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diff --git a/old/51522-8.txt b/old/51522-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d14de14..0000000 --- a/old/51522-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2471 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Leather for Libraries, by -E. Wyndham Hulme and J. Gordon Parker and A. Seymour-Jones and Cyril Davenport and F. J. Williamson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Leather for Libraries - -Author: E. Wyndham Hulme - J. Gordon Parker - A. Seymour-Jones - Cyril Davenport - F. J. Williamson - -Release Date: March 21, 2016 [EBook #51522] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEATHER FOR LIBRARIES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: (1.) GOAT.] - -[Illustration: (2.) SEAL (BOLD GRAIN).] - -[Illustration: (3.) SEAL (FINE GRAIN).] - - - - - LEATHER FOR LIBRARIES. - - BY - - E. WYNDHAM HULME, J. GORDON PARKER, - A. SEYMOUR-JONES, CYRIL DAVENPORT, - AND - F. J. WILLIAMSON - - LONDON: - Published for the Sound Leather Committee of the - Library Association - by - THE LIBRARY SUPPLY Co., - Bridge House, 181, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. - - 1905. - - - - - LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. - - CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUND LEATHER - COMMITTEE. - - CYRIL DAVENPORT, _British Museum Library_. - - J. P. EDMOND, _Signet Library, Edinburgh_. - - DR. J. GORDON PARKER, _London Leather Industries Laboratory, - Bermondsey_. - - E. WYNDHAM HULME, _Patent Office Library_. (_Hon. Secretary._) - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - Page - History of Sumach Tanning in England, Degradation of - the Manufacture of Leather, and History of the Reform - Movement. By E. WYNDHAM HULME 5 - - CHAPTER II. - The Causes of Decay in Bookbinding Leathers. By - J. GORDON PARKER 15 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Provenance, Characteristics, and Values of Modern - Bookbinding Leathers. By A. SEYMOUR-JONES 29 - - - CHAPTER IV. - The Repairing and Binding of Books for Public Libraries. - By CYRIL DAVENPORT 39 - - - CHAPTER V. - Specification for the Fittings of a Small Bindery. By - F. J. WILLIAMSON 51 - - - INDEX 55 - - - - - _The Bancroft Library_ - University of California · Berkeley - - THE ROGER LEVENSON - MEMORIAL FUND - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - History of Sumach Tanning - in England, Degradation of the - Manufacture of Leather, and History - of the Reform Movement. - - BY - - E. WYNDHAM HULME. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - -The section of the leather trade to which this Handbook relates is -that concerned in the manufacture of light leathers tanned with a -pale tannage preparatory to being dyed. Bark and most other vegetable -tanning substances leave a colour on the skin which cannot be removed -without detriment to the durability of the leather; the retention of -the colour, however, detracts from the purity of the final colour -imparted by the dye. The reputation in the past of the sumach-tanned -Spanish leather was founded upon this peculiar property of sumach -of leaving the skin white, and on this point the wisdom of the -ancients has been justified by the results of an exhaustive series of -experiments conducted by the Society of Arts' Committee, which have -given to sumach the first place in the list of tannages for light -leathers. - -The date of the introduction of sumach tanning into England may, -with some show of probability, be assigned to the year 1565, when -a seven years' monopoly patent was granted to two strangers, Roger -Heuxtenbury and Bartholomew Verberick, for the manufacture of -"Spanish or beyond sea leather," on the condition that the patentees -should employ one native apprentice for every foreigner in their -service. This stipulation indicates that the industry was a new one. -Following the custom of the times, the supervision of the industry was -entrusted to the "Wardens of the Company of Leathersellers in London." -Additional evidence of the use of sumach at this period is afforded by -another patent to a Spanish Jew, Roderigo Lopez, one of Elizabeth's -physicians. By way of settling her doctor's bills the Queen granted -to Lopez, in 1584, an exclusive licence to import sumach and aniseed -for ten years. Besides attending the Queen in his professional -capacity, Lopez was called upon to act as interpreter to the Portuguese -pretender, Don Antonio, on his visit to this island. As the result -of some misunderstanding with Antonio, Lopez was induced to join a -conspiracy nominally aimed against the life of Antonio, but actually -directed against the Queen, and in 1594 Lopez expiated his crimes at -Tyburn. Those who are curious in such matters will be interested to -trace in the "Merchant of Venice" the re-appearance of our sumach -merchant as Shylock, while the name of Antonio is boldly retained by -Shakespeare for his hero (Cf. S. Lee, "The Original of Shylock," in -the _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1880). After the arrest of Lopez, his -grant was continued to R. Alexander and R. Mompesson (Patent Roll, 36 -Eliz., p. 11). In the Charter of the Leathersellers' Company, dated -1604, "Spanish leather and other leathers dressed or wrought in sumach -or bark" are mentioned. In 1660 the duty granted upon imported sumach -was fixed at 13s. 4d. per cwt. of 112 lbs., and on dried myrobalans -at 1s. 3d. per lb., thus disproving the statement of Prof. Thorold -Rogers in his "History of Prices" (Vol. 5, p. 414), that oak bark was -the only tanning material used in England at this period. The earliest -description known to the writer of the process of sumaching by sewing -up the skins into bottles and allowing the fluid extract to penetrate -the fibre by pressure, is to be found in 1754 in the "Dictionary of -Arts and Science" (Vol. 3, article "Morocco"). - -The first step in the degradation of the manufacture of light -leathers, though it at first affected the heavy leathers only, was -the introduction of the use of sulphuric acid in 1768 by Dr. McBride -of Dublin (_Phil. Trans._, 1778). By substituting a vitriolic liquor -for the vegetable acids obtained by fermenting bran, rye, or other -cereals, Dr. McBride claimed three advantages: (1) Absolute control -over the degree of acidity of the liquor, whereas organic souring was -troublesome and uncertain; (2) that the skins were "plumped" better -by the acid, and that the danger of injury to skins (by bacterial -action) was avoided; (3) that the process of tanning was materially -shortened. At all events, the Doctor succeeded in convincing first the -Dublin tanners, and shortly afterwards their Bermondsey rivals, of the -superiority of his methods, which, as already stated, were intended -for heavy leathers only (_Encyclopĉdia Britannica_, 1797, article -"Tanning"). - -Having once established its footing in the tanyard the use of sulphuric -acid was soon further extended. With the introduction of aniline -dyestuffs about 1870 sulphuric acid came into universal use as a means -of clearing the skin before entering the dyebath. The effect of the -introduction of the coal-tar colours was to revolutionise the dyeing -of leather. Under the old _régime_ of the vegetable dyestuffs the few -standard shades of red, blue, olive, yellow, and black were obtained -on moroccos mordanted with alum, while bark-tanned calf and sheep -skins were, as a rule, left in their natural browns and ornamented -by sprinkling or marbling. The wide range of colours offered by the -new dyestuffs fascinated the public, which accepted the new leathers -without question as to their durability. Librarians began to insist -upon accuracy and uniformity of shade, regardless of the methods by -which these results were obtained. Yet, apart from the question of -durability, it is clear that brilliancy of colour has been purchased -at too high a price. Under the old system of dyeing a thin superficial -layer of colour was laid over the natural white of the skin, thereby -obtaining a variety and depth of colour which is in striking contrast -to the dead uniformity of the colours of modern acid-bitten leathers. -Hence the reform of the manufacture of the light leathers is supported -by ĉsthetic as well as by practical considerations. - -Passing from the domain of chemistry to that of mechanics, the -Committee of the Society of Arts has emphasized the need of a return -to sounder and less ruinous methods of dealing with leather; but -their recommendations are so clearly set out in their Report that it -is proposed here to touch upon one point only, viz., the artificial -graining of leather. The Committee remark that, whereas many examples -of sound sheepskin, dating from the 15th century to the early part of -the 19th century, had been brought to their notice, "since about 1860 -sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found." Now, the decoration of -leather by the impression of patterns by mechanical pressure had long -been known, the lozenge pattern of early russia leather having been -effected in the 18th century by means of engraved steel cylinders. -But in 1851 it occurred to an ingenious mechanic that, by means of -the electroplate process, an exact reproduction of the grain of the -higher-priced skins might be communicated to sheepskin or other -inferior leather whereby the selling value of the latter would be -considerably enhanced (Cf. Bernard's Patent Specification 13,808 of -1851, and a modification of the same process in No. 2,391 of 1855). -From this date, therefore, sheepskin disappears from view only to -reappear as imitation morocco, pigskin, or other higher-priced leather. -So perfectly does the counterfeit skin imitate the original on the -bound volume that the two can only be distinguished with certainty by -microscopic examination. Librarians, therefore, must bear in mind that -a familiarity with the natural characteristics of the ordinary binding -leathers is no safe guide to the character of the leather of a binding. -The utmost that can be said is that the leather is either genuine or -else a remarkably good counterfeit, a conclusion which, it is hardly -necessary to say, is not one of great value in practice. - -As might have been supposed, the rapid decay of leather bindings in the -19th century, resulting from a combination of the above malpractices, -with the attendant evils of heavy outlay upon rebinding, cropped -margins, and ill-matched sets upon the shelves, from time to time -attracted the attention of booklovers and bookbinders; but their -efforts to determine the causes of the deterioration and to find a -remedy have until recently met with very little success. In 1842 the -subject was investigated by Professors Faraday, Brande, and others on -behalf of the Athenĉum Club. This committee is largely responsible for -the "sulphur in gas" theory--a theory which was never wholly true, even -at a period when the percentage of sulphur in coal gas was much higher -than at present (Cf. _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1850-59, p. -215), and which now has ceased to have any practical bearing upon the -matter. It should be noted that, in 1851, Crace Calvert, the well-known -Manchester chemist, came to a different conclusion. After pointing -out that decay in leather was observable in libraries, such as the -Chetham Library, in which gas