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diff --git a/5152.txt b/5152.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f82d43b --- /dev/null +++ b/5152.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17281 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered +by E.J. Wickson + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered + +Author: E.J. Wickson + +Release Date: February, 2004 [EBook #5152] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on May 15, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, ONE THOUSAND QUESTIONS IN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE ANSWERED *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by David Schwan <davidsch@earthlink.net>. + + + +One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered + + + +By E. J. Wickson + +Professor of Horticulture, University of California; Editor of Pacific +Rural Press; Author of "California Fruits and How to Grow Them" and +"California Vegetables in Garden and Field," etc. + + + +Foreword + + + +This brochure is not a systematic treatise in catechetical form intended +to cover what the writer holds to be most important to know about +California agricultural practices. It is simply a classified arrangement +of a thousand or more questions which have been actually asked, and to +which answers have been undertaken through the columns of the Pacific +Rural Press, a weekly journal of agriculture published in San Francisco. +Whatever value is claimed for the work is based upon the assumption that +information, which about seven hundred people have actually asked for, +would be also interesting and helpful to thousands of other people. If +you do not find in this compilation what you desire to know, submit your +question to the Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, in the columns of +which answers to agricultural questions are weekly set forth at the rate +of five hundred or more each year. + +This publication is therefore intended to answer a thousand questions +for you and to encourage you to ask a thousand more. + +E. J. Wickson. + + + +Contents + + + + Part I. Fruit Growing + Part II. Vegetable Growing + Part III. Grain and Forage Crops + Part IV. Soils, Irrigation, and Fertilizers + Part V. Live Stock and Dairy + Part VI. Feeding Animals + Part VII. Diseases of Animals +Part VIII. Poultry Keeping + Part IX. Pests and Diseases of Plants + Part X. Index + + + +Part I. Fruit Growing + + + +Depth of Soil for Fruit. + + + +Would four feet of good loose soil be enough for lemons? + +Four feet of good soil, providing the underlying strata are not charged +with alkali, would give you a good growth of lemon trees if moisture was +regularly present in about the right quantity, neither too much nor too +little, and the temperature conditions were favorable to the success of +this tree, which will not stand as much frost as the orange. + + + +Temperatures for Citrus Fruits. + + + +What is the lowest temperature at which grapefruit and lemons will +succeed? + +The grapefruit tree is about as hardy as the orange; the lemon is much +more tender. The fruit of citrus trees will be injured by temperature at +the ordinary freezing point if continued for some little time, and the +tree itself is likely to be injured by a temperature of 25 or 27° if +continued for a few hours. The matter of duration of a low temperature +is perhaps quite as important as the degree which is actually reached by +the thermometer. The condition of the tree as to being dormant or active +also affects injury by freezing temperatures. Under certain conditions +an orange tree may survive a temperature of 15° Fahrenheit. + + + +Roots for Fruit Trees. + + + +I wish to bud from certain trees that nurseries probably do not carry, +as they came from a seedling. Is there more than one variety of +myrobalan used, and if so, is one as good as another? If I take sprouts +that come up where the roots have been cut, will they make good trees? I +have tried a few, now three years old, and the trees are doing nicely so +far, but the roots sprout up where cut. I am informed that if I can +raise them from slips they will not sprout up from the root. Will +apricots and peaches grafted or budded on myrobalan produce fruit as +large as they will if grafted on their own stock? + +Experience seems to be clear that from sprouts you will get sprouts. We +prefer rooted cuttings to sprouts, but even these are abandoned for +seedling roots of the common deciduous fruits and of citrus fruits also. +The apricot does well enough on the myrobalan if the soil needs that +root; they are usually larger on the peach root or on apricot seedlings. +The peach is no longer worked on the myrobalan in this State. One +seedling of the cherry plum is about as good a myrobalan as another. + + + +What Will the Sucker Be? + + + +I have a Japanese plum tree which bears choice plums. Three years ago a +strong young shoot came up from the root of it, which I dug out and +planted. Will it make a bearing tree in time and be of like quality with +the parent? + +It will certainly bear something when it gets ready. Whether it will be +like the parent tree depends upon the wood from which the sucker broke +out. If the young tree was budded very low, or if it was planted low, or +if the ground has been shifted so as to bring the wood above the bud in +a place to root a sucker, the fruit will be that of the parent tree. If +the shoot came from the root below the bud, you will get a duplication +of whatever stock the plum was budded on in the nursery. It might be a +peach or an almond or a cherry plum. Of course you can study the foliage +and wood growth of the sucker, and thus get an idea of what you may +expect. + + + +Tree Planting on Coast Sands. + + + +I wish to plant fruit trees on a sandy mesa well protected from winds +about a mile from the coast. The soil is a light sandy loam. I intend to +dig the holes for the trees this fall, each hole the shape of an +inverted cone, about 4 feet deep and 5 feet across, and put a half-load +of rotten stable manure in each hole this fall. The winter's rains would +wash a large amount of plant food from this manure into the ground. In +March I propose to plant the trees, shoveling the surrounding soil on +top of the manure and giving a copious watering to ensure the compact +settling of the soil about and below the roots. The roots would be about +a foot above the manure. + +On such a light sandy soil you can use stable manure more safely than +you could elsewhere, providing you have water handy to use if you should +happen to get too much coarse matter under the tree, which would cause +drying out of the soil. If you do get plenty of water to guard against +this danger, you are likely to use too much and cause the trees to grow +too fast. Be very sure the manure is well rotted and use one load to ten +holes instead of two. Whether you kill the trees or cause them to grow +aright depends upon how you use water after planting. + + + +A Wrong Idea of Inter-Planting. + + + +What forage plant can I grow in a newly planted orchard? The soil is on +a gently inclined hillside - red, decomposed rock, very deep, mellow, +fluffy, and light, and deep down is clayish in character. It cannot be +irrigated, therefore I wish to put out a drought-resisting plant which +could be harvested, say, in June or July, or even later. I find the +following plants, but I cannot decide which one is the best: Yellow soja +bean, speltz, Egyptian corn, Jerusalem corn, yellow Milo maize, or one +of the millets. What do you think? + +Do not think for a moment about planting any such plant between orchard +trees which are to subsist on rainfall without irrigation. Your trees +will have difficulty enough in making satisfactory growth on rainfall, +and would be prevented from doing so if they had to divide the soil +moisture with crops planted between them. The light, deep soils which +you mention, resulting from decomposed rock, are not retentive enough, +and, even with the large rainfall of your region, may require irrigation +to carry trees through the latter summer and early fall growth. + + + +What Slopes for Fruit? + + + +I want to plant some apples and berries. One man says plant them on the +east or south slope of the hill and they will be ripe early. Another man +says not to do that, for when the sun hits the trees or vines in the +morning before the frost is off, it will kill all the blossoms, and as +they would be on the warm side of the hill they would blossom earlier +and there will be more frosts to injure them. I am told to plant them on +the north or west side of the hill, where it is cold, and they will +blossom later and will therefore have less frosts to bother them, and +the frost will be almost off before the sun hits them in the morning. + +Fruit is grown on all slopes in our foothills, depending on local +conditions. On the whole, we should choose the east and north slopes +rather than the east and south, because there is less danger of injury +from too great heat. In some cases what is said to you about the less +danger of injury from frosts on the north and west slopes would be true. +All these things depend upon local conditions, because there is so much +difference in heat and frost and similar slopes at different elevations +and exposures. There can never be a general rule for it in a State so +endowed with varying conditions as California is. + + + +Trees Over Underflow. + + + +I have planted fruit trees near the creek, where they do not have to be +irrigated as the ground there holds sufficient moisture for them, but a +neighbor tells me that on account of the moisture being so near the +surface the trees will not bear fruit well, although they will grow and +have all the appearances of health. + +Shallow soil above standing water is not good for fruit trees. A shallow +soil over moving water or underflow, such as you might expect from a +creek bank, is better. The effect of water near the surface depends also +upon the character of the soil, being far more dangerous in the case of +a heavy clay soil than in the case of a light loam, through which water +moves more readily and does not rise so far or so rapidly by capillary +action. If the trees are thrifty they will bear when they attain a +sufficient age and stop the riotous growth which is characteristic of +young trees with abundant moisture. If trees have too much water for +their health, it will be manifested by the rotting of their roots, the +dying of their branches, the cropping out of mushroom fungi at the base +and other manifestations of distress. So long as the tree is growing +well, maintains good foliage to the tip of the branches and is otherwise +apparently strong, it may be expected to bear fruit in due time. + + + +The "June Drop." + + + +I am sending four peaches which are falling off the trees. Can you tell +me how to prevent falling of the fruit next year and what causes it? + +It is impossible to tell from the peaches which you send what caused +their falling. Where fruit passes the pollination stage successfully, as +these fruits have, the dropping is generally attributed to some +conditions affecting the growth of the tree, which never have been fully +determined. It is of such frequent occurrence that it is called the June +drop, and it usually takes place in May in California. As the cause is +not understood no rational preventive has been reached. A general +treatment which consists in keeping the trees in good growing condition +late enough during the previous season, that is, by seeing to it that +they do not suffer from lack of moisture which causes them to close +their growing season too soon before preparation for the following +year's crop is made, is probably the best way to strengthen the tree for +its burden. + + + +Trees Over a Gravel Streak. + + + +I have an apricot orchard seven years old. Most of the land is a fairly +heavy clay with a strip of gravel in the middle running nearly north and +south. The trees on the clay bear good crops, but those on the gravel +are usually much lighter in bearing and this year had a very light crop. +Can you tell me of anything I can do to make them bear? The trees are +large and healthy looking, and grow big crops of brush. + +We should try some water in July on the gravel streak, hoping to +continue activity in the tree later to induce formation of strong fruit +for the following year. On the clay loam the soil does this by its +superior retentiveness. + + + +Fruit and Overflow. + + + +I have 16 acres of rich bottom-land that overflows and is under water +from 24 to 48 hours. I would like to set the ground to fruit trees, +either prunes, pears, apricots, or peaches. Would it be safe to set them +on such land? + +Fruit trees will endure overflowing, providing the water does not +exclude the air too long and providing the soil is free enough so that +the soil does not remain full of water after the surface flow +disappears. If the soil does not naturally drain itself and the water is +forced to escape by surface evaporation, probably the situation is not +satisfactory for any kind of fruit trees. Overflow is more likely to be +dangerous to fruit trees during the growing season than during the +dormant season, and yet on well-drained soil even a small overflow may +not be injurious on a free soil, if not continued too long. Prunes on +plum root, and pears will endure wet soil better than apricots or +peaches. + + + +Fruit Trees and Sunburn. + + + +How long is it wise to leave protection around young fruit trees set out +in March in this hot valley? The trees are doing well, but we could not +tell when to take away protection. + +It is necessary to maintain the protection from sunburn all through the +autumn, for the autumn sun is often very hot, and as the sap flow +lessens, the danger of burning is apparently greater. The bark also must +be protected against the spring sunshine, even before the leaves appear. +So long as the sun has a chance at the bark, you must protect it from +sunburn. + + + +Replanting in Orchard. + + + +Is it considered a good plan to set the tree at once in the place where +one has died, or is it better to wait a year before replacing? + +It is not necessary to wait a year in making a replanting. Get out all +the old roots you can by digging a large hole, fill in with fresh soil, +and your tree will accept the situation. + + + +Whole Roots or Piece Roots. + + + +For commercial apple orchards which is preferable, trees grafted on +piece roots or on whole roots? On behalf of the piece-root trees it is +claimed they sprout up less around the tree. On the other hand, it is +claimed they never make a vigorous tree. What is the truth? + +Value depends rather upon what sort of a growth the tree makes afterward +than upon what it starts upon. Theoretically perhaps a whole-root tree +may be demonstrated to be better; practically, we cannot see that it +becomes so necessarily, because we have trees planted at a time when the +root graft on a piece was the general rule in propagation. After all, is +it not more important to have soil conditions and culture of such +character that a great root can grow in the orchard than to have a whole +nursery concentrated in the root of the yearling tree? As for the claim +that a root graft on a piece-root never makes a vigorous tree, we know +that is nonsense. + + + +Planting Deciduous Fruit Trees. + + + +In order to gain time, I have thought of planting apples and pears this +fall, in the belief I would be just that much nearer a crop, than though +I waited until next spring. The land is sandy loam; no irrigation. Would +you advise fall or spring planting? If fall, would it be best to plow +the land now, turning in the stubble from hay crop, or wait until time +to plant before plowing? + +You will not be any nearer a crop, for next summer's growth will be the +first in either case. On land not liable to be too wet in winter, it is, +however, best to plant early, say during the month of December, if the +ground is in good condition and sufficiently moist. If the year's +rainfall has been scant, wait until the land is well wet down, for it is +never desirable to plant when the soil is not in the right condition, no +matter what the calendar may say. On a sandy loam early planting is +nearly always safe and desirable. On lands which are too wet and liable +to be rendered very cold by the heavy January rains, planting had better +be deferred until February, or as soon as the ground gets in good +condition after these heavy rains. Whenever you plant, it will be +desirable to plow the land either in advance of the rains, if it is +workable, or as soon as rain enough comes to make it break up well. It +is very seldom desirable to postpone plowing until the actual time of +planting comes. + + + +Budding Fruit Trees. + + + +Is it better to bud in old bark of an old tree or in younger wood bark? +How do you separate old bark without breaking it in lifting the bark? + +Buds may be placed in old bark of fruit trees to a certain extent. The +orange and the olive work better that way than do the deciduous trees, +although buds in old bark of the peach have done well. They should, +however, be inserted early in the season while the sap flow is active +and the old bark capable of lifting; if the bark sticks, do not try +budding. In spite of these facts, nearly all budding of deciduous trees +is done in bark of the current year's growth. + + + +Starting Fruit Trees from Seed. + + + +How shall I start, and when, the following seeds: Peach, plums, +apricots, walnuts, olives and cherries? In the East we used to plant +them in the fall, so as to have them freeze; as it does not freeze +enough here, what do I have to do? + +Do just the same. In California, heat and moisture cause the parting of +the seed-cover, more slowly perhaps, but just as surely as the frost at +the