a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 226.</span>—<em>Pempheris nyctereutes</em> Jordan &amp; Evermann. Giran, Formosa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_290b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 227.</span>—The Louvar, <em>Luvarus imperialis</em> Rafinesque. Family Luvaridæ. (After Day.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very close to the <em>Pempheridæ</em> is the small family of <em>Bathyclupeidæ</em>.
-These are herring-like fishes, much compressed and
-with a duct to the air-bladder. There are but one or two dorsal
-spines. The ventrals are of one spine and five rays as in perch-like
-fishes, but placed behind the pectoral fins. This feature,
-due to the shortening of the belly, is regarded by Alcock, the
-discoverer, as a result of degeneration, and the family was
-placed by him among the herrings. The persistent air-duct
-excludes it from the <em>Percesoces</em>, the normally formed ventrals
-from the <em>Berycoidei</em>. If we trust the indications of the skeleton,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>we must place the family with <em>Pempheris</em>, near the scombroid
-fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Luvaridæ.</strong>—Another singular family is the group of <em>Louvars</em>,
-<em>Luvaridæ</em>. <em>Luvaris imperialis.</em> The single known species is a large,
-plump, voracious fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all unbranched,
-and the scales scurf-life over the smooth skin. It is
-frequently taken in the Mediterranean, and was found on the
-island of Santa Catalina, California, by Mr. C. F. Holden.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.</strong>—The <em>Tetragonuridæ</em> are long-bodied
-fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered
-with hard, firm, very adherent scales. <em>Tetragonurus cuvieri</em>, the
-single species, called square-tail, or escolar de natura, is a
-curious fish, looking as if whittled out of wood, covered with
-a compact armor of bony scales, and swimming very slowly in
-deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic and Mediterranean
-and has been once taken at Wood's Hole in Massachusetts.
-According to Mr. C. T. Regan the relations of this
-eccentric fish are with the <em>Stromateidæ</em> and <em>Bramidæ</em>, the skeleton
-being essentially that of <em>Stromateus</em>, and Boulenger places
-both <em>Tetragonurus</em> and <em>Stromateus</em> among the <em>Percesoces</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Lophotidæ</em>
-consists of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped,
-naked, with the dorsal of flexible spines beginning as a high
-crest on the elevated occiput. The first spine is very strong.
-The ventrals are thoracic with the normal number, I, 5, of fin-rays.
-<em>Lophotes cepedianus</em>, the crested bandfish, is occasionally
-taken in the Mediterranean in rather deep water. <em>Lophotes
-capellei</em> is rarely taken in the deep waters of Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is thought that the <em>Lophotidæ</em> may be related to the
-ribbon-fishes, <em>Tæniosomi</em>, but on the whole they seem nearer
-to the highly modified <em>Scombroidei</em>, the <em>Pteraclidæ</em> for
-example.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the <em>Bramidæ</em>
-to the <em>Antigoniidæ</em> and the <em>Ilarchidæ</em>, then passing over
-the series which leads through <em>Chætodontidæ</em> and <em>Teuthidæ</em>
-to the <em>Plectognaths</em>. It is, however, necessary to include here,
-alongside the mackerels, though not closely related to them, the
-parallel series of perch-like fishes, which at the end become
-also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant forms, with other
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>series of which the origin and relations are imperfectly understood.
-As the relations of forms cannot be expressed in a linear
-series, many pages must intervene before we can take up the
-supposed line of development from the Scombroid fishes to
-those called <em>Squamipinnes</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XVIII<br />PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_293dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Percoid</span> Fishes.</strong>—We may now take up the long
-series of the <em>Percoidea</em>, the fishes built on the type
-of the perch or bass. This is a group of fishes of
-diverse habits and forms, but on the whole representing better
-than any other the typical <em>Acanthopterygian</em> fish. The group
-is incapable of concise definition, or, in general, of any definition
-at all; still, most of its members are definitely related
-to each other and bear in one way or another a resemblance
-to the typical form, the perch, or more strictly to its marine
-relatives, the sea-bass, or <em>Serranidæ</em>. The following analysis
-gives most of the common characters of the group:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are
-typically ctenoid, not smooth nor spinous, and of moderate
-size. Lateral line typically present and concurrent with
-the back. Head usually compressed laterally and with the
-cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal
-and with lateral cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed,
-arranged in bands on the jaws, and in several families on the
-vomer and palatine bones also, as well as on the pharyngeals;
-gill-rakers usually sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but sometimes
-short or feeble; lower pharyngeals almost always separate,
-usually armed with cardiform teeth; third upper pharyngeal
-moderately enlarged, elongate, not articulated to the cranium,
-the fourth typically present; gills four, a slit behind the fourth;
-gill membranes free from the isthmus, and usually not connected
-with each other; pseudobranchiæ typically well
-developed. Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No
-bony stay connecting the suborbital chain to the preopercle.
-Opercular bones all well developed, normal in position; the
-preopercle typically serrate. No cranial spines. Dorsal fin
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>variously developed, but always with some spines in front,
-these typically stiff and pungent; anal fin typically short,
-usually with three spines, sometimes with a larger number,
-rarely with none; caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral
-fins well developed, inserted high; ventral fins always present,
-thoracic, separate, almost always with one spine and five rays,
-the <em>Aphredoderidæ</em> having more, a few <em>Serranidæ</em> having fewer.
-Air-bladder usually present, without air-duct in adult; simple
-and generally adherent to the walls of the abdomen. Stomach
-cæcal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in most
-species, long in the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well
-developed, none of the vertebræ especially modified, the number
-10 + 14 = 24, except in certain extratropical and fresh-water
-forms, which retain primitive higher numbers. Shoulder-girdle
-normally developed, the post-temporal bifurcate attached to the
-skull, but not coossified with it; none of the epipleural bones
-attached to the center of the vertebræ; coracoids normal, the
-hypercoracoid always with a median foramen, the basal bones of
-the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials) normally developed, three or
-four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer than broad; premaxillary
-forming the border of the mouth usually protractile; bones
-of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently
-some of those of the fresh waters. Among these the process
-of evolution has been less rapid. In some groups, as the
-<em>Percidæ</em>, the great variability of species is doubtless due to
-the recent origin, the characters not being well fixed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.</strong>—Among the most remarkable
-of the living percoid fishes and probably the most
-primitive of all, showing affinities with the <em>Salmopercæ</em>, is the
-pirate-perch, <em>Aphredoderus sayanus</em>, a little fish of the lowland
-streams of the Mississippi Valley. The family of <em>Aphredoderidæ</em>
-agrees with the berycoid fishes in scales and structure
-of the fins, and Boulenger places it with the Berycidæ. Starks
-has shown, however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid, and the
-general osteology is that of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal
-and anal have a few spines. The thoracic ventrals have one
-spine and eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably no
-duct to the air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the position
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>of the vent. In the adult this is in front of the ventral
-fins, at the throat. In the young it is behind the ventral fins
-as in ordinary fishes. With age it moves forward by the prolongation
-of the horizontal part of the intestine or rectum.
-The same peculiar position of the vent is found in the berycoid
-genus <em>Paratrachichthys</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_295a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 228.</span>—Pirate Perch, <em>Aphredoderus sayanus</em> (Gilliams). Illinois River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_295b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 229.</span>—Everglade Pigmy Perch, <em>Elassoma evergladei</em> Jordan. Everglades of Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the family <em>Aphredoderidæ</em> but one species is known,
-<em>Aphredoderus sayanus</em>, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length
-of five inches and lives in sluggish lowland streams with muddy
-bottom from New Jersey and Minnesota to Louisiana. It is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>dull green in color and feeds on insects and worms. It has no
-economic value, although extremely interesting in its anatomy
-and relationship.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Whether the <em>Asineopidæ</em>, fresh-water fishes of the American
-Eocene, and the <em>Erismatopteridæ</em>, of the same deposits (see page
-<a href='#Page_235'>235</a>) are related to <em>Aphredoderus</em> or to <em>Percopsis</em> is still uncertain.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id016'>
-<img src='images/i_296.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 230.</span>—Skull of the Rock Bass, <em>Ambloplites rupestris</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.</strong>—One of the most primitive
-groups is that of <em>Elassomidæ</em>, or pigmy sunfishes. These are
-very small fishes, less than two inches long, living in the swamps
-of the South, resembling the sunfishes, but with the number of
-dorsal spines reduced to from three to five. <em>Elassoma zonatum</em>
-occurs from southern Illinois to Louisiana. <em>Elassoma evergladei</em>
-abounds in the Everglades of Florida. In both the body
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green crossed by
-black bars or blotches.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.</strong>—The large family of <em>Centrarchidæ</em>,
-or sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of
-the eastern United States, where the various species are
-inordinately abundant. The body is relatively short and
-deep, and the axis passes through the middle so that the back
-has much the same outline as the belly. The pseudobranchiæ
-are imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the head is
-feebly armed, the bones being usually without spines or serratures.
-The colors are often brilliant, the sexes alike, and all
-are carnivorous, voracious, and gamy, being excellent as food.
-The origin of the group is probably Asiatic, the fresh-water
-serranoid of Japan, <em>Bryttosus</em>, resembling in many ways an
-American sunfish, and the genus <em>Kuhlia</em> of the Pacific showing
-many homologies with the black bass, <em>Micropterus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_297.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 231.</span>—Crappie, <em>Pomoxis annularis</em> Rafinesque. Ohio River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>
-<img src='images/i_298.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 232.</span>—Crappie, <em>Pomoxis annularis</em> (Raf.). (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>
-<img src='images/i_299a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 233.</span>—Rock Bass, <em>Ambloplites rupestris</em> (Rafinesque.) Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_299b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 234.</span>—Banded Sunfish, <em>Mesogonistius chætodon</em> (Baird). Delaware River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Crappies and Rock Bass.</strong>—<em>Pomoxis annularis</em>, the crappie,
-and <em>Pomoxis sparoides</em>, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes,
-valued by the angler. These are perhaps the most primitive
-of the family, and in these species the anal fin is
-larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass, <em>Centrarchus
-macropterus</em>, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps
-and lowland ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish,
-attractive in the aquarium. <em>Acantharchus pomotis</em> is the
-mud-bass of the Delaware, and <em>Archoplites interruptus</em>, the
-"perch" of the Sacramento. The latter is a large and gamy
-fish, valued as food and interesting as being the only fresh-water
-fish of the nature of perch or bass native to the west of
-the Rocky Mountains. The numbers of this species, according
-to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa, California, have been greatly
-reduced by the introduction of the catfish (<em>Ameiurus nebulosus</em>)
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young catfish, and
-its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another
-species of this type is the warmouth (<em>Chænobryttus gulosus</em>)
-of the ponds of the South, and still more familiar rock-bass
-or redeye (<em>Ambloplites rupestris</em>) of the more northern lakes
-and rivers valued as a game-and food-fish. A very pretty
-aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish, <em>Mesogonistius chætodon</em>,
-of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined sunfish, <em>Enneacanthus
-gloriosus</em>, of the coast streams southward. <em>Apomotis cyanellus</em>,
-the blue-green sunfish or little redeye, is very widely distributed
-from Ohio westward, living in every brook. The dissection
-of this species is given on page 26, Vol. I. To <em>Lepomis</em>
-belong numerous species having the opercle prolonged in a long
-flap which is always black in color, often with a border of scarlet
-or blue. The yellowbelly of the South (<em>Lepomis auritus</em>), ear-like
-the showily colored long-eared sunfish (<em>Lepomis megalotis</em>) of the
-southwest, figured on page 2, Vol. I, the bluegill (<em>Lepomis pallidus</em>),
-abundant everywhere south and west of New York, are
-members of this genus. The genus <em>Eupomotis</em> differs in its larger
-pharyngeals, which are armed with blunt teeth. The common
-sunfish, or pumpkinseed, <em>Eupomotis gibbosus</em>, is the most familiar
-representative of the family, abounding everywhere from Minnesota
-to New England, then south to Carolina on the east slope
-of the Alleghanies, breeding everywhere in ponds and in the
-eddies of the clear brooks.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_300a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 235.</span>—Blue-Gill, <em>Lepomis pallidus</em> (Mitchill). Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_300b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 236.</span>—Long-eared Sunfish, <em>Lepomis megalotis</em> (Rafinesque). From Clear Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family <em>Centrarchidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>
-<img src='images/i_301.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 237.</span>—Common Sunfish, <em>Eupomotis gibbosus</em> (Linnæus). Root River, Wis.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Black Bass.</strong>—The black bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) belong to the
-same family as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more
-elongate form, and more voracious habit. The two species are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>among the most important of American game-fishes, abounding
-in all clear waters east of the Alleghanies and resisting the evils
-of civilization far better than the trout.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The small-mouthed black bass, <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, is the
-most valuable of the species. Its mouth, although large, is
-relatively small, the cleft not extending beyond the eye. The
-green coloration is broken in the young by bronze cross-bands.
-The species frequents only running streams, preferring clear
-and cold waters, and it extends its range from Canada as far
-to the southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James A.
-Henshall, an accomplished angler, author of the "Book of the
-Black Bass," says: "The black bass is eminently an American
-fish; he has the faculty of asserting himself and of making
-himself completely at home wherever placed. He is plucky,
-game, brave, unyielding to the last when hooked. He has the
-arrowy rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring strength and
-bold leap of a salmon, while he has a system of fighting tactics
-peculiarly his own. I consider him inch for inch and pound
-for pound the gamest fish that swims."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: "No doubt the
-bass is the appointed successor of the trout; not through heritage,
-nor selection, nor by interloping, but by foreordination.
-Truly, it is sad to contemplate, in the not distant future, the
-extinction of a beautiful race of creatures, whose attributes
-have been sung by all the poets; but we regard the inevitable
-with the same calm philosophy with which the astronomer watches
-the burning out of a world, knowing that it will be succeeded
-by a new creation. As we mark the soft varitinted flush of
-the trout disappear in the eventide, behold the sparkle of the
-coming bass, as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We hardly
-know which to admire the most—the velvet livery and the
-charming graces of the departing courtier, or the flash of the
-armor-plates of the advancing warrior. The bass will unquestionably
-prove himself a worthy substitute for his predecessor
-and a candidate for a full legacy of honors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become
-as densely settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects
-of the crowded domain resemble the suburban surroundings
-of our Boston; when every feature of the pastoral landscape
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>shall wear the finished appearance of European lands, and every
-verdant field be closely cropped by lawn-mowers and guarded
-by hedges, and every purling stream which meanders through
-it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled trout from
-which the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to catch
-at a dollar a pound (as we already have on Long Island), and
-all the appurtenances and appointments of a genuine English
-trouting privilege and a genuine English 'outing.'</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_303.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 238.</span>—Small Mouth Black Bass, <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> Lacépède.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In those future days, not long hence to come, some venerable
-piscator, in whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing,
-the brawling stream which tumbled over the rocks in the tangled
-wildwood, and moistened the arbutus and the bunchberries
-which garnished its banks, will totter forth to the velvet edge
-of some peacefully flowing stream, and having seated himself
-on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed there
-by his careful attendant, cast right and left for the semblance
-of sport long dead.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early
-morning meal, and from the center of the boil which follows
-the fall of the handfuls thrown in my piscator of the ancient
-days will hook a two-pound trout, and play him hither and yon,
-from surface to bottom, without disturbing the pampered gourmands
-which are gorging themselves upon the disgusting viands;
-and when he has leisurely brought him to land at last, and the
-gillie has scooped him with his landing-net, he will feel in his
-capacious pocket for his last trade dollar, and giving his friend
-the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay aside his rod forever."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe
-and California. There is little danger that it will work injury
-to the trout, for the black bass prefers limestone streams, and
-the trout rarely does well in waters which do not flow over
-granite rock or else glacial gravel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The large-mouth black bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) is very
-much like the other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in
-the adult cleft beyond the eye; the scales are larger, and in
-the young there is always a broad black stripe along the sides
-and no cross-bands. The two are found in the same region, but
-almost never in the same waters, for the large-mouth bass is a
-fish of the lakes, ponds, and bayous, always avoiding the swift
-currents. The young like to hide among weeds or beneath
-lily-pads. From its preference for sluggish waters, its range
-extends farther to the southward, as far as the Mexican State
-of Tamaulipas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Plioplarchus</em> is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene
-of South Dakota and Oregon. <em>Plioplarchus sexspinosus</em>, <em>septemspinosus</em>,
-and <em>whitei</em> are imperfectly known species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.</strong>—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy,
-though more like the white perch in appearance and habit,
-are the members of the little family of <em>Kuhliidæ</em>. These are
-active silvery perches of the tropical seas, ponds, and river-mouths,
-especially abundant in Polynesia. <em>Kuhlia malo</em> is
-the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery fish living in great
-numbers in brackish waters. <em>Kuhlia rupestris</em>, the salele of the
-Samoan rivers, is a large swift fish of the rock pools, in form, color,
-and habits remarkably like the black bass. It is silvery bronze
-in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green. The sesele, <em>Kuhlia
-marginata</em>, lives with it in the rivers, but is less abundant. The
-saboti, <em>Kuhlia tæniura</em>, a large silvery fish with cross-bands on
-the caudal fin, lives about lava-rooks in Polynesia from the
-Galapagos to Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers.
-Still other species are found in the rock pools and streams of
-Japan and southward.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The skeleton in <em>Kuhlia</em> is essentially like that of the black
-bass, and Dr. Boulenger places the genus with the <em>Centrarchidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The True Perches: Percidæ.</strong>—The great family of <em>Percidæ</em>
-includes fresh-water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elongate
-in body, with the vertebræ in increased number and with
-only two spines in the anal fin. About ninety species are
-recorded, the vast majority being American. The dwarf perches,
-called darters (<em>Etheostominæ</em>), are especially characteristic of
-the clear streams to the eastward of the plains of the Missouri.
-These constitute one of the greatest attractions of our American
-river fauna. They differ from the perch and its European allies in
-their small size, bright colors, and large fins, and more technically
-in the rudimentary condition of the pseudobranchiæ and
-the air-bladder, both of which organs are almost inappreciable.
-The preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the branchiostegals
-is six. The anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the
-<em>Gobiidæ</em>, to which group the darters bear a considerable superficial
-resemblance, which, however, indicates no real affinity.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>
-<img src='images/i_305.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 239.</span>—Large-mouthed Black Bass, <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> (Lac.). (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span><strong>Relations of Darters to Perches.</strong>—The colors of the <em>Etheostominæ</em>,
-or darters, are usually very brilliant, species of
-<em>Etheostoma</em> especially being among the most brilliantly colored
-fishes known; the sexual differences are often great, the females
-being, as a rule, dull in color and more speckled or barred than
-the males. Most of them prefer clear running water, where
-they lie on the bottom concealed under stones, darting, when
-frightened or hungry, with great velocity for a short distance,
-by a powerful movement of the fan-shaped pectorals, then
-stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the caudal fin in swimming,
-and they are seldom seen floating or moving freely in
-the water like most fishes. When at rest they support themselves
-on their expanded ventrals and anal fin. All of them
-can turn the head from side to side, and they frequently lie
-with the head in a curved position or partly on one side of the
-body. The species of <em>Ammocrypta</em>, and perhaps some of the
-others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge,
-the fish buries itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for
-hours at a time with only its eyes and snout visible. The
-others lurk in stony places, under rocks and weeds. Although
-more than usually tenacious of vitality, the darters, from their
-bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by impurities in the
-water. All the darters are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on the
-larvæ of <em>Diptera</em>, and in their way voracious. All are of small
-size; the largest (<em>Percina rex</em>) reaches a length of ten inches,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>while the smallest (<em>Microperca punctulata</em>) is, one of the smallest
-spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of
-an inch and a half. In Europe no <em>Etheostominæ</em> are found,
-their place being filled by the genera <em>Zingel</em> and <em>Aspro</em>, which
-bear a strong resemblance to the American forms, a resemblance
-which may be a clue to the origin of the latter.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Perches.</strong>—The European perch, <em>Perca fluviatilis</em>, is
-placed by Cuvier at the head of the fish series, as representing
-in a high degree the traits of a fish without sign of incomplete
-development on the one hand or of degradation on the other.
-Doubtless the increased number of the vertebræ is the chief
-character which would lead us to call in question this time-honored
-arrangement. Because, however, the perch has a
-relatively degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied
-form, the striped bass, as a fairer type of the perfected spiny-rayed
-fish. Certainly the bass represents this type better than
-the perch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically
-perfect fish, it is far from being one of the most highly specialized,
-for, as we have seen in several cases, a high degree of specialization
-of a particular structure is a first step toward its degradation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers.
-The yellow perch of America (<em>Perca flavescens</em>) is very much
-like it, a little brighter in color, olive and golden with dusky
-cross-bands. It frequents quiet streams and ponds from Minnesota
-eastward, then southward east of the Alleghanies. "As
-a still-pond fish," says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, "if there is
-a fair supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but the
-largest specimens come either from the river or from the inflowing
-creeks. Deep water of the temperature of ordinary spring-water,
-with some current and the bed of the stream at least
-partly covered with vegetation, best suits this fish." The
-perch is a food-fish of moderate quality. In spite of its beauty
-and gaminess, it is little sought for by our anglers, and is much
-less valued with us than is the European perch in England.
-But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that "before many years
-the perch will have as many followers as the black bass among
-those who fish for pleasure" in the region it inhabits. "A
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>fish for the people it is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from
-among the people who have neither time nor patience for long
-trips nor complicated tackle who will prove its steadfast friends."
-The boy values it, according to Thoreau. When he returns
-from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as "real fishes."
-"So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs,
-which he counts, then throws away."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_308.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 240.</span>—Yellow Perch, <em>Perca flavescens</em> Mitchill. Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes,
-are well developed. These structures recently investigated by
-Evelyn G. Mitchill, form a fold of connective tissue just behind
-the premaxillary and before the vomer. They are used in respiration,
-preventing the forward flow of water as the mouth closes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the
-Miocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and
-voracious, is the group of pike perches, found in eastern America
-and Europe. The wall-eye, or glass-eye (<em>Stizostedion vitreum</em>), is
-the largest of this tribe, reaching a weight of ten to twenty
-pounds. It is found throughout the region east of the Missouri
-in the large streams and ponds, an excellent food-fish,
-with white, flaky flesh and in the north a game fish of high
-rank. The common names refer to the large glassy eye, concerning
-which Dr. Goode quotes from some "ardent admirer"
-these words: "Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in
-form as the salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>disturbed, every fin perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big
-wall-eyes stand out with that life-like glare so characteristic of
-the fish."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_309a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 241.</span>—Sauger, <em>Stizostedion canadense</em> (Smith). Ecorse, Mich.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more translucent
-in color, is the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and
-Northern rivers, <em>Stizostedion canadense</em>. This fish rarely exceeds
-fifteen inches in length, and as a food-fish it is of correspondingly
-less importance.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_309b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 242.</span>—The Aspron, <em>Aspro asper</em> (Linnæus). Rhone River. Family <em>Percidæ</em>. (After Seelye.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, <em>Centropomus</em>
-(or <em>Sandrus</em>) <em>lucioperca</em>, is an excellent game-fish, similar to
-the sauger, but larger, characterized technically by having the
-ventral fins closer together. Another species, <em>Centropomus volgensis</em>,
-in Russia, looks more like a perch than the other species
-do. <em>Sandroserrus</em>, a fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene.
-Another European fish related to the perch is the river ruff,
-or pope, <em>Acerina cernua</em>, which is a small fish with the
-form of a perch and with conspicuous mucous cavities in
-the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>and especially abundant at the confluence of rivers. <em>Gymnocephalus
-schrætzer</em> of the Danube has the head still more cavernous.
-<em>Percarina demidoffi</em> of southern Russia is another
-dainty little fish of the general type of the perch. A fossil
-genus of this type called <em>Smerdis</em> is numerously represented in
-the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, <em>Aspro asper</em>, is
-a species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers,
-especially the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired
-fins highly developed. <em>Zingel zingel</em> is found in the Danube,
-as is also a third species called <em>Aspro streber</em>. In form and
-coloration these species greatly resemble the American darters,
-and the genus <em>Zingel</em> is, perhaps, the ancestor of the entire
-group. <em>Zingel</em> differs from <em>Percina</em> mainly in having seven
-instead of six branchiostegals and the pseudobranchiæ better
-developed. The differences in these and other regards which
-distinguish the darters are features of degradation, and they
-are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To this
-fact we may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic characters
-within the group. Sharply defined genera occur where
-the intervening types are lost. The darter is one of the very
-latest products in the evolution of fishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_310.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 243.</span>—The Zingel, <em>Zingel zingel</em> (Linnæus). Danube River. (After Seelye.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Darters: Etheostominæ.</strong>—Of the darters, or etheostomine
-perches, over fifty species are known, all confined to the
-streams of the region bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colorado,
-and Nuevo Leon. All are small fishes and some of them
-minute, and some are the most brilliantly colored of all fresh-water
-fishes of any region, the most ornate belonging to the
-large genus called <em>Etheostoma</em>. The largest species, the most
-primitive because most like the perch, belong to the genus <em>Percina</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>First among the darters because largest in size, most perch-like
-in structure, and least degenerate, we place the king darter,
-<em>Percina rex</em> of the Roanoke River in Virginia. This species
-reaches a length of six inches, is handsomely colored, and looks
-like a young wall-eye.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_311a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 244.</span>—Log-perch, <em>Percina caprodes</em> (Rafinesque). Licking Co., Ohio.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The log-perch, <em>Percina caprodes</em>, is near to this, but a little
-smaller, with the body surrounded by black rings alternately
-large and small. In this widely distributed species, large
-enough to take the hook, the air-bladder is present although
-small. In the smaller species it vanishes by degrees, and in
-proportion as in their habits they cling to the bottom of the
-stream. The air-bladder is least developed in those species which cling closest to the bottom of the stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_311b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 245.</span>—Black-sided Darter, <em>Hadropterus aspro</em> (Cope &amp; Jordan). Chickamauga River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Hadropterus</em> includes many handsome species,
-most of them with a black lateral band widened at intervals.
-The black-sided darter, <em>Hadropterus aspro</em>, is the best-known
-species and one of the most elegant of all fishes, abounding in
-the clear gravelly streams of the Ohio basin and northwestward.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Hadropterus evides</em> of the Ohio region is still more brilliant,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>with alternate bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most
-exquisite in their arrangement. In the South, <em>Hadropterus
-nigrofasciatus</em>, the crawl-a-bottom of the Georgia rivers, is
-a heavily built darter, which Vaillant has considered the ancestral
-species of the group. Still more swift in movement and
-bright in color are the species of <em>Hypohomus</em>, which flash their
-showy hues in the sparkling brooks of the Ozark and the Great
-Smoky Mountains. <em>Hypohomus aurantiacus</em> is the best-known
-species.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_312a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 246.</span>—Green-sided Darter, <em>Diplesion blennioides</em> Rafinesque. Clinch River. Family <em>Percidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Diplesion blennioides</em>, the green-sided darter, is the type
-of numerous species with short heads, large fins, and coloration
-of speckled green and golden. It abounds in the streams of
-the Ohio Valley.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_312b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 247.</span>—Tessellated Darter, <em>Boleosoma olmstedi</em> (Storer). Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The tessellated darters, <em>Boleosoma</em>, are the most plainly
-colored of the group and among the smallest; yet in the
-delicacy, wariness, and quaintness of motion they are among
-the most interesting, especially in the aquarium. <em>Boleosoma</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span><em>nigrum</em>, the Johnny darter in the West, and <em>Boleosoma olmstedi</em>
-in the East are among the commonest species, found half hidden
-in the weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors,
-although the male in the spring has the head, and often the
-whole body, jet black.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_313a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 248.</span>—Crystal Darter, <em>Crystallaria asprella</em> (Jordan). Wabash River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Crystallaria asprella</em>, a large species almost transparent,
-is occasionally taken in swift currents along the limestone
-banks of the Mississippi. Still more transparent is the small
-sand-darter, <em>Ammocrypta pellucida</em>, which lives in the clearest
-of waters, concealing itself by plunging into the sand. Its
-scales are scantily developed, as befits a fish that chooses this
-method of protection, and in the related <em>Ammocrypta beani</em> of
-the streams of the Louisiana pine-woods, the body is almost
-naked, as also in <em>Ioa vitrea</em>, the glassy darter of the pine-woods
-of North Carolina.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_313b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 249.</span>—Sand-darter, <em>Ammocrypta clara</em> (Jordan &amp; Meek). Des Moines River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the other darters the body is more compressed, the movements
-less active, the coloration even more brilliant in the
-males, which are far more showy than their dull olivaceous
-mates.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To <em>Etheostoma</em> nearly half of the species belong, and they
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>form indeed a royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be
-noticed here, but all of them are described in detail and many
-are figured by Jordan and Evermann ("Fishes of North and
-Middle America," Vol. I).</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_314a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 250.</span>—<em>Etheostoma jordani</em> Gilbert. Chestnut Creek, Verbena, Ala.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_314b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 251.</span>—Blue-breasted Darter, <em>Etheostoma camurum</em> (Cope), the most brilliantly colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted
-darter, <em>Etheostoma camurum</em>, red-blue and olive, with red spots,
-like a trout. This species lives in clear streams of the Ohio
-valley, a region perhaps to be regarded as the center of abundance
-of these fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, <em>Etheostoma maculatum</em>,
-dusky and red, with round crimson spots. <em>Etheostoma
-rufilineatum</em> of the French Broad is one of the most gaudy of
-fishes. <em>Etheostoma australe</em> of Chihuahua ranges farthest south
-of all the darters, and <em>Etheostoma boreale</em> of Quebec perhaps
-farthest north, though <em>Etheostoma iowæ</em>, found from Iowa to the
-Saskatchewan, may dispute this honor. <em>Etheostoma cæruleum</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique bands
-of blue and scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the brilliantly
-colored species, as it is the most abundant throughout
-the Ohio valley.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Etheostoma flabellare</em>, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by
-Rafinesque in Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series
-made known to science. It has no bright colors, but its movements
-in water are more active than any of the others, and it
-is the most hardy in the aquarium.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Psychromaster tuscumbia</em> abounds in the great limestone
-springs of northern Alabama, while <em>Copelandellus quiescens</em>
-swarms in the black-water brooks which flow into the Dismal
-Swamp and thence southward to the Suwanee. It is a little fish
-not very active, its range going farther into the southern lowlands
-than any other. Finally, <em>Microperca punctulata</em>, the least darter,
-is the smallest of all, with fewest spines and dullest colors, most
-specialized in the sense of being least primitive, but at the same
-time the most degraded of all the darters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record.
-The nearest is perhaps <em>Mioplosus labracoides</em> from the Eocene at
-Green River, Wyoming. This elongate fish, a foot long, has
-the dorsal rays IX-1, 13, and the anal rays II, 13, its scales
-finely serrated, and the preopercle coarsely serrated on the
-lower limb only. This species, with its numerous congeners
-from the Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true perch
-than the darters. Several species related to Perca are also
-recorded from the Eocene of England and Germany. A species
-called <em>Lucioperca skorpili</em>, allied to <em>Centropomus</em>, is described from
-the Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms imperfectly
-preserved, of still more doubtful affinities.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XIX<br />THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_316dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Cardinal-fishes. Apogonidæ.</strong>—The <em>Apogonidæ</em> or cardinal-fishes
-are perch-like fishes, mostly of small size,
-with two distinct short dorsal fins. They are found in
-the warm seas, and many of them enter rivers, some even inhabiting
-hot springs. Many of the shore species are bright red
-in color, usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others,
-however, are olive or silvery, and a few in deeper water are
-violet-black.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_316.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 252.</span>—Cardinal-fish, <em>Apogon retrosella</em> Gill. Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Apogon</em> are especially numerous, and in
-regions where they are abundant, as in Japan, they are much
-valued as food. <em>Apogon imberbis</em>, the "king of the mullet," is
-a common red species of southern Europe. <em>Apogon maculatus</em>
-is found in the West Indies. <em>Apogon retrosella</em> is the pretty
-"cardenal" of the west coast of Mexico. <em>Apogon lineatus</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span><em>semilineatus</em> and other species abound in Japan, and many
-species occur about the islands of Polynesia. <em>Epigonus telescopium</em>
-is a deep-sea fish of the Mediterranean and <em>Telescopias</em>
-and <em>Synagrops</em> are genera of the depths of the Pacific. <em>Paramia</em>
-with strong canines is allied to <em>Apogon</em>, and similar in color
-and habit.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to <em>Apogon</em> are several small groups often taken as
-distinct families. The species of <em>Ambassis</em> (<em>Ambassidæ</em>) are
-little fishes of the rivers and bays of India and Polynesia,
-resembling small silvery perch or bass. All these have three
-anal spines instead of two as in <em>Apogon</em>. Some of these enter
-rivers and several are recorded from hot springs. <em>Scombrops
-boops</em>, the mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish found in rather
-deep water. It is remarkable for its very strong teeth, although
-its flesh is feeble and easily torn. A still larger species in Cuba,
-<em>Scombrops oculata</em>, known as <em>Escolar chino</em>, resembles a barracuda.
-These fishes with fragile bodies and very strong teeth
-are placed by Gill in a separate family (<em>Scombropidæ</em>). <em>Acropoma
-japonicum</em> is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with
-the vent placed farther forward than in <em>Apogon</em>. It is the
-type of the <em>Acropomidæ</em>, a small family of the Pacific. <em>Enoplosus
-armatus</em> is an Australian fish with high back and fins,
-with a rather stately appearance, type of the <em>Enoplosidæ</em>. In
-his last catalogue of families of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes <em>Scombropidæ</em>
-and <em>Acropomidæ</em> as distinct families, but their relationships
-with <em>Apogon</em> are certainly very close. Many genera
-allied to <em>Apogon</em> and <em>Ambassis</em> occur in Australian rivers.
-Several fossils referred to <em>Apogon</em> (<em>Apogon spinosus</em>, etc.) occur
-in the Eocene of Italy and Germany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Anomalopidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Anomalopidæ</em> is a small
-group of deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but perhaps
-remotely related to <em>Apogon</em>. <em>Anomalops palpebrata</em> is
-found in Polynesia and has beneath the eye a large luminous
-organ unlike anything seen elsewhere among fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Asineopidæ.</strong>—Another family of doubtful relationship
-is that of <em>Asineopidæ</em>, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of
-extinct fresh-water fishes found in the Green River shales. In
-<em>Asineops squamifrons</em> the opercles are unarmed, the teeth
-villiform, and the dorsal fin undivided, composed of eight or
-nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The anal spines,
-as in <em>Apogon</em>, are two only, and the scales are cycloid.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>
-<img src='images/i_318.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 253.</span>—Kuromutsu, <em>Telescopias gilberti</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>
-<img src='images/i_319a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 254.</span>—<em>Apogon semilineatus</em> Schlegel. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_319b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 255.</span>—Robalo, <em>Oxylabrax undecimalis</em> (Bloch). Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Robalos:<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c009'><sup>[13]</sup></a> Oxylabracidæ.</strong>—The family of Robalos (<em>Oxylabracidæ</em>
-or <em>Centropomidæ</em>) is closely related to the <em>Serranidæ</em>,
-differing among other things in having the conspicuous lateral
-line extended on the caudal fin. These are silvery fishes with
-elongate bodies, large scales, a pike-like appearance, the first
-dorsal composed of strong spines and the second spine of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>anal especially large. They are found in tropical America
-only, where they are highly valued as food, the flesh being
-like that of the striped bass, white, flaky, and of fine flavor.
-The common robalo, or snook, <em>Oxylabrax</em> (or <em>Centropomus</em>) <em>undecimalis</em>,
-reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty pounds. It
-ranges north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line
-is black. The smaller species, of which several are described,
-are known as <em>Robalito</em> or <em>Constantino</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The European zander is the type of Lacépède's genus <em>Centropomus</em>.
-The name <em>Centropomus</em> has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most
-authors.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.</strong>—The central family of the percoid
-fishes is that of the <em>Serranidæ</em>, or sea-bass. Of these about
-400 species are recorded, carnivorous fishes found in all warm
-seas, a few ascending the fresh waters. In general, the species
-are characterized by the presence of twenty-four vertebræ and
-three anal spines, never more than three. The fresh-water
-species are all more or less archaic and show traits suggesting
-the <em>Oxylabracidæ</em>, <em>Percidæ</em>, or <em>Centrarchidæ</em>, all of which are
-doubtless derived from ancestors of <em>Serranidæ</em>. Among the
-connecting forms are the perch-like genera <em>Percichthys</em> and
-<em>Percilia</em> of the rivers of Chile. These species look much like
-perch, but have three anal spines, the number of vertebræ
-being thirty-five. <em>Percichthys trucha</em> is the common trucha, or
-trout, of Chilean waters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Lateolabrax japonicus</em>, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one
-of the most valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to
-the robalo, which it much resembles. This genus and the
-East Indian <em>Centrogenys waigiensis</em> approach <em>Oxylabrax</em> in
-appearance and structure. <em>Niphon spinosus</em>, the ara of Japan,
-is a very large sea-bass, also of this type. Close to these bass,
-marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus <em>Siniperca</em> and
-the Korean genus <em>Coreoperca</em>, several species of which abound
-in Oriental rivers. In southern Japan is the rare <em>Bryttosus
-kawamebari</em>, a bass in structure, but very closely resembling
-the American sunfish, even to the presence of the bright-edged
-black ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some
-such form the <em>Centrarchidæ</em> were derived.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (<em>Lates</em>), Australia
-(<em>Percalates</em>, etc.), and southern Africa. <em>Oligorus macquariensis</em>
-is the great cod of the Australian rivers and <em>Ctenolates ambiguus</em>
-is the yellow belly, while <em>Percalates colonorum</em> is everywhere
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>the "perch" in Australian rivers. The most important member
-of these transitional types between perch and sea-bass is
-the striped bass, or rockfish (<em>Roccus lineatus</em>), of the Atlantic
-coast of the United States. This large fish, reaching in extreme
-cases a weight of 112 pounds, lives in shallow waters in the sea
-and ascends the rivers in spring to spawn. It is olivaceous in
-color, the sides golden silvery, with narrow black stripes. About
-1880 it was introduced by the United States Fish Commission
-into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a
-fish of large commercial importance. To the angler the
-striped bass is always "a gallant fish and a bold biter," and
-Genio Scott places it first among the game-fishes of America.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The white bass (<em>Roccus chrysops</em>) is very similar to it, but
-shorter and more compressed, reaching a smaller size. This
-fish is abundant in the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi
-as far south as Arkansas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The yellow bass (<em>Morone interrupta</em>), a coarser and more
-brassy fish, replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above
-Cincinnati and St. Louis. The white perch (<em>Morone americana</em>)
-is a little fish of the Atlantic seaboard, entering the sea,
-but running up all the rivers, remaining contentedly landlocked
-in ponds. It is one of the most characteristic fishes
-of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a good pan
-fish, takes the hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves
-the good-will of the angler who cannot stray far into the mountains.
-Very close to these American bass is the bass, bars, or
-robalo, of southern Europe, <em>Dicentrarchus labrax</em>, a large olive-colored
-fish, excellent as food, living in the sea about the mouths
-of rivers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Jewfishes.</strong>—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense
-size, reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust
-in form, a weight of 500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky
-green in color, thick-headed, rough-scaled, with low fins, voracious
-disposition, and sluggish movements. In almost all
-parts of the world these great bass are called jewfish, but
-no reason for this name has ever been suggested. In
-habit and value the species are much alike, and the jewfish
-of California, <em>Stereolepis gigas</em>, the prize of the Santa Catalina
-anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely related
-to this is the Japanese ishinagi, <em>Megaperca ischinagi</em>, the jewfish,
-or stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the
-Abura bodzu, or "fat priest," <em>Ebisus sagamius</em>. In the West
-Indies, as also on the west coast of Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa,
-is <em>Promicrops itaiara</em>. The black grouper, <em>Garrupa nigrita</em>,
-is the jewfish of Florida. The European jewfish, more often
-called <em>wreckfish</em>, or stone-bass, is <em>Polyprion americanus</em>, and
-the equally large <em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em> is found in Australia,
-as is also another jewfish, <em>Glaucosoma hebraicum</em>, the last
-belonging to the <em>Lutianidæ</em>. Largest of all these jewfishes is
-<em>Promicrops lanceolata</em> of the South Pacific. This huge bass,
-according to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of
-twelve feet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>
-<img src='images/i_322.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 256.</span>—White Perch, <em>Morone americana</em> Gmelin. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt; one half natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>
-<img src='images/i_323.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 257.</span>—Florida Jewfish, <em>Promicrops itaiara</em> (Lichtenstein). St. John's River, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Related to the jewfishes are numerous smaller fishes. One
-of these, the Spanish-flag of Cuba, <em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em>, is
-rose-colored, with golden bands like the flag of Spain itself.
-Other species referred to <em>Acanthistius</em> and <em>Plectropoma</em> have,
-like this, hooked spines on the lower border of the preopercle.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>
-<img src='images/i_324.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 258.</span>—<em>Epinephelus striatus</em> (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: <em>Cherna criolla</em>. Family <em>Serranidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>
-<img src='images/i_325a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 259.</span>—John Paw or Speckled Hind, <em>Epinephelus drummond-hayi</em> Goode Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_325b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 260.</span>—<em>Epinephelus morio</em> (Cuvier &amp; Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or Mero. Family <em>Serranidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Groupers.</strong>—In all warm seas abound species of <em>Epinephelus</em>
-and related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous.
-They are mostly large voracious fishes with small scales, pale
-flesh of fair quality, and from their abundance they are of large
-commercial importance. To English-speaking people these fishes
-are usually known as grouper, a corruption of the Portuguese
-name garrupa. In the West Indies and about Panama there
-are very many species, and still others abound in the Mediterranean,
-in southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and
-the West Indies. They have very much in common, but differ
-in size and color, some being bright red, some gaudily spotted
-with red or blue, but most of them are merely mottled green
-or brown. In many cases individuals living near shore are
-olivaceous, and those of the same species in the depths are
-bright crimson or scarlet. We name below a few of the most
-prominent species. Even a bare list of all of them would take
-many pages. <em>Cephalopholis cruentatus</em>, the red hind of the
-Florida Keys, is one of the smallest and brightest of all of them.
-<em>Cephalopholis fulvus</em>, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans,
-is called negro-fish, butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, according
-to its color, which varies with the depth. It is red, yellow,
-or olive, with many round blue spots. <em>Epinephelus adscenscionis</em>,
-the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere with orange.
-<em>Epinephelus guaza</em> is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe, a
-large food-fish of value, rather dull in color. <em>Epinephelus striatus</em>
-is the Nassau grouper, or <em>Cherna criolla</em>, common in the West
-Indies. <em>Epinephelus maculosus</em> is the cabrilla of Cuba. <em>Epinephelus
-drummond-hayi</em>, the speckled hind, umber brown, spotted
-with lavender, is one of the handsomest of all the groupers.
-<em>Epinephelus morio</em>, the red grouper, is the commonest of all
-these fishes in the American markets. In Asia the species
-are equally numerous, <em>Epinephelus quernus</em> of Hawaii and the
-red <em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> of Japan and southward being food-fishes
-of importance. <em>Epinephelus merra</em>, <em>Epinephelus gilberti</em>,
-and <em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> are among the more common species
-of Polynesia. <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em>, a species profusely
-spotted, abounds in the crevices of coral reefs, while <em>Cepholopholis
-argus</em> and <em>C. leopardus</em> are showy fishes of the deeper
-channels. <em>Mycteroperca venenosa</em>, the yellow-finned grouper,
-is a large and handsome fish of the coast of Cuba, the flesh
-sometimes poisonous; when red in deep water it is known as
-the bonaci cardenal. <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>; the bonaci arará
-sells in our markets as black grouper. <em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em>
-is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not reaching
-the West Indies, and <em>Mycteroperca rubra</em>, which is never red,
-enters the Mediterranean. <em>Mycteroperca falcata</em> is known in
-the markets as scamp, and <em>Mycteroperca venadorum</em> is a giant
-species from the Venados Islands, near Mazatlan. <em>Diploprion
-bifasciatus</em> is a handsome grouper-like fish with two black
-cross-bands, found in Japan and India. <em>Variola louti</em>, red,
-with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one of the most
-showy fishes of the equatorial Pacific.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>
-<img src='images/i_326.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 261.</span>—Red Hind, <em>Epinephelus adscensionis</em> (Osbeck). Puerto Rico. (After Evermann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>
-<img src='images/i_327.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 262.</span>—Yellow-fin Grouper, <em>Mycteroperca venenosa</em> (Linnæus). Havana.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus
-<em>Hypoplectrus</em>. Their extraordinary and unexplained variations
-in color have been noticed on page 235, Vol. I. The common
-species—blue, orange, green, plain, striated, checkered, or striped—bears
-the name of <em>Hypoplectrus unicolor</em>. (Fig. 264).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Serranos.</strong>—In all the species known as jewfish and
-grouper, as also in the <em>Oxylabracidæ</em> and most <em>Centrarchidæ</em>,
-the maxillary bone is divided by a lengthwise suture which
-sets off a distinct supplemental maxillary. This bone is wanting
-in the remaining species of <em>Serranidæ</em>, as it is also in those
-forms already noticed which are familiarly known as bass.
-The species without the supplemental maxillary are in general
-smaller in size, the canines are on the sides of the jaws instead
-of in front, and there are none of the hinged depressible teeth
-which are conspicuous in the groupers. The species are abundant
-in the Atlantic, but scarcely any are found in Polynesia, and
-few in Japan or India.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>
-<img src='images/i_328.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 263.</span>—<em>Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans</em> (Poey). Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Serranus cabrilla</em> is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a
-well-known and excellent food-fish, the original type of the
-family of <em>Serranidæ</em>. <em>Serranellus scriba</em> is the serran, a very
-pretty shore-fish of southern Europe, longer known than any
-other of the tribe. On the coast of southern California are
-also species called Cabrillas, fine, large, food-fish, bass-like in
-form, <em>Paralabrax clathratus</em>, and other less common species.
-The <em>Cabrillas</em> and their relatives are almost all American, a
-few straying across to Europe. One of the most important
-in the number is the black sea-bass, or black will, of our Atlantic
-coast, <em>Centropristes striatus</em>. This is a common food-and
-game-fish, dusky in color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel-fishes
-(<em>Diplectrum</em>) and the many serranos (<em>Prionodes</em>) of the
-tropics, small bright-colored fishes of the rocks and reefs, must
-be passed with a word, as also the small <em>Paracentropristis</em> of
-the Mediterranean and the fine red creole-fish of the West
-Indies, <em>Paranthias furcifer</em>. In one species, <em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em>
-of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the palatines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The barber-fish (<em>Anthias anthias</em>) of southern Europe, bright
-red and with the lateral line running very high, is the type of
-a numerous group found at the lowest fishing level in all warm
-seas. All the species of this group are bright red, very handsome,
-and excellent as food. <em>Hemianthias vivanus</em>, known
-only from the spewings of the red snapper (<em>Lutianus aya</em>) at
-Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species, red, with golden
-streaks. The genus <em>Plesiops</em> consists of small fishes almost
-black in color, with blue spots and other markings, abounding
-about the coral reefs. In this genus the lateral line is interrupted
-and there is some indication of affinity with the <em>Opisthognathidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>
-<img src='images/i_329.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 264.</span>—Snowy Grouper, <em>Epinephelus niveatus</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Natural size: young. (Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>
-<img src='images/i_330.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 265.</span>—Soapfish, <em>Rypticus bistrispinus</em> (Mitchill). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the soapfishes (<em>Rypticus</em>) the supplemental maxillary
-appears again, but in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to
-two or three spines and there are none in the anal. <em>Rypticus
-saponaceus</em>, so called from the smooth or soapy scales, is the
-best known of the numerous species, which all belong to tropical
-America. <em>Grammistes</em>, with eight dorsal spines, is a related
-form in Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black stripes.
-Numerous species referred to the <em>Serranidæ</em> occur in the Eocene
-and Miocene rocks. Some are related to <em>Epinephelus</em>, others to
-<em>Roccus</em> and <em>Lates</em>. In the Tertiary lignite of Brazil is a species
-of <em>Percichthys</em>, <em>Percichthys antiquus</em>, with <em>Properca beaumonti</em>,
-which seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to
-<em>Dicentrarchus</em>. <em>Prolates heberti</em> of the Cretaceous, one of the
-earliest of the series, has the caudal rounded and is apparently
-allied to <em>Lates</em>, as is also the heavily armed <em>Acanus regleysianus</em>
-of the Oligocene. <em>Smerdis minutus</em>, a small fish from the
-Oligocene, is also related to <em>Lates</em>, which genus with <em>Roccus</em> and
-<em>Dicentrarchus</em> must represent the most primitive of existing
-members of this family. Of both <em>Smerdis</em> and <em>Dicentrarchus</em>
-(<em>Labrax</em>) numerous species are recorded, mostly from the Miocene
-of Europe.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>
-<img src='images/i_331a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 266.</span>—Flasher, <em>Lobotes surinamensis</em> (Bloch). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_331b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 267.</span>—Catalufa, <em>Priacanthus arenatus</em> Cuv. &amp; Val. Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Flashers: Lobotidæ.</strong>—The small family of <em>Lobotidæ</em>, flashers,
-or triple-tails, closely resembles the <em>Serranidæ</em>, but there
-are no teeth on vomer or palatines. The three species are
-robust fishes, of a large size, of a dark-green color, the front
-part of the head very short. They reach a length of about
-three feet and are good food-fishes. <em>Lobotes surinamensis</em>
-comes northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod.
-<em>Lobotes pacificus</em> is found about Panama. <em>Lobotes erate</em>, common
-in India, was taken by the writer at Misaki, Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>
-<img src='images/i_332.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 268.</span>—Bigeye, <em>Pseudopriacanthus altus</em> Gill. Young specimen. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span><strong>The Bigeyes: Priacanthidæ.</strong>—The <em>Catalufas</em> or bigeyes (<em>Priacanthidæ</em>)
-are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short,
-flattened bodies, rough scales, large eyes, and bright-red coloration.
-The mouth is very oblique, and the anal fin about as
-large as the dorsal. The commonest species is <em>Priacanthus
-cruentatus</em>, widely diffused through the Pacific and also in the
-West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians,
-which used to come into the bays in myriads at the period of
-death of royalty. It is still abundant, even after Hawaiian
-royalty has passed away.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Pseudopriacanthus altus</em> is a short, very deep-bodied, and
-very rough fish, scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our
-coast, driven northward by the Gulf Stream. The young fishes
-are quite unlike the adult in appearance. Numerous other
-species of <em>Priacanthus</em> occur in the Indies and Polynesia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pentacerotidæ.</strong>—Another family with strong spines and
-rough scales is the group of <em>Pentacerotidæ</em>. <em>Histiopterus typus</em>,
-the Matodai, is found in Japan, and is remarkable for its very
-deep body and very high spines. Equally remarkable is the
-Tengudai, <em>Histiopterus acutirostris</em>, also Japanese. <em>Anoplus
-banjos</em> is a third Japanese species, more common than the others,
-and largely taken in the Inland Sea. All these are eccentric
-variations from the perch-like type.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Snappers: Lutianidæ.</strong>—Scarcely less numerous and varied
-than the sea-bass is the great family of <em>Lutianidæ</em>, known
-in America as snappers or pargos. In these fishes the maxillary
-slips along its edge into a sheath formed by the broad preorbital.
-In the <em>Serranidæ</em> there is no such sheath. In the <em>Lutianidæ</em>
-there is no supplemental maxillary, teeth are present
-on the vomer and palatines, and in the jaws there are distinct
-canines. These fishes of the warm seas are all carnivorous,
-voracious, gamy, excellent as food though seldom of fine grain,
-the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250 species are
-known, and in all warm seas they are abundant.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>
-<img src='images/i_334.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 269.</span>—Gray Snapper, <em>Lutianus griseus</em> L. Puerto Rico. (After Evermann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>To the great genus <em>Lutianus</em> most of the species belong. These
-are the snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish-speaking
-fishermen. The shore species are green in color, mostly
-banded, spotted, or streaked. In deeper water bright-red species
-are found. One of these, <em>Lutianus aya</em>, the red snapper or
-pargo guachinango of the Gulf of Mexico, is, economically
-speaking, the most important of all these fishes in the United
-States. It is a large, rather coarse fish, bright red in color,
-and it is taken on long lines on rocky reefs chiefly about Pensacola
-and Tampa in Florida, although similar fisheries exist
-on the shores of Yucatan and Brazil.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_335.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 270.</span>—<em>Lutianus apodus</em> (Walbaum), Schoolmaster or Cají. Family <em>Lutianidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>
-<img src='images/i_336a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 271.</span>—<em>Hoplopagrus guntheri</em> Gill. Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_336b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 272.</span>—Lane Snapper or Biajaiba, <em>Lutianus synagris</em> (Linnæus). Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A related species is the <em>Lutianus analis</em>, the mutton snapper
-or pargo criollo of the West Indies. This is one of the staple
-fishes of the Havana market, always in demand for banquets
-and festivals, because its flesh is never unwholesome. The
-mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper, <em>Lutianus griseus</em>, called
-in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest species on our coasts.
-The common name arises from the fact that the young hide
-in the mangrove bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally
-out in pursuit of sardines and other small fishes. It is a very
-wary fish, to be sought with care, hence the name "lawyer,"
-sometimes heard in Florida. The cubero (<em>Lutianus cyanopterus</em>)
-is a very large snapper, often rejected as unwholesome,
-being said to cause the disease known as ciguatera. Certain
-snappers in Polynesia have a similar reputation. The large red
-mumea, <em>Lutianus bohar</em>, is regarded as always poisonous in
-Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. <em>L. leioglossus</em> is
-also held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of
-this type are regarded as always safe. Other common snappers
-of Florida and Cuba are the dog snapper or jocu (<em>Lutianus jocu</em>),
-the schoolmaster or cají (<em>Lutianus apodus</em>), the black-fin snapper
-or sese de lo alto (<em>Lutianus buccanella</em>), the silk snapper or
-pargo de lo alto (<em>Lutianus vivanus</em>), the abundant lane snapper
-or biajaiba (<em>Lutianus synagris</em>), and the mahogany snapper
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>or ojanco (<em>Lutianus mahogani</em>). Numerous other species occur
-on both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assemblage
-is found in the East Indies, some of them ranging northward
-to Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_337a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 273.</span>—Yellow-tail Snapper, <em>Ocyurus chrysurus</em> (Linnæus). Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_337b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 274.</span>—Cachucho, <em>Etelis oculatus</em> (Linnæus). Havana.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Hoplopagrus guntheri</em> is a large snapper of the west coast
-of Mexico, having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit-like
-nostrils and other notable peculiarities. From the standpoint
-of structure this species, with its eccentric characters—is
-especially interesting. The yellow-tail snapper or rabirubia
-(<em>Ocyurus chrysurus</em>) is a handsome and common fish of the
-West Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which makes it a
-swifter fish than the others. Another red species is the diamond
-snapper or cagon de lo alto, <em>Rhomboplites aurorubens</em>.
-All these true snappers have the soft fins more or less scaly.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>In certain species that swim more freely in deep waters,
-these fins are naked. Among them is the Arnillo, <em>Apsilus
-dentatus</em>, a pretty brown fish of the West Indies, and its analogue
-in Hawaii, <em>Apsilus brighami</em>, red, with golden cross-bands.
-<em>Aprion virescens</em>, the Uku of Hawaii, is a large fish of
-a greenish color and elongate body, widely diffused throughout
-Polynesia and one of the best of food-fishes. A related
-species is the red voraz (<em>Aprion macrophthalmus</em>) of the West
-Indies.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most beautiful of all the group are the species of <em>Etelis</em>,
-with the dorsal fin deeply divided and the head flattened above.
-These live in rather deep water about rocky reefs and are fiery
-red in color. Best known is the Cuban species, <em>Etelis oculatus</em>,
-the cachucho of the markets. Equally abundant and equally
-beautiful is <em>Etelis carbunculus</em> of Polynesia, <em>Etelis evurus</em> of
-Hawaii, and other species of the Pacific islands.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_338.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 275.</span>—<em>Xenocys jessiæ</em> Jordan &amp; Bollman. Family <em>Lutianidæ</em>. Galapagos Islands.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Verilus sordidus</em>, the black escolar of Cuba, has the form
-of <em>Etelis</em>, but the flesh is very soft and the color violet-black,
-indicating its life in very deep water. Numerous small silvery
-snappers living near the shore along the coast of western Mexico
-belong to the genera called <em>Xenichthys</em>, <em>Xenistius</em>, and <em>Xenocys</em>.
-<em>Xenistius californiensis</em> is the commonest of these species,
-<em>Xenocys jessiæ</em>, the largest in size, with black lines like a striped
-bass. To the genus <em>Dentex</em> belongs a large snapper-like fish of
-the Mediterranean, <em>Dentex dentex</em>. Very many related species
-occur in the old world, the prettily colored <em>Nemipterus virgatus</em>,
-the <em>Itoyori</em> of Japan being one of the best known. Another
-interesting fish is <em>Aphareus furcatus</em>, a handsome, swift fish of
-the open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies.
-<em>Glaucosoma burgeri</em> is a large snapper of Japan, and a related
-species, <em>Glaucosoma hebraicum</em>, is one of the "jewfishes" of
-Australia. Numerous fossil forms referred to <em>Dentex</em> occur in
-the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also a fish called <em>Ctenodentex
-lackeniensis</em> from the Eocene of Belgium.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>
-<img src='images/i_339.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 276.</span>—<em>Aphareus furcatus</em> (Lacépède). Odawara, Japan. Family <em>Lutianidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>
-<img src='images/i_340.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 277.</span>—Grunt, <em>Hæmulon plumieri</em> (Bloch). Charleston, S. C.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.</strong>—The large family of <em>Hæmulidæ</em>,
-known in America as grunters or roncos, is represented with the
-snappers in all tropical seas. The common names (Spanish,
-<em>roncar</em>, to grunt or snore) refer to the noise made either with
-their large pharyngeal teeth or with the complex air-bladder.
-These fishes differ from the <em>Lutianidæ</em> mainly in the feebler
-detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer.
-Most of the American species belong to the genus <em>Hæmulon</em>
-or red-mouth grunts, so called from the dash of scarlet at the
-corner of the mouth. <em>Hæmulon plumieri</em>, the common grunt, or
-ronco arará, is the most abundant species, known by the
-narrow blue stripes across the head. In the yellow grunt,
-ronco amarillo (<em>Hæmulon sciurus</em>), these stripes cross the whole
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>body. In the margate-fish, or Jallao (<em>Hæmulon album</em>), the largest
-of the grunts, there are no stripes at all. Another common
-grunt is the black spotted sailor's choice, <em>Ronco prieto</em> (<em>Hæmulon
-parra</em>), very abundant from Florida southward. Numerous other
-grunts and "Tom Tates" are found on both shores of Mexico,
-all the species of <em>Hæmulon</em> being confined to America. <em>Anisotremus</em>
-includes numerous deep-bodied species with smaller
-mouth, also all American. <em>Anisotremus surinamensis</em>, the
-pompon, abundant from Louisiana southward is the commonest
-species. <em>Anisotremus virginicus</em>, the porkfish or Catalineta,
-beautifully striped with black and golden, is very common
-in the West Indies. <em>Plectorhynchus</em> of Polynesia and the coasts
-of Asia contains numerous large species closely resembling
-<em>Anisotremus</em>, but lacking the groove at the chin characteristic
-of <em>Anisotremus</em> and <em>Hæmulon</em>. Some of these are striped
-or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion. <em>Pomadasis</em>, a
-genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains silvery
-species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and
-the spines generally stronger. <em>Pomadasis crocro</em> is the commonest
-West Indian species, <em>Pomadasis hasta</em> the best known
-of the Asiatic forms. <em>Gnathodentex aurolineatus</em> with golden
-stripes is common in Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_341.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 278.</span>—Porkfish, <em>Anisotremus virginicus</em> (Linnæus). Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>The pigfishes, <em>Orthopristis</em>, have the spines feebler and the
-anal fin more elongate. Of the many species, American and
-Mediterranean, <em>Orthopristis chrysopterus</em> is most familiar, ranging
-northward to Long Island, and excellent as a pan fish. <em>Parapristipoma
-trilineatum</em>, the Isaki of Japan, is equally abundant
-and very similar to it. Many related species belong to the
-Asiatic genera, <em>Terapon</em>, <em>Scolopsis</em>, <em>Cæsio</em>, etc., sometimes
-placed in a distinct family as <em>Teraponidæ</em>. <em>Terapon servus</em>
-enters the streams of Polynesia, and is a very common fish
-of the river mouths, taken in Samoa by the boys. <em>Terapon
-theraps</em> is found throughout the East Indies. <em>Terapon richardsoni</em>
-is the Australian silver perch. <em>Cæsio</em> contains numerous
-small species, elongate and brightly colored, largely blue and
-golden. <em>Scolopsis</em>, having a spine on the preorbital, contains
-numerous species in the East Indies and Polynesia. These are
-often handsomely colored. Among them is the taiva, <em>Scolopsis
-trilineatus</em> of Samoa, gray with white streaks and markings of
-delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related
-to <em>Pomadasis</em> is <em>Pomadasis furcatus</em>. Another, perhaps allied
-to <em>Terapon</em>, is called <em>Pelates quindecimalis</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_342.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 279.</span>—The Red Tai of Japan, <em>Pagrus major</em> Schlegel. Family <em>Sparidæ</em>. (After Kishinouye.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Porgies: Sparidæ.</strong>—The great family of <em>Sparidæ</em> or
-porgies is also closely related to the <em>Hæmulidæ</em>. The most
-tangible difference rests in the teeth, which are stronger, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>some of those along the side of the jaw are transformed into
-large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small crabs and shells.
-The name porgy, in Spanish pargo, comes from the Latin
-<em>Pagrus</em> and Greek <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πάγρος</span>, the name from time immemorial
-of the red porgy of the Mediterranean, <em>Pagrus pagrus</em>. In this
-species the front teeth are canine-like, the side teeth molar. It
-is a fine food-fish, very handsome, being crimson with blue
-spots, and in the Mediterranean it is much esteemed. It also
-breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and Gulf coasts.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id017'>
-<img src='images/i_343.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 280.</span>—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai. (Sketch by Kako Morita.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>
-<img src='images/i_344.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 281.</span>—Scup, <em>Stenotomus chrysops</em> (Linnæus). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>
-<img src='images/i_345a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 282.</span>—<em>Calamus bajonado</em> (Bloch &amp; Schneider), Jolt-head Porgy. Pez de Pluma. Family <em>Sparidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_345b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 283.</span>—Little-head Porgy, <em>Calamus proridens</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai
-of Japan (<em>Pagrus major</em>), a fish so highly esteemed as to be,
-with the rising sun and the chrysanthemum, a sort of national
-emblem. In all prints and images the fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 280),
-beloved of the Japanese people, appears with a red tai under his
-arm. This species, everywhere abundant, is crimson in color, and
-the flesh is always tender and excellent. A similar species is
-the well-known and abundant "schnapper" of Australia, <em>Pagrus
-unicolor</em>. Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled
-with blue spots, <em>Pagrus cardinalis</em>, occurs in Japan in great
-abundance, as also two species similar in character but without
-red, known as <em>Kurodai</em> or black tai. These are <em>Sparus latus</em>
-and <em>Sparus berda</em>. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, <em>Sparus
-aurata</em>, is very similar to these Japanese species. <em>Sparus sarba</em>
-in Australia is the tarwhine, and <em>Sparus australis</em> the black
-bream. The numerous species of <em>Pagellus</em> abound in the Mediterranean.
-These are smaller in size than the species of <em>Pagrus</em>,
-red in color and with feebler teeth. <em>Monotaxis grandoculis</em>,
-known as the "mu," is a widely diffused and valuable food-fish
-of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale cross-bands.
-Very closely related is also the American scup or fair maid
-(<em>Stenotomus chrysops</em>), one of our commonest pan fishes. In
-this genus and in <em>Calamus</em> the second interhæmal spine is very
-greatly enlarged, its concave end formed like a quill-pen and
-including the posterior end of the large air-bladder. This
-arrangement presumably assists in hearing. Of the penfishes,
-or pez de pluma, numerous species abound in tropical America,
-where they are valued as food. Of these the bajonado or
-jolt-head porgy (<em>Calamus bajonado</em>) is largest, most common
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>and dullest in color. <em>Calamus calamus</em> is the saucer-eye porgy,
-and <em>Calamus proridens</em>, the little-head porgy. <em>Calamus leucosteus</em>
-is called white-bone porgy, and the small <em>Calamus arctifrons</em>
-the grass-porgy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Chopa spina, or pinfish, <em>Lagodon rhomboides</em>, is a little
-porgy with notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South
-Atlantic coast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine-like
-are compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human
-incisors. These species are known as sheepshead, or sargos.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_346.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 284.</span>—<em>Diplodus holbrooki</em> Bean. Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Diplodus sargus</em> and <em>Diplodus annularis</em> are common sargos of
-the Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of
-the tail. <em>Diplodus argenteus</em> of the West Indies and <em>Diplodus
-holbrooki</em> of the Carolina coast are very close to these.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sheepshead, <em>Archosargus probatocephalus</em>, is much the
-most valuable fish of this group. The broad body is crossed
-by about seven black cross-bands. It is common from Cape
-Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching rarely a weight of fifteen
-pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and tender. The
-sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook readily
-and with some spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller
-species known as Salema (<em>Archosargus unimaculatus</em>), with blue
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>and golden stripes and a black spot at the shoulder. It abounds
-in the West Indies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_347.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 285.</span>—<em>Archosargus unimaculatus</em> (Bloch), Salema, Striped Sheepshead. Family <em>Sparidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are numerous
-species of <em>Lethrinus</em> and related genera, formed and
-colored like snappers, but with molar teeth and the cheek without
-scales. A common species in Japan is <em>Lethrinus richardsoni</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species of <em>Diplodus</em>, <em>Sparus</em>, <em>Pagrus</em>, and <em>Pagellus</em>
-occur in the Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera,
-<em>Sparnodus</em> and <em>Trigonodon</em>, of similar type. <em>Sparnodus macrophthalmus</em>
-is abundant in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Picarels: Mænidæ.</strong>—The <em>Mænidæ</em>, or <em>Picarels</em>, are elongate,
-gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protractility
-of the upper jaw. <em>Spicara smaris</em> and several other
-small species are found in the Mediterranean. <em>Emmelichthys</em>
-contains species of larger size occurring in the West Indies and
-various parts of the Pacific, chiefly red and very graceful in
-form and color. <em>Emmelichthys vittatus</em>, the boga, is occasionally
-taken in Cuba, <em>Erythrichthys schlegeli</em> is found in Japan and
-Hawaii.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>
-<img src='images/i_348.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 286.</span>—Mojarra, <em>Xystæma cinereum</em> (Walbaum). Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Mojarras: Gerridæ.</strong>—The <em>Gerridæ</em>, or <em>Mojarras</em>, have
-the mouth equally protractile, but the form of the body is
-different, being broad, compressed, and covered with large
-silvery scales. In some species the dorsal spines and the third
-anal spine are very strong, and in some the second interhæmal
-is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder, as in <em>Calamus</em>.
-Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones, are American.
-The smallest, <em>Eucinostomus</em>, have the quill-shaped interhæmal
-and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest
-species is the silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, <em>Eucinostomus
-gula</em>, which ranges from Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf
-along sandy shores. Equally common is <em>Eucinostomus californiensis</em>
-of the Pacific Coast of Mexico, while <em>Eucinostomus
-harengulus</em> of the West Indies is also very abundant. <em>Ulæma
-lefroyi</em> has but two anal spines and the interhæmal very small.