had never been used, he stated that the -presence of sulphuric acid in leather bindings was attributable to one -or more of three causes: (_a_) to the pollution of the atmosphere by -consumption of coal in the Manchester factories; (_b_) to the action -of gas fumes in unventilated rooms; (_c_) to the use of sulphuric acid -by the tanners; and he further expressed his opinion that the seat -of the disease would be found in irregularities in the processes of -tanning--in other words, that the disease was aggravated rather than -originated by these first two causes (Cf. _Trans. Society of Arts_, -Vol. 51, pp. 120-22). Calvert's views, however, met with very little -support. In 1877, at the Conference of Librarians in London, a proposal -was made that a committee of librarians and chemists should deal -with the matter, but no effect was given to the proposal. Ten years -later a series of experiments on the action of gas fumes and heat was -undertaken on behalf of the Birmingham Library by Mr. C. T. Woodward -(_Library Chronicle_, 1887, pp. 25-29). Strips of leather exposed -for 1,000 hours to the action of gas fumes, at temperatures of 130° -and 140° Fahrenheit, showed a mean absorption of sulphuric acid of -1·78 per cent., accompanied by a marked reduction in their stretching -capacity and breaking strain. The experiments on the action of heat -alone were regarded as inconclusive. Mr. Woodward suggested that the -Library Association should undertake the testing of leathers, and that -librarians should thereafter employ only leather of a given standard; -but once more nothing was done. In the meantime the reputation of -leather as a binding material continued to dwindle; one leather after -another was tried, found wanting, and excluded from library practice, -while various leather substitutes--buckram, art linen, and imitation -leathers, gradually took its place. It is due to the efforts of Dr. -Parker and Prof. Procter between 1898 and 1900 that the real facts of -the case have been brought to light. In the latter years an agitation -in favour of standard leather was set on foot by Lord Cobham, Mr. -Cockerell, Mr. Davenport, and others, which resulted in the appointment -by the Society of Arts of a Committee on Leathers for Bookbinding, the -cost of which was met by a grant from the Leathersellers' Company. - -Upon the publication of the first report of the above Committee in 1901 -the subject was taken up by the Council of the Library Association, -and after several papers had been read at the monthly meetings in -London and elsewhere, a Committee was appointed to ascertain how far -Members of the Association were prepared to accept a common standard -for binding leathers. For this purpose in March 1904, close upon -1,000 circulars were addressed to the libraries of the United Kingdom -asking for a statement of their views upon the following proposals, -amongst others, viz.: (_a_) that the Council should appoint an official -analyst; (_b_) that they should publish a handbook giving to members of -the Association such information as would enable them to secure sound -leather at a reasonable price. The circular meeting with a favourable -reception, the Council invited Dr. Parker to draw up a scale of fees -for the analysis of leathers, and the scale having been duly approved, -Dr. Parker was at once appointed analyst to the Association. - -Since the appointment of the Committee abundant evidence has been -forthcoming that at last the reform of light leathers for bookbinding -and upholstery is now in sight. The efforts of the Committee have been -warmly seconded by the Press. In the recently concluded Government -binding contracts a clause has been inserted enabling any department to -obtain standard leather and rendering the contractor liable to heavy -penalties for infringement of the conditions of this clause; yet the -price paid for bindings in this leather is only fractionally increased. -From the outset the Committee have been assured of the support of the -leading firms of leather manufacturers, who have recognised that, if -leather is to regain the ground which has been lost, it must be by the -adoption of a common standard of manufacture and by the introduction of -honest trade descriptions in the retail trade. - -Hence where the provenance of the leather is declared and the method -of its manufacture supported by a written guarantee from the leather -manufacturer, the need for periodical analysis of samples is less -urgent. But where the bookbinder is unwilling or unable to state the -provenance of his leathers recourse to chemical analysis is the only -safeguard. The librarian on his side will materially assist the binder -by limiting his demand to leathers of a few standard shades and by -abstaining from insisting upon accurate matching to pattern. If the -piecing, panelling and lettering of serials is kept uniform, a want of -uniformity in the shade of leather is not of much practical moment. -In the meantime the librarian should keep a vigilant watch for the -following symptoms of deterioration:-- - - (_a_) General shabbiness and tenderness of leather, especially at - parts where the leather is strained over the cords on the back or - edges of the boards. Probable cause: Sulphuric acid. - - (_b_) Red rot in morocco. On friction the leather turns to a - red powder. Probable cause: A Persian or East Indian half-bred - sheepskin has been supplied in place of goat. - - (_c_) Withering of pigskin accompanied by discoloration. Probable - cause: Over "pulling down" of the skin in the "puering" process. - If the pigskin has been dyed in a bright shade, acid also is - present. - - (_d_) Deterioration and discoloration of smooth and light-coloured - calfskins, especially law calf. Probable cause: Use of oxalic acid - by the bookbinder to remove grease marks, &c. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - The Causes of Decay in Bookbinding - Leathers. - - BY - - J. GORDON PARKER. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - -Why do modern leather bindings decay? Is it possible to obtain a -leather for bookbinding purposes as good and as durable as the leather -produced from the 16th to 18th century? These are the two problems -which the Committee on Bookbinding Leather appointed by the Society of -Arts set themselves to investigate. Fortunately we are able to solve -both problems. - -In the olden days all skins were tanned with a liquor made from -either oak bark or sumach, and in some cases a mixture of the two. -The skins used by the tanner were usually obtained direct from the -butchers. After soaking and cleansing they were then limed for a period -sufficiently long to loosen the hair. After the removal of the hair and -superfluous flesh and fat, the skins were washed in several changes -of fresh soft water to remove the excess of lime, the process being -assisted by working the skins over on a beam with a blunt knife. When -in suitable condition they were brought into sour, old tan liquors. -There was no hurry, the skins being slowly tanned in weak infusions, -and when the process was complete, the leather was simply washed -free from superfluous tan, dyed with wood or other vegetable dyes, -rinsed free from excess of dye-stuff, and dried out. The leather was -afterwards softened by stretching, and polished or glazed by brushing -the skin over with oil, soap, beeswax, or a solution of some moss. -Such leather lacked the high finish, the regular colour, the bright -shades of modern leather, but it lasted fifty or one hundred years -with hard wear, and, under favourable conditions, appears to be almost -imperishable. - -The finish, or general appearance, of leather continued to improve up -to about 1850, but after that date some of the bindings examined showed -signs of rapid deterioration in quality. This deterioration increased -on bindings subsequent to 1870, and probably 75 per cent. of the -leather used for bookbinding during the last twenty years either has -already decayed or will do so within a comparatively short time. - -Now to deal with the answer to the first question, Why do modern -leather bindings decay? The chief causes are as follows:-- - - 1. The introduction of tanning materials other than oak and - sumach, stronger in tanning, and more rapid in their action. Many - of these tanning materials are unstable, and the leather produced - disintegrates on exposure to light and air. - - 2. The use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported - from abroad. Goat, calf, and sheep skins are imported into this - country from all over the world; some are simply dried in the sun, - some salted, whilst others are cured with various ingredients. - - 3. The use of infusions of acids and other bleaching agents to - produce bright and even shades of colour. - - 4. The use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of - developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing. - - 5. The shaving and splitting of skin for producing an even - substance. - - 6. Printing and embossing grains upon leather, together with other - methods of finishing now in common use. - - 7. The stripping, scouring, souring, and re-tanning of East India - leathers (Persians). - - 8. The removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin. - -These eight causes, although by no means exhaustive, are, however, the -chief factors in the deterioration of modern leather; and in as few -words as possible I will explain the reason of their introduction and -effect. - -As the industry advanced there were found in different parts of the -world tanning materials other than oak and sumach, some of which -were two, three, or five times as rich in tannin as oak, thus making -infusions of greater strength, and consequently of quicker action, -with the result that leather which formerly required from three to six -months to tan was turned out in almost as many days, or, at the most, -in as many weeks. It was not realised, however, that these different -tanning materials contained tannins of different qualities, capable of -producing quite a different leather to that produced by means of oak -or sumach. The experts who spent months testing and investigating this -question came to the unanimous conclusion that the speed of tannage -or the strength of the tanning liquor had very little to do with the -wearing qualities of the leather produced, but found that some of -these new materials contained tannins of a different chemical nature -from that of sumach, and that they produced leather of an unstable -character, some of the leathers undergoing change in a few hours on -exposure to strong light and air. On the other hand, some of the new -tanning materials produced permanent leathers practically equal to -sumach. Those tanning materials, therefore, which contained tannins -of the catechol series, including the tannins of hemlock, larch, -quebracho, mangrove, gambier, and turwar, were condemned, as all these -materials produce a leather which on exposure to light and air turns -first a red shade of colour and afterwards develops what is now well -known by bookbinders and librarians as the red decay, where the leather -crumbles off on application of friction. On the other hand, tanning -materials of the pyrogallol class, such as sumach, galls, divi-divi, -myrobalans, oak, and chesnut, produce a leather which is practically -unaffected by light or air. Further, it was found in