East. Early planting of all fruit pits and nuts is desirable for two +reasons. First, it prevents too great drying and hardening and other +changes in the seed, because the soil moisture prevents it; second, it +gives plenty of time for the opening and germination first mentioned. +But early planting must be in ground which is loamy and light rather +than heavy, because if the soil is so heavy as to become water-logged +the kernel is more apt to decay than to grow. Where there is danger of +this, the seed can be kept in boxes of sand, continually moist, but not +wet, by use of water, and planted out, as sprouting seeds, after the +coldest rains are over, say in February. Cherry and plum seeds should be +kept moist after taking from the fruit; very little is usually had from +dry seeds. The other fruits will stand considerable drying. Very few +olives are from the seed, because of reversion to wild types - also +because it is so much easier to get just the variety you want by growing +trees from cuttings. + + + +Mailing Scions. + + + +Which is the best way to send scions by mail? + +Wax the ends of mature cuttings, remove the leaves and enclose in a +tight tin canister with no wet packing material. + + + +Nursery Stock in Young Orchard. + + + +How will it do to raise, for two or three years, a lot of orange +seedlings between the rows of young three-year-old orange trees? I see +that a nurseryman near me has done this, and his trees are more +flourishing than mine. + +It can be done all right, as your own observation affirms. The superior +appearance of the trees may be due to the additional water, and +fertilizer probably, used to push the seedlings; possibly also to extra +cultivation given them. It all depends upon what policy is observed in +growing the seedlings; if something more than usual is done for their +sakes, the trees may get their share and manifest it. If not, the trees +will be robbed by the seedlings, and there is likely to be loss by both. +There is no advantage in the mere fact that both are grown; there may be +in the way they are grown. Whether there is money value in the operation +or not depends upon how many undertake it. + + + +Square or Triangular Planting. + + + +What is your opinion on triangular planting as compared with square +planting? + + + +Planting in squares is the prevailing method. The triangular plan is not +a good one when one contemplates removing trees planted as fillers. The +orchard should either be planned in the square or quincunx form. In the +latter case individual trees can be easily removed; in the other case +rows can be removed - leaving the rows which you wish to keep +equidistant from each other. + + + +Killing Stumps by Medication. + + + +Will boring into green stumps and inserting a handful of saltpeter kill +the roots and cause the stump to readily burn up a few months later? + +We have tried all kinds of prescriptions and have never killed a stump +which had a mind to live. Many trees can be killed by cutting to stumps +when in full growth, whether they are bored or not. Others will sprout +in spite of all medicinal insertions we know of when these are placed in +the inner wood of the stump. We believe a stump can be killed by +sufficient contact with the inner bark layer of arsenic, bluestone, +gasoline, and many other things, but it is not easy to arrange for such +sufficient contact, and it would probably cost more than it would to +blow or pull out the stump. One reader, however, assures us that he has +killed large eucalyptus stumps by boring three holes in the stump with +an inch auger, near the outer rim of the stump, placing therein a +tablespoonful of potassium cyanide and saltpeter mixture (half and +half), and plugging tightly. Another says: Give the stumps a liberal +application of salt, say a half-inch all over the top, and let the fog +and rain dissolve and soak down, and you will not have much trouble with +suckers. + + + +Planting Fruit Trees on Clearings. + + + +We wish to plant orchard trees on land cleared this winter: manzanita +and chaparral, but also some oaks and large pines and groves of small +pines. We have been told that trees planted under such conditions, the +ground containing the many small roots that we cannot get out, would not +do well. Are the bad effects of the small roots liable to be serious; +also, would lime or any other common fertilizer counteract the bad +effects? + +Proceed with the planting, as you are ready for it, and take the chances +of root injury. It may be slight; possibly even absent. Carefully throw +out all root pieces, as you dig the hole, and exclude them from the +earth which you use in filling around the roots, and in the places where +large trees stood, fill the holes with soil from a distance. Much +depends upon how clean the clearing was. No considerable antiseptic +effect could be expected from lime and the soil ought to be strong +enough to grow good young trees without enrichment. The pear, fig and +California black walnut are some of the most resistant among +fruit-bearing trees, and these may usually be planted with safety. The +cherry is the most resistant of the stone fruits. The "toadstool" +disease occasionally affects young apple trees recently set out, but it +is not usually serious on established trees. + + + +Dipping Roots of Fruit Trees. + + + +In planting an almond orchard would it be of any benefit to dip the +young trees in a solution of bluestone and lime dissolved? + +We doubt if it would serve any good purpose. If done at all the dip +should be carefully prepared in accordance with the formula for bordeaux +mixture, for excess of bluestone will kill roots. Healthy trees do not +need such treatment, and we doubt if unhealthy ones can be rendered safe +or desirable by it. + + + +Preparing for Fruit Planting. + + + +What effect will a crop of wheat have on new cleared land, to be planted +in fruit trees later on? + +One crop of wheat or barley will make no particular difference with the +cleared land which you expect to plant to fruit later. It would be +better to grow a cultivated crop like corn, potatoes, beets, squashes, +etc., because this crop would require summer cultivation which would +kill out many weeds or sprouts and leave your land in better shape for +planting. + + + +Depth in Planting Fruit Trees. + + + +I have been advised to plant the bud scar above ground in a wet country. +Is that right? + +On ordinary good loam, plant the tree so that it will stand about the +same as it did in the nursery: a little lower, perhaps, but not much. +The bud scar should be a little above the surface. It is somewhat less +likely to give trouble by decay in the upset tissue. If the soil is +heavy and wet, plant higher, perhaps, than the nursery soil-mark, but +not much. In light, sandy soil, plant lower - even from four to six +inches lower - than in the nursery sometimes. In this case the budscar +is below the surface, but that does not matter in a light, dry soil +which does not retain moisture near the surface. + + + +Fruit Trees in a Wet Place. + + + +One part of my orchard is low and wet, much scale and old trees loose. +Will much spraying be a cure and can I use posts to hold the old trees +firm, or would you take out and put in Bartlett pears! + +Spraying would kill the scale but no spraying will make a tree +satisfactory in inhospitable soil. As pears will endure wet places +better than apples, it would seem to be wise to make the substitution, +providing the situation is not too bad for any fruit tree. In that case +you can use it for a summer vegetable patch. + + + +Cutting Back at Planting. + + + +I have planted a lot of one-year-old cherry trees and would like to know +if I should cut them down the same as the apple tree? I have also +planted a lot of walnut trees. Shall I cut them off? + +Yes for the cherries and no for the walnuts - although we have to admit +that some planters hold for cutting back the walnuts also. If you do cut +back the walnuts, let them have about twice the height of stem you give +the cherries and cover the exposed pith with wax or paint. + + + +Branching Young Fruit Trees. + + + +It is the practice in this locality to wrap all young trees to a point +24 inches above the bud, for the purpose of protection against rabbits, +to protect the bark from the sun and to prevent growth of sprouts. These +wrappings are kept on indefinitely, the rule being that no sprouting is +to be permitted below the 24-inch murk. Is there any virtue in this, and +why is it done? + +The wrapping is desirable both to protect them from rabbits and from +sunburn, and either this or whitewash or some other form of protection +should certainly be employed against the latter trouble. It is not +desirable to have all the branches emerge at the same point, either 24 +from the ground or at some lower level, as is preferable in interior +situations, but branches should be distributed up and down and around +the trunk so as to give a strong, well-balanced, low-headed tree. So far +as wrapping interferes with the growth of shoots in this manner it is +undesirable. + + + +Coal Tar and Asphaltum on Trees. + + + +What is the effect of coal tar or asphaltum applied to the bark of +trees? + +The application of coal tar to prevent the root borers of the prune +which operate near the surface of the ground was found to be not +injurious to the trees, although there was great apprehension that there +would be. The application of asphaltum, what is known as "grade D," has +been also used to some extent in the Santa Clara valley without injury. +Of course, in the use of any black material, you increase the danger of +sunburn, if applied to bark which is reached by the sun's rays. + + + +Whitewashing Fruit Trees. + + + +When is the proper time to whitewash walnut trees to prevent sun scald? +How high up is it advisable to apply the wash? + +Whitewash after heavy rains are over and before the sun gets very hot; +near the coast see that it is on early in April; in the interior it +should be in place in March. Do not wait until all the rains are over, +because there is a great chance of bark-burning between rains in the +spring. Whitewash the trunk and the larger limbs - wherever the sun can +reach the bark; being careful to keep the surface white where the 2 +o'clock sun hits it. Be particular to whitewash, or otherwise protect by +"protectors" or burlap wrappings, all young trees; the young tree is +more apt to be hurt than an old one, but bark seems never to get too old +to burn if the sun is hot enough. + + + +Shaping a Young Tree. + + + +In shortening back long, slim limbs the side shoots come out, and one +soon has a lot of ugly, crooked limbs to look at. There are a number of +orchards here being spoiled in that way. How is this avoided? + +You cannot secure a low-heading, well-shaped tree without cutting back +the branches. Afterward you can improve the form by selecting shoots +which are going in directions which you prefer, or you can cut back the +shoots afterward to a bud which will start in the direction which you +desire. In this way the progressive shaping of the tree must be pursued. +If you only have a few trees and can afford the time, you can, of +course, bend and tie the branches as they grow, so that they will take +directions which seem to you better, but this is not practicable in +orcharding on a commercial scale. There is no disadvantage in crooked +branches in a fruit tree, but they should crook in desirable directions, +and that is where the art in pruning comes in. + + + +Pruning Times. + + + +What is the best time to prune the French prune and most other trees? In +Santa Clara volley they prune as soon as leaves are off; in the +mountains they prune later, say in February and March, and finish after +bloom is started and of course when sap is up. Which is right? + +You can prune French prunes and other deciduous trees at any time during +the winter that is most convenient to you. It does not make any +particular difference to the tree, nor does it injure the tree at all if +you should continue pruning after the bloom has started. In fact, it is +better to make large cuts late in the winter, because they heal over +more readily at the beginning of the growing period than at the +beginning of the resting season. It is believed that early pruning may +cause the tree or vine to start growth somewhat sooner and this may be +undesirable in very frosty places. + + + +Grafting Wax. + + + +How shall I make grafting wax for grafting fruit trees? + +There are many "favorite prescriptions" for grafting wax. One which is +now being largely used in fruit tree grafting is as follows: Resin, 5 +lbs.; beeswax, 1 lb.; linseed oil, 1 pint; flour, 1 pint. The flour is +added slowly and stirred in after the other ingredients have been boiled +together and the liquid becomes somewhat cooler. Some substitute +lampblack for flour. This wax is warmed and applied as a liquid. + + + +Plowing in Young Orchard. + + + +How near can I plow to two-year-old orange trees safely? + +You can plow young orange orchards as close to the trees as you can +approach without injuring the bark, regulating depth so as not to +destroy main roots. Destruction of root fibers which have approached too +near the surface is not material. It is very desirable that the soil +around and near the tree be as carefully worked as possible without +injury to the bark of the tree. How far that can be done by horse work +and how much must be done by hand must be decided by the individual +judgment of the grower. + + + +Crops Between Fruit Trees. + + + +What would be best to grow between fruit trees, while the trees are +growing, and what to alternate each season, so as not to use up the soil +without putting back into it? + +Where one is bringing along a young orchard, without irrigation, it is +doubtful whether it is not better policy to give the trees all the +advantage of clean cultivation and ample moisture than to undertake +intercropping. If you live on the place and wish to grow vegetables +between the rows, the thorough cultivation to bring the vegetables along +satisfactorily would help to preserve moisture enough both for the +vegetables and for the trees, but this is very different from growing a +field crop by ordinary methods of cultivation. Select a crop which will +require summer cultivation, like corn, potatoes, squashes, and beans, +and never a hay or grain crop which takes up moisture without working +the soil for the greater moisture conversation which hoed crops require. +In choice of hoed crops be governed by what you can use to advantage, +either for house or the feeding of animals, or what you can grow that is +salable with least loss of moisture in the soil. The choice is governed +entirely by local conditions, except that leguminous plants - peas, +beans, vetches, clovers, etc. - do take nitrogen from the atmosphere and +can thus be grown with least injury and sometimes with a positive +benefit to the fertility of the soil. + + + +Regular Bearing of Fruit Trees. + + + +How can trees be induced to bear regularly instead of bearing +excessively on alternate years? + +The most rational view is that in order to bear regularly the tree must +be prevented from overbearing by thinning of the fruit; also that the +moisture and plant-food supply must be regularly maintained, so that the +tree may work along regularly and not stop bearing one year in order to +accumulate vigor for a following year's crop. There is some reason to +believe that some trees which seem to overbear every year can be +prolonged in their profitable life and made to produce a moderate amount +of fruit of large size and higher value by sharp thinning to prevent +overbearing at any time. This is found clearly practicable in the cases +of the apricot, peach, pear, apple, table grape, shipping plum, etc., +because the added value of larger fruits is greater than the cost of +removing the surplus. + + + +Scions from Young Trees. + + + +I have bought some one-year-old apple trees that are certified pedigree +trees. Would it be practical to take the tops of these trees and graft +on one-year seedlings and get the same results as from the trees I +bought? Will they bear just as good, or is it necessary to take the +scions from old bearing trees? + +They will bear exactly the same fruit as the young trees will, but you +cannot tell how good that will be until you get the fruit. The advantage +of scions from bearing trees is that you know exactly what you will get, +for, presumably, you have seen and approved it. + + + +Late Pruning. + + + +Will I do injury to my peach trees if I delay pruning until the last of +February, or until the sap begins to run and the buds to swell? + +It will not do any particular harm to let your peach pruning go until +the buds swell or even after the leaves appear. Late pruning is not +injurious, but rather more inconvenient. + + + +Avoiding Crotches in Fruit Trees. + + + +How can I avoid bad crotches in fruit trees? + +Crotches, which means branches of equal or nearly equal size, emerging +from a point at a very acute angle, should be prevented by cutting out +one or both of them. The branching of a lateral at a larger angle does +not form a crotch and it usually buttresses itself well on the larger +branch. That is a desirable form of branching. Short distances between +such branchings is desirable, because it makes a stronger and more +permanently upright limb, capable of sustaining much weight of foliage +and fruit. Build up the young tree by shortening in as it grows, so as +to get such a strong framework. + + + +Crotch-Splitting of Fruit Trees. + + + +I have a young fig tree that is splitting at the crotches. I fear that +when the foliage appears, with the force of the winds the limbs will +split down entirely. + +Perhaps you have been forcing the trees too much with water and thus +secured too much foliage and weak