-It is common through the West Indies. <em>Xystæma</em>, with the
-interhæmal spear-shaped and normally formed, is found in
-Asia and Polynesia more abundantly than in America, although
-one species, <em>Xystæma cinereum</em>, the broad shad, or Mojarra
-blanca, is common on both shores of tropical America.
-<em>Xystæma gigas</em> is found in Polynesia, <em>X. oyena</em> in Japan, and
-<em>X. filamentosum</em> in Formosa and India. <em>Xystæma massalongoi</em>
-is also fossil in the Miocene of Austria. The species of <em>Gerres</em>
-have very strong dorsal and anal spines and the back much
-elevated. <em>Gerres plumieri</em>, the striped mojarra, <em>Gerres brasiliensis</em>,
-the patao, <em>Gerres olisthostomus</em>, the Irish pampano,
-and <em>Gerres rhombeus</em> are some of the numerous species found
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>on the Florida coast and in the West Indies. The family of
-<em>Leiognathidæ</em>, already noticed (page <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>), should stand next to
-the <em>Gerridæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_349a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 287.</span>—Irish Pampano, <em>Gerres olisthostomus</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Indian River, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.</strong>—The <em>Kyphosidæ</em>, called rudder-fishes,
-have no molars, the front of the jaws being occupied
-by incisors, which are often serrated, loosely attached,
-and movable. The numerous species are found in the warm
-seas and are chiefly herbivorous.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_349b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 288.</span>—Chopa or Rudder-fish, <em>Kyphosus sectatrix</em> (Linnæus). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Boops boops</em> and <em>Boops salpa</em>, known as boga and salpa,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>are elongate fishes common in the Mediterranean. Other Mediterranean
-forms are <em>Spondyliosoma cantharus</em>, <em>Oblata melanura</em>,
-etc. <em>Girella nigricans</em> is the greenfish of California, everywhere
-abundant about rocks to the south of San Francisco,
-and of considerable value as food. Almost exactly like it
-is the Mejinadai (<em>Girella punctata</em>) of Japan. The best-known
-members of this group belong to the genus <em>Kyphosus</em>. <em>Kyphosus
-sectatrix</em> is the rudder-fish, or Chopa blanca, common in the
-West Indies and following ships to the northward even as far
-as Cape Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is supposed
-that it is enticed by the waste thrown overboard. <em>Kyphosus
-elegans</em> is found on the west coast of Mexico, <em>Kyphosus tahmel</em>
-in the East Indies and Polynesia, and numerous other species
-occur in tropical America and along the coasts of southern
-Asia. <em>Sectator ocyurus</em> is a more elongate form of rudder-fish,
-striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the Pacific.
-<em>Medialuna californiensis</em> is the half-moon fish, or medialuna,
-of southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken
-on rocky shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian
-seas.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_350.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 288</span><em>a</em>.—Blue-green Sunfish, <em>Apomotis cyanellus</em> (Rafinesque). Kansas River. (After Kellogg.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to <em>Boops</em>,
-<em>Spondyliosoma</em>, and other genera.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XX<br />THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR<br />RELATIVES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_351.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 289.</span>—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, <em>Pseudupeneus maculatus</em> Bloch. Family <em>Mullidæ</em> (Surmullets.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_351dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.</strong>—The <em>Mullidæ</em>
-(Surmullets) are shore-fishes of the warm seas, of moderate
-size, with small mouth, large scales, and possessing
-the notable character of two long, unbranched barbels
-of firm substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short,
-well separated, the first of six to eight firm spines. There
-are two anal spines and the ventral fins, thoracic, are formed
-of one spine and five rays. The flesh is white and tender,
-often of very superior flavor. The species are carnivorous,
-feeding chiefly on small animals. They are not voracious,
-and predaceous fishes feed freely on them. The coloration is
-generally bright, largely red or golden, in nearly all cases with
-an under layer, below the scales, of red, which appears when
-the fish is scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are often
-bright yellow, and when the fish swims along the bottom these
-are carried in advance, feeling the way. Testing the bottom
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>with their feelers, these fishes creep over the floor of shallow
-waters, seeking their food.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and
-the current genera are separated by details of the arrangement
-of the teeth. But few are found outside the tropics.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, <em>Mullus barbatus</em>,
-is the most famous species, placed by the Romans above all
-other fishes unless it be the scarus, <em>Sparisoma cretense</em>. From
-the satirical poets we learn that "enormous prices were paid
-for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to bring the fish into the
-dining-room and exhibit it alive before the assembled guests,
-so that they might gloat over the brilliant and changing colors
-during the death-agonies." It is red in life, and when the
-scales are removed, the color is much brighter.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extravagantly
-valued to-day as was formerly the case in Rome.
-<em>Mullus surmuletus</em> is a second European species, scarcely different
-from <em>Mullus barbatus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_352.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 290.</span>—Golden Surmullet, <em>Mullus auratus</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polynesian
-species known as kumu and munu (<em>Pseudupeneus porphyreus</em>
-and <em>Pseudupeneus bifasciatus</em>). <em>Mullus auratus</em> is a small surmullet
-occasionally taken off our Atlantic coast, but in deeper
-water than that frequented by the European species. <em>Pseudupeneus
-maculatus</em> is the red goatfish or salmonete, common
-from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow goatfish, <em>Pseudupeneus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>martinicus</em>, equally valued. Many other species are
-found in tropical America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan.
-Perhaps the most notable are <em>Upeneus vittatus</em>, striped with
-yellow and with the caudal fin cross-barred and the belly sulphur-yellow,
-and <em>Upeneus arge</em>, similar, the belly white. The
-common red and black-banded "moana" or goatfish of Hawaii
-is <em>Pseudupeneus multifasciatus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil <em>Mullidæ</em> are recorded, so far as known to us.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Croakers: Sciænidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Sciænidæ</em> (croakers,
-roncadors) is another of the great groups of food-fishes.
-The species are found on every sandy shore in warm regions
-and all of them are large enough to have value as food, while
-many have flesh of superior quality. None are brightly colored,
-most of the species being nearly plain silvery.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_353.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 291.</span>—Spotted Weakfish, <em>Cynoscion nebulosus</em>. Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Special characters are the cavernous structure of the bones
-of the head, which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization
-(and occasional absence) of the air-bladder, and the presence
-of never more than two anal spines, one of these being sometimes
-very large. Most of the species are marine, all are carnivorous;
-none inhabit rocky places and none descend to depths
-in the sea. At the least specialized extreme of the family,
-the mouth is large with strong canines and the species are
-slender, swift, and predaceous.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The weakfish or squeteague (<em>Cynoscion regalis</em>) is a type
-of a multitude of species, large, swift, voracious, but with tender
-flesh, which is easily torn. The common weakfish, abundant
-on our Atlantic coast, suffers much at the hands of its
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>enemy and associate, the bluefish. It is one of the best of all
-our food-fishes. Farther south the spotted weakfish (<em>Cynoscion
-nebulosus</em>), very incorrectly known as sea-trout, takes its
-place, and about New Orleans is especially and justly prized.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The California "bluefish," <em>Cynoscion parvipinnis</em>, is very
-similar to these Atlantic species, and there are many other
-species of <em>Cynoscion</em> on both coasts of tropical America, forming
-a large part of the best fish-supply of the various markets
-of the mainland. On the rocky islands, as Cuba, and about
-coral reefs, <em>Sciænidæ</em> are practically unknown. In the Gulf
-of California, the totuava, <em>Cynoscion macdonaldi</em>, reaches a
-weight of 172 pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great
-"white sea-bass" of California, <em>Cynoscion nobilis</em>, reaches 100
-pounds. In these large species the flesh is much more firm
-than in the weakfish and thus bears shipment better. <em>Cynoscion</em>
-has canines in the upper jaw only and its species are all American.
-In the East Indies the genus <em>Otolithes</em> has strong canines
-in both jaws. Its numerous species are very similar in form,
-habits, and value to those of <em>Cynoscion</em>. The queenfish, <em>Seriphus
-politus</em>, of the California coast, is much like the others of
-this series, but smaller and with no canines at all. It is a very
-choice fish, as are also the species of <em>Macrodon</em> (<em>Ancylodon</em>)
-known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores
-of South America.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Plagioscion squamosissimus</em> and numerous species of <em>Plagioscion</em>
-and other genera live in the rivers of South America.
-A single species, the river-drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or
-thunder-pumper (<em>Aplodinotus grunniens</em>), is found in streams
-in North America. This is a large fish reaching a length of
-nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed, from the Great
-Lakes to Rio Usumacinta in Guatemala, whence it has been
-lately received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in
-lakes and sluggish rivers. The flesh is coarse, and in the Great
-Lakes it is rarely eaten, having a rank odor. In Louisiana and
-Texas it is, however, regarded as a good food-fish. In this
-species the lower pharyngeals are very large and firmly united,
-while, as in all other <em>Sciænidæ</em>, except the genus <em>Pogonias</em>, these
-bones are separated. In all members of the family the ear-bones
-or otoliths are largely developed, often finely sculptured.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>The otoliths of the river-drum are known to Wisconsin boys
-as "lucky-stones," each having a rude impress of the letter L.
-The names roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the
-like refer to the grunting noise made by most <em>Sciænidæ</em> in the
-water, a noise at least connected with the large and divided
-air-bladder.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_355.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 292.</span>—Mademoiselle, <em>Bairdiella chrysura</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous silvery species belong to <em>Larimus</em>, <em>Corvula</em>, <em>Odontoscion</em>,
-and especially to <em>Bairdiella</em>, a genus in which the second
-anal spine is unusually strong. The mademoiselle, <em>Bairdiella
-chrysura</em> is a pretty fish of our Atlantic coast, excellent as a
-pan fish. In <em>Bairdiella ensifera</em> of Panama the second anal
-spine is enormously large, much as in a robalo (<em>Oxylabrax</em>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Stellifer</em> and <em>Nebris</em>, the head is soft and spongy. <em>Stellifer
-lanceolatus</em> is occasionally taken off South Carolina, and
-numerous other species of this and related genera are found
-farther South.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Sciænops ocellata</em> is the red-drum or channel bass of our
-South Atlantic coast, a most important food-fish reaching a
-weight of seventy-five pounds. It is well marked by a black
-ocellus on the base of the tail. On the coast of Texas, this
-species, locally called redfish, exceeds in economic value all other
-species found in that State.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Pseudosciæna aquila</em>, the maigre of southern Europe, is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>another large fish, similar in value to the red drum. <em>Pseudosciæna
-antarctica</em> is the kingfish of Australia. To <em>Sciæna</em> belong
-many species, largely Asiatic, with the mouth inferior, without
-barbels, the teeth small, and the convex snout marked with
-mucous pores. <em>Sciæna umbra</em>, the ombre, is the common
-European species, <em>Sciæna saturna</em>, the black roncador of California,
-is much like it. <em>Sciæna deliciosa</em> is one of the most valued
-food-fishes of Peru, and <em>Sciæna argentata</em> is valued in Japan.
-Species of <em>Sciæna</em> are especially numerous on the coasts of India.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_356.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 293.</span>—Red Drum, <em>Sciænops ocellata</em> Linnæus. Texas.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Roncador stearnsi</em>, the California roncador, is a large fish with a
-black ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance
-in the Los Angeles market. The goody, spot, or lafayette (<em>Leiostomus
-xanthurus</em>) is a small, finely flavored species abundant
-from Cape Cod to Texas. Similar to it but inferior is the little
-roncador (<em>Genyonemus lineatus</em>) of California. The common
-croaker, <em>Micropogon undulatus</em>, is very abundant on our Eastern
-coast, and other species known as verrugatos or white-mouthed
-drummers replace it farther South.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Umbrina</em> the chin has a short thick barbel. The species
-abound in the tropics, <em>Umbrina cirrosa</em> in the Mediterranean;
-<em>Umbrina coroides</em> in California, and the handsome <em>Umbrina
-roncador</em>, the yellow-tailed roncador, in southern California.
-The kingfish, <em>Menticirrhus</em>, differs in lacking the air-bladder,
-and lying on the bottom in shallow water the lower fins are
-enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the species are
-American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food. <em>Menticirrhus
-saxatilis</em> is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>from Cape Ann southward, <em>Menticirrhus americanus</em> is the
-equally common sand-whiting of Carolina, and <em>Menticirrhus
-littoralis</em> the surf-whiting. The California whiting or sand-sucker
-is <em>Menticirrhus undulatus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_357a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 294.</span>—Yellow-fin Roncador, <em>Umbrina sinaloæ</em> Scofield. Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_357b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 295.</span>—Kingfish, <em>Menticirrhus americanus</em> (Linnæus). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Pogonias chromis</em>, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and
-the lower pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river-drum,
-<em>Aplodinotus</em>. It is a coarse fish common on our Atlantic
-coasts, a large specimen taken at St. Augustine weighing 146
-pounds. Other species of this family, belonging to the genus
-<em>Eques</em>, are marked with ribbon-like stripes of black. <em>Eques
-lanceolatus</em>, known in Cuba as serrana, is the most ornate of these
-species, looking like a butterfly-fish or Chætodon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to
-<em>Sciæna</em>, <em>Umbrina</em>, <em>Pogonias</em>, and other genera. Otoliths or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>ear-bones not clearly identifiable are found from the Miocene
-on. These structures are more highly specialized in this group
-than in any other.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_358.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 296.</span>—Drum, <em>Pogonias chromis</em> (Linnæus). Matanzas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sillaginidæ, etc.</strong>—Allied to the <em>Sciænidæ</em> is the small family
-of Kisugos, <em>Sillaginidæ</em>, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender,
-cylindrical fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance
-to small <em>Sciænas</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Sillago japonicas</em>, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant
-species, valued as food. <em>Sillago sihama</em> ranges from Japan to
-Abyssinia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended
-to the percoid series, with which they agree in general characters,
-especially in the normal structure of the shoulder-girdle and
-in the insertion of the pectoral and ventral fins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Lactariidæ</em> constitute a small family of the East Indies,
-allied to the <em>Sciænidæ</em>, but with three anal spines. The mouth
-is armed with strong teeth. <em>Lactarius lactarius</em> is a food-fish of
-India.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Nandidæ</em> are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian
-streams, without pseudobranchiæ.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Polycentridæ</em> are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of
-the streams of South America, without lateral line and with
-many anal spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span><strong>The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.</strong>—The <em>Pseudochromipidæ</em>
-are marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line interrupted,
-and with a single dorsal. They bear some resemblance
-to <em>Plesiops</em> and other aberrant <em>Serranidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_359a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 297.</span>—<em>Gnathypops evermanni</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_359b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 298.</span>—Jawfish, <em>Opisthognathus macrognathus</em> Poey. Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very close to these are the <em>Opisthognathidæ</em> or jawfishes with
-a single lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain
-species of <em>Opisthognathus</em>, the maxillary, long and curved, extends
-far behind the head. The few species are found in warm
-seas, but always very sparingly. Some of them are handsomely
-colored.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.</strong>—A singular group evidently
-allied to the <em>Hæmulidæ</em> is the family of <em>Oplegnathidæ</em>.
-In these fishes the teeth are grown together to form a bony beak
-like the jaw of a turtle. Except for this character, the species
-are very similar to ordinary grunts. While the mouth resembles
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>that of the parrot-fish, it is structurally different and must have
-been independently developed. <em>Oplegnathus punctatus</em>, the
-"stonewall perch" (ishigakidai), is common in Japan, as is also
-the banded <em>Oplegnathus fasciatus</em>. Other species are found in
-Australia and Chile.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_360a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 299.</span>—<em>Opisthognathus nigromarginatus.</em> India. (After Day.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.</strong>—The family of swallowers
-<em>Chiasmodontidæ</em>, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft
-flesh and feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced.
-The ventrals are post-thoracic, the rays I, 5, facts which point
-to some affinity with the <em>Opisthognathidæ</em>, although Boulenger
-places these fishes among the <em>Percesoces</em>. <em>Chiasmodon niger</em>, the
-black swallower of the mid-Atlantic, has exceedingly long teeth
-and the whole body so distensible that it can swallow fishes of
-many times its own size. According to Gill:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_360b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 300.</span>—Black Swallower, <em>Chiasmodon niger</em> Johnson, containing a fish larger than itself. Le Have Bank.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which,
-nevertheless, may be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>the tail and gradually climbs over it with its jaws, first using
-one and then the other; as the captive is taken in the stomach
-and integuments stretch out, and at last the entire fish is passed
-through the mouth and into the stomach, and the distended
-belly appears as a great bag, projecting out far backwards and
-forwards, over which is the swallower with the ventrals dislocated
-and far away from their normal place. The walls of the
-stomach and belly have been so stretched that they are transparent,
-and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But
-such rapacity is more than the captor itself can stand. At
-length decomposition sets in, the swallower is forced belly upwards,
-and the imprisoned gas, as in a balloon, takes it upwards
-from the depths to the surface of the ocean, and there, perchance,
-it may be found and picked up, to be taken home for a wonder,
-as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found their
-way into museums—one being in the United States National
-Museum—and in each the fish in the stomach has been about
-twice as long, and stouter in proportion, than the swallower—six
-to twelve times bulkier! Its true habitat seems to be at a
-depth of about 1,500 fathoms."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to this family is the little group of <em>Champsodontidæ</em> of
-Japan and the East Indies. <em>Champsodon vorax</em> looks like a
-young <em>Uranoscopus</em>. The body is covered with numerous
-lateral lines and cross-lines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Malacanthidæ.</strong>—The <em>Malacanthidæ</em> are elongate fishes,
-rather handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxillary
-behind. <em>Malacanthus plumieri</em>, the matajuelo blanco, a
-slender fish of a creamy-brown color, is common in the West
-Indies. Other species are found in Polynesia, the most notable
-being <em>Malacanthus</em> (or <em>Oceanops</em>) <em>lativittatus</em>, a large fish of a
-brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black lateral band. In Samoa this
-species is called gatasami, the "eye of the sea."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.</strong>—The <em>Latilidæ</em>, or blanquillos, have
-also an enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the
-flesh more firm. The species reach a considerable size and are
-valued as food. <em>Lopholotilus chamæleonticeps</em> is the famous
-tilefish dredged in the depths under the Gulf Stream. It is a
-fish of remarkable beauty, red and golden. This species, Professor
-Gill writes, "was unknown until 1879, when specimens
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>were brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously unexplored
-bank about eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land,
-Mass. In the fall of 1880 it was found to be extremely abundant
-everywhere off the coast of southern New England at a
-depth of from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty fathoms.
-The form of the species is more compressed, and higher, than
-in most of the family, and what especially distinguishes it is
-the development of a compressed, 'fleshy, fin-like appendage
-over the back part of the head and nape, reminding one of the
-adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.' It is especially
-notable, too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size,
-being by far larger than any other member of its family. A
-weight of fifty pounds or more is, or rather, one might say, was
-frequently attained by it, although such was very far above
-the average, that being little over ten pounds. In the reach of
-water referred to, it could once be found abundantly at any
-time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale in March,
-1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for, on the
-surface of the water for a distance of about three hundred miles
-from north to south, and fifty miles from east to west. It
-has been calculated by Capt. Collins that as many as one thousand
-four hundred and thirty-eight millions were scattered
-over the surface. This would have allowed about two hundred
-and twenty-eight pounds to every man, woman and child of
-the fifty million inhabitants of the United States! On trying
-at their former habitat the next fall, as well as all successive
-years to the present time, not a single specimen could be found
-where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus a case of a
-catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused complete
-annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited
-period. Whether the grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied
-subsequently by the progeny of a protected colony remains to
-be seen, but it is scarcely probable that the entire species
-has been exterminated." It is now certain that the species
-is not extinct.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Caulolatilus princeps</em> is the blanquillo or "whitefish" of
-southern California, a large handsome fish formed like a dolphin,
-of purplish, olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other
-species of <em>Caulolatilus</em> are found in the West Indies. <em>Latilus</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span><em>japonicus</em> is the amadai or sweet perch of Japan, an excellent
-food-fish of a bright crimson color.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Pinguipedidæ</em> of Chile resemble the <em>Latilidæ</em>, having
-also the enlarged premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, however,
-thickened and placed farther forward.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.</strong>—The small family of <em>Cepolidæ</em>, or
-bandfishes, resemble the <em>Latilidæ</em> somewhat and are probably
-related to them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins
-are thoracic, with a spine and five rays, but the body is drawn
-out into a long eel-like form, the many-rayed dorsal and anal
-fins meeting around the tail. The few species are crimson in
-color with small scales. They are used as food, but the flesh
-is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. <em>Cepola tænia</em> is
-common in the Mediterranean, and <em>Acanthocepola krusensterni</em>
-abounds in the bays of southern Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Cirrhitidæ.</strong>—The species of the family <em>Cirrhitidæ</em> strongly
-resemble the smaller <em>Serranidæ</em> and even <em>Serranus</em> itself, but
-the lower rays of the pectoral fins are enlarged and are undivided,
-as in the sea-scorpions and some sculpins. In these
-fishes, however, the bony stay, which characterizes <em>Scorpænidæ</em>
-and <em>Cottidæ</em>, is wholly absent. It is, however, considered possible
-that this interesting family represents the point of separation
-at which the mail-cheeked fishes become differentiated from the
-typical perch-like forms. <em>Goniistius zonatus</em>, the <em>takanohadai</em>,
-is a valuable food-fish of Japan, marked by black cross-bands.
-<em>Paracirrhites forsteri</em> and other species of <em>Cirrhitus</em> and <em>Paracirrhites</em>
-are very pretty fishes of the coral reefs, abundant in the
-markets of Honolulu, the spotted <em>Cirrhitus marmoratus</em> being
-the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of this
-family, <em>Cirrhitus rivulatus</em>, a large fish, green, with blue markings,
-is found in American waters. It frequents the rocky
-shores of the west coast of Mexico.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Allied to the <em>Cirrhitidæ</em> is the small family of <em>Latrididæ</em>,
-with a long dorsal fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of
-the pectoral similarly modified. <em>Latris hecateia</em> is called the
-"trumpeter" in Australian waters. It is one of the best food-fishes
-of Australia, reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another small family showing the same peculiar structure
-of the pectoral fin is that of the <em>Aplodactylidæ</em>. The species
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>of <em>Aplodactylus</em> live on the coasts of Chile and Australia. They
-are herbivorous fishes, with flat, tricuspid teeth, and except
-for their pectoral fins are very similar to the <em>Kyphosidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_364a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 301.</span>—<em>Cirrhitus rivulatus</em> Valenciennes. Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.</strong>—In the neighborhood of the
-<em>Latrididæ</em>, Dr. Boulenger places the <em>Trichodontidæ</em> or sandfishes,
-small, scaleless, silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These
-are much compressed in body, with very oblique mouths, with
-fringed lips and, as befits their northern habitat, with a much
-increased number of vertebræ. They bury themselves in sand
-under the surf, and the two species, <em>Trichodon trichodon</em> and
-<em>Arctoscopus japonicus</em>, range very widely in the regions washed
-by the Japan current. These species bear a strong resemblance
-to the star-gazers (<em>Uranoscopus</em>), but this likeness seems to be
-superficial only.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_364b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 302.</span>—Sandfish, <em>Trichodon trichodon</em> (Tilesius). Shumagin Islands, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXI<br />LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_365dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Labyrinthine Fishes.</strong>—An offshoot of the <em>Percomorphi</em>
-is the group of <em>Labyrinthici</em>, composed of perch-like
-fishes which have a very peculiar structure to the
-pharyngeal bones and respiratory apparatus. This feature is
-thus described by Dr. Gill:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing
-arches are peculiarly modified. The elements in question
-(called branchihyal) of each side, instead of being straight
-and solid, as in most fishes, are excessively developed and provided
-with several thin plates or folds, erect from the surface
-of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which the bones are
-attached. These plates, by their intersection, form chambers,
-and are lined with a vascular membrane, which is supplied
-with large blood-vessels. It was formerly supposed that the
-chambers referred to had the office of receiving and retaining
-supplies of water which should trickle down and keep the gills
-moist; such was supposed to be an adaptation for the sustentation
-of life out of the water. The experiments of Surgeon
-Day, however, throw doubt upon this alleged function, and
-tend to show: (1) that these fishes died when deprived of access
-to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either
-in the water or in the apparatus used, but from being unable
-to subsist on air obtained solely from the water, aerial respiration
-being indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture
-out of the water for lengthened periods, and for a short, but
-variable period in water only; and (3) that the cavity or receptacle
-does not contain water, but has a moist secreting surface,
-in which air is retained for the purpose of respiration. It
-seems probable that the air, after having been supplied for aerial
-respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>discharged per anum. In fine, the two respiratory factors
-of the branchial apparatus have independent functions: (1)
-the labyrinthiform, or branchihyal portion, being a special modification
-for the respiration of atmospheric air, and (2) the gill
-filaments discharging their normal function. If, however,
-the fish is kept in water and prevented from coming to the
-surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform
-apparatus becomes filled with water which cannot be discharged,
-owing to its almost non-contractile powers. There
-is thus no means of emptying it, and the water probably
-becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing the blood, so
-that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the branchiæ.
-This will account for the fact that when the fish is in a state
-of quiescence, it lives much longer than when excited, whilst
-the sluggishness sometimes evinced may be due to poisoned
-or carbonized blood."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by
-Professor Gill; and to these we may append a fifth, which, however,
-lacks the elaborate structures mentioned above and
-which shows other evidences of degeneration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Anabantidæ</em>,
-according to Gill, "includes those species which have the
-mouth of moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the
-vomer alone, or on both the vomer and palatine bones). To
-the family belongs the celebrated climbing-fish.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_366.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 303.</span>—The Climbing Perch, <em>Anabas scandens</em> Linnæus. Opercle cut away to show the gill-labyrinth.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The climbing-fish (<em>Anabas scandens</em>) is especially noteworthy
-for the movability of the suboperculum. The operculum
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>is serrated. The color is reddish olive, with a blackish
-spot at the base of the caudal fin; the head, below the level
-of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band running from
-the angle of the mouth to the angle of the preoperculum, and
-with a black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost
-spines of the operculum.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir,
-printed in 1797, by Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the
-Danish East India Company at Tranquebar. Daldorf called
-it <em>Perca scandens</em>, and affirmed that he himself had taken one
-of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its operculum in a slit
-in the bark of a palm (<em>Borassus flabelliformis</em>) which grew near
-a pond. He also described its mode of progression; and his
-observations were substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John,
-a missionary resident in the same country. His positive evidence
-was, however, called into question by those who doubted
-on account of hypothetical considerations. Even in popular
-works not generally prone to even a judicious skepticism,
-the accounts were stigmatized as unworthy of belief. We
-have, however, in answer to such doubts, too specific information
-to longer distrust the reliability of the previous reports.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt.
-Jesse Mitchell of the Madras Government Central Museum,
-communicated to his superior the statement that 'this fish
-inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is called <em>Panai feri</em>, i.e.,
-the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When there are palmyra-trees
-growing by the side of a tank or pool, when heavy rain
-falls and the water runs profusely down their trunks, this fish,
-by means of its opercula, which move unlike those of other
-fishes, crawls up the tree sideways (i.e., inclining to the sides
-considerably from the vertical) to a height of from five to seven
-feet, and then drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon
-the ground, it runs or proceeds rapidly along in the same manner
-(sideways) as long as the mucus on it remains.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"These movements are effected by the opercula, which, it
-will be remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they
-can, according to Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the
-statement), be raised or turned outwards to nearly a right
-angle with the body, and when in that position, the suboperculum
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>distends a little, and it appears that it is chiefly by the
-spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a purchase on
-the tree or ground. 'I have,' says Captain Mitchell, 'ascertained
-by experiment that the mere closing of the operculum,
-when the spines are in contact with any surface, even common
-glass, pulls an ordinary-sized fish forwards about half an inch,'
-but it is probable that additional force is supplied by the caudal
-and anal fins, both of which, it is said, are put in use when
-climbing or advancing on the ground; the motion, in fact, is
-described as a wriggling one.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to
-ascend streams against the current, and we can now understand
-how, during rain, the water will flow down the trunk of a tree,
-and the climbing-fish, taking advantage of this, will ascend
-against the down-flow by means of the mechanism already
-described, and by which it is enabled to reach a considerable
-distance up the trunk." (Gill.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.</strong>—"The <em>Osphromenidæ</em> are fishes
-with a mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the
-palate. To this family belongs the gourami, whose praises have
-been so often sung, and which has been the subject of many
-efforts for acclimatization in France and elsewhere by the French.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The gourami (<em>Osphromenus goramy</em>) has an oblong, oval
-form, and, when mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the
-young there are black bands across the body, and also a blackish
-spot at the base of the pectoral fin. The gourami, if we can
-credit reports, occasionally reaches a gigantic size, for it is
-claimed that it sometimes attains a length of 6 feet, and weighs
-150 pounds, but if this is true, the size is at least exceptional,
-and one of 20 pounds is a very large fish; indeed, they are
-considered very large if they weigh as much as 12 or 14 pounds,
-in which case they measure about 2 feet in length.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie
-in the intertropical belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of
-its young, and prepares a nest for the reception of eggs. The
-bottom selected is muddy, the depth variable within a narrow
-area, that is, in one place about a yard, and near by several
-yards deep.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>(<em>Panicum jumentorum</em>) which grows on the surface of the water,
-and whose floating roots, rising and falling with the movements
-of the water, form natural galleries, under which the fish can
-conceal themselves. In one of the corners of the pond, among
-the plants which grow there, the gouramis attach their nest,
-which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of plants
-and mud, and considerably resembles in form those of some
-birds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs,
-insects, worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account
-of its omnivorous habit, it has been called by the French colonists
-of Mauritius <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">porc des rivières</span></i>, or 'water-pig.' It is, however,
-essentially a vegetarian, and its adaptation for this diet
-is indicated by the extremely elongated intestinal canal, which
-is many times folded upon itself. It is said to be especially
-fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh is,
-according to several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm
-and easy of digestion. They vary in quality with the nature
-of the waters inhabited, those taken from a rocky river being
-much superior to those from muddy ponds; but those dwelling
-at the mouth of rivers, where the water is to some extent brackish,
-are the best of all. Again, they vary with age; and the
-large, overgrown fishes are much less esteemed than the small
-ones. They are in their prime when three years old. Dr. Vinson
-says the flavor is somewhat like that of carp; and, if this
-is so, we may entertain some skepticism as to its superiority;
-but the unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence naturally
-leads to the belief that the comparison is unfair to the
-gourami.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Numerous attempts have been made by the French to
-introduce the gourami into their country, as well as into several
-of their provinces; and for a number of years consignments of
-the eggs, or the young, or adult fish, were made. Although
-at least partially successful, the fish has never been domiciliated
-in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be reasonably expected
-that it would be, knowing, as we do, its sensitiveness to cold and
-the climates under which it thrives.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The fish of paradise (<em>Macropodus viridi-auratus</em>) is a species
-remarkable for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>especially of the ventrals, which has obtained for it the generic
-name <em>Macropodus</em>. To some extent this species has also been
-made the subject of fish-culture, but with reference to its beauty
-and exhibition in aquaria and ponds, like the goldfish, rather
-than for its food qualities.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the
-fighting-fish (<em>Betta pugnax</em>). It is cultivated by the natives of
-Siam, and a special race seems to have been the result of such
-cultivation. The fishes are kept in glasses of water and fed,
-among other things, with the larvæ of mosquitoes or other
-aquatic insects. 'The Siamese are as infatuated with the combats
-of these fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and
-stake on the issue considerable sums, and sometimes their own
-persons and families. The license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed,
-and brings a considerable annual revenue to the king of Siam.
-The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the hills of
-Penang. The inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the 'fighting-fish.'"</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Helostomidæ</em> are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the
-lips and with long intestines. <em>Helostoma temmincki</em> lives in
-the rivers of Java, Borneo, and Sumatra.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Luciocephalidæ</em> of East Indian rivers have the suprabranchial
-organ small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a
-membrane. In these species there are no spines in the dorsal
-and anal, while in the <em>Anabantidæ</em> and <em>Osphromenidæ</em> numerous
-spines are developed both in the dorsal and anal. <em>Luciocephalus
-pulcher</em> indicates a transition toward the <em>Ophicephalidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Ophicephalidæ</em>,
-snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among
-the <em>Percesoces</em> by Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer
-the Labyrinthine fishes, of which it is perhaps a degenerate
-descendant. The body is long, cylindrical, covered with firm
-scales which on the head are often larger and shield-like. The
-mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit carnivorous and
-voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but the thoracic
-position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like
-forms and the absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of
-degradation, the more so as in one genus (<em>Channa</em>) the ventrals
-are wanting altogether. The numerous species are found in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>the rivers of southern China and India, crossing to Formosa and
-to Africa. They are extremely tenacious of life, and are carried
-alive by the Chinese to San Francisco and to Hawaii, where
-they are now naturalized, being known as "China-fishes."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_371a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 304.</span>—<em>Channa formosana</em> Jordan &amp; Evermann. Streams of Formosa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_371b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 305.</span>—Snake-headed China-fish, <em>Ophicephalus barca</em>. India. (After Day.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>These fishes have no special organ for holding water on the
-gills, but the gill space may be partly closed by a membrane.
-According to Dr. Günther, these fishes are "able to survive
-drought living in semi-fluid mud or lying in a torpid state
-below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom of a tank from
-which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is
-probably entirely suspended during the state of torpidity, but
-whilst the mud is still soft enough to allow them to come to the
-surface, they rise at intervals to take in a quantity of air, by
-means of which their blood is oxygenized. This habit has been
-observed in some species to continue also to the period of the
-year in which the fish lives in normal water, and individuals
-which are kept in a basin and prevented from coming to the
-surface and renewing the air for respiratory purposes are suffocated.
-The particular manner in which the accessory branchial
-cavity participates in respiratory functions is not known. It
-is a simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>opening of which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Ophicephalus striatus</em> is the most widely diffused species in
-China, India, and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and
-biting at any bait from a live frog to an artificial salmon-fly.
-It has been introduced into Hawaii. <em>Ophicephalus marulius</em>
-is another very common species, as is also <em>Channa orientalis</em>,
-known by the absence of ventral fins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.</strong>—Another offshoot from the
-perch-like forms is the small suborder of <em>Holconoti</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὅλκος</span>, furrow;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">νῶτος</span>, back). It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much
-in common with the <em>Gerridæ</em> and <em>Sparidæ</em>, but with certain
-striking characteristics not possessed by any perch or bass. All the
-species are viviparous, bringing forth their young alive, these being
-in small number and born at an advanced stage of development.
-The lower pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the <em>Labridæ</em>,
-a group which these fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects.
-The soft dorsal and anal are formed of many fine rays, the
-anal being peculiarly modified in the male sex. The nostrils,
-ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle have the structure normal
-among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow, which suggested
-to Agassiz the name of <em>Holconoti</em>, is also found among
-various perch-like forms.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_372.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 306.</span>—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, <em>Cymatogaster aggregatus</em> Gibbons. San Francisco.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>
-<img src='images/i_373a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 307.</span>—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, <em>Hysterocarpus traski</em> Gibbons. Sacramento River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_373b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 308.</span>—<em>Hypsurus caryi</em> (Agassiz). Monterey.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Embiotocidæ.</strong>—The group contains a single family, the
-<em>Embiotocidæ</em>, or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined
-to California, these two living in Japan. The species are relatively
-small fishes, from five inches to eighteen inches in length,
-with rather large, usually silvery scales, small mouths and
-small teeth. They feed mainly on crustaceans, two or three
-species being herbivorous. With two exceptions, they inhabit
-the shallow waters on sandy beaches, where they bring forth
-their young. They can be readily taken in nets in the surf.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the flesh being somewhat
-watery and with little flavor. Many are dried by the
-Chinese. The two exceptions in distribution are <em>Hysterocarpus
-traski</em>, which lives exclusively in fresh waters, being confined
-to the lowlands of the Sacramento Basin, and <em>Zalembius
-rosaceus</em>, which descends to considerable depths in the sea. In
-<em>Hysterocarpus</em> the spinous dorsal is very greatly developed,
-seventeen stout spines being present, the others having but
-eight to eleven and these very slender.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_374a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 309.</span>—White Surf-fish, <em>Damalichthys argyrosomus</em> (Girard). British Columbia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_374b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 310.</span>—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, <em>Rhacochilus toxotes</em> Agassiz. Monterey, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>
-<img src='images/i_375.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 311.</span>—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), <em>Hypocritichthys analis</em> (Agassiz). Monterey.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The details of structure vary greatly among the different
-species, for which reason almost every species has been properly
-made the type of a distinct genus. The two species
-found in Japan are <em>Ditrema temmincki</em> and <em>Neoditrema ransonneti</em>.
-In the latter species the female is always toothless.
-Close to <em>Ditrema</em> is the blue surf-fish of California, <em>Embiotoca
-jacksoni</em>, the first discovered and perhaps the commonest
-species. <em>Tæniotoca lateralis</em> is remarkable for its bright coloration,
-greenish, with orange stripes. <em>Hypsurus caryi</em>, still brighter
-in color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal region
-very long. <em>Phanerodon furcatus</em> and <em>P. atripes</em> are dull silvery
-in color, as in <em>Damalichthys argyrosomus</em>, the white surf-fish,
-which ranges northward to Vancouver Island, and is remarkable
-for the extraordinary size of its lower pharyngeals. <em>Holconotus
-rhodoterus</em> is a large, rosy species, and <em>Amphistichus
-argenteus</em> a large species with dull yellowish cross-bands.
-<em>Rhachochilus toxotes</em> is the largest species in the family and the
-one most valued as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping,
-ragged lips. <em>Hyperprosopon arcuatus</em>, the wall-eye surf-fish,
-is brilliantly silvery, with very large eyes. <em>H. agassizi</em>
-closely resembles it, as does also the dwarf species, <em>Hypocritichthys
-analis</em>, to which the Japanese <em>Neoditrema ransonneti</em> is
-very nearly related. The other species are all small. <em>Abeona
-minima</em> and <em>A. aurora</em> feed on seaweed. <em>Brachyistius frenatus</em>
-is the smallest of all, orange-red in color, while its relative,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span><em>Zalembius rosaceus</em>, is handsomest of all, rose-red with a black
-lateral spot. <em>Cymatogaster aggregatus</em>, the surf-shiner, is a
-little fish, excessively common along the California coast, and
-from its abundance it has been selected by Dr. Eigenmann
-as the basis of his studies of these fishes. In this species the
-male shows golden and black markings, which are wanting in
-the silvery female, and the anterior rays of the anal are thickened
-or otherwise modified.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil embiotocoids are recorded.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The viviparity of the Embiotocidæ was first made known
-by Dr. A. C. Jackson in 1863 in a letter to Professor Agassiz.
-From this letter we make the following extracts:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on
-the <em>7th of June</em>, I rose early in the morning for the purpose of
-taking a mess of fish for breakfast, pulled to the usual place,
-baited with crabs, and commenced fishing, the wind blowing
-too strong for profitable angling; nevertheless on the first and
-second casts I fastened the two fishes, male and female, that
-I write about, and such were their liveliness and strength that
-they endangered my slight trout rod. I, however, succeeded
-in bagging both, though in half an hour's subsequent work I
-got not even a nibble from either this or any other species of
-fish. I determined to change the bait, to put upon my hook
-a portion of the fish already caught, and cut for that purpose
-into the larger of the two fish caught. I intended to take a piece
-from the thin part of the belly, when what was my surprise
-to see coming from the opening thus made <em>a small live fish</em>.
-This I at first supposed to be prey which this fish had
-swallowed, but on further opening the fish I was vastly astonished
-to find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached
-to it <em>a long very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent that I
-could already distinguish through it the shape, color, and formation
-of a multitude</em> of small fish (<em>all facsimiles of each other</em>),
-with which it was well filled. I took it on board (we were
-occupying a small vessel which we had purchased for surveying
-purposes). When I opened the bag, I took therefrom <em>eighteen</em>
-more of the young fish, precisely like in size, shape, and color
-the first I had accidentally extracted. The <em>mother was very
-large round her center and of a very dark-brown color, approaching
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>about the back and on the fins a black color, and a
-remarkably vigorous fish</em>. The young which I took from her
-were in shape, save as to rotundity, perfect miniatures of the
-mother, formed like her, and of the same general proportions,
-except that the old one was (probably owing to her pregnancy)
-much broader and wider between the top of the dorsal and the
-ventral fins in proportion to her length than the young were.
-<em>As to color, they were in all respects like the mother, though the
-shades were many degrees lighter.</em> Indeed, they were in all
-respects like their mother and like each other, the same peculiar
-mouth, the same position and shape of the fins, and the
-same eyes and gills, and there cannot remain in the mind of
-any one who sees the fish in the same state that I did a single
-doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from whose
-body I took them, and <em>that this species of fish gives birth to her
-young alive and perfectly formed, and adapted to seeking its own
-livelihood in the water. The number of young in the bag was
-nineteen</em> (I fear I misstated the number in my former letter),
-<em>and every one as brisk and lively and as much at home in a bucket
-of salt water as if they had been for months accustomed to the
-water</em>. The male fish that was caught was not quite as large
-as the female, either in length or circumference, and altogether
-a more slim fish. I think we may reasonably expect to receive
-the specimens by the first of December. But I can hardly
-hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as I found it, with
-young well grown, before the return of the same season, viz.,
-June. By that time I trust the facts will be fully decided,
-and the results, as important as they may be, fully appreciated."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Jackson's specimens came from Sausalito Bay, near
-San Francisco. Soon after the publication of this letter a
-similar discovery was made independently by Dr. William P.
-Gibbons, of Alameda. Still other specimens were made known
-in 1854 by Dr. Charles Girard, these having been collected in
-connection with the United States Pacific Railroad Surveys.
-The species first examined by Dr. Jackson was named by Agassiz
-<em>Embiotoca jacksoni</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Professor Agassiz's comments on Dr. Jackson's discovery
-he makes the following observations (<em>Amer. Jour. Science and
-Arts</em>, 1854):</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>"The female genital apparatus in the state of pregnancy
-consists of a large bag the appearance of which in the living
-animal has been described by Mr. Jackson. Upon the surface
-of it large vascular ramifications are seen, and it is subdivided
-internally into a number of distinct pouches, opening by wide
-slits into the lower part of the sac. This sac seems to be nothing
-but the widened lower end of the ovary, and the pouches
-within it to be formed by the folds of the ovary itself. In each
-of these pouches a young is wrapped up as in a sheet, and all
-are packed in the most economical manner as far as saving
-space is concerned, some having their head turned forwards
-and others backwards. <em>This is, therefore, a normal ovarian
-gestation.</em> The external genital opening is situated behind the
-anus, upon the summit and in the center of a conical protuberance
-formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in its place by
-two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls.
-The number of young contained in this sac seems to vary. Mr.
-Jackson counted nineteen; I have seen only eight or nine in
-the specimens sent by Mr. Cary, but since these were open when
-received it is possible that some had been taken out. However,
-their size is most remarkable in proportion to the mother.
-In a specimen of <em>Emb. jacksoni</em> 10½ inches long and 4½ high
-the young were nearly 3 inches long and 1 inch high; and in
-an <em>Emb. caryi</em> 8 inches long and 3¼ high the young were
-2¾ inches long and ⅞ of an inch high. Judging from their size, I
-suspected for some time that the young could move in and
-out of this sac like young opossums, but on carefully examining
-the position of the young in the pouches, and also the
-contracted condition of the sphincter at the external orifice
-of the sexual organs, I remained satisfied that this could not be
-the case, and that the young which Mr. Jackson found so lively
-after putting them in a bucket of salt water had then for the
-first time come into free contact with the element in which they
-were soon to live; but at the same time it can hardly be doubted
-that the water penetrates into the marsupial sac, since these
-young have fully developed gills. The size of the young compared
-with that of the mother is very remarkable, being full one-third
-its length in the one, and nearly so in the other species.
-Indeed these young Embiotocæ, not yet hatched, are three or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>four times larger than the young of a Pomotis (of the same
-size) a full year old. In this respect these fishes differ from all
-the other viviparous species known to us. There is another
-feature about them of considerable interest, that while the two
-adults differ markedly in coloration, the young have the same
-dress, light yellowish olive with deeper and brighter transverse
-bands, something like the young trout and salmon in their parr
-dress."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_379.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 312.</span>—Viviparous Perch (male), <em>Hysterocarpus traski</em> Gibbons. Battle Creek, Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXII<br />CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_380dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Chromides.</strong>—The suborder <em>Chromides</em> contains
-spiny-rayed fishes similar to the perch-like
-forms in most regards, but strikingly distinguished
-by the complete union of the lower pharyngeal bones, as in the
-<em>Holconoti</em> and <em>Pharyngognathi</em>, and still more remarkably by
-the presence of but one nasal opening on each side. In all the
-perch-like fishes and in nearly all others there are two nasal
-openings or nostrils on each side, these two entering into the
-same nasal sac. In all the <em>Chromides</em> the lateral line is incomplete
-or interrupted, and the scales are usually large and ctenoid.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Cichlidæ.</strong>—The suborder <em>Chromides</em> includes two families,
-<em>Cichlidæ</em>, and <em>Pomacentridæ</em>. The <em>Cichlidæ</em> are fresh-water
-fishes of the tropics, characterized by the presence of three to
-ten spines in the anal fin. In size, color, appearance, habits,
-and food value they bear a striking resemblance to the fresh-water
-sunfishes, or <em>Centrarchidæ</em>, of the eastern United States.
-This resemblance is one of analogy only, for in structure the
-<em>Cichlidæ</em> have no more in common with the <em>Centrarchidæ</em> than
-with other families of perch or bass. The numerous species
-of <em>Cichlidæ</em> are confined to tropical America and to corresponding
-districts in Africa and western Asia. <em>Tilapia nilotica</em>
-abounds in the Nile. <em>Tilapia galilæa</em> is found in the river
-Jordan and the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to
-form part of the great draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels,
-and a black spot on the side is held to commemorate the touch
-of Simon Peter. Numerous other species of <em>Cichlidæ</em>, large and
-small, abound in central Africa, even in the salt ditches of the
-Sahara.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Cichla</em>, especially <em>Cichla ocellaris</em>, of the rivers
-of South America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>analogy to the black bass of farther north. A vast number
-of species belonging to <em>Heros</em>, <em>Acara</em>, <em>Cichlasoma</em>, <em>Geophagus</em>,
-<em>Chætobranchus</em>, and related genera swarm in the Amazon region.
-Each of the large rivers of Mexico has one or more species; one
-of these, <em>Heros cyanoguttatus</em>, occurs in the Rio Grande and the
-rivers of southern Texas, its range corresponding with that of
-<em>Tetragonopterus argentatus</em>, just as the range of the whole family
-of <em>Cichlidæ</em> corresponds with that of the <em>Characinidæ</em>. No other
-species of either family enters the United States. A similar
-species, <em>Heros tetracanthus</em>, abounds in the rivers of Cuba, and
-another, <em>Heros beani</em>, called the mojarra verde, in the streams
-of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America <em>Cichlidæ</em>
-and <em>Characinidæ</em> are very abundant. One fossil genus is
-known, called <em>Priscacara</em> by Cope. <em>Priscacara clivosa</em> and
-other species occur in the Eocene of Green River and the Great
-Basin of Utah. In this genus vomerine teeth are said to be
-present, and there are three anal spines. None of the living
-<em>Cichlidæ</em> have vomerine teeth.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>
-<img src='images/i_382a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 313.</span>—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), <em>Hypsypops rubicunda</em> (Girard). La Jolla, San Diego, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_382b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 314.</span>—<em>Pomacentrus leucostictus</em> (Müller &amp; Troschel), Damsel-fish. Family <em>Pomacentridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.</strong>—The <em>Pomacentridæ</em>, called
-rock-pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in
-all cases but two anal spines. The species are often very brilliantly
-colored, lustrous metallic blue and orange or scarlet
-being the prevailing shades among the bright-colored species.
-Their habits in the reef pools correspond very closely with those
-of the <em>Chætodontidæ</em>. With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly-fishes,
-the exceeding alertness and quickness of movement make
-up for lack of protective colors. With both groups the choice
-of rocky basins, crevices in the coral, and holes in coral reefs
-preserves them from attacks of enemies large enough to destroy
-them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of living coral are
-often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The <em>Pomacentridæ</em>
-are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to the northward
-of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored
-differently from the adult, having sky-blue spots and often
-ocelli on the fins, which disappear with age. But one species
-<em>Chromis chromis</em>, is found in the Mediterranean. <em>Chromis
-punctipinnis</em>, the blacksmith, is found in southern California,
-and <em>Chromis notatus</em> is the common dogoro of Japan. One of
-the largest species, reaching the length of a foot, is the Garibaldi,
-<em>Hypsypops rubicundus</em>, of the rocky shores of southern
-California. This fish, when full grown, is of a pure bright
-scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue spots.
-Species of <em>Pomacentrus</em>, locally known as pescado azul, abound
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>in the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. <em>Pomacentrus
-fuscus</em> is the commonest West Indian species, and <em>Pomacentrus
-rectifrenum</em> the most abundant on the west coast of Mexico,
-the young, of an exquisite sky-blue, crowding the rock pools.
-<em>Pomacentrus</em> of many species, blue, scarlet, black, and golden,
-abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is
-without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest
-development in the south seas. About forty different species of
-<em>Pomacentrus</em> and <em>Glyphisodon</em> occur in the corals of the harbor
-of Apia in Samoa.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_383.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 315.</span>—Cockeye Pilot, <em>Glyphisodon marginatus</em> (Bloch). Cuba.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Almost equally abundant are the species of <em>Glyphisodon</em>. The
-"cockeye pilot," or jaqueta, <em>Glyphisodon marginatus</em>, green with
-black bands, swarms in the West Indies, occasionally ranging
-northward, and is equally common on the west coast of Mexico.
-<em>Glyphisodon abdominalis</em> replaces it in Hawaii, and the Asiatic
-<em>Glyphisodon saxatilis</em> is perhaps the parent of both. <em>Glyphisodon
-sordidus</em> banded with pale and with a black ocellus below the
-soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to the Red Sea, and is
-a food-fish of some importance. <em>Glyphisodon cœlestinus</em> blue,
-with black bands, abounds in the south seas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>The many species of <em>Amphiprion</em> are always brilliant, red
-or orange, usually marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy
-blue. <em>Amphiprion melanopus</em> abounds in the south seas.
-<em>Azurina hirundo</em> is a slender species of lower California of a
-brilliant metallic blue. All these species are carnivorous, feeding
-on shrimps, worms, and the like.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_384.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 316.</span>—Indigo Damsel fish, <em>Microspathodon dorsalis</em> (Gill). Mazatlan, Mex.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Microspathodon</em> is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being
-loosely implanted in the jaws. <em>Microspathodon dorsalis</em>, of the
-west coast of Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer-like
-fins. <em>Microspathodon chrysurus</em>, of the West Indian coral
-reefs, black with round blue spots and the tail yellow. This
-family is probably of recent origin, as few fossils are referred
-to it. <em>Odonteus pygmæus</em> of the Eocene perhaps belongs to it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Pharyngognathi.</strong>—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, constituting
-the group called <em>Pharyngognathi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">φαρύγξ</span>, gullet; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>,
-jaw), by Johannes Müller, have the lower pharyngeal bones
-much enlarged and solidly united, their teeth being either
-rounded or else flat and paved. The nostrils, ventral fins,
-pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the ordinary perch-like
-type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized, usually
-large and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills
-are reduced in number, 3½ instead of 4, with no slit behind the
-last half gill. The scales are always cycloid and are usually large.
-In the tropical forms the vertebræ are always twenty-four in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span>number (10 + 14), but in northern forms the number is largely
-increased with a proportionate increase in the number and
-strength of the dorsal spines. All the species are strictly marine,
-and the coloration is often the most highly specialized and
-brilliant known among fishes, the predominant shade being
-blue.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_385.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 317.</span>—Tautog, <em>Tautoga onitis</em> (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and
-snails, which they crush with their strong teeth, there being
-often a strong canine at the posterior end of the premaxillary,
-which holds the snail while the lower jaw acts upon it. The
-species are very numerous and form the most conspicuous
-feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They abound
-especially in the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are
-good for food, though all are relatively flavorless, the flesh
-being rather soft and not oily.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.</strong>—The principal family is that of
-the <em>Labridæ</em>, characterized by the presence of separate teeth
-in the front of the jaws. Numerous fossil species are known
-from the Eocene and Miocene. Most of these are known only
-from the lower pharyngeal bones. <em>Labrodon</em> is the most widely
-diffused genus, probably allied to <em>Labrus</em>, but with a pile of
-successional teeth beneath each functional tooth. The species
-are mostly from the Miocene.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>
-<img src='images/i_386.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 318.</span>—Tautog, <em>Tautoga onitis</em> (L.). (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>The northern forms of <em>Labridæ</em> are known as wrasse on the
-coasts of England. Among these are <em>Labrus bergylta</em>, the ballan
-wrasse; <em>Labrus viridis</em>, the green wrasse; <em>Labrus ossiphagus</em>,
-the red wrasse; and <em>Labrus merula</em>, the black wrasse. <em>Acantholabrus
-palloni</em> and <em>Centrolabrus exoletus</em> have more than
-three anal spines. The latter species, known as rock cook, is
-abundant in western Norway, as far north as Throndhjem, its
-range extending to the northward beyond that of any other
-Labroid. Allied to these, on the American coast, is the tautog
-or blackfish, <em>Tautoga onitis</em>, a common food-fish, dusky in
-color with excellent white flesh, especially abundant on the
-coast of New England. With this, and still more abundant, is
-the cunner or chogset, <em>Tautogolabrus adspersus</em>, greenish-blue
-in color, the flesh being also more or less blue. This fish is
-too small to have much value as food, but it readily takes the
-hook set for better fishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_387.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 319.</span>—Capitaine or Hogfish, <em>Lachnolaimus falcatus</em>. Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Mediterranean are found many species of <em>Crenilabrus</em>,
-gaily colored, each species having its own peculiar pattern and
-its own arrangement of inky spots. Among these are <em>Crenilabrus
-mediterraneus</em>, <em>Crenilabrus pavo</em>, and <em>Crenilabrus griseus</em>.
-With these are the small species called <em>Ctenolabrus rupestris</em>,
-the goldsinny, much like the American cunner, and the long-nosed
-<em>Symphodus scina</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capitaine
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>or hogfish, <em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em>, a great fish, crimson
-in color, with its fin spines ending in long streamers; <em>Bodianus
-rufus</em>, the Spanish ladyfish or pudiano, half crimson, half
-golden. <em>Halichæres radiatus</em>, the pudding-wife (a mysterious
-word derived from "oldwife" and the Portuguese name, pudiano),
-a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked. Of the
-smaller species, <em>Clepticus parræ</em>, the janissary, with very small
-teeth, <em>Halichœres bivittatus</em>, the slippery-dick, ranging northward
-to Cape Hatteras, and <em>Doratonotus megalepis</em>, of an intense
-grass-green color, are among the most notable. The razor-fish,
-<em>Xyrichthys psittacus</em>, red, with the forehead compressed
-to a sharp edge, is found in the Mediterranean as well as throughout
-the West Indies, where several other species of razor-fish
-also occur.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_388.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 320.</span>—Razor-fish, <em>Xyrichthys psittacus</em> (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>
-<img src='images/i_389a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 321.</span>—Redfish (male), <em>Pimelometopon pulcher</em> (Ayres). San Diego.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_389b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 322.</span>—<em>Lepidaplois perditio</em> (Quoy &amp; Gaimard). Wakanoura, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast
-of America. <em>Pimelometopon pulcher</em>, the redfish or fathead of
-southern California, reaches a length of two feet or more. It
-abounds in the broad band of giant kelp which lines the California
-coast and is a food-fish of much importance. The
-female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail are black
-and on the top of the head is developed with age a great adipose
-hump. A similar hump is found on the adult of several other
-large labroids. Similar species on the coast of South America,
-differing in color and size of scales, are <em>Pimelometopon darwini</em>,
-<em>Trochocopus opercularis</em>, and <em>Bodianus diplotænia</em>. The señorita,
-<em>Oxyjulis californica</em>, is a dainty cream-colored little fish
-of the California coast, <em>Halichœres semicinctus</em>, the kelpfish,
-light olive, the male with a blue shoulder bar, is found in southern
-California. On the west coast of Mexico are numerous
-species of <em>Thalassoma</em>, <em>Halichœres</em>, <em>Pseudojulis</em>, <em>Xyrichthys</em>
-and <em>Iniistius</em>, all different from the corresponding species in
-the West Indies, and equally different from the much greater
-variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian
-and West Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of
-every shade and pattern of bright colors—blue, green, golden,
-scarlet, crimson, purple—as if painted on with lavish hand and
-often in the most gaudy pattern, although at times laid on
-with the greatest delicacy. The most brilliant species belong
-to <em>Thalassoma</em> and <em>Julis</em>, the most delicately colored to <em>Stethojulis</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>and <em>Cirrhilabrus</em>. In <em>Gomphosus</em> the snout is prolonged
-on a long slender tube. In <em>Cheilio</em> the whole body is elongate.
-In <em>Iniistius</em> the first two dorsal spines form a separate fin,
-the forehead being sharp as in <em>Xyrichthys</em>. Other widely
-distributed genera are <em>Anampses</em>, <em>Lepidaplois</em>, <em>Semicossyphus</em>,
-<em>Duymæria</em>, <em>Platyglossus</em>, <em>Pseudolabrus</em>, <em>Hologymnosus</em>, <em>Macropharyngodon</em>,
-<em>Coris</em>, <em>Julis</em>, <em>Hemipteronotus</em>, <em>Novaculichthys</em>,
-<em>Cheilinus</em>, <em>Hemigymnus</em>, and <em>Cymolutes</em>. <em>Halichœres</em> is as abundant
-in the East Indies as in the West, one of its species
-<em>Halichœres pæcilopterus</em> being common as far north as Hakodate
-in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes
-are very different in color, although in most species no external
-sexual differences of any sort appear. In the East Indian
-genus, <em>Pseudocheilinus</em>, the eye is very greatly modified. The
-cornea is thickened, forming two additional lens-like structures.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The small family of <em>Odacidæ</em> differs from the Labridæ in
-having in each jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth
-anteriorly, the pharyngeal teeth being pavement-like. The
-scales are small, very much smaller than in the <em>Scaridæ</em>, the
-body more elongate, and the structure of the teeth different.
-The species are mostly Australian, <em>Odax balteatus</em> being the
-most abundant. It is locally known as kelpfish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the <em>Siphonognathidæ</em> the teeth are much as in the <em>Odacidæ</em>,
-but the body is very elongate, the snout produced as in the
-cornet-fishes (<em>Fistularia</em>), and the upper jaw ends in a long skinny
-appendage. <em>Siphonognathus argyrophanes</em>, from Australia, reaches
-a length of sixteen inches.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.</strong>—The parrot-fishes, or <em>Scaridæ</em>, are
-very similar to the <em>Labridæ</em> in form, color, and scales, but
-differ in the more or less complete fusion of the teeth, a character
-which varies in the different genera.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of these the most primitive is <em>Calotomus</em>, confined to the
-East Indies and Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united
-at base, their tips free and imbricated over the surface of the
-jaw.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. <em>Calotomus
-japonicus</em> is the Budai or Igami of Japan. <em>Calotomus
-sandwichensis</em> and <em>Calotomus irradians</em> are found in Hawaii,
-and <em>Calotomus xenodon</em> on the off-shore islands of Mexico.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>In <em>Calotomus</em> the dorsal spines are slender. In <em>Scaridea</em> (<em>balia</em>)
-of the Hawaiian Islands the first dorsal is formed of pungent
-spines as in <em>Sparisoma</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_391a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 323.</span>—Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, <em>Sparisoma cretense</em> (L.). <em>a</em>, upper; <em>b</em>, lower.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_391b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 324.</span>—Jaws of a Parrot-fish, <em>Calotomus xenodon</em> Gilbert.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_391c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 325.</span>—<em>Cryptotomus beryllinus</em> Jordan &amp; Swain. Key West, Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Cryptotomus</em> of the Atlantic is also a transitional group
-having the general characters of <em>Sparisoma</em>, but the anterior
-teeth more separate. The several species are all small and
-characteristic of the West Indian fauna, one species, <em>Cryptotomus
-beryllinus</em>, ranging northward to Long Island.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>
-<img src='images/i_392a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 326.</span>—<em>Sparisoma hoplomystax</em> (Cope). Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the large genus <em>Sparisoma</em> the teeth are more completely
-joined. In this group, which is found only in the tropical
-Atlantic, the lower pharyngeals are broader than long and
-hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws are not completely united,
-the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral line not interrupted,
-and the gill membranes broadly united to the isthmus.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_392b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 327.</span>—<em>Sparisoma abildgaardi</em> (Bloch), Red Parrot-fish. Loro, Colorado. Family <em>Scaridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the numerous species the dull-colored <em>Sparisoma flavescens</em>
-is most abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther
-north than any other. <em>Sparisoma cretense</em>, the <em>Scarus</em> of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>ancients, is found in the Mediterranean, being the only member
-of the family known in Europe and the only <em>Sparisoma</em> known
-from outside the West Indian fauna.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, <em>Sparisoma
-abildgaardi</em>, <em>Sparisoma xystrodon</em>, <em>Sparisoma hoplomystax</em>, the
-last two being small species about the Florida Keys, and the
-handsome <em>Sparisoma viride</em> from the West Indies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id018'>
-<img src='images/i_393a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 328.</span>—Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus cæruleus</em> (Bloch).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Scarus</em> is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its members
-are especially abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies,
-the center of distribution of the group,
-although some extend their range to
-western Mexico, Japan, the Red Sea, and
-Australia, and a large number are found
-in the West Indies. Most of them are
-fishes of large size, but a few, as the West
-Indian <em>Scarus croicensis</em>, reach the length
-of less than a foot, and other still smaller
-species (<em>Scarus evermanni</em>, <em>Scarus bollmani</em>)
-are found only in water of considerable
-depth (200 fathoms).</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_393b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 329.</span>—Upper pharyngeals of an Indian Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus strongylocephalus</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_393c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 330.</span>—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, <em>Scarus strongylocephalus</em> (Bleeker).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>
-<img src='images/i_394a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 331.</span>—<em>Scarus emblematicus</em> Jordan &amp; Rutter. Jamaica.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_394b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 332.</span>—<em>Scarus cœruleus</em> (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul. Family <em>Scaridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Scarus</em> is characterized by
-not only the almost complete fusion of its
-teeth, but by numerous other characters.
-Its lower pharyngeals are oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth
-appearing as a mosaic on the concave surface. The gill-membranes
-are scarcely united to the narrow isthmus, the lateral
-line is interrupted, the dorsal spines are flexible, and there
-are but few scales on the head. These, as well as the scales
-of the body, are always large. The most highly specialized
-of its species have the teeth deep blue in color, a character
-which marks the genus or subgenus <em>Pseudoscarus</em>. Of the species
-of this type, the loro, <em>Pseudoscarus cœlestinus</em>, and the more
-abundant guacamaia, <em>Pseudoscarus guacamaia</em> (fig. 215 vol. I) of
-the West Indies, are characteristic forms. The perrico, <em>Pseudoscarus
-perrico</em> of the west coast of Mexico, and the great blue
-parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and Samoa, <em>Pseudoscarus jordani</em>,
-belong to this type. <em>Pseudoscarus jordani</em> was formerly tabu
-to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant colors and toothsome
-flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly valued fish
-at the royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily at a
-dollar or more per pound. To this type belong also the blue
-parrot-fish, <em>Pseudoscarus ovifrons</em>, of Japan. In the restricted
-genus <em>Scarus</em> proper the teeth are pale. The great blue parrot-fish,
-of the West Indies, <em>Scarus cœruleus</em>, belongs to this
-group. This species, deep blue in color, reaches a large size,
-and the adult has a large fleshy hump on the forehead.
-Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and with showy coloration
-are the West Indian species <em>Scarus tæniopterus</em>, <em>Scarus vetula</em>,
-<em>Scarus croicensis</em>, etc.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span>
-<img src='images/i_395.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 333.</span>—<em>Scarus vetula</em> Bloch &amp; Schneider, Parrot-fish. Family <em>Scaridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>
-<img src='images/i_396.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 334.</span>—Slippery-dick or Doncella, <em>Halichœres bivittatus</em> (Bloch), a fish of the coral reefs. Key West. Family <em>Labridæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very many species of both <em>Scarus</em> and <em>Pseudoscarus</em>, green,
-blue, red-brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs
-of Polynesia. About twenty-five species occur in Samoa.
-<em>Pseudoscarus latax</em> and <em>P. ultramarinus</em> being large and
-showy species, chiefly blue. <em>Pseudoscarus prasiognathus</em> is
-deep red with the jaws bright blue.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil species referred to <em>Scarus</em> but belonging rather to <em>Sparisoma</em>
-are found in the later Tertiary. The genera <em>Phyllodus</em>,
-<em>Egertonia</em>, and <em>Paraphyllodus</em> of the Eocene perhaps form a
-transition from <em>Labridæ</em> to <em>Scaridæ</em>. In <em>Paraphyllodus medius</em>
-the three median teeth of the lower pharyngeals are greatly
-widened, extending across the surface of the bone.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXIII<br />THE SQUAMIPINNES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_397.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 335.</span>—<em>Monodactylus argenteus</em> (Linnæus). From Apia, Samoa. Family <em>Scorpididæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_397dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong>The Squamipinnes.</strong>—Very closely allied to the <em>Percomorphi</em>
-is the great group called <em>Squamipinnes</em>
-(<em>squama</em>, scale; <em>pinna</em>, fin) by Cuvier and <em>Epelasmia</em>
-by Cope. With a general agreement with the <em>Percomorphi</em>, it
-is distinguished by the more or less complete soldering of the
-post-temporal with the cranium. In the more specialized
-forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the upper
-jaw, and a progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening.
-The ventral fin retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the
-perch mackerel-like forms, it has one spine and five rays, never
-any more. The ventral fins are occasionally lost in the adult,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>as in the <em>Stromateidæ</em>, or they may lose part of their rays. The
-name <em>Squamipinnes</em> refers to the scaly fins, the typical species
-having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and caudal, and sometimes
-of other fins densely covered with small scales. In various
-aberrant forms these scales are absent. The name <em>Epelasmia</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔπι</span>, above; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἐλάσμος</span>, plate) refers to the thin upper pharyngeals
-characteristic of certain forms. The transition from
-this group to the <em>Sclerodermi</em> is very clear and very gradual.