every case where -authentic bindings dating from the 13th century onwards were examined -the tanning material used was one of this pyrogallol series. On the -other hand, leathers which showed the red decay were in every case -found either to have been tanned with tanning materials of the catechol -series, or were rotted with acid. - -The second cause of trouble is the manufacture of leather from skins -from distant lands which have been improperly or insufficiently -preserved for export. It often happens that the fibres have partly -perished before the tanner receives the skins, the resulting leather is -therefore poor, spongy, and partially perished, making thin leather, -which sometimes, on account of its thinness, will cut up apparently -economically for the binder, but not economically for the librarian or -the owner of books, as the leather cannot possibly be as good or have -as long life as leather manufactured from a sound skin. - -Bright even shades and light fancy colours previous to the introduction -of acid bleaches were manufactured from sumach-tanned skins only, -sumach alone producing a leather of a light cream colour, and -therefore capable of taking practically any shade of dye. Most -other tanning materials produced dark foundations, on which it was -practically impossible to dye any but a dark shade. Gradually, however, -manufacturers found leather tanned with materials cheaper than sumach -could be scoured and bleached with acids, then re-tanned with sumach, -thus producing a light, even-coloured leather, which with the dye -produced light shades. The cheapest, and at the same time the most -effective, acid for this purpose was vitriol or sulphuric acid. This, -in common with other mineral acids, combines with the leather fibre, -upon which it exercises a most disastrous and disintegrating action, -and to the use of this acid, either as a bleaching or clearing agent in -the tanning process, or in subsequent use in developing the colour in -the dye-bath, may be ascribed the cause of decay of over 90 per cent. -of modern bookbinding and upholstering leather. It is impossible to -remove these acids from leather by any subsequent amount of washing, -or without the addition of some other chemical to expel them. Recently -the writer treated some leather with sulphuric acid, and after cutting -the leather up into small pieces, washed the same in running water for -three weeks; at the end of that period the sulphuric acid was still -tightly fixed in the fibres of the leather. - -The introduction of aniline dyes instead of the older process of wood -dyes made a great change in the production of bookbinding leather. -Hundreds of new shades of colour were produced, and the process of -leather dyeing was simplified and cheapened. But, unfortunately, in -the use of a certain class of these dye-stuffs the full depth of -shade could not at that date be produced upon the leather except -in the presence of an acid. Here, again, therefore, sulphuric acid -was introduced into the leather during the process of manufacture, -thus increasing the proportion of leather which contained this -disintegrating material. It has frequently been stated by leather dyers -and others that a certain quantity of sulphuric acid must be used with -acid dye-stuffs, otherwise the full depth of shade cannot be produced, -and they claim that without its use it is impossible to produce certain -brilliant shades of colour. These statements have been proved to be -devoid of foundation. There are several substitutes for sulphuric acid -which are harmless in their nature. Among these I may mention formic, -acetic and lactic acids. These are organic acids which have no harmful -action on the leather; they are easily washed out, and even if any -trace of these acids be left in the skin, they will evaporate. Formic -acid has even been proved to be cheaper than sulphuric, and, moreover, -is capable of developing equal shades in all cases, and deeper and more -brilliant shades of colour with some dyes. For the present, however, -bookbinders, and especially librarians, are advised not to insist upon -brilliant shades of colour. - -The introduction of the splitting machine and the introduction of a -machine for shaving leather has undoubtedly tended to produce a large -quantity of thin leather, but it is impossible either to shave or to -split a skin without cutting the network of fibres, and the strength -of the leather cannot but be materially decreased. Leather is made up -of a complex system of fibres interweaving and intertwining in every -possible direction, and even the small amount of paring carried out by -the bookbinder himself considerably impairs the strength and life of -the binding. How much more, therefore, does the splitting and shaving -that the tanner carries out in order to bring the skin to an even -substance destroy the strength of the product. - -Sufficient has been written on the printing of morocco, seal, and pig -grains upon skins of an inferior class, but it cannot be too strongly -pointed out to librarians that the strength of embossed leather must be -impaired when it is realised how the embossing and printing is carried -out. The skins to be embossed are coated over in the wet state with a -mixture of dye, size, and other materials, and are then passed between -two hot electrotype rollers. This embosses or prints upon the skin the -required grain; at the same time it glues the fibres of the leather -together, preventing the free run which good skins should possess, and -the heat dries up the leather, reducing its strength very considerably. - -I now come to the stripping, scouring, souring, and re-tanning of -leather. It is difficult to decide whether more damage is done in -this process or in the use of mineral acids in the dye-bath; but it -is certain that any leather which is stripped of its natural tanning -by use of alkalies or bleached by an acid has lost at least 90 per -cent. of its wearing and lasting properties. Thousands of dozens of -skins in the rough tanned condition reach the English market from -India, Australia, New Zealand, and other parts. These are tanned -with quebracho, mimosa, or some similar tanning material, whereas -the Indian skins are nearly all tanned with turwar bark and are of -a reddish-fawn shade of colour. These are purchased by the leather -finishers, and are manufactured in England. In order to get rid of the -reddish colour they are first soaked in water and afterwards drummed in -a weak solution of washing soda, borax, or some similar alkali. This -removes the uncombined tan from the skin, as well as taking out the -natural grease. The skins emerge from the drum a dark mahogany colour; -they are then washed in water and afterwards soured in a sulphuric acid -bath. This bleaches the skin to a light bright shade. The finisher -then, in order to put back tannin into the skin of a light colour, -re-tans them in sumach or a mixture of sumach and oak. They are now -known as re-tanned skins; and after drying, are dyed and finished in -the ordinary manner. The sheep and goat skins are sold as roans or -moroccos, as the case may be, and, as a rule, no indication is given -that these are re-tanned skins. The re-tanned Indian skins, however, -generally leave the factory as persian roans or persian morocco, but -as the skins pass from the manufacturer to the merchant, from the -merchant to the small dealer, the word "persian" is generally omitted, -and they reach the bookbinder as moroccos or roans, as the case may be. -Now this is the most important point for the binder. I would go so far -as to say that it should almost be a punishable offence to use either -persians or re-tanned skins for bookbinding purposes, as such leather -cannot possibly last ten years if exposed to light and air. Not only -has the scouring and alkali a perishing effect upon the leather, but it -is afterwards made worse by the treatment with acid, a bleach, and the -further addition of acid to the dye-bath; added to which the alkaline -treatment removes the natural grease or nourishment of the skin, and it -is well known to those engaged in the leather trade that the strength -and life of a leather is at least doubled by a proper nourishment of -the leather with a suitable fat. Therefore, if the whole of the natural -fat is removed, the leather rapidly dries, it loses its elasticity and -spring, the grain cracks, and after keeping in a dry library for some -time the backs break right off the books. - -I have dealt with the eight chief causes of premature decay, but -before passing to the other part of this paper I must also deal with -the weaknesses of the bookbinder as well as those of the leather -manufacturer, and, for reasons stated above, absolutely condemn the -undue paring of leather, the bleaching of leather by means of oxalic -acid, and the use of patent finishes and glares, the composition of -which is in most cases a mystery, many of them containing acids, others -containing drying agents which have almost as injurious an action upon -leather as the vitriol used by the tanner. - -To revert to my original thesis, it is not only possible to obtain -a leather as good as any leather manufactured from the 16th to 18th -century, but it is even possible to get a better leather. Librarians, -in drawing up their binding specifications have only to do what the -Controller of H.M.'s Stationery Office is doing for the libraries under -his charge, viz., to provide under suitable penalties that leathers -supplied by the contractor shall be equal to samples shown on pattern -cards prior to tendering for the contract, and in addition to insist -that such leathers shall conform to certain conditions laid down in the -Report of the Society of Arts' Committee on Bookbinding, which may be -summarised as follows:-- - - 1. The binder undertakes not to use stripped and re-tanned - leather, whether persians (East Indian skins) or from elsewhere, - or to use leather embossed or grained artificially to resemble - morocco, pigskin, &c. - - 2. He guarantees (or undertakes to produce the guarantee of the - firm supplying the leather) that all skins supplied (1) are - genuine as described; (2) are tanned with pure sumach or galls, - or in the case of calf or sheep with oak bark, or mixtures of oak - bark and sumach; (3) that no mineral acid has been used either in - the process of tanning, bleaching, or dyeing, and that the leather - is free from acid or other injurious ingredient; (4) that he will - use no acid to clear the leather in the process of binding. - -Before drafting his binding specification the librarian would do -well to consult the excellent "Note on Bookbinding" by Mr. Douglas -Cockerell, published by W. H. Smith and Son, at the price of 1d. -Special attention is drawn to the difference of the cost in binding -according to Specification I. and II. of the Society of Arts' Committee -reproduced on pp. 20-22 of this pamphlet, and to Mr. Cockerell's -remarks on pages 9, etc. - -The above stipulations should not make any substantial difference in -price per volume to those libraries which already have been using -high-class leather tanned in sumach, but librarians who have hitherto -been content with persians, re-tanned Australians, and other cheap -classes of leather must expect to pay a higher price for leather, -properly tanned and guaranteed to last. Several large firms of high -reputation, who are now