wood. Whenever a tree is doing that, +the limbs ought to be supported with bale rope tied to opposite limbs +through the head, or otherwise held up, to prevent splitting. If +splitting has actually occurred, the weaker limb should be cut away and +the other staked if necessary until it gets strength and stiffens. If +the limbs are rather large they can be drawn up and a 3/16 inch carriage +bolt put through to hold both in place; but this is a poor way to make a +strong tree. We should cut out all splits and do the best we could to +make a tree out of what is left. Then do not make them grow so fast. + + + +Strengthening Fruit Trees. + + + +I have read that some trees are propped by natural braces; that is, by +inter-twining two opposite branches while the tree is young, so that in +time they grow together. What is your idea regarding the practicability +of such an idea in a large commercial orchard? + +Twining branches for the purpose indicated is frequently commended, but +it seems best for the use of ingenious people with plenty of time and +not many trees. To prune trees to carry their fruit so far as one can +foresee, and to use props or other supports when a tree manifests need +of a particular help which was not foreseen is the most rational way to +handle the proposition on a large commercial scale. + + + +Time for Pruning. + + + +What is the proper time for pruning pear and apricot trees? + +Ordinary deciduous fruit trees can be successfully pruned from the time +the leaves begin to turn yellow and fall, until the new foliage is +appearing in the late winter or spring. + + + +Grape Planting. + + + +What is the proper time for planting grape vines? + +Grape vines are most successfully planted after the heavy rains and low +temperatures are over and before the growth starts: This will usually be +whenever the soil is in good condition, during the months of February +and March. + + + +Covering Tree Wounds. + + + +What is the best stuff to use on wounds and large cuts on my fruit +trees? I have used grafting wax, but it is expensive and not altogether +satisfactory. + +Amputation wounds on trees can be more successfully treated with lead +and oil paint than with grafting wax. Mixed paint containing benzine +would not be so good as pure lead and oil mixed for the purpose and then +carefully applied as to amount so as not to run. "Asphaltum Grade D" may +also be used in the same way. + + + +Covering Sunburned Bark. + + + +Would asphaltum do to use an sunburned bark? + +Owing to the attraction of the heat by the black color, asphaltum would +increase the injury by absorption of more heat. Some white coating is +altogether best for sunburn injuries, because it will reflect and not +absorb heat, and a durable whitewash applied as may be needed to keep +the white covering intact is undoubtedly the best treatment. Where the +bark has been actually removed, white paint would be superior to +whitewash to keep the wood from checking while the wound was being +covered laterally by the growth of new bark. + + + +Too Much Pruning. + + + +Same peach trees entering the third year were pruned early in the winter +very severely. The pruner merely left the trunk and the three or four +main laterals, the latter about one foot in length. A large proportion +of these trees have not sprouted as yet, though alder and better pruned +trees are all sprouted in the same vicinity. The bark is green and has +considerable sap. Will the trees commence to grow? + +The trees will sprout later, after they have developed latent buds into +active form. The pruning probably removed all the buds of recent growth. +After starting they will make irregular growth, starting too many shoots +in the wrong places, etc., and considerable effort will be necessary to +get well-shaped trees by selection of shoots in the right places and +thinning out those which are not desirable. + + + +For Broken Roots. + + + +When the root of an orange or other fruit tree is exposed or brakes by +the cultivator, what is the best way to treat that root? + +Where a root is actually broken it is best to cut it off cleanly above +the break. This will induce quick healing over and the sending out of +other roots. Where there is only a bruise on one side, all the frayed +edges of the wound should be cleanly cut back to sound bark, which will +have a tendency to promote healing and prevent decay. + + + +Pruning in Frosty Places. + + + +This appears to be a frosty section. Pruners are at work continuously +from the time the apricots are harvested until spring arrives. From what +is said in "California Fruits?" I judge late winter pruning would be +best far apricots and peaches. Am I correct? + +In frosty places it is often desirable to prune rather late, because the +late-pruned tree usually starts later than the early pruned, and thus +may not bloom until after frost is over. + + + +Low Growth on Fruit Trees. + + + +Should the little twigs an the lower parts of young fruit trees be +removed or shortened? + +An important function which these small shoots and the foliage which +they will carry perform is in the thickening of the larger branches to +which they are attached and overcoming the tendency of the tree to +become too tall and spindling. This can be done at any time, even to the +pinching of young, soft shoots as they appear. It must be said, however, +that in ordinary commercial fruit growing little attention is paid to +these fine points, which are the great enjoyment of the European +fruit-gardeners and are of questionable value in our standard +orcharding. It is, however, a great mistake to clear away all low twigs, +for such twigs bring the first fruit on young trees. + + + +Are Tap-Roots Essential? + + + +Is it better to plant a nut or seed or to plant a grafted root; also is +it better to allow the tap-root to remain or not in event of planting a +grafted root? + +It does not matter at all whether the tree has its original tap-root or +not. All tap-roots are more or less destroyed in transplanting and the +fact that not one per cent of the walnut trees now bearing crops in +California consist of trees grown from the nut itself planted in place, +is sufficient demonstration to us that it is perfectly practicable to +proceed with transplanting the trees. It is more important that the tree +should have the right sort of soil and the right degree of moisture to +grow in than that it should retain the root from which the seedling +started. The removal of the tap-root does not prevent the tree from +sending out one or several deep running roots which will penetrate as +deeply as the soil and moisture conditions favor. This is true not only +of the walnut but of other fruit trees. + + + +Transplanting Old Trees. + + + +Can I transplant fruit trees 2 to 3 inches through the butt, about one +foot from the ground? Varieties are oranges, lemons, pears, apples and +English walnuts nearly 4 inches through the butt. I wish to move them +nearly a mile. What is the best way and what the best month to do the +work, or are trees too large to do well if moved? + +The orange and lemon will do better in transplanting than the others. +Take up the trees when the soil becomes warmed by the sun after the +coldest weather is over. This may be in February. Cut back the branches +severely and take up the trees with a good ball of earth, using suitable +lifting tackle to handle it without breaking. Settle the earth around +the ball in the new place with water, and keep the soil amply moist but +not wet. Whitewash all bark exposed to the sun by cutting back. You can +handle the walnut the same way, but it would, however, probably get such +a setback that it might be better to buy a new tree two or three years +old and plant that. The apples and pears we would not try to transplant, +but would rather have good new yearlings than try to coax them along. +Transplanting deciduous trees should be done earlier in the winter than +evergreens. + + + +Dwarfing a Fruit Tree. + + + +I am told that by pruning the roots of a young tree after the root +system is well started (say three years old) that as a result this will +produce a tree that is semi-dwarfed or practically a dwarfed fruit tree. + +Yes; cutting back the roots in the winter and cutting back the new +growth in the summer will have a dwarfing effect. The best way to get a +dwarfed garden tree is to use a dwarfing root. You can get trees on such +roots at the nurseries. + + + +Seedling Fruits. + + + +I have been growing seedlings from the pits of some extra fine peaches +and plums with a view to planting them. A man near San Jose advised me +that I would get good results, but since then I have met others who say +that the fruit trees that spring from planted seeds yield only poor +fruit. + +It is the tendency of nearly all improved fruit to revert to wild types, +more or less, when grown from the seed. The chances are, then, that +nine-tenths or more of the seedlings which you grew for fruiting might +be worthless. A few might be as good as the fruit from which you took +the pits; possibly one might he better. For these reasons the growing of +fruit trees from pits and seeds is only used for the purpose of getting +a root from which a chosen variety may be gotten by budding and +grafting. + + + +Grafting. + + + +I did a little grafting last spring, and as it was my first attempt, +about ten per cent of the scions failed to grow. Now shall I saw the +stub off lower down and try again, or bud into one of the sprouts that +have grown around the cut end? The trees are pear and cherry. + +You did very well as a beginner not to lose more than one-tenth. Saw off +below and graft again. You might have budded into one of those shoots +last July, and if you fail again, bud into the new shoots next summer. + + + +Filling Holes in Trees. + + + +I have a number of trees that, on account of poor pruning and improper +care, are decaying in the center. Many of them are hollow for a foot or +more down the trunk. + +Excavate all the decayed wood with a chisel or gouge or whatever cutting +tool may work well and fill the cavity with Portland cement in such a +way as to exclude moisture. This will prolong the life and +productiveness of the trees for many years if other conditions are +favorable. + + + +Deferring Bloom of Fruit Trees. + + + +Have any experiments ever been carried on definitely to decide what +causes early blossoming of fruit trees? For instance, have adjacent +trees of the same variety been treated definitely by putting a heavy +mulch around one to hold the cold temperature late in the spring, +leaving the other tree unmulched so the roots could warm up? + +It has been definitely determined by the experiments of Professor +Whidden of the Missouri Experiment Station that the swelling of the buds +and starting of the foliage of fruit trees is due to the action of heat +upon the aerial parts of the trees; that is, growth is not caused by +increasing the temperature of the ground and cannot be retarded by +cooling the ground. Experiments with the use of snow and ice under trees +by which the ground has been kept at a low temperature have not +prevented the activity of the tree. The only way known to retard +activity is to spray the tree with whitewash so that the white color may +reflect the heat and prevent the absorption of it by the bark, which is +usually of a dark color and therefore suited to heat absorption. +Retarding of growth is possible in this way for a period of six to ten +days, which, of course, in some cases might be of value, but the +lengthened dormancy is probably too small to constitute it of general +value. In whitewashing, to determine what advantage there is in it in +retarding growth, the tree should be thoroughly sprayed with whitewash +so as to cover all the wood some time before the buds swell. In fact, it +is to prevent the early swelling of the buds that the whitewashing is +resorted to. It is better to make the application, therefore, a little +too early than too late. A specific date cannot be given for it that +would be right in all localities. + + + +Repairing Rabbit Injuries. + + + +Your book says in Pruning young trees for the first time, about four +main branches should be left and these cut back to 10 or 12 inches. Now, +where the rabbits have pruned back to 4 or 5 inches the very ones I +wanted, what should be done? Some say, cut these back to the stem, +allowing new shoots to start from the base of branches so removed. + +Cut back to a bud near the stem, or if you do not see any, cut back near +to the stem, but not near enough to remove the bark at the base of the +shoot, for there are the latent buds which should give you the growth. +This should be watched, and the best shoot selected from each point to +make a strong branch, pinching back or removing the others. + + + +For a Bark Wound. + + + +What is best to do with an apricot or prune tree when it has been hit +with an implement and the bark knocked off? + +Cut around the bark wound with a sharp knife so as to remove all frayed +edges. Cover the exposed wood with oil and lead paint to prevent +cracking, and the wound will soon be covered with new bark from the +sides. + + + +Bridging Gopher Girdles. + + + +How shall I make the bridge-graft or root-graft over the trunks of trees +girdled by gophers? Has this method proved successful in saving trees +three or four inches in diameter, and how is it done? + +The bridging over of injury by mice by grafting has been known to be +successful for decades in countries where this trouble is encountered. +Undoubtedly the same plan would work in the case of all bark injuries +which can be bridged. The plan is to take good well-matured shoots which +are a little longer than the injury which has to be spanned, making a +sloping cut on both ends, also a cut into the healthy bark above and +below the injury, and slip the cut ends of the cutting into the cuts in +the bark so that the ends go under the bark above and below, and the cut +ends are closely connected with the growing layer of the stock. If the +cutting is made a little longer than the distance to be spanned, the +tendency of the cutting by straightening is to hold itself in place. +When in place, the connections should he covered with wax to prevent +drying out. + + + +Soil-Binding Plant for Winter. + + + +What would be the best to plant in an orchard on ground of a light sandy +sediment which, after plowing, will move with the strong winds? I would +like to plant something that will benefit the ground. The winds are the +strongest from December to April. This is in the irrigated district and +I need something that will make a sod during that period. + +We would, in all the valleys, advise a fall irrigation (if the rains are +late) and the sowing of burr clover, which when started in September +will have the ground well covered by December, if you keep the moisture +right to push it. Disking or plowing this under in March (or April, +according to locality) will hold the sand and afterward enrich it. You +can do this every year, but probably you will not need to seed it more +than once. + + + +Bananas in California. + + + +Is there any reason why bananas would not grow and bear in the vicinity +of Merced if they had plenty of water? Or would the cool nights at +certain seasons keep them from bearing? Would they do better in the +Imperial valley? + +Bananas would suffer too severely from frost to be profitable at any +point in the interior valleys of California. A plant would be killed to +the ground at least every year unless under glass or other protection. +There are a few places practically frostless where bananas can be grown +in this State, but there is no promise in commercial production because +they can be so cheaply imported from the tropics. + + + +Carobs in California. + + + +Will the carob tree (St. John's Bread) do well in the Sacramento valley, +and is it a desirable tree for lining a driveway? + +Carobs have been grown in California for thirty years or more and they +will make a handsome driveway and give a lot of pods for the kids and +the pigs - for they are "the husks which the swine did eat," and both +like them. They ought to be much more widely planted in California +because they grow well and are good to look upon. + + + +Spineless Cactus Fruit. + + + +I have about two acres of high land in Fresno county that can't be +irrigated. It is red adobe soil and there is hardpan in it. Which kind +of fruit trees will grow and pay best? How near may the hardpan be to +the surface before I have to blast it? + +It is a hard fruit proposition. Try spineless cactus, the fruits of +which are delicious. Blasting would help if there is a moist substratum +below the hardpan and might enable you to grow many fruits. If your land +is hard and dry all the way down, blasting would not help you unless you +can get irrigation. Presumably your rainfall is too small for fruit +unless you strike underflow below the hardpan. + + + +Cleaning Fruit Trays. + + + +What do you advise for killing and removing the whitish mold that forms +on trays used for drying prunes? Would sunning the trays be effective, +or washing in hot water, or is there some suitable fungicide? + +Good hot sun and dry wind will kill the mold. The spores of such a +common mold are waiting everywhere, so that your fruit would mold anyway +if conditions were right. Still, scalding the trays for cleanliness and +a short trip through the sulphur box for fungus-killing is commended. + + + +Killing Moss on Old Trees. + + + +I have some Bartlett pear trees that are covered with moss and mold, and +the bark is rough and checked. I have used potash (98%), 1 pound to 6 +gallons spray. It kills the long moss, but the green mold it does not +seem to affect. The trees have been sprayed about one week. Some trees +have been sprayed with a 1 pound to 10 gallons solution by mistake. +Shall I spray these again with