-The <em>Squamipinnes</em>, <em>Sclerodermi</em>, <em>Ostracodermi</em>, and <em>Gymnodontes</em>
-form a continuous degenerating series. On the other hand the
-less specialized <em>Squamipinnes</em> approach very closely to forms
-already considered. The <em>Antigoniidæ</em> are of uncertain affinities,
-possibly derived from such forms as <em>Histiopteridæ</em>, while <em>Platax</em>
-show considerable resemblance to scaly-finned fishes like the
-<em>Kyphosidæ</em> and <em>Stromateidæ</em>. The <em>Scorpididæ</em> seem intermediate
-between <em>Stromateidæ</em> and <em>Platacidæ</em>. In such offshoots from
-<em>Scombroidei</em> or <em>Percoidei</em> the group doubtless had its origin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We may begin the series with some forms which are of
-doubtful affinity and more or less intermediate between the
-<em>Squamipinnes</em> and the more primitive <em>Percomorphi</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Scorpididæ.</strong>—This family has the general appearance of
-<em>Platax</em> and <em>Ilarches</em>, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the
-post-temporal is free from the skull as in perch-like fishes. The
-species inhabit the Pacific. <em>Scorpis georgianus</em> is a food-fish of
-Australia, with the body oblong. <em>Monodactylus argenteus</em>, the
-toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular in form, while <em>Psettus sebæ</em> is
-twice as deep as long, the deepest-bodied of all fishes in proportion
-to its length.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.</strong>—The boarfishes (<em>Antigoniidæ</em>) are
-characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales,
-the post-temporal, as in the <em>Chætodontidæ</em> and the <em>Zeidæ</em>, being
-adnate to the skull.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id019'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>
-<img src='images/i_399.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 336.</span>—<em>Psettus sebæ</em> Cuv. &amp; Val. East Indies.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>These fishes bear some resemblance to <em>Zeus</em>, but there is no
-evidence of close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to
-the <em>Chætodontidæ</em>. <em>Capros aper</em>, the boarfish, is common in
-southern Europe, reaching a length of less than a foot, the
-protractile mouth suggesting that of a pig. The diamond-fishes,
-<em>Antigonia</em>, are deeper than long and strongly compressed,
-the body being covered with roughish scales. The color is
-salmon-red and the species live just below the depths ordinarily
-explored by fishermen. <em>Antigonia capros</em> is found at Madeira
-and in the West Indies, <em>Antigonia steindachneri</em> about Hawaii
-and in Japan, while the smaller <em>Antigonia rubescens</em> is abundant
-in the Japanese bays at a depth reached by the dredge. An
-extinct genus, <em>Proantigonia</em> from the Miocene is said to connect
-<em>Antigonia</em> with <em>Capros</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Arches: Toxotidæ.</strong>—The archers, <em>Toxotidæ</em>, have the body
-compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five
-spines. The skeleton differs widely from that of <em>Chætodon</em> and
-the family should perhaps rather find its place among the percoids.
-<em>Toxotes jaculatrix</em> is found in the East Indies. The
-name alludes to its supposed habit of catching insects by shooting
-drops of water at them through its long mouth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Ephippidæ.</strong>—With the typical <em>Squamipinnes</em>, the teeth
-become very slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least
-specialized family is that of <em>Ephippidæ</em>, characterized by the
-presence of four anal spines and a recumbent spine before the
-dorsal. The principal genus, <em>Ephippus</em> (<em>Scatophagus</em>), is represented
-by <em>Ephippus argus</em>, a small, bass-like fish, spotted with
-black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging northward to Formosa.
-Species referred to <em>Ephippus</em> (<em>Scatophagus</em>) are recorded
-from the Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of
-<em>Toxotes</em> has been also found.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.</strong>—In the <em>Ilarchidæ</em> the dorsal is
-divided into two fins, the spinous part being free from scales.
-In various regards the species are intermediate between ordinary
-perch-like forms and the chætodonts. In these fishes the body
-is very deep and, with the soft fins, closely covered with roughish
-scales. In <em>Ilarches</em> (<em>Ephippus</em>), represented by <em>Ilarches orbis</em>
-of the Indian seas, these scales are relatively large. This
-species is a common food-fish from India to Formosa.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the American genus, <em>Chætodipterus</em>, the scales are quite
-small. The spadefish (<em>Chætodipterus faber</em>), sometimes called also
-moonfish or angel-fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a
-length of two feet. It is rather common from Cape Cod to Cuba,
-and is an excellent pan fish, with finely flavored white flesh.
-The young are marked by black cross-bands which disappear
-with age, and in the adult the supraoccipital crest is greatly
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>thickened and the skull otherwise modified. A very similar
-species, <em>Chætodipterus zonatus</em>, occurs on the west coast of
-Mexico. Species allied to <em>Chætodipterus</em> are fossil in the Italian
-Eocene. The <em>Drepanidæ</em> of the East Indies are close to the
-<em>Ilarchidæ</em>. <em>Drepane punctata</em> is a large, deep-bodied fish resembling
-the spadefish but with larger scales.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_401.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 337.</span>—Spadefish, <em>Chætodipterus faber</em> (L.). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Platacidæ.</strong>—Closely related to the <em>Ilarchidæ</em> is also the
-East Indian family of <em>Platacidæ</em>, remarkable for the very great
-depth and compression of the body, which is much deeper than
-long, and the highly elevated dorsal and anal still further emphasize
-this peculiarity of form. In this group the few dorsal
-spines are closely attached to the soft rays and the general
-color is dusky. In the young the body is deeper than in the
-adult and the ventral fins much more produced. The best-known
-species is the tsuzume or batfish (<em>Platax orbicularis</em>),
-which ranges from India through the warm current to northern
-Japan. <em>Platax teira</em>, farther south, is very similar. <em>Platax</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span><em>altissimus</em>, with a very high dorsal, is a fossil in the Eocene of
-Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_402.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 338.</span>—Butterfly-fish, <em>Chætodon capistratus</em> Linnæus. Jamaica.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.</strong>—The central family of
-<em>Squamipinnes</em> is that of the butterfly-fishes or <em>Chætodontidæ</em>.
-In this group the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth
-small, the dorsal fin continuous and closely scaly, and the ventral
-fins with one spine and five rays. The species are mostly
-of small size and brilliant and varied coloration, yellow and
-black being the leading colors. They vary considerably with
-age, the young having the posterior free edges of the bones of
-the head produced, forming a sort of collar. These forms have
-received the name of <em>Tholichthys</em>, but that supposed genus
-is merely the young of <em>Chætodon</em>. The species of <em>Chætodontidæ</em>
-abound in rock pools and about coral reefs in clear water. They
-are among the most characteristic forms of these waters and
-their excessive quickness of movement compensates for their
-conspicuous coloration. In these confined localities they have,
-however, few enemies. The broad bodies and spinous fins make
-them rather difficult for a large fish to swallow. They feed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>on small crustaceans, worms, and the like. The analogy to the
-butterfly is a striking one, giving rise to the English name,
-butterfly-fish, the Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chochouwo,
-all having the same meaning. Fossil chætodonts are
-rather few, <em>Chætodon pseudorhombus</em> of the Pliocene of France,
-<em>Holocanthus microcephalus</em> and <em>Pomacanthus subarcuatus</em> of the
-Eocene, being the only species recorded by Zittel.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_403.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 339.</span>—Black Angel-fish, <em>Pomacanthus arcuatus</em> (Linnæus). Barnegat, New Jersey.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the principal genus, <em>Chætodon</em>, the colors are especially
-bright. There is almost always a black bar across the eye,
-and often black ocelli adorn the fins. This genus is wanting
-in Europe. <em>Chætodon capistratus</em>, <em>striatus</em>, and numerous other
-species are found in the West Indies; <em>Chætodon humeralis</em> and
-<em>nigrirostris</em> are common on the coast of Mexico. The center
-of their distribution is in Polynesia and the East Indian Archipelago.
-<em>Chætodon reticulatus</em>, <em>lineolatus</em>, <em>ulietensis</em>, <em>ornatissimus</em>,
-<em>ephippion</em>, <em>setifer</em>, and <em>auriga</em> are among the most showy
-species. Numerous closely related genera are described. In
-some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube, bearing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>the jaws at its end. Of this type are <em>Chelmo</em> in India, <em>Forcipiger</em>
-in Polynesia, and <em>Prognathodes</em> in the West Indies. <em>Heniochus</em>
-(<em>macrolepidotus</em>) has one dorsal spine greatly elongated. <em>Microcanthus
-strigatus</em>, one of the most widely distributed species, is
-known by its small scales. <em>Megaprotodon</em> (<em>triangularis</em>) has four
-anal spines instead of three as in the others.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_404.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 340.</span>—Angel-fish or Isabelita, <em>Holacanthus ciliaris</em> (Linnæus). Jamaica. Family <em>Chætodontidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Holacanthus</em>, known as angel-fishes, are larger
-in size, and their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet
-or blue. In this genus the preopercle is armed with a strong
-spine, and there are fourteen or more strong spines in the dorsal.
-This genus has also its center of distribution in the East Indies,
-whence two species (<em>septentrionalis</em> and <em>ronin</em>) with concentric
-stripes of blue range northward to Japan. <em>Holacanthus tibicen</em>,
-jet-black with one yellow cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu
-Islands southward. The angel-fish or isabelita (<em>Holacanthus
-ciliaris</em>), orange-red, sky-blue, and golden, as though gaudily
-painted, is the best-known species. The vaqueta de dos colores
-or rock beauty (<em>Holacanthus bicolor</em>), half jet-black, half golden,
-is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-fishes of the
-West Indies. <em>Holacanthus passer</em> is a showy inhabitant of the
-west coast of Mexico. <em>Holacanthus diacanthus</em>, orange, barred
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>with blue, is one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral
-reefs of Polynesia. <em>Holacanthus flavissimus</em>, golden with some
-deep-blue markings, and <em>Holacanthus nicobariensis</em>, blackish with
-white circles, are found with other species in the same waters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Pomacanthus</em> (<em>Pomacanthodes</em>) includes American
-species only, still larger in size and differing from <em>Holacanthus</em> in
-having nine to eleven spines only in the dorsal fin. The young
-of <em>Pomacanthus</em> are blackish, crossed by many curved yellow
-cross-bands, which disappear entirely with age. Three species
-are known, <em>Pomacanthus arcuatus</em>, the black angel, chirivita
-or portugais, <em>Pomacanthus paru</em>, the Indian-fish or paru of the
-West Indies, and <em>Pomacanthus zonipectus</em>, "Mojarra de las
-Piedras," of the west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes,
-but lacking the brilliant colors of <em>Holacanthus</em> and the fine
-pattern usual in <em>Chætodon</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_405.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 341.</span>—Rock Beauty, <em>Holacanthus tricolor</em> (L.). Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pygæidæ.</strong>—Between the <em>Chætodontidæ</em> and the <em>Acanthuridæ</em>
-we would place the extinct family of <em>Pygæidæ</em>, of the Eocene. In
-<em>Pygæus gigas</em> and other species the dorsal spines are strong and
-numerous; there are 5 to 8 species in the anal fin, the scales
-are shagreen-like, and the teeth seem coarser than in the <em>Chætodontidæ</em>.
-The tail is apparently unarmed, and the soft dorsal, as
-in <em>Chætodon</em>, is much shorter than the spinous. To this family
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>the Eocene genera, <em>Aulorhamphus</em> (<em>bolceusis</em>), with produced
-snout, and <em>Apostasis</em> (<em>croaticus</em>), with long spinous dorsal, probably
-belong.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id020'>
-<img src='images/i_406.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 342.</span>—The Moorish Idol, <em>Zanclus canescens</em> (Linnæus). From Hawaii. Family <em>Zanclidæ</em>. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Zanclidæ</em> includes
-a single species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, <em>Zanclus
-canescens</em>. In this family the scales are reduced to a fine shagreen,
-and in the adult two bony horns grow out over the eye.
-The dorsal spines are prolonged in filaments and the color is
-yellow crossed by bars of black. <em>Zanclus canescens</em> is a very
-handsome fish with the general appearance and habit of a
-<em>Chætodon</em>, but the form is more exaggerated. It is found
-throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-shore islands of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>Mexico, and is generally common, though rarely entering rock
-pools.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Zanclus eocænus</em> is recorded from the Italian Eocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.</strong>—In the next family, <em>Acanthuridæ</em>,
-the surgeon-fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen-like,
-the body is more elongate, the gill-openings still more
-restricted, and the teeth are flattened and incisor-like. The pubic
-bone is more elongate, and in all the species some sort of armature
-is developed on the side of the tail. The spinous dorsal
-in all is less developed than the soft dorsal. The species abound
-in the warm seas, especially about the tide pools, and are used
-as food. They undergo considerable changes with age, the
-caudal armature being developed by degrees. Nearly all are
-dull brown in color, but in some a vivid ornamentation is added.
-Fossil forms are found from the Eocene and later. Most of
-these are referable to <em>Teuthis</em> and <em>Acanthurus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_407.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 343.</span>—<em>Teuthis cœruleus</em> (Bloch &amp; Schneider), Blue Tang. Mexico. Family <em>Teuthididæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal genus is <em>Teuthis</em>, characterized by the presence
-on each side of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine
-with the point turned forwards and dropping into a sheath.
-This spine gives these fishes their name of surgeon-fish, doctor-fish,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>lancet-fish, tang, barbero, etc., and it forms a very effective
-weapon against fish or man who would seize one of these
-creatures by the tail. The species have the center of distribution
-in the East Indies and have not reached Europe. Three species
-are found in the West Indies. The blue tang (<em>Teuthis cœruleus</em>)
-is chiefly bright blue. The common tang, <em>Teuthis chirurgus</em>, is
-brown with bluish streaks, while a third species, <em>Teuthis bahianus</em>,
-has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species is
-<em>Teuthis crestonis</em>, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are
-closely related to <em>Teuthis matoides</em>, found from India to Hawaii.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_408.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 344.</span>—Brown Tang, <em>Teuthis bahianus</em> (Ranzani). Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Teuthis triostegus</em>, of Japan and Polynesia and the East
-Indies, is covered with cross-bands alternately black and pale.
-In Hawaii this is replaced by the very similar <em>Teuthis sandwichensis</em>.
-Many species are found about Hawaii and the other
-Polynesian Islands. <em>Teuthis achilles</em> has a large blotch of brilliant
-scarlet on the tail, and <em>Teuthis olivaceus</em> a bright-colored
-mark on the shoulder. <em>Teuthis lineatus</em>, yellow with blue
-stripes, a showily colored fish of the coral reefs, is often poisonous,
-its flesh producing ciguatera.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Zebrasoma</em> differs from <em>Teuthis</em> in having but 4 or 5 dorsal
-spines instead of 10 or 11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very
-high. <em>Zebrasoma flavescens</em>, sometimes brown, sometimes bright
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>yellow, is common in Polynesia; <em>Zebrasoma veliferum</em>, cross-barred
-with black, is also common.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Ctenochætus</em> (<em>strigosus</em>), unlike the others, is herbivorous and
-has its teeth loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black
-with dull orange streaks, was once tabu to the king of Hawaii,
-who ate it raw, and common people who appropriated it were
-put to death.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Xesurus</em> the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four
-bony tubercles which have no sharp edge. <em>Xesurus scalprum</em>
-is common in Japan, and there are three species or more on
-the west coast of Mexico, <em>Xesurus punctatus</em> and <em>Xesurus
-laticlavius</em> being most abundant.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Prionurus</em> (<em>microlepidotus</em>) of the tropical Pacific the
-armature is still more degraded, about six small plates being
-developed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Acanthurus</em> (<em>Monoceros</em>, <em>Naseus</em>), the unicorn-fish and its
-relatives, the ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays,
-the caudal spines are very large, blunt, immovable, one placed
-in front of the other. In most of the species of <em>Acanthurus</em>
-a long, bony horn grows forward from the cranium above the
-eye. This is wanting in the young and has various degrees of
-development in the different species, in some of which it is
-wholly wanting. The species of <em>Acanthurus</em> reach a large size,
-and in some the caudal spines are bright scarlet, in others blue.
-<em>Acanthurus unicornis</em>, the unicorn-fish, is the commonest species
-and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in Japan,
-in Hawaii, and in the East Indies.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Axinurus thynnoides</em> of the East Indies has a long, slim body,
-with slender tail like a mackerel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.</strong>—The <em>Amphacanthi</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἄμφϊ</span>, everywhere; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἄκανθα</span>, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes certainly
-related to the <em>Teuthididæ</em>, but differing from all other
-fishes in having the last ray of the ventrals spinous as well as
-the first, the formula being I. 4, I. The anal fin has also six
-or seven spines; and the maxillary is soldered to the premaxillary.
-The skeleton is essentially like that of the <em>Acanthuridæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The single family, <em>Siganidæ</em>, contains fishes of moderate
-size, valued as food, and abounding about rocks in shallow
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_410'>410</span>water from the Red Sea to Tahiti. The coloration is rather
-plain olive or brown, sometimes with white spots, sometimes
-with bluish lines. The species are very much alike and all
-belong to the single genus <em>Siganus</em>. One species, <em>Siganus
-fuscescens</em>, dusky with small, pale dots, is a common food-fish
-of Japan. Others, as <em>Siganus oramin</em> and <em>Siganus vermiculatus</em>,
-occur in India, and <em>Siganus punctatus</em>, known as lo,
-abounds about the coral reefs of Samoa. <em>Siganus vulpinus</em>
-differs from the others in the elongate snout.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fossil genus, <em>Archoteuthis</em> (<em>glaronensis</em>), is found in the
-Tertiary of Glarus. It differs from <em>Siganus</em> in the deeper body
-and in the presence of six instead of seven spines in the anal
-fin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The real relationship of the <em>Siganidæ</em> is still uncertain, but
-the family is probably most nearly allied to the <em>Acanthuridæ</em>,
-with which the species were first combined by Linnæus, who
-included both in his genus <em>Teuthis</em>. In the structure of the
-vertical fins the <em>Siganidæ</em> resemble the extinct genus <em>Pygæus</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_411'>411</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXIV<br />SERIES PLECTOGNATHI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_411dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Plectognaths.</strong>—Derived directly from the <em>Acanthuridæ</em>,
-from which they differ by progressive steps of
-degeneration, are the three suborders of <em>Sclerodermi</em>,
-<em>Ostracodermi</em>, and <em>Gymnodontes</em>, forming together the series or
-suborder of <em>Plectognathi</em>. As the members of this group differ
-from one another more widely than the highest or most
-generalized forms differ from the <em>Acanthuridæ</em>, we do not regard
-it as a distinct order. The forms included in it differ from
-the <em>Acanthuridæ</em> much as the swordfishes differ from ordinary
-mackerel. The <em>Plectognathi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πλεϡτός</span>, woven together; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γνάθος</span>,
-jaw) agree in the union of the maxillary and premaxillary,
-in the union of the post-temporal with the skull, in the great
-reduction of the gill-opening, and in the elongation of the pelvic
-bones. All these characters in less degree are shown in
-the <em>Squamipinnes</em>. We have also the reduction and final entire
-loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dorsal,
-the compression and final partial or total fusion of the
-teeth of the upper jaw, the specialization of the scales, which
-change from bony scutes into a solid coat of mail on the one
-hand, and on the other are reduced to thorns or prickles and
-are finally altogether lost. The number of vertebræ is also
-progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the caudal
-fin seems attached to the head, the body being apparently
-wanting. Throughout the group poisonous alkaloids are
-developed in the flesh. These may produce the violent disease
-known as ciguatera, directly attacking the nervous system.
-See p. 182, vol. I.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized
-by external characters. In the <em>Sclerodermi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σκλερός</span>, hard;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">δέρμα</span>, skin) the spinous dorsal is present and the body is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_412'>412</span>more or less distinctly scaly. The teeth are separate and
-incisor-like and the form is compressed. In the <em>Ostracodermi</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὀστράκος</span>, a box; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">δέρμα</span>, skin) there is no spinous dorsal, the teeth
-are slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable, bony
-box. In the <em>Gymnodontes</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γυμνός</span>, naked; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὀδούς</span>, tooth) the
-teeth are fused into a beak like that of a turtle, either continuous
-or divided by a median suture in each jaw, the spinous
-dorsal is lost, and the body is covered with thorns or prickles
-or else is naked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Scleroderms.</strong>—The <em>Sclerodermi</em> include three recent and
-one extinct families. Of the recent forms, <em>Triacanthidæ</em> is
-the most primitive, having the ventral fins each represented
-by a stout spine and the skin covered with small, rough scales.
-The dorsal has from four to six stiff spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Triacanthodes anomalus</em> is found in Japan, <em>Hollardia hollardi</em>
-in Cuba. <em>Triacanthus brevirostris</em>, with the first spine very
-large, is the common hornfish of the East Indies ranging northward
-to Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_412.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 345.</span>—The Trigger-fish, <em>Balistes carolinensis</em> Gmelin. New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.</strong>—The <em>Balistidæ</em>, or trigger-fishes,
-have the body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged.
-The first dorsal fin is composed of a short stout rough spine,
-with a smaller one behind it and usually a third so placed that
-by touching it the first spine may be set or released. This
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_413'>413</span>peculiarity gives the name of trigger-fish as well as the older
-name of <em>Balistes</em>, or cross-bow shooter. There are no ventral
-fins, the long pelvis ending in a single blunt spine. The numerous
-species of trigger-fishes are large coarse fishes of the tropical
-seas occasionally ranging northward. The center of distribution
-is in the East Indies, where many of the species are
-most fantastically marked. <em>Balistes carolinensis</em>, the leather-jacket,
-or cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the
-American coast. <em>Balistes vetula</em>, the oldwife, oldwench, or
-cochino, marked with blue, is common in the West Indies,
-as are several other species, as <em>Canthidermis sufflamen</em>, the
-sobaco, and the jet-black <em>Melichthys piceus</em>, the black oldwife,
-or galafata. Several species occur on the Pacific Coast of
-Mexico, the Pez Puerco, <em>Balistes verres</em>, being commonest.
-Still others are abundant about the Hawaiian Islands and
-Japan. The genus <em>Balistapus</em>, having spinous plates on the
-tail, contains the largest number of species, these being at the
-same time the smallest in size and the most oddly colored.
-<em>Balistapus aculeatus</em> and <em>Balistapus undulatus</em> are common
-through Polynesia to Japan. Most of the tropical species
-of <em>Balistidæ</em> are more or less poisonous, causing ciguatera, the
-offensive alkaloids becoming weaker in the northern species.
-<em>Melichthys radula</em> abounds in Polynesia. In this species great
-changes take place at death, the colors changing from blue and
-mottled golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian
-species are <em>Xanthichthys lineopunctatus</em>, <em>Balistes vidua</em>, <em>Balistes
-bursa</em>, and <em>Balistes flavomarginatus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_414'>414</span>
-<img src='images/i_414a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 346.</span>—File-fish, <em>Osbeckia lævis</em> (<em>scripta</em>). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_414b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 347.</span>—The Needle-bearing File-fish, <em>Amanses scopas</em> of Samoa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.</strong>—Closely related to the <em>Balistidæ</em>
-are the <em>Monacanthidæ</em>, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In
-these the body is very lean and meager, the scales being
-reduced to shagreen-like prickles. The ventral fins are
-replaced by a single movable or immovable spine, which is
-often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a single spine
-with sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in
-general smaller than the <em>Balistidæ</em> and usually but not always
-dull in color. They have no economic value and are rarely
-used as food, the dry flesh being bitter and offensive. The
-species are numerous in tropical and temperate seas, although
-none are found in Europe. On our Atlantic coast, <em>Stephanolepis
-hispidus</em> and <em>Ceratacanthus schœpfi</em> are common species.
-In the West Indies are numerous others, <em>Osbeckia lævis</em> and
-<em>Alutera güntheriana</em>, largest in size, among the commonest. Both
-of these are large fishes without ventral spine. <em>Monacanthus
-chinensis</em>, with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the
-ventral spine, is found on the coast of China. Of the numerous
-Japanese species, the most abundant and largest is <em>Pseudomonacanthus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_415'>415</span>modestus</em>, with deep-blue fins and the ventral spine
-immovable. Another is <em>Stephanolepis cirrhifer</em>, known as <em>Kawamuki</em>,
-or skin-peeler. <em>Alutera monoceros</em>, and <em>Osbeckia scripta</em>,
-the unicorn fish, abound in the East Indies, with numerous
-others of less size and note. In the male of the Polynesian
-<em>Amanses scopas</em> (Fig. 347) the tail is armed with a brush of
-extraordinarily long needle-like spines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Stephanolepis spilosomus</em> the caudal fin is of a brilliant
-scarlet color, contrasting with the usual dull colors of these
-fishes. In <em>Oxymonacanthus longirostris</em> the body is blue with
-orange checker-like spots and the snout is produced in a long
-tube. About the islands of Polynesia, filefishes are relatively
-few, but some of them are very curious in form or color.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_415.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 348.</span>—Common File fish, <em>Stephanolepis hispidus</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Spinacanthidæ.</strong>—In the extinct family <em>Spinacanthidæ</em>
-the body is elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The
-first dorsal has six or seven spines, and there are rough spines
-in the pectoral. The teeth are bluntly conical. <em>Spinacanthus
-blennioides</em> and <em>S. imperalis</em> are found in the Eocene of Monte
-Bolca. These are probably the nearest to the original ancestor
-among known scleroderms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.</strong>—The group <em>Ostracodermi</em> contains
-the single family of <em>Ostraciidæ</em>, the trunkfishes or cuckolds.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_416'>416</span>In this group, the body is enveloped in a bony box,
-made of six-sided scutes connected by sutures, leaving only
-the jaws, fins and tail free. The spinous dorsal fin is wholly
-wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the outer fins are
-short and small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in
-the tropical seas. They are slow of motion, though often
-brightly colored.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_416a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 349.</span>—Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold, <em>Lactophrys tricornis</em> (Linnæus). Charleston, S. C.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_416b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 350.</span>—Horned Trunkfish, <em>Ostracion cornutum</em> (Linnæus). East Indies. (After Bleeker.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_416c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 351.</span>—Spotted Trunkfish, <em>Lactophrys bicaudalis</em> (Linnæus). Cozumel Island, Yucatan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id021'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_417'>417</span>
-<img src='images/i_417a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 352.</span>—Spotted Trunkfish (face view), <em>Lactophrys bicaudalis</em> (Linnæus).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_417b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 353.</span>—Spineless Trunkfish, <em>Lactophrys triqueter</em> (Linnæus). Tortugas.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Against most of their enemies they are protected by the
-bony case. The species range from four inches to a foot in
-length, so far as known. They are not poisonous, and are
-often baked in the shell. Three genera are recognized: <em>Lactophrys</em>
-with the <em>carapace</em>, three-angled; <em>Ostracion</em>
-with four angles; and <em>Aracana</em>, resembling
-<em>Ostracion</em>, but with the carapace not
-closed behind the anal fin. In each of these
-genera there is considerable minor variation
-due to the presence or absence of spines on
-the bony shell. In some species, called cuckolds,
-or cowfishes, long horns are developed
-over the eye. Others have spines on some
-other part of the shield and some have no
-spines at all. No species are found in
-Europe, and none on the Pacific coast of
-America. The three-angled species, called
-<em>Lactophrys</em>, are native chiefly to the West Indies, sometimes
-carried by currents to Guinea, and one is described from
-Australia. <em>Lactophrys tricornis</em> of the West Indies has long
-horns over the eye; <em>Lactophrys trigonus</em> has spines on the lower
-parts only. <em>Lactophrys triqueter</em> is without spines, and the
-fourth American species, <em>Lactophrys bicaudalis</em>, is marked by
-large black spots. The species of <em>Ostracion</em> radiate from the
-East Indies. One of them, <em>Ostracion gibbosum</em>, has a turret-like
-spine on the middle of the back, causing the carapace to
-appear five-angled; <em>Ostracion diaphanum</em> has short horns over
-the eye, and <em>Ostracion cornutum</em> very long ones; <em>Ostracion</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_418'>418</span><em>immaculatus</em>, the common species of Japan, is without spines;
-<em>Ostracion sebæ</em> of Hawaii and Samoa is deep, rich blue with
-spots of golden. <em>Aracana</em> is also of East Indian origin; <em>Aracana
-aculeata</em>, with numerous species, is common in Japan.
-A fossil species of <em>Ostracion</em> (<em>O. micrurum</em>) is known from the
-Eocene of Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_418a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 354.</span>—Hornless Trunkfish, <em>Lactophrys trigonus</em> (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Gymnodontes.</strong>—The group of <em>Gymnodontes</em>, having the
-teeth united in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degeneration
-of scales and fins. There is no trace of spinous dorsal,
-or ventral. The scales are reduced to thorns or prickles, or
-are lost altogether. All the species have the habit of inflating
-themselves with air when disturbed, thus floating, belly upward,
-on the surface of the water. Very few, and these only
-northern species, are used as food, the flesh of the tropical
-forms being generally poisonous, and that often in a higher
-degree than any other fishes whatever.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_418b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 355.</span>—Skeleton of the Cowfish, <em>Lactophrys tricornis</em> (Linnæus).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Triodontidæ.</strong>—The most generalized family is that of
-the <em>Triodontidæ</em>. These fishes approach the <em>Balistidæ</em> in several
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_419'>419</span>regards, having the body compressed and covered with rough
-scales. The teeth form a single plate in the lower jaw, but
-are divided on the median line above. The compressed, fan-like,
-ventral flap is greatly distensible. <em>Triodon bursarius</em>,
-of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the sole species of
-the family.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_419.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 356.</span>—Silvery Puffer, <em>Lagocephalus lævigatus</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.</strong>—In the <em>Tetraodontidæ</em> (globefishes,
-or puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture.
-The dorsal and anal are short, and the ventrals are reduced
-in number, usually fifteen to twenty (7 + 13 to 7 + 9). The
-walls of the belly are capable of extraordinary distension, so
-that when inflated, the fish appears like a globe with a beak
-and a short tail attached. The principal genus <em>Spheroides</em>
-contains a great variety of forms, forming a closely intergrading
-series. In some of these the body is smooth, in others more
-or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted. In some
-the form is elongate, the color silvery, and the side of the belly
-with a conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal
-is lunate and the other fins falcate, and with numerous rays.
-But these forms (called <em>Lagocephalus</em>) pass by degrees into
-the short-bodied forms with small rounded fins, and no clear
-line has yet been drawn separating the group into genera. In these
-species each nostril has a double opening. <em>Lagocephalus lagocephalus</em>,
-large and silvery, is found in Europe. <em>Lagocephalus
-lævigatus</em> replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North America.
-In Japan are numerous forms of this type, the venomous
-<em>Lagocephalus sceleratus</em> being one of the best known. Numerous
-other Japanese species, <em>Spheroides xanthopterus</em>, <em>rubripes</em>,
-<em>pardalis</em>, <em>ocellatus</em>, <em>vermiculatus</em>, <em>chrysops</em>, etc., mark the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_420'>420</span>transition to typical <em>Spheroides</em>. <em>Spheroides maculatus</em> is common
-on our Atlantic coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the
-coastwise boys who tease it to cause it to swell. <em>Spheroides
-spengleri</em> and <em>S. testudineus</em> abound in the West Indies.
-<em>Spheroides politus</em> on the west coast of Mexico.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_420a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 357.</span>—Puffer, inflated, <em>Spheroides spengleri</em> (Bloch). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_420b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 358.</span>—Puffer, <em>Spheroides maculatus</em> (Schneider). Noank, Conn.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Tetraodon</em> the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening,
-its tip being merely spongy. The species of this genus are
-even more inflatable and are often strikingly colored, the young
-sometimes having the belly marked by concentric stripes of
-black which disappear with age. <em>Tetraodon hispidus</em> abounds
-in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii to India. In
-Hawaii, it is regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes
-(muki-muki) and it is said that its gall was once used to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_421'>421</span>poison arrows. <em>Tetraodon fahaka</em> is a related species, the
-first known of the family. It is found in the Nile. <em>Tetraodon
-lacrymatus</em>, black with white spots, is common in Polynesia.
-<em>Tetraodon aërostaticus</em>, with black spots, is frequently taken in
-Japan, and <em>Tetraodon setosus</em> is frequent on the west coast
-of Mexico. This species is subject to peculiar changes of color.
-Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is sometimes deep
-blue, sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed shades.
-Specimens showing these traits were obtained about Clarion
-Island of the Revillagigedos. No <em>Tetraodon</em> occurs in the West
-Indies. <em>Colomesus psittacus</em>, a river fish of the northern part
-of South America, resembles <em>Spheroides</em>, but shows considerable
-difference in the skull.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_421.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 359.</span>—<em>Tetraodon meleagris</em> (Lacépède). Riu Kiu Islands.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>But few fossil <em>Tetraodontidæ</em> have been recognized. These
-are referred to <em>Tetraodon</em>. The earliest is <em>Tetraodon pygmæus</em>
-from Monte Bolca.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Chonerhinidæ</em> of the East Indies are globefishes having
-the dorsal and anal fins very long, the vertebræ more
-numerous (12 + 17), twenty-nine in number. <em>Chonerhinus
-naritus</em> inhabits the rivers of Sumatra and Java.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The little family of <em>Tropidichthyidæ</em> is composed of small
-globefishes, with a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost,
-or quite, wanting. The teeth are as in the <em>Tetraodontidæ</em>.
-The skeleton differs considerably from that of <em>Spheroides</em>,
-apparently justifying their separation as a family. The species
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_422'>422</span>are all very small, three to six inches in length, and prettily
-colored. In the West Indies <em>Tropidichthys rostratus</em> is found.
-<em>Tropidichthys solandri</em> abounds in the South Seas, dull orange
-with blue spots. <em>Tropidichthys rivulatus</em> is common in Japan
-and several ether species are found in Hawaii.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_422a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 360.</span>—Bristly Globefish, <em>Tetraodon setosus</em> Rosa Smith. Clarion Island, Mex.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Polynesia,
-and in the East Indies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_422b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 361.</span>—Porcupine-fish, <em>Diodon hystrix</em> (Linnæus). Tortugas Islands.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.</strong>—In the remaining families
-of <em>Gymnodontes</em>, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth
-forming an undivided beak. The <em>Diodontidæ</em>, or porcupine-fishes,
-have the body spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp
-thorns, the bases of which are so broad as to form a continuous
-coat of mail. In some of them, part of the spines are movable,
-these being usually two-rooted; in others, all are immovable
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_423'>423</span>and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous, especially in the
-equatorial seas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Diodon</em> the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at
-least, movable. The common porcupine-fish, <em>Diodon hystrix</em>, is
-found in all seas, and often in abundance. It is a sluggish fish,
-olive and spotted with black. It reaches a length of two feet
-or more, and by its long spines it is thoroughly protected from
-all enemies. A second species, equally common, is the lesser
-porcupine-fish, <em>Diodon holacanthus</em>. In this species, the frontal
-spines are longer than those behind the pectoral, instead of the
-reverse, as in <em>Diodon hystrix</em>. Many species of <em>Diodon</em> are
-recorded from the Eocene, besides numerous species from later
-deposits. One of these, as <em>Heptadiodon heptadiodon</em> from the
-Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly represents
-a distinct family. <em>Diodon erinaceus</em> is found in the Eocene of
-Monte Bolca and <em>Progymnodon hilgendorfi</em> in the Eocene of
-Egypt.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_423.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 362.</span>—Rabbit-fish, <em>Chilomycterus schœpfi</em> (Walbaum). Noank, Conn.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the rabbit-fishes (<em>Chilomycterus</em>) the body is box-shaped,
-covered with triangular spines, much shorter and broader at
-base than those of <em>Diodon</em>. Numerous species are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Chilomycterus schœpfi</em> is the common rabbit-fish, or swell-toad
-of our Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black
-lines. The larger, <em>Chilomycterus affinis</em>, with the pectoral fin
-spotted with black, is widely diffused through the Pacific. It
-is rather common in Japan, where it is the torabuku, or tiger
-puffer. It is found also in Hawaii, and it is once recorded by
-Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro, California, and once by Snodgrass
-and Heller, from the Galapagos.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_424'>424</span><strong>The Head-fishes: Molidæ.</strong>—The headfishes, or <em>Molidæ</em>, also
-called sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the
-dorsal, anal, and caudal fins seem to be attached to the posterior
-outline of the head. This feature, constituting the so-called
-gephyrocercal tail is a trait of specialized degradation.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id022'>
-<img src='images/i_424.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 363.</span>—Headfish (adult), <em>Mola mola</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Mola mola</em>, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occasionally
-in all tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost
-circular, having been compared by Linnæus to a mill-wheel
-(mola), and its surface is covered with a rough, leathery skin.
-It swims very lazily at the surface of the water, its high dorsal
-often rising above the surface. It is rarely used as food, though
-not known to be poisonous. The largest example known to the
-writer was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by Mr. Thomas
-Shooter, of Los Angeles. This specimen was 8 feet 2 inches in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_425'>425</span>length, and weighed 1200 pounds. Another, almost as large,
-was taken at San Diego, in April, 1904. No difference has been
-noticed among specimens from California, Cape Cod, Japan,
-and the Mediterranean. The young, however, differ considerably
-from the adult, as might be expected in a fish of such
-great size and extraordinary form. (See Figs.
-109 and 110, Vol. I.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fragments named <em>Chelonopsis</em>, and doubtfully
-referred to <em>Mola</em>, are found in the Pliocene of
-Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age, attributed
-to <em>Mola</em>, probably belong, according to
-Woodward, to a turtle.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_425.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 364.</span>—The King of the Mackerel, <em>Ranzania makua</em> Jenkins, from Honolulu. (After Jenkins.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Ranzania</em>, the body is more
-elongate, twice as long as deep, but as in <em>Mola</em>,
-the body appears as if bitten off and then provided
-with a fringe of tail. The species are
-rarely taken. <em>Ranzania truncata</em> is found in the Mediterranean
-and once at Madeira. <em>Ranzania makua</em>, known as the king of
-the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully colored brown and
-silvery. This species has been taken once in Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Hawaii it is believed that all the Scombroid fishes are subject
-to the rule of the makua and that they will disappear if
-this fish be killed. By a similar superstition, <em>Regalecus glesne</em>
-is "king of the herrings" in Norway and about Cape Flattery,
-<em>Trachypterus rex salmonorum</em> is "king of the salmon."</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_426'>426</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXV<br />PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_426dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Mailed-cheek Fishes.</strong>—The vast group of <em>Pareioplitæ</em>
-(<em>Loricati</em>) or mailed-cheek fishes is characterized
-by the presence of a "bony stay" or backward-directed
-process from the third suborbital. This
-extends backward across the cheek toward the preopercle. In
-the most generalized forms this bony stay is small and hidden
-under the skin. In more specialized forms it grows larger,
-articulates with the preopercle, and becomes rough or spinous
-at its surface. Finally, it joins the other bones to form a coat
-of mail which covers the whole head. In degenerate forms it
-is again reduced in size, finally becoming insignificant.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The more primitive <em>Pareioplitæ</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">παρεία</span>, cheek; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὁπλιτής</span>,
-armed) closely resemble the <em>Percomorphi</em>, having the same
-fins, the same type of shoulder-girdle, and the same insertion
-of the ventral fins. In the more specialized forms the ventral
-fins remain thoracic, but almost all other parts of the anatomy
-are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as known to the
-writer, the hypercoracoid is perforate as in the <em>Percomorphi</em>.
-There are numerous points of resemblance between the <em>Cirrhitidæ</em>
-and the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>, and it is probable that the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>
-with all the other <em>Pareioplitæ</em> sprang from some perciform
-stock allied to <em>Cirrhitidæ</em> and <em>Latrididæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little
-light on the origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the
-<em>Cottidæ</em>. <em>Lepidocottus</em>, recorded from the Miocene and Oligocene,
-seems to be the earliest genus.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_427'>427</span>
-<img src='images/i_427a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 365.</span>—Rosefish, <em>Sebastes marinus</em> Linnæus. Cape Cod.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_427b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 366.</span>—Skull of <em>Scorpænichthys marmoratus</em> Girard, showing the suborbital stay (<em>a</em>).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.</strong>—The vast family of <em>Scorpænidæ</em>,
-or scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms
-as almost to defy diagnosis. The more primitive types are
-percoid in almost all respects, save in the presence of the subocular
-stay. Their scales are ctenoid and well developed.
-The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral fins
-are complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong
-spines. The cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and
-the five spines on the preoperculum are not very different from
-those seen in some species of bass. The gill-arches are, however,
-different, there being but 3½ gills and no slit behind the last.
-Otherwise the mouth and pharanx show no unusual characters.
-In the extremes of the group, however, great changes take
-place, the head becomes greatly distorted with ridges and
-grooves, the anal spines are lost, and the dorsal spines variously
-modified. The scales may be lost or replaced by warts or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_428'>428</span>prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced. Still
-the changes are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the
-group into smaller families.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most primitive existing genus is doubtless <em>Sebastes</em>.
-The familiar rosefish, <em>Sebastes marinus</em>, is found on both shores
-of the north Atlantic. It is bright red in color and is valued
-as food. As befits a northern fish, it has an increased number
-of vertebræ (31) and the dorsal spines number 15. From its
-large haddock-like eye it has been called the Norway haddock.
-It is an important food-fish in New England as well as in northern
-Europe.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_428.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 367.</span>—<em>Sebastolobus altivelis</em> Gilbert. Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the north Pacific <em>Sebastes</em> gives place to <em>Sebastolobus</em>,
-with three species (<em>macrochir</em>, <em>altivelis</em>, and <em>alascanus</em>), all bright-red
-fishes of soft substance and living in rather deep water.
-<em>Sebastolobus</em> is characterized by its two-lobed pectoral fin, the
-lower rays being enlarged.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Sebastodes</em>, with its rougher-headed ally <em>Sebastichthys</em>,
-with 13 dorsal spines and the vertebræ 27, ranges farther
-south than <em>Sebastes</em> and forms one of the most characteristic
-features of the fauna of California and Japan, 50 species
-occurring about California and 25 being already known from
-Japan. One species (<em>Sebastichthys capensis</em>) is recorded from
-the Cape of Good Hope, and two, <em>Sebastichthys oculatus</em> and
-<em>S. darwini</em>, from the coast of Chile.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_429'>429</span>Within the limits of <em>Sebastodes</em> and <em>Sebastichthys</em> is a very large
-range of form and color, far more than should exist within the
-range of a natural genus. On the other hand, all attempts at
-generic subdivision have failed because the species form a number
-of almost perfectly continuous series. At one extreme are species
-with large mouths, small scales, relatively smooth cranium,
-and long gill-rakers. At the other extreme are robust species,
-with the head very rough, the mouth moderate, the scales
-larger, and the gill-rakers short and thick. Still other species
-have slender cranial spines and spots of bright pink in certain
-specialized localities. These approach the genus <em>Helicolenus</em>
-as other species approach <em>Scorpæna</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_430'>430</span>
-<img src='images/i_430.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 368.</span>—Priest-fish, <em>Sebastodes mystinus</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Monterey, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The various species are known in California as rockfish, or
-rock-cod, in Japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they
-form a large part of the bulk of food-fishes, the flesh being
-rather coarse and of moderate flavor. All the species so far
-as known are ovoviviparous, the young being brought forth
-in summer in very great number, born at the length of about
-¼ of an inch. The species living close to shore are brown, black,
-or green. Those living in deeper waters are bright red, and
-in still deeper waters often creamy or gray, with the lining of
-the mouth and the peritoneum black. The largest species
-reach a length of two or three feet, the smallest eight or ten
-inches. None are found between Lower California and Peru
-and none south of Nagasaki in Japan. Of the California species
-the following are of most note: <em>Sebastodes paucispinis</em>, the
-Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an elongate
-fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In deeper
-waters are <em>Sebastodes jordani</em> and <em>Sebastodes goodei</em>, the former
-elongate and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright
-crimson color. <em>Sebastodes ovalis</em>, the viuva, and <em>Sebastodes
-entomelas</em> are grayish in hue, and the related <em>Sebastodes
-proriger</em> is red. The green rockfish <em>Sebastodes flavidus</em> is
-common along the shore, as also the black rockfish, known
-as pêche prêtre or priestfish, <em>Sebastodes mystinus</em>. Less common
-is <em>Sebastodes melanops</em>. Similar to this but more orange
-in color is the large <em>Sebastodes miniatus</em>. Somewhat rougher-headed
-is the small grass rockfish, <em>Sebastodes atrovirens</em>. On
-the large red rockfish, <em>Sebastichthys ruberrimus</em>, the spinous
-ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large
-<em>Sebastichthys levis</em> these ridges are smooth. Both these species
-are bright red in color. <em>Sebastichthys rubrovinctus</em>, called the
-Spanish-flag, is covered with broad alternating bands of deep
-crimson and creamy pink. It is the most handsomely colored
-of our marine fishes and is often taken in southern California.
-<em>Sebastichthys elongatus</em> is a red species with very large mouth.
-Several other species small in size are red, with three or four
-spots of bright pink. The commonest of these is the corsair,
-<em>Sebastichthys rosaceus</em>, plain red and golden. Another species
-is the green and red flyfish, <em>Sebastichthys rhodochloris</em>. <em>Sebastichthys
-constellatus</em> is spotted with pink and <em>Sebastichthys chlorostictus</em>
-with green. To this group with pink spots the South
-American and African species belong, but none of the Japanese.
-<em>Sebastodes aleutianus</em> is a large red species common in
-Alaska and <em>Sebastodes ciliatus</em> a green one. About the wharves
-in California and northward the brown species called <em>Sebastichthys
-auriculatus</em> is abundant. In the remaining species
-the spinous ridges are progressively higher, though not so sharp
-as in some of those already named. <em>Sebastichthys maliger</em> has
-very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch on the back. In
-<em>Sebastichthys caurinus</em> and especially <em>Sebastichthys vexillaris</em>
-the spines are very high, but the coloration is different, being
-reddish brown. <em>Sebastichthys nebulosus</em> is blue-black with golden
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_431'>431</span>spots. <em>Sebastichthys chrysomelas</em> is mottled black and yellow.
-<em>Sebastichthys carnatus</em> is flesh-color and green. <em>Sebastichthys
-rastrelliger</em> is a small, blackish-green species looking like <em>Sebastodes
-atrovirens</em>, but with short gill-rakers. <em>Sebastichthys hopkinsi</em>
-and <em>Sebastichthys gilberti</em> are small species allied to it.
-The treefish, <em>Sebastichthys serriceps</em>, has very high spines on the
-head, and the olive body is crowned by broad black bands.
-Still more striking is the black-banded rockfish, <em>Sebastichthys
-nigrofasciatus</em>, with very rough head and bright red body with
-broad cross-bands of black.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_431.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 369.</span>—<em>Sebastichthys serriceps</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Monterey, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the Japanese species the commonest, <em>Sebastodes inermis</em>,
-the Mebaru, much resembles <em>Sebastodes flavidus</em>. <em>Sebastodes
-fuscescens</em> looks like <em>Sebastodes melanops</em>, as does also <em>Sebastodes
-taczanowskii</em>. <em>Sebastodes matsubaræ</em> and <em>S. flammeus</em> and <em>S.
-iracundus</em>, bright-red off-shore species, run close to <em>Sebastodes
-aleutianus</em>. <em>Sebastichthys pachycephalus</em> suggests <em>Sebastichthys
-chrysomelas</em>. <em>Sebastodes steindachneri</em> and <em>S. itinus</em> are brighter-colored
-allies of <em>Sebastodes ovalis</em> and <em>Sebastodes scythropus</em> and
-<em>Sebastodes joyneri</em> represent <em>Sebastodes proriger</em>. <em>Sebastichthys
-trivittatus</em>, green, striped with bright golden, bears some resemblance
-to <em>Sebastichthys maliger</em>. <em>Sebastichthys elegans</em>, <em>Sebastichthys
-oblongus</em>, and <em>Sebastichthys mitsukurii</em>, dwarf species, profusely
-spotted, have no analogues among the American forms.
-<em>Sebastodes glaucus</em> of the Kurile Islands has 14 dorsal spines
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_432'>432</span>and is not closely related to any other. Fourteen dorsal
-spines are occasionally present in <em>Sebastichthys elegans</em>. All
-the other species show constantly 13.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_432.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 370.</span>—Banded Rockfish, <em>Sebastichthys nigrocinctus</em> (Ayres). Straits of Fuca.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Sebastiscus</em> has the general appearance of <em>Sebastodes</em>,
-and like the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It however
-agrees with <em>Scorpæna</em> in the possession of but 12 dorsal
-spines and 24 vertebræ. The two known species are common
-in Japan. <em>Sebastiscus marmoratus</em>, mottled brown, is everywhere
-abundant along the coast, and the pretty <em>Sebastiscus albofasciatus</em>,
-pink, violet, and golden, represents it in equal abundance in
-deeper water.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Sebastopsis</em> differs from <em>Sebastodes</em> only in having
-no teeth on the palatines. The species, all of small size and
-red or varied coloration, are confined to the Pacific. <em>Sebastopsis
-xyris</em> occurs in lower California and <em>Sebastopsis guamensis</em>
-and <em>S. scaber</em> in Polynesia. Species of this genus are often
-found dried in Chinese insect boxes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Helicolenus</em> differs from <em>Sebastiscus</em> only in the total absence
-of air-bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very
-handsome, and live in deep water. <em>Helicolenus dactylopterus</em> is
-rather common in the Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken
-in the Gulf Stream, and also in Japan, where two or three other
-species occur.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_433'>433</span><em>Neosebastes</em> is much like <em>Sebastodes</em>, but the suborbital stay
-bears strong spines and the dorsal is very high. <em>Neosebastes
-panda</em> is found in Australia, and <em>N. entaxis</em> in Japan. <em>Setarches</em> is
-distinguished by the cavernous bones of its head. Species are
-found in both the Atlantic and Pacific in deep water. Several
-other peculiar or transitional genera are found in different parts
-of the Pacific.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_433.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 371.</span>—Florida Lion fish, <em>Scorpæna grandicornis</em> Cuv. &amp; Val. Key West.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Scorpæna</em> the head is more uneven in outline than in
-<em>Sebastodes</em> and <em>Sebastichthys</em>, skinny flaps are often present on
-head and body, the air-bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal
-spines and 24 vertebræ, and on each dorsal spine is a small
-venom-secreting gland. The species are very numerous, highly
-varied in color, and found in all warm seas, being known as scorpion-fishes
-or <em>Rascacios</em>. Two species, <em>Scorpæna scrofa</em> and
-<em>Scorpæna porcus</em>, are common in the Mediterranean, being regarded
-as good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the numerous West Indian species, <em>Scorpæna plumieri</em>,
-<em>Scorpæna grandicornis</em>, and <em>Scorpæna brasiliensis</em> are best known.
-<em>Scorpæna guttata</em> is common in southern California and is an
-excellent food-fish. <em>Scorpæna mystes</em> is found on the west coast
-of Mexico. <em>Scorpæna onaria</em> and <em>S. izensis</em> are found in Japan.
-Fossil remains referred to <em>Scorpæna</em> are recorded from the Tertiary
-rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_434'>434</span>In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species
-less than three inches long, which have been set apart as a
-separate genus, <em>Sebastapistes</em>. The longest known of these is
-<em>Sebastapistes strongensis</em>, named from Strong Island, abundant
-in crevices in the corals throughout Polynesia, and much disliked
-by fishermen.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_434.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Fig. 372.</em>—Sea-scorpion, <em>Scorpæna mystes</em> Jordan. Mazatlan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Scorpænopsis</em> differs from <em>Scorpæna</em> in the absence
-of palatine teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color.
-<em>Scorpænopsis cirrhosa</em>, <em>Scorpænopsis fimbriata</em>, and other species
-are widely distributed through the East Indies and Polynesia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lion-fishes (<em>Pterois</em>) of the tropical Pacific are remarkable
-for their long pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like
-coloration. The numerous species are fantastic and handsomely
-colored, but their poisoned, needle-like spines are dreaded
-by fishermen. They lurk in crevices in the coral reefs, some
-of them reaching a foot in length.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Inimicus japonicus</em>, common in Japan, has a depressed and
-monstrous head and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually
-black in color but is largely bright red when found among red
-algæ. A related species, <em>Inimicus aurantiacus</em>, is blackish when
-near shore, but lemon-yellow in deep water. (See frontispiece.)
-A related species in the East Indies is <em>Pelor filamentosum</em>,
-called <em>Nohu</em> or <em>Gofu</em> in Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_435'>435</span>
-<img src='images/i_435.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 373.</span>—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed), <em>Pterois volitans</em> (Linnæus). Family <em>Scorpænidæ</em>. (From a specimen from Samoa.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_436'>436</span>Still more monstrous are the species of <em>Synanceia</em>, short,
-thick-set, irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines
-reach a high degree of venom. The flesh in all these species
-is wholesome, and when the dorsal spines are cut off the fishes
-sell readily in the markets. These fishes lie hidden in cavities
-of the reefs, being scarcely distinguishable from the rock itself.
-(See Fig. 168, Vol. I.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The black <em>Emmydrichthys vulcanus</em> of Tahiti lies in crevices
-of lava, and could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular
-lump of lava-rock.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_436.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 374.</span>—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, <em>Emmydrichthys vulcanus</em> Jordan. A species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava among which it lives. Family <em>Scorpænidæ</em>. From Tahiti.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A related form, <em>Erosa erosa</em>, the daruma-okose of Japan, is
-monstrous in form but often beautifully colored with crimson
-and gray.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Congiopus</em> the very strong dorsal spines begin in the
-head, and the mouth is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus
-the type of a distinct family, <em>Congiopodidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison-fishes,
-called okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from
-Tokio to Hindostan and the Red Sea. Some of these are handsomely
-colored, others are fantastically formed. <em>Paracentropogon
-rubripinnis</em> and <em>Minous adamsi</em> are the commonest species
-in Japan. <em>Trachicephalus uranoscopus</em> abounds in the bays of
-hina. <em>Snyderina yamanokami</em> occurs in Southern Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_437'>437</span>
-<img src='images/i_437.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 375.</span>—<em>Snyderina yamanokami</em> Jordan &amp; Starks. Family <em>Scorpænidæ</em>. Satsuma, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_438'>438</span>But few fossil <em>Scorpænidæ</em> are recorded. <em>Scorpænopterus
-siluridens</em>, a mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty
-head, seems to belong to this group, and <em>Ampheristus toliapicus</em>,
-with a broad, depressed head, is found in the London Eocene,
-and various Miocene species have been referred to <em>Scorpæna</em>.
-<em>Sebastodes rosæ</em> is based on a fragment, probably Pleistocene,
-from Port Harford, California.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_438a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 376.</span>—<em>Trachicephalus uranoscopus</em>. Family <em>Scorpænidæ</em>. From Swatow, China.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The small family of the <em>Caracanthidæ</em> consists of little fishes
-of the coral reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form,
-and the skin is rough with small prickles, the head being feebly
-armed. The species are rare and little known, brown in color
-with pale spots.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_438b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 377.</span>—Skilfish, <em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em> (Pallas). California.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.</strong>—The small family of skilfishes
-or <em>Anoplopomidæ</em> consists of two species found on the
-coast of California and northward. These resemble the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>,
-having the usual form of nostrils, and the suborbital
-stay well developed. The skull is, however, free from spines,
-the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek, dark-colored
-body has suggested resemblance to the mackerel or
-hake. <em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>, known as skilfish, beshow, or coalfish,
-is rather common from Unalaska to Monterey, reaching
-a length of two feet or more. In the north it becomes very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_439'>439</span>fat and is much valued as food. About San Francisco it is
-dry and tasteless.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.</strong>—The curious family of
-greenlings, <em>Hexagrammidæ</em>, is confined to the two shores of the
-North Pacific. The species vary much in form, but agree in
-the unarmed cranium and in the presence of but a single nostril
-on each side, the posterior opening being reduced to a minute
-pore. The vertebræ are numerous, the scales small, and the
-coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous and
-usually valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks
-in California and Japan and along the shores of Siberia and
-Alaska. The atka-fish (<em>Pleurogrammus monopterygius</em>) is one
-of the finest of food-fishes. This species reaches a length of
-eighteen inches. It is yellow in color, banded with black, and
-the flesh is white and tender, somewhat like that of the Lake
-whitefish (<em>Coregonus clupeiformis</em>), and is especially fine when
-salted. This fish is found about the Aleutian Islands, especially
-the island of Atka, from which it takes its name. It is
-commercially known as Atka mackerel.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_439.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 378.</span>—Atka-fish, <em>Pleurogrammus monopterygius</em> (Pallas). Atka Island.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In this genus there are numerous lateral lines, and the dorsal
-fin is continuous. In <em>Hexagrammos</em>, the principal genus of the
-family, the dorsal is divided into two fins, and there are about
-five lateral lines on each side.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Hexagrammos decagrammus</em> is common on the coast of California,
-where it is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout.
-It is a well-known food-fish, reaching a length of eighteen inches.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_440'>440</span>The sexes are quite unlike in color, the males anteriorly with
-blue spots, the females speckled with red or brown.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_440a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 379.</span>—Greenling, <em>Hexagrammos decagrammus</em> (Pallas). Sitka.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_440b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 380.</span>—Cultus Cod, <em>Ophiodon elongatus</em> (Girard). Sitka, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Hexagrammos octogrammus</em>, the common greenfish of Alaska,
-and the greenling <em>Hexagrammos stelleri</em>, are also well-known
-species. Close to the latter species is the <em>Abura ainame</em>, or
-fat cod, <em>Hexagrammos otakii</em>, common throughout Japan. The
-red rock-trout, <em>Hexagrammos superciliosus</em>, is beautifully variegated
-with red, the color being extremely variable. Other
-species are found in Japan and Kamchatka. <em>Agrammus agrammus</em>
-of Japan differs in the possession of but one lateral line.
-<em>Ophiodon elongatus</em>, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo cod of
-California, is a large fish of moderate value as food, much resembling
-a codfish, but with larger mouth and longer teeth. The
-flesh and bones are deeply tinged with bluish green. <em>Cultus</em>
-is the Chinook name for worthless. <em>Zaniolepis latipinnis</em> is
-a singular-looking fish, very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally
-taken on the California coast. <em>Oxylebius pictus</em> is a small, handsome,
-and very active little fish, whitish with black bands, common
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_441'>441</span>among rocks and algæ on the California coast. It is,
-however, rarely brought into the markets, as it shows great
-skill in escaping the nets.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil <em>Hexagrammidæ</em> are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Platycephalidæ</em>
-consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened,
-rough heads and the body covered with small, rough scales.
-About fifty species occur in the East Indian region, where the
-larger ones are much valued as food. The most abundant
-species and usually the largest in size is <em>Platycephalus insidiator</em>,
-the kochi of the Japanese. The genus <em>Insidiator</em> contains smaller
-species with larger scales. In all these the head is very much
-depressed, a feature which separates them from all the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>.
-<em>Hoplichthys langsdorfi</em>, the nezupo or rat-tail of Japan,
-is the type of a separate family, <em>Hoplichthyidæ</em>, characterized by
-a bony armature of rough plates. <em>Bembras japonicas</em>, another
-little Japanese fish, with the ventrals advanced in position and
-the skin with rough plates, is the type of the family of
-<em>Bembradidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sculpins: Cottidæ.</strong>—The great family of <em>Cottidæ</em> or sculpins
-is one especially characteristic of the northern seas, where
-a great variety of species is found. These differ in general
-from the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>, from which they are perhaps derived,
-in the greater number of vertebræ and in the relative feebleness
-or degeneration of the spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and
-the scales. In all these regards great variation exists. In
-the most primitive genus, <em>Jordania</em>, the body is well scaled,
-the spinous dorsal well developed, and the ventral rays I, 5. In
-<em>Hemitripterus</em> a large number of dorsal spines remains, but the
-structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most
-degraded types, <em>Cottunculus</em>, <em>Psychrolutes</em>, <em>Gilbertidia</em>, which
-are also among the most specialized, there is little trace of
-spinous dorsal, the scales are wholly lost, and the ventral fin
-is incomplete. Most of the species of <em>Cottidæ</em> live on the bottom
-in shallow seas. Some are found in deep water and a few
-swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or subarctic, none being
-found to the south of Italy, Virginia, California, and Japan.
-None are valued as food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely
-any are found fossil.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_442'>442</span>Of the multitude of genera of <em>Cottidæ</em> we notice a few of
-the most prominent. <em>Jordania zonope</em>, a pretty little fish of
-Puget Sound, is the most primitive in its characters, being closely
-allied to the <em>Hexagrammidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_442a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 381.</span>—<em>Jordania zonope</em> Starks. Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Scorpænichthys marmoratus</em>, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of
-California reaches a length of 2½ feet. It has the ventral rays
-I, 5, although almost in all the other sculpins the rays are
-reduced to I, 3 or I, 4. The flesh has the livid blue color seen
-in the cultus cod <em>Ophiodon elongatus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_442b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 382.</span>—<em>Astrolytes notospilotus</em> (Girard). Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_443'>443</span>
-<img src='images/i_443a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 383.</span>—Irish Lord, <em>Hemilepidotus jordani</em> Bean. Unalaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_443b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 384.</span>—<em>Triglops pingeli</em> Kröyer. Chebucto, Canada.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_443c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 335.</span>—Buffalo Sculpin, <em>Enophrys bison</em> (Girard). Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>To <em>Icelinus</em>, <em>Artedius</em>, <em>Hemilepidotus</em>, <em>Astrolytes</em>, and related
-genera belong many species with the body partly scaled. These
-are characteristic of the North Pacific, in which they drop to
-a considerable depth. <em>Icelus</em>, <em>Triglops</em>, and <em>Artediellus</em> are
-found also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of which is
-derived almost entirely from Pacific sources. The genus <em>Hemilepidotus</em>
-contains coarse species, with bands of scales. The
-"Irish lord," <em>Hemilepidotus jordani</em>, a familiar and fantastic
-inhabitant of Bering Sea, is much valued by the Aleuts as a
-food-fish, although the flesh is rather tough and without much
-flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is the red sculpin,
-<em>Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus</em>, and the still rougher <em>Ceratocottus
-diceraus</em>. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin, <em>Enophrys
-bison</em>, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the preopercle,
-is found about Puget Sound and southward. In all
-these large rough species from the North Pacific the preopercle
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_444'>444</span>is armed with long spines which are erected when the fish is
-disturbed. This makes it almost impossible for any larger
-fish to swallow them.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_444a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 386.</span>—<em>Ceratocottus diceraus</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Tolstoi Bay, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_444b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 387.</span>—<em>Elanura forficata</em> Gilbert. Bering Sea.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_444c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 388.</span>—Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, <em>Cottus punctulatus</em> (Gill). Yellowstone River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genera <em>Cottus</em> and <em>Uranidea</em> include the miller's thumbs,
-also called in America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern
-rivers. These little fishes are found in Europe, Asia, and America
-wherever trout are found. They lurk under weeds and stones,
-moving with the greatest swiftness when disturbed. They are
-found in every cold stream of the region north of Virginia, and
-they vie with the sticklebacks in their destruction of the eggs
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_445'>445</span>and fry of salmon and trout. <em>Cottus gobio</em> is the commonest
-species of Europe. <em>Cottus ictalops</em> is the most abundant of the
-several species of the eastern United States, and <em>Cottus asper</em> in
-streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many other species
-exist in each of these regions. The genus <em>Uranidea</em> is found
-in America. It is composed of smaller species with fewer
-teeth and fin-rays, the ventrals I, 3. <em>Uranidea gracilis</em> is the
-commonest of these, the miller's thumb of New England.
-<em>Rheopresbe fujiyamæ</em> is a large river sculpin in Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_445a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 389.</span>—Miller's Thumb, <em>Uranidea tenuis</em> Evermann &amp; Meek. Klamath Falls.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_445b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 390.</span>—<em>Cottus evermanni</em> Gilbert. Lost River, Oregon.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Trachidermus ansatus</em> is another river species, the "mountain-witch"
-(yamanokami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet
-brand on its cheek, conspicuous in life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is <em>Myoxocephalus</em>, containing
-large marine species, in structure much like the species
-of <em>Cottus</em>. <em>Myoxocephalus bubalis</em> is the European fatherlasher,
-or proach; the European sculpin is <em>Myoxocephalus scorpius</em>.
-The very similar daddy sculpin of New England is <em>Myoxocephalus
-grœnlandicus</em>. This species swarms everywhere from Cape
-Cod northward.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_446'>446</span>
-<img src='images/i_446a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 391.</span>—California Miller's Thumb, <em>Cottus gulosus</em> Girard. McCloud River, Cal. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Fabricius, <em>Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus</em> is
-"abundant in all the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a
-stony coast clothed with seaweed. It approaches the shore in
-spring and departs in winter. It is very voracious, preying on
-everything that comes in its way and pursuing incessantly the
-smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species, and devouring
-crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does
-not come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of
-other fish. It spawns in December and January and deposits
-its red-colored roe on the seaweed. It is easily taken with a
-bait, and constitutes the daily food of the Greenlanders, who
-are very fond of it. They eat the roe raw."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_446b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 392.</span>—Pribilof Sculpin, <em>Myoxocephalus niger</em> (Bean). St. Paul Island, Bering Sea.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is
-<em>Myoxocephalus æneus</em>, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is
-<em>Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus</em>. Still more numerous and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_447'>447</span>varied are the sculpins of the North Pacific, <em>Myoxocephalus
-polyacanthocephalus</em> being the best known and most widely
-diffused. <em>Oncocottus quadricornis</em> is the long-horned sculpin of
-the Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of Russia and British
-America. <em>Triglopsis thompsoni</em> of the depths in our own Great
-Lakes seems to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of
-<em>Oncocottus</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_447a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 393.</span>—18-spined Sculpin, <em>Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus</em> (Mitchill). Beasley Point, N. J.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_447b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 394.</span>—<em>Oncocottus quadricornis</em> (L.). St. Michael, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Zesticelus</em> contains small soft-bodied sculpins from
-the depths of the North Pacific. <em>Zesticelus profundorum</em> was
-taken in 664 fathoms off Bogoslof Island and <em>Zesticelus bathybius</em>
-off Japan. In this genus the body is very soft and the skeleton
-feeble, the result of deep-sea life. Another deep-water genus less
-degraded is <em>Cottunculus</em>, from which by gradual loss of fins the
-still more degraded <em>Psychrolutes</em> (<em>paradoxus</em>) and <em>Gilbertidia</em>
-(<em>sigolutes</em>) are perhaps descended. In sculpins of this type the
-liparids, or sea-snails, may have had their origin. Among the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_448'>448</span>remaining genera <em>Gymnocanthus</em> (<em>tricuspis</em>, etc.) has no vomerine
-teeth. <em>Leptocottus</em> (<em>armatus</em>) and <em>Clinocottus</em> (<em>analis</em>) abound
-on the coast of California, and <em>Pseudoblennius</em> (<em>percoides</em>) is
-found everywhere along the shores of Japan. <em>Vellitor centropomus</em>
-of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for its compressed
-body and long snout. <em>Dialarchus snyderi</em> of the California rock-pools
-is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin, <em>Blepsias</em> (<em>cirrhosus</em>),
-<em>Nautichthys</em> (<em>oculofasciatus</em>), and <em>Hemitripterus</em> (<em>americanus</em>),
-the sea-raven, among the most fantastic. In the last-named
-genus the spinous dorsal is many-rayed, as in <em>Scorpænidæ</em>,
-a fact which has led to its separation by Dr. Gill as a distinct
-family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in
-<em>Jordania</em>, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid
-series.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_448a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 395.</span>—<em>Blepsias cirrhosus</em> Pallas. Straits of Fuca.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_448b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 396.</span>—Sea raven, <em>Hemitripterus americanus</em> (Gmelin). Halifax, Nova Scotia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_449'>449</span>
-<img src='images/i_449.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 397.</span>—<em>Oligocottus maculosus</em> Girard. Sitka.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Ascelichthys</em> (<em>rhodorus</em>), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools
-of the Oregon region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. <em>Ereunias
-grallator</em>, a deep-water sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and
-with free rays below its pectorals, should perhaps represent a
-distinct family, <em>Ereuniidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in <em>Psychrolutes</em> and <em>Gilbertidia</em>
-of the North Pacific has been already noticed. These
-genera seem to lead directly from <em>Cottunculus</em> to <em>Liparis</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil <em>Cottidæ</em> are few. <em>Eocottus veronensis</em>, from the Eocene
-of Monte Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays I, 5.
-It is apparently related to <em>Jordania</em>, but is still more primitive.