catering for the bookbinding trade, have -already turned out thousands of skins of a satisfactory nature. These -firms are not only anxious to fall in with the requirements of the -Society of Arts' Report, but are desirous of removing the distrust -which at present exists with regard to leather, and to reinstate -this article as being the standard and natural covering for books. -For permanent wear, whether for books or other purposes, leather, -when properly prepared, is without a rival both for appearance and -durability. It is only for the cheaper class of work that leather -substitutes are formidable as rivals. - -With regard to strengths of various leathers, it is somewhat difficult -to lay down a hard-and-fast rule, but in general terms it may be -stated that the strongest leather made is pigskin. The fibres are -tough, somewhat coarse, but of great strength. The only danger is -in the paring down of the skin previous to use in the binding, and -therefore, by reason of its thickness, it is well to only use pigskin -for the binding of large, heavy volumes where a thick leather can be -used without detriment to the appearance of the book. Seal probably -comes next in strength. It is tougher than goat skin, and, by reason -of the quantity of natural grease which these skins contain, will in -most cases remain pliable and wear longer than the average morocco. -Seal is closely followed by goat skin. A special feature of goat is -the hard grain which it possesses. This is specially to be recommended -where much frictional wear is given to the book. Sheep and calf may -be put on about the same footing. Both are extremely pliable, but I -think one may safely state that books bound in sheepskin leather, if -that leather be from the cross breed, Welsh, or other mountain sheep, -will probably outlast calf skin. There is no doubt that calf has got -into disrepute largely on account of the destructive processes used in -the finishing and production of the soft, smooth-grained calf, which -has of late years become so popular. Binders must understand that the -velvety finish can only be obtained by an undue pulling down of the -skin previous to the tanning process or an undue paring on the part of -the binder. Both Russia leather and vellum, as binding materials, have -done good service in the past, but have lost their old reputation for -durability. For the present, librarians are recommended to use these -skins as little as possible. A few words suffice to deal with skiver -bindings. These are the thin grain of sheep and sometimes calf, and are -at their best about equal in strength to thin notepaper, their whole -texture and fibrous structure having been split off and their nature -destroyed. - -It must be understood that the deterioration of leather is not only -caused by faulty manufacture or improper treatment in the dye-house or -finishing shop. Good bindings of sound leather are frequently destroyed -by the neglect of certain elementary precautions on the part of the -librarian. The subject is too large to deal with fully in these pages, -but librarians would do well to study carefully the detailed report -of the Society of Arts' Committee. But the following elementary rules -should be observed:--Books should not be exposed to gas fumes, or to -the direct rays of the sun; the temperature of the library should -not exceed 70° F., the upper strata should be well ventilated, and a -thermometer should be hung on the same level as the top shelves in -order to advise the librarian whether the temperature is being kept -within reasonable limits. Freedom from damp is, of course, an essential -condition of library architecture. - -The question of leather preservative compositions is dealt with in -another chapter, but too much cannot be said against the use of -various decoctions which are sold to librarians for coating and -preserving leather bindings. Many of these contain turpentine, which -has a drying, detrimental effect. Various other emulsions are on the -market, but although these give the leather a soft, pleasant feel when -applied, this soon dries up, the leather becoming hard and liable to -crack. There may be some suitable ingredients for applying to leather -bindings, but I am of the opinion that if a library is not allowed to -get too hot, and a plentiful supply of pure, dry air is always present, -sound leather should require no further preservative. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - Provenance, Characteristics, - and Values of Modern Bookbinding - Leathers. - - BY - - A. SEYMOUR-JONES. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - -To correctly locate the sources of skin supply suitable for bookbinding -is not easy, in consequence of original breeds having been transplanted -to equally suitable climes over the seas. In many cases purity of breed -has been maintained, while in the majority, deterioration has set -in, due to desire for heavier beasts: therefore the purposes of this -chapter will be best met if original breeds are described and their -general _habitat_ located. The animals which furnish skins suitable -in quality and quantity to meet the increasing demands of to-day are: -sheep, goat, calf, seal, and pig or hog. Other animals may produce -skins good for bookbinding, but a description of the foregoing will -afford ample illustration. - -The sheepskin takes first place in regard to quantity. Probably more -than two-thirds of modern commercial bindings are represented by -this much-abused skin, which is frequently so skilfully manipulated -as to deceive even an expert, that it is not what it is represented -to be. After the pelt has been split or cut in twain--the grain part -after tanning being termed "a skiver," and the flesh after dressing -designated chamois--the former is so manipulated with dyes, finishes, -and embossing, that surface or grain detection is extremely difficult, -say, between a true morocco or embossed skiver. Much of this so-called -misrepresentation has been created by the public, who order their -books to be covered in "leather," which they are pleased to think is -morocco, or pig or seal, when reflection should tell them that it -cannot be genuine at the price they have paid, often for book and -binding complete. This "faking" is very largely accomplished upon -sheepskin, because it readily lends itself to such alterations both by -nature and price; but when such leathers are employed they should be -correctly described by the binder. Sheepskins have a large place in -the commercial bookbinderies and affections of the public at large, -and there is no reason why they should not only hold their ground, but -succeed in displacing the cloth imitations of leather; and, provided -the skins are selected from suitable breeds, they should find a place -in the binding of certain classes of books intended for permanent -reference in libraries. - -The sheep as a family are divided into two classes: the Upland and -Lowland breeds. The Upland class inhabit the mountain ranges, and -while possessing a short firm wool, have a mass of close thick hair -underneath. Their habits and life make the character of meat and skin -approach a goat nearer than any other animal. The parent stock are the -argali or wild sheep of the Himalaya, and the "Musmon" of the Andes and -Sierra Nevadas. Fuller particulars will be found in the "Royal Natural -History," by Richard Lydekker, B.A., F.R.S., Vol. 2, pp. 212 to 234. -The Upland sheep of to-day vary in purity or closeness to the parent -stock according to the source of supply. In certain Mongolian, Arabian -and Welsh sheep it is not easy to discriminate between them and a true -goat, after the wool has been removed. It is the skins of such sheep -that are suitable for binding books in libraries where price and hard -wear are a consideration. Sheep-grazing countries having high altitudes -would be probable sources of supply of such skins. Great Britain, -through Wales, Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Highlands of Scotland -provides many millions of skins a year to the cotton spinning trade, -for covering drawing rollers, an operation calling for a hard-wearing -grained skin. - -In practice it has been found that sheepskins yield the most lasting -results when tanned slowly in oak-bark liquors; the product is a -tighter and more solid skin than when tanned in sumach, though sumach -may be used in given cases, or a combination of both. Commercially -valued, the upland sheepskins sell at prices varying from 2-1/2d. to -9d. per square foot, when finished according to the Society of Arts' -Bookbinding Committee's Report. - -The Lowland breed, commonly known as domestic sheep (Ovis aries) are -found wherever there are grazing lands. In sheep grazing, the graziers' -"object" varies. It may be the "wool or the flesh." If the former, the -skin is usually unfavourable for binding purposes, while if the latter, -a large portion find their way to the sheepskin splitters, who by -machinery of considerable delicacy split the skins into what are known -in the trade as grains and fleshes. The grains alone interest us, being -subsequently tanned into skivers. This class of leather has its use in -low-price trade bindings of flexible character, and as such competes -and compares in price and durability successfully with any imitations. - -To make skivers suitable in wearing qualities it is advisable to take -the plain dyed class, reasonably stout, tanned in sumach, and dyed -without mineral acid, dried out with a little stretch left in, and -if they are required as tough as it is possible to obtain a grain, a -little nourishing material may be used to advantage. By following these -lines it will reduce the risk of imitations. Though "paste grain," -"long grain," and "glazed skivers" will still find a market among -binders, they must not be classed among the "Imitations." Skivers are -sold from about 1d. to 5d. per square foot. - -Before proceeding further it may be well to point out that the skins -from old or very young animals should be avoided, although old animals -are a rarity. Exceptionally large skins in their class should be viewed -with suspicion, likewise very small ones. The former may indicate -weakness, and the latter want of maturity. This must in practice have a -general application. - -The goat (Genus Capra) finds most favour as furnishing a suitable skin -among binders. This animal, in the proper sense of the word "goat" -exclusive, belongs to the Old World, being confined to the area north -of the southern flanks of the Himalaya, though one species is found -in Egypt and another in Abyssinia, but quite unknown in the remainder -of Africa. In America the term "goat" is applied to our ruminant. -While being essentially a mountain animal, goat breeding has become -a business to-day throughout the world, which has been laid under -contribution to supply the enormous demand which has been created -during the past twenty years by the chrome glacé kid manufacturers, one -maker alone requiring 5,000 dozen skins per diem to keep his factory -running full. The skins generally employed for book purposes are the -European and Northern African supplies, though many other sources are -equally suitable. Goat skins, on account of their firm nature are -best tanned in pure sumach (Sicilian). Time has conclusively proved -this point. In the Rylands Library in Manchester (Eng.) are two heavy -volumes