full strength, and when? + +You have done enough for the moss at present. Even the weaker solution +ought to be strong enough to clean the bark. Wait and see how the bark +looks when the potash gets through biting; it will keep at it for some +time, taking a fresh hold probably with each new moisture supply from +shower or damp air. The spray should have been shot onto the bark with +considerable force - not simply sprinkled on. + + + +Shy-Bearing Apples. + + + +I have some apple trees 10 and 12 years old that do not bear +satisfactorily, but persist in making 5 to 6 feet of new wood each year. +If not cut back this winter, will they be more likely to make fruit +buds? + +Yes, probably. Certainly you should try it. You should also cultivate +less and slow down the growth. If they then take to bearing, you can +resume moderate pruning and better cultivation. This is on the +assumption that your trees are in too rich or too moist a place. But you +should satisfy yourself by inquiry and observation as to whether the +same varieties do bear well in your vicinity when conditions are such +that slower growth is made. If the variety is naturally shy in bearing, +or if it requires cross-pollination, the proposed repressive treatment +might not avail anything. In that case you can graft over the tree to +some variety which does bear well or graft part of the trees to another +variety for cross-pollination. + + + +No Apples on Quince. + + + +How large a tree will the Yellow Bellefleur apple make if grafted or +budded on quince root at the age of 15 years? I have been trying to get +some information about dwarf fruit trees, but it is difficult to get. + +No wonder the information is hard to get. The Yellow Bellefleur will not +grow upon the quince at all, or at least not for long. In growing dwarf +apples the Paradise stock is used, while the quince is used for dwarfing +the pear, and many varieties of pears will accept the quince root which +the apple rejects. + + + +Stock for Apples. + + + +Do you recommend French seedling stock as greatly to be preferred to +that grown in this country? + +French seedling stock is generally used because it is graded and +furnished in uniform sizes; also, because it can usually be purchased +for less than seedlings can be grown under our labor conditions. Locally +grown apple seedlings are apt to be irregular in size and, as already +stated, cost more than the properly graded imported stock. + + + +Apples and Alfalfa. + + + +I have recently come across a proposition to sow apple orchards in the +interior of southern California with alfalfa. The apples are said to be +superior and the crop heavier, to say nothing of a half or two-thirds of +an alfalfa crop in addition to the crop of apples. What do you know +about it? Is alfalfa being used by others in this way? + +It is perfectly rational to grow alfalfa in fruit orchards if the water +supply is ample for both the trees and the intercrop and the owner will +not yield to the temptation to waterlog his trees for the sake of +getting more alfalfa. It is even more desirable in the interior than +near the coast, probably. In Arizona some growers have for a number of +years practiced growing alfalfa in orchards, cutting the alfalfa without +removing it, counting that clippings are worth more to them through +their decay and the increase of the humus content of the soil. Even +where this is not done, the alfalfa will add to the humus of the soil by +its own wastes both from root and stem. The presence of an alfalfa cover +reduces the danger of leaf and bark burning either by reflected or +radiated heat from a smooth ground surface, and some trees are very much +benefited by this protection in regions of high temperature. This might +be expected to be the case with the apple, which is somewhat subject to +leaf burning in our interior valleys. + + + +Top Grafting. + + + +In grafting over apple and pear trees to some other variety, is it +advisable to cut off and graft the entire tree the first year where the +trees are from 7 to 15 years old, or would it be better to cut off only +a part of the top the first year and the rest the following year? + +In the coast region it is a good practice to graft over the whole tree +at one time, cutting, however, above the forks and not into the main +stem below the forking. This gives many scions which seem able to take +care of the sap successfully. In the interior valleys, it is rather +better practice to leave a branch or two, cutting them out at the +following winter's pruning, for probably the first year's grafts will +give you branches enough. This has the effect of preventing the drowning +out of the scions from too strong sap-flow. Cutting back and regrafting +of old trees should be done rather early, before the most active +sap-flow begins. The later in the season the grafting is done, and the +warmer the locality, the more desirable it seems to be to leave a branch +or two when grafting. + + + +Apple Budding. + + + +What is the best time to bud apples? + +Apples are budded in July and August and remain dormant until the +following spring. + + + +Mildew on Apple Seedlings. + + + +Why do young apple plants in the seed bed became mildewed? They are in a +lath house. + +Because too much moisture was associated with too much shade. More +sunshine would have prevented mildew, and if they had enjoyed it the +seedlings could have made better use of the water probably. + + + +Pruning Apples. + + + +Young apple trees set two years ago were cut back to 14 to 18 inches and +cared for as to low branching, proper spacing, etc., but the desired +branches were allowed to make full growth to the present time. They have +mode great growth and if allowed to continue will make too tall trees. + +We understand that your trees have made two summers' growth since +pruning. We should cut back to a good lateral wherever you can find one +running at the right direction at about three to four feet from the last +cut, and shorten the lateral more or less according to the best judgment +we could form on sight of the tree. In this way you can take out the +branches which are running too high and make the framework for a lower +growth. Do not remove the small twigs and spurs unless you have too many +such shoots. + + + +Cutting Back Apples and Pears. + + + +"California Fruits" says the "apple does not relish cutting back, nor is +it desirable to shorten in the branches." But when a three-year-old tree +gets above 12 feet high, as many of mine are doing, what are you going +to do? I cut these back same last year, but up they go again with more +branches than ever. The pears are getting too tall, also. Should not +both apple and pear trees be kept down to about ten feet? + +The quotation you make refers to old bearing trees, and indicates that +their pruning is not like that of the peach, which is continually +shortened in to keep plenty of new wood low down. Of course, in securing +low and satisfactory branching on young apples, pears, etc., there must +be cutting back, and this must be continued while you are forming the +tree. If you mean that these trees are to be permanently kept at ten +feet high, you should have planted trees worked on dwarfing stocks. Such +a height does not allow a standard tree freedom enough for thrift; as +they become older they will require from twice to thrice the altitude +you assign to them, probably. Pears can be more successfully kept down +than apples, but not to ten feet except as dwarfs. + + + +Pruning Old Apple Trees. + + + +How would you prune apple trees eight or nine years old that have not +been cut back? There are a great many that have run up 20 feet high with +twelve or fifteen main limbs and very few being more than two or three +inches in diameter. + +Remove cross branches which are interfering with others and thin out +branches which seem to be crowding each other at their attachments to +the trunk, by removing some of them at the starting point. Having +removed these carefully so as not to knock off spurs from other +branches, study the tree as it is thus somewhat opened up and see where +remaining branches can be shortened to overcome the tendency to run too +high. Do not shear off branches leaving a lot of stubs in the upper part +of the tree, but always cut back a main branch to a lateral and shorten +the lateral higher up if desirable. This will keep away from having a +lot of brush in the top of the tree. Study each tree by itself for +symmetry and balance of branches and proceed by judgment rather than by +rules anyone can give you. + + + +Top-Grafting Apples. + + + +Can I graft over a few Ben Davis apple trees 25 years old or +thereabouts, but thrifty and vigorous? + +It is certainly possible, by the old top-grafting method which has been +used everywhere with apples for centuries. Graft during the winter. Work +on the limbs above the head so as to preserve the advantage of the old +forking, using a cleft graft and waxing well. It is usually best to +graft over a part of the limbs and the balance a year later. + + + +Will the Apples Be the Same Kind? + + + +I have a mixed orchard, mostly Gravensteins, and I want to graft all the +other trees into a Gravenstein top if I can do so and at the same time +get the early Gravenstein bloom and the fruit would be as satisfactory +as though on other roots. + +The new tree grown from the grafts will behave just like the tree from +which the scions were taken if similarly thrifty. + + + +Places for Apples. + + + +What quality is it in the soil in the vicinity of Watsonville that makes +that country peculiarly adapted to the culture of apples? Are there not +other portions of the State where apples could be produced on a +commercial basis? + +It is not alone quality in the soil, but character of the climate that +underlie success in the Watsonville district. Apples can be and are +grown on a commercial scale through the coast district of Sonoma, +Mendocino, and Humboldt counties; also in suitable situations in the +coast counties south of Santa Cruz county. Along the coast, as far as +deep retentive soil and the cool air of the ocean extend, one may expect +to get apples similar to those produced in the Watsonville district. In +the interior valleys, on suitable soils with adequate moisture, early +apples are profitably grown, while in the higher foothill and mountain +valleys in all parts of the State, where moisture is sufficient, late +keeping apples of high quality are produced. + + + +Summer-pruning Apples. + + + +Will summer pruning cause apple trees to bear fruit instead of growing +so much new wood? + +Over-growth can be repressed by summer pruning, and if done just at the +right time bearing is increased and late new growth is avoided, but it +is not easy to determine exactly the right time, and it has to be fixed +according to local conditions of length of growing season and growth +condition of the tree itself also. It is better for some varieties than +others, and, in fact, has to be done wisely. A summer slashing of apple +trees, simply because some one says so, is not only expensive, but may +do more harm than good. Therefore, those inclined to it, should try a +few trees at first and note results. + + + +Grafting Apple Seedlings in Place. + + + +I want to plant apple trees for home use. I have an idea to plant apple +seeds instead of trees: planting three or four seeds for each hill, +right in the place where I would grow the trees, and select the best one +to graft on. I will take seed of Bellefleurs, which are vigorous +growers. What do you think? Will the seed germinate readily and when is +the right time to plant? + +Select plump, well ripened seed, keep them in damp sand until the ground +begins to get warm in January or February, according to location. But +such an undertaking will cost you vastly more in time, in labor, and +waste of land than it would to buy well-grown nursery trees budded with +the variety which you desire. Such trees would give you practically a +uniform lot of trees in your orchard while planting seedlings and +grafting afterward would give you very irregular and for the most part +unsatisfactory results - providing you get any seeds to grow at all in +the open ground, which is doubtful. + + + +Resistant Apple Roots. + + + +A few apple trees which are almost dead from ravages of the woolly +aphis. I am going to dig them out and plant in their places other apple +trees on woolly aphis-proof root. Will it be necessary to use measures +to exterminate the woolly aphis in the old roots or their places in the +ground before planting new trees in the places of the removed trees? + +It is not necessary to undertake to kill aphis in the ground when you +are planting apple trees on resistant roots. It will give your trees a +better start to dig large holes, throw out the old soil, and fill in +with some new soil from another part of the land to be planted, but it +has been demonstrated that these roots are resistant, no matter if +planted in the midst of infestation. + + + +Apples and Cherries for a Hot Place. + + + +What kind of apple do you think would do best in a dry, hot climate? +What do you think of the Early Richmond cherry in such a place? + +Apples most likely to succeed in a dry situation are those which ripen +their fruit very early. The Red Astrachan is on the whole the most +satisfactory, but there are many places which are altogether too dry and +hot for any kind of apple. Whether cherries would succeed or not you can +only tell by trying. Possibly the trees would not live through the +summer if your soil becomes very dry. The most hardy cherries are the +sour or pie cherries and the Early Richmond is one of this group. + + + +Die-back of Apple Trees. + + + +What causes the death of the top shoots in apple trees? + +New wood is sometimes diseased by mildew, but die-back is usually due to +two different causes: One, the accumulation of water in the soil during +the excessive rains of mid-winter; second, the occurrence of low +temperatures, including frosts, after the sap has risen. Which of these +causes operate in a certain case depends, of course, upon whether the +soil was heavy and inclined to retain standing water too long, or +whether there were such frosts at about the time when the leaves should +start. Sometimes, of course, both of these conditions worked in the same +place; sometimes one and sometimes the other, but certainly both of them +are capable of causing the trouble. There seems to be no specific +disease; it is rather a matter of unfavorable conditions for growth. + + + +Storage of Apples. + + + +We desire to store two or three thousand boxes of apples for three or +four months and propose to do it in this way: Make an excavation in dry +earth, putting at the bottom of the excavation straw. Upon this straw +place the apples, then dry straw over the apples, and upon the top of +this two or three feet of dry earth. Will it be a good plan to pour on +water from time to time over the top of this to keep the apples and all +wet, or should the apples be kept dry? + +Putting down loose apples in a straw-lined pit would be very expensive. +It would invite decay by bruising the fruit, and the result would +probably be a worthless mixture of rotten fruit and straw. The fruit +should be stored in boxes or shallow trays to reduce pressure and +promote ventilation, and not in bins or large piles. Apples will keep +for a long time in good condition if the boxes are put in piles in the +shade, covered with straw, which should be slightly moistened from time +to time; but in that case there would not be such an accumulation of +moisture and there would be ventilation at all times. Apples should be +kept dry, but they will shrivel and become unmarketable unless the air +in which they are stored is kept reasonably moist. This is generally +accomplished by making apple houses with double walls and roof to +exclude heat and with an earth or concrete floor which can be sprinkled +from time to time with a hose. + + + +Apple Root-grafts. + + + +I have an old apple orchard and would like to have two or three of the +best varieties positively identified, so that I can order these kinds +from the nursery for next year's planting. + +Old California apple orchards have many varieties no longer propagated +largely. If you greatly desire to have a few trees of exactly the +varieties which you are now growing, you run some risk of mistake in +ordering by name, but if you make some root-grafts by taking a piece of +the smaller roots of the tree, which you can dig out, say about the size +of a pencil, and graft scions upon them, you can secure root-grafts for +planting in nursery this year and in that way be sure to have trees of +exactly the same kind. Root-grafts can be made in the winter, placed in +sand which is kept moist and not wet, planted out as soon as the ground +warms up, and you will get immediate and very satisfactory growth in +that way. + + + +Pruning Old Apple Trees. + + + +I have an old orchard containing some apple trees about 40 years +old - trees well shaped but with plenty of main branches and limbs all +very long. The trees bear profusely in alternate years but the fruit is +small. In pruning would you advise cutting out some main limbs where +there are over three or four and thus making a big wood reduction (where +sunburn protection can still be guarded) or would you only shorten in +the branches and thin the fruit severely? + +Do not remove main branches unless they are clearly too numerous or have +been allowed to grow to interference with each other or have become +weakened or feeble in some way. In such cases the space is worth more +than the branch. If the tree has a fair framework do not disturb it in +order to get down to an arbitrary limit of three or four main branches; +sometimes the tree can carry more. If the tree is too thick, thin it out +by removing side branches