-<em>Lepidocottus</em> (<em>aries</em> and numerous other species, mostly from the
-Miocene) is covered with scales, but apparently has less than
-five soft rays in the ventrals. Remains of <em>Oncocottus</em>, <em>Icelus</em>,
-and <em>Cottus</em> are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The family
-as a whole is evidently of recent date.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Rhamphocottidæ</em> consist of a single little sculpin with a
-large bony and singularly formed head, found on the Pacific
-Coast from Sitka to Monterey. The species is called <em>Rhamphocottus
-richardsoni</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.</strong>—The sea-poachers or alligator-fishes,
-<em>Agonidæ</em>, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by
-a series of overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or
-the catfishes of the family <em>Loricariidæ</em>. So far as structure
-goes, these singular fishes are essentially like the <em>Cottidæ</em>, but
-with a different and more perfect armature. The many species
-belong chiefly to the North Pacific, a few in the Atlantic and on
-the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in considerable depth of
-water. All are too small to have value as food and some have
-most fantastic forms. Only a few of the most prominent need
-be noticed. The largest and most peculiar species is <em>Percis
-japonicus</em> of the Kurile Islands. Still more fantastic is the
-Japanese <em>Draciscus sachi</em> with sail-like dorsal and anal. <em>Agonus
-cataphractus</em>, the sea-poacher, is the only European species.
-<em>Podothecus acipenserinus</em>, the alligator-fish, is the commonest
-species of the North Pacific. <em>Pallasina barbata</em> is as slender as
-a pipefish, with a short beard at the chin. <em>Aspidophoroides
-monopterygius</em> of the Atlantic and other similar species of the
-Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_450'>450</span>
-<img src='images/i_450.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 398.</span>—<em>Ereunias grallator</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_451'>451</span>
-<img src='images/i_451a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 399.</span>—Sleek Sculpin, <em>Psychrolutes paradoxus</em> (Günther). Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_451b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 400.</span>—<em>Gilbertidia sigolutes</em> (Jordan). Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_451c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 401.</span>—Richardson's Sculpin, <em>Rhamphocottus richardsoni</em> (Günther). Puget Sound.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_451d.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 402.</span>—<em>Stelgis vulsus</em> (Jordan &amp; Gilbert). Point Reyes, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_452'>452</span>
-<img src='images/i_452.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 403.</span>—<em>Draciscus sachi</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Family <em>Agonidæ</em>. Aomori, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_453'>453</span>
-<img src='images/i_453a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 404.</span>—Agonoid-fish, <em>Pallasina barbata</em> (Steindachner). Port Mulgrave, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_453b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 405.</span>—<em>Aspidophoroides monopterygius</em> (Bloch). Halifax.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil <em>Agonidæ</em> are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.</strong>—The lump-suckers, <em>Cyclopteridæ</em>,
-are structurally very similar to the <em>Cottidæ</em>, but of very
-different habit, the body being clumsy and the movements
-very slow. The ventral fins are united to form a sucking disk
-by which these sluggish fishes hold fast to rocks. The skeleton
-is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly or partly lost,
-the skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender
-suborbital stay indicates the relation of these fishes with the
-<em>Cottidæ</em>. The species are chiefly Arctic, the common lumpfish
-or "cock and hen paddle," <em>Cyclopterus lumpus</em>, abounding
-on both shores of the North Atlantic. It reaches a length of
-twenty inches, spawning in eel-grass where the male is left to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_454'>454</span>watch the eggs. <em>Cyclopterichthys ventricosus</em> is a large species
-with smooth skin from the North Pacific.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_454a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 406.</span>—Lumpfish, <em>Cyclopterus lumpus</em> (Linnæus). Eastport, Me.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_454b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 407.</span>—Liparid, <em>Crystallias matsushimæ</em>, (Jordan and Snyder). Family <em>Liparididæ</em>. Matsushima Bay, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.</strong>—The sea-snails, <em>Liparididæ</em> are
-closely related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate,
-tadpole shaped, covered with very lax skin, like the "wrinkled
-skin on scalded milk." In structure the liparids are still more
-degenerate than the lumpfishes. Even the characteristic ventral
-disk is lost in some species (<em>Paraliparis</em>; <em>Amitra</em>) and in
-numerous others the tail is drawn out into a point (leptocercal),
-a character almost always a result of degradation. The dorsal
-spines are wanting or imbedded in the loose skin, and all trace
-of spines on the head is lost, but the characteristic suborbital
-stay is well developed. The numerous species are all small,
-three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic waters,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_455'>455</span>often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very
-soft. One genus, <em>Enantioliparis</em>, is found in the Antarctic. In
-the principal genus, <em>Liparis</em>, the ventral disk is well developed,
-and the spinous dorsal obsolete. <em>Liparis liparis</em> is found on
-both shores of the North Atlantic, and is subject to large variations
-in color. <em>Liparis agassizi</em> is abundant in Japan and northward,
-and <em>Liparis pulchellus</em> in California. In the most primitive
-genus, <em>Neoliparis</em>, a notch in the fin indicates the separation
-of the spinous dorsal. <em>Neoliparis montagui</em> is common in Europe,
-replaced in New England by <em>Neoliparis atlanticus</em>. <em>Careproctus</em>,
-with numerous elongate species, inhabits depths of the North
-Pacific. In <em>Paraliparis</em> (or <em>Hilgendorfia</em>) <em>ulochir</em>, the ventral
-disk is gone and the lowest stage of degradation of the
-Loricate or <em>Scorpæna-Cottus</em> type of fishes is reached. No fossil
-lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although remains of
-<em>Cyclopterus lumpus</em> are found in nodules of glacial clay in
-Canada.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_455.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 408.</span>—Snailfish, <em>Neoliparis mucosus</em> (Ayres). San Francisco.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Comephoridæ</em>
-includes <em>Comephorus baikalensis</em>, a large fresh-water fish of
-Lake Baikal in Siberia, having no near affinities with any other
-existing fish, but now known to be a mail-cheek fish related to
-the <em>Cottidæ</em>. The body is elongate, naked, with soft flesh and
-feeble skeleton. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and
-the skull has a cavernous structure. There are no ventral
-fins. The spinous dorsal is short and low, the second dorsal
-and anal many-rayed, and the pectoral fins are excessively long,
-almost wing-like; the vertebræ number 8 + 35 = 43, and unlike
-most fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-bladder. Little
-is known of the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is
-recently described under the name of <em>Cottocomephorus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_456'>456</span><strong>Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.</strong>—A remarkable offshoot
-from the <em>Pareioplitæ</em> is the suborder of gurnards, known
-as <em>Craniomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κράνιον</span>, skull; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder). In these fishes
-the suborbital stay is highly developed, much as in the <em>Agonidæ</em>,
-bony externally and covering the cheeks. The shoulder-girdle
-is distorted, the post-temporal being solidly united to the cranium,
-while the postero-temporal is crowded out of place by
-the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes resemble
-the other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps closest
-with the <em>Agonidæ</em> or certain aberrant <em>Cottidæ</em> as <em>Ereunias</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the true gurnards or <em>Triglidæ</em> the head is rough and
-bony, the body covered with rough scales and below the pectoral
-fin are three free rays used as feelers by the fish as it creeps
-along the bottom. These free rays are used in turning over
-stones, exploring shells and otherwise searching for food. The
-numerous species are found in the warm seas. In Europe,
-the genus <em>Trigla</em>, without palatine teeth and with the lateral
-line armed, is represented by numerous well-known species.
-<em>Trigla cuculus</em> is a common form of the Mediterranean. <em>Chelidonichthys</em>,
-similar to <em>Trigla</em> but larger and less fully armed, is
-found in Asia as well as in Europe. Several species occur in the
-Mediterranean. <em>Chelidonichthys kumu</em> is a common species in
-Japan, a large fish with pectorals of a very brilliant variegated
-blue, like the wings of certain butterflies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_456.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 409.</span>—Sea-robin, <em>Prionotus evolans</em> (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Lepidotrigla</em>, with larger scales, has many species on the
-coasts of Europe as well as in China and Japan. <em>Lepidotrigla
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_457'>457</span>alata</em>, a red fish with a peculiar bony, forked snout, is common
-in Japan. The American species of gurnards, having teeth
-on the palatine, belong to the genus <em>Prionotus</em>. Northward
-these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the shores in
-shallow water. In the tropics they descend to deeper water,
-assuming a red color. <em>Prionotus carolinus</em> is the commonest
-species in New England. <em>Prionotus strigatus</em>, the striped sea-robin,
-and <em>Prionotus tribulus</em>, the rough-headed sea-robin, are
-common species along the Carolina coast. None have much
-value as food, being dry and bony. Numerous fossil species
-referred to Trigla are found in the Miocene. <em>Podopteryx</em>, from
-the Italian Miocene, with small pectorals and very large ventrals,
-perhaps belongs also to this family, but its real affinities
-are unknown.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_457a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 410.</span>—Flying Gurnard, <em>Cephalacanthus volitans</em> (L.). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_457b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 411.</span>—<em>Peristedion miniatum</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Depths of the Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Peristediidæ.</strong>—The <em>Peristediidæ</em> are deep-water sea-robins,
-much depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_458'>458</span>and two free feelers on the pectoral fin instead of three. The
-species of <em>Peristedion</em> are occasionally taken with the dredge.
-<em>Peristedion cataphractum</em> is rather common in Europe. The
-extinct <em>Peristedion urcianense</em> is described from the Pliocene
-of Orciano, Tuscany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.</strong>—The flying gurnards,
-<em>Cephalacanthidæ</em>, differ in numerous respects and are
-among the most fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head
-is short and bony, the body covered with firm scales, and the
-very long, wing-like pectoral fin is divided into two parts,
-the posterior and larger almost as long as the rest of the body.
-This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish red. The
-first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more
-or less prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much
-alike, ranging widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight
-power of flight. The flying robin, or batfish, called in Spanish
-volador or murcielago, <em>Cephalacanthus volitans</em>, is common on
-both coasts of the Atlantic, reaching a length of eighteen
-inches. <em>Cephalacanthus peterseni</em> is found in Japan and <em>Cephalacanthus
-orientalis</em> in the East Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The
-immature fishes have the pectoral fins much shorter than in
-the adult, and differ in other regards. <em>Cephalacanthus pliocenicus</em>
-occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Petalopteryx syriacus</em>, an extinct flying gurnard found in
-the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, is an ally of <em>Cephalacanthus</em>.
-The body is covered with four-angled bony plates, and the
-first (free) spine of the dorsal is enlarged.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_459'>459</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXVI<br />GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_459dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Suborder</span> Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.</strong>—The great
-family of <em>Gobiidæ</em>, having no near relations among
-the spiny-rayed fishes, may be here treated as forming
-a distinct suborder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chief characteristics of the family are the following:
-The ventral fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine
-and five soft rays, in some cases reduced to four, but never
-wanting. The ventral fins are inserted very close together,
-the inner rays the longest, and in most cases the two fins are
-completely joined, forming a single roundish fin, which may be
-used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The shoulder-girdle
-is essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is usually depressed,
-the bones being without serrature. There is no lateral line,
-the gill-openings are restricted to the sides, and the spinous
-dorsal is always small, of feeble spines, and is sometimes
-altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the preopercle.
-The small pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebræ usually
-in normal number, 10 + 14 = 24.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and
-temperate zones, being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and
-bays, never far out in the sea, and usually in shallow water.
-Many of them burrow in the mud between or below tide-marks.
-Others live in swift waters like the darters, which they much
-resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or two, but most
-of the species rarely exceed three inches, and some of them
-are mature at half an inch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The largest species, <em>Philypnus dormitor</em>, the guavina de
-rio, is found in the rivers of Mexico and the West Indies.
-It reaches a length of nearly two feet and is valued as
-food. Unlike most of the others, in this species there are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_460'>460</span>teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the subfamily
-of <em>Eleotrinæ</em>, having the ventral fins separate, are <em>Eleotris
-pisonis</em>, a common river-fish everywhere in tropical America;
-<em>Eleotris fusca</em>, a river-fish abounding from Tahiti and Samoa
-to Hindostan; <em>Dormitator maculatus</em>, the stout-bodied guavina-mapo
-of the West Indian regions, with the form of a small
-carp. <em>Guavina guavina</em> of Cuba is another species of this type,
-and numerous other species having separate ventrals are found
-in the East Indies, the West Indies, and in the islands of Polynesia.
-Some species, as <em>Valenciennesia strigata</em> of the East
-Indies and <em>Vireosa hanæ</em> of Japan, are very gracefully colored.
-One genus, <em>Eviota</em>, is composed of numerous species, all minute,
-less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in
-coral-heads. <em>Eviota epiphanes</em> is found in Hawaii, the others
-farther south. <em>Hypseleotris guntheri</em>, of the rivers and springs
-of Polynesia, swims freely in the water, like a minnow, never
-hugging the bottom as usual among gobies.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_460a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 412.</span>—Guavina de Rio, <em>Philypnus dormitor</em> (Bloch &amp; Schneider). Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_460b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 413.</span>—Dormeur, <em>Eleotris pisonis</em> Gmelin. Tortugas, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_461'>461</span>
-<img src='images/i_461a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 414.</span>—Guavina mapo, <em>Dormitator maculatus</em> (Schneider). Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_461b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 415.</span>—<em>Vireosa hanæ</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_461c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 416.</span>—Esmeralda de Mar, <em>Gobionellus oceanicus</em> (Pallas). Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can
-mention but a few of the myriad forms, different species being
-abundant alike in fresh and salt waters in all warm regions.
-In Europe <em>Gobius jozo</em>, <em>Gobius ophiocephalus</em>, and many others
-are common species. The typical genus <em>Gobius</em> is known by
-its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken free rays on
-the upper part of the pectoral fin. <em>Mapo soporator</em> swarms
-about coral reefs in both Indies. <em>Gobionellus oceanicus</em>, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_462'>462</span>esmeralda or emerald-fish, is notable for its slender body
-and the green spot over its tongue. <em>Gobiosoma alepidotum</em>
-and other species are scaleless. <em>Barbulifer ceuthœcus</em> lives in
-the cavities of sponges. <em>Coryphopterus similis</em>, a small goby,
-swarms in almost every brook of Japan. The species of <em>Pterogobius</em>
-are beautifully colored, banded with white or black, or
-striped with red or blue. <em>Pterogobius virgo</em> and <em>Pterogobius
-daimio</em> of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of
-<em>Cryptocentrus</em> are also very prettily colored.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_462a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 417.</span>—<em>Pterogobius daimio</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_462b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 418.</span>—Darter Goby, <em>Aboma etheostoma</em> Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is
-the long-jawed goby, <em>Gillichthys mirabilis</em>. In this species
-the upper jaw is greatly prolonged, longer than the head, as in
-<em>Opisthognathus</em> and <em>Neoclinus</em>. In the "American Naturalist"
-for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says of the long-jawed
-goby:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"I call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity consists
-in its tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw,
-and so has an alligator, and it is not unlikely that the title will
-call up in the minds of some who read this the idea of a terrible
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_463'>463</span>mouth, armed with a bristling row of teeth. This would be
-a great mistake, for our little fish has no teeth worth bragging
-about, and does not open his mouth any wider than a well-behaved
-fish should do. The great difference between his
-long jaws and those of a garpike is that the latter's project
-forward, while those of our goby are prolonged backward
-immensely.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper
-in the Bay of San Diego, among seaweed growing on small
-stones at the wharf, and in such position that it must have
-been out of the water from three to six hours daily, though
-kept moist by the seaweed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_463.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 419.</span>—Long-jawed Goby. <em>Gillichthys mirabilis</em> Cooper. Santa Barbara.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"On a recent occasion a single <em>Gillichthys</em>, much larger than
-any of the original types, was presented by a gentleman who
-said that the fish, which was new to him, was abundant upon
-his ranch in Richardson's Bay, in the northern part of the
-Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug them up and
-ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked,
-and found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels.
-The twelfth specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest
-of natural science. This gentleman had the opportunity of
-observing something of the mode of life of these fishes, and
-informed us that their holes, excavated in the muddy banks of
-tidal creeks, increase in size as they go downward, so that the
-lower portion is below the water-level, or at least sufficiently low
-to be kept wet by the percolation from the surrounding mud.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"When the various specimens now acquired were placed side
-by side, the difference in the relative length of their jaws was
-very conspicuous, for while in the smallest it was about one-fifth
-of the total length, in the largest it exceeded one-third.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"As the fish had now been found in two places in the bay,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_464'>464</span>I thought I would try to find it also, and to this end sallied
-out one morning, armed with a spade, and commenced prospecting
-in a marsh at Berkeley, not far from the State University.
-For a long time I was unsuccessful, as I did not know by
-what outward signs their habitations could be distinguished,
-and the extent of mud-bank left bare by the retreating tide
-was, as compared with my powers of delving, practically limitless.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a
-small creek, in a stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of
-about a foot below a small puddle, I found five small fishes,
-which at first I believed to belong to an undescribed species,
-so little did they resemble the typical <em>G. mirabilis</em>, but which
-proved, upon a closer examination, to be the young of that
-species. There was the depressed, broad head, the funnel-shaped
-ventral 'disk' formed by the union of the two ventral
-fins, and the compressed tail of the long-jawed goby, but where
-were the long jaws? The jaws were, of course, in their usual
-place, but their prolongations had only just begun to grow along
-the sides of the head, and were not noticeable unless looked for.
-A comparison of the various specimens proved conclusively
-that the strange-looking appendage is developed during the
-growth of the fish, as will be seen by the following measurements
-of four individuals:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends
-beyond the orbit for a distance about equal to that which intervenes
-between the anterior margin of the orbit and the tip of
-the snout; in No. 2 it reaches to the posterior margin of the
-preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends level with the gill-opening;
-while in the largest individual it passes the origin of the pectoral
-and ventral fins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage,
-which is not attached to the head except where it joins the
-mouth, and which, from its gradual development and ultimate
-large dimensions, must certainly serve some useful purpose?</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Do not understand that I mean that every part of a creature
-is of use to it in its present mode of life, for, as all naturalists
-know, there are in structural anatomy, just as in social
-life, cases of <em>survival</em>; remains of organs which were at some
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_465'>465</span>former time more developed, parallel in their nature to such
-survivals in costume as the two buttons on the back of a man's
-coat, once useful for the attachment of a sword-belt. But in
-this fish we have no case of survival, but one of unusual development;
-the family (<em>Gobiidæ</em>) to which it belongs presents no
-similar case, although its members have somewhat similar
-habits, and the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the
-subject, that the long jaws serve some useful purpose in the
-economy of the creature. In view of the half-terrestrial life
-led by this fish, I am inclined to suspect that the expansion of
-the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a small quantity of
-water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth and gills,
-keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a
-dry season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several
-hours, to reach the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be
-objected to this view that, were such an appendage necessary or
-even useful, other species of <em>Gobiidæ</em>, whose habits are similar,
-would show traces of a similar adaptation. This, however, by
-no means follows. Nature has many ways of working out the
-same end; and it must be remembered that every real species,
-when thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits from its
-congeners, or at least from its family friends. To take an
-illustration from the mammalia. The chimpanzee and the
-spider-monkey are both quadrumanous and both arboreal, yet
-the end which is attained in the former by its more perfect
-hands is reached in the latter by its prehensile tail.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the
-jaw of this rather abnormal member of the goby family be
-another mode of provision for the requirements of respiration?"</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the Asiatic genera, <em>Periophthalmus</em> and <em>Boleophthalmus</em>
-are especially notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are
-raised on a short stalk, the fins are strong, and the animal has
-the power of skipping along over the wet sands and mud, even
-skimming with great speed over the surface of the water. It
-chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves, and weeds, and out
-of the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species of these
-mud-skippers are known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia,
-<em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> and <em>Boleophthalmus chinensis</em> being
-the best known. <em>Awaous crassilabris</em> is the common oopu, or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_466'>466</span>river goby, of the Hawaiian streams, and <em>Lentipes stimpsoni</em> is
-the mountain oopu, capable of clinging to the rocks in the
-rush of torrents. <em>Paragobiodon echinocephalus</em> is a short thick-set
-goby with very large head, found in crevices of coral reefs
-of Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_466a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 420.</span>—Pond-skipper, <em>Boleophthalmus chinensis</em> (Osbeck). Bay of Tokyo, Japan. (Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id023'>
-<img src='images/i_466b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 421.</span>—Mud-skippy, <em>Periophthalmus oarbarus</em> (L.). Mouth of Vaisigono River, Apia, Samoa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting
-or much reduced. The crystal goby, <em>Crystallogobius nilssoni</em>,
-of Europe is one of this type, with the body translucent. Equally
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_467'>467</span>translucent is the little Japanese shiro-uwo, or whitefish, <em>Leucopsarion
-petersi</em>. <em>Mistichthys luzonius</em> of the Philippine Islands,
-another diaphanous goby, is said to be the smallest of all vertebrates,
-being mature at half an inch in length. This minute
-fish is so very abundant as to become an important article of
-food in Luzon. The rank of "smallest-known vertebrate" has
-been claimed in turn for the lancelet (<em>Asymmetron lucayanum</em>),
-the top minnow, <em>Heterandria formosa</em>, and the dwarf sunfish
-(<em>Elassoma zonatum</em>). <em>Mistichthys luzonius</em> is smaller than any
-of these, but the diminutive gobies, called <em>Eviota</em>, found in
-interstices of coral rocks are equally small, and there are several
-brilliant but minute forms in the reefs of Samoa. The snake-like
-<em>Eutæniichthys gilli</em> of Japanese rivers is scarcely larger, though
-over an inch long. <em>Typhlogobius californiensis</em>, "the blindfish
-of Point Loma," is a small goby, colorless and blind, found
-clinging in dark crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead
-Man's Island in southern California.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_467.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 422.</span>—<em>Eutæniichthys gillii</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Tokyo, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being
-evidently associated with the peculiar habit of the species,
-which clings to the under side of stones in relative darkness,
-though in very shallow water. The flesh is also colorless, the
-animal appearing pink in life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Japanese species <em>Luciogobus guttatus</em>, common under
-stones and along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numerous
-other species, finally vanishes altogether. Other gobies
-are band-shaped or eel-shaped, the dorsal spines being continuous
-with the soft rays. Among these are the barreto of Cuba,
-<em>Gobioides broussoneti</em>, and in Japan <em>Tænioides lacepedei</em> and
-<em>Trypauchen wakæ</em>, the latter species remarkable for its strong
-canines. Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few fragments,
-otoliths, and partial skeletons in southern Europe have
-been referred to <em>Gobius</em>, but no other genus is represented.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_468'>468</span>The family of <em>Oxudercidæ</em> contains one species, <em>Oxuderces
-dentatus</em>, a small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate
-fish, without ventral fins, and with very short dorsal and anal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.</strong>—Next
-to the gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the
-singular group of <em>Discocephali</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">δίσκος</span>, disk; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">κεφαλή</span>, head).
-In this group the first dorsal fin is transformed into a peculiar
-laminated sucking-disk, which covers the whole top of the head
-and the nape. In other respects the structure does not diverge
-very widely from the percoid type, there being a remarkable resemblance
-in external characters to the Scombroid genus <em>Rachycentron</em>.
-But the skeleton shows no special affinity to <em>Rachycentron</em>
-or to any perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is
-simple, and in the depression of the head with associated modifications
-the <em>Discocephali</em> approach the gobies and blennies
-rather than the mackerel-like forms.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_468.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 423.</span>—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, <em>Leptecheneis naucrates</em> (Linnæus). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Discocephali</em> comprise the single family of shark-suckers
-or remoras, the <em>Echeneididæ</em>. All the species of this group
-are pelagic fishes, widely diffused in the warm seas. All cling
-by their cephalic disks to sharks, barracudas, and other free-swimming
-fishes, and are carried about the seas by these. They
-do not harm the shark except by slightly impeding its movement.
-They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on sardines, young
-herring, and the like. When a shark, taken on the hook, is
-drawn out of the water the sucking-fish leaves it instantly,
-and is capable of much speed in swimming on its own account.
-These fishes are all dusky in color, the belly as dark as the back,
-so as to form little contrast to the color of the shark.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The commonest species, <em>Leptecheneis naucrates</em>, called pegapega
-or pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet
-and is almost cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively
-on the larger sharks, notably on <em>Carcharias lamia</em>. It has
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_469'>469</span>20 to 22 plates in its disk, and the sides are marked by a dusky
-lateral band.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora,
-or shark-sucker (<em>Echeneis remora</em>), with a stouter body and
-about 18 plates in the cephalic disk. This species is found
-in Europe, on the coast of New York, in the West Indies,
-in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere abundant. Another
-widely distributed species is <em>Remorina albescens</em> with 13 plates
-in its disk. <em>Remoropsis brachyptera</em>, with 15 plates and a long
-soft dorsal, is also occasionally taken. <em>Rhombochirus osteochir</em>
-is a rare species of the Atlantic with 18 plates, having the pectoral
-rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish (<em>Phtheirichthys
-lineatus</em>) is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates
-in its disk. It is found attached, not to sharks, but to barracudas
-and spearfishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_469.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 424.</span>—<em>Rhombochirus osteochir</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in
-Glarus, Switzerland, under the name of <em>Opisthomyzon glaronensis</em>.
-It is characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted.
-Its vertebræ are 10 + 13 = 24 only. Dr. Storms gives the following
-account of this species:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts
-of the skeleton of the fossil <em>Echeneis</em> with those of the living
-forms, such as <em>Echeneis naucrates</em> or <em>Echeneis remora</em>, shows
-that the fossil differs nearly equally from both, and that it was
-a more normally shaped fish than either of these forms. The
-head was narrower and less flattened, the preoperculum wider,
-but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The ribs, as
-also the neural and hæmal spines, were longer, the tail more
-forked, and the soft dorsal fin much longer. In fact it was
-a more compressed type, probably a far better swimmer than
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_470'>470</span>its living congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of
-the adhesive disk is taken into account."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Concerning the relations of the <em>Discocephali</em> Dr. Gill has
-the following pertinent remarks:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The family of <em>Scomberoides</em> was constituted by Cuvier for
-certain forms of known organization, among which were fishes
-evidently related to <em>Caranx</em>, but which had free dorsal spines.
-Dr. Günther conceived the idea of disintegrating this family
-because, <em>inter alias</em>, the typical <em>Scomberoides</em> (family <em>Scombridæ</em>)
-have more than 24 vertebræ and others (family <em>Carangidæ</em>)
-had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to the relationship of
-<em>Elacate</em> (<em>Rachycentron</em>) was repeated, but inasmuch as it had 'more
-than 24 vertebræ' (it had 25 = 12 + 13) it was severed from
-the free-spined <em>Carangidæ</em> and associated with the <em>Scombridæ</em>.
-<em>Elacate</em> has an elongated body, flattened head, and a longitudinal
-lateral band; therefore <em>Echeneis</em> was considered to be
-next allied to <em>Elacate</em> and to belong to the same family. The
-very numerous differences in structure between the two were
-entirely ignored, and the reference of the <em>Echeneis</em> to the <em>Scombridæ</em>
-is simply due to assumption piled on assumption. The
-collocation need not, therefore, longer detain us. The possession
-by <em>Echeneis</em> of the anterior oval cephalic disk in place of a
-spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate the isolation of the
-genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is associated
-with almost innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton
-and other parts, and in a logical system it must be removed
-far from the <em>Scombridæ</em>, and probably be endowed with subordinal
-distinction. In all essential respects it departs greatly
-from the type of structure manifested in the <em>Scombridæ</em> and
-rather approximates—but very distantly—the <em>Gobioidea</em> and
-<em>Blennioidea</em>. In those types we have in some a tendency to
-flattening of the head, of anterior development of the dorsal
-fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there is no close
-affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the
-spinous dorsal exhibited by <em>Echeneis</em>. In view of all these facts
-<em>Echeneis</em>, with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constituting
-not only a family but a suborder.... Who can consistently
-object to the proposition to segregate the <em>Echeneididæ</em> as a suborder
-of teleocephalous fishes? Not those who consider that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_471'>471</span>the development of three or four inarticulate rays (or even less)
-in the front of the dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differentiate
-a given form from another with only one or two such. Certainly
-the difference between the constituents of a disk and
-any rays or spines is much greater than the mere development
-or atrophy of articulations. Not those who consider that the
-manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the following,
-or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal importance;
-for such differences, again, are manifestly of less morphological
-significance than the factors of a suctorial disk. Nevertheless
-there are doubtless many who will passively resist the proposition
-because of a conservative spirit, and who will vaguely
-refer to the development of the disk as being a 'teleological modification,'
-and as if it were not an actual fact and a development
-correlated with radical modifications of all parts of the
-skeleton at least. But whatever may be the closest relations
-of <em>Echeneis</em>, or the systematic value of its peculiarities, it is
-certain that it is not allied to <em>Elacate</em> any more than to hosts
-of scombroid, percoid, and kindred fishes, and that it differs <em>in
-toto</em> from it notwithstanding the claims that have been made
-otherwise. It is true that there is a striking resemblance, especially
-between the young—almost as great, for example, as
-that between the placental mouse and the marsupial <em>Antechinomys</em>—but
-the likeness is entirely superficial, and the scientific
-ichthyologist should be no more misled than would be the scientific
-therologist by the likeness of the marsupial and placental
-mammals."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.</strong>—The suborder <em>Tæniosomi</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ταινία</span>, ribbon; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σῶμα</span>, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made
-up of strange inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant
-derivatives of the mackerel stock. The body is greatly elongate,
-much compressed, extremely fragile, covered with shining
-silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in the open sea, probably
-at no very great depth, but are almost never taken by collectors
-except when thrown on shore in storms or when attacked
-by other fishes and dragged above or below their depth. When
-found they are usually reported as sea-serpents, and although
-perfectly harmless, they are usually at once destroyed by their
-ignorant captors. The whole body is exceedingly fragile;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_472'>472</span>the bones are porous, thin, and light, containing scarcely any
-calcareous matter. In the <em>Tæniosomi</em> the ventral fins are
-thoracic, formed of one or a few soft rays. More remarkable
-is the character of the caudal fin, which is always distorted
-and usually not in line with the rest of the body. The teeth
-are small. The general structure is not very different from
-that of the cutlass-fishes, <em>Trichiuridæ</em>, and other degraded offshoots
-from the scombroid group. The species are few and,
-from the nature of things, very imperfectly known. Scarcely
-any specimens are perfectly preserved. When dried the body
-almost disappears, both flesh and bones being composed chiefly
-of water.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.</strong>—The <em>Regalecidæ</em>, or oarfishes,
-have the caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long
-filaments, thickened at the tip. The species reach a length
-of twenty or thirty feet, and from their great size, slender forms,
-and sinuous motion have been almost everywhere regarded
-as sea-serpents. The very long anterior spines of the dorsal
-fin are tipped with red, and the fish is often and not untruthfully
-described as a sea-serpent "having a horse's head with
-a flaming red mane."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great oarfish, <em>Regalecus glesne</em> (see Fig. 237, Vol. I) was
-long known to the common people of Norway as king of the
-herrings, it being thought that to harm it would be to drive
-the herring to some other coast. The name "king of the
-herrings" went into science as <em>Regalecus</em>, from <em>rex</em>, king, and
-<em>halec</em>, herring. The Japanese fancy, which runs in a different
-line, calls the creature "Dugunonuatatori," which means the
-"cock of the palace under the sea."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Atlantic oarfish is named <em>Regalecus glesne</em>, from the
-Norwegian farm of Glesnæs, where the first recorded specimen,
-described by Ascanius, was taken 130 years ago. Since then
-the species has been many times found on the shores of Great
-Britain and Norway, and once at Bermuda.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like,
-light blue in color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the
-head has a long jaw and a high forehead, suggesting the head
-of a horse. The dorsal fin begins on the head, and the first
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_473'>473</span>few spines are very long, each having a red tuft on the end.
-When the animal is alive these spines stand up like a red
-mane.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble
-in mind. It lives in the deep seas, all over the world. After
-great storms it sometimes comes ashore. Perhaps this is
-because for some reason it has risen above its depth and so
-lost control of itself. When a deep-water fish rises to the surface
-the change of pressure greatly affects it. Reduction of pressure
-bursts its blood-vessels, its swim-bladder swells, if it has one,
-and turns its stomach inside out. If a deep-water fish gets
-above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a surface fish is when
-it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore
-to escape from parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft
-flesh, or sharks that would tear it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and
-to these several names have been given, but the species are
-not at all clearly made out. The oldest name is that of <em>Regalecus
-russelli</em>, for the naturalist Patrick Russell, who took a specimen
-at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen two large examples of
-<em>Regalecus</em> in the museum at Tokio, and several young ones
-have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina
-in southern California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately
-came ashore at Newport in Orange County, California. The
-story of its capture is thus told by Mr. Horatio J. Forgy, of
-Santa Ana, California:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported
-at Newport Beach that about one mile up the coast he had
-landed a sea-serpent, and as proof showed four tentacles and
-a strip of flesh about six feet long. A crowd went up to see
-it, and they said it was about twenty feet long and like a fish
-in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr. Remsberg
-and I, on the following day, went up to see it, and in a short
-time we gathered a crowd and with the assistance of Mr. Peabody
-prepared the fish and took the picture you have received.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length,
-and weighed about 500 or 600 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_474'>474</span>alive and in the shallow water, and that he had landed it himself.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it
-was in a fine state of preservation and could have easily been
-shipped to you, but he had cut it to such an extent that shipment
-or preservation seemed out of the question when we first
-saw it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar
-fishes and sharks were found. Among others, I found a small
-oarfish about three feet long in a bad state of preservation in
-a piece of kelp. One side of it was nearly torn off and the
-other side was decayed."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oarfishes
-in southern California:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Catalina,
-which lies eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles
-County, southern California, is very interesting, many rare
-animals being found there. Every winter the dwellers of
-the island find numbers of argonaut-shells, and several living
-specimens have been secured, one for a time living in the aquarium
-which is maintained here for the benefit of students and
-the entertainment of visitors. A number of rare and interesting
-fishes wander inshore from time to time. Several years
-ago I found various Scopeloid fishes, which up to that time
-had been considered rare, and during the past few years I have
-seen one oarfish (<em>Regalecus russelli</em>) alive, while another was
-brought to me dead. From reports I judge that a number of
-these very rare fishes have been observed here. The first was
-of small size, not over two feet in length, and was discovered
-swimming in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay.
-I had an opportunity to observe the radiant creature before
-it died. Its 'topknot'—it can be compared to nothing else—was
-a vivid red or scarlet mass of seeming plumes—the dorsal
-fins, which merged into a long dorsal fin, extending to the tail.
-The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen splashed with
-equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a
-most striking appearance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost
-of a fish, which swam along where the water gently lapped
-the sands with an undulatory motion, looking like one of its
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_475'>475</span>names—the ribbon-fish. The fortunate finder of this specimen
-could not be persuaded to give it up or sell it, and it was its
-fate to be pasted upon a piece of board, dried in the sun as a
-'curio,' where, as if in retaliation at the desecration of so rare
-a specimen, it soon disappeared.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United
-States, so at least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time
-that it had not been reported. In 1899 another oarfish was
-brought to me, evidently having been washed in after a storm
-and found within a few yards of the former at Avalon. The
-discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to be properly
-preserved, or to donate or sell it to any one who would have
-sent it to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a 'curio,'
-also impaled it, the delicate creature evaporating under the
-strong heat of the semitropic sun.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during
-the past winter (1900) a fine large specimen came in at Newport
-Beach, being reported by H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The
-newspapers announced that a Mexican had found a young sea-serpent
-at Newport, and investigation showed that, as in hundreds
-of similar instances, the man had found a valuable prize
-without being aware of it. According to the account, the
-discoverer first saw the fish alive in the surf and hauled it
-ashore. Being ignorant of its value, he cut it up, bringing in
-a part of the scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he showed
-to some men, and led the way to where lay the mutilated remains
-of one of the finest oar-or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The specimen
-was twenty-one feet in length, and its weight estimated
-at five hundred pounds. The finder had so mutilated it that
-the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If he had packed
-it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the equivalent
-of several months' labor. Apparently the man had cut it up
-in wanton amusement.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion
-excavating at San Clemente Island, and had remarked that
-it was a singular fact that all the fine stone ollas were broken.
-'Nothing strange about that,' said a half-breed, one of the
-party. 'I used to herd sheep here, and we smashed mortars
-and ollas to pass away time.'"</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_476'>476</span>
-<img src='images/i_476.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 425.</span>—Oarfish, <em>Regalecus russelli</em>, on the beach at Newport, Orange Co., Cal. (Photograph by C. P. Remsberg.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_477'>477</span><strong>The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.</strong>—The family of <em>Trachypteridæ</em>
-comprises the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery
-coloration, smaller than the oarfishes and more common, but of
-similar habit.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be
-the king of the herrings and cherished as such, so among the
-Indians of Puget Sound another freak fish is held sacred as the
-king of the salmon. The people about Cape Flattery believe
-that if one does any harm to this fish the salmon will at once
-leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who first discovered
-this fish to give it its name of <em>Trachypterus rex-salmonorum</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Europe a similar species (<em>Trachypterus atlanticus</em>) has
-long been known by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither
-of these names having any evident propriety.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange
-creatures of the sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet.
-Its body is thin as a knife and would be transparent were it
-not covered over with a shining white pigment which gives to
-the animal the luster of burnished silver. On this white surface
-is a large black blotch or two, but no other colors. The head
-is something like that of the oarfish, to which animal the dealfish
-bears a close relationship. Both have small teeth and
-neither could bite if it would, and neither wants to, for they
-are creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the head of the
-dealfish, where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like
-fin. At the end of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin,
-is a long, slim fin which projects directly upwards at right
-angles to the direction of the back-bone. No other fish shows
-this strange peculiarity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of
-the water. It does not often come near shore, but it is occasionally
-blown on the beach by storms. <em>Trachypterus rex-salmonorum</em>
-has been recorded two or three times from Puget
-Sound and twice from California. The finest specimen known,
-the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off the Farallones
-in 1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him
-sent to Stanford University. The specimen is perfect in all its
-parts, a condition rare with these fragile creatures, and its
-picture gives a good idea of the mysterious king of the salmon.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_478'>478</span>
-<img src='images/i_478.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 426.</span>—Dealfish, or King of the Salmon, <em>Trachypterus rex-salmonorum</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Family <em>Trachypteridæ</em>. (From a specimen taken off the Farallones.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_479'>479</span>Four of these fishes have been obtained on the coast of Japan,
-and have been described and figured by the present writer in
-the annals of the Imperial University of Tokyo. These are
-different from the California species and are named <em>Trachypterus
-ishikawæ</em>, but they show the same bright silver color and the same
-streamers on the head and tail. Probably they, too, in Japan
-are kings of something or other, or perhaps silver swans from
-the submarine palace, for along such lines the Japanese fancy
-is more likely to run.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and
-the dorsal spines and ventral rays produced in very long
-streamers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are "true deep-sea
-fishes, which live at very great depths, and are only found
-when floating dead on the surface or washed ashore by the
-waves. Almost nothing is known of their habits except through
-Nilsson's observations in the far north. This naturalist, as well
-as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity of observing
-them in life. They say that they approach the shore at flood-tide
-on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the
-retreating waves. Nilsson's opinion is that its habits resemble
-those of the flatfishes, and that they move with one side turned
-obliquely upward, the other toward the ground; and he says
-that they have been seen on the bottom in two or three fathoms
-of water, where the fishermen hook them up with the implements
-employed to raise dead seals, and that they are slow
-swimmers. This is not necessarily the case, however, for the
-removal of pressure and the rough treatment by which they
-were probably washed ashore would be demoralizing, to say the
-least. <em>Trichiurus</em>, a fish similar in form, is a very strong, swift
-swimmer, and so is <em>Regalecus</em>. Whether or not the habits of
-<em>Trachypterus arcticus</em>, on which these observations were made,
-are a safe guide in regard to the other forms is a matter of
-some doubt, but it is certain that they live far from the surface,
-except near the Arctic Circle, and that they only come ashore
-accidentally. They have never been taken by the deep-sea
-dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very
-rare, the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin-rays
-exceedingly fragile. A considerable number of species have
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_480'>480</span>been described, but in most instances each was based on one
-or two specimens. It is probable that future studies may be
-as fruitful as that of Emery, who, by means of a series of twenty-three
-specimens, succeeded in uniting at least three of the
-Mediterranean species which for half a century or more had
-been regarded as distinct. The common species of the eastern
-Atlantic, <em>Trachypterus atlanticus</em>, is not rare, one or more specimens,
-according to Günther, being secured along the coast of
-northern Europe after almost every severe gale. We desire to
-quote the recommendation of Dr. Günther, and to strongly
-urge upon any one who may be so fortunate as to secure one
-of these fishes that no attempt should be made to keep it entire,
-but that it should be cut into short lengths and preserved in
-the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped separately in muslin."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Stylephoridæ</em> is known from a single specimen
-of the species, <em>Stylephorus chordatus</em>, taken off Cuba in 1790.
-In this form the tail ends in a long, whip-like appendage, twice
-as long as the head.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_481'>481</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXVII<br />SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_481dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Flatfishes.</strong>—Perhaps the most remarkable offshoot
-from the order of spiny-rayed fishes is the great group
-of flounders and soles, called by Bonaparte <em>Heterosomata</em>
-(<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔτερός</span>, differing; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σῶμα</span>, body). The essential character of this
-group is found in the twisting of the anterior part of the cranium,
-an arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side
-of the head. This is accompanied by a great compression of the
-body, as a result of which the flounders swim horizontally or
-lie flat on the sand. On the side which is uppermost both eyes
-are placed, this side being colored, brown or gray or mottled.
-The lower side is usually plain white. In certain genera the right
-side is uppermost, in others the left. In a very few, confined
-to the coast of California, the eyes are on the right or left side
-indifferently.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The process of the twisting of the head has been already
-described (see p. 174, Vol. I). The very young have the body
-translucent and symmetrical, standing upright in the water.
-Soon the tendency to rest on the bottom sets in, the body
-leans to left or right, and the lower eye gradually traverses the
-front of the head to the other side. This movement is best
-seen in the species of <em>Platophrys</em>, in which the final arrangement
-of the eyes is a highly specialized one.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye
-turns over and pierces the cranium instead of passing across
-it. This opinion needs verification, and the process should be
-studied in detail in as many species as possible. The present
-writer has seen it in species of <em>Platophrys</em> only, the same genus
-in which it was carefully studied by Dr. Carlo F. Emery of
-Bologna. In the halibut, and in the more primitive flounders
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_482'>482</span>generally, the process takes place at an earlier stage than in
-<em>Platophrys</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Optic Nerves of Flounders.</strong>—In the Bulletin of the Museum of
-Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H.
-Parker discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group
-of flounders or flatfishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes
-of the brain, the one passing to the lobes of the opposite side
-simply lying over the other, without intermingling of fibers,
-such as takes place in the higher vertebrates and in the more
-primitive fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Parker's observations, in ordinary bony fishes
-the right nerve may be indifferently above or below the other.
-In 1000 specimens of ten common species, 486 have the left
-nerve uppermost and 514 the right nerve. In most individual
-species the numbers are practically equal. Thus, in the haddock,
-48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the right nerve.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this
-condition no longer obtains. In those species of flounder with
-the eyes on the right side 236 individuals, representing sixteen
-species, had the left nerve uppermost in all cases.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals,
-representing nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_482.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 427.</span>—Young Flounder, just hatched, with symmetrical eyes. (After S. R. Williams.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>There are a few species of flounders in which reversed
-examples are so common that the species may be described
-as having the eyes on the right
-or left side indifferently. In all
-these species, however, whether
-dextral or sinistral, the relation
-of the nerves conforms to the
-type and is not influenced by
-the individual deviation. Thus the starry flounder (<em>Platichthys</em>)
-belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal specimens,
-the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the
-left nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes
-on the left. In 15 examples of the California bastard halibut
-(<em>Paralichthys californicus</em>), normally sinistral, the right eye is
-always uppermost. It is uppermost in 11 reversed examples.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_483'>483</span>longer obtains. In 49 individuals of four species of dextral
-soles, the left nerve is uppermost in 24, the right nerve in 25.
-Among sinistral soles, or tongue-fishes, in 18 individuals of two
-species, the left nerve is uppermost in 13, the right nerve in 5.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles
-are not degenerate flounders, but rather descended from primitive
-flounders which still retain the dimorphic condition as
-to the position of the optic nerves, a condition prevalent in
-all bony fishes except the flounders.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore,
-deeper than the matter of the migration of the eye. The asymmetry
-of the mouth is an independent trait, but, like the migration
-of the eye, is an adaptation to swimming on the side. Each
-of the various traits of asymmetry may appear independently of
-the others.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_483.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 428.</span>—Larval Flounder, <em>Pseudopleuronectes americanus</em>. (After S. R. Williams.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The development of the monomorphic arrangement in
-flounders Professor Parker thinks can be accounted for by the
-principle of natural selection. In a side-swimming fish the
-fixity of this trait has a mechanical advantage. The unmetamorphosed
-young of the flounder are not strictly symmetrical,
-for they possess the monomorphic position of the optic nerve.
-The reversed examples of various species of flounders (these,
-by the way, chiefly confined to the California fauna) afford
-"striking examples of discontinuous variation."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession
-in nine of the California-Alaskan species of an accessory half-lateral
-line. This is found in two different groups, while near
-relatives in other waters lack the character. One species in
-Japan has this trait, which is not found in any Atlantic species,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_484'>484</span>or in any other flounders outside the fauna of northern California,
-Oregon, and Alaska.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Ancestry of Flounders.</strong>—The ancestry of the flounders is
-wholly uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders
-lack all fin-spines, they have been placed by some authors after
-the <em>Anacanthini</em>, or codfishes, and a common descent has been
-assumed. Some writers declare that the flounder is only a
-codfish with distorted cranium.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_484a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 429.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_484b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Figs. 429</span> and 430.—Larval stages of <em>Platophrys podas</em>, a flounder of the Mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that
-this supposition is without foundation. The flounders have
-thoracic ventrals, not jugular as in the cod. The tail is homocercal,
-ending in a large hypural plate, never isocercal, except
-in degraded soles, in which it is rather leptocercal. The shoulder-girdle,
-with its perforate hypercoracoid, has the normal perch-like
-form. The ventral fins have about six rays, as in the perch,
-although the first ray is never spinous. Pseudobranchiæ are
-developed, these structures being obsolete in the codfishes. The
-gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the perch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is fairly certain that the <em>Heterosomata</em> have diverged from
-the early spiny-rayed forms, <em>Zeoidei</em>, <em>Berycoidei</em>, or <em>Scombroidei</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_485'>485</span>of the Jurassic or Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to
-the development of the great perch stock.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group,
-it would be to regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel-like
-forms, as the <em>Stromateidæ</em>, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid
-forms, as <em>Platycormus</em>, having the ventral fins wider than in the
-mackerel. Still more plausible is the recent suggestion of Dr.
-Boulenger that the extinct genus <em>Amphistium</em> resembles the primitive
-flounder. But there is little direct proof of such relation,
-and the resemblance of larval flounders to the ribbon-fishes may
-have equal significance. But the ribbon-fishes themselves may
-be degenerate Scombroids. In any case both ribbon-fishes and
-flounders find their nearest living relatives among the <em>Berycoidei</em>
-or <em>Zeoidei</em>, and have no affinity whatever with the
-isocercal codfish or with other members of the group called
-<em>Anacanthini</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_485.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 431.</span>—<em>Platophrys lunatus</em> (Linnæus), the Peacock Flounder. Family <em>Pleuronectidæ</em>. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Heterosomata</em> are found in all seas, always close to the
-bottom and swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They
-are usually placed in a single family, but the degraded types
-known as soles may be regarded as forming a second family.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.</strong>—In the flounders, or <em>Pleuronectidæ</em>,
-the membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large
-and well separated, the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_486'>486</span>always provided with teeth. Among the 500 species of flounders
-is found the greatest variation in size, ranging in weight from
-an ounce to 500 pounds. The species found in arctic regions
-are most degenerate and these have the largest number of vertebræ
-and of fin-rays. The halibut has 50 vertebræ (16 + 34),
-the craig-flounder 58, while in <em>Etropus</em> and other tropical forms
-the number is but 34 (10 + 24). The common flounders of
-intermediate geographical range (<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>, etc.) show
-intermediate numbers as 40 (10 + 30). The apparent significance
-of this peculiar series of fact is given on page 212, Vol. I.
-It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection
-in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the
-bones and consequently smaller number of the vertebræ.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id006'>
-<img src='images/i_486a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 432.</span>—Heterocercal tail of young Trout, <em>Salmo fario</em> Linnæus. (After Parker &amp; Haswell.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id006'>
-<img src='images/i_486b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 433.</span>—Homocercal tail of a Flounder, <em>Paralichthys californicus</em>.]</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil flounders are very few and give no clue as to the origin
-of the group. In the Eocene and Miocene are remains which
-have been referred to <em>Bothus (Rhombus)</em>. <em>Bothus minimus</em> is
-the oldest species known, described by Agassiz from the Eocene
-of Monte Bolca. In the Miocene are numerous other species of
-<em>Bothus</em>, as also tubercles referable to <em>Scophthalmus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the testimony of fossils alone the genus <em>Bothus</em>, or one
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_487'>487</span>of its allies, would be the most primitive of the group. If it be
-so, the simpler structure of the halibut and its relatives is due
-to degeneration, which is probable, although their structure has
-the suggestion of primitive simplicity, especially in the greater
-approach to symmetry in the head and the symmetry in the
-insertion of the ventral fins.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_487.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 434.</span>—Window-pane, <em>Lophopsetta maculata</em>. Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. <em>Solea
-kirchbergiana</em> of the Miocene is not very different from species
-now extant in southern Europe. No remains referable to
-allies of the halibut or plaice are found in Tertiary rocks, and
-these relatively simple types must be regarded as of recent origin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.</strong>—The turbot tribe have the mouth
-large, the eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral
-fins unlike, that of the left side being extended along the ridge
-of the abdomen. The species are found in the warm seas only.
-They are deeper in body than the halibut and plaice, and some
-of them are the smallest of all flounders. It is probable that
-these approach most nearly of existing flounders to the original
-ancestors of the group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Perhaps the most primitive genus is <em>Bothus</em>, species of
-which genus are found in Italian Miocene. The European
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_488'>488</span>brill, <em>Bothus rhombus</em>, is a common fish of southern Europe,
-deep-bodied and covered with smooth scales.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_488.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 435.</span>—Wide-eyed Flounder, <em>Syacium papillosum</em> Linnæus. Pensacola, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translucent
-speckled flounder of our Atlantic coast (<em>Lophopsetta maculata</em>),
-popularly known as window-pane. This species is too
-small to have much value as food. Another species, similar
-to the brill in technical characters but very different in appearance,
-is the turbot, <em>Scophthalmus maximus</em>, of Europe. This
-large flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered
-with warty tubercles. It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and
-has a high value as a food-fish. There is but one species of turbot
-and it is found in Europe only, on sandy bottoms from
-Norway to Italy. In a turbot of twenty-three pounds weight
-Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine ounces, with 14,311,260
-eggs. The young retains its symmetrical condition for a relatively
-long period. No true turbot is found in America and none in
-the Pacific. Other European flounders allied to the turbot and
-brill are <em>Zeugopterus punctatus</em>; the European whiff, <em>Lepidorhombus
-whiff-jagonis</em>; the topknot, <em>Phrynorhombus regius</em>; the
-lantern-flounder, <em>Arnoglossus laterna</em>, and the tongue-fish, <em>Eucitharus
-linguatula</em>, the last two of small size and feeble flesh.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the wide-eyed or peacock flounders, <em>Platophrys podas</em> in
-Europe, <em>Platophrys lunatus</em>, etc., in America, <em>Platophrys mancus</em>
-in Polynesia, the eyes in the old males are very far apart,
-and the changes due to age and sex are greater than in any
-other genera. The species of this group are highly variegated
-and lie on the sand in the tropical seas. Numerous small
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_489'>489</span>species allied to these abound in the West Indies, known in a
-general way as whiffs. The most widely distributed of these
-are <em>Citharichthys spilopterus</em> of the West Indies, <em>Citharichthys
-gilberti</em> and <em>Azevia panamensis</em> of Panama, <em>Orthopsetta sordida</em>
-of California, and especially the common small-mouthed <em>Etropus
-crossotus</em> found throughout tropical America. Numerous other
-genera and species of the turbot tribe are found on the coasts
-of tropical Asia and Africa, most of them of small size and weak
-structure.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_489.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 436.</span>—<em>Etropus crossotus</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Samaris cristatus</em> of Asia is the type of another tribe of
-flounders and the peculiar hook-jawed <em>Oncopterus darwini</em> of
-Patagonia represents still another tribe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.</strong>—In the great halibut tribe
-the mouth is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The
-arctic and subarctic species have the eyes and color on the
-right. Those of the warmer regions (bastard halibut) have the
-eyes and color on the left. These grow progressively smaller
-in size to the southward, the mouth being smaller and more
-feebly armed in southern species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far
-greatest importance, is the halibut (<em>Hippoglossus hippoglossus</em>).
-This species is found on both shores of both oceans, north of
-about the latitude of Paris, Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Matsushima
-Bay in Japan. Its preference is for off-shore banks
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_490'>490</span>of no great depth, and in very many localities it exists in great
-abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a weight of 600
-pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and enters deeper
-waters than the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good
-quality, although none of the flatfishes have much flavor, the
-muscles being mostly destitute of oil. Small halibut, called
-"chicken halibut," are highly esteemed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Goode states that the "history of the halibut fishery has
-been a peculiar one. At the beginning of the present century
-these fishes were exceedingly abundant on George's Banks; since
-1850 they have partially disappeared from this region, and the
-fishermen have since been following them to other banks, and
-since 1874 out into deeper and deeper water, and the fisheries
-are now carried on almost exclusively in the gullies between
-the off-shore banks and on the outer edges of the banks, in
-water 100 to 350 fathoms in depth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious
-fish, and probably would disdain few objects in the way of fresh
-meat it would come across. It is said, however, to feed more
-especially upon crabs and mollusks in addition to fish. These
-fish 'they waylay lying upon the bottom, invisible by reason
-of their flat bodies, colored to correspond to the general color
-of the sand or mud upon which they rest. When in pursuit of
-their prey they are active and often come quite to the surface,
-especially when in summer they follow the capelin to the shoal
-water near the land. They feed upon skates, cod, haddock,
-menhaden, mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins,
-grenadiers, turbot, Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything
-else that is eatable and can be found in the same waters.' Frequently
-halibut may be seen chasing flatfish over the bottom of
-the water. About Cape Sable their favorite food seems to be
-haddock and cusk. A very singular mode of attacking a cod
-has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced fisherman
-and good observer. They often kill their prey by blows of the
-tail, a fact which is quite novel and interesting. He has described
-an instance which occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island
-in 1877: 'The man at the wheel sang out that he saw a halibut
-flapping its tail about a quarter of a mile off our starboard
-quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and his statement was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_491'>491</span>soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We hove
-out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a
-pair of gaff-hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the
-halibut, which was a fine one of about seventy pounds weight,
-but a small codfish which it had been trying to kill by striking
-it with its tail. The codfish was quite exhausted by the repeated
-blows and did not attempt to escape after its enemy had been captured.
-The halibut was so completely engaged in the pursuit
-of the codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and was
-easily captured.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the
-year, and about July and August are ready to spawn, although
-'some fishermen say that they spawn at Christmas' or 'in the
-month of January, when they are on the shoals.' The roe of
-a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds weighed 44 pounds,
-and indeed the 'ovaries of a large fish are too heavy to be lifted
-by a man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet or
-more in length.' A portion of the roe 'representing a fair
-average of the eggs, was weighed and found to contain 2185
-eggs,' and the entire number would be 2,182,773."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms
-with more elongate body. The Greenland halibut, <em>Reinhardtius
-hippoglossoides</em>, and the closely related species in Japan,
-<em>Reinhardtius matsuuræ</em>, differ from the halibut most obviously
-in the straight lateral line. The arrow-toothed halibut,
-<em>Atheresthes stomias</em>, lives in deeper waters in the North Pacific.
-Its flesh is soft, the mouth very large, armed with arrow-shaped
-teeth. The head in this species is less distorted than in any
-of the others, the upper eye being on the edge of the disk in
-front of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been supposed
-to be the most primitive of the living species, but these traits
-are doubtless elusive and a result of degeneration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Eopsetta jordani</em> is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on
-the coast of California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white
-flesh, sold in San Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous
-name of "English sole." Large numbers are dried by the
-Chinese for export to China. A similar species, <em>Hippoglossoides
-platessoides</em>, known as the "sand-dab," is common on both
-shores of the North Atlantic, and several related species are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_492'>492</span>found in the North Pacific. <em>Verasper variegatus</em> of Japan is
-notable for its bright coloration, the lower side being largely
-orange-red.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the bastard halibuts, <em>Paralichthys</em>, the eyes and color
-are on the left side. These much resemble the true halibut,
-but are smaller and inferior as food, besides differing in details
-of structure. The Monterey halibut (<em>Paralichthys californicus</em>)
-is the largest of these, reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This
-species and one other from California (<em>Xystreurys liolepis</em>),
-normally left-sided, differ from all the other flounders in having
-the eyes almost as often on the right side as on the left side,
-as usual or normal in their type. The summer flounder (<em>Paralichthys
-dentatus</em>) replaces the Monterey halibut on the Atlantic
-Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives
-way to the Southern flounder (<em>Paralichthys lethostigma</em>) and
-the Gulf flounder, <em>Paralichthys albigutta</em>. In Japan <em>Paralichthys
-olivaceus</em> is equally common, and in western Mexico
-<em>Paralichthys sinaloæ</em>. The four-spotted flounder of New England,
-<em>Paralichthys oblongus</em>, belongs to this group. Similar
-species constituting the genus <em>Pseudorhombus</em> abound in India
-and Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_492.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 437.</span>—Halibut, <em>Hippoglossus hippoglossus</em> Linnæus. Marmot I., Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.</strong>—The plaice tribe pass gradually
-into the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the
-small mouth, in which the blunt teeth are mostly on the blind
-side. The eyes are on the right side, the vertebræ are numerous,
-and the species live only in the cold seas, none being found in
-the tropics. In most of the Pacific species the lateral line
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_493'>493</span>has an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus
-<em>Pleuronichthys</em>, or frog-flounders, has the teeth in bands. <em>Pleuronichthys
-cornutus</em> is common in Japan and three species,
-<em>Pleuronichthys cœnosus</em> being the most abundant, are found
-on the coast of California. Closely related to these is the
-diamond-flounder, <em>Hypsopsetta guttulata</em> of California. <em>Parophrys
-vetulus</em> is a small flounder of California, so abundant
-as to have considerable economic value. <em>Lepidopsetta bilineata</em>,
-larger and rougher, is almost equally common. It is similar
-to the mud-dab (<em>Limanda limanda</em>) of northern Europe and
-the rusty-dab (<em>Limanda ferruginea</em>) of New England.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_493.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 438.</span>—Wide mouthed Flounder, <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> (L.). St. George I., Md.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The plaice, <em>Pleuronectes platessa</em>, is the best known of the
-European species of this type, being common in most parts
-of Europe and valued as food. Closely related to the plaice
-is a second species of southern Europe also of small size, <em>Flesus
-flesus</em>, to which the name flounder is in England especially
-applied. The common winter flounder of New England,
-<em>Pseudopleuronectes americanus</em>, is also very much like the plaice,
-but with more uniform scales. It is an important food-fish,
-the most abundant of the family about Cape Cod. The eel-back
-flounder, <em>Liopsetta putnami</em>, also of New England, is
-frequently seen in the markets. The males of this species
-have scattered rough scales, while the females are smooth.
-The great starry flounder of Alaska, <em>Platichthys stellatus</em>, is the
-largest of the small-mouthed flounders and in its region the most
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_494'>494</span>abundant. On the Pacific coast from Monterey to Alaska and
-across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch of
-flounders. The body is covered with rough scattered scales,
-the fins are barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty
-pounds. Living in shallow waters, it ascends all the larger
-rivers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An allied species in Japan is <em>Kareius bicoloratus</em>, with scattered
-scales. <em>Clidoderma asperrimum</em>, also of northern Japan,
-has the body covered with series of warts.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_494.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 439.</span>—Eel-back Flounder, <em>Liopsetta putnami</em> (Gill). Salem, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as
-smear-dab and flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (<em>Microstomus
-kitt</em>) is rather common in deep water. Its skin is very
-slimy, but the flesh is excellent. The same is true of the
-slippery sole, <em>Microstomus pacificus</em>, of California and Alaska,
-and of other species found in Japan. <em>Glyptocephalus cynoglossus</em>,
-the craig-fluke, or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic,
-is taken in great numbers in rather deep water on both coasts.
-Its flesh is much like that of the sole. A similar species
-(<em>Glyptocephalus zachirus</em>) with a very long pectoral on the
-right scale is found in California, and <em>Microstomus kitaharæ</em> in
-Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_495'>495</span><strong>The Soles: Soleidæ.</strong>—The soles (<em>Soleidæ</em>) are degraded flounders,
-the typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe,
-from which they may be derived. There are three very different
-groups or tribes of soles, and some writers have thought
-that these are independently derived from different groups of
-flounders. This fact has been urged as an argument against
-the recognition of the <em>Soleidæ</em> as a family separate from the
-flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either be joined
-with the flounders in one family or else they should be divided
-into two or three, according to their supposed origin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the
-bones of the head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by
-scales. The gill-openings are much reduced, the eyes small
-and close together, the ventral fins often much reduced, and
-sometimes the pectoral or caudal also. The mouth is very
-small, much twisted, and with few teeth.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_495.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 440.</span>—Starry Flounder, <em>Platichthys stellatus</em> (Pallas). Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy
-bottoms in the warm seas along the continents, very few being
-found about the Oceanic Islands. The three subfamilies, or
-tribes, may be designated as broad soles, true soles, and tongue-fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.</strong>—The American soles (<em>Achirinæ</em>),
-or broad soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_496'>496</span>of flounders, having the ventral fin of the eyed side extended
-along the ridge of the abdomen. The eyes and color are, however,
-on the right side. The eyes are separated by a narrow
-interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the body is broad
-and covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less
-than six inches long, and nearly all are confined to the warmer
-parts of America, many of them ascending the rivers. A very
-few (<em>Aseraggodes</em>, <em>Pardachirus</em>) are found in Japan and China.
-Some are scaleless and some have but a single small gill-opening
-on the blind side. The principal genus is <em>Achirus</em>. <em>Achirus
-fasciatus</em>, the common American sole, or hog-choker, is abundant
-from Boston to Galveston. <em>Achirus lineatus</em> and other
-species are found in the West Indies and on the west coast of
-Mexico. Almost all the species of <em>Achirus</em> are banded with
-black and the pectorals are very small or wanting altogether.
-All these species are practically useless as food from their very
-small size.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_496.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 441.</span>—Hog-choker Sole, <em>Achirus lineatus</em> (L.). Potomac River.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The European Soles (Soleinæ).</strong>—The European soles are more
-elongate in form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended
-along the ridge of the abdomen. The eyes are on the right side
-with no bony ridge between them. No species of this type is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_497'>497</span>certainly known from American waters, although numerous in
-Europe and Asia. The species have much in common with
-the plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same
-stock. One species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The common sole of Europe, <em>Solea solea</em>, is one of the best
-of food-fishes, reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty-six
-inches and a weight of nine pounds. As usually seen in
-the markets it rarely exceeds a pound. It is found from Norway
-to Italy, and when properly cooked is very tender and
-delicate, superior to any of the flounders. According to Dr.
-Francis Day, it appears to prefer sandy or gravelly shores,
-but is rather uncertain in its migrations, for, although mostly
-appearing at certain spots almost at a given time, and usually
-decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they disappear
-at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British
-seacoast they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the
-shallows about May if the weather is warm, their migrations
-being influenced by temperature. The food of the sole is to a
-considerable extent molluscous, but it is also said to eat the
-eggs and fry of other fishes and sea-urchins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The spawning season is late in the year and during the
-spring months. The ova are in moderate number; a sole of
-one pound weight has, according to Buckland, about 134,000
-eggs. The newly hatched, according to Dr. Day, do not appear
-to be commonly found so far out at sea as some other species.
-They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and are
-very numerous in favorable localities.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed
-of European fishes. In the words of Dr. Day, "the flesh of this
-fish is white, firm, and of excellent flavor, those from the deepest
-waters being generally preferred. Those on the west coast
-and to the south are larger, as a rule, than those towards the
-north of the British islands. In addition to its use as food,
-it is available for another purpose. The skin is used for fining
-coffee, being a good substitute for isinglass, and also as a
-material for artificial baits.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The
-principal English trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire.
-They may be taken by spillers, but are not commonly captured
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_498'>498</span>with hooks; it is suggested that one reason may be that spillers
-are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a night feeder.
-They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited with
-crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing
-is at night, after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land
-breeze answers better than a sea breeze."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In
-Japan <em>Zebrias zebra</em>, black-banded, and <em>Usinosita japonica</em>,
-known as <em>Usinóshita</em>, or cow's tongue, are common. Farther
-south are numerous species of <em>Synaptura</em> and other genera peculiar
-to the Indian and Australian regions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.</strong>—The tongue-fishes are soles
-having the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge,
-the two being very small and apparently in the same socket.
-The body is lanceolate, covered usually with rough scales,
-and as often with two or three lateral lines as with one. The
-species are mostly Asiatic. <em>Cynoglossus robustus</em> and other species
-are found in Japan, and in India are many others belonging
-to <em>Cynoglossus</em> and related genera. The larger species are
-valued as food. The single European species <em>Symphurus nigrescens</em>,
-common in the Mediterranean, is too small to have any
-value. <em>Symphurus plagiusa</em>, the tongue-fish of our coast, is
-common on our sandy shores from Cape Hatteras southward.
-<em>Symphurus plagusia</em>, scarcely different, replaces it in the West
-Indies. <em>Symphurus atricandus</em> is found in San Diego Bay, and
-numerous other species of no economic importance find their
-place farther south.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_498.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 442.</span>—<em>Symphurus plagiusa</em> (L.). Beaufort, N. C.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_499'>499</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXVIII<br />SUBORDER JUGULARES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_499dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Jugular-fishes.</strong>—In all the families of spiny-rayed
-fishes, as ranged in order in the present work, from
-the <em>Berycidæ</em> to the <em>Soleidæ</em>, the ventrals are
-thoracic in position, the pelvis, if present, being joined to the
-shoulder-girdle behind the symphysis of the clavicles so that
-the ventral fin falls below or behind the pectoral fin. To this
-arrangement the families of <em>Bembradidæ</em> and <em>Pinguipedidæ</em> offer
-perhaps the only exceptions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In all the families which precede the <em>Berycidæ</em> in the linear
-series adopted in this work, the ventral fins when present are
-abdominal, the pelvis lying behind the clavicles and free from
-them as in the sharks, the reptiles, and all higher vertebrates.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals
-are brought still farther forward to a point distinctly before
-the pectorals. This position is called jugular (Lat. <em>jugulum</em>,
-throat).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six
-groups, orders, and suborders: <em>Jugulares</em>, <em>Haplodoci</em>, <em>Xenopterygii</em>,
-<em>Anacanthini</em>, <em>Opisthomi</em>, and <em>Pediculati</em>. The last two groups, and
-perhaps the <em>Anacanthini</em> also, may well be considered as distinct
-orders, being more aberrant than the others.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely
-defined of these groups we may retain the term applied by
-Linnæus to all of them, the name <em>Jugulares</em>. This group includes
-those jugular-fishes in which the position of the gills, the
-structure of the skull, and the form of the tail are essentially
-as in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely diversified and perhaps
-unnatural group, some of its members resembling <em>Opisthognathidæ</em>
-and <em>Malacanthidæ</em>, others suggesting the mailed-cheek
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_500'>500</span>fishes, and still others more degenerate. The fishes having
-the fins thus placed were long ago set apart by Linnæus,
-under the name of "Jugulares," <em>Callionymus</em> being the genus
-first placed by him in this group. Besides their anterior insertion,
-the ventrals in the <em>Jugulares</em> are more or less reduced in
-size, the rays being usually but not always less than I, 5 in
-number and more often reduced to one or two, or even wholly
-lost.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared
-with the perch-like forms, but in certain regards they are often
-highly specialized. The groups showing this character are
-probably related one to another, but in some cases this fact is
-not clearly shown. In most of the jugular-fishes the shoulder-girdle
-shows some change or distortion. The usual foramen
-in the hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to the interspace
-between the coracoids, and the arrangement of the
-actinosts often deviates from that seen in the perciform fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Weevers: Trachinidæ.</strong>—Of the various families the
-group of weevers, <em>Trachinidæ</em>, most approaches the type of
-ordinary fishes. In the words of Dr. Gill, these fishes are
-known by "an elongated body attenuated backward from
-the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very short,
-a deeply cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting
-backward from each operculum and strengthened by extension
-on the surface of the operculum, as a keel. The dorsal
-fins are distinct, the first composed of strong, pungent spines
-radiating from a short base and about six or seven in number.