bound in plain undyed sumach-tanned goat-skins which were -bound in Spain in the 16th century, and are to-day in a perfect state -of preservation. The Niger skins (mixed goat and sheep) which have -found favour among certain bookbinders are produced from a breed of -Egyptian goats, tanned and prepared by Nigerian natives with a species -of nut-galls which gives them that peculiar close, tight feel, and -when such firmness is required in European stock it may be equally -effectively produced with oak bark. The large proportion of so-called -moroccos offered to-day are made from skins tanned in East India with -a catechol tannin. It is unfortunate that this tannage has failed to -withstand the tests supplied by the Scientific Committee appointed by -the Society of Arts on Bookbinding Leathers, because it excludes from -the Binding Trade a very useful and cheap supply of pretty looking and -feeling skin ready to hand for finishing in moroccos. While condemned -for permanent library work--that is, guaranteed leathers--the writer -sees no reason why such leathers may not safely be used for Lending -Library work, where the life of a binding is not expected to run more -than ten years, provided the surplus tan is washed out and replaced by -some nourishing material (fat), and in all processes inorganic acids -and alkalis are avoided. Goat-skins differ from other animals mainly -in the pronounced grain formations, while the texture of the skin -is closer and firmer than a sheep, the grain is harder, more scale -like, the papillĉ between which the hair-holes are situate are most -marked, and it is their formation which produces during the operation -of "boarding" the grained morocco with its beautiful nodules. If -these nodules or grains are bold and large it indicates a thick skin -originally. Such grains cannot be expected upon a thin skin--it implies -either over-reduction (shaving) in substance or embossing. Thin skins -will produce a small shortlike grain. If the grain is fine on a large -skin it may have been reduced too much in substance, and thereby loses -most of its muscular structure and strength. It is necessary when -buying moroccos, which are not only expensive but are expected to yield -longevity and be hard wearing, to obtain a manufacturer's guarantee -that the skins are genuine goat (Genus Capra) and not mountain sheep -(Argali) or bastards, and that they have been prepared in accordance -with the Society of Arts' Report on Bookbinding. In value the moroccos -vary considerably in price, according to substance, size, quality, and -character. The skins are generally bought in the dry pelt state with -hair on at per lb., the large, plump, well-flayed skins commanding -higher prices than less favoured ones. In this state it is difficult to -detect grain faults, consequently to the manufacturer it is somewhat of -a speculation, and unless he is well informed in his trade he stands to -lose heavily. Generally speaking the prime clear grains go into bright -colours at higher prices than defective grains, which can be hidden -by darker colour with the aid of a suitable finish. For example, the -colour of the Niger skins previously referred to is an excellent one -for hiding grain defects. The amount of absolutely perfect skins is -small, but the remainder are good skins in their class for half-bound -work. The perfect skins will realise up to 2s. 6d. per square foot, and -according to quality and colour the balance will range down to 8d. per -square foot. - -Calf skins have long been favoured for bookbinding, but through much -variety of tannages and faulty selection of skins have been brought -somewhat into disrepute for permanent work, but if prepared by slow -tanning in oak bark or sumach there is no reason why they should not be -reinstated. Undoubtedly the calf is favoured by Nature with the finest -and silkiest grains of all animals, and though too tender for rough -usage, is nevertheless, if suitably nourished, capable of standing -greater wear than it is credited with. Calf skins for bookbinding are -the product of the domestic ox (Bos taurus), and as this useful animal -is bred the world over, we are not wanting in supplies, nor is one land -more favoured than another. If the principle is accepted that small -books require small thin skins, as the books increase in size so should -the skins and substance, a great difficulty will be overcome, because -in buying calf one of the fatal mistakes made is the stipulation that -large skins must be thin. If this is insisted upon they must be split -or shaved of all their muscular tissue till merely the grain or skiver -is left. A reasonable amount of shaving is permissible, but splitting -is disastrous. Calf skins are invariably free from grain faults, so -that for delicate shades of colour they are particularly suitable. The -grain does not lend itself to any very definite formation in boarding -(graining), therefore calf by preference should be left smooth. In -the raw state they are purchased by the pound, and such cost being a -governing factor in selling, the price when finished may vary from 8d. -to 1s. 8d. per square foot. - -The skins of seal (family Phocidĉ) are most useful for bookbinding, -possessing special features, viz.: evenness of quality throughout, -there being no flanky or abdominal parts, extremely durable and -producing pretty grains either coarse or fine, dependent upon the -substance and character of the skins. The sources of supply are -Russia, Norway, Spitzbergen, Greenland, Labrador, and Newfoundland, -the largest supply coming from the latter place. Isolated supplies -have been shipped from the Falkland Islands and Antarctic. These are -the true or earless seals (family Phocidĉ), commonly called hair seals -in contradistinction to the fur or eared seal (family Otaridĉ) which -inhabit the Pacifics. As a leather for bookwork when tanned with a -pyrogallol tannage it is soft and kind to the touch, having few equals -and no superiors. It is essentially a hard-wearing leather and in -this respect only equalled by certain classes of goat-skins and pig -or hog skins. The "grained" skins exhibit a grain which sparkles in a -manner which is peculiarly characteristic and absent in other grained -leathers. The value of seal-skins, finished, ranges from 10d. to 2s. -per square foot. The former are useful for half-bound books. - -Finally, pig or hog skins have played an important part in ancient -bindings of all sizes, and proved their great value as a hard wearing -cover by coming down to us in a remarkable state of preservation, even -on very heavy tomes. But, regretfully, some discredit has been cast -upon this splendid skin, partly due to ignorance in manufacture, also -to the very clever imitations. It is, perhaps, one of the easiest skins -to reproduce in its grain features and solid character, though the -imitations are easily detected by immersing a piece of the suspected -leather in water until saturated, then pulling it out with the hands to -stretch when the grain, which is produced by embossing, will disappear, -while the true hog grain will remain showing clear hair holes through -from grain to flesh. A hog-skin may be said to be practically -fibreless, approaching nearer to a piece of tough gristle than -anything else. In the raw state the skins are shipped from southern -Europe, Danubian and Balkan States, China and the East generally, while -North America has an almost unlimited supply, but Scotland produces -the finest and most esteemed. In size they vary considerably, like all -skin supplies, but a most useful skin for binders' use will contain -about 11 to 12 square feet. Slow oak-bark tanning is most suitable -for this class of skin. Sumach may with advantage be employed after -tanning to prepare them for the "dressing" or "finishing" process, but -no mechanical or chemical means should be employed to overcome a too -gristly nature, otherwise its unique capacity to withstand the act of -attrition is proportionately decreased, or if some similar means are -adopted to attain evenness of shade in dyeing, the same result may be -expected: therefore, so far as it is practicable, this skin should be -used in its natural state, if full durability is required. - -Pigskins containing 11 to 12 square feet may be purchased, according to -their quality and degree of manufacture, from 8d. to 1s. 4d. per square -foot. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - The Repairing and Binding of Books - for Public Libraries. - - BY - - CYRIL DAVENPORT. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - -What with bad paper and bad leather, the librarian of the present is -confronted with two serious problems. In spite of the Society of Arts' -adverse criticism in 1898, much paper is still made of mechanical -wood pulp, and more badly overloaded with clay, in both cases -causing much anxiety and expenditure to the librarian who attempts -to cope successfully with the defect. The soft, spongy leaves, like -blotting-paper, that are chiefly composed of wood pulp, can best -be dealt with in the very expensive way of inlaying each page in a -surround of sound, true paper. But there is another expedient, which I -have not tried, which may to some extent be useful; it is to enclose -each leaf within a network of fine open silk net, made on purpose. In -either case re-sewing and re-binding is necessary. - -With regard to the clay-laden paper on which many books are -printed, the case is equally serious and equally costly. Fine -monotone illustrations produced by the half-tone method, and colour -illustrations produced by the three-colour process, are now always made -on this sort of paper, which has a beautifully fine and even surface. -The paper, however, will not allow any stitching to keep it in place, -so it rapidly falls out. Then it has either to be inlaid in a sound -paper surround or else entirely mounted on a sound piece of paper or -jaconet; and if there are many plates this involves re-binding and an -ugly thickening of the book. There is, however, a new method, which may -prove of real value: the actual print is made on a very thin paper, -which is at once laid down on a sound sheet. - -All these operations are expensive as at present provided for in most -libraries. They require great care and skill, and take a long time; and -it may safely be said that any trustworthy binder entrusted with such -work, which is quite out of the ordinary schedule, is fully justified -in charging highly for it. The necessary materials are, however, quite -simple, so that if there should be a skilled binder on the staff, all -such work can practically be done and counted at the cost of time-work -only--an immense saving. - -There are numerous other small accidents which befall books in all -public libraries about which the same things may be said--accidental -ink-spots, leaves crushed from a fall, torn places, cut places, damp -or wet marks found out in time; all these are expensive to send out -and cheap to do on the premises. Besides this, in many cases such as -ink-stains or wet an immediate treatment is often quite successful, -whereas a delayed treatment can rarely be so. - -All this comes under the category of small repairs; but there are other -matters which rank a little higher in the bookbinding world which can -also be easily and effectively done by a resident binder with few -appliances. In all libraries there are a number of pamphlets and thin -books which come under the usual binder's schedule at a fair price, -but which, if dealt with by the "stabbed" method on the premises, will -be equally strong at about one-third the cost. An ordinary octavo -periodical, measuring 10 by 7 inches, and 1-1/4 inches thick, can, with -the help of a cheap stabbing machine, be strongly and effectively bound -for about 10d., with boards, cloth back, paper sides, and lettered -in hand type on a paper label. I showed a specimen to the Library -Association on Dec. 18, 1902, when I read a paper on the subject, and -it was much approved. I do not advise the stabbing for a book of value, -but it does admirably for unimportant books, and is quick and easy to -do. - -It might be worth pointing out that in binding in this way a collection -of pamphlets of the same size, the collection can easily be taken -to pieces for insertion of a new piece, if required, without further -injury to the pamphlets already stabbed. - -Next to this comes binding proper, books sewn with sewn-in bands or -flexible, then properly forwarded and finished. This is all skilled -work, and if any library is able to afford it there is no question but -that a large saving would be effected, both in money and in efficiency, -if it would set up a small bindery of its own. I think, however, that -it would not be wise to set up such a bindery unless some member of the -superior staff has gone through the binding shops and is able to bind a -book properly himself. [N.B.