of more or less size - saving the best, +judging by both vigor and position. Work through the whole top in this +way until you reach the best judgment you can form of enough space and +light for good interior foliage and fruit. Apple branches should seldom +be shortened, and when this seems desirable, cut to a side branch and +not to a stub which will make a lot of weak shoots or brush in the top +of the tree. + + + +Pruning Apple Trees. + + + +There is a great difference of opinion here regarding the pruning of +three-year or older apple trees. Many people cut back three, four and +five-year-old trees half the season's growth; others only cut back six +inches. + +Apple trees are cut back during their early life to cause branching and +to secure short distances between the larger laterals on the main +branches. This secures a lower, stronger tree. Cutting back twice or +three times should secure a good framework of this kind, and then the +apple should not be regularly and systematically cut back as the peach +and apricot are. It is not possible to prescribe definite inches, +because cutting back is a matter of judgment and depends upon how thick +the growth is, what its position and relation to other shoots, etc. The +chief point in cutting back is to know where you wish the next laterals +to come on the shortened shoot, and if you do not wish more laterals at +once; do not cut back at all. Treatment, of laterals which come of +themselves is another matter. Do not clip the ends of shoots unless +laterals are desired. If you keep clipping the ends of apple twigs, you +will get no fruit from some varieties. + + + +Grafting Almond on Peach. + + + +I had good success with the peach trees which I grafted to almond last +spring, getting about 95 per cent of a stand, and many of the grafts now +are one and one-half inches diameter. In each of the trees I left about +a quarter of the branches, to keep up the growing process of the tree. +The universal practice around here in grafting is to cut the whole top +off the tree at the time of grafting, but the increased growth and vigor +of the grafts I have has proved to me and other growers around, that +much better results are obtained by leaving part of the top on the tree +at the time of grafting. + +You did exceedingly well with your grafting. It seems a more rational +way to proceed than by a total amputation, and yet ample success is +often attained by grafting for a whole new top at once. + + + +Pruning Almonds. + + + +Should the main branches be shortened in a three-year-old almond tree? +Of course, I intend to thin out the branches. Some growers here advise +me to shorten the main branches; others say do not shorten them, as it +tends to give the trees a brushy top. + +Although some growers are contending for regular shortening - in of the +almond as is practiced on the peach, it is not usual to cut back almond +trees after they have reached three years of age and have assumed good +form. Of course, if cutting back is done, the shoots coming from near +the amputation must be thinned out to prevent the brushiness your +adviser properly objected to. + + + +Budding and Grafting Almonds. + + + +Is it better to bud or graft bitter almond seedlings of one year's +growth, and, as they must be transplanted, would it be proper to do the +work this season or defer it for another year's growth? + +Your almond seedlings should have been budded in July or August after +starting from the nut, which would have fitted them for planting in +orchard the following winter as dormant buds, as they cannot stay where +they are another season. Now you can transplant to nursery rows in +another place: cut back and graft as the buds are swelling, allowing a +good single shoot to grow from below on those which do not start the +grafts into which you can bud in June, and cut back the stock to force +growth as soon as the buds have taken. In this way you will get the +whole stock into trees for planting out next winter. Some will be large +and some small, but all will come through if planted in good soil and +cared for properly. Of course, you can plant out the seedlings and graft +and bud in the orchard, but it will be a lot of trouble and you will get +very irregular results. + + + +Cutting Back Almonds. + + + +I have some nice thrifty two-year-old almond trees which I did not "top" +this spring. The limbs are from about four to seven or eight feet long. +Would it not be best to "top" them yet? + +Cut them back to a shoot of this year's growth, removing about a third +of last year's growth, perhaps. This will give you lower and better +branching. + + + +Almond Planting. + + + +I am contemplating the planting of about five to eight acres of almonds: +what variety is best to plant? + +Before planting so many almonds, you should determine how satisfactory +the almond is in bearing in your location. Unless you can find +satisfactory demonstration of this fact, it is hazardous to plant such +an acreage. On the other hand, if you find that almonds are bearing +satisfactorily, the kinds which are perhaps most satisfactory to plant +are Nonpareil, Texas Prolific, Ne Plus Ultra and Drake's Seedling. The +Texas Prolific and Drake's Seedling are abundant bearers and profitable +because of the size of the crop, although the price is lower than the +soft-shelled varieties, Nonpareil and Ne Plus Ultra. These two varieties +are such energetic pollinizers that they not only bear well themselves, +but force the bearing of the larger varieties mentioned. Every third row +in your plantation should be either Texas Prolific or Drakes' Seedlings, +which would give you two-thirds of the larger varieties and one-third of +the smaller. There are, of course, other soft-shelled almonds which are +worth planting and are being considerably planted in localities where +they do well. This you can ascertain by inquiry among local growers and +nurserymen. The planting of a good proportion of active pollinizers is +the most important point. + + + +Almond Pollination. + + + +My almond trees look healthy but the fruit seems to be diseased. Is it +necessary to have male and female trees, and how can one distinguish +them? + +The almond is monoecious and has perfect blossoms, therefore, there is +no such thing as male and female trees in the case of the almond, but +most of the best soft-shelled almonds are self-sterile and need +cross-pollination from another variety. This is discussed elsewhere in +answer to another question. + + + +Roots for the Almond. + + + +Which is the best root to have the almond grafted on, peach or bitter +almond? The soil is sandy. + +The bitter almond and the hard-shelled sweet almond are both used and we +are not aware that any particular advantage has been demonstrated for +either of them. The almond does well on peach roots also, but the almond +is a better root where the soil conditions suit it. + + + +Longevity of Almond and Peach. + + + +What is difference in life of peach and almond in California? + +The almond is the longer-lived, but we have seen both assuming the +aspect of forest trees in abandoned pioneer places. Both are apt to live +longer than their planters, if soil and moisture conditions favor. + + + +Almond Seedlings. + + + +I have been told that almond trees raised from seed, no matter what kind +of seed planted, will produce bitter almonds. Is this a fact? + +It is not a fact. The majority will probably be hard-shell, sweet and +bitter, but others will be soft-shell, medium-shell, paper-shell, and +everything else you ever heard of in the almond line. The almond has the +sportiest kind of seedlings. + + + +Do Not Plant Almonds in Place. + + + +I have 30 acres which I intend to plant to almonds and peaches, and I +thought of planting the sprouted nuts and pits where I wanted my trees, +and budding the same there in orchard form. As one or two years' use of +the land is not considered, what is your advice? My idea is to plant in +orchard at start so as not to disturb roots, as when grown in nursery +and transplanted in orchard. Would it not progress as rapidly? Would you +advise budding peaches on almond roots; if not, why? My idea is that it +would give a longer-lived tree. + +We would do nothing of the kind. If we decided it better to grow trees +than to buy them, we would grow and bud the seedlings in nursery and not +in the field. Field budding is open to all kinds of injuries and growth +from it, when saved from cultivation and all kinds of intruders, is +irregular and uncertain. As for starting the roots from the nut in +plate, it is largely a fanciful consideration. We count it no gain for +the walnut which makes a tap root, and still less gainful for the almond +and peach, which, usually make spreading roots. To cut off a tap root +does not prevent the tree from rooting deeply if the soil is favorable. +As to use of the land, you lose time by growing the seedlings in place. +The peach does well on the almond root if soil conditions favor the +almond. Perhaps it gives longer life to the peach, but the profitable +life of the peach tree in a proper soil does not depend on the root; it +depends upon the treatment of the top in pruning for renewal of +branches. + + + +Almond and Peach. + + + +With water-table at 18 feet, which root is best for almond trees? The +experience around here is that the peach root starts best. Which root is +most durable? What is the life of the peach root and of the almond? + +It is not merely a question of depth to water, but of character of the +soil above the water. Neither of the roots will stand heavy soil which +holds water too long, and both enjoy a free loam which drains readily +down to the water-table or bottom water. If the soil is rather sandy, +letting the water down very quickly, the almond is better in getting to +it than the peach. If it is finer and still well drained the peach will +do well, and the almond enjoys that also. The almond probably can be +counted on to stand coarser soil and greater drouth than the peach and +under such conditions will outlive the peach, probably, but both of them +will live twenty to thirty years or more if pruned in the head to get +enough new wood and the trunk is kept from sunburn. Aside from this +choose the almond root for the almond. + + + +Pollination of Almonds. + + + +I have Drake's Seedling almonds. Some people have told me that I must +plant some hardshell variety between them, otherwise they will not bear. + +It is not necessary to plant hardshell almonds near Drake's Seedling +trees in order to have them bear. Some varieties of almonds will set few +nuts unless they are cross-pollinated, but these are the paper-shell +varieties, as a rule - the Nonpareil, IXL and Ne Plus Ultra - and for +these the Drake's Seedling or Texas Prolific is planted as a pollenizer. +The highest-priced nut of all is the Nonpareil, and it is also a good +bearer when in a good location and planted with Drake's or Texas +Prolific. + + + +Stick-tight Almonds. + + + +I have leased seven acres of bearing almond trees which have the +appearance of being reasonably well cared for. I notice a few trees that +still have almonds on ("stick-tights"). What is the cause and remedy? + +The occurrence of stick-tights is generally due to lack of moisture and +thrifty growth, although some trees may be weak from some other cause +and therefore deficient in sap-flow, which manifests itself in that way. +Single nuts may also fall into that condition of malnutrition. We know +no remedy except to keep the trees in good thrift by cultivation or by +the use of irrigation if necessary. + + + +Shy-bearing Apricots. + + + +Why do my apricot trees not bring fruit? They seem healthy and are +vigorous-looking trees. Five large trees have not borne 100 pounds of +fruit in three years. The trees are not over six years old. + +You may have a shy-bearing kind of apricot, of which there are many, or +the trees may have grown too fast to hold the fruit, or the frost or +north wind may have blasted the bloom. Stop winter pruning, and summer +prune to prevent excessive growth; reduce irrigation; try to convince +the apricot that it is not a "green bay tree" and see what will happen. + + + +Pruning Apricots. + + + +In pruning apricots, if there should be a hollow center of a big branch +in center of a seven-year-old tree, should it be cut out with summer +pruning? Should heavy growing apricots be summer pruned? Would it be all +right to thin out a dense growth of wood in the prune trees in +September? + +It is always desirable to cut below a hollow in a limb if possible. +Where, however, this would necessitate cutting below the desirable +laterals, the cavity may be filled with cement and thus rendered +serviceable for some years. Summer pruning of the apricot is desirable +if the growth is heavy and the tree has reached a bearing age. Thinning +out of prune trees can be undertaken in the autumn, providing the tree +has practically finished its growth, as indicated by the change in the +color and pose of the leaves. + + + +Apricot Propagation. + + + +Can Royal apricots be grafted into seedling apricots? Do the scions do +well? What is the best time to graft them? + +The apricot is grafted readily by the ordinary cleft grafting, +amputating above the forks if the tree is low-headed enough to allow you +to work into the limbs instead of the trunk. Grafts will take all right +in the trunk by bark grafting, but working in smaller limbs makes a +stronger tree. This is for old trees and the grafting is done during the +winter. Younger seedlings can be cleft or whip grafted in the stems, but +it is better to bud into the young seedlings with plump buds of the +current year's growth, in June, and by shortening in the seedling above +the buds as soon as they have taken, get a growth on the bud in the +latter half of the same growing season. In nursery practice, trees are +usually made by budding in July or August into seedlings which are then +growing from the seed planted the previous winter. Little seedlings from +under old trees may be carefully transplanted to nursery rows in the +spring and budded the same summer. Cultivated well and irrigated if +necessary, they will not suffer from this transplanting. + + + +Renewing Old Apricots. + + + +Shall I prune back heavily a 15 to 20-year-old apricot tree which did +not mature its fruit this season, I think on account of neglect? It was +very poorly cultivated and not irrigated, consequently looks very sick. + +Cut back all the main branches to six or eight feet from the ground, +leaving on whatever small growth there may be below that height. Paint +the stubs and thin out the shoots next summer to get the right number of +new branches properly distributed. Whether you will get a good renewal +of the head depends upon whether the sickness is in the root or not. Cut +back just before the buds swell toward the end of the dormant season. + + + +Summer Pruning of Apricots. + + + +Is it feasible to prune five-year-old apricot trees in August? They seem +in good growth and have been irrigated three times this season, though +they have never been pruned very closely. + +Summer pruning would be perfectly proper and advisable. Summer pruning +immediately after the fruit is picked, has become much more general, and +winter pruning has proportionately decreased. Young trees are winter +pruned to promote low branching and short, stout limbs; bearing trees +are summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood growth - the +excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning during the winter. + + + +Wild Cherries. + + + +Where do the Mahaleb and Mazzard cherries grow naturally? How large are +the trees, and what kind of fruit do they bear? + +The Mazzards, of which there are many, and some of them wild in the +Eastern States, are counted inferior seedlings of the species avium, and +are tall, large trees, the fruit being small and rather acrid and colors +various. The Mahaleb is a European type with a smaller tree, fruit +inferior to the Mazzards, and used as a root under soil and climatic +conditions under which the Mazzard is not hardy and vigorous. Neither of +the kinds are worth considering for their fruit. + + + +Pruning Cherries. + + + +I have some cherry trees that have not been pruned. They are beautiful +trees, but it a requires a 24-foot ladder to get near the top limbs. The +side limbs reach from tree to tree. They had a splendid crop this year. +People here tell me never to prune cherry trees. One man who claims +considerable experience with fruit says prune them as soon as the crop +is off. + +Your cherry trees should have been pruned for the first two or three +years quite severely, in order to secure better branching and strength +in the main branches. If this is done, and the trees come into full +bearing, very little pruning has to be done afterward, except removing +diseased, interfering or surplus branches, if there are too many. It is +perfectly safe to cut back the trees which you now have as you have been +advised to do, after the leaves have fallen or after they have begun to +turn yellow. The trees can be safely topped and thinned, for the cherry +accepts pruning very readily. Even considerable amounts of the tops have +been cut off at fruit-picking time from trees which have been running +too high, so that the fruit could be secured, and this has not injured +the trees, according to our own experience and observation. Cherries can +be summer-pruned to check excessive growth and to promote fruit-bearing, +but as your trees have already begun to bear well, this treatment does +not seem to be necessary. You should do fall and winter pruning for the +shape of the trees. + + + +Training Cherry Grafts. + + + +I have grafted a lot of seedling cherries, leaving two or three buds on +each piece of grafted wood. In planting these out, shall I put the union +under ground (they are grafted