-The second dorsal and anal are very long. The pectorals
-have the lower rays unbranched, and the ventrals are in
-advance of the pectorals, and have each a spine and five rays.
-The species of this family are mostly found along the European
-and western African coast; but singularly enough a species
-closely related to the Old World form is found on the coast of
-Chile. None have been obtained from the intermediate regions
-or from the American coast. Two species are found in England,
-and are known under the name of the greater weever (<em>Trachinus
-draco</em>), about twelve inches long, and the lesser weever
-(<em>Trachinus vipera</em>), about six inches long. They are perhaps
-the most dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formidable
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_501'>501</span>opercular spines are weapons of defense, and when seized
-by the fisherman the fish is apt to throw its head in the direction
-of the hand and lance a spine into it. The pungent dorsal
-spines are also defensive. Although without a poison gland,
-such as some fishes distantly related have at the base of the
-spines, they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur
-from tetanus. They are therefore divested of both opercular
-and dorsal spines before being exposed for sale. The various
-popular names which the weevers enjoy, in addition to their
-general designation, mostly refer to the armature of the spines,
-or are the result of the armature; such are adder-fish, stingfish,
-and sting-bull."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No species of <em>Trachinidæ</em> is known from North America or
-from Asia. In these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown,
-the hypercoracoid is without foramen, the usual perforation
-lying between this bone and the hypercoracoid. A similar condition
-exists in the <em>Anacanthini</em>, or codfishes, but it seems to
-have been developed independently in the two groups. In the
-relatives of the <em>Trachinidæ</em> the position of this foramen changes
-gradually, moving by degrees from its usual place to the lower
-margin of the hypercoracoid. Species referred to <em>Trachinus</em> are
-recorded from the Miocene as well as <em>Trachinus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The extinct group of <em>Callipterygidæ</em> found in the Eocene of
-Monte Bolca seems allied to the <em>Trachinidæ</em>. It has the dorsal
-fin continuous, the spines small, the soft rays high; the scales
-are very small or wanting. <em>Callipteryx speciosus</em> and <em>C. recticandus</em>
-are the known species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Nototheniidæ.</strong>—In the family of <em>Nototheniidæ</em> the foramen
-is also wanting or confluent with the suture between the
-coracoids. To this family belong many species of the Antarctic
-region. These are elongate fishes with ctenoid scales and a
-general resemblance to small <em>Hexagrammidæ</em>. In most of the
-genera there is more than one lateral line. These species are
-the antipodes of the <em>Cottidæ</em> and <em>Hexagrammidæ</em>; although lacking
-the bony stay of the latter, they show several analogical
-resemblances and have very similar habits.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Harpagiferidæ</em>, naked, with the opercle armed with spines,
-and resemble sculpins even more closely than do the <em>Nototheniidæ</em>.
-<em>Harpagifer</em> is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_502'>502</span><em>Draconetta</em> in the deeper waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific.
-These little fishes resemble <em>Callionymus</em>, but the opercle, instead
-of the preopercle, bears spines. The <em>Bovichthyidæ</em> of New
-Zealand are also sculpin-like and perhaps belong to the same
-family. Dr. Boulenger places all these Antarctic forms with the
-foramen outside the hypercoracoid in one family, <em>Nototheniidæ</em>.
-Several deep-sea fishes of this type have been lately described
-by Dr. Louis Dollo and others from the Patagonian region.
-One of these forms, <em>Macrias amissus</em>, lately named by Gill and
-Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the largest deep-sea fish
-known. The family of <em>Percophidæ</em>, from Chile, is also closely
-allied to these forms, the single species differing in slight respects
-of osteology.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_502.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 443.</span>—<em>Pteropsaron evolans</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Closely related to the family of <em>Nototheniidæ</em> and perhaps
-scarcely distinct from it is the small family of <em>Pteropsaridæ</em>,
-which differs in having but one lateral line and the foramen
-just above the lower edge of the hypercoracoid. The numerous
-species inhabit the middle Pacific, and are prettily colored
-fishes, looking like gobies. <em>Pteropsaron</em> is a Japanese genus,
-with high dorsal and anal fins; <em>Parapercis</em> is more widely diffused.
-<em>Osurus schauinslandi</em> is one of the neatest of the small fishes of
-Hawaii. Several species of <em>Parapercis</em> and <em>Neopercis</em> occur in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_503'>503</span>Japan and numerous others in the waters of Polynesia. <em>Pseudeleginus
-majori</em> of the Italian Miocene must belong near <em>Parapercis</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Bathymasteridæ</em>, or ronquils, are perhaps allied to the
-<em>Nototheniidæ</em>; they resemble the <em>Opisthognathidæ</em>, but the jaws
-are shorter and they have a large number of vertebræ as befits
-their northern distribution. <em>Ronquilus jordani</em> is found in Puget
-Sound and <em>Bathymaster signatus</em> in Alaska. The ventral rays
-are I, 5, and the many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in
-front.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_503.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 444.</span>—<em>Bathymaster signatus</em> Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Leptoscopidæ.</strong>—The <em>Leptoscopidæ</em> of New Zealand resemble
-the weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed,
-covered by thin skin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.</strong>—The <em>Uranoscopidæ</em>, or star-gazers,
-have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth
-almost vertical, the lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the
-flat upper surface of the head. The spinous dorsal is short and
-may be wanting. The hypercoracoid has a foramen, and the
-body is naked or covered with small scales. The appearance is
-eccentric, like that of some of the <em>Scorpænidæ</em>, but the anatomy
-differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food-fishes
-of some importance. One species, <em>Uranoscopus scaber</em>,
-abounds in the Mediterranean. <em>Uranoscopus japonicus</em> and
-other species are found in Japan. <em>Astroscopus y-græcum</em> is the
-commonest species on our Atlantic coast. The bare spaces on
-the top of the head in this species yield vigorous electric
-shocks. Another American species is <em>Astroscopus guttatus</em>. In
-Japan and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and
-varied. <em>Ichthyscopus lebeck</em>, with a single dorsal, is a fantastic
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_504'>504</span>inhabitant of the seas of Japan, and <em>Anema monopterygium</em> in
-New Zealand.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Uranoscopus peruzzii</em>, an extinct star-gazer, has been described
-from the Pliocene of Tuscany.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_504.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 445.</span>—A Star-gazer <em>Ariscopus iburius</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Iburi, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.</strong>—Remotely allied to the <em>Uranoscopidæ</em>
-is the interesting family of dragonets, or <em>Callionymidæ</em>.
-These are small scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle
-armed with a strong spine, the body bearing a general resemblance
-to the smaller and smoother <em>Cottidæ</em>. The gill-openings
-are very small, the ventral fins wide apart. The colors are
-highly variegated, the fins are high, often filamentous, and the
-sexes differ much in coloration and in the development of the
-fins. The species are especially numerous on the shores of
-Japan, where <em>Callionymus valenciennesi</em>, <em>Callionymus beniteguri</em>,
-and <em>Calliurichthys japonicus</em> are food-fishes of some slight importance.
-Others are found in the East Indies, and several large
-and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean. <em>Callionymus
-draco</em>, the dragonet, or "sculpin," reaches the coast of England.
-In America but three species have been taken. These
-are dredged in deep water in the East Indies. In other parts
-of the world these fantastic little creatures are shore-fishes,
-creeping about in the shallow bays. Species of <em>Synchiropus</em>,
-colored like the coral sands, abound in the Polynesian coral
-reefs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fossil species of <em>Callionymus</em> (<em>C. macrocephalus</em>) are found
-in the Miocene of Croatia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Rhyacichthyidæ</em> is a small group of Asiatic
-fishes allied to the <em>Callionymidæ</em>, but less elongate and differing
-in minor details. They are found not in the sea, but in mountain
-streams. <em>Rhyacichthys</em> (formerly called by the preoccupied
-name <em>Platyptera</em>) is the principal genus.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_505'>505</span>
-<img src='images/i_505.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 446.</span>—Star-gazer, <em>Astroscopus guttatus</em> Abbott. (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_506'>506</span>The <em>Trichonontidæ</em>, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales,
-are also related to the <em>Callionymidæ</em>. The species are few, small,
-and confined to the Indian and Australian seas. Another small
-family closely related to this is the group of <em>Hemerocœtidæ</em> of
-the same region.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Dactyloscopidæ.</strong>—In this and the preceding families of
-jugular fishes the ventral rays remain I, 5, as in the typical
-thoracic forms. In most of the families yet to be described
-the number is I, 3, a character which separates the little fishes of
-the family of <em>Dactyloscopidæ</em> from the <em>Uranoscopidæ</em> and <em>Leptoscopidæ</em>.
-<em>Dactyloscopus tridigitatus</em> is a small fish of the coral
-sands of Cuba. The other species of this family are found
-mostly in the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico.
-Several genera, <em>Myxodagnus</em>, <em>Gillellus</em>, <em>Dactylagnus</em>, etc., are
-recognized. In the structure of the shoulder-girdle these
-species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching the blennies,
-and their position is intermediate between <em>Trachinidæ</em> and
-<em>Blenniidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_507'>507</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXIX<br />THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_507.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 447.</span>—Sarcastic Blenny, <em>Neoclinus satiricus</em> Girard. Monterey.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_507dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<span class='sc'>The</span> great family of blennies, <em>Blenniidæ</em>, contains a vast
-number of species with elongate body, numerous dorsal
-spines, without suborbital stay or sucking-disk,
-and the ventrals jugular, where present, and of one spine and
-less than five soft rays. Most of them are of small size, living
-about rocks on the sea-shores of all regions. In general they
-are active fishes, of handsome but dark coloration, and in the
-different parts of the group is found great variety of structure.
-The tropical forms differ from those of arctic regions in the
-much shorter bodies and fewer vertebræ. These forms are most
-like ordinary fishes in appearance and structure and are doubtless
-the most primitive. Of the five hundred known species of
-blennies, we can note only a few of the most prominent. To
-<em>Clinus</em> and related genera belong many species of the warm
-seas, scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most part. The
-largest of these is the great kelpfish of the coast of California,
-<em>Heterostichus rostratus</em>, a food-fish of importance, reaching the
-length of two feet. Others of this type scarcely exceed two
-inches. <em>Neoclinus satiricus</em>, also of California, is remarkable
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_508'>508</span>for the great length of the upper jaw, which is formed as in
-<em>Opisthognathus</em>. Its membranes are brightly colored, being
-edged with bright yellow. <em>Gibbonsia elegans</em> is the pretty
-"señorita" of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California. <em>Lepisoma
-nuchipinne</em>, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very
-abundant in rock-pools of the West Indies. The species of
-<em>Auchenopterus</em> abound in the rock-pools of tropical America.
-These are very small neatly colored fishes with but one soft ray
-in the long dorsal fin. Species of <em>Tripterygion</em>, <em>Myxodes</em>, <em>Cristiceps</em>,
-and other genera abound in the South Pacific.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_508a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 448.</span>—Kelp Blenny, <em>Gibbonsia evides</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. San Diego.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_508b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 449.</span>—<em>Blennius cristatus</em> L. Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Blennius</em> and its relatives the body is scaleless and the
-slender teeth are arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most
-species long, fang-like posterior canines are developed in the
-jaws. <em>Blennius</em> is represented in Europe by many species, <em>Blennius
-galerita</em>, <em>ocellaris</em>, and <em>basiliscus</em> being among the most common.
-Certain species inhabit Italian lakes, having assumed a
-fresh-water habit. The numerous American species mostly
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_509'>509</span>belong to other related genera, <em>Chasmodes bosquianus</em> being
-most common. <em>Blennius yatabei</em> abounds in Japan. In <em>Petroscirtes</em>
-and its allies the gill-openings are much restricted. The
-species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very prettily
-colored. <em>Petroscirtes elegans</em> and <em>P. trossulus</em> adorn the Japanese
-rock-pools and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the
-coral reefs of Polynesia.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_509a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 450.</span>—Rock-skipper, <em>Alticus atlanticus</em>. San Cristobal, Lower Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_509b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 451.</span>—Lizard-skipper, <em>Alticus saliens</em> (Forster). A blenny which lies out of water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility. From nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila Island, Samoa. (About one-half size.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_510'>510</span>
-<img src='images/i_510a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 452.</span>—<em>Emblemaria atlantica</em> Jordan. Pensacola, Fla.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The rock-skippers (Salarias, Alticus, etc.) are herbivorous,
-with serrated teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live
-in the rock-pools of the tropics and leap from rock to rock when
-disturbed with the agility of lizards. They are dusky or gray
-in color with handsome markings. One of them, <em>Erpichthys</em> or
-<em>Alticus saliens</em> in Samoa, lives about lava rocks between tide-marks,
-and at low tide remains on the rocks, over which it runs
-with the greatest ease and with much speed, its movements
-being precisely like those of <em>Periophthalmus</em>. As in the species
-of the latter genus, otherwise wholly different, this <em>Alticus</em>
-has short ventral fins padded with muscle.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_510b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 453.</span>—<em>Scartichthys enosimæ</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder, a fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family <em>Blenniidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Erpichthys atlanticus</em> is found in abundance on both coasts
-of tropical America. Many species abound in Polynesia and
-in both Indies. <em>Salarias enosimæ</em> lives in the clefts of lava
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_511'>511</span>rocks on the shores of Japan. <em>Ophioblennius</em> (<em>webbi</em>) is remarkable
-for its strong teeth, <em>Emblemaria</em> (<em>nivipes</em>, <em>Atlantica</em>) for its
-very high dorsal. Many other genera allied to <em>Blennius</em>, <em>Clinus</em>,
-and <em>Salarias</em> abound in the warm seas.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_511a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 454.</span>—<em>Zacalles bryope</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Misaki, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_511b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 455.</span>—<em>Bryostemma tarsodes</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Unalaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_511c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 456.</span>—<em>Exerpes asper</em> Jenkins &amp; Evermann. Guaymas, Mexico. Family <em>Blenniidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.</strong>—The blennies
-of the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal
-fin more elongate, the dorsal fin usually but not always composed
-entirely of spines. The scales are small and the ventral
-fins generally reduced in size. These are divided by Dr. Gill
-into several distinct families, but the groups recognized by him
-are subject to intergradations.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_512'>512</span>
-<img src='images/i_512a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 457.</span>—Gunnel, <em>Pholis gunnellus</em> (L.). Gloucester, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_512b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 458.</span>—<em>Xiphistes chirus</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Amchitka I., Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Chirolophis</em> (<em>ascanii</em>) of north Europe is remarkable for the
-tufted filaments on the head. These are still more developed in
-<em>Bryostemma</em> of the North Pacific, <em>Bryostemma polyactocephalum</em>
-and several other species being common from Puget Sound
-to Japan. <em>Apodichthys</em> (<em>flavidus</em>) of California is remarkable
-for a large quill-shaped anal spine and for the great variation
-in color, the hue being yellow, grass-green, or crimson, according
-to the color of the algæ about it. There is no evidence, however,
-that the individual fish can change its color, and these color
-forms seem to be distinct races within the species. <em>Xererpes
-fucorum</em> of California lies quiescent in the seaweed (<em>Fucus</em>) after
-the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming to correspond
-exactly with those of the stems of algæ. <em>Pholis gunnellus</em>
-is the common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both shores
-of the North Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific.
-Of these, <em>Enedrias nebulosus</em>, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially
-common in Japan. <em>Xiphidion</em> and <em>Xiphistes</em> of the California
-coast, and <em>Dictyosoma</em> of Japan, among others, are remarkable
-for the great number of lateral lines, these extending crosswise
-as well as lengthwise. <em>Cebedichthys violaceus</em>, a large blenny of
-California, has the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays.
-<em>Opisthocentrus</em> of Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_513'>513</span>flexible, only the posterior ones being short and stiff. The
-snake-blennies (<em>Lumpenus</em>), numerous in the far North, are
-extremely slender, with well-developed pectorals and ventrals.
-<em>Lumpenus lampetræformis</em> is found on both shores of the Atlantic.
-In <em>Stichæus</em> a lateral line is present. There is none in <em>Lumpenus</em>,
-and in <em>Ernogrammus</em> and <em>Ozorthe</em> there are three. All
-these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and especially
-characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are almost
-unknown. <em>Pterygocephalus paradoxus</em> of the Eocene resembles
-the living <em>Cristiceps</em>, a genus which differs from <em>Clinus</em> in having
-the first few dorsal spines detached, inserted on the head. The
-first spine alone in <em>Pterygocephalus</em> is detached and is very
-strong. A species called <em>Clinus gracilis</em> is described from the
-Miocene near Vienna, <em>Blennius fossilis</em> from the Miocene of Croatia,
-and an uncertain <em>Oncolepis isseli</em> from Monte Bolca. The
-family is certainly one of the most recent in geologic times.
-The family of <em>Blenniidæ</em>, as here recognized, includes a very
-great variety of forms and should perhaps be subdivided into
-several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At present there
-is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_513a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 459.</span>—<em>Ozorthe dictyogramma</em> (Hertzenstein), a Japanese blenny from Hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic of many fishes of the north Pacific.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_513b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 460.</span>—<em>Stichæus punctatus</em> Fabricius. St. Michael, Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.</strong>—The <em>Ptilichthyidæ</em>, or quillfishes,
-are small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_514'>514</span>very numerous fin-rays. <em>Ptilichthys goodei</em> has 90 dorsal spines
-and 145 soft rays. Another group of very slender naked blennies
-is the small family of <em>Xiphasiidæ</em> from the South Pacific.
-The jaws have excessively long canines; there are no ventral
-fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the caudal ends in a long
-thread.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_514a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 461.</span>—<em>Bryostemma otohime</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Hakodate, Japan. Family <em>Blenniidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_514b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 462.</span>—Quillfish, <em>Ptilichthys goodei</em> Bean. Unalaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_514c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 463.</span>—<em>Blochius longirostris</em> Volta, restored. Upper Eocene of Monte Bolca. (After Woodward.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Blochiidæ.</strong>—Of doubtful relationship is the extinct
-family of <em>Blochiidæ</em>. In this group the body is elongate,
-covered with keeled plates imbricated like shingles. The
-dorsal is composed of many slender spines, and the vertebræ
-much elongate. In <em>Blochius longirostris</em> (Monte Bolca Eocene)
-has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel regards the
-family as allied to the <em>Belonorhynchidæ</em>, but the prolongation
-of the jaws may be a character of analogy merely. Woodward
-places it next to the <em>Blenniidæ</em>, supposing it to have small and
-jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of ventral fins is
-uncertain, the position of the family cannot be ascertained
-and it may really belong in the neighborhood of <em>Ammodytes</em>.
-The dorsal rays are figured by Woodward as simple.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_515'>515</span>
-<img src='images/i_515.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 464.</span>—<em>Xiphasia setifera</em> Swainson. India. (After Day.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_516'>516</span><strong>The Patæcidæ etc.</strong>—The <em>Patæcidæ</em> are blenny-like fishes of
-Australia, having the form of <em>Congriopus</em>, the spinous dorsal being
-very high and inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. <em>Patæcus
-fronto</em> is not rare in South Australia. The <em>Gnathanacanthidæ</em>
-is another small group of peculiar blennies from the Pacific.
-The <em>Acanthoclinidæ</em> are small blennies of New Zealand with
-numerous spines in the anal fin. <em>Acanthoclinus littoreus</em> is the
-only known species.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Gadopsidæ, etc.</strong>—The family of <em>Gadopsidæ</em> of the rivers
-of New Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single
-species, <em>Gadopsis marmoratus</em>, resembling the scaly blennies
-called <em>Clinus</em>, but with long ventrals of a single ray, and three
-spines in the anal fin besides other peculiarities. The species
-is locally very common and with various other fishes in regions
-where true trout are unknown, it is called "trout."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Cerdalidæ</em> are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific
-coast of Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually
-into soft rays. Three species are known.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_516.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 465.</span>—Wrymouth, <em>Cryptacanthodes maculatus</em>. New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The wrymouths, or <em>Cryptacanthodidæ</em>, are large blennies
-of the northern seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_517'>517</span>head cuboid. The wrymouth or ghostfish, <em>Cryptacanthodes
-maculatus</em>, is frequently taken from Long Island northward.
-It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure white. Other
-genera are found in the north Pacific.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.</strong>—The wolf-fishes (<em>Anarhichadidæ</em>)
-are large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for
-their strong teeth. Those in front are conical canines. Those
-behind are coarse molars. The dorsal is high, of flexible spines.
-The species are large, powerful, voracious fishes, known as
-wolf-fishes. <em>Anarhichas lupus</em> is the common wolf-fish of the
-north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet, the body
-marked by dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found
-both in the north Pacific and north Atlantic. <em>Anarhichas
-lepturus</em>, plain brown in color, is common about the Aleutian
-Islands.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_517a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 466.</span>—Wolf-fish, <em>Anarhichas lupus</em> (L.). Georges Bank.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_517b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 467.</span>—Skull of <em>Anarrhichthys ocellatus</em> Ayres.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_518'>518</span>In the wolf-eel (<em>Anarrhichthys ocellatus</em>) of the coast of California,
-the head is formed as in <em>Anarhichas</em> but the body is
-band-shaped, being drawn out into a very long and tapering
-tail. This species, which is often supposed to be a "sea-serpent,"
-sometimes reaches a length of eight feet. It is used for food.
-It feeds on sea-urchins and sand-dollars (<em>Echinarachinius</em>)
-which it readily crushes with its tremendous teeth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The skull of a fossil genus, <em>Laparus</em> (<em>alticeps</em>), with a resemblance
-to <em>Anarhichas</em>, is recorded from the Eocene of England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.</strong>—The remaining blenny-like forms
-lack fin spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and
-their allies. In all of the latter, however, the hypercoracoid
-is imperforate, the pseudobranchiæ are obsolete, and the tail
-isocercal. The forms allied to <em>Zoarces</em> and <em>Ophidion</em>, and which
-we may regard as degraded blennies, have homocercal (rarely
-leptocercal) tails, generally but not always well-developed pseudobranchiæ
-and the usual foramen in the hypercoracoid.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_518.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Fig. 463.</em>—Eel-pout, <em>Zoarces anguillaris</em> Peck. Eastport, Me.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Zoarcidæ</em>, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked,
-or covered with small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft
-rays and the gill-openings confined to the side. Most of the
-species live in rather deep water in the Arctic and Antarctic
-regions. <em>Zoarces viviparus</em>, the "mother of eels," is a common
-fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In the genus <em>Zoarces</em>,
-the last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff, like spines. The
-species are viviparous; the young being eel-like in form, the
-name "mother of eels" has naturally arisen in popular language.
-The American eel-pout, sometimes called mutton-fish, <em>Zoarces
-anguillaris</em>, is rather common north of Cape Cod, and a similar
-species, <em>Zoarces elongatus</em>, is found in northern Japan.
-<em>Lycodopsis pacifica</em>, without spines in the dorsal, replaces
-<em>Zoarces</em> in California. The species of <em>Lycodes</em>, without spines
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_519'>519</span>in the dorsal, and with teeth on the vomer and palatines, are
-very abundant in the northern seas, extending into deep waters
-farther south. <em>Lycodes reticulatus</em> is the most abundant of
-these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux and
-other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are
-recorded from deep-sea explorations, and several others occur
-about Tierra del Fuego. <em>Gymnelis</em>, small, naked species brightly
-colored, is represented by <em>Gymnelis viridis</em> in the Arctic and
-by <em>Gymnelis pictus</em> about Cape Horn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_519a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 469.</span>—Eel-pout, <em>Lycodes reticulatus</em> Reinhardt. Banquereau.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_519b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 470.</span>—<em>Lycenchelys verrilli</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Chebucto, Nova Scotia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_519c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 471.</span>—<em>Scytalina cerdale</em> Jordan &amp; Gilbert. Straits of Fuca.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family of <em>Scytalinidæ</em> contains a single species, <em>Scytalina
-cerdale</em>, a small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel
-between tide-marks, on Waada Island near Cape Flattery in
-Washington, not having yet been found elsewhere. It dives
-among the wet stones with great celerity, and can only be taken
-by active digging.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To the family of <em>Congrogadidæ</em> belong several species of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_520'>520</span>eel-shaped blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia.
-Another small family, <em>Derepodichthyidæ</em>, is represented by one
-species, a scaleless little fish from the shores of British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Xenocephalidæ</em> consist of a single peculiar species, <em>Xenocephalus
-armatus</em>, from the island of New Ireland. The head
-is very large, helmeted with bony plates and armed with spines.
-The body is short and slender, the ventrals with five rays, the
-dorsal and anal short.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.</strong>—The more important family of
-<em>Ophidiidæ</em>, or cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely anterior
-position of the ventral fins, which are inserted at the throat,
-each one appearing as a long forked barbel. The tail is leptocercal,
-attenuate, the dorsal and anal confluent around it. <em>Ophidion
-barbatum</em> and <em>Rissola rochei</em> are common in southern
-Europe. <em>Rissola marginata</em> is the commonest species on our
-Atlantic coast, and <em>Chilara taylori</em> in California. Other species
-are found farther south, and still others in deep water. <em>Genypterus</em>
-contains numerous species of the south Pacific, some
-of which reach the length of five feet, forming a commercial
-substitute for cod. <em>Genypterus capensis</em> is the klipvisch of the
-Cape of Good Hope, and <em>Genypterus australis</em> the "Cloudy Bay
-cod" or "rock ling" of New England. Another large species,
-<em>Genypterus maculatus</em>, occurs in Chile. A few fragments doubtfully
-referred to <em>Ophidion</em> and <em>Fierasfer</em> occur in the Eocene and
-later rocks. The <em>Lycodapodidæ</em> contain a few small, scaleless
-fishes (<em>Lycodapus</em>) dredged in the north Pacific.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_520a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 472.</span>—Cusk-eel, <em>Rissola marginata</em> (De Kay). Virginia.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_520b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 473.</span>—<em>Lycodapus dermatinus</em> Gilbert. Lower California.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_521'>521</span><strong>Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.</strong>—Near the <em>Ophidiidæ</em> are placed
-the small family of sand-lances (<em>Ammodytidæ</em>). This family comprises
-small, slender, silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical
-seas, living along shore and having the habit of burying themselves
-in the sand under the surf in shallow water. The jaws
-are toothless, the body scarcely scaly and crossed by many cross-folds
-of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is without spines, and
-the ventral fins when present are jugular. The species of the
-family are very much alike. From their great abundance they
-have sometimes much value as food, more perhaps as bait, still
-more as food for salmon and other fishes, from which they
-escape by plunging into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide
-leaves a sandy beach fairly covered with living "lants" looking
-like a moving foam of silver. <em>Ammodytes tobianus</em> is the sand-lance
-or lant of northern Europe. <em>Ammodytes americanus</em>,
-scarcely distinguishable, replaces it in America; and <em>Ammodytes
-personatus</em> in California, Alaska, and Japan. This is a most
-excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little things,
-value it highly.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_521a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 474.</span>—Sand-lance, <em>Ammodytes americanus</em> De Kay. Nantucket.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_521b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 475.</span>—<em>Embolichthys mitsukurii</em> (Jordan &amp; Evermann). Formosa.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the genus <em>Hyperoplus</em> there is a large tooth on the
-vomer. In the tropical genera there is a much smaller number of
-vertebræ and the body is covered with ordinary scales instead
-of delicate, oblique cross-folds of skin. These tropical species
-must probably be detached from the <em>Ammodytidæ</em> to form a
-distinct family, <em>Bleekeriidæ</em>. <em>Bleekeria kallolepis</em> is found in
-India, <em>Bleekeria gilli</em> is from an unknown locality, and the
-most primitive species of sand-lance, <em>Embolichthys mitsukurii</em>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_522'>522</span>occurs in Formosa. In this species, alone of the sand-lances,
-the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in position,
-as in the <em>Zoarcidæ</em>, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of
-this species makes it necessary to separate the <em>Ammodytidæ</em>
-and <em>Bleekeriidæ</em> widely from the <em>Percesoces</em>, and especially from
-the extinct families of <em>Crossognathidæ</em> and <em>Cobitopsidæ</em> with which
-its structure in other regards has led Woodward, Boulenger, and
-the present writer to associate it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although an alleged sand-lance, <em>Rhynchias septipinnis</em>, with
-ventral fins abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas,
-no one has since seen it, and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it
-may belong among the <em>Percesoces</em>. The relation of <em>Ammodytes</em>
-to <em>Embolichthys</em> is too close to doubt their close relationship.
-According to Dr. Gill the <em>Ammodytidæ</em> belong near the <em>Hemerocœtidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_522.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 476.</span>—Pearlfish, <em>Fierasfer dubius</em> Putnam, embedded in a layer of mother-of-pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M. Castro.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.</strong>—In the little group of pearlfishes,
-called <em>Fierasferidæ</em> or <em>Carapidæ</em>, the body is eel-shaped
-with a rather large head, and the vent is at the throat. Numerous
-species of <em>Fierasfer</em> (<em>Carapus</em>) are found in the warm seas.
-These little fishes enter the cavities of sea-cucumbers (Holothurians)
-and other animals which offer shelter, being frequently
-taken from the pearl-oyster. In the Museum of Comparative
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_523'>523</span>Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is "one valve of a
-pearl-oyster in which a specimen of <em>Fierasfer dubius</em> is beautifully
-inclosed in a pearly covering deposited on it by the
-oyster." A photograph of a similar specimen is given above.
-The species found in Holothurians are transparent in texture,
-with a bright pearly luster. Species living among lava rocks,
-as <em>Jordanicus umbratilis</em> of the south seas, are mottled black.
-Since this was written a specimen of this black species has been
-obtained from a Holothurian in Hilo, Hawaii, by Mr. H. W.
-Henshaw.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_523.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 477.</span>—Pearlfish, <em>Fierasfer acus</em> (Linnæus), issuing from a Holothurian. Coast of Italy. (After Emery.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Brotulidæ.</strong>—The <em>Brotulidæ</em> constitute a large family of
-fishes, resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of
-the hypercoracoid, as well as in the form of the tail. The
-resemblance between the two groups is largely superficial. We
-may look upon the <em>Brotulidæ</em> as degraded blennies, but the
-<em>Gadidæ</em> have an earlier and different origin which has not yet
-been clearly made out. Most of the <em>Brotulidæ</em> live in deep
-water and are without common name or economic relations.
-Two species have been landlocked in cave streams in Cuba,
-where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their sight, a phenomenon
-which richly deserves careful study, and which has been
-recently investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_524'>524</span>Brotulids, called Pez Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves
-in the county of San Antonio, where they reach a length of
-about five inches. As in other blindfishes, the body is translucent
-and colorless. These species are known as <em>Lucifuga subterranea</em>
-and <em>Stygicola dentata</em>. They are descended from allies
-of the genera called <em>Brotula</em> and <em>Dinematichthys</em>. <em>Brotula barbata</em>
-is a cusk-like fish, occasionally found in the markets of
-Havana. Similar species, <em>Brotula multibarbata</em> and <em>Sirembo
-inermis</em>, are common in Japan, and <em>Brosmophycis marginatus</em>,
-beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen on the coast of
-California. Many other genera and species abound in the
-depths of the sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much
-variety in form and structure.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_524a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 478.</span>—<em>Brotula barbata</em> Schneider. Cuba.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_524b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 479.</span>—Blind Brotula. <em>Lucifuga subterranea</em> (Poey), showing viviparous habit. Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by Dr. Eigenmann.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Bregmacerotidæ</em> are small fishes, closely related to the
-Brotulids, having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with several
-minor peculiarities, the first ray of the dorsal being free
-and much elongate. They live near the surface in the open
-sea. <em>Bregmaceros macclellandi</em> is widely diffused in the Pacific.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_525'>525</span><strong>Ateleopodidæ.</strong>—The small family of <em>Ateleopodidæ</em> includes long-bodied,
-deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling <em>Macrourus</em>,
-but with smooth scales. The group has the coracoids as in
-<em>Brotulidæ</em>, and the actinosts are united in an undivided plate.
-<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is the species taken in Japan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Haplodoci.</strong>—We may here place the peculiar family
-of <em>Batrachoididæ</em>, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder
-of <em>Haplodoci</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἁπλόος</span>, simple; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">δόκος</span>, shaft) from the simple
-form of the post-temporal. This order is characterized
-by the undivided post-temporal bone and by the reduction
-of the gill-arches to three. A second bone behind the post-temporal
-connects the shoulder-girdle above to the vertebral
-column. The coracoid bones are more or less elongate, suggesting
-the arm seen in pediculate fishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The single family has the general form of the <em>Cottidæ</em>, the
-body robust, with large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and
-short spinous dorsal fin. The shoulder-girdle and its structures
-differ little from the blennioid type. There are no pseudobranchiæ
-and the tail is homocercal. The species are relatively
-few, chiefly confined to the warm seas and mostly American,
-none being found in Europe or Asia. Some of them ascend
-rivers, and all are carnivorous and voracious. None are valued
-as food, being coarse-grained in flesh. The group is probably
-nearest allied to the <em>Trachinidæ</em> or <em>Uranoscopidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_525.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 480.</span>—Leopard Toadfish, <em>Opsanus pardus</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Pensacola.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Opsanus tau</em>, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our
-Atlantic coast, is very common in rocky places, the young
-clinging to stones by a sucking-disk on the belly, a structure
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_526'>526</span>which is early lost. It reaches a length of about fifteen inches.
-<em>Opsanus pardus</em>, the leopard toadfish, or sapo, of the Gulf coast,
-lives in deeper water and is prettily marked with dark-brown
-spots on a light yellowish ground.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In <em>Opsanus</em> the body is naked and there is a large foramen,
-or mucous pore, in the axil of the pectoral. In the <em>Marcgravia
-cryptocentra</em>, a large Brazilian toadfish, this foramen is absent.
-In <em>Batrachoides</em>, a South American genus, the body is covered
-with cycloid scales. <em>Batrachoides surinamensis</em> is a common
-species of the West Indies. <em>Batrachoides pacifici</em> occurs at
-Panama. The genus <em>Porichthys</em> is remarkable for the development
-of series of mucous pores and luminous spots in several
-different lateral lines which cover the body. These luminous
-spots are quite unlike those found in the lantern-fishes
-(<em>Myctophidæ</em>) and other <em>Iniomi</em>. Their structure has been
-worked out in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, a summary
-of whose conclusions are given on page 191, Vol. I.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of
-California is <em>Porichthys notatus</em>. This species, named midshipman
-from its rows of shining spots like brass buttons, is
-found among rocks and kelp and makes a peculiar quivering
-or humming noise with its large air-bladder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Porichthys porosissimus</em>, the bagre sapo, is common on
-all coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. <em>Porichthys
-margaritatus</em> is found about Panama and <em>Porichthys
-porosus</em> in Chile.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_526.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 481.</span>—Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, <em>Porichthys porosissimus</em> (Cuv. &amp; Val.). Galveston.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Thalassophryne</em> and <em>Thalassothia</em>, the poison
-toadfishes, are found along the coasts of South America, where
-they sometimes ascend the rivers. In these species there is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_527'>527</span>an elaborate series of venom glands connected with the hollow
-spines of the opercle and the dorsal spines. Dr. Günther gives
-the following account of this structure as shown in <em>Thalassophryne
-reticulata</em>, a species from Panama:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In this species I first observed and closely examined the
-poison organ with which the fishes of this genus are provided.
-Its structure is as follows: (1) The opercular part: The operculum
-is very narrow, vertically styliform and very mobile; it is
-armed behind with a spine, eight lines long in a specimen of 10½
-inches, and of the same form as the venom fang of a snake; it
-is, however, somewhat less curved, being only slightly bent
-upward. It has a longish slit at the outer side of its extremity
-which leads into a canal perfectly closed and running along
-the whole length of its interior; a bristle introduced into the
-canal reappears through another opening at the base of the
-spine, entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the
-basal half of the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and
-about double the size of an oat grain. Though the specimen
-had been preserved in spirits for about nine months it still contained
-a whitish substance of the consistency of thick cream,
-which on the slightest pressure freely flowed from the opening
-in the extremity of the spine. On the other hand, the sac could
-be easily filled with air or fluid from the foramen of the spine.
-No gland could be discovered in the immediate neighborhood
-of the sac; but on a more careful inspection I found a minute
-tube floating free in the sac, whilst on the left-hand side there
-is only a small opening instead of the tube. The attempts to
-introduce a bristle into this opening for any distance failed,
-as it appears to lead into the interior of the basal portion of the
-operculum, to which the sac firmly adheres at this spot. (2) The
-dorsal part is composed of the two dorsal spines, each of which
-is ten lines long. The whole arrangement is the same as in
-the opercular spines; their slit is at the front side of the point;
-each has a separate sac, which occupies the front of the basal
-portion; the contents were the same as in the opercular sacs,
-but in somewhat greater quantity. A strong branch of the
-lateral line ascends to the immediate neighborhood of their base.
-Thus we have four poison spines, each with a sac at its base; the
-walls of the sacs are thin, composed of a fibrous membrane,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_528'>528</span>the interior of which is coated over with mucus. There are
-no secretory glands embedded between these membranes, and
-these sacs are probably merely the reservoirs in which the fluid
-secreted accumulates. The absence of a secretory organ in
-the immediate neighborhood of the reservoirs (an organ the
-size of which would be in accordance with the quantity of fluid
-secreted), the diversity of the osseous spines which have been
-modified into poison organs, and the actual communication
-indicated by the foramen in the sac lead me to the opinion
-that the organ of secretion is either that system of muciferous
-channels which is found in nearly the whole class of fishes, and
-the secretion of which has poisonous qualities in a few of them,
-or at least an independent portion of it. This description was
-made from the first example; through the kindness of Captain
-Dow I received two other specimens, and in the hope of proving
-the connection of the poison bags with the lateral-line system,
-I asked Dr. Pettigrew, of the Royal College of Surgeons, a
-gentleman whose great skill has enriched that collection with
-a series of the most admirable anatomical preparations, to lend
-me his assistance in injecting the canals. The injection of the
-bags through the opening of the spine was easily accomplished;
-but we failed to drive the fluid beyond the bag or to fill with
-it any other part of the system of muciferous channels. This,
-however, does not disprove the connection of the poison bags
-with that system, inasmuch as it became apparent that if there
-be minute openings they are so contracted by the action of the
-spirit in which the specimens were preserved as to be impassable
-to the fluid of injection. A great part of the lateral-line
-system consists of open canals; however, on some parts of the
-body, these canals are entirely covered by the skin; thus, for
-instance, the open lateral line ceases apparently in the suprascapular
-region, being continued in the parietal region. We
-could not discover any trace of an opening by which the open
-canal leads to below the skin; yet we could distinctly trace the
-existence of the continuation of the canal by a depressed line,
-so that it is quite evident that such openings do exist, although
-they may be passable only in fresh specimens. Thus likewise
-the existence of openings in the bags, as I believed to have found
-in the first specimen dissected, may be proved by examination
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_529'>529</span>of fresh examples. The sacs are without an external muscular
-layer and situated immediately below the loose thick skin
-which envelops their spines to their extremity. The injection
-of the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected
-by the pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the
-spine enters another body. Nobody will suppose that a complicated
-apparatus like the one described can be intended for
-conveying an innocuous substance, and therefore I have not
-hesitated to designate it as poisonous; and, Captain Dow
-informs me in a letter lately received, 'the natives of Panama
-seemed quite familiar with the existence of the spines and of
-the emission from them of a poison which, when introduced
-into a wound, caused fever, an effect somewhat similar to that
-produced by the sting of a scorpion; but in no case was a wound
-caused by one of them known to result seriously. The slightest
-pressure of the finger at the base of the spine caused the poison
-to jet a foot or more from the opening of the spine.' The greatest
-importance must be attached to this fact, inasmuch as it
-assists us in our inquiries into the nature of the functions of
-the muciferous system, the idea of its being a secretory organ
-having lately been superseded by the notion that it serves
-merely as a stratum for the distribution of peripheric nerves.
-Also the objection that the sting-rays and many Siluroid fishes
-are not poisonous because they have no poison organ cannot
-be maintained, although the organs conveying their poison
-are neither so well adapted for this purpose nor in such a perfect
-connection with the secretory mucous system as in <em>Thalassophryne</em>.
-The poison organ serves merely as a weapon of defense.
-All the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth on the palate and in the
-lower jaw feed on Mollusca and Crustaceans."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No fossil <em>Batrachoididæ</em> are known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Suborder Xenopterygii.</strong>—The clingfishes, forming the suborder
-<em>Xenopterygii</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ξενός</span>, strange; <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">πτερύξ</span>, fin), are, perhaps,
-allied to the toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays
-I, 4 or I, 5, and between them is developed an elaborate sucking-disk,
-not derived from modified fins, but from folds of the
-skin and underlying muscles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The structure of this disk in <em>Gobiesox sanguineus</em> is thus
-described by Dr. Günther:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_530'>530</span>"The whole disk is exceedingly large, subcircular, longer
-than broad, its length being (often) one-third of the whole
-length of the fish. The central portion is formed merely by
-skin, which is separated from the pelvic or pubic bones by
-several layers of muscles. The peripheric portion is divided
-into an anterior and posterior part by a deep notch behind the
-ventrals. The anterior peripheric portion is formed by the
-ventral rays, the membrane between them and a broad fringe
-which extends anteriorly from one ventral to the other. This
-fringe is a fold of the skin, containing on one side the rudimentary
-ventral spine, but no cartilage. The posterior peripheric
-portion is suspended on each side on the coracoid, the upper
-bone of which is exceedingly broad, becoming a free, movable
-plate behind the pectoral. The lower bone of the coracoid is
-of a triangular form, and supports a very broad fold of the skin,
-extending from one side to the other, and containing a cartilage
-which runs through the whole of that fold. Fine processes
-of the cartilage are continued into the soft striated margin,
-in which the disk terminates posteriorly. The face of the disk
-is coated with a thick epidermis, like the sole of the foot in
-higher animals. The epidermis is divided into many polygonal
-plates. There are no such plates between the roots of the
-ventral fins."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_530.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 482.</span>—<em>Aspasma ciconiæ</em> Jordan &amp; Snyder. Wakanoura, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin
-is naked and there is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows
-several peculiarities; there is no suborbital ring, the palatine
-arcade is reduced, as are the gill-arches, the opercle is reduced
-to a spine-like projection, and the vertebræ are numerous. The
-species are found in tide-pools in the warm seas, where they
-cling tightly to the rocks with their large ventral disks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_531'>531</span>Several species of <em>Lepadogaster</em> and <em>Mirbelia</em> are found in
-the Mediterranean. <em>Lepadogaster gouani</em> is the best-known
-European species. <em>Aspasma ciconiæ</em> and <em>minima</em> occur about
-the rocks in the bays of Japan.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_531.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 483.</span>—Clingfish, <em>Caularchus mæandricus</em> (Girard). Monterey, Cal.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most of the West Indian species belong to <em>Gobiesox</em>, with
-entire teeth, and to <em>Arbaciosa</em>, with serrated teeth. Some of these
-species are deep crimson in color, but most of them are dull
-olive. <em>Gobiesox virgatulus</em> is common on the Gulf Coast. <em>Caularchus
-mæandricus</em>, a very large species, reaching a length of
-six inches, abounds along the coast of California. Other genera
-are found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially about New
-Zealand. <em>Chorisochismus dentex</em>, from the Cape of Good Hope,
-reaches the length of a foot.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_532'>532</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXX<br />OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_532dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>Order</span> Opisthomi.</strong>—The order <em>Opisthomi</em> (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὄπισθη</span>, behind;
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ὤμος</span>, shoulder) is characterized by the general traits
-of the blennies and other elongate, spiny-rayed
-fishes, but the shoulder-girdle, as in the Apodes and the
-<em>Heteromi</em>, is inserted on the vertebral column well behind the
-skull.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The single family, <em>Mastacembelidæ</em>, is composed of eel-shaped
-fishes with a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting
-the waters of India, Africa, and the East Indies. They are
-small in size and of no economic importance. The dorsal is
-long, with free spines in front and there are no ventral fins.
-Were these fins developed, they should in theory be jugular in
-position. There is no air-duct in <em>Mastacembelus</em> and it seems
-to be a true spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation to
-either <em>Notacanthus</em> or to the eels. Except for the separation
-of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, there seems to be no
-reason for separating them far from the Blennioid forms, and
-the resemblance to <em>Notacanthus</em> seems wholly fallacious.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_532.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 484.</span>—<em>Mastacembelus ellipsifer</em> Boulenger. Congo River. (After Boulenger.)</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Mastacembelus armatus</em> is a common species of India and
-China. In <em>Rhynchobdella</em> the nasal appendage or proboscis, conspicuous
-in <em>Mastacembelus</em>, is still more developed. <em>Rhynchobdella
-aculeata</em> is common in India.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Order Anacanthini.</strong>—We may separate from the other
-jugular fishes the great group of codfishes and their allies,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_533'>533</span>retaining the name Anacanthini (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἄνακανθος</span>, without spine)
-suggested by Johannes Müller. In this group the hypercoracoid
-is without foramen, the fenestra lying between this
-bone and the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal, the
-vertebræ in a right line and progressively smaller backward,
-sometimes degenerate or whip-like (leptocercal) at tip. Other
-characters are shown in the structure of the skull. There are
-no spines in any of the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales
-generally small, and the coloration dull or brownish. The
-numerous species live chiefly in the northern seas, some of
-them descending to great depths. The resemblance of these
-fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very strongly marked, but
-these likenesses seem analogical only and not indicative of true
-affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early offshoot from
-the ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of evolution
-is unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. Among recent fishes
-there is nothing structurally nearer than the <em>Nototheniidæ</em> and
-<em>Brotulidæ</em>, but the line of descent must branch off much farther
-back than either of these. For the present, therefore, we may regard
-the codfishes and their allies (<em>Anacanthini</em>) as a distinct order.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_533.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 485.</span>—Codfish, <em>Gadus callarias</em> L. Eastport, Me.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Codfishes: Gadidæ.</strong>—The chief family is that of the <em>Gadidæ</em>,
-or codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance
-to the common codfish, <em>Gadus callarias</em>. This is one of the best
-known of fishes, found everywhere on the shores of the North
-Atlantic, and the subject of economic fisheries of the greatest
-importance. Its flesh is white, flaky, rather tasteless, but takes
-salt readily, and is peculiarly well adapted for drying. The
-average size of the codfish is about ten pounds, but Captain
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_534'>534</span>Nathaniel Atwood of Provincetown records one with the weight
-of 160 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Dr. Goode:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"In the western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in
-considerable abundance as far south as the mouth of the Chesapeake
-Bay, latitude 37°, and stragglers have been observed
-about Ocracoke Inlet. The southern limits of the species may
-be safely considered to be Cape Hatteras, in latitude 35° 10´.
-Along the coast of New England, the Middle States, and British
-North America, and upon all the off-shore banks of this region,
-cod are found usually in great abundance, during part of the
-year at least. They have been observed also in the Gulf of
-Bothnia, latitude 70° to 75°, and in the southeastern part of
-Baffin's Land to the northward of Cumberland Sound, and it
-is more than probable that they occur in the waters of the Arctic
-Sea to the north of the American continent, or away around
-to Bering Strait."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Gill says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The ocean banks of moderate depths are the favorite
-resorts of the cod, but it is by no means confined to those
-localities. The fish, indeed, occasionally enters into fresh,
-or at least brackish, water. According to Canadian authorities,
-it is found 'well up the estuary of the St. Lawrence, though
-how far up is not definitely stated, probably not beyond the
-limits of brackish water.' Even as far south as the Delaware
-River it has been known to enter the streams. Dr. C. C. Abbott
-records that in January, 1876, 'a healthy, strong, active codfish,
-weighing nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-net
-in the Delaware River near Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach
-of the fish showed that it had been in river-water several days.
-Many of them had been taken about Philadelphia between
-1856 and 1869.'</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary
-fishes, and almost everything that is eatable, and some that
-is not, may find its way into its capacious maw. Years ago,
-before naturalists had the facilities that the dredge now affords,
-cods' stomachs were the favorite resort for rare shells, and some
-species had never been obtained otherwise than through such
-a medium, while many filled the cabinet that would not otherwise
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_535'>535</span>have been represented. In the words of Mr. Goode, 'codfish
-swallow bivalve fish of the largest size, like the great sea-clams,
-which are a favorite article of food on certain portions
-of the coast'; further, 'these shells are nested, the smaller
-inside of the larger, sometimes six or seven in a set, having
-been packed together in this compact manner in the stomachs
-of the codfish after the soft parts have been digested out. Some
-of them had shreds of the muscles remaining in them and
-were quite fresh, having evidently been but recently ejected
-by the fish.' Even banks of dead shells have been found in
-various regions, which are supposed to be the remains of mollusks
-taken by the cod. Shell-fishes, however, form probably
-but the smaller portion of its diet, and fishes of its own class
-contribute materially to its food,—such as the herring family,
-the capelin, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some
-interesting peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to
-spawn, as was once supposed, but its eggs are deposited in mid-sea
-and float to the surface, although it does really, in many
-cases, approach the land to do so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who has
-discovered its peculiarities, 'found cod at a distance of twenty
-to thirty Norwegian miles from the shore and at a depth of
-from one hundred to one hundred and fifty fathoms.' The
-eggs thus confided to the mercy of the waves are very numerous;
-as many as 9,100,000 have been calculated in a seventy-five-pound
-fish. 'When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are
-so small as to be hardly distinguishable; but they continue
-to increase in size until maturity, and after impregnation have
-a diameter depending upon the size of the parent, varying
-from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch. A five-
-to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a twenty-five-pound
-one has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.'
-There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to
-a pound avoirdupois. They are matured and ejected from September
-to November."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait
-also found in the salmon family.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great
-value in the medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_536'>536</span>The Alaska cod, <em>Gadus macrocephalus</em>, is equally abundant
-with the Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly,
-the air-bladder or sounds being smaller, according to the fishermen,
-and the head being somewhat larger. This species is found
-from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in Japan, and is very abundant
-about the Aleutian Islands and especially in the Okhotsk Sea.
-With equal markets it would be as important commercially
-as the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (<em>Gadus</em>) and related genera
-there are three dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the
-lateral line is pale and the lower jaw shorter than the upper.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_536a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 486.</span>—Skull of Haddock, <em>Melanogrammus æglifinus</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_536b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 487.</span>—Haddock, <em>Melanogrammus æglifinus</em> (L.). Eastport, Me.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_537'>537</span>The haddock (<em>Melanogrammus æglifinus</em>) closely resembles
-the cod and is of similar quality as food. It is known at sight
-by the black lateral line. It is found on both shores of the
-Atlantic and when smoked is the "finnan haddie" of commerce.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (<em>Pollachius carbonarius</em>)
-is also common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker
-than the cod and more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer,
-with a smaller barbel at tip. It is especially excellent when
-fresh.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_537.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 488.</span>—Pollock, <em>Theragra chalcogramma</em> (Pallas). Shumagin I., Alaska.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The whiting (<em>Merlangus merlangus</em>) is a pollack-like fish common
-on the British coasts, but not reaching the American shores.
-It is found in large schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack
-(<em>Theragra chalcogramma</em>) is a large fish with projecting lower jaw,
-widely diffused in the north Pacific and useful as a food-fish to
-the Aleutian peoples. It furnishes a large part of the food of
-the fur-seal (<em>Callorhinus alascanus</em> and <em>C. ursinus</em>) during its
-migrations. The fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which
-swims near the bottom. The wall-eyed pollack (<em>Theragra
-fucensis</em>) is found about Puget Sound. Smaller codfishes of
-this type are the wachna cod (<em>Eleginus navaga</em>) of Siberia and
-the Arctic codling (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>), both common about Kamchatka,
-the latter crossing to Greenland.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dorsal
-fins and a barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among
-these are the tomcod, or frostfish, of the Atlantic (<em>Microgadus
-tomcod</em>), the California tomcod (<em>Microgadus proximus</em>), and
-<em>Micromesistius poutassou</em> of the Mediterranean. These little
-cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh is soft and without
-much flavor.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_538'>538</span>
-<img src='images/i_538.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 489.</span>—Tomcod, <em>Microgadus tomcod</em> (Walbaum). Wood's Hole, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin.
-Many of these occur in deep water. Among those living near
-shore, and therefore having economic value, we may mention a
-few of the more prominent. The codlings (<em>Urophycis</em>) are represented
-by numerous species on both shores of the Atlantic.
-<em>Urophycis blennoides</em> is common in the Mediterranean. <em>Urophycis
-regius</em>, on our South Atlantic coast, is said to exhibit
-electric powers in life, a statement that needs verification.
-In the Gulf of Mexico <em>Urophycis floridanus</em> is common. Farther
-north are the more important species <em>Urophycis tenuis</em>,
-called the white hake, and <em>Urophycis chuss</em>, the squirrel-hake.
-The ling (<em>Molva molva</em>) is found in deep water about the North
-Sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A related genus, <em>Lota</em>, the burbot, called also ling and, in
-America, the lawyer, is found in fresh waters. This genus contains
-the only fresh-water members of the group of <em>Anacanthini</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The European burbot, <em>Lota lota</em>, is common in the streams
-and lakes of northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish,
-coarse in flesh and rather tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled
-and soaked in vinegar or made into salad. It is dark olive in
-color, thickly marbled with blackish.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The American burbot, or lawyer (<em>Lota maculosa</em>), is very
-much like the European species. It is found from New England
-throughout the Great Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a
-length of usually two or three feet and is little valued as food
-in the United States, but rises much in esteem farther north.
-The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia its skin
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_539'>539</span>is used instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to
-Dr. Dall, it reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty
-pounds.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_539a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 490.</span>—Burbot, <em>Lota maculosa</em> (Le Sueur). New York.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_539b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 491.</span>—Four-bearded Rockling, <em>Enchelyopus cimbrius</em> (Linnæus). Nahant, Mass.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The rocklings (<em>Gaidropsarus</em> and <em>Enchelyopus</em>) have the
-first dorsal composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single
-ray. The species are small and slender, abounding chiefly in the
-Mediterranean and the North Atlantic. The young have been
-called "mackerel-midges." Our commonest species is <em>Enchelyopus
-cimbrius</em>, found also in Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The cusk, or torsk, <em>Brosme brosme</em>, has a single dorsal fin
-only. It is a large fish found on both shores of the North Atlantic,
-but rather rare on our coasts.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to
-belong to this family are found in English Eocene rocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Nemopteryx troscheli</em>, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three
-dorsal fins and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been
-referred with more or less doubt to <em>Gadus</em>, <em>Brosmius</em>, <em>Strinsia</em>,
-and <em>Melanogrammus</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Gill separates the "three-forked hake" (<em>Raniceps trifurcus</em>)
-of northern Europe as a distinct family, <em>Ranicipitidæ</em>. In
-this species the head is very large, broad and depressed, differing
-in this regard from the codlings and hakes, which have also
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_540'>540</span>two dorsal fins. The deep-water genus, <em>Bathyonus</em>, is also
-regarded as a distinct family, <em>Bathyonidæ</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Hakes: Merluciidæ.</strong>—Better defined than these families
-is the family of hakes, <em>Merluciidæ</em>. These pike-like codfishes
-have the skull peculiarly formed, the frontal bones being paired,
-excavated above, with diverging crests continuous forward
-from the forked occipital crest. The species are large fishes,
-very voracious, without barbels, with the skeleton papery and
-the flesh generally soft. The various species are all very much
-alike, large, ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a ragged
-appearance, the flesh of fair quality. <em>Merluccius merluccius</em>,
-the hake or stock-fish, is common in Europe; <em>Merluccius bilinearis</em>,
-the silver hake, is common in New England, <em>Merluccius productus</em>
-in California, and <em>Merluccius gayi</em> in Chile.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_540a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 492.</span>—California Hake, <em>Merluccius productus</em> (Ayres). Seattle.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_540b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 493.</span>—<em>Coryphænoides carapinus</em> (Goode &amp; Bean), showing leptoceral tail. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.</strong>—The large family of grenadiers,
-or rat-tails, <em>Macrouridæ</em>, is confined entirely to the oceanic
-depths, especially of the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is
-formed much as in the codfishes, with usually a barbel at the chin.
-There are two dorsals, the second like the anal being low, but
-the leptocercal tail is very long and tapering, ending in a filament
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_541'>541</span>without caudal fin. The scales are usually rough and
-spinous. The species are usually large in size, and dull gray or
-black in color.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_541a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 494.</span>—Grenadier, <em>Cœlorhynchus carminatus</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Martha's Vineyard.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The best-known genus is <em>Macrourus</em>. <em>Macrourus berglax</em>
-is found on both shores of the north Atlantic. <em>Macrourus
-bairdi</em> is abundant in off-shore dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba.
-<em>Macrourus cinereus</em>, the pop-eye grenadier, outnumbers all other
-fishes in the depths of Bering Sea. <em>Cœlorhynchus japonicus</em> is
-often taken by fishermen in Japan. <em>Coryphænoides rupestris</em>
-is common in the north Atlantic. <em>Bogoslovius clarki</em> and
-<em>Albatrossia pectoralis</em> were dredged by the <em>Albatross</em> about the
-volcanic island of Bogoslof. <em>Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus</em>
-is characteristic of the Mediterranean. <em>Nematonurus goodei</em> is
-common in the Gulf Stream, and <em>Dolloa longifilis</em> is found off
-Japan. Other prominent genera are <em>Bathygadus</em>, <em>Gadomus</em>, <em>Regania</em>,
-and <em>Steindachnerella</em>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_541b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 495.</span>—<em>Steindachnerella argentea</em> (Goode &amp; Bean). Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Murænolepidæ</em> are deep-sea fishes, with minute eel-like
-scales, and no caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there
-are 10 pterygials.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_542'>542</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER XXXI<br />ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c014'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_542dc.png' width='100' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-<strong><span class='sc'>The</span> Angler-fishes.</strong>—The few remaining fishes possess also
-jugular ventral fins, but in other regards they show so
-many peculiarities of structure that we may well consider
-them as forming a distinct order, <em>Pediculati</em> (<em>pedicula</em>,
-a foot-stalk), although the relation of these forms to the
-<em>Batrachoididæ</em> seems a very close one.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most salient character of the group is the reduction and
-backward insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the
-pectoral fins, not in front of them as in all other fishes. The
-hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid are much elongate and greatly
-changed in form, so that the pectoral fin is borne on the end of a
-sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly more or less exserted.
-The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first spine
-being modified to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over
-the mouth with a fleshy pad, lure, or bait at its tip. The form
-of the body varies much in the different families. The scales
-are lost or changed to prickles and the whole aspect is very
-singular, and in many cases distinctly frog-like. The species are
-mostly tropical, some living in tide-pools and about coral reefs,
-some on sandy shores, others in the oceanic abysses.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes
-are probably the <em>Batrachoididæ</em>. One species of <em>Lophiidæ</em> is
-recorded among the fossils, <em>Lophius brachysomus</em>, from the
-Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil <em>Antennariidæ</em> are known.
-Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of Patagonia are doubtfully
-named "<em>Lophius patagonicus</em>."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.</strong>—In the most generalized family,
-that of the fishing-frogs (<em>Lophiidæ</em>), the body is very much
-depressed, the head the largest part of it. The mouth is excessively
-wide, with strong jaw-muscles, and strong sharp teeth.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_543'>543</span>The skin is smooth, with dermal flaps about the head. Over the
-mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the first dorsal spine with a lure
-at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the bottom with sluggish movements
-except for the convulsive snap of the jaws. It has been
-denied that the bait serves to attract small fishes to their destruction,
-but the current belief that it does so is certainly plausible.
-As to this Dr. Gill observes:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The name 'angler' is derived from the supposition that by
-means of the foremost dorsal spine, which bears leaf-like tags,
-or appendages, at the end, it angles for fishes itself, lying upon
-the ground with its head somewhat upraised. According to
-Mr. S. Kent, however, this is at most only partly the case: 'That
-the fish deliberately uses this structure as a fisherman does his
-rod and line for the alluring and capture of other fish is a matter
-of tradition handed down to us from the time of Pliny and
-Aristotle, and which scarcely any authority since their time
-has ventured to gainsay. Nevertheless, like many of the delightful
-natural-history romances bequeathed to us by the
-ancient philosophers, this one of the angler-fish will have to be
-relegated to the limbo of disproved fiction. The plain and
-certain ground of facts, all the same, has frequently more startling
-revelations in store for us than the most fervid imaginations
-of philosophers, and that this assertion holds good in the
-case now under consideration must undoubtedly be admitted.
-It is here proposed to show, in fact, that the angler is one of the
-most interesting examples upon which Nature has exercised her
-handicraft, in the direction of concealing the identity of her
-protégé, such ingenuity being sometimes utilized with the object
-of protecting the organism from the attacks of other animals, or,
-as illustrated in the present instance, for the purpose of enabling
-it by stealth to obtain prey which it lacks the agility to
-hunt down after the manner of ordinary carnivorous fishes.
-To recognize the several details here described, it will not suffice
-to refer to examples simply, and usually most atrociously
-stuffed, nor even to those preserved in spirit, in which all the
-life colors are more or less completely obliterated and the various
-membranous appendages shrunk up and distorted. In
-place of this, a healthy, living example fresh from the sea, or,
-better still, acclimatized in the tanks of an aquarium, must be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_544'>544</span>attentively examined, and whereupon it will be found that
-this singular fish, throughout the whole extent of its superficies,
-may be appropriately designated a living sham."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was, in the first place, observed by Mr. Kent "that
-the fish while quietly reclining upon the bottom of its tank
-presented a most astonishing resemblance to a piece of inert rock,
-the rugose prominences in the neighborhood of the head lending
-additional strength to this likeness. This resemblance being
-recognized, it was next found, on a little closer inspection, that
-the fish constituted, in connection with its color, ornamentations,
-and manifold organs and appendages, the most perfect facsimile
-of a submerged rock, with that natural clothing of sedentary
-animal and vegetable growths common to boulders lying beneath
-the water in what is known as the laminarian zone. In this
-manner the numerous simple or lobulated membranous structures
-dependent from the lower jaw and developed as a fringe
-along the lateral line of the body imitate with great fidelity the
-little flat calcareous sponges (<em>Grantia</em>), small compound ascidians,
-and other low organized zoophytic growths that hang
-in profusion from favorably situated submarine stones. That
-famous structure known as the angler's 'rod and bait' finds its
-precise counterpart in the early growing phase of certain sea-plants,
-such as the oarweed (<em>Laminaria</em>), while the more posterior
-dorsal fin-rays, having short lateral branchlets, counterfeit
-in a like manner the plant-like hydroid zoophytes known
-as <em>Sertulariæ</em>. One of the most extraordinary mimetic adaptations
-was, however, found in connection with the eyes, structures
-which, however perfectly the surrounding details may be
-concealed, serve, as a rule, to betray the animal's presence to a
-close observer. In the case of the angler, the eyes during life
-are raised on conical elevations the sides of which are separated
-by darker longitudinal stripes into symmetrical regions, the
-structure, as a whole, with its truncated summit upon which
-the pupil opens, reproducing with the most wonderful minuteness
-the multivalve shell of a rook barnacle (<em>Balanus</em>). To
-complete the simile the entire exposed surface of the body of
-the fish is mapped out by darker punctated lines into irregular
-polygonal areas, whose pattern is at once recognized by the
-student of marine zoology as corresponding with that of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_545'>545</span>flat, cushion-like expansions of the compound tunicate <em>Botryllus
-violaceus</em>. Thus disguised at every point, the angler has
-merely to lie prone, as is its wont, among the stones and débris at
-the bottom of the sea and to wait for the advent of its unsuspecting
-prey, which, approaching to browse from what it takes
-to be a flat rock—differing in no respect from that off which it
-obtained the last appetizing morsel of weed or worm—finds itself
-suddenly engulfed beyond recall within the merciless jaws of
-this marine impostor."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_545.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 496.</span>—Anko or Fishing-frog, <em>Lophius litulon</em> (Jordan). Matsushima Bay, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, <em>Lophius piscatorius</em>,
-is also known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth,
-wide-gape, kettleman, and bellows-fish. It is common in shallow
-water both in America and Europe, ranging southward to
-Cape Hatteras and to the Mediterranean. It reaches a length
-of three feet or more. A fisherman told Mr. Goode that "he
-once saw a struggle in the water, and found that a goosefish had
-swallowed the head and neck of a large loon, which had pulled
-it to the surface and was trying to escape. There is authentic
-record of seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach
-of one of them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize
-birds as they float upon the surface."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_546'>546</span>"The angler, or goosefish, spawns in summer along the eastern
-Atlantic coast, and the result of its labor is quite remarkable.
-'The eggs are very numerous, inclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous
-mass, about a foot in width and thirty or forty feet long,
-which floats near the surface. One of these ribbons will weigh
-perhaps forty pounds, and is usually partially folded together and
-visible a foot or eighteen inches from the top of the water, its
-color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in one of
-these has been estimated to be from forty to fifty thousand.'
-The growth of the young after exclusion from the egg is rather
-rapid, and Professor Goode saw 'young fish two or three inches
-long' while others were yet spawning, and these young fish
-were presumably the fry of those that had spawned the same
-year, only somewhat earlier. In a few days after hatching
-they present a striking appearance on account of the enormous
-development of the pectoral and ventral fins."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Aristotle gives, according to Professor Horace A. Hoffman,
-this account of the angler: "'Inasmuch as the flat, front part
-is not fleshy, nature has compensated for this by adding to the
-rear and the tail as much fleshy substance as has been subtracted
-from the front.' The <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span> is called the angler.
-He fishes with the hair-like filaments hung before his eyes.
-On the end of each filament is a little knob, just as if it had
-been placed there for a bait. He makes a disturbance in sandy
-or muddy places, hides himself and raises these filaments. When
-the little fish strikes at them he leads them down with the
-filaments until he brings them to his mouth. The <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span> is
-one of the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελάχη</span>. All the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελάχη</span> are viviparous or ovoviviparous
-except the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span>. The other flat <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελάχη</span> have
-their gills uncovered and underneath them, but the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span>
-has its gills on the side and covered with skinny opercula, not
-with horny opercula like the fish which are not <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελαχώδη</span>.
-Some fishes have the gall-bladder upon the liver, others have
-it upon the intestine, more or less remote from the liver and
-attached to it by a duct. Such are <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span>, <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ἔλλοψ</span>, <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">συνάγρίς</span>,
-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σμύραινα</span>, and <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">ξιφίας</span>. The <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span> is the only one of
-the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελάχη</span> which is oviparous. This is on account of the
-nature of its body, for it has a head many times as large as the
-rest of its body, and spiny and very rough. For this same
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_547'>547</span>reason it does not afterwards admit its young into itself. The
-size and roughness of the head prevent them both from coming
-out (i.e., being born alive) and from going in (being taken into
-the mouth of the parent). The <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">βάτραχος</span> is the most prolific
-of the <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">σελάχη</span>, but it is scarce because the eggs are easily
-destroyed, for it lays them in a bunch near the shore."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Lophius</em> of northern range has a vertebral column
-of about thirty vertebræ. <em>Lophius litulon</em> occurs in Japan.