--In London the practical knowledge is very -difficult to obtain, as the Technical Education Board of the London -County Council does not admit amateurs.] Without this knowledge it is -impossible to know whether a book is truly or fraudulently bound. - -A very common fault is that binders will not draw the ends of the bands -of a book properly in to the boards. They cut off the ends of the bands -or scrape them so thin that they are of no strength--this is done so -that the joint should look quite flat. The result is that when the -cloth, buckram, or leather with which the back is covered, gives way, -off come the boards; the book is then sent to a binder, who sticks a -new strip of leather along the back, and letters it, and charges the -same as for re-binding, the operation is done by one's own binder with -own leather, costing about a few pence only. In a properly forwarded -book with the bands properly drawn in, the boards are very securely -fastened and may well remain so for hundreds of years, irrespective -of whatever substance is used to cover the back. If the sewing of an -old book is still sound, but the ends of the bands are broken off, -new bands can be added by means of tape glued over the old ones and -then fastened on to the boards and properly covered with a new bit -of leather. Sometimes when they are sound, the remaining ends of old -bands will bear a new bit sewn on to them. In all repairs care should -be taken to match any old leather that can be retained as nearly as -possible. The proper sewing and forwarding of the book is the integral -part of the binding, the outer covering is of little real use except -for the protection of the threads which in the case of a flexible sewn -book would soon wear through if not enclosed. The outer covering of -a book, however, has great decorative possibilities and has been for -centuries a much valued field for designers, jewellers, enamellers, -goldsmiths, and workers in blind and gold tooling. Much fine decorative -work done on modern calf and bright coloured leathers will probably -perish in a very few years. - -The question, therefore, of quality and soundness of the leather used -for covering the proper sewing of a book is of much importance. There -is strong need for sound leather, which is difficult to get, and -ordinary persons, even bookbinders and librarians themselves, cannot by -a simple inspection discriminate between new good leather and new bad -leather because there is no apparent difference. - -We are in the hands of our leather merchants, and although several -firms are now willing to sell leathers under guarantee of freedom -from sulphuric acid, all are not yet so inclined. I should advise -all librarians who do their own binding to accept no leather without -a written guarantee of freedom from sulphuric acid, and even then I -should send a cutting to Dr. Parker for examination. - -With regard to the trade aspect of employing a binder directly to work -on a time agreement, I am authoritatively informed that, provided the -workman is paid the full trade union wage, and properly located, there -is no objection to his employment in this manner. On the other hand, -as I have hinted before, I think that such a workman requires some -skilled supervision, so here, again, I would urge that in every library -one of the superior staff should be a competent binder himself. Given -such a skilled supervisor and a small body of skilled binders under his -authority, there is no doubt whatever that much money would be saved -in the administration of any library, and a multitude of invaluable -small repairs would be possible, which under ordinary conditions must -be left alone to accumulate and get worse and worse. - -I am pleased to say that there are already valuable corroborations of -this view in actual working, and I am permitted to cite the case of the -Hull Public Library, whose report on the binding for 1901 is before me. -During this year I find that the work done comprised-- - - 3,024 volumes bound (all sizes, average 1s. 6-1/5d. per volume). - - 247 volumes re-sewn (with new sides to 113 volumes). - - 306-1/2 dozen volumes lettered and 114-1/2 dozen volumes - alterations in numbers. - - 46 reading cases made. - - Repairs, maps and sundries. - - The cost of the above work was-- £ s. d. - WAGES 210 4 4 - MATERIALS-- £ s. d. - Millboards 25 8 4 - Cloth 11 2 4 - Tapes 3 3 0 - Paste and glue 3 16 6 - Calico 7 10 2 - Gold leaf 4 9 3 - Leathers 41 8 6 - Thread 5 2 1 - Gas, carriage, &c. 9 8 6 - End papers 7 8 6 - ---------- 118 17 2 - ------------ - £329 1 6 - ============ - -The mere enumeration of these materials shows the immense value of the -system, enabling the administration to accomplish numbers of small -repairs, each of which would have cost very much more if they had been -done by an outside bookbinder. - -The report for 1902 is similar, but the sum spent is £396 1s. 11d., and -the work done was-- - - 3,756 volumes bound (all sizes) average 1s. 7-1/3d. per volume. - - 6,901 volumes lettered and 1,098 volumes alterations in numbers. - - Maps mounted and repairs. - -In 1903 we find an expenditure of £397 7s. 4d., and work done-- - - 3,465 volumes bound, all sizes (1s. 8-1/7d. per vol.). - 633 " re-cased. - 1,697 " repaired and glued up. - 3,241 " numbered, and 224 volumes numbers altered. - 77 reading cases made. - 50 boxes for application forms made. - 589 sheets of ordnance maps mounted and repaired. - -The increased cost in binding "is principally owing to extra labour -incurred in preparing the books for sewing, necessary in consequence -of the poor quality of paper on which books are now printed, and the -method of sewing adopted by publishers." - -Here we begin to find the result of the bad paper of to-day, and -we must also note the warning to publishers contained in the last -paragraph. I can thoroughly endorse it, and I know that nine out of ten -new books are so badly put together that it takes a long time and much -trouble to pull them to pieces before they can be properly sewn. - -For 1904 there is an expenditure of £416 16s. 6d., and the work -done--4,352 volumes bound (average cost 1s. 8-1/2d. per vol.), and -various items of mounting ordnance maps, always a very expensive -operation, re-sewing, lettering, and miscellaneous repairs, all very -necessary and, if sent out, very costly. It will be noted that the cost -of binding per volume is steadily increasing, and this not because the -work is better done, but because of the bad quality of the paper and -sewing as sent out by publishers. Books are sent out fastened by little -wire clips, which rust, and have to be very carefully extracted before -a book can be properly sewn. These little clips are abominations, and -the process of removing them, however carefully done, is likely to -cause damage which must be repaired in its turn. Then machine sewing -has not yet reached its final stage; there is a difficulty about the -return of one of the threads, and it is clumsily brought back by -tearing through the upper and lower extremities of each section. This -damage is glued up and hidden by a head-band stuck on, but when the -book is pulled so that it may be properly sewn, the torn parts have to -be laboriously mended. - -My thanks are due to Mr. William F. Lawton, the librarian of the Hull -Public Libraries, who has most courteously given me the particulars -I asked him for; and he tells me further that his books are all -half-bound, mostly in sealskin--a very valuable leather; also that he -is getting a far better binding both as regards the quality of the -materials used and the highest average he mentions, 1s. 8-1/2d. per -volume for a satisfactory binding must be something of a revelation to -most librarians, whose average, even if they employ the cheapest binder -in their neighbourhood, must be very much higher than this, and in all -likelihood the work and materials not in any way near the same standard -of excellence. - -There is another point about an old library which is of much -importance, and for which the services of a regular working binder are -invaluable. This is the periodical cleaning and polishing of books. -It is no use to try to clean old books with water; it will do more -harm than good. But until some competent chemist chooses to suggest -a proper dressing, it will be found that a good furniture polish is -excellent for the purpose. Among the several skilled members employed -in my library, one of the best is always cleaning and polishing old -books; in fact, old leather really requires some sort of feeding to -keep it in sound condition, and the state of perfect repair in which -numbers of 15th century books and books of about that date still -are is a remarkable testimony to the excellence of old systems of -preparing leather and its permanence if carefully kept. Calf, vellum, -and goat-skin all last splendidly, but all do better if kept in the -dark and under glass; and it must never be forgotten that damp is one -of the worst enemies of both paper and leather. Bookcases should never -touch an outer wall, but a ventilation space should always be left -between the wall and the back of the bookcase. This should even be done -when the bookcase abuts on an inner wall. Bookshelves should never be -cleaned or washed with water--only use furniture polish; and vellum -books should be kept with their backs inwards, the title, if necessary, -being written on the fore-edge. Old vellum books were usually kept so -in olden times, as light makes vellum brittle like egg-shell. - -Books should be close enough on a shelf to support each other; they -should not be allowed to flop about; if they are there will be a -tendency to fall away from the upper bands, especially in the case of -large books. A simple angle iron, the lower wing being inserted under -the last few books on a shelf not full, will enable the books to be -kept always at the proper lateral pressure. - -Big books, such as newspapers, should have a strong handle loop of -leather bound in, coming out about the middle of the back. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - Specification for the Fittings of a - Small Bindery. - - BY - - F. J. WILLIAMSON. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - -The following practical hints may be found useful when repairs are -required to books in libraries. It is, however, necessary that the -librarian or his assistants should gain some technical knowledge of -bookbinding, as this will enable them to execute small repairs, which, -if promptly done, will probably prevent the expense of rebinding. - -The repairing room or small bindery should be not less than 12 feet -square, and should have a good natural light. The "plant" required will -be as follows:-- - - Approximate - Cost. - ------------ - £ _s._ _d._ - One cutting press, plough, pin and two knives 1 12 0 - One close tub and cover 1 15 0 - One stabbing machine 1 8 0 - One sewing press and keys 0 10 0 - One pair of millboard shears 0 18 6 - One pair of shears 0 2 6 - One paring knife 0 0 7 - One cutting-out knife 0 0 7 - One backing hammer 0 2 6 - One knocking-down iron 0 3 6 - Two bone folders (thin and thick) 0 0 10 - One paste tub 0 3 0 - One glue pot 0 3 0 - Two paste brushes (small and large) 0 5 0 - Two glue brushes (small and large) 0 5 0 - Two pairs of backing boards (octavo and folio) 0 2 0 -[A]Two pairs of pressing boards (quarto and folio) 0 7 0 - One iron nipping press, 18 by 12 5 5 0 - or - One wooden nipping press, 18 by 12 1 15 0 - One ragstone 0 0 5 - One sandstone 0 0 3 - One steel straight-edge 0 2 0 - One square 0 2 0 - One wooden trindle 0 0 6 - -[A] A few stout millboards of the same size as the wooden pressing -boards will be required for placing between the books when more than -one book is pressed at a time, the wooden pressing boards being used -for the top and bottom books. These can be made by pasting together two -tenpenny millboards; line each side with stout smooth paper, trim the -edges of the boards, so that they are square. - - -_To repair torn leaves._--Paste the edges of the parts torn very -neatly, using a little paste, place a piece of tissue paper under the -torn part, carefully join the parts, and place another piece of tissue -paper over the joint; then place a piece of paper each side of the -leaf, and put a weight upon it until the part is dry, then take away -the loose tissue paper. - - -_To insert a loose leaf._--Flatten the back edge of the leaf, then -place a strip of paper about 1/8 inch from the edge, and paste that -part very neatly, insert it in the book, placing it as close to the -back as possible, close the book, and place a weight upon it for about -three hours. - - -_To replace books in their covers._--If the cover of a book is sound, -the book can be inserted again in the following manner:--If it is -necessary, re-sew the book on tapes, put new end papers made with a -strip of wide linen in the fold, sew these on the book and trim them, -paste the tapes on the end papers, knock up the edges of the book as -evenly as possible (as they will not be cut) and glue the back, using -the glue sparingly, and place a thin piece of linen round the back -extending about 1 inch on each end paper; put the book under a weight -until the glue is almost dry, then "round" it and afterwards "back" it -slightly; place the book again under a weight until the glue is quite -dry, glue the back again, and place the book squarely in the old cover; -place a piece of paper round the back of the cover, and rub it down -with the bone folder until the back of the cover sticks well to the -book. After about three hours the glue will be dry, and the book can -then be pasted down; open the covers and paste the end paper facing the -board, using the brush from the centre to the edges; close the covers -and put the book in the nipping press--the pressing boards should be -placed carefully against the grooves and not upon them; leave the book -in the press for about twelve hours. When a book does not require -re-sewing, new end papers should be made as stated and sewn on the book -if it has been sewn on tapes; if the book has not been sewn on tapes, -the end papers should be edged on in the same manner as the loose leaf, -and in these instances the linen should be placed in the fold of the -end papers. - - * * * * * - -Old books which have been bound in leather generally require repairs to -the corners and the back, these being the parts which first show signs -of decay. Carefully cut away the ragged edges of the old leather along -the joints at the back and also the corners; strip the leather off the -back and soak it off if necessary, so that the back is quite clean; -also take away the old leather from the corners, lift up the edges of -the leather along the joints and also at the corners about 1 inch, turn -the leather back, and place a thin piece of wooden trindle under the -fold, and pare the edges of the leather neatly; if the millboard at the -corners is broken, open the edges and rub in some glue, press the edges -together, and, when nearly dry, hammer them flat on the "knocking-down -iron," obtain some leather to match the old binding, put a new back, -also corners where necessary, on the book, paring the edges of the -leather neatly; after these are quite dry, the edges of the old leather -should be pasted down to overlap the new leather; wash any smears of -paste away, and press the book lightly in the nipping press; new end -papers should be edged in as in the case of the loose leaf: trim them -to the size of the book and then paste them down, but with the boards -open until they are quite dry; place either a tin or a glazed cardboard -inside the covers, and keep the book pressed in the nipping press for -about six hours. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Acetic Acid. _See_ Acids, organic. - Acids, mineral, 20, 21 - ---- ---- _See also_ Sulphuric acid. - ---- organic; sulphuric acid substituted for, 8, 9 - ----, ---- Use of, advocated, 21 - Aniline dyes. _See_ Leather, dyeing. - Athenĉum Club Committee on leather decay, 11 - - Binderies, private; fitting and administration, 41-54 - Binding contracts, 13, 24, 25 - Binding specifications, model, 25 - Bookbinding, education in, want of provision for, 43 - Bookbinding in Public Libraries. _See_ Binderies, private. - Bookbinding leathers. _See_ Leather; _and under names of skins_, - _e.g._, Goatskin, &c. - Book cleaning and polishing. _See_ Leather preservative compositions. - Books; replacing within covers, 43, 52, 53 - Book-sewing; stabbing process for pamphlets, 42, 43 - ---- ---- Modern methods, 43, 44 - - Calvert, C., on decay of leather, 11 - Catechol tannins condemned. _See_ Tannins. - Calfskin, 26, 36 - Cockerell, D.: Note on Bookbinding, 25 - - Damp, influence upon leather, 27, 48 - Davenport, C.: "Repairing and Binding of Books for Public Libraries." - Chap. IV., 41-48 - Decay of leather. _See_ Leather, decay. - Dyeing leather. _See_ Leather, dyeing. - - Formic acid. _See_ Acids, organic. - - Gas fumes; influence upon leather, 11, 12 - Goatskin, 26, 34-36 - Graining, artificial, of leather. _See_ Leather, artificial graining. - - Heat; action upon leather, 11, 12, 27 - Hogskin. _See_ Pigskin. - Hull Public Library; Reports on private bindery, 45-47 - Hulme, E. W.: "History of Sumach Tanning, &c." Chap. I., 7-14 - - Jones, A. S.: "Provenance, &c., of Bookbinding Leathers." - Chap. III., 31-38 - - Lactic acid. _See_ Acids, organic. - Lawton, W. F. _See_ Hull Public Library. - Leather, artificial graining of, 10, 22, 31 - ---- bindings; conditions for preserving, 27 - ----, decay of; history, 10-12 - ----, ---- symptoms, 13, 14 - ----, ---- reasons, 18-24 - ---- dyeing; old and new systems compared, 9, 20, 21 - ---- early manufacture, 17 - ---- finishes, 24 - ---- preservative compositions, 27, 47, 48 - Leathers, retanned; process described and condemned, 22-24 - ----, ---- conditionally recommended, 34, 35 - ---- split, 22, 26, 33 - Leathersellers' Company; supervision of sumach tanning in 1565, 7 - ---- ---- Grant to Society of Arts' Committee, 12 - Light, influence upon leather, 27, 48 - Lopez, R., original of "Shylock", 7, 8 - - McBride, Dr., introduces use of sulphuric acid in 1768, 8, 9 - Morocco grain, 35 - ---- ---- artificial. _See_ Leather, artificial graining of. - Moroccos. _See_ Goatskin; Niger skin; Leathers, retanned. - Myrobalans, duty on, in 1660, 8 - - Niger skin, 34 - - Oxalic acid, use of, by binders, 14, 24 - - Paper, clay-loaded, mounting, 41, 42 - Parker, J. G.: "Causes of Leather Decay." Chap. II., 17-27 - ----, ---- appointed Analyst to the L.A., 12, 13 - - "Persians." _See_ Leathers, retanned. - Pigskin, characteristics, &c., 26, 37, 38 - ---- decay, 14 - Pyrogallol tannins. _See_ Tannins. - - Russia leather, 26 - - Sealskin, 26, 37 - Sheepskin, 26, 31-33 - "Shylock," original of, 8 - Skivers. _See_ Leathers, split. - Society of Arts' Committee on Leathers, appointment, 12 - ---- ---- ---- Recommendations, _passim_. - Sound Leather Committee; appointment, 12 - Spanish leather, sumach-tanned, 7 - Stationery Office. _See_ Binding contracts. - Sulphuric acid, first used in 1768, 8, 9 - ---- ---- _See also_ Acids, mineral. - Sumach tanning, history, 7, 8 - - Tannins; pyrogallols distinguished from catechols, 19, 20 - - Vellum, 26, 48 - - Williamson, F. J.: "Specification for the Fittings of a Small - Bindery." Chap. V., 51-54 - Woodward, C. T.: Experiments on action of gas fumes and heat, 11 - - - - -ADVERTISEMENTS. - - -INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. - - - _Bookbinders_: - Banting, George F., x - Birdsall & Son, xi - Bookbinders' Co-operative Society, Ltd., xii - Chappell, R. D., & Co., xii - Eyre & Spottiswoode, xiii - Gray, John P., & Son, xiv - Mudie & Co., x - Riley, B., & Co., Ltd., ix - Smith, W. H., & Son, xii - - _Leather Analysis_, ii - - _Leather Importers_: - Gray, John P., & Son, xiv - - _Leather Manufacturers_: - Bevingtons & Sons, iii - Deed, John S., & Sons, Ltd., v - Garnar, James, & Sons, vii - Gibbs, Geo., & Son, vii - Gryffe Tannery Co., ix - Meredith-Jones, J., & Sons, Ltd., vi - Muir, John, & Son, iv - Richardson, Edward & James, v - - _Leather (Bookbinding) Merchants_: - Eyre & Spottiswoode, xiii - - _Leather Trades Review_, viii - - _Sumac Importers_: - "Tiger" Sumac Co., x - - -When corresponding with Advertisers, please mention -"LEATHER FOR LIBRARIES." - - - - -_Leather Analysis._ - - -_Under an arrangement entered into between the Council of the Library -Association and Dr. J. Gordon Parker, their Official Examiner of -Leather, the following Scale of Fees has been agreed upon:--_ - - Special Fee - Usual Fee. to Members. - -------- ----------- - £ _s._ _d._ £ _s._ _d._ - Test for Presence of Injurious Acids 0 10 6 0 5 0 - Quantitative Estimation of Acids 1 1 0 0 7 6 - Nature of Tannage, if Pure Sumach 0 10 6 0 5 0 - Full Microscopic Examination 1 1 0 0 5 0 - Full Examination and Report on - Sample of Leather 2 2 0 1 0 0 - - Samples of Leather, not less than six square inches, may now be - sent to - - Dr. J. GORDON PARKER, - Herold's Institute, - Drummond Road, - Bermondsey. - - _Correspondence on above may be addressed to the Hon. Sec., Sound - Leather Committee of the Library Association, Whitcomb House, - Whitcomb Street, W.C._ - - - BEVINGTONS & SONS, - NECKINGER MILLS, - Bermondsey, London, S.E. - -_Manufacturers