at the crown of the root) and shall I +loosen the cloth a little later when they start to grow? How can I get +the head for the tree? Should I let only one shoot form, and when it is +as high as I want it, cut it off as I would a tree gotten from a +nursery? + +If you have used waxed cloth in your grafting, it will be necessary to +loosen it after the tree gets a good start. Common unwaxed cloth could +be trusted to decay soon enough, probably, but it should be looked at to +see that it is not binding. The union should not be placed much below +the ground surface, although it can be safely covered, and the future +stem may look the better for it. One shoot could be allowed to grow from +each graft, choosing the best ones and pinching the others so that they +will stop extension and hold leaves during the first season. These can +be cleanly removed at the first winter pruning at the time you head back +the main shoot to the proper height. + + + +Restoring Cherry Trees. + + + +I have about two acres of cherry trees in Sonoma county said to be about +20 years old. They are in a very neglected condition and I am desirous +of putting them in good shape for next year's crop. They are in a very +light sandy loam sail which is easily worked. + +Cherry trees under good growing conditions and proper care are very long +lived in California and bear abundant crops when thirty and more years +of age. In the San Jose district and elsewhere there are orchards +considerably older than the limit stated and are still very profitable. +If your trees have been so neglected that the branches have died back, +the trees should be pruned, of course, cutting out all dead wood and +shortening weak or dying branches to a point where a good strong shoot +can be found. Then a good application of farmyard manure plowed in +during the rainy season, followed by summer cultivation for moisture +retention. Although the cherry is very hardy, it is quite likely to +suffer on light soils which become too dry. On such soils as yours there +is little if any danger of too much water in the winter, unless the land +lies low, but the injury to the tree comes from the lack of moisture +during the summer time, and this, with your abundant rainfall, you can +probably assure by thorough summer cultivation. + + + +Renewing Cherry Trees. + + + +We have cherry trees set out diamond shape about 16 feet apart. We +cannot take out every other tree and have any order, so we ask you if it +would be possible to cut the trees back and keep them pruned down to a +smaller size. The trees are about 20 years old and are dying back quite +badly. + +If the trees are dying for lack of summer moisture it is idle to do much +for them until you can give them irrigation right after the fruit +ripens. The cherry tree takes kindly to cutting back and will give good +new fruit-bearing shoots if the roots are in good condition. It is +desirable to remove surplus branches entirely rather than to cut back +everything to a definite height, the branches to be removed being those +which show disposition to die back and those which are running out too +far so as to reduce the space between the trees or to interfere with +branches from other trees. Branches which are failing above can in some +cases be cut back to a strong thrifty lateral branch below. +Shortening-in branches high up is less desirable because it forces out +too much new growth in the top of the tree and carries the fruit so high +that picking would be expensive. All cuts of any size should be painted +to prevent the wood from checking. + + + +Pruning Cherries. + + + +I have cherry trees in their third season which have been given the +usual winter pruning. The trees are putting forth a great many more +branches than are required, and naturally many of the branches are +growing across the tree. In cutting these extra branches, I am informed +that there is a way to trim them so that they will eventually form fruit +spurs. I had an idea that in order to do this it would be well to cut +about one inch from the main branch. Some one has told me that this +would merely cause the little branch to sprout again. + +Cherry shoots which are not required or desired for branch-forming can +be transferred into fruit spurs, if the tree is of bearing age, by +shortening them in. Do not, however, cut at an arbitrary distance of one +inch from the starting point, but rather save one or two buds at +whatever distance from the starting point these may be growing. If the +tree is too young to bear, only growth shoots may appear from these +buds, but they are likely to be short and will support fruit spurs +later. This practice should not be carried to excess or you will have +too many small shoots which will not get light enough to bear good +fruit, even if fruit spurs should appear. + + + +Pollination of Black Tartarian. + + + +There are many old Tartarian cherry trees around our district that have +only borne a few cherries in years. There are Bing, Royal Ann and Early +Purple Guignes here with these, but they seldom, if ever, bloom with the +Tartarian at the proper time to pollinate. What varieties would cause +the trees to bear? + +Sterility of the Black Tartarian is rather unusual. In the coast +regions, Bing, Black Tartarian and Early Purple Guigne are all +considered pollinizers for the Royal Ann. Inversely all these should be +pollinizers for the Black Tartarian, if that variety requires such +assistance, which we have all along supposed that it did not. + + + +Treatment of Fig Suckers. + + + +A few young fig trees are not growing from the tops, but are sending out +suckers, in some cases above and others below the point of grafting. Had +I better let these suckers grow and see what comes from them or plant +new trees? + +Graft near the ground all those which are sending suckers from below the +graft. Suckers from above grafting point can be trained into trees by +selecting the best, tying to stakes to straighten up and removing all +other suckers but the one selected. + + + +No Gopher-proof Fig Roots. + + + +Is it necessary that figs should be grafted in some other roots to keep +the gophers from destroying the trees? What root should I order? + +Figs are not grown on any other than fig roots and are generally +propagated by rooted cuttings for the purpose of avoiding the expense of +grafting. The fruit must then be protected by killing the gophers rather +than by an effort to get the tree upon a gopher-proof root. + + + +Pollination of Bartletts. + + + +Would Clapp's Favorite be a good pollinizer for the Bartlett as well as +the White Doyenne? + +The white Doyenne and the Clapp's Favorite usually begin to bloom three +or four days later than the Bartlett, but the Bartlett period extends +about ten days into the blooming period of the others. Therefore, your +question is to be answered in the affirmative; that is, if the Bartlett +needs pollination, it will be likley to get it from either of these +varieties. + + + +Comice Pears. + + + +Would you plant Comice pears instead of Bartletts, and why? What is +their behavior as to bearing? Do they require any different treatment +than Bartletts? What roots? Do they need other varieties for +pollinizing? + +Do not plant Cornice instead of Bartletts except for those who have +tested out the Cornice to their production and selling. Though +satisfactory in some places, it makes no such wide record of success as +the Bartlett and should be planted only on the basis of experience with +it. Its propagation and culture are the same as other pears. It takes to +the quince all right if you want dwarf trees. We have no record of its +pollination needs, but as the Bartlett in California defies its Eastern +reputation for self-sterility, it is likely that Cornice may also take +care of itself, for it is not handicapped by such Eastern condemnation. + + + +No Pears on Peach. + + + +I saw, the other day, some Bartlett pear grafts in Salway peach trees, +and the party informed me that he had seen three-year-old grafts that +had pears last season. I would like your opinion, as I always thought +that such a union was not possible. + +Our opinion is like yours, and seeing some pear grafts set in peach +branches would not convince us that they would grow or bear fruit. + + + +Pigs in the Orchard. + + + +I have an orchard of Bartlett pears about fifteen years old, located on +sediment land. I desire to set this to alfalfa, and to feed the alfalfa +by letting hogs eat it off, thereby leaving the droppings on the land. +What I wish to know is this: Will this crop be beneficial or injurious +to the trees? + +Alfalfa can be successfully grown in an orchard, providing you have +irrigation water so that the alfalfa shall not rob the trees of +moisture; otherwise it is a very dangerous practice. The practice of +running animals of any kind in an orchard is to be condemned. Pigs are +particularly liable to injure trees by gnawing the bark, and we have +seen fig trees barked clean as high as a pig could reach by standing on +his hind legs. Of course, if you try an experiment for your own +satisfaction, you will have to watch the pigs very carefully. It is true +that growing pasture crops in an orchard and grazing, it off is +injurious to trees, because the land lacks proper aeration, and good +orchard cultivation is even more necessary in this State than in humid +climates. Therefore, unless you are sure of a good water supply for +irrigation, it would be altogether safer to give the whole land to the +trees and keep them cultivated well, or else dig out the trees and use +the land for other purposes. + + + +Dwarf Pears Not Commercially Grown. + + + +Will you kindly give the experience of pear growers in California who +have grown the dwarfs? If you can give me the data or refer me to +persons who can give data showing that the growing of dwarf pears can be +made a commercial success the information will be of great value. + +There is no commercial growing of dwarf pears in this State, except some +trees owned by the A. Block Company, Santa Clara. The late Mr. Block had +an old orchard of dwarf trees, planted perhaps forty or fifty years ago, +which he converted into an approach to a standard orchard by removing +alternate rows, and the trees being otherwise treated like standards +have been satisfactorily producing pears for many years. How far these +trees are still on the dwarf roots and how far they have supplied +themselves with roots from the variety growth above, we do not know. +There is no disposition whatever to plant dwarf trees in this State +except among a few amateurs who are making home fruit gardens. In view +of the successful growth of standard trees in this State, there seem to +be no adequate reasons for recourse to dwarf trees. + + + +Yield in Drying Pears. + + + +What is the loss of weight in drying Bartlett pears? + +They run from 7 to 8 lbs. of fresh pears to 1 lb. hard dried. There is +quite wide variation according to condition of the fruit. Probably about +7 1/2 to 1 would be as near a realizable ratio as you could get by +arbitrary estimate. + + + +Pear Problems. + + + +Kindly let me know the advisability of grafting Bartlett pears onto +apple trees. In replanting pears in young orchard, how would it do to +take rooted pear suckers, graft the Bartlett on them, and save the cost +of nursery stock? Last year my five-year-old Bartlett orchard was full +of blossoms, but, though many pears became as large as white beans, the +majority of them dropped. + +The pear and apple do not make a good union. The grafts may grow for a +while, but finally fail. Do not use suckers as stocks. You can dig up +some year roots and use them as starters by making root-grafts with +Bartlett scions and do better than with suckers, but a good pear +seedling is the proper thing either for budding or root grafting. Unless +you have some experience in such work, it will be cheaper in the end to +buy good nursery trees. The nonbearing of your young trees is probably +due to their youth and vigor. + + + +Bees and Pear Blight. + + + +A few years ago, I planted alfalfa between my pear trees and the trees +bore a very heavy crop that year. Then blight made its appearance, and +it was claimed that the bees carried the blight. I therefore plowed +under the alfalfa and destroyed what few beehives I had. If the theory +that the bees carry the blight from tree to tree is not correct, I will +experiment with alfalfa again this year. + +It is true that bees carry pear blight. It is also true that you are not +likely to get many pears without bees to pollinate the blossoms. You +cannot escape the carriage of the pear blight by removing tame bees, +because wild bees are abundant in all parts of the State. The way to +overcome the blight is to pursue it by amputation of diseased branches +continually, so that there may be no contamination for the bees to +carry. You are certainly warranted in continuing your alfalfa growing +without regard to this question, using water enough to keep the alfalfa +growing well without saturating the soil to the injury of the trees or +inducing too much summer growth on them. + + + +Forage Under Sprayed Trees. + + + +Is it safe to use arsenical sprays in a pear orchard in which alfalfa is +raised between the trees and afterward cut and fed to cattle? + +It was fully demonstrated by experiment about 25 years ago that herbage +under trees sprayed with paris green at the rate of 1 pound to 160 +gallons of water was not injurious to animals pasturing upon it. We are +not aware that such an experiment has been made with the more recently +used arsenates - which can be used with a much higher amount of arsenic +to the gallon because they do not injure the foliage - to determine +whether the herbage below would be poisonous or not. Presumably not, +because modern spraying does not admit as much loss from run-off as was +the case with old Spraying methods. + + + +Pears on Quince. + + + +I saw some time ago a report of some French experiments in grafting the +pear onto quince root. The report said the fruit produced was much +larger than on any other root. + +Most of our common pears will take readily when grafted on the quince, +but the quince transforms them into dwarfed trees. Such trees do +produce, with proper care, very fine fruit. The remark about their being +better than on standard trees refers, however, to other climates than +ours, for California grows just as large pears on standard trees as can +possibly be grown, while where conditions are harder the higher culture +of the dwarf tree and the protection which it requires from climatic +hardships, gives the dwarf tree the advantage. You can get pears on +quince roots from most of our California nurseries. + + + +Pollination of Pears. + + + +Is it necessary in growing the Comice pear successfully, to put some +other pear near for the purpose of pollination in order to make it +successful? Will the ordinary Bartlett pear do for pollination? + +The Comice pear blooms with the Bartlett, and would therefore presumably +be of pollinizing benefit to the Bartlett if the latter should require +such treatment. Common experience in California, however, is that the +Bartlett is self-fertile and not self-sterile as it is commonly reported +in Eastern publications. California practice is, then, to plant +Bartletts solidly without reference to preparation for pollination. +Taking the matter the other way around, the Bartlett will do for +pollination of the Comice probably, if that should be necessary. + + + +Lye-Peeling Peaches. + + + +Please give the formula for peeling peaches by dipping them in caustic +soda or lye. + +Lye for peeling peaches is used at the rate of half to one pound to the +gallon of water, according to the strength of the lye, which you can +determine by the quickness with which it acts. The lye water is kept +boiling, and the fruit is dipped in wire baskets, only being allowed to +remain in the lye a few seconds, and is then plunged at once into fresh +water. You must be careful to keep the lye boiling hot, also either to +use running water for rinsing or change it very frequently, for you have +to rely on fresh water to remove the lye, or the fruit is likely to be +stained. + + + +Aged Peach Trees. + + + +What should be done with peach trees 35 years old which are becoming +unthrifty, bearing only at the ends of the limbs, etc.? + +Old peach trees become bark-bound and need to be cut back to just above +the crotch for the forcing out of new branches, this being facilitated, +of course, by application of manure, good cultivation of the soil, use +of water during the dry season, etc. The peach is, under most +conditions, not a long-lived tree, and if your trees are 35 years of +age, it is probable that best results could be obtained by grubbing them +out and replanting with young trees on new soil if possible. The +profitable life of the Eastern peach tree is put down at five or six +years. In California the profitable life of the peach sometimes reaches +twenty or more years, if growing under exceptionally good conditions; +but 35 years would seem to be at least on the borders of decrepitude. +Growing at the tips shows that you have not pruned annually to induce +the growth of new wood lower down. + + + +Renewing Peach Orchard. + + + +Which is the best way to renew an old peach orchard? The trees are about +18 years old, Muirs and Fosters, and are yielding good crops, but some +of the trees show decline. Is it best to replace the old ones with new +trees or to plant a new orchard in between the old trees and cut out old +ones when new trees are three or four years old? + +If the trees have sound bodies and are not badly injured by sunburn +borers, do none of the things you mention, but would cut back for a new +head. Cutting back should be done during the latter half of the dormant +period and thinning of shoots to proper balance a new head