-In the North Pacific is found <em>Lophiomus</em>, similar in appearance
-but smaller in size, ranging southward to the equator, a
-southern fish having but eighteen vertebræ. <em>Lophiomus setigerus</em>
-is the common anko of Japan, and other species are recorded
-from Hawaii, and the Galapagos.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.</strong>—The sea-devils, or <em>Ceratiidæ</em>, are
-degenerate anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the
-arctic seas. The body is compressed, the mouth vertical; the
-substance is very soft, and the color uniform black. Dr. Günther
-thus speaks of them:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_547.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 497.</span>—<em>Cryptopsaras couesi</em> Gill. Gulf Stream.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_548'>548</span>
-<img src='images/i_548a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 498.</span>—Deep-sea Angler, <em>Ceratias holbolli</em> Kröyer. Greenland.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_548b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 499.</span>—<em>Caulophryne jordani</em> Goode &amp; Bean. Gulf Stream. Family <em>Ceratiidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The bathybial sea-devils are degraded forms of <em>Lophius</em>;
-they descend to the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones
-are of an extremely light and thin texture, and frequently other
-parts of their organization, their integuments, muscles, and
-intestines are equally loose in texture when the specimens are
-brought to the surface. In their habits they probably do not
-differ in any degree from their surface representative, <em>Lophius</em>.
-The number of the dorsal spines is always reduced, and at the
-end of the series of these species only one spine remains, with a
-simple, very small lamella at the extremity (<em>Melanocetus johnsonii</em>,
-<em>Melanocetus murrayi</em>). In other forms sometimes a
-second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the
-trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains
-the original function of a lure for other marine creatures, but
-to render it more effective a special luminous organ is sometimes
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_549'>549</span>developed in connection with the filaments with which its extremity
-is provided (<em>Ceratias bispinosus</em>, <em>Oneirodes eschrichtii</em>).
-So far as known at present these complicated tentacles attain
-to the highest degree of development in <em>Himantolophus</em> and
-<em>Ægæonichthys</em>. In other species very peculiar dermal appendages
-are developed, either accompanying the spine on the back
-or replacing it. They may be paired or form a group of three,
-are pear-shaped, covered with common skin, and perforated at
-the top, a delicate tentacle sometimes issuing from the foramen."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the fifteen or twenty species of <em>Ceratiidæ</em> described, none
-are common and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge.
-<em>Caulophryne jordani</em> is remarkable for its large fins and the
-luminous filaments, <em>Linophryne lucifer</em> for its large head, and
-<em>Corynolophus reinhardti</em> (Fig. 143, Vol. I) for its luminous fishing-bulb.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_549.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 500.</span>—Sargassum-fish, <em>Pterophryne tumida</em> (Osbeck). Florida. Family <em>Antennariidæ</em>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.</strong>—The frogfishes, <em>Antennariidæ</em>,
-belong to the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the surface.
-Most of them abound about sand-banks or coral reefs,
-especially along the shores of the East and West Indies, where
-they creep along the rocks like toads. Some are pelagic, drifting
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_550'>550</span>about in floating masses of seaweed. All are fantastic in form
-and color, usually closely imitating the objects about them.
-The body is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical, and the skin
-either prickly or provided with fleshy slips.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The species of <em>Pterophryne</em> live in the open sea, drifting with
-the currents in masses of sargassum. Two species, <em>Pterophryne
-tumida</em> and <em>Pterophryne gibba</em>, are found in the West Indies and
-Gulf Stream. Two others very similar, <em>Pterophryne histrio</em> and
-<em>Pterophryne ranina</em>, live in the East Indies and drift in the Kuro
-Shiwo of Japan. All these are light olive-brown with fantastic
-black markings.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_550.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 501.</span>—Fishing-frog, <em>Antennarius nox</em> Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The genus <em>Antennarius</em> contains species of the shoals and
-reefs, with markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks.
-These fishes are firm in texture with a velvety skin, and the prevailing
-color is brown and red. There are many species wherever
-reefs are found. <em>Antennarius ocellatus</em>, the pescador, is
-the commonest West Indian species. <em>Antennarius multiocellatus</em>,
-with many ocellated spots, is the Martin Pescador of Cuba,
-also common.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is
-<em>Antennarius strigatus</em>. In Japan, <em>Antennarius tridens</em> abounds
-everywhere on the muddy bottoms of the bays. <em>Antennarius</em>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_551'>551</span><em>nox</em> is a jet-black species of the Japanese reefs, and <em>Antennarius
-sanguifluus</em> is spotted with blood-red in imitation of coralline
-patches. Many other species abound in the East Indies and in
-Polynesia. The genus <em>Chaunax</em> is represented by several deep-water
-species of the West Indies, Japan, etc.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_551a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 502.</span>—Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, <em>Ogcocephalus radiatus</em> (Mitchill).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <em>Gigactinidæ</em> of the deep seas differ from the <em>Ogcocephalidæ</em>,
-according to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_551b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 503.</span>—Frogfish, <em>Antennarus scaber</em> (Cuvier). Puerto Rico.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.</strong>—The batfishes, <em>Ogcocephalidæ</em>,
-are anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard
-bony warts. The mouth is small and the bony bases of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_552'>552</span>pectoral and ventral fins are longer than in any other of the
-anglers. The species live in the warm seas, some in very shallow
-water, others descending to great depths, the deep-sea forms
-being small and more or less degenerate. These walk along like
-toads on the sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore
-legs and the pectorals extend behind them as hind legs.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_552.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 504.</span>—<em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em> (L.). Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, <em>Ogcocephalus
-vespertilio</em>, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red.
-It reaches the length of a foot. The angling spine is very short,
-hidden under the long stiff process of the snout. Farther north
-occurs the short-nosed batfish, <em>Ogcocephalus radiatus</em>, very similar,
-but with the nostril process, or snout, blunt and short. <em>Zalieutes
-elater</em>, with a large black eye-like spot on each side of the
-back, is found on the west coast of Mexico. In deeper water
-are species of <em>Halieutichthys</em> in the West Indies and of <em>Halieutæa</em>
-in Japan. <em>Dibranchus atlanticus</em> has the gills reduced to two
-pairs. <em>Malthopsis</em> consists of small species, with the rostrum
-prominent, like a bishop's miter. Two species are found in the
-Pacific, <em>Malthopsis mitrata</em> in Hawaii and <em>Malthopsis tiarella</em> in
-Japan.</p>
-
-<hr class='c016' />
-
-<p class='c000'>And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of centuries
-on centuries of specialization, degeneration, and adaptation,
-we close the long roll-call of the fishes, living and dead.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_553'>553</span>And in their long genealogy is enfolded the genealogy of men
-and beasts and birds and reptiles and of all other back-boned
-animals of whom the fish-like forms are at once the ancestors,
-the cousins, and the younger brothers. When the fishes of the
-Devonian age came out upon the land, the potentiality of the
-higher methods of life first became manifest. With the new
-conditions, more varied and more exacting, higher and more
-varied specialization was demanded, and, in response to these
-new conditions, from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds
-and beasts and men that have dwelt upon the earth.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_553a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 505.</span>—Batfish, <em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em> (L.). Florida.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_553b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 506.</span>—Batfish, <em>Ogcocephalus vespertilio</em> (Linnæus). Carolina Coast.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>THE END.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_555'>555</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul class='index c003'>
-  <li class='c017'>aal-mutter, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Abbott, i, 415, 419, 422; ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on perch, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>abdominal fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Abdominales, i, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Abeona, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Abramis, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aboma,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>abundance of food-fish, i, 329</li>
-  <li class='c017'>abura-ainame, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>abura-bodzu, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>aburazame, i, 524</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acantharchus, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthistius, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthocephala, i, 344, 351</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthocepola, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthoclinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthoclinus, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthocybium, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthodei, i, 65, 437, 447, 513, 519, 545, 561
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 517</li>
-      <li>families of, i, 516</li>
-      <li>order of, i, 514</li>
-      <li>Woodward on, i, 514</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthoëssidæ, i, 515, 516</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthoëssus, i, 446, 510-513
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 515</li>
-      <li>scales of, figured, i, 521</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acantholabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthonemus, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthopteri, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthopterygian, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthopterygii, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>-214</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthostracion, i, 377</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthuridæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanthurus, i, 268, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acanus, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acara, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acentronura, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acerina, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acentrophorus, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Achirinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Achirus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acipenser, i, 291, 332, 391, 452; ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 141</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acipenseridæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acipenseroidei, i, 382</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acraniata, i, 484</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acrocheilus, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acrogaster, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acrognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acropoma, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acropomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acrotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Acrotus, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Actinistia, i, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 604</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Actinopteri, i, 451, 507, 599, 610; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Actinopterygii, i, 462; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Actinosts, ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>actinotrichia, i, 80</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Adaptation of fishes, i, 177-225</li>
-  <li class='c017'>adaptive radiation,
-    <ul>
-      <li>law of, i, 296</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>adder-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Adelfisch, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Adelochorda, i, 461</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Adinia, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>adipose fin, i, 25</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ægæonichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Æoliscus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ærolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Æthalion, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ætheospondyli, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Æthoprora,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 188</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aëtobatis, i, 557
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 558</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>African catfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 457; ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agassiz, A., i, 405</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agassiz, L., i, 419, 428, 614; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on dispersion, i, 284</li>
-      <li>on Embiotocidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li>
-      <li>on embryology of garpike, ii, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li>
-      <li>on fish fauna of N. E., i, 302</li>
-      <li>on fossil fishes, i, 404</li>
-      <li>on ganoids, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-      <li>on high and low forms, i, 381</li>
-      <li>on Lepidosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-      <li>on Onchus, i, 530</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 399</li>
-      <li>pupils of, i, 405</li>
-      <li>questions raised by, i, 284</li>
-      <li>sketch of, i, 404</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Age of fishes, i, 144-146</li>
-  <li class='c017'>agency of ocean currents, i, 243</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agnatha, i, 508</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agonidæ, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agonoid fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221; ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agonostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agonus, i, 219; ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Agrammus, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ahl, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>aholehole, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>air-bladder, i, 11
-    <ul>
-      <li>air-duct, i, 12</li>
-      <li>Aristotle on, 95</li>
-      <li>Borelli on, i, 95</li>
-      <li>of Carp, i, 93; ii, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-      <li>in Cœlacanthus, i, 604</li>
-      <li>defined, i, 92, 93</li>
-      <li>De Fosse on, i, 97</li>
-      <li>Delaroche on, i, 95</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 93, 604</li>
-      <li>function of, i, 94</li>
-      <li>in ganoids, i, 101</li>
-      <li>gases in, i, 94</li>
-      <li>in Labyrinthici, i, 91</li>
-      <li>an organ of hearing, ii, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-      <li>origin of, i, 98</li>
-      <li>position of, i, 35</li>
-      <li>Sörensen on, i, 97</li>
-      <li>Tower on, i, 95</li>
-      <li>use of, i, 12</li>
-      <li>wanting in sharks, i, 506</li>
-      <li>Weber on, i, 96</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_556'>556</span>akadai, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alaska blackfish, i, 51, 147, 290
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 149; ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alaska cod, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alaska grayling,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alaskan rivers,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 304, 305</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Albacore, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-      <li>long fin, ii, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Albatross, the i, 263, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Albatrossia, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Albula, i, 142, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 147; ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Albulidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alburnus, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alcock, i, 244, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aldrich,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 303</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aldrovandi, i, 388</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aldrovandia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alectis, i, 202; ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>aleihi, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alepisauridæ, i, 134</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alepocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alepocephalus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>alewife, ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>alfonsinos, ii, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>alimentary canal, i, 31</li>
-  <li class='c017'>alkaloid poisons, i, 182, 184, 185; ii, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>allantiasis, i, 183</li>
-  <li class='c017'>alligator-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>alligator-gar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>allmouth, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alopiidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 536</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alosa, i, 204, 291; ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alticus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 230; ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Alutera, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>amadai, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amanses, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amaræcium, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ambassis, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ambassidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>amber-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 458; ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>amber-jack, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amblodon, i, 302</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ambloplites,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-      <li>skull of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amblyopsidæ, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amblyopsis, i, 220, 314
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221, 222; ii, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amblypterus, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amblystoma, i, 78</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ameiurus, i, 283, 293, 310, 356; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 344, 358; ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li>
-      <li>parasites of, i, 344</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>American charr, ii, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>American fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Goode on, i, 335</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amia, i, 33, 101, 102, 204, 291, 344, 391, 612, 623; ii, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
-      <li>lower jaw of, ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 86</li>
-      <li>tail of, i, 82</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amiatus, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amiidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amioidei,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Lütken on, ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amiopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amitra, ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ammocœtes, i, 142</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ammocrypta, ii, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 158; ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ammodytes, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ammodytidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a>, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphacanthi,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ampheristus, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphibia, i, 393, 600, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphibians, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>origin of, i, 600</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphicœlian, i, 49</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphiodon, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphioxides, i, 483</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphioxus, i, 482, 495</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphiplaga, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphipnoidæ, 11, 141</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphipnous, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphiprion, ii, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphisile, ii, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphisticus, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphistiidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amphistium, ii, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Amyzon, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anabantidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gill on, i, 366</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anabas, i, 91, 103, 163
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anableps, i, 117, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>eye of, ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 117</li>
-      <li>Marsh on, ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-      <li>Nelson on, ii, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anacanthini, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a>, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anadromous fishes, i, 291</li>
-  <li class='c017'>anadromous salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>anal fin, i, 10
-    <ul>
-      <li>in Embiotocidæ, i, 125</li>
-      <li>as intromittent organ, i, 124</li>
-      <li>in Pœciliidæ, i, 125</li>
-      <li>in sword-tail minnow, i, 124</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>analogy and homology, i, 368, 369
-    <ul>
-      <li>Coues on, i, 369</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anampses, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarhichadidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarhichas, i, 208, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-      <li>food of, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarchias, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarrhichthys, i, 208, 364; ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>skull of, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarthri, i, 509</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anarthrodira, i, 584, 585, 590</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anaspida, i, 573, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 579</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anatomy of tunicates,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure showing, i, 472</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anchovia, i, 199, 205
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anchovy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anchovy, silvery,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ancient outlet of Lake Bonneville,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph of, i, 303</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ancylostylos, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Andaman Islands,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 166</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Andrews, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anema, ii, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>angel-fishes, i, 547, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>angler-fishes, i, 189, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a>-553
-    <ul>
-      <li>carpels of, i, 51</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 52</li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a></li>
-      <li>habits of, ii, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a>-545</li>
-      <li>Kent on, ii, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anglers,
-    <ul>
-      <li>dorsal fin in, i, 202</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>angling, i, 336
-    <ul>
-      <li>Young on, i, 337-339</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_557'>557</span>Anguilla, i, 127, 162, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anguillidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>angular, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anisotremus, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anomalopidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>anko,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anomalops, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anoplogaster, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anoplopoma,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anoplopomidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anoplus, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Antechinomys, ii, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Antennariidæ, i, 52; ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a>, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a>, <a href='#Page_553'>553</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Aristotle on, ii, <a href='#Page_546'>546</a></li>
-      <li>deep-sea, ii, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-      <li>habits of, ii, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a>-546</li>
-      <li>Hoffmann on, ii, <a href='#Page_546'>546</a></li>
-      <li>spawning of, ii, <a href='#Page_546'>546</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Antennarius, i, 197, 206
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_550'>550</a>, <a href='#Page_553'>553</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anthias, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Antiarcha, i, 573, 581, 590, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 576</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Antigonia, i, 262</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Anyperodon, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ao, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apeltes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aphanopus, i, 210</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aphareus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aphredoderidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aphredoderus, ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>coral reef of, figured, i, 234</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aplidiopsis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 479</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aploactis, i, 202</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aplodactylidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aplodactylus, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aplodinotus, i, 291, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apocopodon, i, 558</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apodes, i, 393, 611; ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>-158, 532
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apodichthys, i, 227; ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apogon,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 455; ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apogonidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apomotis, i, 26, 310; ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 27; ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apostasis, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apostolides, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Appendicularia, i, 466
-    <ul>
-      <li>Brooks on, i, 480</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Appendiculariidæ, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aprion, i, 325; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Apsilus, ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>aquatic worms, ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aracana, ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arapaima, ii, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arbaciosa,
-    <ul>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archæomænidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archæus, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archencheli,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>archers, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>archicercal tail, i, 81, 83</li>
-  <li class='c017'>archipterygium, i, 59-61, 68, 69, 73, 446, 459, 511, 512, 522, 598, 600, 601
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, i, 79</li>
-      <li>Gegenbaur on, i, 60</li>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>archnoid membrane, i, 109</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archoplites, i, 179, 240; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 258</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archosargus, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 31; ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Archoteuthis, ii, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arctic codling, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arctic species,
-    <ul>
-      <li>in lakes, i, 316</li>
-      <li>Loven on, i, 317</li>
-      <li>Malmgren on, i, 317</li>
-      <li>Smith on, i, 317</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arctoscopus, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Argentina, i, 391</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Argentinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Argidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Argyropelecus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 190; ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Argyrosomus, i, 315; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ariscopus, i, 257
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aristotle, ii, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes of Greece, i, 387</li>
-      <li>on noises of fish, i, 95</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arius, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>arm of frog, i, 601
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 71</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ama-ama, ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>armado, i, 169</li>
-  <li class='c017'>arnillo, ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arnoglossus, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>arrow-toothed halibut, ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Artedi, i, 374, 390
-    <ul>
-      <li>on genera, i, 391</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Artediellus, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Artedius, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthrodira, i, 573, 584, 585, 590, 612
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 581</li>
-      <li>Jækel on, i, 591</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthrodires, i, 204, 241, 436, 437, 603, 622; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>classification of, i, 584</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 445, 584</li>
-      <li>occurrence of, i, 583</li>
-      <li>relationships of, i, 588</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthropteridæ, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthropterus, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthrognathi, i, 581, 584, 585, 589, 590
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 584</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Arthrothoraci, i, 584, 586, 587</li>
-  <li class='c017'>articular, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>artificial impregnation,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Jacobian method, i, 150</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascanius, i, 396; ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascelichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascidia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 474</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascidiacea, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ascidians, i, 460, 467
-    <ul>
-      <li>Kingsley on, i, 474</li>
-      <li>Ritter on, i, 474</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascidiiæ, i, 474, 475</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ascidina,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 475</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aseraggodes, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ashmead,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on leprosy transmission, i, 186</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asineopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asineops, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asmuss, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspasma, ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_530'>530</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidocephali, i, 568, 575</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidoganoidei, i, 568</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidophoroides,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidorhini, i, 568</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidorhynchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspidorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspius, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspredo, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aspro, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>aspron, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asterolepidæ, i, 576, 623</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asterolepis, i, 577, 591</li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_558'>558</span>Asterospondyli, i, 447, 510, 513, 532
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 525</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>asterospondylous, i, 49</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asterosteidæ, i, 584, 585</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asterosteus, i, 585</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asterropteryx, i, 263</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astrodermiidæ, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astrodermus, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astrolabe, the, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astrolytes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astronesthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astrape, i, 554</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Astroscopus, ii, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gilbert on, i, 187</li>
-      <li>electric organs of, i, 187</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Asymmetron, i, 483; ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ateleaspis, i, 574</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atheresthes, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atherina, i, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atherinidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atherinops, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atherinopsis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atherinosoma, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Athlennes, ii, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atka fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atka mackerel, ii, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atlantic creek, i, 308, 309</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atlantic oarfish, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atlantic salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>attenuate, i, 19</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Atthey, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Auchenopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>atule, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>auditory ossicles, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulopus, i, 259; ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulorhamphus, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulorhynchidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulostomidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Aulostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Australia, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Australian flying-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 341</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Australian lung-fish, i, 100</li>
-  <li class='c017'>autochthonous, i, 245</li>
-  <li class='c017'>autostylic skull, i, 561; ii, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Auxis, ii, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>awa, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>awaawa, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>awaous, i, 254; ii, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>aweoweo, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Axinurus, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>axonasts, i, 604, 605; ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ayres, i, 419, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ayu, i, 256; ii, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 321; ii, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li>
-      <li>fishing for figured, i, 333, 335</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Azevia, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>d'Azyr, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Azygostei, i, 581</li>
-  <li class='c017'>azygous, i, 88</li>
-  <li class='c003'>Baer, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bagarius, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bagonado, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bagre, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bagre de Rio, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bagrus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Baikal cods, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Baird, i, 419; ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on bluefish, ii, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>-282</li>
-      <li>on eel migrations, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 407</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bairdiella, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bakker, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balanoglossidæ, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balanglossus, i, 461</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balanus, ii, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>balaos, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balfour, i, 428, 511, 513; ii, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>finfold theory, i, 69, 514</li>
-      <li>lateral-fold theory, i, 71-73</li>
-      <li>on paired fins, ii, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-      <li>on sharks, i, 511</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balfour and Parker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Lepidosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balistapus, i, 181; ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balistes, i, 206, 391, 611; ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 184; ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Balistidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ballou,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>banded rockfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>banded sunfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bandfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bandfishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>the crested, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Banks, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>barbels, i, 115; ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>organs of touch, i, 122</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>barber-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>barbero, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>barbudos, ii, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barbulifer, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barbus, ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barkas, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barneville, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barracuda, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barracuda,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Barramunda, i, 116, 614, 615
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 615</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>barreto, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>barriers,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Alleghanies, i, 311</li>
-      <li>artificial dams, i, 300</li>
-      <li>Cape of Good Hope, i, 268</li>
-      <li>checks to movement, i, 240</li>
-      <li>crossing by fishes, i, 302</li>
-      <li>to dispersion, i, 297</li>
-      <li>Isthmus of Panama, i, 269</li>
-      <li>local, i, 298</li>
-      <li>mountain chains, i, 310</li>
-      <li>Rocky Mountains, i, 305</li>
-      <li>the Sierras, i, 310</li>
-      <li>silt-bearing streams, i, 301</li>
-      <li>species absent from, i, 239</li>
-      <li>temperature, i, 298</li>
-      <li>waterfalls, i, 300</li>
-      <li>watersheds, i, 205</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>basal bone,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of dorsal fin, i, 49</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 49, 56</li>
-      <li>of pectoral fin, i, 59</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>baseosts, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>basilar, i, 88</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Basilevsky, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>basking shark, i, 539
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 540</li>
-      <li>largest of fishes, i, 539</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bass, i, 4, 21, 47, 290, 323, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>-350
-    <ul>
-      <li>black, i, 303, 304</li>
-      <li>white, i, 321</li>
-      <li>yellow, i, 321</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bassalian fishes, i, 245, 246; ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bassani, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bassozetus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 456</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bastard halibut, ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bateson, i, 463</li>
-  <li class='c017'>batfish, ii, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_553'>553</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 88; ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathyclupeidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathygadus, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathylagus, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathymaster, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathymasteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathyonidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathyonus, ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathypteroidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bathypterois, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batoidei, i, 519
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, i, 549</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batrachians, i, 85, 87, 88</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batrachoides, i, 394; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_559'>559</span>Batrachoides,
-    <ul>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 59</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batrachoididæ, i, 182, 192; ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a>, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batrachoids, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Batrictius, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bdellostoma, i, 490</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Beagle, the, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bean, i, 408, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Beardslee, ii, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Beardslee trout, ii, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belemnobatis, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bellotti, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bellows fish, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belon,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes of Mediterranean, i, 388</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belone, ii, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belonidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belonorhynchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belonorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Belostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bembradidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bembras, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Benecke,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on spawning of eels, ii, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Beneden, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>benimasu, ii, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bennett, i, 408, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bentenia, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Benthosauridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Benthosaurus, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berg, i, 415
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 409</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berndt,
-    <ul>
-      <li>opah taken by, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 323</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berycidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berycoidei, ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>-257</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berycoid fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 439; ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-      <li>Starks on, ii, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berycoids, ii, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Berycopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Beryx, i, 259, 263, 438; ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>beshow, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Betta, i, 163; ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>biajaiba, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bianconi, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bibron, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>big-eye, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>big-eyed scad, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Birkenia, i, 580
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 579</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Birkeniidæ, i, 579</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bishop-fish, i, 361</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bishop-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 361</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Björnson,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishing villages of Norway, i, 329</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black angel, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black angel-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black bass, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Hallock on, ii, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-      <li>Henshall on, ii, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-      <li>large-mouthed, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-      <li>small-mouthed, ii, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black bream, ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Black Current of Japan, sharks in, i, 536</li>
-  <li class='c017'>black escolar, 338</li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-fin snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blackfish, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black grouper, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-horse, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blackiston's line,
-    <ul>
-      <li>relation to fishes, i, 257</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-jack, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black nohu,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-      <li>stinging spines of, i, 180</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-nosed dace,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 342; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-      <li>parasites on, i, 342</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black rockfish, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black ruff, ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black sea-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-sided darter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blacksmith, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-spotted sailor's choice, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black-spotted trout, ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black swallower,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 29; ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>black tai, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black will, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>black wrasse, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blainville, i, 400
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Palæoniscum, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blake, i, 60, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blanchard, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blanquillos, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blastoderm, i, 135</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blastomeres, i, 135</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blastopore, i, 138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blastula, i, 131, 132</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bleak, ii, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bleeker, i, 376, 412, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bleekeria, ii, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bleekeriidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blenniidæ, i, 208, 276, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a>-531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blennioidea, ii, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blennius, i, 208, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a>, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blennius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 508</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blenny, i, 209, 230, 290, 429; ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a>-531
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a>, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-      <li>Japanese, i, 9; ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-      <li>kelp, ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-      <li>northern, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-      <li>sarcastic, ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-      <li>snake, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blepsias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blind Brotula,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 222</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blind catfish, ii, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blind cavefish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 116; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blindfish, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>descent of, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-      <li>Eigenmann on, i, 117; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-      <li>habits of, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-      <li>theories regarding origin, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blindfish of Mammoth Cave, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eigenmann on, i, 221, 222</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blind goby, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blob, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bloch, i, 389, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blochiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blochius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Blossom, the, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue-back, ii, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-76</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue-back salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue-breasted darter, i, 231; ii, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 231</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue cod, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bluefin, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bluefin cisco,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bluefish, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Baird on, i, 279-282</li>
-      <li>destructiveness of, ii, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li>
-      <li>food of, ii, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bluegill,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue-green sunfish, i, 26
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 27; ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue parrot-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a></li>
-      <li>figure of jaws, ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue sharks, i, 534, 542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue smelt,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue-spotted guativere, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue surf-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>blue tang, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_560'>560</span>Blyth, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>boarfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bobo,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>boccaccio, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bocage, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bocourt, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bodianus, i, 207, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>boga, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bogoslovius, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bohr, i, 97</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boleophthalmus, ii, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 118; ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boleosoma, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bollman, i, 420</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boltenia, i, 475</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bombay-duck, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bonaci-arará, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bonaci-cardenal, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bonaparte, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bones of the fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>actinosts, i, 42</li>
-      <li>alisphenoid, i, 38, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>anal fin, i, 48</li>
-      <li>angular, i, 42, 43, 54</li>
-      <li>articular, i, 42, 43, 54</li>
-      <li>basibranchial, i, 46</li>
-      <li>basihyal, i, 42, 45</li>
-      <li>basioccipital, i, 36, 38, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>basisphenoid, i, 36, 38, 39, 53</li>
-      <li>branchiostegals, i, 42, 45</li>
-      <li>carpals, i, 51
-        <ul>
-          <li>of anglers, i, 51</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>caudal fin, i, 48</li>
-      <li>caudal vertebræ, i, 48</li>
-      <li>ceratobranchial, i, 46</li>
-      <li>ceratohyal, i, 42, 45</li>
-      <li>clavicle, i, 42, 50, 52
-        <ul>
-          <li>figured, i, 52</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>coracoid, i, 50, 51
-        <ul>
-          <li>of cranium, i, 39</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>dentary, i, 42, 43, 54</li>
-      <li>dorsal fin, i, 48</li>
-      <li>epihyal, i, 42, 45</li>
-      <li>epibranchial, i, 46</li>
-      <li>epioccipital, i, 36</li>
-      <li>epiotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>epipleurals, i, 48</li>
-      <li>ethmoid, i, 36, 37, 53</li>
-      <li>exoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>frontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>glossihyal, i, 42</li>
-      <li>hæmal spine, i, 48</li>
-      <li>hæmaphysis, i, 48</li>
-      <li>hyoid arch, i, 42</li>
-      <li>hyomandibular, i, 42, 44, 54</li>
-      <li>hypercoracoid, i, 42, 52</li>
-      <li>hypobranchial, i, 46</li>
-      <li>hypocoracoid, i, 42, 43, 52</li>
-      <li>hypural, i, 48, 49</li>
-      <li>infraclavicle, i, 51</li>
-      <li>interclavicle, i, 51</li>
-      <li>interhæmals, i, 49</li>
-      <li>interhyal, i, 42, 45</li>
-      <li>interneural, i, 48</li>
-      <li>interopercle, i, 42, 45, 54</li>
-      <li>interspinals, i, 49</li>
-      <li>isthmus, i, 45</li>
-      <li>maxillary, i, 41, 42</li>
-      <li>mesopterygoid, i, 41, 42</li>
-      <li>metapterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>nasal, i, 42, 53</li>
-      <li>neural spine, i, 48</li>
-      <li>neuropophysis, i, 48</li>
-      <li>opercle, i, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>opisthotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40</li>
-      <li>palatine, i, 41, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>parapophysis, i, 48</li>
-      <li>parietal, i, 36, 37, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>parsasphenoid, i, 36, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>pectoral fin, i, 42</li>
-      <li>pelvic girdle, i, 42</li>
-      <li>pharyngeals, i, 46, 47
-        <ul>
-          <li>figure of, i, 47</li>
-          <li>lower, i, 46</li>
-          <li>suspensory, i, 46</li>
-          <li>upper, i, 46</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>postclavicle, i, 42, 51
-        <ul>
-          <li>figured, i, 52</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>postero-temporal, i, 50</li>
-      <li>post-temporal, i, 42, 52</li>
-      <li>prefrontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>premaxillary, i, 42</li>
-      <li>preopercle, i, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>preorbital, i, 41, 42</li>
-      <li>prootic, i, 36, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>proscapula, i, 50</li>
-      <li>pterotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53</li>
-      <li>pterygials, i, 51</li>
-      <li>pterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>quadrate, i, 42, 43, 54</li>
-      <li>ribs, i, 48</li>
-      <li>scapula, i, 50</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle, i, 42, 50, 51, 52</li>
-      <li>sphenotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>subopercle, i, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>suborbital, i, 42</li>
-      <li>supraclavicle, i, 42, 50</li>
-      <li>supraoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>suprascapula, i, 50</li>
-      <li>supratemporal, i, 42, 50
-        <ul>
-          <li>figured, i, 51</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>symplectic, i, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>urohyal, i, 42, 54</li>
-      <li>ventral fin, i, 42</li>
-      <li>vomer, i, 36, 37, 38, 53</li>
-      <li>zygapophysis, i, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bonito, ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bonnaterre, i, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bony fish, i, 204, 454, 506; ii, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>classification of, ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-      <li>development of, i, 135</li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-      <li>specialized, figured, i, 456</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bony scales, i, 21</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boops, i, 260, 267; ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Borassus, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Borelli, i, 390
-    <ul>
-      <li>on air-bladder, i, 95</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boreogadus, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>botolism, i, 183</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bothinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bothriocephalus, i, 345</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bothriolepis, i, 577</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bothus, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Botryllidæ, i, 476</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Botryllus, i, 476; ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 477, 478, 479</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bottle-nosed chimæra,
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, figured, i, 127</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bougainville, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Boulenger, i, 360, 364, 370, 414, 428, 513, 600, 601, 606, 608, 609; ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Archipterygium, i, 79</li>
-      <li>on Galaxias, ii, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li>
-      <li>catalogue of fishes, i, 402</li>
-      <li>on opahs, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 403</li>
-      <li>on vertebræ, i, 213</li>
-      <li>on zooid fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bovichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bowfin, i, 290, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, figured, i, 82</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bowring,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on noises by fishes, i, 168</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brachydirus, i, 590</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brachyistius, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brachymystax, ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>brain,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of chimæra, i, 410, 411</li>
-      <li>figures of, i, 110, 111</li>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 109</li>
-      <li>in hagfish, i, 112</li>
-      <li>of lamprey, i, 112</li>
-      <li>of perch, i, 111</li>
-      <li>of pike, i, 109</li>
-      <li>of primitive fishes, i, 112</li>
-      <li>reflex action of, i, 153</li>
-      <li>of shark, i, 110, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brama, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_561'>561</span>Bramidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>branch herring, ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>branchial bones, i, 46</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Branchiostegi, i, 391</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Branchiostoma, i, 34, 35, 120, 383, 483
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, i, 131</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 484</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Branchiostomidæ, i, 484</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brandt, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Branner, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brayton, i, 420</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bream, ii, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bregmaceros, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bregmacerotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brevoort, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brevoortia, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 340; ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>brit, ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>broad-shad, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>broad-soles, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brongniart, i, 427, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>brook lamprey,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 120, 505</li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 492</li>
-      <li>mouth of, figured, i, 492</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brooks,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Appendicularia, i, 480</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>brook trout, ii, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brosme, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brosmius, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brosmophycis, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brotula,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-      <li>blind, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brotulidæ, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brotulids, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Broussonet, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brown, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Browne, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>brown tang,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 181; ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brünnich, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bryactinus, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Brycon,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bryostemma,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a>, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bryttosus, i, 256; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>buccal cirri, i, 595</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Buchanan,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on hunting of Chaca, i, 170</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Buckland, i, 423
-    <ul>
-      <li>on soles, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-      <li>on turbot roe, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bucklandium, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>budai, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>buffalo-cod, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Buffalo Creek, i, 309</li>
-  <li class='c017'>buffalo-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 51</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>buffalo sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bulbus arteriosus, ii, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>bullhead, i, 356</li>
-  <li class='c017'>bullhead shark,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 526</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>bumpers, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bunocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>burbot, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Bürger, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>butter-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>butterfly fish, i, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 143; ii, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>butterfly ray, i, 556</li>
-  <li class='c017'>butterfly sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 288</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>caballerote, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cabezon, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cabra mora,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 20</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cabrilla, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cachucho,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cælorhynchus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cæsio, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cagon de le alto, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cají, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Calamoichthys, i, 76, 89, 608</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Calamostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Calamus, i, 49, 238; ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>calico-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>calico-salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>California lancelet,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 484</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>California miller's thumb,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>California hake,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>California pampano, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>California sucker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callbreath,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on running of salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callechelys, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callichthys, i, 290</li>
-  <li class='c017'>calling the fishes, i, 167, 168
-    <ul>
-      <li>in Indian temples, i, 167</li>
-      <li>in basins of Tuileries, i, 167</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callionymidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callionymus, i, 246, 257, 259, 263, 393, 500, 504</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callipterygidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callipteryx, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Calliurus, i, 302</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callorhynchus, i, 565, 566
-    <ul>
-      <li>egg of figured, i, 127</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Callorhinus, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Calotomus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Camper, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Campostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 33; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Campyloprion, i, 529</li>
-  <li class='c017'>candil, ii, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>candle-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Canestrini, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Canobius, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Canthidermis, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Canthigaster, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cantor, i, 416
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fighting-fish, i, 163</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cape of Good Hope,
-    <ul>
-      <li>as barrier, i, 269</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>capelin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>capello, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>capitaine,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Capros, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caracanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carangidæ, i, 144, 149, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carangopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carangus, i, 169, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carapidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caraproctus, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carapus, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carassius, ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 151</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caranx, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carboniferous,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes, i, 437</li>
-      <li>sharks, i, 224</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carcharias, i, 447, 534, 543; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 542</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carchariidæ, i, 532, 534, 540, 542, 543</li>
-  <li class='c017'>carcharioid sharks, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carcharodon, i, 538</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carcharopsis, i, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cardenal, ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cardiform teeth, i, 29</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cardinal fishes, the, ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 455; ii, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cardinal vein, i, 108</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carencheli, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>caribe,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>carnivorous fishes, i, 29</li>
-  <li class='c017'>carp, i, 21, 53, 93, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>air-bladder of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_562'>562</span>native of China, ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-      <li>domestication of, ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Carpiodes, i, 302
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>carp-sucker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>carrying eggs in mouth, i, 170-173
-    <ul>
-      <li>by catfish, i, 170</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>casabe, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cassiquiare,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Branner on, i, 307</li>
-      <li>crossing by fishes, i, 307</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Castelnau, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Castour, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Castro,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>catadromous fishes, i, 162, 291; ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catalina flying-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>catalineta, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catalogue,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Panama fishes, i, 272</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>catalufa de lo alto,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>catalufa, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catesby, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>catfish, i, 4, 20, 53, 119, 122,128, 169, 290, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-187
-    <ul>
-      <li>African, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-      <li>channel, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-      <li>clavicle in, i, 87</li>
-      <li>Cope on, i, 180</li>
-      <li>descent from, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-      <li>destroyed by lampreys, i, 357</li>
-      <li>electric, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-      <li>electric, figured, i, 186</li>
-      <li>fossil, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-      <li>of India, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-      <li>Japanese, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-      <li>Old World, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-      <li>poison glands of, i, 180</li>
-      <li>poison spine of, i, 179</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 86</li>
-      <li>spines of, i, 179</li>
-      <li>transfer to Sacramento, i, 310</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catostomidæ, i, 46, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 315</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catostomus, i, 198, 283, 302, 304, 316, 346; ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 348; ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-      <li>pharyngeal teeth of, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cat shark, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Catulus, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>caudal fin, i, 10</li>
-  <li class='c017'>caudal lancet, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caularchus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 198, 531</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caulolatilus, ii, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caulolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Caulophryne,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 276, 548</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>causes of dispersion, i, 318</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cavalla, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>-292</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cavefish, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eigenmann on, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 117</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cebedichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centaurus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>larva of figured, i, 143</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>centers of distribution, i, 244</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrarchidæ, i, 209, 232, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrarchus, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centriscidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centriscus, i, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrogenys, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrolophiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrolophius, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrophoroides, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrophorus, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centropomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centropomus, i, 271, 273; ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centropristes, i, 136; ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, figured, i, 135</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centroscymnus, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Centrolabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephalacanthidæ, i, 208
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephalacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephalaspidæ, i, 576, 623</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephalaspis, i, 444, 569, 571
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 576, 577, 579</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephalopholis, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cephaloscyllium, i, 197</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cepola, i, 260, 264, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cepolidæ, the, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratiidæ, i, 276</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratobatis, i, 560</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratodontidæ, i, 600, 612
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 613</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratodus, i, 77, 85, 613-616</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratoscopelus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ceratiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a>-549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cerdale, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cerdalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cestodes, i, 344</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cestraciont shark, i, 526, 527, 530
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eastman on, i, 529</li>
-      <li>teeth, figured, i, 527</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cestraciontes, i, 438, 519, 566
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eastman on, i, 529</li>
-      <li>families of, i, 528</li>
-      <li>suborder of, i, 526</li>
-      <li>teeth of figured, i, 527, 529</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cetomimidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cetomimus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cetorhinus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 540</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cetorhinidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 539</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cette, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chaca, i, 170</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chacidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chænobryttus, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chætobranchus, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chætodipterus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 325, 401</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chætodon, i, 235, 242, 267, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 143; ii, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chætodontidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chætodonts, ii, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chalacodus, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Challenger, the, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Champsodon, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Champsodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chanos, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chanidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Channa,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>channel bass, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>channel catfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 280</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>channel-cats, the, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Channomuræna, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chanoides, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chapala Lake,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes of, ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Characidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Characin, i, 290</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Characinidæ, i, 205, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Characins, ii, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>-162, 186</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Characodon, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_563'>563</span>characters,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Elasmobranchs, i, 507</li>
-      <li>of species, i, 292</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Charitosomus, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>charr, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Charlevoix, ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chasmistes, i, 304, 316; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chasmodes, ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chauliodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chauliodus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chaunax, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheilio, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheilinus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheilodipteridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheilodipterus, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheiracanthus, i, 517</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheirodopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheirodus, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cheirolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chelidonichthys, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chelmo, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chelonichthyidæ, i, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chelonopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chonerhinus, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cherna, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chevron, ii, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chiasma, ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chiasmodon, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 29; ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chiasmodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chilobranchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chilomycterus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chiloscyllium, i, 56, 533
-    <ul>
-      <li>pectoral fin of, i, 66</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chimæra, i, 23, 35, 85, 204, 393, 435, 437, 448, 507, 509, 512-514, 545, 561-567, 595, 610
-    <ul>
-      <li>of California, i, 564</li>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 563</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 449, 564, 565</li>
-      <li>Parker on, i, 563</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chimæridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 564</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chimæroids, i, 224, 583</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chimæropsis, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>China fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>snake-headed, ii, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chinese whitebait, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chinook, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chirivita, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirocentridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirocentrus, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirolophis, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chiropterygium, i, 600, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirostoma,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 329; ii, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirothricidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chirothrix,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>chisel-mouth, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chlamydoselachidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 525</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chlamydoselachus, i, 361, 447, 448, 509, 521, 536
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chlarias, i, 98, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 457; ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chlariidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chlevastes, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 232</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chloropthalmus, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chloroscombrus, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chochouwo, ii, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chogset, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chologaster, i, 203, 204, 223
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eigenmann on, ii, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 116; ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-      <li>Garman on, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-      <li>Hoppin on, ii, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondrenchelys, i, 521</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondropterygians, i, 508</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondropterygii, i, 391</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondrostei, i, 623, 624; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondrosteidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chondrosteus, i, 622</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chonerhinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chopa, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chordata, i, 460</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chordate animals, i, 460
-    <ul>
-      <li>lowest forms figured, i, 465</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chordates, i, 508, 584, 597; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chorisochismus, ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chriodorus, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chromides,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chromis, i, 166; ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chrondrosteus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Chrosomus, i, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>chub, ii, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-      <li>of Great Basin, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-      <li>of Pacific, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>chub of Great Basin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 287</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>chub-mackerel, i, 94</li>
-  <li class='c017'>chub-sucker, i, 292
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 315; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>chum, ii, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cichla, ii, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cichlasoma, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cichlid, i, 290</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cichlidæ, i, 209, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>organs of smell in, i, 115</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cigar-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ciguatera, i, 182-185; ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cimolichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ciona, i, 481</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cirrhilabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cirrhitidæ, the, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cirrhitus, i, 271
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cirrostomi, i, 482, 595</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cisco, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Citharichthys, i, 274; ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Citharinus, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Citula, i, 202; ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cladistia, i, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 605</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cladodontidæ, i, 520, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cladodus, i, 65, 80, 437
-    <ul>
-      <li>pectoral fin of, i, 521</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 521</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 522</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cladoselache, i, 64, 66, 79, 80, 437, 446, 448, 510, 571, 573, 623
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 518</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 65, 514, 515</li>
-      <li>primitive character of, i, 514</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 515</li>
-      <li>ventral view of, i, 515</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cladoselachidæ, i, 514
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>clam-cracker, i, 556</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clark,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eulachon, ii, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clarke, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>claspers, i, 124, 125</li>
-  <li class='c017'>classification,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Coues on, i, 370</li>
-      <li>of Elasmobranchs, i, 509, 510</li>
-      <li>of fishes, i, 367-386</li>
-      <li>of instincts, i, 154</li>
-      <li>morphological, i, 371</li>
-      <li>natural, i, 370</li>
-      <li>terms used in, i, 462</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clastes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Eastman on, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clavellinidæ, i, 475</li>
-  <li class='c017'>clavicle,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 87</li>
-      <li>of sea catfish, i, 87</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Claypole, i, 426
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 409</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cleavages, i, 135</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clepticus, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clidoderma, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Climatius, i, 446
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 518</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>climbing-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_564'>564</span>climbing-perch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>clingfish, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 198; ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-      <li>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a>, <a href='#Page_530'>530</a></li>
-      <li>sucking-disk in, i, 198</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clinocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clinton, ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clinus, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a>, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a>, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a>, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cloquet, i, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cloudy Bay cod, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clupanodon, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clupea, i, 204, 329, 391
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331, ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clupeidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>clupeiform, ii, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>clupeoid, ii, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Clupeidea, the, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>coalfish, i, 209; ii; 438, 537</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coal measures,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 223</li>
-      <li>teeth found in, i, 65</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Costa, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coast lines,
-    <ul>
-      <li>effect on distribution, i, 248</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cobbler-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cobia, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cobitidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cobitis, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cobitopsidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cobitopsis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coccoderma, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coccosteans, i, 581</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coccosteidæ, i, 622, 623, 584, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coccosteus, i, 583, 584, 587, 590, 593, 596, 623
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 582</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cochino, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cochliodontidæ, i, 530
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 531</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cochliodus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>lower jaw figured, i, 531</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cock-and-hen paddle, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cock-of-palace-under-sea, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cockeye pilot,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coccolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cod, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>codfish, i, 122, 128, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331; ii, <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a></li>
-      <li>pectoral fin of, i, 66</li>
-      <li>reproduction of, ii, <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></li>
-      <li>Sars on, ii, <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>codling, ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cœlacanthidæ, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cœlacanthus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 604</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cœlolepia, i, 573</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cœlodus, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cœlolepidæ, i, 573</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coho, ii, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>collection of fishes, i, 429-434
-    <ul>
-      <li>by explosives, i, 430</li>
-      <li>by poison, i, 430</li>
-      <li>tackle for, i, 430</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Collett, i, 408, 427
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 403</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Collie, i, 564</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Collins,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on catastrophe to tilefishes, ii, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-      <li>on halibut, ii, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cololabis, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Colocephali, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-142, 153
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Colomesus, ii, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Colorado trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>colors of fishes, i, 226-236
-    <ul>
-      <li>of coral-fishes, i, 235</li>
-      <li>fading of, in spirits, i, 235</li>
-      <li>intensity of, i, 232</li>
-      <li>nuptial, i, 230</li>
-      <li>protective, i, 226-229</li>
-      <li>sexual, i, 230</li>
-      <li>variation of, i, 235</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Columbia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Comephoridæ, the, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Comephorus, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Commerson, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>commissure, i, 112</li>
-  <li class='c017'>common eel,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>common skate,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 552</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>common sucker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>common sunfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>conceptions of genus, i, 375</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Conchopona, i, 613</li>
-  <li class='c017'>conclusions,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Cope on dispersion, i, 286</li>
-      <li>of Evermann, i, 274</li>
-      <li>of Hill, 277-279</li>
-      <li>as to Isthmus of Suez, i, 269</li>
-      <li>of Jenkins, i, 274</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>conger eels, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Congiopodidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Congiopus, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Congo River,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes from, i, 78, 607</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Congriopus, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Congrogadidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Connoly,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on calling fishes, i, 168</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Conocara, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Conodontes, i, 487
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 488</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Conorhynchus, i, 128</li>
-  <li class='c017'>constantino, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cooper, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on long-jawed goby, ii, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cope, i, 84, 311, 419, 428, 512, 602; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on classification, i, 406</li>
-      <li>conclusions of, 286</li>
-      <li>on dispersion, i, 286, 287</li>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
-      <li>on fossil forms, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-      <li>on isocercal tail, i, 84</li>
-      <li>on ostracophores, ii, <a href='#Page_569'>569</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 407</li>
-      <li>sketch of, i, 406</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Copeland, i, 420
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 421</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Copelandellus, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coquille, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coracoid, i, 88, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coraco-scapular, i, 87</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coral reefs,
-    <ul>
-      <li>at Apia, figured, i, 234</li>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 235, 297</li>
-      <li>fish life in, i, 215</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Corax,
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 543</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coregoni, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coregonus, i, 291, 305, 316, 322, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 321; ii, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coreoperca, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coris, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cormorant-fishing, ii, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>-119
-    <ul>
-      <li>illustrations of, i, 333, 335</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cornet-fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cornide, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>coronado, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>corpus vestiforme, i, 112</li>
-  <li class='c017'>corsair, ii, <a href='#Page_430'>430</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Corvula, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Corynolophus, i, 189; ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 188</li>
-      <li>luminous bulb in, i, 188</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coryphæna, i, 210, 391
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coryphænidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coryphænoides,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 83; ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-      <li>leptocercal, tail of, i, 83</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coryphopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Corythroichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Costa, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_565'>565</span>Cottidæ, i, 208, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a>, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 441</li>
-      <li>fossil forms, i, 449</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cottocomephorus, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cottogaster, i, 300</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cottunculus, i, 219; ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cottus, i, 169, 219, 312, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a>, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a>, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Couch, i, 410
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fighting-fish, i, 165</li>
-      <li>on skippers, ii, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Coues,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on classification, i, 368</li>
-      <li>on meaning of species, i, 379</li>
-      <li>on synonymy, i, 374</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cowfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 373; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-      <li>skeleton of figured, i, 215; ii, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cow's tongue, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>crab-eater, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cragin, i, 171</li>
-  <li class='c017'>craig-fluke, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cramer, i, 408, 420, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cramp-fishes, i, 554</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cranial nerves,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Craniomi,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Craniotes, i, 588</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cranium,
-    <ul>
-      <li>bones of, i, 36-39</li>
-      <li>inferior view, i, 38</li>
-      <li>lateral view, i, 36</li>
-      <li>posterior view, i, 40</li>
-      <li>of Roccus, figured, i, 36-39</li>
-      <li>of Sebastolobus, i, 53</li>
-      <li>superior view, i, 37</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>crappie, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-      <li>photograph of, ii, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cratinus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cravo, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>crawl-a-bottom, ii, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>crayfish, ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>creek fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 315; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crenilabrus, i, 207, 260, 267; ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>creole-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crescent lake trout, ii, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cricodus, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cristiceps, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a>, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cristivomer, i, 291; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>croaker, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cromeriidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cross-bow shooter, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crossognathidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crossopholis, ii, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crossopterygians, i, 78, 79, 89, 91, 204, 436, 457, 511-515, 591, 602, 623, 624; ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 451</li>
-      <li>fins of, i, 601</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crossopterygii, i, 382, 462, 599, 600, 601, 608</li>
-  <li class='c017'>crustacean parasites, i, 340</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cryptacanthididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cryptacanthodes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 516</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cryptocentrus, i, 264; ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cryptopsaras,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cryptotomus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>crystal darter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>crystal goby, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crystallias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 218; ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Crystallogobius, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenochætus, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenodentex, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenodipterini,
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 612</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenodontidæ, i, 613</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenodus, i, 613</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ctenoid scales, i, 20, 21; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenoidei, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenolabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenolates, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenoptychius, i, 555</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenothrissa,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ctenothrissidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cuatro ojos, ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cuban fishes, i, 314</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cubero, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cuboid, i, 19</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cub-shark,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 542</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cuckold, ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 373; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cucugo, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cultus cod, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cunias, i, 541</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cunner, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cunningham,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eye of flounder, i, 176</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Curimatus, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cusk-eel, i, 187, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cutlass-fishes, i, 149, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cutthroat trout, ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>-97, 102, 104, 106</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cuvier, i, 103, 105, 400, 404, 428; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 400</li>
-      <li>Lyman on, i, 401</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 399</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cycleptus, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cycliæ, i, 204, 437, 462, 592, 593
-    <ul>
-      <li>subclass of, i, 591</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclobatis, i, 557</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cycloganoidei, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>cycloid scales, i, 20, 22; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cycloidei, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclopterichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclopteridæ, i, 198, 208
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclopterus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 220; ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclospondyli, i, 510, 543
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 545</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>cyclospondylous, i, 49</li>
-  <li class='c017'>cyclospondylous sharks, i, 549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclostomata, i, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclostomes, i, 113, 443, 486-505, 570, 596, 592, 617
-    <ul>
-      <li>extinct forms, i, 487</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclostomi, i, 462, 584</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclothone, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyclurus, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cymatogaster, ii, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 125; ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cymolutes, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cymothoa, i, 340</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cynoglossinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cynoglossus, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cynoscion, i, 94, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cynthia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 476</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cynthiidæ, i, 475</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyprinidæ, i, 33, 46, 205, 230, 251, 285, 287, 290, 406; ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>-171
-    <ul>
-      <li>fossil forms, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyprinodon, ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyprinodontes, ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyprinodontidæ, i, 290</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyprinus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cypselurus, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 157, 440</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyrthaspis, i, 575</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyttoides, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Cyttus, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_566'>566</span>dabonawa, i, 430</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dace, i, 251; ii, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dactylagnus, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dactyloscopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dactyloscopus, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>daddy sculpin, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dalatias, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dalatiidæ, i, 548</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Daldorf,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on capture of Anabas, i, 163</li>
-      <li>on climbing-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dale, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dallia, i, 51
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 149; ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dalliidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Damalichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>damsel-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dapediidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dapedium,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dapedoglossus, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>darters, i, 209, 231, 300, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>-315</li>
-  <li class='c017'>darter goby,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Darwin, i, 408
-    <ul>
-      <li>on noises of catfish, i, 168</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>daruma-okose, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dasyatidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 555</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dasyatis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 247, 556</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dasyscopelus, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Davis, H. S., ii, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on chinook salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Davis, J. W., i, 426
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fossil teeth, i, 525</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dawson, i, 427, 594</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Day, i, 416; ii, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on calling fishes, i, 168</li>
-      <li>on electric eel, i, 170</li>
-      <li>on grayling, ii, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
-      <li>on Labyrinthici, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li>
-      <li>on sole, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a>, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>day chub,
-    <ul>
-      <li>head of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dealfish, ii, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dean, i, 512, 591, 594, 595
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Acanthodei, i, 517, 518</li>
-      <li>on Arthrodira, i, 518, 588</li>
-      <li>on Chimæras, i, 563</li>
-      <li>on fin migration, i, 75</li>
-      <li>on fossil forms, i, 422</li>
-      <li>on lateral line, i, 23</li>
-      <li>on lung-fish, i, 618</li>
-      <li>on Ostracophores, i, 571</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 417</li>
-      <li>on sharks, i, 511, 531</li>
-      <li>on Teleosts, i, 135</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Deania, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>deathfish, i, 183</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Death Valley fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Decapterus, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>decurrent flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 441</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>deep-sea angler,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>deep-sea Chimæra,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 449</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>deep-sea fishes, i, 246, 247, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>degenerate fishes, i, 210, 211, 216, 218</li>
-  <li class='c017'>degeneration,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of eye, i, 220</li>
-      <li>in fishes, i, 54</li>
-      <li>in lamprey, i, 217</li>
-      <li>of structure, i, 216</li>
-      <li>in tunicates, i, 480</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Delaroche, i, 95</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dekay, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Delfin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on hagfishes, i, 489</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Deltistes, ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Deltodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dendrodus, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dentary, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dentex, i, 94; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dercetes, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dercetidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Derepodichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Derichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Derichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dermopteri, i, 486</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Desmarest, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>development, i, 217
-    <ul>
-      <li>of bony fishes, i, 135</li>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 135</li>
-      <li>embryonic, i, 133</li>
-      <li>of flounders, i, 144</li>
-      <li>heredity in, i, 134</li>
-      <li>of horsehead-fish, i, 148</li>
-      <li>of paired fins, i, 66</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>devil ray,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 559</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>De Vis, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Devonian,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes, i, 436</li>
-      <li>lamprey, i, 563</li>
-      <li>sharks from, i, 65</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diabasis, i, 375</li>
-  <li class='c017'>diablo, ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dialarchus, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dialommus, i, 117</li>
-  <li class='c017'>diamond,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-      <li>flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li>snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diaphus, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dibothrium, 345
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dibranchus, i, 207; ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dicentrodus, i, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dicentrarchus, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>dichotomous rays, i, 596</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dicranodus, i, 521</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dictyorhabdidæ, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dictyorhabdus, i, 435, 565, 578</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dictyopyge, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dictyopygidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dictyosoma, 512</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Didemnidæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Didymaspis, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Didymodus, i, 521, 525</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dinematichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dinichthyidæ, i, 587</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dinichthys, i, 587, 589
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 445, 584</li>
-      <li>jaws of figured, i, 583</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diodon, i, 273, 393, 394
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17; ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diodontidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>diœcious fishes, i, 124</li>
-  <li class='c017'>diphycercal tail, i, 49, 81, 83, 84, 507, 513, 516, 598
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, i, 84</li>
-      <li>Dollo on, i, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplacanthidæ, i, 517, 518</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplacanthus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 517</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplectrum, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplesion,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 247; ii, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplodus, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplognathus, i, 584, 589</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplomystes, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplomystidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplomystus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 205, 453; ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diploneumoni, i, 612, 619</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diploprion, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplopterus, i, 82, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplospondyli, i, 509, 523</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diplurus, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dipneusti, i, 405, 462, 582, 599, 601, 605, 607, 622, 624; ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>relationship of, i, 609, 610</li>
-      <li>subclass of, i, 609-622</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dipnoans, i, 436, 512, 572, 582, 583; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>air-bladder in, i, 101</li>
-      <li>classification of, i, 612</li>
-      <li>ear sac in, i, 120</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 449</li>
-      <li>pectoral fin in, i, 60</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 86, 88</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_567'>567</span>Dipnoi, i, 77, 85, 89, 382</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Diptera, ii, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dipteridæ, i, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dipterus, i, 612
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 437, 449</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Discobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Discocephali, ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>-480
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></li>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>diseases of fishes, i, 340-358
-    <ul>
-      <li>contagious, i, 340</li>
-      <li>parasitic, i, 342</li>
-      <li>remedies for, i, 342</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dismal Swamp fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 116; ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dispersion of fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 284</li>
-      <li>barriers to, i, 297, 310, 311</li>
-      <li>causes of, i, 318</li>
-      <li>Cope on, i, 286</li>
-      <li>by floods, i, 301</li>
-      <li>of fresh-water fishes, 282-296</li>
-      <li>of river fishes, 297-319</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dissection of the fish, i, 26-33</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Distomidæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>distribution of fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>affected by coast line, i, 247, 261</li>
-      <li>agency of currents in, i, 242</li>
-      <li>centers of, i, 243</li>
-      <li>determined by temperature, i, 241</li>
-      <li>of fresh-water forms, i, 249</li>
-      <li>general laws of, i, 238</li>
-      <li>of marine forms, i, 245</li>
-      <li>Panama, barrier to, i, 266</li>
-      <li>of shore fishes, i, 263-265</li>
-      <li>Suez, barrier to, i, 266</li>
-      <li>zones of, i, 249, 251, 252</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ditrema, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dittodus, i, 521, 525</li>
-  <li class='c017'>doctor-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Döderlein, i, 411, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dogfishes, i, 519
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 545</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dogoro, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>dog salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>-73, 80, 81</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dog snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dolichoglossus, i, 463</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Doliolum, i, 479</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dollar-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dollo, i, 415, 427, 600, 601; ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 413</li>
-      <li>on tail forms, i, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dolloa, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dolly Varden trout, i, 305; ii, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 327; ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dolphins, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Doncella,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 297; ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Donovan, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>dorados, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Doras, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Doratonotus, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dormeur,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dormitator,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>dorsal fin, i, 10, 603
-    <ul>
-      <li>figured, i, 49</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dorosoma, i, 32, 300
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dorosomatidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dorosomidæ, i, 290</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Doryichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dorypteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-16</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dorypterus, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Draciscus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Draconetta, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Draconettidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>dragonets, i, 246; ii, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>drawing net at Milo,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph of, i, 281</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Drepane, ii, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Drepanaspidæ, i, 574</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Drepanaspis, i, 570
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 574</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Drepanidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Drepaniodus, i, 488</li>
-  <li class='c017'>drum, i, 290
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>duck-billed eels, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ductor, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ducts, i, 28</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ductus cholidechus, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dufosse,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on air-bladder, i, 97</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dugès, i, 90, 420</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dugunonutatatori, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Duméril, i, 398, 401</li>
-  <li class='c017'>duodenum, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dussumieriidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dussumieria, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Duverncy, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Duymæria, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>dwarf,
-    <ul>
-      <li>herring, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-      <li>perch, ii, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li>
-      <li>salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
-      <li>sunfish, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dybowsky, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dynatobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dysommidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Dytiscus, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>eagle ray,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 558</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>early writers on fishes, i, 272, 422, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>earliest sharks, i, 436, 443</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ear of fish, i, 119-121</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ear sac, i, 119, 120</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ear stones, i, 119</li>
-  <li class='c017'>earthquakes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fatal to fishes, i, 356; ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eastman, i, 427, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Cestraciont shark, i, 529</li>
-      <li>on Clastes, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-      <li>on Neoceratodus, i, 619</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 425</li>
-      <li>on teeth of Edestus, i, 530</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ebisu, the god of fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ebisus, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echeneididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echeneis, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echidna, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echidnocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echinorhinidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 547</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echinorhinus, i, 547</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Echiodon, i, 84</li>
-  <li class='c017'>economic fishes, i, 333</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ectoblast, i, 152</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ectocoracoid, i, 87</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ectoderm, i, 139</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ectopterygoid, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Edaphodon, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Edestus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 529</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>eel-back flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>eel-fairs, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>eel-like fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>-158</li>
-  <li class='c017'>eel-mother, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>eel-pouts,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>eels, i, 21, 210, 217, 268, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Cope on, ii, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
-      <li>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
-      <li>migration of, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-      <li>reproduction of, ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-      <li>Woodward on, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>effects on distribution,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of shore line, i, 262</li>
-      <li>of temperature, i, 149</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Egerton, i, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Egertonia, ii, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>eggs of fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>artificial impregnation of, i, 150</li>
-      <li>of bottle-nosed chimæra, i, 127</li>
-      <li>care of, i, 128</li>
-      <li>carrying of, i, 128, 171</li>
-      <li>of Embiotocidæ, i, 127</li>
-      <li>embryo of, i, 128</li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_568'>568</span>fertilization of, i, 125</li>
-      <li>figures of, i, 127</li>
-      <li>germ disk in, i, 135</li>
-      <li>hatching of, i, 125</li>
-      <li>of herring, i, 125</li>
-      <li>month incubation of, i, 170, 171</li>
-      <li>transportation of, i, 171</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eichwald, i, 411, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eigenmann, i, 415, 420; ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on blind fishes, i, 117, 221, 222; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a></li>
-      <li>on Nematognathi, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 222</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 417</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eigenmannia, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>eighteen-spined sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ekström, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elacate, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elagatis, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elanura,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elasmobranchiates, i, 384</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elasmobranchii, i, 462, 507, 584; ii, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elasmobranchs, i, 92, 102, 204, 506-522, 571, 583, 588, 589
-    <ul>
-      <li>characters of, i, 506-508</li>
-      <li>classification of, i, 507-510</li>
-      <li>ear sac in, i, 120</li>
-      <li>geological distribution of, i, 459</li>
-      <li>notochord in, i, 57</li>
-      <li>subclass of, i, 507</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elassoma, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elassomidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>elastic spring, i, 96</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elater, i, 582</li>
-  <li class='c017'>electric catfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>electric cells, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>electric eel, i, 186; ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Day on, i, 170</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>electric organs, i, 25, 186, 187</li>
-  <li class='c017'>electrophores, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Electrophoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Electrophorus, i, 170, 186</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eleotrids, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eleotris, i, 254
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elera, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eleginus, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>elephant sharks, i, 540
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 565</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elliott,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on trout, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elonichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elopidæ, i, 43; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>-44</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elopopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Elops, i, 205, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 454; ii, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Embiotoca, i, 404</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Embiotocidæ, i, 207, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 377-379</li>
-      <li>anal fin in, i, 125</li>
-      <li>viviparity of, i, 376, 377</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Emblemaria,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>embryo, i, 136, 138, 139</li>
-  <li class='c017'>embryology and growth, i, 131-151</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Embolichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>emerald-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Emery, i, 412; ii, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Emmelichthys, i, 262; ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Emmydrichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Empetrichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Empo, ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enantioliparis, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchelurus, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchelycephali, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchelynassa, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchelyopus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enchodus, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Endoskeleton, i, 439</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enedrias, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Engraulididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Engraulis, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enneacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enophrys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enoplosidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enoplosus, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Enteropneusta, i, 457, 461, 462
-    <ul>
-      <li>classification of, i, 464</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>entoderm, i, 138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Entosphenus, i, 490</li>
-  <li class='c017'>entozoa, i, 348</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eomyrus, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eopsetta, i, 205; 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eothynnus, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Epelasmia, ii, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eperlanus, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ephippidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ephippus, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>epiblast, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Epigonichthys, i, 483</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Epigonus, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Epinephelus, i, 19; ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 20; ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>-326, 328</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Epiphysis, i, 112
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eptatretidæ, i, 489</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eptatretus, i, 490
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 198</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>equatorial fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>specialization of, i, 248</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>equatorial zone, i, 251</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eques, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Equula, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erebus, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ereunias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ereuniidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ericymba,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erimyzon, i, 292; ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 315; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eriptychius, i, 435, 603, 578</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erisichthe, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erismatopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erismatopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ernogrammus, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erosa, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erpetichthys, i, 204</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erpetoichthys, i, 450
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 608</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erpichthys, i, 608; ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erythrichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erythrinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Erythrinus, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>escolars, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Esmarck, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Esmeralda, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>esmeralda de mar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Esocidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Esox, i, 109, 253, 315, 327, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Etelis, i, 262; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Etheostoma, i, 129, 283; ii, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 231; ii, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Etheostominæ, i, 230, 232; ii, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ethmoid, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Etmopterus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 189, 546</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>etrumei-iwashi, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Etrumeus, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eucalia, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eucitharus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eucinostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eugnathidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_569'>569</span>eulachon, i, 321; ii, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 320; ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Euleptorhamphus, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eumicrotremus, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Euphaneropidæ, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Euphrosen, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eupomotis, i, 283
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>European chub,
-    <ul>
-      <li>pharyngeals of, i, 48</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>European lancelet,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 120</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>European sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 219</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>European soles, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eurylepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eurynotus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eurypharyngidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eurypharynx, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eurypholis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Euselachii, i, 532</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eusthenopteron, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eutæniichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Euthynotus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Evenchelys, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eventognathi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>everglade minnow,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>everglade pigmy perch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Evermann, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Panama fishes, i, 274</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 421</li>
-      <li>on Two Ocean Pass, i, 307-310</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Evermannellidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Evermannella, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eviota, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>evolution of fishes, i, 223-225, 435-459
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 223</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exerpes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 276; ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exocœtidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exocœtoididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exocœtoides, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exocœtus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exoglossum,
-    <ul>
-      <li>head of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exonautes, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>exoskeleton, i, 20</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Exostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>extension of Indian fauna, i, 267</li>
-  <li class='c017'>exterior of fish, i, 16-25</li>
-  <li class='c017'>external gills,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 78, 602</li>
-      <li>Kerr on, i, 76</li>
-      <li>Mauer on, i, 77</li>
-      <li>Orr on, i, 77</li>
-      <li>Rusconi on, i, 77</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>extinction of species, i, 240
-    <ul>
-      <li>causes of, i, 241</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eyclesheimer, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Eydoux, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>eye of fish, i, 119</li>
-  <li class='c017'>eye of flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>in larval stage, i, 174</li>
-      <li>migration of, i, 173-176</li>
-      <li>Williams on, i, 174-178</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>eye-of-the-sea, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Faber, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fabricius, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Facciola, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>factors of extinction, i, 442</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fading of pigment in spirits, i, 235</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fair maid, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fallfish, i, 311; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fall-salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>family,
-    <ul>
-      <li>definition of, i, 373</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fan-tailed darter, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Farquhar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Opah, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fat cod, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fat head, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fatherlasher, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>faunal areas,
-    <ul>
-      <li>minor, i, 248</li>
-      <li>of Japanese fishes, i, 257</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>faunal resemblances, i, 259, 260</li>
-  <li class='c017'>faunal differences, i, 260, 261</li>
-  <li class='c017'>favorable waters have most species, i, 301</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fear in fishes, i, 163
-    <ul>
-      <li>expressions of, i, 165</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Felichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fiatola, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fierasfer, i, 84; ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 159; ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fierasferidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fighting-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Siam, i, 163</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>filefish, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>-415
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 182</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>filiform, i, 19</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Filippi, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>finfold, i, 63, 64
-    <ul>
-      <li>Balfour's theory of, i, 69</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fin migration,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 75</li>
-      <li>of Heterodontus, i, 75</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>finnan haddie, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fins of fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>described, i, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25</li>
-      <li>migration of, i, 75</li>
-      <li>morphology of, i, 62-90</li>