of--_ - - [Illustration] - - _Seal Leather for Books,_ - _Calf leather for Books,_ - _Goat leather for Books,_ - _---- and ----_ - _Sheep Leather for Books._ - - Guaranteed Sumach-Tanned and - free from Mineral Acids. - - --> EVERY SKIN STAMPED. <-- - - _See Samples of our Goat, Seal, and Calf (1-4) - on End Covers._ - - * * * * * - - - PIGSKIN - - FOR - - BOOK BINDING. - - MUIR'S - - [Illustration: PIGSKIN] - - BEITH.N.B. - - -We first introduced this material to the notice of Bookbinders some 25 -years ago. Since then it has steadily increased in popularity, as its -durability and utility have been demonstrated by this test of a quarter -of a century. - -_WHEREVER HARD WEAR IS WANTED PIGSKIN IS THE RIGHT THING IN THE RIGHT -PLACE._ - -It is not a fibrous substance as other leather is, but naturally of a -compact, gristly character. When skilfully tanned and treated for the -purpose, it unquestionably is the best of bookbinding leather. - -See Sample of our Pigskin on End Cover. - -Available in all colours and substances. Please write for full -particulars. - - - JOHN MUIR & SON, - TANNERS AND CURRIERS, - BEITH, SCOTLAND. - (_Established a Century ago._) - - Offices: 3, ARUNDEL STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. - Telephone: - 4669 GERRARD. - - Pigskin Tyre Factory for Vehicles and Motors: - 183, BOW ROAD, LONDON, E. - - * * * * * - - - JOHN S. DEED & SONS, _Ltd._ - Manufacturers of - Best Quality Sumach-Tanned - MOROCCOS AND CALF - - And other Classes of Bookbinding Leathers. - Factories { Eagle Leather Works, Mitcham and Carshalton, Surrey. - { Middlesex - - Arthur Street, London, W.C. - - _All Communications to be addressed to Central Works and Offices_ - 91, NEW OXFORD ST., LONDON, W.C. - - * * * * * - - - FINE LEATHERS FOR BOOKBINDING. - -[Illustration] - - Speciality ... - SEALS. - CAPE GOATS. - COLOURED CALF. - -[Illustration] - - Makers also of Best Flexible Skin Glue and - .. Roller Compo. .. - - EDWARD & JAMES RICHARDSON - ELSWICK LEATHER WORKS, - NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. - - * * * * * - - - J. MEREDITH-JONES & SONS, Ltd., - CAMBRIAN - LEATHER WORKS, - WREXHAM. - - MANUFACTURERS OF - - Bookbinders' - Leathers. - - Guaranteed to be dressed on the lines recommended by the Society - of Arts Report, and free from Mineral Acids. - - SPECIALITY: WELSH SHEEP. - See Sample of our Sheepskin on End Cover. - - _Patterns and Prices on application._ - - - * * * * * - - AN EFFECTIVE BINDING! - - _SKIVERS._ - - Sumach-Tanned Split Sheep - and Lamb Skins. - - SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR POCKET EDITIONS - AND SMALL VOLUMES. - - ONLY ENGLISH AND SCOTCH SKINS USED. - - JAMES GARNAR & SONS, - The Grange, - BERMONDSEY, LONDON, S.E. - - * * * * * - - - GEO. GIBBS & SON, - 29, ST. BRIDE STREET, LONDON. - - FACTORIES:-- - MITCHAM COMMON, SURREY, - AND - LONG LANE, BERMONDSEY. - - MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF - COLOURED HIDES, CALF, MOROCCO, ROAN, PIGSKIN, and - SKIVER LEATHERS. - - ALSO WHITE AND COLOURED VELLUMS, FORELS AND - PARCHMENTS FOR BOOKBINDERS. - - * * * * * - - - A JOURNAL IN EVERY SENSE OF THE TERM. - THE CHAMPION AND SUPPORTER OF THE TRUE INTERESTS OF - THE LEATHER TRADE. - - _"THE LEATHER - TRADES' REVIEW."_ - - THE ORGAN OF THE - _HIDE, TANNING, LEATHER - AND KINDRED TRADES._ - - A PRACTICAL AND THOROUGHLY UP-TO-DATE PAPER, - AND INDISPENSARLE TO ALL LEATHER MEN, - BOTH EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYÉS. - - _EVERY ISSUE WELL WORTH A WHOLE YEAR'S SUBSCRIPTION._ - - UNEQUALLED AS AN ADVERTISING MEDIUM. - - WORLD-WIDE CIRCULATION. - - TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES BY THE LEADING - EXPERTS IN ALL THE BRANCHES OF THE LEATHER INDUSTRY. - - LATEST AND MOST RELIABLE NEWS. - - ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION: TEN SHILLINGS - (52 WEEKLY NUMBERS POST FREE). - - OFFICE: 24, MARK LANE, LONDON, E.C. - - * * * * * - - - PIG SKINS - IN THE CRUST - FOR - BOOKBINDING LEATHER MANUFACTURERS - - _Warranted Free of Mineral Acid._ - - GRYFFE TANNERY COMPANY, - BRIDGE OF WEIR, - Near GLASGOW, - _SCOTLAND_. - - Telegrams: "GRYFFE," Bridge of Weir. - National Telephone: No. 8, Bridge of Weir. - - * * * * * - - B. RILEY & Co., Ltd., - LIBRARY BOOKBINDERS - and SPECIALISTS. - - Best Work, Best Materials, and Promptness, with - Lowest Prices. - - PIGSKINS AND MOROCCOS - _Guaranteed free from Injurious Acid._ - - PATENT SEWING AND FLEXIBILITY. - - _Catalogues, Price Lists, and Quotations by return post._ - - NOTE ADDRESS:-- - Works: WESTGATE, HUDDERSFIELD. - London Office: 376, STRAND, W.C. - - * * * * * - - - Messrs. MUDIE & Co. - - _Undertake all Classes of Binding for either - PUBLIC or PRIVATE LIBRARIES.... - THE BEST WORK and BEST MATERIALS only. - No Imitation Leathers used...._ - - CHARGES FOR LARGE OR SMALL QUANTITIES ON APPLICATION. - - _Address MANAGER_, - BOOKBINDING DEPARTMENT, - MUDIE'S LIBRARY, - NEW OXFORD STREET, - LONDON. - - * * * * * - - - _IMPORTANT TO LIBRARIANS._ - - GEORGE F. BANTING, - Danemere Works, Danemere Street, Putney - (Hitherto trading as J. BANTING & SON, CHELSEA), - - _Specialist in Public Library Bookbinding_. - The only binder in London who has made a speciality of - Public Library Bookbinding. - - _Testimonials from Customers for Continuous Work for 18 years._ - BOOKS BOUND IN SOUND LEATHER AS PER SOCIETY OF ARTS RECOMMENDATION. - -A Trial Order will prove that Books Bound by me are "Bound once for All." - - * * * * * - - - Telegrams and Cables: "CLEANING, ECCLES." Code: A.B.C., 5th Ed. - Stores: LONDON. LIVERPOOL. - - THE "TIGER" SUMAC COMPANY. - "TIGER" REGISTERED BRAND. - THOMAS ATKIN, Proprietor. - ECCLES, ENGLAND. - - -Purity and 26 per cent. minimum Tannin guaranteed by I.A.L.T.C. Analysis. - Analyst, Dr. ANDREW TURNBULL, 3, Lord Street, Liverpool, whose - determination in every case must be final. - - Average Test of all our Shipments from September 1, 1904, - to July 31, 1905, =29·7=%, =or 14 per cent. beyond our guarantee=. - - _Free copy of Analysis given with orders for 10 Tons and upwards._ - - Shipments made c.i.f. from Palermo to any port in the world. - STOCKS KEPT IN LIVERPOOL AND LONDON FOR THE HOME TRADE. - - A SPECIAL SUMAC FOR THE FINEST LEATHERS. - - Agents--Messrs. POPPLETON, GIBBS & Co., 4-5, - Leather Market, London, S.E. -Sole Agents for Australia and New Zealand--Messrs. JAMES HARDIE & Co., - Melbourne. - - * * * * * - - - BIRDSALL & SON - _NORTHAMPTON_, - High-Class, General, and Miscellaneous - BOOKBINDERS. - - AN OLD-ESTABLISHED BUSINESS with a lengthened reputation, and in - the hands of the proprietors' family for the past 113 years. The - buildings now cover 20,000 square feet of ground. - - THE THOROUGHNESS of the old handicraftsman, with the skill of - modern expert workmanship. - - SOUND AND DURABLE ENGLISH LEATHER free from destructive acids. - - RELIURES DE LUXE and ART BINDINGS of the highest quality, either - to original designs, or as reproductions of early styles. - - PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIBRARY BINDINGS of every description. - Patentees of "Bibliofortis" Bindings for books subject to - exceptional wear. - - SPECIAL BINDINGS in general conformity with the specifications of - the Society of Arts. - - REPAIRING, REMOUNTING, and RESTORING of Old Bindings. Washing and - Repairing of Old Books. Imperfect Leaves made up in facsimile, - &c., &c. - - TWO FIREPROOF STRONG ROOMS for the better security of valuable - books. - - THE PERSONAL ATTENTION of the four Messrs. Birdsall is given to - the intricate and often difficult detail of this business. Their - efforts are seconded by a large and expert managing staff, so that - an exceptional amount of experienced supervision is available, and - a high standard of efficiency is thereby maintained. - - * * * * * - - - Messrs. W. H. SMITH & SON - EXECUTE ORDERS FOR ALL STYLES OF - BOOKBINDING - IN THEIR OWN WORKSHOPS - UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DOUGLAS COCKERELL - - THEY ARE MAKING A SPECIALITY OF CARRYING - OUT EXACTLY THE RECOMMENDATIONS - OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE SOCIETY - OF ARTS ON LEATHER FOR BOOKBINDING - - BOOKS FOR BINDING MAY BE HANDED IN AT ANY OF - W. H. SMITH & SON'S BOOKSTALLS OR BRANCHES OR SENT - DIRECT TO THEIR BINDING DEPARTMENT - - PAMPHLET & PRICE LIST SENT ON APPLICATION - - GOLDSMITH ST. DRURY LANE LONDON, W.C. - - * * * * * - - - _The Bookbinders' - Co-operative Society, Ltd._, - (With Co-partnership of the Workers.) - - 17, BURY STREET. - BLOOMSBURY, W.C. - Established 1885. - - The above Society is noted for sound, reliable work, and binds - for many public institutions, and also has an _extensive private - connection_. - - Special Terms quoted for School and College Libraries. - - NIGER MOROCCO BINDINGS A SPECIALITY. - - _Books Bound in accordance with Society of Arts recommendations._ - - All work entrusted to us is under the supervision of - Mr. J. WATSON, Manager. - - * * * * * - - - OUR "FLEXO" BOOKBINDING - - ensures STRENGTH, - DURABILITY, and - FLEXIBILITY: - Three important requisites. - - PORTFOLIOS of every description - made at the shortest notice. - - - MSS. carefully Bound. - - OLD AND RARE BOOKS Restored, - Washed, and Cleaned without use of - Acids. - - R. D. CHAPPELL & Co., - General Library Bookbinders, - 25, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, - LONDON, E.C. - - - * * * * * - - =Eyre & Spottiswoode's= - - _PURE SUMACH - TANNED LEATHER._ - - Supplied in a variety of colours. - - - Not only free from acid, but strengthened and enriched - by a process which fully satisfies the conditions prescribed - by the Committee of the Society of Arts. - - Analysed by Gordon Parker, and certified to be - pure Sumach tanned and free from acid. - - _Facsimile of [Illustration] _Stamped on every skin - Guarantee_ supplied._ - - Binding: undertaken in this Special Leather (as used for - the British Museum) at a nominal increase on - the rates charged for ordinary leather. - - EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, East Harding Street, E.C. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration] - - _Established 1847._ _Established 1847._ - Special Appointment. - -[Illustration] - - _Best Appointed Bindery in East Anglia_ - - SPECIAL ATTENTION TO LIBRARY BOOKS - - John P. Gray & Son, - _Artistic & General_ - _BOOKBINDERS_, - - Nat. Tel.: 0262. - _10, Green Street_, Cambridge. - - _NIGER MOROCCO_, _Being importers of this excellent Leather, - direct from Kano, Northern Nigeria, we are in a position to supply - the trade and public in general with good skins at reasonable - prices._ - - EARLY PARISH REGISTERS SKILFULLY RESTORED, &C. - -[Illustration] - - John P. Gray & Son's reputation is a guarantee for the best - Workmanship and Materials at Moderate Prices. - - -[Illustration: (4.) CALF.] - -[Illustration: (5.) SHEEP (ROLLER BASIL).] - -[Illustration: (6.) PIG.] - - -Transcriber's Notes - -In the text version, text in italics and underlined text has been -transcribed using the _underline symbol_. - -Text in bold has been transcribed with =equals symbols=. - -There is some inconsistent hyphenation. This has been left as printed. - -p.10. "since about 1860 skeepskin" changed to sheepskin. - -p.43. "books sewn with sawn-in bands" changed to sewn-in. - -Index. "Sulphuric acid 8,6" There is no marked p.6. 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