should be +carefully done the following winter. It is a hard job to get young trees +to start among old trees and you are apt to get a mixed lot of trees +which you will not be proud of. Cut back as suggested or rip out, plow +deeply and start anew, placing the rows midway between the old rows. + + + +Will He Have Peaches? + + + +I have a young orchard between five and six years old, mostly of the +Lovell variety. I didn't have much of a crop this year. Should I have a +good crop next year? + +You ought to be able to tell now how full a set of fruit buds you have. +If you do not know what the fruit buds are, ask some neighbor who knows +peaches to point them out. If you have a good show of fruit buds, the +question in California is not whether they will winter-kill or not, but +whether the leaves held late enough the preceding summer and therefore +the tree had strength enough to make good strong fruit buds. The late +action of the leaves shows that the trees had enough autumn moisture. +You will soon learn to recognize the condition also from the plumpness +of the wood which carries the fruit buds. If all has gone well so far, +the next point is to spray with the bordeaux mixture in November or +December so that the new wood shall not be attacked by the peach blight +or shothole fungus. This disease comes on early in the winter, sets the +the new bark to gumming and endangers the crop. Then if you have San +Jose scale, or if your trees showed much curl-leaf last spring, you +ought to spray before the blossom buds show color with the lime-sulphur +wash. Supposing that you have good buds now and are willing to protect +them as suggested, your trees may be expected to come through with a +good crop if seasonal moisture conditions are right. + + + +Peach Fillers in Apple Orchard. + + + +I have heard some talk against planting peach fillers in an apple +orchard. What is your opinion on the subject? + +There is no objection providing the peach is profitable in the locality; +and that point you must look into. The peach trees will not injure the +apples unless they are allowed to stand too long. In that case they +would interfere with the development of the apple. + + + +Grafting Peach on Almond. + + + +May I expect to get good results by grafting some kind of peach to +19-year-old almond tree? If so, what kind of peach will be best? When +shall I do grafting? + +Peaches take to the almond all right. Cut off and graft in the branches +above the main forking of the tree; leaving at least one large branch to +be grafted later or to be cut out entirely if you have peach growth +enough to fill the top sufficiently. Graft in any kind of peach you find +to be worth growing. Graft toward the latter part of the dormant season, +say when the buds are swelling for a new start. + + + +Peaches on Apricot. + + + +I have a three-year-old peach orchard grafted or budded on apricot +roots, and interspersed through the orchard are young apricot trees, +from half-inch to inch and a half in diameter, which sprang from the +root, the peach bud or graft having died. I budded these over to peaches +in summer, but the buds all died for some cause. What is now the best +course to transform them into peach trees? If a graft, what form of +graft, and approximately when should it be made? + +You can graft peach scions into the apricot sprouts by taking the peach +scions of the varieties you desire while the tree is perfectly dormant, +keeping them in a cool place and putting in the grafts just as the buds +are beginning to swell on the apricot stock. The scions can be buried in +the earth in the shade of a fence or building, selecting a place, +however, which is moist enough and yet where the water does not gather. +The ordinary form of top grafting in stems an inch or more in diameter +will work well. The half-inch stems can be whip-grafted successfully. +You will have to wax well and see that the wax coating is kept sound +until the growth starts. + + + +Replanting After Root-knots. + + + +In digging out some old peach trees, I find now and then a tree affected +with root knot. I am burning the root, of course, but as these trees are +scattered in the orchard, I wish to plant young trees in same locations, +thus preserving the rows. Can new stock be safely put in the earth from +which the old tree is removed? If treatment of the soil is essential, +what is recommended? + +Dig a good large hole, removing the earth, and fill with new earth from +between the rows, and in this way healthy growth ought to be obtained, +although there is always a disposition in some trees to put on knots. +They should be looked at from time to time and all those affecting the +larger stem should be removed and the wound painted with bordeaux +mixture. + + + +Buds in Bearing Trees. + + + +In budding over some old peach trees, should I cut away the branch above +the bud when the latter seems to have taken? + +The sap flow to the upper part of the branch should be checked by part +girdling or by part breaking or bending the top above the bud, after the +bud is seen to have set or taken. Do not remove the whole top until the +growth on the bud has started out well or else you will "drown it" with +excessive sap flow. + + + +Pollen Must Be of the Same Kind. + + + +Do peaches, nectarines and apricots set fruit with the pollen of one +another, and are the various peaches, nectarines and apricots +self-sterile, or will most kinds set fruit with their own pollen? + +We do not count upon pollination between different kinds of fruit. Most +fruits are self-fertile, else we could not attain the practical results +we do, because it is only in the planting of almonds, cherries, pears +and apples that any regard is paid to the association of varieties for +that cross-fertilization. Some fruits are more apt to be self-fertile in +this State than in other States where the growing conditions are not so +favorable. + + + +Peach Budding. + + + +Which is easier with the peach, grafting or budding? + +The peach is rather a difficult tree to graft, and budding, on the other +hand, is quite easy. You can bud into new shoots of this season's growth +in July, and, if necessary, you can improve the slipping of the bark by +irrigation a few days before budding. Buds can also be successfully +placed in June in the old bark of the peach, providing it is not too +old. For this select well-matured buds from the larger shoots and use +rather a larger shield than in working into new shoots. When the buds +are seen to have taken, the top growth beyond it can be reduced +gradually and some new growth forced on the buds the same season, if the +sap flow continues as it might be expected to do on young trees well +cared for. + + + +Grafting on the Peach. + + + +Will pears do to graft on the peach, or will plums do well on the peach? +How soon ought they to bear when grafted on the peach which is past +three years old? + +Pears cannot be grafted on peaches. Plums generally do well on the +peach, and if the grafts are taken from bearing trees, should come into +fruit the second season. The peach is more difficult to graft than other +fruit trees, because of the drying back of the bark. Be extra careful in +the waxing and be sure that the waxing remains good until the growth +starts out well the following summer. + + + +Young Trees Failing to Start. + + + +Some peach and almond trees set out last spring lived, but made no +growth. Should they be replaced with new stock? If not, what may be +expected of them? + +If your inactive trees have good plump dormant buds (though they may not +be large buds), they may make good growth the coming summer, if the land +is good and the moisture right for free growth. + + + +Peach Planting in Alfalfa Sod. + + + +Is it advisable to plant canning peaches in April, and will I gain time +in growth and development? I want to set out eight acres in Tuscans or +Phillips on deep rich soil near Yuba City. I have a pumping plant and +can irrigate. The land has been in alfalfa for several years. I have in +mind setting out trees without disturbing the alfalfa - until next +plowing season. Do you think it advisable to use commercial fertilizer +on ten-year-old Muirs? + +Planting the best canning peaches on good peach soil near Yuba City +seems to be about the safest line of fruit investment which can be +undertaken. We doubt that you can get much growth from trees planted in +an old stand of alfalfa without some effort to kill out the plant which +now occupies the ground. Still, by deep digging, throwing out all the +alfalfa roots and thorough hoeing during the growing season and keeping +the alfalfa mowers from sawing off the tops of them, the trees may make +a good start. As the alfalfa will have to be irrigated, April may not be +too late to start the trees, providing you can find nursery stock which +is still quite dormant. Probably ten-year-old peach trees will be very +much improved by commercial fertilizers. + + + +Prune on Almond. + + + +What root is considered best for prune trees? The ranch lies above the +creek. A friend is very partial to the almond root instead of the +myrobalan, but I understand that the prune tree sometimes outgrows the +almond root. + +If you have a deep rather light soil which drains well and which there +is, therefore, no danger of water standing during the rainy season, the +almond root is perfectly satisfactory for the prune. It is a +strong-growing root and keeps pace with the top growth well. The prune, +in fact, is more apt to overgrow the myrobalan than the almond, and the +myrobalan will not do well on light soils likely to dry out as the +almond will. + + + +Re-grafting Silver Prunes. + + + +I have five acres of Silver prunes which produce very little fruit. The +trees are strong and healthy. French prune trees adjoining bear +regularly and heavily. Can I graft French prunes on the Silver trees? +Will Silver prune trees take other grafts, such as apricots or apples? + +The Silver prune is often unsatisfactory for reason of shy bearing. It +is perfectly feasible to graft over the tree to the French prune and +this has been done for years by different growers. Apricots will usually +take on the plum stock, but are apt to over-grow it or else be dwarfed +themselves, but the apricot is often worked upon a plum stock. Apples +have no grafting affinity whatever for the plum. + + + +French or Italian. + + + +In the prune-growing district around Salem, Oregon, Italian prunes are +grown exclusively for drying purposes. French prunes were considered +worthless. Here in Sutter county, California, a great many French prunes +are grown and we are advised to plant them, but would rather plant the +Italian prune. Which would you advise us to set out in this part of the +State? + +The Italian or Fellenberg prune was grown to some extent in California +40 years and abandoned; it was not so sure in bearing as the French, and +it was not the type of prune which we had ambition to excel with. The +prune which we grow as the French is the true prune or plum of Agen. We +should plant it and let the Oregon people have the Italian. + + + +Myrobalan Seedlings. + + + +I am sending two small plums which I am told are Myrobalan plum. I +desire to grow seedlings on which later to bud and graft French prunes. +If these are Myrobalan plums, will trees from them be as good as trees +from pits that were imported? + +The fruits are Myrobalan plums, and their seedlings would be suitable +for the French prune, providing the trees which bear them are strong, +thrifty growing trees. There is great variation in the colors of the +Myrobalan seedlings, from light yellow to dark red, and it is the +satisfactory growth of the tree rather than the character of the fruit +which one has to bear in mind when growing seedlings from selected trees +instead of depending so largely on imported seedlings. + + + +Drying Plums and Prunes. + + + +I have plum trees of various kinds that are loaded with fruit. I do not +know if any are of the variety used for drying as prunes: I know nothing +of the process of making or drying prunes. One man suggests that I dip +them for four or live minutes in a 3 or 4 per cent solution of lye and +then place them in the sun. + +Dipping your plums is right providing they are very sweet, as they will +dry like prunes without removing the pit. If they are plums that are +commercially used for shipping, without enough sugar to dry as prunes, +the pit must be removed. Drying in this way, you do not need to use lye, +which is simply for the purpose of cracking the skin so that the +moisture can be more readily evaporated. There is no danger in using the +necessary amount of lye. Less is used than in making hominy. + + + +The Sugar Prune. + + + +What is the commercial value of the Sugar prune? Is there any other +early ripening variety better than the Sugar? + +It is selling very well as a cured prune, and growers in the northern +bay counties especially have done so well that they are extending their +plantings. It is coarser in flesh than the French and generally flatter +in flavor when cooked and thus falls below the ideal of a cured prune, +but it has compensating characters, such as early ripening, with which +no other prune compares. The Sugar is also valuable as a shipping plum +to Eastern markets. + + + +Glossing Dried Prunes. + + + +Will you give the method for giving the gloss to dried French prunes? + +There are various methods. One pound of glycerine to 20 gallons of +water; a quick dip in the mixture very hot gives a good finish. Where a +clear bloom rather than a shine, is desired, five pounds of common salt +to 100 gallons of water, also dipped hot, gives a good effect. Some use +a thin syrup made by boiling small prunes in water (by stove or steam) +and thinning with water to produce the result desired. Steam cooking +avoids bad flavor by burning. The salt dip is probably the most widely +used. + + + +Price of Prunes on a Size Basis. + + + +Explain the grading in price of prunes. For instance, if the base price +is, say, five and three-fourths cents, what size does this refer to, and +how is the price for other sizes calculated? Also, what is the meaning +of the phrase "four-size basis"? + +Prunes, after being sold to the packer, are graded into different sizes, +according to the number required to make a pound, and paid for on that +basis. The four regular sizes are 60-70s, 70-80s, 80-90s, and 90-100s, +which means that from 60 to 70 prunes are required to make a pound, and +so on. The basis price is for prunes that weigh 80 to the pound. When +the basis price is 5 3/4 cents, 80-90s are worth 1/4 cent less than this +amount, or 5 1/2 cents. The next smaller size, 90-100s, are worth 1/2 +cent less, or 5 cents, while prunes under this size are little but skin +and pit and bring much less to the grower. For each next larger size +there is a difference of 1/2 cent in favor of the grower, so that on the +5 3/4-cent basis 70-80s are worth 6 cents, and 60-70s 6 1/2 cents. This +advance continues for the larger sizes, 30-40s, 40-50s, etc., but these +quite often command a premium besides, which is fixed according to the +supplies available and the demand for the various sizes. The sizes for +which no premium or penalty is generally fixed are those from 60 to 100, +four sizes, so that this basis of making contracts and sales is called +the "four-size basis." The advantage that results in having this method +of selling prunes can be seen by the fact that on a 5 3/4-cent basis the +smallest of the four sizes will bring but 5 cents a pound, while 30-40s +would bring, without any premium, 8 1/2 cents, and with 1 cent premium, +9 1/2 cents. This size has this season brought as high as 10 and 11 +cents a pound. It may be noted here that no prunes are actually sold at +just the basis price, as they are worth either less or more than this as +they are smaller or larger than 80 to the pound. No matter what the +basis price is, there is a difference of one-half cent between each size +and the sizes nearest to it. + + + +Pollinizing Plums. + + + +How many rows of Robe de Sergeant prune trees should be alternated with +the French prune (the common dried prune of commerce) to insure perfect +fertilization of the blossoms? + +The French prune is self-fertile; that is, it does not require the +presence of other plum species for pollination of the blossoms. It is +the Robe de Sergeant prune which is defective in pollination and which +is presumably assisted by proximity to the French prune. If you wish to +grow Robe de Sergeant prunes your question of interplanting would be +pertinent, but if you desire only to grow French prunes you need not +plant the Robe de Sergeant at all. + + + +Cultivating Olives. + + + +How deep should an olive orchard be plowed? I was told that by plowing +deep I would injure my trees, in cutting up small rootlets and fibres +which the olive extends through the surface soil. Is this so or not? + +Plowing olives is like plowing other trees, the purpose being to get a +workable soil deep enough to stand five or six inches of summer +cultivation, usually. If you have old trees which have never been deeply +plowed, you would destroy a lot of roots by deep plowing, and you should +not start in and rip up all the land at once. You can gradually deepen +the plowing, sacrificing fewer roots at a time, without injuring the +trees if they are otherwise well circumstanced. Small rootlets and +fibres in the surface soil do not count; they are quickly replaced, and +if you do not destroy them, the whole surface soil, if moist enough, +will be filled with a network of roots which will subsequently make +decent working of the soil impossible. + + + +Moving Old Olive Trees. + + + +Would there be anything gained by transplanting old olive trees 6 to 8 +inches in diameter over nursery stock? They would have to be shipped +from Santa Clara to Butte county and