-      <li>origin of, i, 62</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fin-spines, i, 528, 529; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Hybodus, i, 528, 529</li>
-      <li>of Onchus, figured, i, 509</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fischer,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes of Panama, i, 275</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fish Commission,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fish stocking by, i, 346</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fisheries,
-    <ul>
-      <li>economic, i, 337</li>
-      <li>salmon, i, 81, 87</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>in action, i, 11</li>
-      <li>adaptation to environment, i, 156</li>
-      <li>affection of, i, 167</li>
-      <li>affected by temperature, i, 149</li>
-      <li>age of, i, 144, 146</li>
-      <li>air-bladder of, i, 12, 92, 93</li>
-      <li>alimentary canal in, i, 31</li>
-      <li>anadromous, i, 156, 160, 291</li>
-      <li>anger of, i, 165</li>
-      <li>in aquaria, i, 150, 165</li>
-      <li>blood of, i, 11</li>
-      <li>body form of, i, 16</li>
-      <li>bones of, i, 10</li>
-      <li>bony, i, 454, 506</li>
-      <li>brain of, i, 12, 14, 109, 112</li>
-      <li>breathing of, i, 5, 91, 103</li>
-      <li>of British Museum, i, 402</li>
-      <li>burrowing of, ii, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a></li>
-      <li>care of eggs by, i, 128</li>
-      <li>catadromous, i, 162, 291</li>
-      <li>catalogues of, i, 402</li>
-      <li>channel, i, 291</li>
-      <li>circulatory organs of, i, 26</li>
-      <li>classification of, i, 367-386</li>
-      <li>of Coal Measures, i, 223</li>
-      <li>collecting of, i, 429</li>
-      <li>color and coloration of, i, 6, 129, 226-236</li>
-      <li>conditions of life of, i, 215</li>
-      <li>of coral reefs, i, 235</li>
-      <li>currents affecting, i, 243, 244</li>
-      <li>deep sea, i, 408</li>
-      <li>definition of, i, 3</li>
-      <li>degeneration in, i, 54, 216, 218-220; ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></li>
-      <li>digestion and digestive organs of, i, 11, 26</li>
-      <li>diœcious, i, 124</li>
-      <li>dispersion of, i, 318</li>
-      <li>diseases of, i, 340-358</li>
-      <li>dissection of, i, 26, 27</li>
-      <li>distortion in, i, 129</li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_570'>570</span>distribution of, i, 237-255, 435</li>
-      <li>domestication of, i, 149, 151</li>
-      <li>ear of, i, 8, 119-121</li>
-      <li>earliest forms of, i, 443</li>
-      <li>eggs of, i, 125-135</li>
-      <li>electric organs of, i, 25; ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-      <li>embryology of, i, 131-151</li>
-      <li>evolution in, i, 223, 435-459</li>
-      <li>exterior of, i, 16-25</li>
-      <li>extinct, i, 224</li>
-      <li>eye of, i, 6, 119</li>
-      <li>eye-stalks of, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-      <li>face of, i, 5</li>
-      <li>fins of, i, 9, 10, 24</li>
-      <li>flight of, i, 167</li>
-      <li>flow of blood in, i, 107</li>
-      <li>as food for man, i, 320-339</li>
-      <li>food of, i, 11, 29</li>
-      <li>form of, i, 4</li>
-      <li>fossil, i, 422-428</li>
-      <li>fresh-water, i, 250</li>
-      <li>gall-bladder in, i, 26</li>
-      <li>generalized forms of, i, 224</li>
-      <li>gills of, i, 92</li>
-      <li>growth of, i, 30, 144</li>
-      <li>habits of, i, 152</li>
-      <li>hearing of, i, 8, 119</li>
-      <li>heart of, i, 11, 28, 106</li>
-      <li>herbivorous, i, 30, 155; ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-      <li>hermaphrodite, i, 124</li>
-      <li>homologies of bones in, i, 34</li>
-      <li>hybridism in, i, 144</li>
-      <li>instincts of, i, 154</li>
-      <li>intestines of, i, 33</li>
-      <li>intromittent organ in, i, 124</li>
-      <li>with jugular fins, i, 456</li>
-      <li>kidneys of, i, 11, 28</li>
-      <li>killed by earthquakes, i, 356</li>
-      <li>Labyrinthine, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li>
-      <li>larval forms, i, 142, 620, 621</li>
-      <li>lateral line of, i, 9</li>
-      <li>life cycle of, i, 3-5, 152</li>
-      <li>lowland, i, 291</li>
-      <li>luminous organs of, i, 188-190</li>
-      <li>lungs of, i, 98</li>
-      <li>measurements of, i, 19</li>
-      <li>migration of, i, 160</li>
-      <li>monstrosities among, i, 151</li>
-      <li>mortality among, i, 357</li>
-      <li>mountain, i, 291</li>
-      <li>mouth of, i, 29</li>
-      <li>muscles of, i, 25</li>
-      <li>mythology of, i, 359</li>
-      <li>naturalization of, i, 150</li>
-      <li>nerves of, i, 12, 14, 109, 113; ii, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li>
-      <li>nests and nest-building of, i, 15, 167, 128; ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>-231</li>
-      <li>noises of, i, 121, 168</li>
-      <li>nostril of, i, 6</li>
-      <li>nuptial colors in, i, 155, 156</li>
-      <li>nutrition organs of, i, 29</li>
-      <li>organs of,
-        <ul>
-          <li>locomotion, i, 24</li>
-          <li>phosphorescence, i, 194</li>
-          <li>reproduction, i, 28, 124-130</li>
-          <li>sense, i, 115-123</li>
-          <li>sight, i, 6, 116</li>
-          <li>smell, i, 115</li>
-          <li>taste, i, 121</li>
-          <li>touch, i, 122</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>ovaries, i, 26</li>
-      <li>oviparous, i, 125</li>
-      <li>ovoviviparous, i, 125</li>
-      <li>pain, sense of, in, i, 123</li>
-      <li>parasites of, i, 340-344</li>
-      <li>parasitic, i, 198</li>
-      <li>pectoral limb of, i, 50</li>
-      <li>pelagic, i, 156</li>
-      <li>pineal eye in, i, 111</li>
-      <li>poisonous, i, 180-185, 236; ii, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>,436, 526</li>
-      <li>postembryonic development, i, 132</li>
-      <li>posterior limbs of, i, 53</li>
-      <li>preservation of, i, 431</li>
-      <li>problem of highest, i, 383</li>
-      <li>protection of young by, i, 128</li>
-      <li>pugnacity of, i, 162</li>
-      <li>recognition marks in, i, 7, 232, 236</li>
-      <li>records of, i, 433</li>
-      <li>scales of, i, 20</li>
-      <li>sensitiveness to change, i, 150</li>
-      <li>sexual modifications in, i, 129</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 50, 52</li>
-      <li>skeleton of, i, 10, 214, 215</li>
-      <li>specialization in, i, 219, 220, 224, 249; ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-      <li>spinal cord of, i, 112</li>
-      <li>spineless, i, 25</li>
-      <li>spiral valve in, i, 32</li>
-      <li>tail of, i, 49</li>
-      <li>teeth of, i, 5, 29</li>
-      <li>tenacity of life in, i, 146, 147</li>
-      <li>timidity of, i, 166</li>
-      <li>tongue of, i, 6, 31</li>
-      <li>upland, i, 291</li>
-      <li>variety in tropics, i, 333</li>
-      <li>viscera of, i, 26</li>
-      <li>viviparous, i, 125; ii, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li>
-      <li>voices of, i, 121</li>
-      <li>where found, i, 158, 159</li>
-      <li>zeoid, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fishes as food, i, 320-339</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fishes of Panama,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Evermann on, i, 274</li>
-      <li>Fischer on, i, 275</li>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 272, 273</li>
-      <li>Hill on, i, 277</li>
-      <li>Upham on, i, 276</li>
-      <li>Wright on, i, 275</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish faunas,
-    <ul>
-      <li>genera in, i, 262, 263</li>
-      <li>Indian, i, 267</li>
-      <li>of Japan, i, 255, 256, 259</li>
-      <li>of Mediterranean, i, 259</li>
-      <li>of Panama, i, 267</li>
-      <li>separated by barriers, i, 255-281</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish fighting, i, 162</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish god of Japan,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish guano, i, 538</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fish-Hawk, the, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fishing,
-    <ul>
-      <li>apparatus for, i, 335</li>
-      <li>for ayu, i, 333</li>
-      <li>for tai, figured, i, 338</li>
-      <li>with cormorants, i, 333, 335</li>
-      <li>methods of, i, 334</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fishing-frog, i, 202; ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>capture of prey by, i, 169</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 18; ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a>, <a href='#Page_550'>550</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish-like vertebrates, i, 34</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fish of Paradise, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fistularia, i, 85, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fistulariidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Flammeo, ii, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flashers, ii, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flatfish family, i, 177; ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flatheads, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Flesus, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fleurieu's whirlpool, ii, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flier, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flight of fishes, i, 157</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Floeberg, ii, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Florida jewfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Florida lion-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>flounder, i, 117, 178, 203, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a>-485, 488, 493, 494
-    <ul>
-      <li>development of, i, 144</li>
-      <li>diamond, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li>eel-back, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_571'>571</span>eyes of, i, 118, 174-178</li>
-      <li>frog, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li>lantern, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-      <li>larval form, i, 176; ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a></li>
-      <li>migration of eye, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a></li>
-      <li>newly hatched, figured, i, 177</li>
-      <li>osteology of, ii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a></li>
-      <li>peacock, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-      <li>pole, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
-      <li>starry, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-      <li>vertebræ in, i, 205</li>
-      <li>wide-eyed, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-      <li>wide-eyed, figured, i, 175</li>
-      <li>young, figured, i, 175; ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>flower of the surf,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>flow of blood in fish, i, 107</li>
-  <li class='c017'>flukes, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flying-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>-214
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 157, 341, 440</li>
-      <li>parasites of, i, 342</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>flyfish, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>flying gurnard, ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 457</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>flying robin, ii, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fodiator,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>food-fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>abundance of, i, 329</li>
-      <li>relative rank of, i, 320</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>food of lampreys, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>foolfishes, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Foot-notes to Evolution,
-    <ul>
-      <li>reference to, i, 302</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>foramen, i, 92</li>
-  <li class='c017'>forelle, i, 327</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Forcipiger, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Forgy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on oarfish, ii, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Forbes, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fish epidemics, i, 340</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>formalin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>as preservative, i, 432</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Forskål, i, 394</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Forster, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil capelin, ii, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil darters, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil fishes, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 422, 423</li>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 422</li>
-      <li>earliest forms, i, 568</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 436, 454; ii, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-      <li>first period of, i, 423</li>
-      <li>from Green River, ii, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-      <li>morphological work on, i, 427</li>
-      <li>second period, i, 424</li>
-      <li>study of, i, 424</li>
-      <li>third period, i, 427</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil gobies, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil herring,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 453; ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fossil trout, ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>four-eyed fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 117</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>four-spined stickleback,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fowler, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fox shark, i, 536</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Frère Jacques, ii, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fresh-water eels, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>fresh-water fishes, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>dispersion of, i, 282-296</li>
-      <li>distribution of, i, 249</li>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 249</li>
-      <li>of Japan, i, 256</li>
-      <li>of North America, i, 290</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fresh-water minnows, i, 33</li>
-  <li class='c017'>fresh-water perch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Friar Odoric,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fear in fishes, i, 166</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fries, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>frilled shark, i, 361, 516
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 525</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fritsch, i, 427, 428, 512</li>
-  <li class='c017'>frog,
-    <ul>
-      <li>arm of, figured, i, 601</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>frogfish, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>frog flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>frostfish, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fucus, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fullarton, i, 177</li>
-  <li class='c017'>function of lateral line, i, 23</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Fundulus, ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 198</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>fur seal,
-    <ul>
-      <li>food of, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Gadidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gadopsidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gadus, i, 209, 391
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331; ii, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gazza, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gaff-topsail cat,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gaidropsarus, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gaimard, i, 406</li>
-  <li class='c017'>galafata, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galaxias, i, 223, 252, 253, 254
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galaxiidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galei, i, 532</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeidæ, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeichthys, i, 128, 242, 271, 273; ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeocerdo, i, 541, 542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeoid sharks, i, 519</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeorhinidæ, i, 532, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeorhinus, i, 454</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Galeus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 541</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gall-bladder, i, 26</li>
-  <li class='c017'>galliwasp, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>galo, ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gambusia, i, 64, 66, 67; ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ganocephala, i, 85, 86</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ganoidei, i, 444, 599, 616; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ganoids, i, 22, 38, 88, 91, 139, 157, 159, 186, 204, 384, 569, 622; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-36
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-      <li>air-bladder in, i, 109</li>
-      <li>classification of, ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-      <li>as a group, ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ganoid fish, i, 582
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 452, 453</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Garden, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Garibaldi,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 227; ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>garfish, ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 59</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Garman, i, 405, 408, 420; ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on blind fish, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-      <li>on frilled shark, i, 525</li>
-      <li>on Sunapee trout, ii, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>garpike, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-32
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li>
-      <li>fossil, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, i, 82</li>
-      <li>vertebræ of, i, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>garrupa, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gaspergou, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gasteronemus, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gasterosteidæ, i, 128, 290
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gasterosteus, i, 161, 172, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Lord on, ii, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gastrostomus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gastrula, i, 131, 132</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gaudry,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on leptocercal tail, i, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gay, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gegenbaur, i, 428, 511, 512, 591, 594, 601
-    <ul>
-      <li>on archipterygium, i, 60</li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_572'>572</span>on morphology, i, 68</li>
-      <li>on pectoral fin, i, 67</li>
-      <li>theory of, i, 73</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gempylidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gempylus, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>general laws,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of development, i, 133</li>
-      <li>of distribution, i, 239</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>generalization and specialization, i, 380</li>
-  <li class='c017'>genital organs, i, 124</li>
-  <li class='c017'>genus, i, 375
-    <ul>
-      <li>definition of, i, 372</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Genyonemus, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Genypterus, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>geographical distribution, i, 237-259
-    <ul>
-      <li>of sharks, charted, i, 459</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>geological evidence of submergence, i, 268</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Geophagus, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Geotria, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gephyrura, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gephyroberyx, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gephyrocercal tail, i, 84, 604
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 85</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>German carp, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>germ-cells, i, 124</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Germo, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gerres, i, 271, 273
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gerridæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gervais, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ghost-fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>giant bass, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gibbes, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gibbons, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Embiotocidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gibbonsia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gibbus, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gigactinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Giglioli, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gila, i, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gilbert, i, 408, 415, 420; ii, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Astroscopus, i, 187</li>
-      <li>on coracoid plate, ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-      <li>on flight of fishes, i, 157</li>
-      <li>on island forms, i, 240</li>
-      <li>on larval forms, i, 142</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 421</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gilbertidia, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gill, i, 408, 419, 448, 528, 591, 594, 600; ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on anglers, ii, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a></li>
-      <li>on Discocephali, ii, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a></li>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-      <li>on high and low forms, i, 383</li>
-      <li>on work of Lacépède, i, 398</li>
-      <li>on New Zealand fauna, i, 252</li>
-      <li>on paired limbs, i, 85</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 407</li>
-      <li>on Selachii, i, 509</li>
-      <li>on shoulder-girdle, i, 86-89</li>
-      <li>sketch of, i, 405</li>
-      <li>on soles, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-      <li>on swallowers, ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-      <li>on tilefish, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gill,
-    <ul>
-      <li>arches, i, 45, 91, 508</li>
-      <li>basket, figured, i, 92, 485</li>
-      <li>covers, i, 44</li>
-      <li>filaments, i, 107</li>
-      <li>offices of, i, 11</li>
-      <li>openings, i, 91</li>
-      <li>rakers, i, 31, 46</li>
-      <li>septum, i, 73</li>
-      <li>slits, i, 508</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gillellus, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gillichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gillicus, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ginglymodi, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ginglymostoma, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ginglymostomidæ, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Girard, i, 405, 419; ii, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>girdle in Dipnoans, i, 86</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Girella, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gisu, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gizzard-shad, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>glacial epoch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>effect on dispersion, i, 316</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glaucosoma, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glandiceps, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glanencheli, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>glassy darter, ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>glenoid, i, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glesnæs oarfish, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 363</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>globefishes, i, 197, 440, 455; ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 244; ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Globulodus, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glossobalanus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 464</li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 463</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>glut-herring, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glyphisodon, i, 267
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glyptocephalus, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glyptolepis, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Glyptopomus, i, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gmelin, i, 395, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathanacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathodentex, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathonemus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathostomata, i, 78</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathostomes, i, 35, 572, 573</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathostomi, i, 508, 570</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gnathypops,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>goatfish, i, 198; ii, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 122</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gobies, i, 428; ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobiesox, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a>, <a href='#Page_530'>530</a>, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobiidæ, i, 22, 206, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobius, i, 208, 273, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobio, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobioides, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobioidea, ii, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobioidei, 11, 459-480
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobiomorus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 160</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobionellus, i, 208
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gobiosoma, i, 313; ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>goblin sharks,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figures of, i, 535</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>goby, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gofu, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 229</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>goggler, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>golden,
-    <ul>
-      <li>shiner, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-      <li>goldsinny, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-      <li>surmullet,
-        <ul>
-          <li>figure of, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>trout, ii, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>goldfish, ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Japan, i, 151</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gomphosus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Goniistius, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Goniognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonioplectrus, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonorhynchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>-56</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonostomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gonzalez, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Goodea, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 126; ii, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-      <li>with young, figured, i, 126</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Goodsira, i, 476</li>
-  <li class='c017'>goody, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>goosefish, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gorbuscha, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Goode, i, 408, 419; ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on albacore, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-      <li>on American fisheries, i, 335</li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_573'>573</span>on codfish, ii, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a></li>
-      <li>estimate of herring product, i, 330</li>
-      <li>on fishing-frog, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-      <li>on habits of mullets, ii, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li>
-      <li>on mackerel, ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li>
-      <li>on menhaden, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 407</li>
-      <li>on swordfish, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gordiichthys, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gordius, ii, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gosfordia, i, 613</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gosse, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gouan, i, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>gatasami, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gottsche, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>goujon, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gourami, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gouramy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>nest of, i, 167</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grammicolepidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grammicolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grammistes, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>grande écaille,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Granodus, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grantea, ii, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Graphiurus, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grassi, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>grass rockfish, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gray, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>grayling, i, 150, 305; ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>-138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>gray snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Great Basin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>chub of, i, 287</li>
-      <li>dispersion of fishes in, i, 316</li>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 302</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>great blue cat, ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>great oarfish, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Greeley, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Green,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Sacramento perch, i, 179</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>green-backed trout, ii, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>green cod, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Greene,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Porichthys, i, 190-197; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>greenfish, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Greenland char, ii, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Greenland halibut, ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Greenland shark, i, 547</li>
-  <li class='c017'>greenling, ii, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>green mackerel,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Green River shales, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-59</li>
-  <li class='c017'>green rockfish, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>green-sided darter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 247; ii, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>green wrasse, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gregarinidia, i, 242</li>
-  <li class='c017'>grenadier, i, 84; ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>grilse, ii, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>grindle, ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>griset,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gronias, ii, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gronovius, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>groupers, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>grubby, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>grunt, i, 239
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>grunters, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gruntfishes, i, 121</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Grystes, i, 302</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Guacamaia, ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 330</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>guahu, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>guasa, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>guavina de rio, ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Guaymas,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 274</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gudgeon, i, 122; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Guichenot, i, 412, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>guipo, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>guitar-fishes, i, 550
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 551</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gular plate, i, 43; ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Güldenstadt, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gulf Stream, i, 239
-    <ul>
-      <li>deep-sea fish of, i, 276</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gulper-eel, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gulpers, ii, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gunnel,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gunner, i, 396; ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Günther, i, 88, 255, 259, 404; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on archipterygium, i, 60</li>
-      <li>on Barramunda, i, 615</li>
-      <li>catalogue of, i, 402</li>
-      <li>on work of Cuvier, i, 400</li>
-      <li>on deep-sea fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-      <li>on dispersion, i, 289</li>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-      <li>on electrophores, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-      <li>estimate of eggs by, i, 128</li>
-      <li>on fishes of Panama, i, 272, 273</li>
-      <li>on Lepidosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-      <li>on month gestation, i, 173</li>
-      <li>on pain in fishes, i, 123</li>
-      <li>on poison glands, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>-529</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 403</li>
-      <li>on respiration, i, 91</li>
-      <li>on salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
-      <li>on sea-devils, ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></li>
-      <li>on trout, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-      <li>on variation in vertebræ, i, 210</li>
-      <li>on zones of distribution, i, 249, 251</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gunwale, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gurley,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parasitic diseases, i, 342</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>gurnard, i, 122, 198, 208, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>gurry shark, i, 547</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnarchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnarchus, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnelis, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnocanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnodontes, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnosarda, ii, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnothorax, i, 211, 274; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 458; ii, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnonoti, ii, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>-161, 188
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gymnotus, i, 391</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gyrinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gyrodus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gyrolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gyrosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Gyroptychius, i, 82
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 604</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>habits of fishes, i, 152</li>
-  <li class='c017'>haddock, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-      <li>skull of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hadrodus, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hadropterus, i, 300
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>haë, ii, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hæckel, i, 411, 511
-    <ul>
-      <li>on origin of fins, i, 62</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hæmal arch, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hæmapophyres, i, 48</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hæmulidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hæmulon, i, 121, 238, 271, 274, 375
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hagfishes, i, 28, 488
-    <ul>
-      <li>Delfin on feeding of, i, 489</li>
-      <li>egg of, figured, i, 127</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 199, 489</li>
-      <li>and lampreys, i, 189</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_574'>574</span>hair-worm, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hake, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a>, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>isocercal tail of, i, 83</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hakone dace, i, 257</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haldeman, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halec, ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halecomorphi, ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>half-beak,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>half-moon fish, ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>halibut, 128; ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-      <li>fishery, ii, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halichœres, i, 207, 257, 297; ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>-390
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of i, 297; ii, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halientichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hallock,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on black bass, ii, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-      <li>on Esox, ii, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halosauridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Halosaurus, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hamilton, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hammerhead shark, i, 543
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 544</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hancock, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>handsaw-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hansen,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Chinook salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplistia, i, 602</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplochiton, ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplochitonidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplodoci, ii, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>sub order of, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplomi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>-207, 224, 250
-    <ul>
-      <li>mesocoracoid arch in, ii, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-      <li>ventral fin, i, 67</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Haplopagrus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hard-tails, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hardwicke,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on affection in fishes, i, 167</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>harelip-sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harengula ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harpagiferidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harpodon, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harrimania,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 465</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harrimaniidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 465</li>
-      <li>low organization of, i, 465</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Harriottia, i, 199, 566
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 449</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>harvest-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 18; ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hasse, i, 428, 543
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Elasmobranchs, i, 509</li>
-      <li>on ossicles, i, 96</li>
-      <li>on sharks, i, 509, 530, 561</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hasselquist, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hatta, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hauy, i, 397</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hawaii,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fish fauna of, i, 243</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hay, i, 419, 427, 581; ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> 34, 36
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fossil eels, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-      <li>on Pycnodonti, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-      <li>on varieties of sharks, i, 528, 529</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hazé, ii, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>headfishes, i, 19, 84, 206
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a></li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 143</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>headlight-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 188; ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
-    <ul>
-      <li>Linton on, i, 348-350</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>heart of the fish, i, 106</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hector, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Helicolemus, i, 259; ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Helicoprion,
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 530</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heller, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Helodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Helostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Helostomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemerocœtidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemianthias, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemibranchii, ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-240
-    <ul>
-      <li>sub order of, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemichordata, i, 461</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemicyclaspis, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemiexocœtus, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemigymnus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemilepidotus, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemipteronotus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemiramphus, ii, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemiscylliidæ, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hemitripterus, i, 595; ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 220; ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heniochus, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Henle, i, 405</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Henshall,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on black bass, ii, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Henshaw, ii, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 281</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hepatic sinus, i, 108</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heptadiodon, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heptanema, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heptatrema, i, 490</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heptranchias, i, 447, 509, 536
-    <ul>
-      <li>pectoral fin in, figured, i, 57</li>
-      <li>skull of, i, 56</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 524</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Herald, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Herbert,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on lake trout-fishing, ii, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>herbivorous fishes, i, 30; ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Herdmania, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hermaphrodite fish, i, 124</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heros, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Herpetichthys, i, 608</li>
-  <li class='c017'>herring, i, 21, 204, 290, 429, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331; ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, i, 330</li>
-      <li>product of, i, 330</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hertwig, i, 112</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Herzenstein, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterandria, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterobranchus, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>heterocercal tail, i, 49, 507, 513, 516, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Acipenser, figured, i, 80</li>
-      <li>of Amia, figured, i, 82</li>
-      <li>of garpike, figured, i, 82</li>
-      <li>of Lepisosteus, figured, i, 82</li>
-      <li>of Salmo, i, 83</li>
-      <li>of sturgeon, figured, i, 80</li>
-      <li>of young trout, i, 83</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterocongridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterodontus, i, 128, 447, 536
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 75, 526</li>
-      <li>lower jaw, figured, i, 526</li>
-      <li>pectoral fin of, figured, i, 57</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterodontidæ, i, 65, 127, 447, 511, 523, 529, 530, 545
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 527</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterognathi, ii, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heteromi, i, 405, 611; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> 138, 532
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heteropleuron, i, 483</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterostichus, ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterosomata, ii, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>-498</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterosteus, i, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterostraci, i, 568, 571, 622; ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 573</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Heterotis, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hexagrammidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a></li>
-      <li>organs of smell in, i, 115</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hexagrammos, i, 257; ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hexanchidæ, i, 509, 528
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 524</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hexanchus, i, 447, 524
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hickory shad,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_575'>575</span>high and low forms,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 380, 381</li>
-      <li>Gill on, i, 383</li>
-      <li>Traquair on, i, 381, 382</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hilgendorf, i, 411, 416
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 417</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hilgendorfia, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hill, i, 415
-    <ul>
-      <li>conclusions of, i, 277, 279</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Himantolophus, ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hinalea, i, 158</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hingio, ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hiodon, i, 291, 394; ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hiodontidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hippocampus, i, 19; ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17, 250; ii, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hippoglossinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hippoglossoides, i, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hippoglossus, i, 205, 329; ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hirondelle, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>His, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Histiopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Histiopterus, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Histiothrissa, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>history of ichthyology, i, 387-428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoffman, i, 412; ii, <a href='#Page_546'>546</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hog-choker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hogfish, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, i, 214</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holbrook, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holcolepis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 454; ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holconoti, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holconotus, i, 404; ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holden, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holder, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on oarfish, ii, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holostei, i, 624; ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holotrachys, ii, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hollard, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hollardia, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holocentridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holocentrus, i, 267; ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holocephali, i, 448, 508, 519, 520, 561-567</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holoptychiidæ, i, 602, 603, 624</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holoptychius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>basal fin of, figured, i, 603</li>
-      <li>dorsal fin of, figured, i, 49</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 451</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holostomi, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holothurian, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Fierasfer issuing from, i, 159</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Holurus, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Homalopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hombron, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Home, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Homistius, i, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>homocercal tail, i, 49, 81-83, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 84</li>
-      <li>of flounder, i, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>homologies,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of bones, i, 34, 35</li>
-      <li>of pectoral limb, i, 85</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Homonotus, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>homoplasy, i, 296</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Homosoma, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hooker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes prey of birds, i, 166</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplias, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplopagrus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplopteryx,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 438; ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoplostethus, i, 260, 263; ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoppin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on blind fish, ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hornbaum-Hornschuch, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>horn-dace, i, 122, 283; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 285; ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>horned pout, ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>horned trunkfish, i, 374
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 373, 376; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>hornfish, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hornless trunkfish, i, 378; ii, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>face view of, i, 379</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 378; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>horse-eye-jack, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>horsehead-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 148</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>horse-mackerel, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>horseshoe-crab,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 572</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Houttuyn, i, 394, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>how fish cross watersheds, i, 306</li>
-  <li class='c017'>how fishes breathe, i, 91</li>
-  <li class='c017'>how to secure fish, i, 429</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hoy, i, 419; ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>huchen, ii, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hucho, i, 253; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Humboldt, i, 410
-    <ul>
-      <li>on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>humpback salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>humpback sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>humpback whitefish, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hutton, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Huxley, i, 424, 428, 593, 601; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on herring product, i, 330</li>
-      <li>on Lepidostei, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hybocladodus, i, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hybodus, i, 528, 529
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, figured, i, 527</li>
-      <li>fin-spine of, figured, i, 528, 529</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hybopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hybridism, i, 144; ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hydrocyon, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hydrolagus, i, 564</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyodon, i, 302</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyoganoidea, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyoganoids, ii, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hyomandibular, i, 508, 521, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hyostylic skull, i, 508, 561; ii, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypamia, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hypercoracoid, i, 89; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyperoartia, i, 488, 490, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyperoplus, ii, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyperotreta, i, 488, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyperprosopon, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>hypocoracoid, i, 89; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypocritichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 309; ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypohomus, ii, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypophthalmidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypoplectrus, i, 235, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyporhamphus, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypostomides, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-240
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypotrema, i, 549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>hypural, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypseleotris, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypsoblennius, i, 242</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypsopsetta, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypsurus, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypsycormus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hypsypops,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 227; ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hyrtl, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Hysterocarpus, i, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Icarus, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>icefish, i, 146; ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 149; ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_576'>576</span>Icelinus, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Icelus, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Icosteidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Icosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ictalurus, i, 291, 292; ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>-181
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 280</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ichthyized fishes, i, 210</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyocephali, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyodectes, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyodectidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyodorolites, i, 516, 529, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ichthyologists,
-    <ul>
-      <li>portraits of, i, 399, 403, 407, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425, 513, 516, 525, 545, 561, 599, 601</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ichthyology,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Aristotle on, i, 387</li>
-      <li>history of, i, 387-428</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyotomi, i, 437, 446
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 519</li>
-      <li>Parker &amp; Haswell on, i, 520</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyomyzon, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyopsida, i, 601</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthyosism, i, 183</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ichthysauroides, i, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Icthyscopus, ii, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ictiobus, i, 291; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 51; ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>id, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Idiacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Idus, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>igami, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ilarches, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ilarchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ilarchus, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ilisha, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ilyophidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>imaginary garpike, i, 364</li>
-  <li class='c017'>incisor teeth, figured, i, 31</li>
-  <li class='c017'>inconnu,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Indian fauna, i, 267
-    <ul>
-      <li>extension of, i, 265</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Indian fish, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Indian sawfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 200</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Indian parrot-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of pharyngeals, ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Indigo damsel-fish
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>infraclavicles, ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>infundibulum, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Iniistius, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Inimicus, i, 236; ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, frontispiece, II. Vol.</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Iniomi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>iniomous fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photophores of, i, 189</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>instincts in fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>basis of, i, 154</li>
-      <li>classification of, i, 154</li>
-      <li>of courtship, i, 155</li>
-      <li>heredity in, i, 154</li>
-      <li>of migration, i, 156</li>
-      <li>variability of, i, 155, 156</li>
-      <li>Whitman on, i, 156</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>intensity of coloration, i, 232</li>
-  <li class='c017'>interclavicle,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Starks on, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>interhæmals, i, 49; ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>interneurals, i, 49; ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>intestine of fish, i, 33</li>
-  <li class='c017'>intromittent organ, i, 124</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Investigator, the, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ioa, ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ionoscopus, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ipnopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ipnops,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 181; ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Irish lord, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Irish Pampano,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>isabelita,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isaciella, i, 270</li>
-  <li class='c017'>isaki, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ischnacanthidæ, i, 517</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ischnacanthus, i, 517</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ischyodus, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ishigakidai, ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ishikawa, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ishinagi, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Iso,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>isocercal tail, i, 49, 83, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>Cope on, i, 84</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 83</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isopholidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isopholis, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isospondyli, i, 204, 406; ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>-60, 128, 129, 138, 139, 142, 148, 159, 160, 188-190, 209, 250
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isotœnia, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>isthmus, i, 45</li>
-  <li class='c017'>isthmus barriers, i, 255-281</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isthmus of Panama,
-    <ul>
-      <li>as barrier, i, 269</li>
-      <li>fish fauna of, i, 266, 271</li>
-      <li>species of shores, i, 269</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isthmus of Suez, i, 255, 258
-    <ul>
-      <li>as barrier, i, 266</li>
-      <li>submergence of, i, 267</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Istiæus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Istiophoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Istiophorus, ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Istlarius, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isuropsis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 537</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Isurus, i, 537, 538</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Italian parrot-fish, i, 48
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ito,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>itoryori, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>iwana, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>jack mariddle, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jackson,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Embiotocidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jacobi,
-    <ul>
-      <li>artificial impregnation by, i, 150</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jacoby,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on origin of eels, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jacquinot, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jadgeska hatchery, ii, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jækel, i, 427, 428, 591</li>
-  <li class='c017'>jallao, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Janassa,
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, i, 554</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japan,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Black Current of, i, 255, 256, 258</li>
-      <li>fishes of, i, 256</li>
-      <li>fresh-water fauna of, i, 256</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japan and Mediterranean
-    <ul>
-      <li>fish faunas, i, 259, 260</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese blenny,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 9; ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese catfish, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese dace, ii, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese filefish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 241</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese samlet,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 321</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Japanese sea-horse,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 250</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>jaqueta, ii, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>jara-bakka, i, 171</li>
-  <li class='c017'>jawfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>jaws, i, 201
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Amia, i, 43</li>
-      <li>bones of, i, 41, 43</li>
-      <li>figured, i, 30, 43, 583; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-      <li>of parrot-fish, i, 30; ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-      <li>of shark, i, 35</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jenkins, i, 420; ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes of Panama, i, 274</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_577'>577</span>Jenkinsia, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jenyns, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jerdon, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jerusalem haddock, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jeude, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>jewfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>jiguagua, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>jocu, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>John,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on climbing-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>John dories, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Johnny darter, ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>John Paw,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Johnson, i, 410
-    <ul>
-      <li>on interbreeding of trout, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Johnston, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>jolt-head porgy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jordan, i, 348, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parent stream theory, ii, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 421</li>
-      <li>on return of salmon to spawning grounds, ii, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jordanella, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jordania, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jordanicus, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>jorobado, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>joturo, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Joturus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Jugulares, i, 393
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, i, 499-506; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Julis, i, 158, 235; ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>jurel, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>kæpra, i, 171</li>
-  <li class='c017'>kajika, ii, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kaku, ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kalm, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kamchatka lamprey,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 495</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kamloops trout, ii, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kansas River,
-    <ul>
-      <li>blue-green sunfish from, i, 26</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kareius, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Karpinsky, i, 529</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kaup, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>kawamasu, ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kawamuki, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kellogg's Zoology, i, 26</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kelly
-    <ul>
-      <li>on otoliths, i, 120</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>kelpfish, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kelts, ii, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kent,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on anglers, ii, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a>, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kerr, i, 619
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Balfour's theory, i, 72</li>
-      <li>on fin migration, i, 74</li>
-      <li>on Gegenbaur theory, i, 73</li>
-      <li>on external gill, i, 76, 78</li>
-      <li>on Lepidosiren, i, 61, 620</li>
-      <li>on morphology, i, 68</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kessler, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kessleria, i, 252, 452; ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>keta, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kettleman, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kihi kihi, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>killer, i, 361</li>
-  <li class='c017'>killifish, i, 290, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>hearing of, i, 121</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>king crab,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 572</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>king darter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>kingfish, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>king of salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>king of herrings, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>king of mackerels,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>king salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>anadromous instinct of, i, 160</li>
-      <li>grilse, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kingsley,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on ascidians, i, 474</li>
-      <li>on degeneration, i, 460</li>
-      <li>on sense organs, i, 175</li>
-      <li>on tunicates, i, 466-468</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kirsch, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kirtland, i, 418; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kirtlandia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kishinouye, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>kisugo, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kittlitz, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Klein, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Klunzinger, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kner, i, 410, 411, 427
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Ganoids, ii, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kneriidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>knightfish, ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Knox, ii, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kobini-iwashi, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kochi, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Koenen, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Koken, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>kokopu, ii, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kokos, ii, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kolliker, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Konwick, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>konoshiro, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kölreuter, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kowala, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kowalevskia, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kowalevsky, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Krascheninnikov, i, 395; ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Krefft, i, 614</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kröyer, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kuhlia, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kuhliidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kumu, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kundscha, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kuppfer's vesicle, i, 138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>kurodai, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>kuromutsu,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kuro Shiwo, i, 242, 251, 258
-    <ul>
-      <li>fishes in, i, 239</li>
-      <li>goblin shark of, i, 534</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kurtidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kurtus, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kyphosidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Kyphosus, ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Labidesthes, i, 313; ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labrodon, ii, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labrax, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labridæ, i, 207; ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labrus, i, 207, 260, 267, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>labyrinthine fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labyrinthinci, i, 149; ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Day on, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Labyrinthodontidæ, i, 86</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lac de marbre, ii, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lacépède, i, 376, 389
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 399</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lachnolæmus, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lactariidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lactarius, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lactophrys, ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 214, 373, 377, 378; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ladyfish, i, 117, 198; ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 147; ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-      <li>transformations in, i, 147</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>La Favorite, the, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lafayette, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lagocephalus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lagodon, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lake Bonneville,
-    <ul>
-      <li>ancient outlet of, i, 303</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lake herring, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>-67</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lake lamprey,
-    <ul>
-      <li>head of, figured, i, 111</li>
-      <li>mouth figured, i, 492</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_578'>578</span>Lake Nicaragua,
-    <ul>
-      <li>shark from, i, 542</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lake Patzcuaro,
-    <ul>
-      <li>viviparous fishes from, i, 126</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lake Pontchartrain,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fish fauna of, i, 314</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lake trout, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lake whiting, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lamdodus, i, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Laminaria, ii, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lamnidæ, i, 532, 537, 538, 542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lamna, i, 534, 538
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 537</li>
-      <li>figure of, 447</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lamnoid sharks, i, 519, 533
-    <ul>
-      <li>distinguished, i, 534</li>
-      <li>families of, i, 534</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lampetra, i, 491
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 120, 492</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lamprey, i, 28, 35, 56, 111, 204, 249, 290, 490, 506
-    <ul>
-      <li>ascending brook figured, i, 496</li>
-      <li>brain of, i, 112</li>
-      <li>catfishes destroyed by, i, 358</li>
-      <li>extinct forms, i, 487</li>
-      <li>fate of, i, 504</li>
-      <li>food of, i, 491</li>
-      <li>gill-basket of, figured, i, 92, 485</li>
-      <li>Kamchatka, i, 495</li>
-      <li>method of attack, i, 493</li>
-      <li>migration of, i, 494</li>
-      <li>orders of, i, 488</li>
-      <li>parasites of, i, 354</li>
-      <li>Reighard on, i, 491</li>
-      <li>spawning of, i, 498, 500</li>
-      <li>structure of, i, 486</li>
-      <li>Surface on, i, 491</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lamprididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lampris, i, 210, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 323</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lanarkia, i, 570, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 574</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lancelet, i, 28, 31, 121, 204, 482-485, 506; ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>characteristics of, i, 482</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 484</li>
-      <li>habits of, i, 483</li>
-      <li>vertebral column of, i, 55</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lancet-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lancet of surgeon-fish, i, 181</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lane-snapper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lankester, i, 61, 87, 426, 571, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lantern-fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lantern-flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>laolach, i, 620</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Laparus, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>large-mouthed black bass,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Larimus, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Larvacea, i, 470, 473
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 480</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>larval development of fishes, i, 139-141, 143-147, 174-176
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 139</li>
-      <li>in common eel, i, 141</li>
-      <li>Gilbert on, i, 142</li>
-      <li>figures showing, i, 140-142</li>
-      <li>in brook lamprey, i, 140</li>
-      <li>in sturgeon, i, 141</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>larval flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>larval forms,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Chætodon, i, 144</li>
-      <li>figures of, i, 140-142</li>
-      <li>of flounder, figured, i, 147, 175, 176</li>
-      <li>of ladyfish, i, 147</li>
-      <li>of Lepidosiren, i, 620, 621</li>
-      <li>of Mola, i, 143, 145</li>
-      <li>of sailfish, i, 140</li>
-      <li>of swordfish, i, 139</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lasianius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 580</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lateolabrax, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lateral fold, i, 64
-    <ul>
-      <li>Balfour on, i, 71-73</li>
-      <li>Kerr on, i, 72</li>
-      <li>Mollier on, i, 71</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lateral line, i, 9, 22, 23
-    <ul>
-      <li>a mucous channel, i, 22</li>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 23</li>
-      <li>function of, i, 23</li>
-      <li>relation to touch, i, 122</li>
-      <li>in singing-fish, figured, i, 23</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lates, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Latham, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Latilidæ, the, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Latilus, ii, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Latrididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Latris, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lavaret, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lawyer, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lay, i, 409</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leach, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>leather-carp, i, 151</li>
-  <li class='c017'>leather-jackets, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lebias, ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lectocephalous condition,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 142</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leidy, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leiognathidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leiognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leiostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leiuranus, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>length of intestine, i, 33</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lentipes, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>leopard toadfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepadogaster, i, 263; ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepechin, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidaplois, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidopidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidopsetta, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidopus, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidorhombus, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidosiren, i, 60, 73, 85, 89, 100, 149, 450, 619, 621, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>adult male, figured, i, 620</li>
-      <li>larval forms, figured, i, 620
-        <ul>
-          <li>at 3 days, i, 620</li>
-          <li>at 30 days, i, 621</li>
-          <li>at 40 days, i, 621</li>
-          <li>at three months, i, 621</li>
-        </ul>
-      </li>
-      <li>pectoral fin in, i, 60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidosirenidæ, i, 88, 612, 619</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidostei, ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Huxley on, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-      <li>Zittel on, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidosteids, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidosteoidei, i, 382</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidotes, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepidotrigla, i, 259; ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepisoma, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepisosteidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepisosteus, i, 32, 66, 85, 101, 102, 291, 314, 357, 604, 623; ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-      <li>Balfour and Parker on, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-      <li>Eastman on, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 452; ii, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li>
-      <li>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-      <li>Müller on, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, figured, i, 82</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepomis, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 4; ii, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptecheneis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>leptocardial tail, i, 81, 83</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptocardians, i, 383</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptocardii, i, 55, 482-485</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptocephalus, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_579'>579</span>leptocercal tail, i, 50, 81, 83, 507, 602
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 81</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 82</li>
-      <li>Gaudry on, i, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptolepidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptomylus, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptops, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptoscopidæ, the, ii, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptosmus, ii, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leptotrachelus, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lepturus, i, 391</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lesser-weaver, i, 169</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lesson, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Le Sueur, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lethrinus, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leuciscus, i, 254, 256, 346; ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 287; ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-      <li>pharyngeals of, i, 47</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leuckart, i, 609</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Leucopsarion, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lias, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Libys, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ligul, a, i, 348</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lilljeborg, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Limanda, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>little roncador, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Limulus, i, 569
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 572</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lindström, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ling, ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Linnæus, i, 375, 390; ii, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>followers of, i, 394</li>
-      <li>Systema Naturæ of, i, 392</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Linophryne, ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Linton,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parasitic diseases, i, 343-348</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liodesmidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liodesmus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lion-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liopsetta, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>liparid, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liparididæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liparididæ, i, 189, 208, 218; ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liparis, i, 202, 217, 219, 375, 380; ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 218</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lipogenyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lipogenys, ii, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lister, i, 373, 375, 376</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lithographic shales, ii, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Litholepis, i, 364</li>
-  <li class='c017'>littoral fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>distribution of, i, 247</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liuranus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 233</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Liza, ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lizard-fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lizard-skipper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 230; ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>loach, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>fossil, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lobotes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lobotidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>local barriers, i, 298</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lockington, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on long-jawed goby, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>-465</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>log-perch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lohest, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lok-sild, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>longe, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>long-eared sunfish, i, 3-15
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 2, 3; ii, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>long-jawed goby, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Cooper on, ii, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a></li>
-      <li>Lockington on, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>long-horned sculpin, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>long-jaw, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>long-necked eels, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lophobranchii, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-240</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lophobranchs, i, 92
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophogobius, i, 208</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophiidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophiomus, i, 207, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophius, i, 169, 202, 206, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a>, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a>, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a>, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 18; ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lophocercal tail, i, 81, 83</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lopholatilus, i, 94, 357; ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophopsetta, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophotes, i, 260, 263; ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lophotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Loricaria, i, 393
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Loricariidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Loricati, ii, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>loro, ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lota, i, 109, 209, 316; ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lotella, i, 259</li>
-  <li class='c017'>louse-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>louvar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Loven,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Arctic species, i, 317</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lowe, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lowell,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on trout, ii, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lower jaw,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 526</li>
-      <li>of Cochliodus figured, i, 531</li>
-      <li>of Neoceratodus figured, i, 616</li>
-      <li>of Polypterus figured, i, 606</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lower pharyngeals,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lower Silurian,
-    <ul>
-      <li>shark teeth from, i, 508</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lowland fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>dispersion of, i, 313</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Luciæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lucifuga, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 222; ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lucigobius, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Luciocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Luciocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lucioperca, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lucas,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Therobromus, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>luminous organs, i, 187
-    <ul>
-      <li>von Lendenfeld on, i, 189</li>
-      <li>of Porichthys, figured, i, 191</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lumpenus, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lumpfish, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 220; ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lump-sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>lung-fish, i, 100, 458, 609-622</li>
-  <li class='c017'>lungs of the fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>origin of, i, 98, 99</li>
-      <li>Morris on, i, 98</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>lurking-fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Whitmee on, i, 169</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lutianidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 333; ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lutianus, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331; ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lütken, i, 410; ii, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Selene, i, 144</li>
-      <li>on flying-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Luvaridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Luvarus, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycenchelys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycodapodidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycodes, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycodapus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycodopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycodes, i, 209</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lycoptera, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_580'>580</span>Lyman,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on the museum at Paris, i, 401</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lyomeri,
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lyopomi, ii, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lyopsetta, i, 205</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lyrifera, i, 462, 508</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Lysopteri, i, 623; ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>maaji, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>maccaroni piatti, i, 351</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macleay, i, 416, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macdonald, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macdonaldia, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mackenzie salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mackerel, i, 19, 117, 156, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li>
-      <li>fishery, ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mackerel-midges, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mackerel-scads, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mackerel-shark, i, 533
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 447, 537</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mackinaw trout, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrias, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrodon, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropetalichthyidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 585</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropetalichthys, i, 583, 585, 589, 590</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropharyngodon, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrophthalmia, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropistius, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropodus, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macropoma, i, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrorhamphosidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrorhamphosus, i, 259
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrosemiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrosemius, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Macrouridæ, i, 84; ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>vertebræ in, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mademoiselle,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mad tom, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 179; ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mænidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>magifi, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mahogany snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>maigre, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mail-cheek fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>makrede, i, 171</li>
-  <li class='c017'>makua, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacopterygii, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacopterygium, ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacorhinus, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malacosteidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malapterurus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>malau, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mallotus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malm, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>malma, i, 326
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malmgren, i, 410
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Arctic species, i, 317</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malpighi, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malthe, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Malthopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mandible,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suspensorium of, i, 43, 120</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mandibular rami, i, 589</li>
-  <li class='c017'>man-eating shark, i, 538</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Maner,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on external gill, i, 77</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mangrove snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>man-of-war fish, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Manta, i, 448, 560
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 559</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>map of continents, i, 270</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mapo, ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marcgraf, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marcgravia, ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marcusen, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>marine blenny, i, 118</li>
-  <li class='c017'>marine fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>checked by barriers, i, 241</li>
-      <li>distribution of, i, 246</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mariposa, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marquette, ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marsh,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eye of Anableps, ii, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marsiobranch, i, 592, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Marsipobranchi, i, 486</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Martin pescador, ii, <a href='#Page_550'>550</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mason, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mastacembelidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mastacembelus, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Masticura, i, 555</li>
-  <li class='c017'>masu, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>matajuelo, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>matajuelo blanco, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>matao, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>matodai, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>matsubara, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Matthew, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mauer,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on external gill, i, 77</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Maurolicidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Maurolicus, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>maxillary,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 55</li>
-      <li>of Sebastolobus, i, 55</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mayfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>McClelland, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>McCoy, i, 82, 410, 581</li>
-  <li class='c017'>McGregor, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>McKay, i, 420</li>
-  <li class='c017'>McMurrich, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>meaji, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>meaning of species, i, 293
-    <ul>
-      <li>Coues on, i, 379</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>measurements of the fish, i, 19</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mebaru, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Meckel's cartilage, i, 44, 57, 507, 596, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Meda, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Meddagh,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 164</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Medialuna, ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>medregal, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Meek,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on trout, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megalaspis, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megalichthyidæ, i, 602, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megalichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 604</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megalops, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megalurus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megaperca, ii, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Megaprotodon, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mejenidai, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melamphaës, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melaniris, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melanocetus, ii, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melanogrammus, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-      <li>skull of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melanotænia, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melanotæniidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Melletes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 288</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>membrane bone of face, i, 44</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mene,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>menhaden,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 340; ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Menidia, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Menidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Menomonee whitefish, ii, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Menopneumona, i, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Menticirrhus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mergate fish, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Merlangus, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Merluccius, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-      <li>isocercal tail of, i, 83</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Merluciidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mermaid, i, 359</li>
-  <li class='c017'>merou, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Merriam,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fossil trout, ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_581'>581</span>Mesencephalon,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figured, i, 109, 110</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mesentary, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mesocoracoid, i, 89; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mesoderm, i, 138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesodon, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesogonistius, ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mesopterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesopus, ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Swan on, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mesozoic fishes, i, 437</li>
-  <li class='c017'>metameral characters, i, 23</li>
-  <li class='c017'>metapterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>metencephalon, figured, i, 109</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Michigan grayling,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microbranchium, i, 577</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microcanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microdesmus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microdon, i, 204</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microgadus, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microlepidotus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microperca, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Micropogon, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Micropterus, i, 291, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 325; ii, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microspathodon, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microstoma, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microstomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Microstomus, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>midshipman, i, 121, 189; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>luminous organs of, i, 191</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>migratory fishes, i, 160</li>
-  <li class='c017'>milkfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>milktschitsch, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Miller, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>miller's thumb, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>California, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-      <li>Yellowstone, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Milner, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on whitefish, ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>minnow, i, 33, 124, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>-199
-    <ul>
-      <li>treatment of eggs by, i, 129</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Minous, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mioplosus, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mirbelia, ii, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mirror carp, i, 151; ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Misaki,
-    <ul>
-      <li>tide pools of, i, 161</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Misgurnus, i, 98; ii, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mississippi Valley,
-    <ul>
-      <li>blind fishes of, i, 117, 220</li>
-      <li>stone-roller of, i, 33</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Missouri sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mistichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mitchill, i, 376, 418
-    <ul>
-      <li>on climbing-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li>
-      <li>on Spanish mackerel, ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mitchillina, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mitsukurina, i, 199, 536, 566
-    <ul>
-      <li>figures of, i, 535</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mitsukurinidæ, i, 534</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mitsukuri, i, 418
-    <ul>
-      <li>on phosphorescent shark, i, 189</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 417</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mivart,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on paired limbs, i, 70</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>monana, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mobula, i, 448
-    <ul>
-      <li>fœtus of, i, 560</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mobulidæ, i, 559</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mojarra, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mojarra cardenal, ii, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mojarra de las piedras, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mojarra de ley, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mojarra verde, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mola, i, 19, 84, 142, 206, 272; ii, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a></li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 143</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Molgula, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Molgulidæ, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Molidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Molina, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mollier,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on lateral fold, i, 71</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mollienesia, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mollusca, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Molva, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monacanthidæ, i, 242
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monacanthus, i, 181, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>du Monceau, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mondini, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mongrel whitefish, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>monkfish, i, 359; ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>brain of, figured, i, 547</li>
-      <li>pectoral fin, figured, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monocentridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-      <li>Houttuyn, discoverer of, ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monocentrus, i, 260
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monoceros, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monodactylus, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monolene, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monorhinus, i, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monotaxis, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Monro, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>monstre marin, i, 360, 361</li>
-  <li class='c017'>monstrosities among fishes, i, 150</li>
-  <li class='c017'>monstrous goldfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 151</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Montagu, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>month incubation, i, 170, 171, 172
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 173</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moorish idols, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moodeliar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on climbing-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mooneye, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>moonfishes, i, 144; ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 323</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>morays, ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 458; ii, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mordacia, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mordaciidæ, i, 491</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moreau, i, 95, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Morgan, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moringua, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moringuidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mormyrus, i, 393</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Morone, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>morphology, i, 511
-    <ul>
-      <li>of fins, i, 62-90</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Morris,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on lungs of fishes, i, 98-106</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mortality of filefish, i, 357</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moseley,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Ipnopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moser,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on catching salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>moss-bunker, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>motor nerves, i, 153</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mountain chains,
-    <ul>
-      <li>as barriers, i, 310</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mountain-oopu, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mountain-witch, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mount Whitney,
-    <ul>
-      <li>golden trout of, ii, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Moxostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mu, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mucous channels, i, 22, 23</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mud-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mud-dab, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mud-minnows, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_582'>582</span>mud-minnows,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li>
-      <li>tenacity of life in, i, 147</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mud-skippers, ii, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>muffle jaws, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mugil, i, 32, 157, 343, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 330; ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mugilidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>muki-muki, i, 183; ii, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Müller, i, 384, 396, 405, 415, 428, 609, 613; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on elastic spring, i, 96</li>
-      <li>on ganoids, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-      <li>on gas in swim-bladder, i, 96</li>
-      <li>on Lepidosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 399</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mullerian duct, i, 28</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mullets, i, 117, 268, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mullidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>-379</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mullus, i, 261, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Munster, i, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>munu, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Muræna, i, 211, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Murænesocidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Murænesox, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Murænidæ, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Murænolepidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Murchison, i, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>murcielago, ii, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>muroaji, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>muscles of the fish, i, 25</li>
-  <li class='c017'>muskallonge,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Musquaw whitefish, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mustelus, i, 71, 541</li>
-  <li class='c017'>mutsu, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mutton-fish, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>mutton-snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 331</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mycteroperca, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myctophidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>-134, 526</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myctophum, i, 195; ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myliobatis, i, 557, 558</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mylognathus, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mylostoma, i, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mylostomidæ, i, 587</li>
-  <li class='c017'>myotomes, i, 71</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myoxocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 219; ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myriacanthidæ, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myriacanthus, i, 566; ii, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myrichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myriolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myripristis, i, 162, 268, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>-256</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myrocongridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myrophis, i, 313</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myrus, i, 259, 263; ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mysis, i, 317</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Mysore,
-    <ul>
-      <li>walking-fish of, i, 167</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>mythology of fishes, i, 359-366</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxine, i, 198, 490, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxinidæ, i, 489</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxobolus, i, 343</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxocyprinus, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxodagnus, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxodes, ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myxosporidia, i, 342, 344</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Myzontes, i, 486</li>
-  <li class='c003'>Nagg's head-fish, i, 375, 376</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Naisia, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>namazu, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>names of bones, i, 39</li>
-  <li class='c017'>names of fishes, i, 372</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nami-ho-hana, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nandidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nannocharax, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nansenia, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Narcine,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 185, 553</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Narcobatidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 553</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Narcobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nardo, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nassau,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>natural selection,
-    <ul>
-      <li>effect of, i, 318</li>
-      <li>in fishes, i, 218</li>
-      <li>process of, i, 297</li>
-      <li>species changed by, i, 240</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Naucrates, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nantichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nebris, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Necturus, i, 157, 600</li>
-  <li class='c017'>needle-bearing filefish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>needle-fishes, i, 128
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>negro-chub, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>negro-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nelson, i, 419
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Anableps, ii, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nemachilus, ii, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nematognathi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nematistiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nematocentrus, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nematodes, i, 344
-    <ul>
-      <li>Linton on, i, 352</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nematonurus, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nemichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nemichthys, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li>
-      <li>jaws figured, i, 156</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nemipterus, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nemopteryx, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neoceratodus, i, 79, 80, 100, 116, 204, 450, 613
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, i, 618</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 614</li>
-      <li>lower jaw of, figured, i, 616</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 68, 609</li>
-      <li>skull of, i, 67</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neochanna, i, 252; ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neoclinus, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neoditrema, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neoliparis, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neopercis, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Neosebastes, ii, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>nerka, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>nerve cells and fibres, i, 152</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nerves of fishes, i, 113, 114</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nervous system, i, 109-114</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nest-building, ii, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>of sticklebacks, ii, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>nest of fish, i, 14, 172</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nettastoma, i, 211, 259; ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nettastomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>neurentric canal, i, 138</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Newberry, i, 426, 428, 584, 589</li>
-  <li class='c017'>New England,
-    <ul>
-      <li>scanty fauna of, i, 302</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Newton, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>New Zealand,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fauna of, i, 252</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>nezupo, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>nictitating membrane, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nijinge-rijinge, i, 171, 172</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nieuhof, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nilsson, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Niphon, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>nohu, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>noises of fishes, i, 168, 169</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nomeidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>nomenclature, i, 173
-    <ul>
-      <li>beginning of, i, 374</li>
-      <li>trinomial, i, 378</li>
-      <li>of trunkfishes, i, 373</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nordmann, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>northern blennies, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_583'>583</span>northern zone, i, 250</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Norway haddock, ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notæus, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notagogus, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notelops, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notidiani, i, 447, 513, 519, 526
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notidanoid shark, i, 438
-    <ul>
-      <li>skull of, figured, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notidanus, i, 523, 524</li>
-  <li class='c017'>notochord, i, 55, 56, 509
-    <ul>
-      <li>in Chimæras, i, 59</li>
-      <li>in Elasmobranchs, i, 57</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notogeneus, i, 456
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notopteridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nototheniidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Notropis, i, 129, 283, 304, 307, 311, 313; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 343, 457; ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Noturus, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Novaculichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Novara, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nozawa, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>numbers of genera, i, 262</li>
-  <li class='c017'>numbfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 185, 553</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>number of vertebræ, i, 202-204</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nuptial colors, i, 155, 156</li>
-  <li class='c017'>nuptial tubercles, i, 33
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure showing, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Nyström, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c003'>oarfish, i, 361; ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 362; ii, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a></li>
-      <li>Forgy on, ii, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a></li>
-      <li>Glesnæs, ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-      <li>Holder on, ii, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oatka Creek, i, 282</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oblata, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ocean currents,
-    <ul>
-      <li>agency of, i, 242</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ocyurus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odacidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odax, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontaspididæ, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontaspis, i, 534</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontoscion, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontotodontidæ, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Odontotodus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 570</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ogcocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ogcocephalus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a>-553</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 88</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ogilby, i, 408, 416
-    <ul>
-      <li>on ragfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>oil shark, i, 524</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oikopleura, i, 474</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ojanco, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>okose, i, 236, 429; ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>oldwench, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>oldwife, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Old World catfish, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>olfactory lobe,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oligocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oligopleuridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oligopleurus, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oligoplites, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oligorus, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ombre chevalier, ii, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Omosoma, ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Omosudis, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Onchus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Agassiz on, i, 530</li>
-      <li>fin-spine of, i, 509</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oncobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oncottus, i, 317; ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oncolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oncopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oncorhynchus, i, 146, 160, 301, 329, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, 354; ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ontogeny, i, 511</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ontology, i, 63</li>
-  <li class='c017'>oopu, ii, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Onychodontidæ, i, 602, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Onychodus, i, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>opahs, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>taken by Berndt, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-      <li>Farquhar on, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 323</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>opercle, i, 7, 45</li>
-  <li class='c017'>opercula,
-    <ul>
-      <li>used in climbing, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>operculum, ii, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophicephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophidiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophidion, i, 391, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophichthyidæ, i, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophichthus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophiocephalidæ, i, 103, 104; ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophiocephalus, i, 149
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 150</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophiodon, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophioblennius, ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophiopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ophocephalus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opistharthri, i, 509</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthocentrus, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthocœlian, i, 49; ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthocœlous, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthognathidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthomi, i, 611; ii, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a>-542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthomyzon, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Storms on, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opisthonema, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>opisthure, i, 84</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oplegnathus, i, 260</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opsanus, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Opsariichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>optic nerves,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of flounders, ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>orbitophenoid, ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>orca, i, 361, 536</li>
-  <li class='c017'>order,
-    <ul>
-      <li>defined, i, 373</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>organs of the fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>electric, i, 25</li>
-      <li>of hearing, i, 119-121</li>
-      <li>nutritive, i, 29</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orectolobus, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orestias, ii, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oregon lamprey,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 496</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oregon sucker,
-    <ul>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ordovician deposits,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 435</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>origin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of air-bladder, i, 98</li>
-      <li>of fins, i, 62, 64, 67</li>
-      <li>of lungs, i, 98</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>origin of lancelets,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Willey on, i, 484</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orodontidæ, i, 65, 66, 447, 528</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orr,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on external gill, i, 77</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ortmann, i, 238, 256, 270
-    <ul>
-      <li>map of continents, i, 270</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orthacanthus, i, 521</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orthodon, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orthopristis, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orthopsetta, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Orthostœchus, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osbeck, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osbeckia, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osborn,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on extinction of species, i, 239, 442</li>
-      <li>on law of radiation, i, 296</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osmeroides, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_584'>584</span>Osmerus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osphromenidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osphromenus, ii, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ossicles,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Hasse on, i, 96</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostariophysi, i, 120; ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>series of, ii, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>-165</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osteoglossidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osteoglossum, ii, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osteolepis, i, 602-604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osteostraci, i, 568, 571, 573, 590
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 575</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostraciidæ, i, 568
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostracion, i, 206, 373, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>-418
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 16, 376; ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostracodermi, i, 568; ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostracophores, i, 240, 242, 246, 444, 488, 568, 581, 582, 590, 603; ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 444</li>
-      <li>nature of, i, 569</li>
-      <li>order of, i, 573</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ostracophori, i, 462
-    <ul>
-      <li>class of, i, 568, 569</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Osurus, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Otaki, i, 418, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Otodus, i, 538</li>
-  <li class='c017'>otoliths, i, 119-121; 354</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Otsego bass, ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ouananiche, ii, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Overland Monthly,
-    <ul>
-      <li>reference to, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>oviducts, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>oviparous fishes, i, 125</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ovoviviparous fishes, i, 125, 550</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Owen, i, 88, 90, 424, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on swordfish, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Owsjannikow, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Owston,
-    <ul>
-      <li>sharks taken by, i, 534</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxuderces, ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxudercidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxygnathus, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxylabracidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxylabrax, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxylebius, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxyjulis, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxymonacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxynotidæ, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxynotus, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Oxystomus, i, 259</li>
-  <li class='c017'>oyster-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ozorthe, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 9; ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Pachycormidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pachycormus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pachylebias, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pachyrhizodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pachyrhizodus, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pacific Creek, i, 308, 309</li>
-  <li class='c017'>paddle-fish, i, 199, 253, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pagellus, i, 260, 267; ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pagrus, i, 94, 259, 263, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>paired fins,
-    <ul>
-      <li>in Acanthodei, i, 515</li>
-      <li>Balfour on, ii, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-      <li>migration of, i, 75</li>
-      <li>origin of, i, 64</li>
-      <li>Ryder on, i, 66</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>paired limbs,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 81</li>
-      <li>Mivart on, i, 70</li>
-      <li>relation of, i, 69</li>
-      <li>Thacker on, i, 70</li>
-      <li>Gill on, i, 85</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>palæichthyologists, i, 424, 426, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>palæichthyology, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæobalistum, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæoniscidæ, i, 452, 580; ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæoniscum, i, 437, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>Blainville on, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 453; ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>palæontology, evidence of, i, 64</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæorhynchidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæospinax, i, 528</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæospondylidæ, i, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palæospondylus, i, 204, 437, 444, 593, 595, 596
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 591</li>
-      <li>relationships of, i, 593</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>palatines, i, 6</li>
-  <li class='c017'>palatopterygoid arch, ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>palato-quadrate apparatus, i, 508, 509, 523</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palinurichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pallas, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pallasina, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221; ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Palœaspis, i, 575</li>
-  <li class='c017'>palometa, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pampano, i, 210, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>-292
-    <ul>
-      <li>gaff-topsail, ii, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li>
-      <li>great, ii, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li>
-      <li>round, ii, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li>
-      <li>true, ii, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>panai feri, ii, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Panama,
-    <ul>
-      <li>as barrier, i, 270</li>
-      <li>final hypothesis as to, i, 279</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pancreas, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pander, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pan fish, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Panicum, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pantodon, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pantodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pantosteus, i, 304, 316; ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>papagallo, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>papilla, i, 115</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pappichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parabatrachus, i, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paracentropogon, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paracentropristis, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paracirrhites, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>paraglenal, i, 90; ii, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paragobiodon, ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paralabrax, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paralepidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paralichthys, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, figured, i, 83; ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paraliparis, i, 202, 219; ii, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paramia, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paranguilla, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paranthias, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paraphyllodus, ii, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parapristipoma, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parapegasus, ii, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parapercis, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parasilurus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>parasites of fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>crustaceans, i, 340</li>
-      <li>figures illustrating, i, 341-344</li>
-      <li>fungi, i, 353</li>
-      <li>Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348</li>
-      <li>hosts of, i, 343</li>
-      <li>internal, i, 342</li>
-      <li>protozoans, i, 342</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>parasitic diseases,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gurley on, i, 342</li>
-      <li>Linton on, i, 343</li>
-      <li>Megnin on, i, 343</li>
-      <li>Railliet on, i, 343</li>
-      <li>Stiles on, i, 343</li>
-      <li>Ward on, i, 343</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_585'>585</span>parasitic fungi, i, 353</li>
-  <li class='c017'>parasitic worms,
-    <ul>
-      <li>acanthocephala, i, 344</li>
-      <li>cestodes, i, 344</li>
-      <li>an article of food, i, 351</li>
-      <li>nematodes, i, 344</li>
-      <li>trematodes, i, 344</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paratrachichthys, i, 439; ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Paraxus, i, 517</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pareioplitæ, ii, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>-458</li>
-  <li class='c017'>parental affection in fishes, i, 166, 167</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parexocœtus, ii, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>parent-stream theory, ii, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parequula, ii, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pargo criollo, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pargo de lo alto, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pargo guachinango, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pargos, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Park, i, 393</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parker, i, 90, 428, 594; ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Chimæras, i, 563</li>
-      <li>on hearing of fishes, i, 121, 122</li>
-      <li>optic nerve of flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></li>
-      <li>on soles, ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parnell, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parophrys, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parr, ii, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Parra, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>parrot-fish, i, 21; ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 330; ii, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a></li>
-      <li>jaws of, figured, i, 30; ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-      <li>pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>parts of skeleton, i, 35</li>
-  <li class='c017'>paru, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Patæcidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Patæcus, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>patao, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Patten, i, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Ostracophores, i, 569</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pesce re, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>peacock flounders, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pearlfish, i, 84, 159; ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 522, 523</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pêche prêtre, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peck, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pecten, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pectoral fin, i, 10, 521
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Chiloscyllium, i, 66</li>
-      <li>of codfish, i, 66</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 57, 66</li>
-      <li>Gegenbaur on, i, 66, 67</li>
-      <li>of Heptranchias, i, 57</li>
-      <li>origin of, i, 67</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pectoral limb, i, 50
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Dipnoan, i, 60</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 85</li>
-      <li>Kerr on, i, 61</li>
-      <li>in shark, i, 60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>peculiar,
-    <ul>
-      <li>jaws and teeth, i, 201</li>
-      <li>larval forms, i, 142</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pediculates, i, 51, 206, 207, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a>-553</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pegador,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pegapega, ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pegasidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pegasus, i, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>peixe rey, ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pelagic fishes, i, 245
-    <ul>
-      <li>vertebræ in, i, 209</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelamis, i, 364</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelargorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelates, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelecanus, i, 345</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelecopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pelican,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fish parasites in, i, 345</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pelican-eel, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pellegrin, i, 412
-    <ul>
-      <li>on poisonous fishes, i, 182-184</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pelor, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peltacephalata, i, 568</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pelvic girdle, i, 42</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pempheridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pempheris, ii, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>penfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Penella, i, 242</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pennant, i, 396
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parental affection in fishes, i, 166</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pentacerotidæ,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c009'><sup>[14]</sup></a> ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This family should stand as <em>Histiopteridæ</em>, the name <em>Pentaceros</em>, <em>Pentacerotidæ</em>, being used earlier
-for starfishes.</p>
-</div>
-
-<ul class='index'>
-  <li class='c017'>pentadactyle limb, i, 79</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pentapus, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peprilus, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 18; ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Perca, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>brain of, i, 111</li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percalates, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percarina, ii, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percesoces, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>perches, i, 21, 209, 290, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>brain of, figured, i, 111</li>
-      <li>European, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li>
-      <li>everglade pigmy, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-      <li>white, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-      <li>yellow, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percidæ, i, 209, 248, 290, 406; ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percilia, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percina, ii, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percis, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percoidea, ii, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>-315</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percoidei, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>percoid fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>-315</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percomorphi, ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>-271, 365, 397, 398, 426
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percophidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percopsidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Percopsis, i, 316; ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>periblast, i, 136</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Periophthalmus, i, 117; ii, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 118; ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peristediidæ, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peristedion, i, 219
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 299; ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>peritoneum, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Permian, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>sharks from, i, 517</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Perugia, i, 412</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pescado azul, ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pescadillo del red, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pescado blanco, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 217, 329</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pescado del rey, ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pesce rey, ii, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petalodontidæ, i, 531
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 554</li>
-      <li>teeth of, figured, i, 555</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petalodus, i, 554</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petalopteryx, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Peters, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>peto, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petromyzon, i, 132, 142, 357, 372, 391, 490, 618
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 491</li>
-      <li>mouth figured, i, 492</li>
-      <li>head of, figured, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petromyzonidæ, i, 290, 373, 490</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Petroscirtes, ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pez ciego, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_586'>586</span>pez del rey,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pez de pluma, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pez puerco, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phæbodus, i, 522</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phanerodon, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phaneropleuron, i, 612
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 613</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phanerosteon, i, 580</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phareodus, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figures of, ii, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-59</li>
-      <li>fossils of, ii, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pharyngeals, i, 5, 48
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 47</li>
-      <li>of Italian parrot-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-      <li>of parrot-fish, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-      <li>use in voice, i, 121</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pharyngeal teeth,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figured, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pharyngognathi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Philippi, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Philypnus, ii, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pholidophoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pholidophorus, ii, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pholidurus, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pholis, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>phosphorescent groups, i, 187</li>
-  <li class='c017'>phosphorescent organs,
-    <ul>
-      <li>artificial stimulation of, i, 191</li>
-      <li>chemical action in, i, 196</li>
-      <li>cross-section of, i, 193</li>
-      <li>Greene on, i, 194, 196, 197</li>
-      <li>Lendenfeld on, i, 194, 195</li>
-      <li>of Porichthys, i, 194</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>photophores, i, 187, 189</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phoxinus, ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phractolamidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phrynorhombus, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phtheirichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phthinobranchii, i, 227-240</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phyllodus, ii, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phyllolepidæ, i, 584</li>
-  <li class='c017'>phylogeny, i, 63, 79</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phylopteryx, ii, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Phylyctænaspis, i, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Physoclysti, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>physostome, ii, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Physostomi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>picarel, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pickerel, i, 4; ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pigfish, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pigmentation, i, 226
-    <ul>
-      <li>effect of spirits on, i, 235</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pigmy sunfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pike, i, 209, 239, 250, 290, 304, 328, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 203, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li>
-      <li>skeleton of, i, 203</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pike-perch, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pilchard, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pilot-fish, i, 63; ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pimelodus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pimelometopon, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pineal organ, i, 111
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 112</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pine-cone-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 16; ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pinfish, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ping, ii, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pinguipedidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pink, ii, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pintado, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pipefish, i, 64, 128, 440
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pirate-perch, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pisces, i, 393, 588
-    <ul>
-      <li>characteristics of, i, 506</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Piso, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>placoderm, i, 462, 584, 590, 591, 593</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Placodermi, i, 568, 622, 623</li>
-  <li class='c017'>placoid scales, i, 21</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Placopharynx, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>lower pharyngeal figured, ii, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plagioscion, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plagiostomi, i, 507</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plagiuri, i, 392</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plagyodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plagyodus, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>plaice, ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>plaice tribe, ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pla-kat, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platacidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platax, i, 240, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platophrys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 174, 175</li>
-      <li>larval form, i, 174</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platophrys, ii, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>larval stages of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platycephalidæ, i, 267
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platycephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platycormus, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platyglossus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platyptera, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platysomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platysomus, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 452</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platystacus, i, 128; ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Platyurus, i, 364</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Playfair, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plecoglossus, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 321; ii, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>plectognath fishes, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectognathi, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>series of, ii, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectognaths, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectospondyli, ii, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>plectospondylous, i, 48</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectromus, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plectropoma, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plesiops, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plethodus, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuracanthus, i, 65, 66, 204, 437, 510, 511, 513
-    <ul>
-      <li>diphycercal tail of, i, 80</li>
-      <li>figures of, i, 74, 519, 520</li>
-      <li>headbones and teeth of, figured, i, 520</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleurocanthidæ, i, 519, 520, 522, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleurogrammus, i, 209
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuronectidæ, i, 290
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuronectinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuronectes, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuronichthys, i, 206, 257; ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 441</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuropholis, ii, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pleuropterygii, i, 513, 514, 518</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plioplarchus, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plotosidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plotosus, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Plumier, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pneumatosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Podopteryx, ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Podothecus, ii, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pond-skipper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 118; ii, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pœcilia, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pœciliidæ, 22, 125; ii, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 126</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pœcilodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Poey, i, 376, 415
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 413</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pogonias, i, 595; ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pogonichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>poison fishes, i, 180-185, 236
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 229; ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>poison glands, ii, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>in catfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_587'>587</span>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>poisonous fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>diseases arising from, i, 183</li>
-      <li>varieties of, i, 180, 182, 183</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polistotrema,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 489</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pollachius, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pollack,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pollard, i, 595, 600</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polycentridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polyclinidæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polydactylus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polygnathus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 486</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polymixia, i, 122; ii, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polymixiidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polynemidæ, i, 122; 11, 215, 224</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polynemus, i, 393</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polyodon, i, 199, 253, 302, 452, 534, 566, 622, 623; ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polyodontidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polyospondyli, i, 509, 530, 561</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polypteridæ, i, 602, 605
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, i, 608</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polypterus, i, 76, 79, 88, 89, 204, 450, 600, 601, 603, 606, 616; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 79, 602, 607</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, figured, i, 600</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polyrhizodus, i, 555</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Polystylidæ, i, 476</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomacentridæ, i, 206, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>organs of smell in, i, 115</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomacentrus, i, 235; ii, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomadasis, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomatomidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomatomus, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 324</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pomfret, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomolobus, i, 300; ii, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 455; ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomotis, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pomoxis, i, 302; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pompon, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pond-skipper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 118</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pond-smelt, ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>poolfishes, i, 159</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pope, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>poppy-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Popular Science Monthly,
-    <ul>
-      <li>reference to, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>porbeagle, i, 537</li>
-  <li class='c017'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">porc des rivières</span>, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>porcupine-fish, i, 19, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17; ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>porgy, i, 239; ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>varieties of, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Porichthys, i, 121, 190, 191, 192; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 23; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-      <li>Greene on, i, 190; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-      <li>luminous organs of, i, 172</li>
-      <li>phosphorescent organs of, i, 191</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>porkfish, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>portal vein, i, 108</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Portheus, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>skeleton of, ii, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Port Jackson shark,
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>portugais, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Portuguese man-of-war,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 160</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Porcus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>postembryonic development of fishes, i, 132</li>
-  <li class='c017'>posterior limbs, i, 53</li>
-  <li class='c017'>postero-temporal, i, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>post-temporal, i, 88, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Potamorrhaphis, ii, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Powrie, i, 424</li>
-  <li class='c017'>predatory fishes, i, 116; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>premaxillary,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 55</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>preopercle, i, 45</li>
-  <li class='c017'>preservation of fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Günther on, i, 431</li>
-      <li>methods of, i, 431, 432</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Priacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Priacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pribilof sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Priem, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>priestfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_430'>430</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prime,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on crab-eater as game fish, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>primitive fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>brain of, i, 112</li>
-      <li>skeleton of, i, 54</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>primitive herring-like fishes, i, 454</li>
-  <li class='c017'>primitive sharks, i, 511
-    <ul>
-      <li>orders of, i, 513</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prionace, i, 542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prionodus, i, 488</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prionodes, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prionotus, i, 246; ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prionurus, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Priscacara, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristipoma, i, 375</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristididæ, i, 549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristodontidæ, i, 555</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristiophoridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 548, 549</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristiophorus, i, 199
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 201, 548</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristis, i, 199, 548
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 200</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pristiurus, i, 70</li>
-  <li class='c017'>proach, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Proantigonia, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Proballostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>problem of highest fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gill on, i, 383</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>problem of Oatka Creek, i, 282</li>
-  <li class='c017'>process of natural selection, i, 297, 302</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prochanos, ii, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prognathodes, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Progymnodon, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prolebias, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Promethichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Promicrops, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pronephros, i, 619; ii, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pronotocanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Propristis, i, 550</li>
-  <li class='c017'>propterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prosarthri, i, 509, 526</li>
-  <li class='c017'>proscapula, i, 89</li>
-  <li class='c017'>prosencephalon, i, 109
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 111</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protamia, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protaulopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>protection,
-    <ul>
-      <li>through poisonous flesh, i, 182</li>
-      <li>of young, i, 128</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>protective,
-    <ul>
-      <li>coloration, i, 226</li>
-      <li>markings, i, 228</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Proteus, i, 600</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protocatostomus, ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>protocercal tail, i, 81, 598
-    <ul>
-      <li>Wyman on, i, 81</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protochordata, i, 460-466</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protonotacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protopterus, i, 82, 85, 100, 204, 450, 613, 616, 617
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 622</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_588'>588</span>Protoselachii, i, 523</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protosphyræna, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protosphyrænidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prostospondyli, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Protosyngnathus, ii, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Prototroctes, i, 252; ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>protozoan parasites, i, 342</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Provençal i, 95</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psammobatis, i, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psammodus, i, 558, 559</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psammosteidæ, i, 574</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psenes, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psenopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psephodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psephurus, i, 199, 253, 452, 622, 623
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psettidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psettus, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudecheneis, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudeleginus, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudobagrus, ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudoberyx, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudoblennius, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pseudobranch, ii, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pseudobranchiæ, i, 92</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudocheilinus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudochromipidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudogaleus, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudojulis, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudolabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudomonacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudopleuronectes, i, 174; ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>larval figures of, i, 176; ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudopriacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudorhombus, ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudoscaphirhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudoscarus, i, 329; ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 330</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudosciæna, i, 169; ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudotriakidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 536</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudotriakis, i, 536</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudovomer, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudogobio, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pseudupeneus, ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 122, 329; ii, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psychrolutes, i, 219; ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221; ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Psychromaster, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteraclidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteraclis, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteraspidæ, i, 570</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteraspis, i, 569, 571, 591, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 575</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterichthyodes, i, 444, 622
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 576</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterichthys, i, 581</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterogobius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterois, i, 180, 202; ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterophryne, ii, <a href='#Page_550'>550</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_550'>550</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteroplatea, i, 556</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteropsaridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pteropsaron,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterothrissidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>described, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterothrissus, ii, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterophryne,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 52</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pterygials, ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pterygocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pterygoid, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptilichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptilichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptychochelius, i, 164, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 162</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptychoderidæ, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptychodus, i, 557</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptycholepis, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ptychopterygium, i, 510, 512</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ptychodus, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pudding-wife, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pudiano, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>puffer, inflated,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>puffers, i, 206, 236;
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a></li>
-      <li>silver, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-      <li>tiger, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>pugnacity of fishes, i, 162</li>
-  <li class='c017'>pug-nosed eel, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Putnam, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pycnodonti, ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pycnodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pycnodus, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pygæidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pygæus, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pygidiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pygopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pygosteus, ii, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>pyloric cæca, i, 26, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pyrosoma, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Pyrosomidæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c003'>quadrate, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Quassilabia, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Quensel, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Querimana, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>questions,
-    <ul>
-      <li>by Agassiz, i, 284</li>
-      <li>by Cope, i, 288</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>quiescent fishes, i, 158</li>
-  <li class='c017'>quillfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>the, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>quinnat salmon, i, 150, 301; ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-76
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 354; ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-      <li>young male figured, i, 355</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>rabbit-fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rabirubia, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rachycentridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rachycentron, ii, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rafinesque, i, 395; ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on imaginary garpike, i, 364, 366</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ragfishes, the, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Ogilby on, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rainbow darter, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rainbow trout, ii, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>-98, 100
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 326; ii, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Raja, i, 72, 129, 391, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 448, 552</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rajidæ, i, 551, 553</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ranicipitidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rangeley trout, ii, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 326</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Raniceps, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ranzania, i, 84, 412
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rapp, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rascasio, ii, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ratfish, i, 564</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rathke, i, 428; ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rat-tail, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ray, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ray, i, 9, 24, 35, 117, 508, 509, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>electric organs of, i, 186</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>razor-back sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>razor-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>recognition marks, i, 7, 231, 232</li>
-  <li class='c017'>records of fishes, i, 433</li>
-  <li class='c017'>red charr, ii, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red drum,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>redeye, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Redfield, i, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>redfin, ii, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Redfieldius, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>redfish, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_589'>589</span>red goatfish, ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 329</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red grouper, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red hind, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red-mouth grunt, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red mullet, ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red mumea, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red parrot-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red porgy, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red rockfish, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red rock-trout, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, i, 214</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red tai, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>red-throated trout, ii, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red voraz, ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>red wrasse, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Reed, ii, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on trout-fishing, ii, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Regalecidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 472</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Regalecus, i, 361; ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 362, 363</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Regan, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Teleostomi, i, 622, 623</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Règnè Animal, i, 400</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Reighard, i, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on lampreys, i, 491</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Reinhardt, i, 410; ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 409</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Reinhardtius, ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Reis, i, 427, 428, 571</li>
-  <li class='c017'>relations of fish faunas,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Japan and Mediterranean, i, 270</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>relationships,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Chimæras, i, 563</li>
-      <li>of Palæspondylus, i, 593, 595</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>relation of vertebræ to temperature, i, 202</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Remora, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Remorina, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Remoropsis, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Remsberg,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 362</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Renard, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>reproduction of lost parts, i, 150</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Requins, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>resemblances of fish faunas, i, 259, 260</li>
-  <li class='c017'>respiration, i, 91-108</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Retropinna, i, 252; ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Retzius, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhabdofario, ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhacochilus, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhacolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhadinichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhamphognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhamphocottidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhamphocottus, ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhamphosidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhamphosus, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhegnopteri,
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rheopresbe, i, 256; ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhina, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, i, 547</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhineastes, ii, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinellidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinellus, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhineodon, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhineodontidæ, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinesomus, i, 377</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinichthys, i, 283, 307
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 342; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinidæ, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinobatidæ, i, 551
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 550</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinobatis, i, 553
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 551</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinochimæra, i, 199, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinochimæridæ, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinoptera, i, 557</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhinotriacis, i, 541</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhipidistia, i, 602</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhizodontidæ, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhizodopsis, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhodeus, i, 129; ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhombochirus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhomboganoidea, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhomboplites, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhombus, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhyacichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhyacichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhynchias, ii, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhynchobdella, ii, <a href='#Page_532'>532</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhynchodus, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rhynchorhinus, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ribbon-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#Page_475'>475</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_475'>475</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rice-field eels, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Richardson, i, 408, 418; ii, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on whitefish, i, 322</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Richardson's sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rio Grande trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Risso, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rissola,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ritter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on ascidians, i, 474</li>
-      <li>on Enteropneusta, i, 464</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-bullhead,
-    <ul>
-      <li>spawning of, i, 166</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-drum, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>dispersion of, i, 297-319</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-ruff, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-sculpin, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-sheepshead, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-trout, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>river-wolf, ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rivulus, i, 314</li>
-  <li class='c017'>roach, ii, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>robalito, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>robalo, the, i, 320, 355
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Roccus, i, 291, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>bones of, i, 35</li>
-      <li>cranium of, i, 36-39</li>
-      <li>figures of, i, 35-39, 46, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Roche, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-bass, i, 4; ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-      <li>skull of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-beauty, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-cod, i, 203; ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-cook, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rockfish, i, 94, 125, 159; ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 218</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-hind, i, 19; ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 29</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rocklings, i, 209; ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a>, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-pilots, the, ii, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-pool fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 294</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rock-skipper, ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_509'>509</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rocky Mountains,
-    <ul>
-      <li>barriers to dispersion, i, 305</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rohon, i, 427, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>romero, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>roncador, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ronco amarilla, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ronco arará, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rondelet, i, 361, 388
-    <ul>
-      <li>on sea-monster, i, 360</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rondeletiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ronquilus, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ronquils, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rosefishes, i, 125; ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rosenthal, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>rothfisch, ii, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rough-headed sea-robin, ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>roundfish, ii, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>round-herring, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_590'>590</span>round-minnow,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>round-robin, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rousettes, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rudarius,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 241</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>rudder-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>runners, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rüppell, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rusconi,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on external gills, i, 77</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Russell, i, 396; ii, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>rusty-dab, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rutilus, ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rutter, i, 422; ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>photograph by, i, 355</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ruvettus, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ryder, i, 408, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on embryos, i, 64</li>
-      <li>on nest-building, ii, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a></li>
-      <li>on paired limbs, i, 66</li>
-      <li>on tail forms, i, 81, 84</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Rypticus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>saboti, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saccopharynx, ii, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sacramento perch, i, 179
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 258</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sagenodus, i, 613</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sailfish, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sailor-fish, i, 199</li>
-  <li class='c017'>St. Ambrose, ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Thymallus, ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>St. Hilaire, i, 396, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>St. John, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salangidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salanx, i, 146; ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 147; ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sälbling, ii, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salar, ii, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salarias, i, 208, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a>, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>salema, ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salmo, i, 291, 304, 305, 316-318, 332, 345, 346, 378, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>-96, 98
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 326; ii, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>-106</li>
-      <li>general description, ii, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-      <li>tail of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon, i, 21, 25, 28, 39, 53, 146, 204, 209, 249, 256, 290, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>-69, 94, 107, 128, 159
-    <ul>
-      <li>artificial propagation of, ii, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-      <li>ascent of cascades, ii, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-      <li>Callbreath on, ii, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-      <li>colors of, ii, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-      <li>family of, i, 61-119</li>
-      <li>habits in ocean, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-      <li>method of descent of stream, ii, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-      <li>mutilation of, ii, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-      <li>nest of, ii, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-      <li>packing of, ii, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
-      <li>scales of, i, 21</li>
-      <li>sexual distortion in, i, 129</li>
-      <li>spawning changes in, ii, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-      <li>spawning of, ii, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>-80</li>
-      <li>spring running, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-      <li>white-meated, ii, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-      <li>of Yukon, i, 73</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmonete, i, 329
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon fishery,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Japan, ii, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
-      <li>output of, ii, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon fry,
-    <ul>
-      <li>liberation of, ii, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
-      <li>marking of, ii, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salmonidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-119, 127, 130, 161, 190</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salmonoidea, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmonoids, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon pack,
-    <ul>
-      <li>estimate of, ii, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon roe, ii, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon shark, i, 447, 537</li>
-  <li class='c017'>salmon trout, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salmopercæ, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-249
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salpa, i, 477; ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salpidæ, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salvelini, ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Salvelinus, i, 282, 306, 307, 311; ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>-110, 112-114
-    <ul>
-      <li>description of, ii, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 326; ii, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>samarang, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Samaris, ii, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>samlet,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sancassini, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sandalodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-dab, ii, <a href='#Page_491'>491</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-darter, ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 158; ii, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sandfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-lance,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-pike, ii, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-roller,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sandroserrus, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sandrus, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sandstone,
-    <ul>
-      <li>fragment figured, i, 435</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-sucker, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sand-whiting, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>San Pedro fish, ii, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>São Paulo, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saprolegnia, i, 353; ii, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>surface on, i, 354</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sarcastic blenny,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_507'>507</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sarda, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sardinella, i, 204, 327, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sardines, i, 199, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sardinia, i, 204</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sardiniodes, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sardinius, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sargassum fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 52; ii, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sargo, ii, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sars, ii, <a href='#Page_535'>535</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>saucer-eye porgy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sauger,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sauripterus, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saurocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saurodon, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saurodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sauropsida, i, 601</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sauropsis, ii, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saurorhynchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Saurorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>saury,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sausolele,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sauvage, i, 412, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>savalo, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sawfish, i, 199, 548
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 550</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>saw-shark, i, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 201, 548</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>scabbard-fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scænidæ, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>scales of fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>classification of, i, 20</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 21, 22</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>scamp, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scapanorhinus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>snout figured, i, 536</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scaphirhynchus, i, 253, 452; ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scardinius, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scaridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scaridea, ii, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scartichthys,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 294; ii, <a href='#Page_510'>510</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scarus, ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a></li>
-      <li>jaws of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_591'>591</span>pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scatophagus, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scaumenacia, i, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schedophilus, ii, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schilbiosus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 179</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schilbeodes, i, 180, 202; ii, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-      <li>structure of, ii, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schizocardium, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schlegel, i, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schmidt, i, 411</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schnäbel, ii, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schnapper, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schneider, i, 398</li>
-  <li class='c017'>schoolmaster, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>schoolmaster-snapper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 440</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schomburgk, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Schöpf, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sciæna, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-358</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sciænidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>-355, 358</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sciænops, ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sclerodermi, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>scleroderms, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scoliodon, i, 542</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scolopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scomber, i, 94, 210, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 332; ii, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scomberoides, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scomberomorus, i, 210, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scomberosomus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 322</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scomberidea, ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombramphodon, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombresox, ii, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 212</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombridæ, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>scombriform fishes, i, 209</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombrinus, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombroclupea, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombroidea,
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombroidei, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>scombroids, ii, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombropidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scombrops, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>scopeloid, ii, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scopelus, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scophthalmus, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scopoli, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpæna, i, 180, 211, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 433, 434</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpænichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>skull of, figured, i, 427</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpænidæ, i, 94, 207, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 426, 448</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpænopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpænopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scorpis, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>scorpion-fishes, i, 207, 429; ii, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scudder, i, 405</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sculpin, i, 21, 219, 257, 290, 429, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>-449
-    <ul>
-      <li>buffalo, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-      <li>daddy, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-      <li>eighteen-spined, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-      <li>great, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a></li>
-      <li>little, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-      <li>long-horned, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-      <li>Pribilof, ii, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a></li>
-      <li>red, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-      <li>Richardson's, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-      <li>river, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-      <li>sleek, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-      <li>stone, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>scup, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>scutes, i, 570</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scuticaria, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scymnorhinus, i, 546</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scyliorhinidæ, i, 127, 532, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scyliorhinoid shark,
-    <ul>
-      <li>skull of, figured, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scyliorhinus, i, 447, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scyphophori, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scytalina,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Scytalinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_519'>519</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-bass, i, 135; ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 137</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-bat, ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-catfish, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, hatched in mouth, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-devil, i, 559; ii, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-drum, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-horse, i, 19, 64, 128; ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 236</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Seale, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-mink, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-moth, ii, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-poacher, i, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-raven,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 220; ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-robin, i, 246; ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a></li>
-      <li>rough-headed, ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-      <li>striped, ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-scorpion, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-serpent, i, 361; ii, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-snail, i, 217; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-trout, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea-waifs, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sea weed, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sebago, ii, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastapistes, ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastes, i, 125, 211; ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 218; ii, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastiscus, ii, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastodes, i, 125, 211, 219, 375; ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>-433, 438
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, i, 214</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastolobus, i, 52-55, 211
-    <ul>
-      <li>cranium of, i, 53</li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a></li>
-      <li>lower jaw of, i, 54</li>
-      <li>maxillary of, i, 55</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 52</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sebastopsis, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sectator, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Seeley, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Segemehl, i, 97</li>
-  <li class='c017'>segments of Dibothrium figured, ii, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>selachians, i, 572, 592</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selachii, i, 382, 507-509; ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selachostomi, i, 623; ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selenaspis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>clavicle of, i, 87</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 86</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selene, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>development of, figured, i, 148</li>
-      <li>Lütken on, i, 144</li>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, i, 55</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selenichthyes, ii, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-249
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selenosteus, i, 588</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Selenosteidæ, i, 587</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semicossyphus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semionotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semionotus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_592'>592</span>Semiophoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semiophorus, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semon, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Semotilus, i, 282; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 285; ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>señorita, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sense organs, i, 115-123</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sense of pain, i, 123</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sense of taste, i, 121</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sense of touch, i, 121</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sensorium, i, 153</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sensory nerves, i, 153</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sergeant Baker, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sergeant-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Seriola, ii, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 459; ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Seriphus, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>serran, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Serrana, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Serranellus, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Serranidæ, i, 206, 209, 259, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>serrano, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Serranus, ii, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Serrasalmo, ii, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sertulariæ, ii, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sese de lo alto, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sesele, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Setarches, ii, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>setiform, i, 30</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sexual coloration, i, 230</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sexual modification,
-    <ul>
-      <li>in colors, i, 129</li>
-      <li>in structure, i, 129</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shad, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>shad waiter, ii, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>shagreen grains, i, 570</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sharks, i, 21, 23, 24, 28, 53, 75, 445, 446, 519, 523, 542, 543, 545, 546
-    <ul>
-      <li>air-bladder wanting in, i, 506</li>
-      <li>distribution of, i, 459</li>
-      <li>eggs of, i, 127, 433</li>
-      <li>fossil teeth of, i, 546</li>
-      <li>jaws of, i, 35</li>
-      <li>pectoral limbs of, i, 60, 66</li>
-      <li>phosphorescent, i, 189</li>
-      <li>primitive, i, 510, 511</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, i, 507</li>
-      <li>skull of, i, 56, 57</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shark-sucker, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sharp-nosed flying-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Shasta, ii, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Shaw, i, 398</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sheatfish, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sheepshead, i, 30, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 31; ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shibi, ii, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>shiner, i, 283; ii, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shiro-uwo, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Shooter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>head-fish taken by, ii, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shore-fishes, i, 245
-    <ul>
-      <li>distribution of, i, 263-265</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>short-nosed garpike,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 452</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shoulder girdle, i, 42, 50
-    <ul>
-      <li>of batfish, ii, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></li>
-      <li>of buffalo-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 69, 70, 86, 88, 89, 600; ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-      <li>figure of fossil, i, 521</li>
-      <li>of flounder figured, i, 58; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
-      <li>of Ictiobus ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-      <li>inner view of, ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-      <li>of Neoceratodus, i, 609</li>
-      <li>of Opah figured, ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-      <li>of Polypterus, i, 70</li>
-      <li>of Sebastolobus figured, i, 52</li>
-      <li>in sharks, i, 507</li>
-      <li>in true eel, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>shovel-nosed sturgeon i, 253</li>
-  <li class='c017'>shrimp, ii, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>shrimpfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Shufeldt,
-    <ul>
-      <li>photographs by, i, 7, 13, 137; ii, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siebold, i, 411, 414</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sierra, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siganidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siganus, ii, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sight organs, i, 116-118</li>
-  <li class='c017'>significance,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of resemblance, i, 259</li>
-      <li>of rare forms, i, 262</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sillaginidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sillago, ii, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silk-snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siluridæ, i, 149, 205, 280, 290, 293; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>siluroid, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Silurus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silverfin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 457; ii, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-jaw minnow, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-jenny, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-king, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-perch, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silversides, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver surf-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 309; ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>silver-tail, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>silvery anchovy,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>silvery puffer,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Simenchelyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Simenchelys, ii, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sindo, i, 418, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>singing-fish, i, 121
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 23; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-      <li>species of, ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siniperca, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sinus impar, i, 120</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sinus venosus, i, 108</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siphonognathidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siphonognathus, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Siphonostoma, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sirembo, ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sirenoidei, i, 612
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 613</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sisco, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>siscowet, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sisoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>skates, i, 28, 551, 552</li>
-  <li class='c017'>skeleton of cowfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>skeleton of fish, i, 10, 34-61
-    <ul>
-      <li>of cowfish, i, 215</li>
-      <li>of Chimæra, i, 564</li>
-      <li>parts of, i, 35, 36</li>
-      <li>primitive, i, 54</li>
-      <li>of pike figured, i, 203</li>
-      <li>of red rockfish, i, 214</li>
-      <li>of Selene figured, i, 55</li>
-      <li>of shark, i, 57</li>
-      <li>of spiny-rayed fish, i, 214</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>skilfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>skin-peeler, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>skipjack, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>skippers,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Couch on, ii, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>skipping-goby, i, 117</li>
-  <li class='c017'>skittle-dogs, i, 545</li>
-  <li class='c017'>skull,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Anarrhichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-      <li>autostylic, i, 57</li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-      <li>of haddock, ii, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a></li>
-      <li>hyostylic, i, 56, 508</li>
-      <li>of rock-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-      <li>of Scorpænichthys figured, ii, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a></li>
-      <li>of shark figured, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sleek-sculpin,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 221; ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_593'>593</span>sleeper-shark, i, 547</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sleepy Argentine, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>slippery Dick, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 297; ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sloane, i, 389</li>
-  <li class='c017'>small-mouthed bass,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 325; ii, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>smear-dab, ii, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>smelt, ii, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>-138
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Smerdis, ii, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Smith, i, 416, 419, 608
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Arctic species, i, 317</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Smitt, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>snailfish, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snake-blennies, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snake-eels, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 233</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>snake-headed China-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 150; ii, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>snake-headed mullets, ii, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>diamond, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-      <li>gray, ii, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-      <li>lane, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-      <li>mahogany, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-      <li>mangrove, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-      <li>mutton, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-      <li>red, ii, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li>
-      <li>silk, ii, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li>
-      <li>true, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-      <li>yellow-tail, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>snipe-eels, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snipefishes, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Snodgrass, i, 422; ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snooks, ii, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>snowy grouper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Snyder, i, 418, 420</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Snyderina,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_437'>437</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>soapfishes, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sobaco, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sockeye, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>soft-rayed fishes, i, 204; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>soi, ii, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>soldados, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Solander, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>soldier-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Solea, i, 327; ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Soleidæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a>,  499</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Soleinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Solenostomidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Solenostomus, i, 128; ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>soles, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>broad, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></li>
-      <li>Day on, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a>, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-      <li>European, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-      <li>habits of, ii, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></li>
-      <li>hog-choker, ii, <a href='#Page_498'>498</a></li>
-      <li>Parker on, ii, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sonnerat, i, 395</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sörensen,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on elastic spring, i, 97</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sounds of fishes, i, 168-170
-    <ul>
-      <li>Bowring on, i, 168</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>soup-fin sharks,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 541</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>southern zone, i, 253</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spadefish, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 325; ii, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spaniodon, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spaniodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spanish-flag, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spanish-mackerel, i, 64, 210, 322
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li>
-      <li>Mitchill on, ii, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sparidæ, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sparisoma, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a></li>
-      <li>jaws figured, i, 30</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sparnodus, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sparus, i, 259, 263, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spathiurus, ii, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spaulding, ii, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>marking of fry by, ii, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>spawning-grounds,
-    <ul>
-      <li>return to, ii, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>spawning of salmon, i, 160</li>
-  <li class='c017'>special creation impossible, i, 295</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spearfish, i, 199; ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>specialized fishes, i, 249</li>
-  <li class='c017'>species, i, 371
-    <ul>
-      <li>absent through barriers, i, 238</li>
-      <li>changed through natural</li>
-      <li>selection, ii, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li>
-      <li>characters of, i, 292</li>
-      <li>conditions favorable to, i, 301</li>
-      <li>extinction of, i, 239</li>
-      <li>meaning of, i, 293, 379</li>
-      <li>special creation, i, 295</li>
-      <li>transfer of, i, 312</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>speckled flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>speckled hind, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>speckled trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 326; ii, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spengel,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Enteropneusta, i, 464</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spengelia, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spengeliidæ, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sperling, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphærodon, i, 268</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphagebranchus, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphagepæa, i, 565</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sphenial, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphenocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spheroides, i, 206; ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>-421
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 420</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphyrænidæ, i, 206
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphyræna, ii, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphyrænodus, ii, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphyrna, i, 543
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 544</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sphyrnidæ, i, 543</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spicara, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spinacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spinacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spinachia, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spinal cord, i, 112</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spineless trunkfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 378; ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>spines of catfish, i, 179</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spiny eels, ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spiny-rayed fishes, i, 21, 206-208; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>skeleton of, figured, i, 214</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>spiracle, i, 92</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spiraculis, i, 393</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spiral valve, i, 32</li>
-  <li class='c017'>splenial, i, 43</li>
-  <li class='c017'>split-tail, ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Spondyliosoma, i, 260, 267; ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spookfishes, i, 564</li>
-  <li class='c017'>spot, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spotted trout, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spotted trunkfish, ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 377; ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>spotted weakfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sprat, i, 204; ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>spring salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squalidæ, i, 531, 543, 545, 546, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squaloraja, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squalorajidæ, i, 566</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squalus, i, 391
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 545</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squamipinnes, ii, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squamipinus, ii, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>-410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>square-tails, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squatina, i, 548
-    <ul>
-      <li>brain of, figured, i, 547</li>
-      <li>pectoral fin figured, i, 56</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Squatinidæ, i, 549, 554</li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_594'>594</span>squawfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 162; ii, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-      <li>spawning journey of, i, 164</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>squeteague, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>squirrel-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stannius, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>star-gazer, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 187, 504</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Starks, C. L.
-    <ul>
-      <li>drawings of fishes i, 36-39</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Starks, E. C., i, 420
-    <ul>
-      <li>on berycoid skull, ii, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li>
-      <li>on fish skeleton, i, 39</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>starry-flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_495'>495</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>star-spined ray,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 448</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stearns, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>steelhead, ii, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>steelhead-trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 327</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steenstrup, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stegocephali, i, 606</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stegostoma, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stegothalami, i, 584
-    <ul>
-      <li>Dean on, i, 585</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steindachnerella, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steindachner, i, 411, 414, 427
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 403</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steindachneria,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steinegeria, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steinegeriidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stelgis,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Steller, i, 395; ii, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on quinnat salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stellifer, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stenodus, ii, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stenotomus, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stephanoberycidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stephanoberyx, ii, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stephanolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 182, 415</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stereobalanus, i, 465</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stereolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sternoptychidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sternoptyx, i, 357; ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stethojulis, ii, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stichæiniæ, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stichæus, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>stickleback, i, 51, 128, 250, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>fighting of, i, 165</li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, ii, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-      <li>spines of, i, 179</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stieda, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stiles,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>stingaree, i, 556</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sting-bull, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>stingfish, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sting-rays, i, 84, 267, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 246, 555</li>
-      <li>spines of, i, 182</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stizostedion, ii, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stolephorus, ii, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stomias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stomiatidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stone, ii, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on rate of travel of salmon, ii, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>stone-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>stone-cats, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>stone-roller, i, 157; ii, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 33; ii, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>stone-sculpin, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>stonewall perch, ii, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>stony-flounder, ii, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Storer, i, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Storms, i, 427
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fossil remora, ii, <a href='#Page_469'>469</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stratodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stratodus, ii, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Strinsia, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>striped-bass, i, 48, 53; ii, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>bones of, i, 39, 45</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 35</li>
-      <li>tail of, i, 49</li>
-      <li>vertebral column of, i, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>striped-mullet,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 330</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>striped sea-robin, ii, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ström, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stromateidæ, i, 160; ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stromateus, i, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sturgeon, i, 128, 204, 250, 257, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-21, 159, 160, 182, 186
-    <ul>
-      <li>child swallowed by, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-      <li>of Danube, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-      <li>larva of, figured, i, 141</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Styela,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 475, 476</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stygicola, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stylephoridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Stylephorus, ii, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>subgenus, i, 373</li>
-  <li class='c017'>suborbital stay, i, 44</li>
-  <li class='c017'>subspecies, i, 294</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sucker, i, 156, 198, 290, 304; ii, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>California, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-      <li>carp, ii, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-      <li>common, ii, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-      <li>figure showing parasites, i, 348</li>
-      <li>Oregon, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-      <li>razor-backed, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sucking-disks,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of clingfish, i, 198</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sucking-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 197; ii, <a href='#Page_468'>468</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Suckley, i, 419</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sudis, ii, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Suez Canal, i, 268</li>
-  <li class='c017'>sukkegh, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Suletind watershed, i, 307</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sulphur, the, i, 408</li>
-  <li class='c017'>summer herring,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 455</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Sunapee trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sunfish, i, 3-15, 28, 209, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>banded, ii, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-      <li>blue-green, i, 26</li>
-      <li>common figured, i, 7; ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-      <li>description of, i, 4</li>
-      <li>dwarf, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 2, 4, 27</li>
-      <li>food of, i, 11</li>
-      <li>long-eared, i, 3; ii, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-      <li>nine-spined, ii, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-      <li>photograph of, i, 13</li>
-      <li>pigmy, ii, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>supraclavicle, i, 89</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Surface,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on destruction of fish, i, 357</li>
-      <li>on lampreys, i, 491-505</li>
-      <li>on Saprolegnia, i, 354-356</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>surf-fish, i, 125, 207, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>blue, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-      <li>silver, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-      <li>thick-lipped, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li>
-      <li>wall-eye, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-      <li>white, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>surf-shiner, ii, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>surf-smelt, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>surf-whiting, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>surgeon-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>lancet of, i, 181</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>surmullets, i, 122, 198, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>-379</li>
-  <li class='c017'>suspensorium of mandible, i, 43</li>
-  <li class='c017'>susuki, i, 324; ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_595'>595</span>Swain, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Swainson, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>swallowers, ii, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Swammerdam, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>swampy watersheds, i, 314</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Swan, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Mesopus, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>sweetfish, ii, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>sweet-perch, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>swell-sharks, i, 197, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>swell-toad, ii, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>swim-bladder, ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>swordfish, i, 169, 199, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>adult, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-      <li>Goode on, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-      <li>Owen on, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li>
-      <li>vessels struck by, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-      <li>young, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>swordtail-minnow,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 124; ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syacium,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syllæmus, ii, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Symbranchia, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Symbranchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Symbranchus, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Symphodus, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Symphurus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_498'>498</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>symplectic bone, ii, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synagrops, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synanceia, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 229</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synaphobranchidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synaphobranchus, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synaptura, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synchiropus, ii, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synechodus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>eggs of, i, 527</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synentognathi, ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>-214
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syngnathidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 236</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syngnathus, i, 170, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synodontis, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Synodus, ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>synonymy and priority,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Coues on, i, 374</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syntegmodus, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Syrski, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Systema Naturæ, i, 373</li>
-  <li class='c003'>Tachysurus, ii, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tænioides, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tæniosomi, ii, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>-480
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tæniotoca, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tæniura, i, 557</li>
-  <li class='c017'>tahanohadai, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tahoe trout,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 327; ii, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tai-fishing,
-    <ul>
-      <li>illustration of, i, 338</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tail forms, i, 49, 50, 80-85</li>
-  <li class='c017'>taiva, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Talisman, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Talismania, ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tamiobatidæ, i, 532</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tamiobatis, i, 551</li>
-  <li class='c017'>tangs, ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tantogolabrus, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tarpon, i, 157, 205; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tarrassiidæ, i, 602</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tarrassius, i, 602</li>
-  <li class='c017'>tarwhine, ii, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tautog, ii, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tautoga, i, 207; ii, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>taxonomy, i, 367, 368</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tectospondyli, i, 448, 510, 513, 519, 545, 549
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, i, 543</li>
-      <li>Woodward on, i, 543</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tectospondylous, i, 49</li>
-  <li class='c017'>teeth, i, 29, 30, 201
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Ceratodus figured, i, 614</li>
-      <li>of Chimæra, i, 562</li>
-      <li>of Corax, i, 543</li>
-      <li>figured, i, 522, 524</li>
-      <li>of Janassa, i, 554</li>
-      <li>of sharks, i, 515, 527, 529, 537</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teleocephali, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teleosteans, i, 384</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teleostei, i, 66, 204, 622, 624; ii, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>sympathetic system of, i, 114</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teleostomes, i, 599</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teleostomi, i, 462, 572, 583, 598, 599, 603
-    <ul>
-      <li>Regan on, i, 622</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>teleosts, i, 35, 135, 139, 141, 204, 569; ii, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Telepholis, ii, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Telescopias, ii, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>teleotemporal, i, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Temnothoraci, i, 584, 586</li>
-  <li class='c017'>temperature,
-    <ul>
-      <li>affecting distribution, i, 242</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tenacity of life in fishes, i, 146, 147, 149</li>
-  <li class='c017'>tench, ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tengudai, ii, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tengusame, i, 534</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ten-pounder, ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 454; ii, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Terapon, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teraponidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tertiary fishes, i, 440</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tertiary ganoids, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tessellated darter,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tessellated teeth, i, 30, 549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetragonolepis, i, 24
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetragonopterus, i, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetragonuridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetragonurus, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetraodon, i, 169, 197, 206, 236, 393, 611; ii, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 183, 244; ii, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetraodontidæ, i, 182; ii, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetrapturus, i, 257; ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetrarhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tetronarce, i, 554</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teuthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teuthididæ, ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Teuthis, i, 268, 271, 293; ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 181; ii, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thacher,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on paired limbs, i, 70</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>thalamencephalon, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thalassoma, i, 207, 267, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thalassophryne, i, 180; ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>poison organ of, ii, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-      <li>structure of, ii, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thalassothia, ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thaleichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 320; ii, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-      <li>sketch of, ii, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thaliacea, i, 477</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thaumaturus, ii, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thelodontidæ, i, 574, 579</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thelodus, i, 570, 573</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Theragra, i, 209
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Therobromus, ii, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thetis, the, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>thick-lipped surf-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 374</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tholichthys, i, 144; ii, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thollière, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thompson, i, 410, 418</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thoracici, i, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thoracies, ii, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thoreau, ii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_596'>596</span>thread-eel, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>threadfins, i, 122; ii, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>threadfish, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>threadhead worms, i, 351</li>
-  <li class='c017'>thread-herring, ii, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>three-forked hake, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>three-spined stickleback,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>thresher-shark, i, 536</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thrissopater, ii, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thrissops, ii, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thryptodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thryptodus, ii, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thunberg, i, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>thunder-pumper, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thunnus, i, 210, 272; ii, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thursius, i, 604</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thwaite shad, ii, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thyestes, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thymallidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thymallus, i, 305; ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thyrsites, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Thyrsitocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tide pools of Misaki,
-    <ul>
-      <li>view of, i, 161</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tiger-puffer, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tiger-sharks, i, 533</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tilapia, ii, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tilefish, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>catastrophe to, ii, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-      <li>Collins on, ii, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-      <li>Gill on, ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tilesius, i, 396, 416</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tinca, i, 345; ii, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tiñosa, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tiphle, ii, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Titanichthyidæ, i, 587</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Titanichthys, i, 583, 587, 589</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Titicaca Lake,
-    <ul>
-      <li>peculiar fish from, ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>toadfish, ii, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Brazilian, ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-      <li>poison, ii, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></li>
-      <li>poison-organs of, i, 180</li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 59</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tomcod, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tomtates, ii, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tongue-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tooth,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of Hybodus, figured, i, 528</li>
-      <li>of Lamnidæ, i, 538</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>topknot, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>top-minnow, i, 118; ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>toque, ii, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>torabuku, ii, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tori, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tornaria,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 463</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>torpedo, i, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 186; ii, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
-      <li>fin rudiments in, i, 71</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>torsk, ii, <a href='#Page_539'>539</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>toto, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>totuava, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Townsend, ii, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tower,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95, 96</li>
-      <li>on weakfish, i, 94</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Toxotes, i, 240, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Toxotidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachicephalus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 456; ii, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachichthys, i, 263; ii, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachidermus, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachinidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a>, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachinotus, i, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachinus, i, 169, 180, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a>, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, ii, <a href='#Page_501'>501</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachosteus, i, 583, 588, 589, 590</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachurops, ii, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachurus, i, 210, 274
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachypteridæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a></li>
-      <li>Goode and Bean on, ii, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachypterus, i, 144; ii, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a></li>
-      <li>Günther on, ii, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trachyrhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trahira, ii, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>transportation of fishes, i, 150</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trautschold, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Traquair, i, 426, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Gnasthome, i, 573</li>
-      <li>on high and low forms, i, 381, 382</li>
-      <li>on Ostracophores, i, 569-571</li>
-      <li>on Palæospondylus, i, 591</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 425</li>
-      <li>on sharks, i, 512</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Traquairia, i, 517</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Travailleur, the, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tree-climber of India,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Daldorf on, i, 163</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>treefish, ii, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tremataspidæ, i, 576</li>
-  <li class='c017'>trematodes, i, 344</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triakis, i, 541</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triacanthidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triacanthodes, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triacanthus, ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichina, i, 352</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichiurichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichiuridæ, i, 210; ii, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichiurides, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichiurus, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichodon,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trichodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trinomial nomenclature, i, 378</li>
-  <li class='c017'>trigger-fishes, i, 440; ii, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 184, 412</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trigla, i, 169, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>air-bladder of, i, 97</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triglidæ, i, 122, 208; ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triglops, ii, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triglopsis, i, 317; ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trigonodon, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triodon, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Triodontidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tripterygian, ii, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tristichopterus, i, 603</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trochocopus, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Troglichthys, i, 220, 222; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tropical fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>species of, i, 271</li>
-      <li>variety among, i, 333</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tropidichthyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tropidichthys, i, 115; ii, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Troschel, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>trout, i, 156, 250, 290, 304, 326, 327; ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>tail figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a></li>
-      <li>of Utah basin, ii, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
-      <li>of Yellowstone, i, 345</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>trout-perch, i, 241, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>trout-spotted darter, ii, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trout-worm, ii, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of head, ii, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-      <li>segments of, figured, ii, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>trucha, ii, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>true eels, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle in, ii, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>true perches, ii, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>true sharks, i, 523-560</li>
-  <li class='c017'>true snapper, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trumpeter, ii, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trumpet-fish, i, 51, 440
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, i, 233</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 234</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>truncate, i, 19</li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_597'>597</span>truncus arteriosus, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>trunkfishes, i, 16, 19, 206, 373, 375, 378, 429; ii, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>-417
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 373, 376, 377</li>
-      <li>horned, ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-      <li>hornless, ii, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a></li>
-      <li>spineless, ii, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a></li>
-      <li>spotted, ii, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Trypauchen, ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tschawytscha, ii, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tschudi, i, 415</li>
-  <li class='c017'>tsuzume, ii, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tullibee, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>tunicates, i, 460, 462, 467-481
-    <ul>
-      <li>adult, figured, i, 480</li>
-      <li>anatomy, figured, i, 472</li>
-      <li>Kingsley on, i, 467, 468, 469</li>
-      <li>larva, figured, i, 471</li>
-      <li>Ritter on, i, 474</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tunny, i, 19, 210
-    <ul>
-      <li>great, ii, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>turbots, i, 206, 328; ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>tribe, the, ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Turner,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Dallia, ii, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Turton, i, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tutuila Island,
-    <ul>
-      <li>lizard skipper from, i, 230</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Twin Lakes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>trout of, i, 241</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307, 308, 309, 310
-    <ul>
-      <li>Evermann on, i, 307</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>tyee, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Tylosurus, i, 128
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li>
-      <li>shoulder-girdle of, i, 59</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Typhlichthys, i, 220, 314; ii, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 116; ii, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Typhlogobius, i, 198; ii, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Typodus, ii, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>uku, i, 325; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ulæma, i, 271</li>
-  <li class='c017'>ulchen, ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 320; ii, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Umbra, i, 253; ii, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Umbridæ, i, 290; ii, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Umbrina, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>umiuma, i, 429</li>
-  <li class='c017'>uncertain conclusions, i, 79</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Undina, i, 204, 605</li>
-  <li class='c017'>unicorn-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>U. S. Fish Commission, ii, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Upeneus, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Upham,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on glacial effects, i, 275</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>upland fishes, i, 311</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uranidea, ii, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a>, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uranoplosus, ii, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uranoscopus, i, 259, 260, 393; ii, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uranoscopidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>, <a href='#Page_504'>504</a>, <a href='#Page_506'>506</a>, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urenchelyidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urenchelys, ii, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ureters, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urochordata, i, 460</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urodela, i, 76</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urolophus, i, 555-557</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uronemidæ, i, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uronemus, i, 612</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urophycis, i, 187; ii, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Uropterygius, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>urosome, i, 84, 85</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urosphen, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Urosphenidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>urostyle, i, 84</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Usinosita, ii, <a href='#Page_498'>498</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>uu, i, 162</li>
-  <li class='c003'>vaca, i, 235; ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vahl, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vaillant, i, 412
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 413</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valenciennellus, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valenciennes, i, 401, 404</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valenciennesia, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valentyn, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valisneri, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Valisneria, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Van Dyke, ii, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Ouananiche, ii, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>vaqueta de dos colores, ii, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>variability of instinct,
-    <ul>
-      <li>Whitman on, i, 156</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>variation in colors, i, 235</li>
-  <li class='c017'>variation in fin-rays, i, 211</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Variola, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vasa efferentia, ii, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vas deferens, i, 28</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Velifer, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vellitor, i, 260; ii, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vendace, ii, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>venomous spines,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of catfish, i, 179</li>
-      <li>of scorpion-fish, i, 180</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>ventral fins, i, 10</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Venustodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Verasper, ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>ver blanc, i, 351</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Verilus, ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vertebræ, i, 203, 205</li>
-  <li class='c017'>vertebræ in fishes, i, 212
-    <ul>
-      <li>Boulenger on, i, 213</li>
-      <li>figure of, i, 510</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>vertebral column, i, 46-48
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>vertebral column,
-    <ul>
-      <li>of lancelet, i, 55</li>
-      <li>of Roccus, i, 48</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>verrugato, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vessels engaged in fish-collecting, i, 408, 410</li>
-  <li class='c017'>villiform teeth, i, 29</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vinciguerra, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 413</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vinciguerria, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vinson,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Gourami, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Violante, the, i, 408; ii, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>viper-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vireosa, ii, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>viscera of fish, i, 26, 28</li>
-  <li class='c017'>viviparous fishes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 125, 126, 222; ii, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>viviparous perch,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>voices of fishes, i, 121</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vogmar, ii, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vogt, i, 428</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Volador, ii, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vomer, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>vomer, i, 6</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Vomeropsis, ii, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>wachna cod, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wagner, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Waha Lake, ii, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Waite, i, 408, 416
-    <ul>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 409</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Walbaum, i, 397; ii, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Walcott, i, 428, 603
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fossil chimæroids, i, 565</li>
-      <li>on oldest forms, i, 435</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>walking-fish, i, 167</li>
-  <li class='c017'>wall-eye, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wall-eyed surf-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Walton, i, 336, 337</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Ward,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wardichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>water-beetle, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>water-pig, ii, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>watersheds, i, 305
-    <ul>
-      <li>the Cassiquiare, i, 307</li>
-      <li>how fishes cross, i, 306</li>
-      <li>the Suletind, i, 306</li>
-      <li>swampy, i, 314</li>
-      <li>Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>weakfish, ii, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Weber, i, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on swim-bladder, i, 96</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Weberian apparatus, i, 93, 96, 97; ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 93; ii, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>weevers, ii, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>Gill on, i, 500</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_598'>598</span>weissfelchen, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>weissfisch, ii, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wels, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>welshmen, ii, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>West Indian fish, i, 235</li>
-  <li class='c017'>whale-shark, i, 540</li>
-  <li class='c017'>whiff, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>whips, i, 206</li>
-  <li class='c017'>whiptail rays, i, 549</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Whiteaves, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>whitebait, ii, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white bass, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white bullhead, ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white catfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 344</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>white channel-cat, ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white chub,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>whitefish, i, 62-64, 305, 322; ii, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 321</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>white-mouthed drummers, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white perch, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>white sea-bass, ii, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>white sharks, i, 534</li>
-  <li class='c017'>white shiner,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure showing parasites, i, 343</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>white surf-fish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li>
-      <li>with young figured, i, 125; ii, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>whiting, ii, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Whitman, i, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on instincts, i, 156</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Whitmee,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on aquarium fishes, i, 165</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Whitney, ii, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wide-eyed flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>wide-gape, ii, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wide-mouthed flounder,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_493'>493</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wiedersheim, i, 513</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Williams,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on eye of flounder, i, 174-178</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Williamson, i, 423</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Williston, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>willow-cat, ii, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Willughby, i, 390</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Winckler, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>window-pane fish, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>wine-colored eel, ii, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wolf-eel, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wolf-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_517'>517</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wolffian duct, i, 28</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Woodward, i, 426, 428, 519, 543, 554, 582, 584, 591, 594, 602; ii, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Acanthodei, i, 514, 516</li>
-      <li>on Chondrostei, ii, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-      <li>on Dorypterus, ii, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-      <li>on eels, ii, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-      <li>on fossil fishes, i, 439</li>
-      <li>on fossil garpike, ii, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-      <li>on Isospondyli, ii, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 425</li>
-      <li>on Pycnodonti, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Woolman, i, 422</li>
-  <li class='c017'>worm-like eels, ii, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>worm of the Yellowstone, i, 345</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Worthen, i, 426</li>
-  <li class='c017'>wrasse, i, 203; ii, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>wreckfish, ii, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wright, i, 427, 428
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishes of Panama, i, 275</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>wrymouths,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_516'>516</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Wyman,
-    <ul>
-      <li>on month gestation, i, 170</li>
-      <li>on protocercal tail, i, 81</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Xanthichthys, ii, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xererpes, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenichthys, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenistius, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenocephalidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenocephalus, ii, <a href='#Page_520'>520</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenocys, i, 271; ii, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenomi, i, 405; ii, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>order of, ii, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xenopterygii, ii, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xesurus, ii, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphasia,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_515'>515</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphasiidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphias, i, 210, 329, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphidiinæ, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphidion, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphiidæ,
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphiorhynchus, ii, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphorphorus,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 124; ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xiphistes,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xyrauchen, ii, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xyrias,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xyrichthys, i, 207; ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>-390
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xystæma, ii, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xystreurys, ii, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Xystrodus, i, 531</li>
-  <li class='c003'>yamabe, i, 327; ii, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yamanokami, ii, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Yarrell, i, 410
-    <ul>
-      <li>on fishing-frog, i, 169</li>
-      <li>on sounds, i, 168</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellowback rockfish,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, i, 218</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow bass, ii, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow catfish, ii, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-fin grouper, ii, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-fin trout, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-fish, ii, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow goatfish, ii, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow grunt, ii, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow mackerel, ii, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow perch, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Yellowstone Lake,
-    <ul>
-      <li>trout of, i, 310, 345-347</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Yellowstone Miller's Thumb,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_444'>444</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-tail, ii, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-tail roncador, ii, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yellow-tail snapper,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>yezomasu, ii, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Young, i, 426
-    <ul>
-      <li>on angling, i, 337-339</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Zacalles,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zacco, ii, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>zakko, ii, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zalarges, ii, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zalembrius, ii, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zalieutes, ii, <a href='#Page_552'>552</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zalises,
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zanclidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zanclus, i, 240, 268; ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zaniolepis, ii, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zander, ii, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zaprora, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zaproridæ, ii, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zebrasoma, ii, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zebrias, ii, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>family of, ii, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zenarchopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zenion, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zenopsis, ii, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeoidea, i, 241-249
-    <ul>
-      <li>suborder of, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeoidei, ii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_599'>599</span>zeoid fishes, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeorhombi, ii, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zesticelus, ii, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeugopterus, ii, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zeus, i, 259, 263, 267, 391; ii, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zigno, i, 427</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zingel, ii, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zittel, i, 427; ii, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>on Lepidostei, ii, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-      <li>on Ostracophores, i, 569</li>
-      <li>portrait of, i, 425</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zoarces, ii, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zoarcidæ, ii, <a href='#Page_518'>518</a>, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a></li>
-  <li class='c017'>zoogeography, i, 237</li>
-  <li class='c017'>zooids, i, 479</li>
-  <li class='c017'>zootomists, i, 90</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zostera, i, 476</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zuieuw, i, 396</li>
-  <li class='c017'>Zygonectes, ii, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>
-    <ul>
-      <li>figure of, ii, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_601'>601</span>FERNS</div>
-    <div class='c004'>A MANUAL FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES</div>
-    <div>WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS BASED ON THE</div>
-    <div>STALKS AND ON THE FRUCTIFICATION</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>With over two hundred illustrations from original drawings and photographs</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> CAMPBELL E. WATERS</div>
-    <div class='c004'>302 pages, square 8vo. Boxed, $3.00 net; by mail, $3.34</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>This book is thoroughly authoritative, and is written in popular style.
-It covers all the ferns in the region embraced either in Britton's or in Gray's
-Manuals.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. <strong>No
-finer examples of fern photography have ever been produced.</strong> Dr.
-Waters brings to his work fifteen years of experience in field and herbarium
-study, and the book may be expected to prove of permanent scientific value,
-as well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but imperfectly
-filled."—<cite>Plant World.</cite></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"For all who study or wish to study our native ferns Dr. Waters has
-prepared a book which is sure to prove <strong>both helpful and inspiring</strong>.
-Especially charming and significant are the views showing typical habits
-and habitats."—<cite>The American Naturalist.</cite></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>"There could hardly be a better book for those interested in the
-subject."—<cite>Boston Literary World.</cite></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>OUR NATIVE FERNS</div>
-    <div class='c004'>AND THEIR ALLIES</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>WITH SYNOPTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN PTERIDOPHYTA</em></div>
-    <div><em>NORTH OF MEXICO</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>Professor in Columbia University</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table4' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='85%' />
-<col width='14%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>Revised. xii + 156 pages, 12mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$1.00</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>"The elementary part is clear and well calculated to introduce beginners
-to the study of the plants treated of. The excellent key makes the
-analysis of ferns comparatively easy. The writer cordially commends the
-book. It should be in the hands of all who are especially interested in the
-vascular cryptogams of the United States."—<cite>Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
-Club, N. Y.</cite></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>Henry Holt and Company</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
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-<img src='images/i_601.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_602'>602</span>GEOLOGY</div>
-    <div class='c004'>Vol I. "Geologic Processes and Their Results"</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> Prof. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN</div>
-    <div class='c004'>AND</div>
-    <div class='c004'>Prof. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY</div>
-    <div class='c004'>Heads of the Departments of Geology and Geography, University of Chicago; Members of the United</div>
-    <div>States Geological Survey; Editors of the Journal of Geology</div>
-    <div class='c004'>With numerous illustrations, including 24 colored maps and</div>
-    <div>3 tables. 654 pages, 8vo, $4.00 net</div>
-    <div class='c004'>Vol. II. "Earth History." <em>In preparation</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Chas. D. Walcott</span>, <em>Director of U. S. Geological Survey</em>: "I am impressed with the
-admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in which geological principles
-and processes and their results have been presented. The text is written in an entertaining
-style and is supplemented by admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail to obtain
-a clear idea of nature and the work of geological agencies, of the present status of the
-science, and of the spirit which actuates the working geologist."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>T. A. Jaggar</span>, Jr., <em>Harvard University</em>: "An excellent statement of modern American
-geology, with abundant new illustrative material based upon the most recent work of
-government and other surveys."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Henry S. Williams</span>, <em>Yale University</em>: "It is the best treatise on this part of the
-subject which we have seen in America."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>R. S. Woodward</span>, <em>Columbia University</em>: "It is admirable for its science, admirable
-for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled illustrations."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Israel C. Russell</span>, <em>University of Michigan</em>. "I deem it an epoch-making book and
-one that will vastly extend the study of geology."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>BUTTERFLIES</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> S. H. SCUDDER</div>
-    <div class='c004'>THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>With Special Reference to American Forms. Being an Application of the "Doctrine of</em></div>
-    <div><em>Descent" to the Study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of Practical Instruction</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table6' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='30%' />
-<col width='69%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>12mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$1.50 net</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>Brief Guide to the Commoner Butterflies of the Northern</div>
-    <div>United States and Canada</div>
-    <div class='c004'>Being an Introduction to the Knowledge of their Life-Histories</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>New edition. With 21 plates, containing in all 97 illustrations</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table7' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='44%' />
-<col width='55%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>12mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$1.50</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>THE LIFE OF A BUTTERFLY</div>
-    <div class='c004'>A CHAPTER IN NATURAL HISTORY FOR THE GENERAL READER</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table8' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='44%' />
-<col width='55%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>16mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$1.00</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>Henry Holt and Company</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table9' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='70%' />
-<col width='29%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>29 West 23d Street,</td>
-    <td class='c008'>New York</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div  class='figright id024'>
-<img src='images/i_602.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_603'>603</span>The Natural History of Plants</div>
-    <div class='c004'>THEIR FORMS, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION</div>
-    <div>AND DISTRIBUTION</div>
-    <div class='c004'>FROM THE GERMAN OF</div>
-    <div class='c004'>ANTON KERNER <span class='fss'>VON</span> MARILAUN</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> F. W. OLIVER</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Quain Professor of Botany in University College, London</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'>WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF</div>
-    <div class='c004'>MARIAN BUSH <span class='fss'>AND</span> MARY E. EWART</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table10' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='84%' />
-<col width='15%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>4to. New edition. 2 vols. The set</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$11.00</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>A work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the modern sense,
-thoroughly scientific. The new edition is practically identical with the former four-volume
-edition except that the colored plates in the latter have been omitted. The wood-engravings,
-over two thousand in number, have been retained.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Prof. John M. Coulter</em>, in <span class='sc'>The Dial</span>: "Prof. Kerner has brought the most recent researches
-within reach of the intelligent reader, and in a style so charming that even the
-professional teacher may learn a lesson in the art of presentation.... <strong>It is such books as
-this that will bring botany fairly before the public as a subject of absorbing interest</strong>;
-that will illuminate the botanical lecture-room."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Prof. Chas. R. Barnes</em>, in <span class='sc'>The Botanical Gazette</span>: "This lucidity, and the excellent
-illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical reader to the science of
-botany, but <strong>should serve as a lesson to the professional botanist in the art of presentation</strong>."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>The Nation</em>: "He has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the phenomena of
-vegetation which is practically without any rival."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS</div>
-    <div>AND A TREATISE ON THOSE</div>
-    <div>INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS</div>
-    <div class='c004'>FOR THE USE OF</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURISTS</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> ALPHEUS S. PACKARD, M.D.</div>
-    <div class='c004'>With 685 illustrations. Ninth edition. xii + 715 pp., 8vo, $5.00 net</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>PLANT PHYSIOLOGY</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> GEORGE J. PEIRCE</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Professor in Leland Stanford University</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table11' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='79%' />
-<col width='20%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>vi + 291 pages, 8vo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$2.00</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>A modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles of plant physiology,
-intended for the student or general reader acquainted with the elements of botany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Science</em>: "The volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite markedly from the
-old-time works devoted to plant physiology."</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>William F. Ganong, Professor in Smith College</em>: "I am much pleased with the clearness,
-proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject. It seems to me <strong>an admirable
-exposition of the principles of plant physiology</strong> as they are understood at
-the present day, and it should have a wide use."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>Henry Holt and Company</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table12' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='70%' />
-<col width='29%' />
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-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>29 West 23d Street,</td>
-    <td class='c008'>New York</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div  class='figright id024'>
-<img src='images/i_603.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_604'>604</span>MUSHROOMS</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the Cornell University</em></div>
-    <div><em>Experiment Station</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'><strong>Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms.</strong> By <span class='sc'>Mrs.</span> SARAH TYSON RORER</div>
-    <div class='c004'><strong>Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms.</strong> By J. F. CLARK</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>With 230 illustrations from photographs, including 15 colored plates</em></div>
-    <div class='c004'>320 pages, 8vo. $3.00 net; by mail, $3.23</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Educational Review</em>:—"It would be difficult to conceive of a more attractive
-and useful book.... In addition to its general attractiveness and the
-beauty of its illustrations, it is written in a style well calculated to win the
-merest tyro."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Professor in Columbia University</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table13' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='80%' />
-<col width='20%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>iv + 236 pages, 12mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$1.50</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'><em>Bradley M. Davis</em>, in the <span class='sc'>Botanical Gazette</span>:—"Wonderfully free
-from the dry diagnoses of most systematic descriptions, and everywhere
-combined with interesting accounts of life-habits and activities.... A
-marvel in its compactness, with a wonderfully uniform tone throughout,
-condensed and yet very clear."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>Flora of the Northern States and Canada</div>
-    <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>By</span> PROFESSOR N. L. BRITTON</div>
-    <div class='c004'><em>Director of the New York Botanical Garden</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table14' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='83%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>x + 1080 pages, large 12mo</td>
-    <td class='c008'>$2.25</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>This manual is published in response to a demand for a handbook suitable
-for ordinary school use, which shall meet modern requirements and
-outline modern conceptions of the science. It is based on <em>An Illustrated
-Flora</em> prepared by Professor Britton in co-operation with Judge Addison
-Brown, in three volumes. The text has been revised and brought up to
-date, and much of novelty has been added, but all illustrations are omitted.</p>
-
-<p class='c018'><span class='sc'>Conway MacMillan</span>, <em>Professor in the University of Minnesota</em>, in <span class='sc'>Science</span>:—"There
-is no work extant in the whole series of American botanical publications which
-deals with descriptions of the flowering plants that can for a moment be compared with
-it, either for a skillful and delightful presentation of the subject-matter or for modern,
-scientific, and accurate mastery of the thousandfold mass of detail of which such a work
-must consist."</p>
-
-<p class='c018'><span class='sc'>V. M. Spalding</span>, <em>Professor in the University of Michigan</em>:—"I regard the book as
-one that we cannot do without and one that will henceforth take its place
-as a necessary means of determination of the plant species within its range."</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>Henry Holt and Company</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table15' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='70%' />
-<col width='29%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c012'>29 West 23d Street,</td>
-    <td class='c008'>New York</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div  class='figright id024'>
-<img src='images/i_604.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='tnotes'>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2>
-</div>
- <ol class='ol_1 c003'>
-    <li>Corrected the ERRATA listed on p. <a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a> with the exception of the table of changes
-    in generic names.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
-
-    </li>
-  </ol>
-
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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