grafted. Would they come into +bearing any sooner and be as good trees? Could the large limbs be used +to advantage? Would the fact that they are covered with smut cause any +trouble? + +Old olive trees can be successfully moved a long distance by cutting +back, taking up a ball of earth, and possibly a short distance with bare +roots if everything is favorable. But do not for a moment think them +worth such an outlay for labor, freight and hauling which such a +movement as you mention involves. The trees on arrival would probably +only be firewood, and if they lived, the time required in getting a good +growth and grafting, etc., would perhaps be as great as in bringing a +young tree of the right kind to bearing, and the latter would be a +better tree in every way. Large limbs can be split and used as cuttings, +but the tree would be growth on one side and decay on the other. Use the +smaller limbs for hard-wood cuttings and the balance for firewood. The +smut shows that the trees are covered with scale insects and might +indicate that it is better to burn up the whole outfit unless you learn +to fight them. + + + +Darkening Pickled Olives. + + + +Is there anything that will make olives keep their black color when put +into lye? When I put my first picking of ripe olives in lye, a large +part of them turn green, the black leaving the fruit. My formula is one +pound of lye to five gallons of water. Have you any better formula? + +By exposing the olives to the light and air, either during the salting +or immediately after, ripe olives may be given a uniformly black color. +Also, fruit which is less ripe and which shows red and green patches +after processing with lye, becomes an almost uniform dark brown color. +To do this, the olives are removed from the brine and exposed to light +and air freely for one or two days. Your lye was stronger than +necessary. With ripe olives it is desirable to use salt and lye together +to prevent softening, and the common prescription is two ounces of +potash lye and four ounces of salt to the gallon of water after the +bitterness is largely removed by using one or two treatments with two +ounces of lye to the gallon without the salt. It is necessary to draw +off the solution, rinse well, and put on fresh solution several times +during the process to get the best results. + + + +Seedling Olives Must Be Grafted. + + + +Will olive trees grown from the olive seed be the right thing to plant? +Will they be true to the parent tree or will they have to be grafted? + +Olives which a seedling olive tree will bear will be, as a rule, very +inferior and generally of the type of the wild olive. All such trees +must be grafted in order to produce any particular variety which you +desire. + + + +Olives, Oranges and Peppers. + + + +We have been told that olive trees easily become infested with a fungus +disease which they then impart to the orange tree. The same objection is +raised to the planting of pepper trees. May this be true in some parts +of the State and not in others? + +The fungus of which you have heard is the "black smut." It is a result, +not a cause. It grows on the honey dew exuded from scale insects and if +your trees have no scale they have no fungus. The olive trees and pepper +trees may communicate this trouble to citrus trees, or vice versa - +whichever gets it first gives it away to the other. If you will work +hard enough to kill the scale wherever it appears you can have all these +trees, but, of course, it costs a lot to fight scale on big pepper +trees, and it is, therefore, wisest usually to choose an ornamental tree +not likely to accept the scale. + + + +Budding Olive Seedlings. + + + +I have planted olive seeds which are just sprouting now. Can these be +budded next June or July in the nursery row, or can they be +bench-grafted the following winter? + +Your seedlings may make growth enough to spur-bud this summer. The +ordinary plate-bud does not take freely with the olive. Some of them may +do this; other seedlings may be slow and have to be budded in the second +summer. Watch the size and the sap flow so that the bark will lift well +- which may not be at just the time that deciduous trees are budded. It +may be both earlier or later in the season. Graft evergreens like the +olive in the nursery row; not by bench grafting. + + + +Budding Old Olives. + + + +I have seedling olive trees, set out in 1904, which I wish to change +over to the Ascolano variety. Which is the best way to do it, by budding +or grafting, and what is the proper time? + +Twig-budding brings the sap of the stock to bear upon a young lateral or +tip bud, which is much easier to start than dormant buds used either as +buds or grafts. A short twig about an inch and a half in length is taken +with some of the bark of the small branch from which it starts, and both +twig and bark at its base are put in a bark slit like an ordinary shield +bud and tied closely with a waxed band, although if the sap is moving +freely it would probably do with a string or raffia tie. Put in such +buds as growth is starting in the spring. + + + +Olives from Small Cuttings. + + + +In the rooting of small soft-wood olive cuttings is it necessary to +cover same with glass - say perhaps prepare a cold-frame and put stable +manure in the bottom with about eight inches of sand on top? + +It ceases to be a cold-frame when you cover in manure for bottom heat; +it becomes a hotbed. Varieties of olives differ greatly in the readiness +with which they start from small cuttings. Some start freely and grow +well in boxes of sand under partial shade - like a lath house or cover. +Some need bottom heat in such a hotbed as you describe with a cloth +over; some start well in a cold-frame with a lath cover. To get the best +results with all kinds, it is safer to use some more heat than comes +from exposure to ordinary temperatures - either by concentration, as in +a covered frame, or by a mild bottom heat. If you have glass frames or +greenhouse, they are, of course, desirable, but much can be done without +that expense. + + + +Olives from Large Cuttings. + + + +I am about to take olive cuttings from one-half to one inch thick and 54 +to 20 inches long, and wish to root them in nursery rows. Please advise +me if it is necessary to plant under half shade? Also, can same be +planted out right away, or should they be buried in trenches for a while +before setting out? Would it be best to strip all leaves or branches +off, or leave one on? How many buds should be left above ground? + +Plant in open ground in the coast district generally; in the interior a +lath (or litter shade not too dense) is desirable in places where high +dry heat is expected and where sprinkling under the cover may be +desirable. Plant out when the soil is right as to warmth and moisture, +which is usually a little later than this in the central and northern +parts of the State. Remove all leaves and twigs and plant about +three-quarters of the length in the soil, which should be a well-drained +sandy loam. The cuttings can be taken directly from the trees and need +not be bedded. If the cuttings come some distance and get end-dried, +make a fresh cut at planting. If shriveled at all, soak a few hours in +water before planting out. + + + +Trimming Up Olives. + + + +Limbs are shooting out too low on my olive trees. Would it be right to +trim them up while dormant this winter, or should I let them grow +another year before doing so? I think I want the first limbs to start at +18 to 20 inches above the ground. + +Take off the lower shoots whenever your knife is sharp. Do not let them +grow another year. Theoretically, the best time to remove them is toward +the end of the dormant season, but if they are not large as compared +with the whole growth of the tree, go to it any time. + + + +Canning Olives. + + + +What is the recipe for preserving olives by heat, and how long do they +have to remain in the heated state? + +Canning olives is a process, not a recipe, and it has to be operated +with judgment. It resembles, of course, the common process of canning +other fruits and vegetables. It has been demonstrated that heating up to +175° Fahrenheit is effective to keep olives in sealed containers for +over two years. The heating was done in the jars in the usual canning +way for several minutes after 175° was reached, to be sure the contents +were heated through. + + + +Renewing Olive Trees. + + + +I have olive trees on first-class land; no pest of any kind is apparent. +The trees look healthy in every way, and average about 12 inches at the +butt and 30 feet high. They have borne fruit, but for the last three +years have not borne. I am advised to cut back to stumps, 5 or 6 feet +high, and start new tops. + +Unsatisfactory olive trees may be cut back, but not to such an extent as +you mention. Thin out the branches if too thick and cut back or remove +those which interfere, but to cut back to a stump would force out a very +thick mass of brush which you would have to afterward go into and thin +out desperately. The branches which you decide to retain may be cut back +to twelve or fifteen feet from the ground. This would have the effect of +giving you plenty of new thrifty wood, which is desirable for the +fruiting of the olive, but we cannot guarantee that this treatment will +make the trees satisfactory bearers. Are you sure they are receiving +water enough? If not, give them more next summer. Also give the land a +good coat of stable manure and plow under when the land is right for the +plow. + + + +Growing Olives from Seed. + + + +How are seedlings grown from olive seeds? + +Growing olives from seeds is promoted by assisting nature to break the +hard shell. This can be done by pinching carefully with ordinary wire +pliers until the shell cracks without injury to the kernel, or the shell +may be cut into with a file, making a very small aperture to admit +moisture. The French have specially contrived pliers with a stop which +admits cracking and prevents crushing. Olive seeds in their natural +condition germinate slowly and irregularly. They must be kept moist and +planted about an inch deep in sandy loam, covering with chaff or litter +to prevent drying of the surface. Before experimenting with olive pits, +crack a few to see if they have good plump kernels. Seedling olives must +be grafted, of course, to be sure of getting the variety you want. For +this reason growth from cuttings is almost universal. + + + +Neglected Olive Trees. + + + +I have a lot of olive trees which have grown up around the old stumps. +They are large trees and some of them have six or eight trunks. Should I +cut away all but one trunk or let them alone? There are some of the +trees with small olives; others none. + +If the olive trees which were originally planted were trained at first +and still have a good trunk and tree form, the suckers which have +intruded from below should be removed. If, however, the trees have been +allowed to grow many branches from below, so that there is really no +single tree remaining, make a selection of four or five of the best +shoots and grow the trees in large bush form, shortening in the higher +growth so as to bring the fruit within easier reach and reduce the cost +of picking. You can also develop a single shoot into a tree as you +suggest. Of course, you must determine whether the trees as they now +stand are of a variety which is worth growing. If they are all bearing +very small fruit, it would be a question whether they were worth keeping +at all, because grafting on the kind of growth which you describe would +be unlikely to yield satisfactory tree forms, though you might get a +good deal of fruit from them. + + + +Olives from Cuttings. + + + +I have two choice olive trees on my place. I am anxious to get trees +from these old ones and do not know how to go about it. Can I grow the +young trees by using cuttings or slips from these old trees ? If so, +when is the proper time to select the cuttings, and how should they be +planted? + +Take cuttings of old wood, one-half or three-quarters of an inch in +diameter, about ten inches long, and plant them about three-quarters of +their length in a sandy loam soil in a row so water can be run alongside +as may be necessary to keep the soil moist but not too wet. Such dormant +cuttings can be put in when the soil begins to warm up with the spring +sunshine. They can be put in the places where you desire them to grow in +one or two years. Olives, like other evergreen trees, should be +transplanted in the spring when there is heat enough to induce them to +take hold at once in their new places, and not during the winter when +dormant deciduous trees are best transplanted. + + + +Water and Frost. + + + +I have in mind two pieces of land well adapted to citrus culture. Both +have the same elevation, soil, climate and water conditions, except that +one piece is a mile of the Kaweah river, while the other is four or five +miles distant. In case of a frost, all conditions being about the same, +which piece would you consider to be liable to suffer the more? In the +heavy frost of last December, while neither sustained any great damage, +that portion of the ground nearer the river seemed to sustain the less. +Is this correct in theory? The Kaweah river at this point is a +good-sized stream of rapidly flowing water. + +The land near the river, conditions of elevation being similar, would be +less liable to frost. There are a good many instances where the presence +of a considerable body of water prevents the lowering of the temperature +of the air immediately adjacent. It is so at various points along the +Sacramento river, and it is recognized as a general principle that +bodies of water exert a warming influence upon their immediate +environment even in regions with a hard winter. How much it may count +for must be determined by taking other conditions into the account also. + + + +Thinning Oranges. + + + +Is it advisable to thin fruit on young citrus trees? Our trees have been +bearing about three years, but they are still small trees. The oranges +and grape fruit ripen well and are large and of excellent quality, but +the trees seem overloaded. + +The size of oranges on over-burdened trees can be increased by thinning, +just as other fruits are enlarged, but it is not systematically +undertaken as with peaches and apricots, because it is not so necessary +and because it is easy to get oranges on young trees too large and to be +discounted for over-sized coarse fruit. Removing part of the fruit from +young trees is often done - for the good of the tree, not for the good +of the fruit. It should be done after the natural drop takes place, +during the summer. + + + +Wind-blown Orange Trees. + + + +What would you do for citrus trees five years old that have been badly +blown out of shape? + +Such trees must be trued up by pruning into the wind; that is, cutting +to outside buds on the windward side and to inside buds on the lee side; +also reducing the weight by pruning away branches which have been blown +too far to the leeward. Sometimes trees can be straightened by moving +part of the soil and pulling into the wind and bracing there by a good +prop on the leeward side, but that, of course, is not practicable if the +trees have attained too much size. + + + +Handling Balled Citrus Trees. + + + +I have some orange and lemon trees which were sent me with their roots +balled up with dirt and sacks. As we are still having frosts I have not +wanted to set them out. Would it not be better to let them stay as they +are and keep the sacks wet (they have a sack box over them) than to put +them out while the frosts last? + +Your citrus trees will not be injured for a time unless mold should set +in from the wet sacks. Get them into the ground as soon as the soil +comes into good condition, and cover the top for a time after they are +planted to protect them against frosts. This would be better than to +hold them too long in the balls, but do not plant in cold, wet soil; +hold them longer as they are. + + + +The Navel Not Thornless. + + + +I have lately purchased some Washington navel orange trees, and upon +arrival I find they have thorns upon them. I thought the Washington +navels were thornless. + +The navel orange tree is not thornless. It is described as a medium +thorny variety, so that the finding of thorns upon the trees would not +be in itself sufficient indication that they were not of the right +variety. + + + +Over-size Oranges. + + + +I have some orange trees in a disintegrated granite with a good many +small pieces of rock still remaining in the soil. What I wish to know is +whether it is probably something in the soil that makes them grow too +large, or is it probably the method of treatment? What treatment should +be adopted to guard against this excessive growth? + +Young trees have a natural disposition to produce outside sizes of +fruit, and this is sometimes aggravated by excessive use of fertilizers, +sometimes by over-irrigation. We would cease to fertilize for a time and +to regulate irrigation so that the trees will have enough to be thrifty +without undertaking excessive growth. Such soil as you describe is +sometimes very rich at the beginning in available plant food, and +fertilization should be delayed until this excess has been appropriated +by the tree. + + + +Budding or Grafting in Orange Orchard. + + + +I have land now ready to be planted to oranges, but it is impossible for +me to buy the necessary budded stock now or even later this year. Would +you advise me to plant the "sour stock" as it comes from the nursery and +have it budded or crown-budded later? Are there any real objections to +this method, and, if so, what are they? + +It is perfectly feasible to plant sour-stock seedlings and to graft them +afterward to whatever variety of oranges you desire to grow, but it is +undoubtedly better to pay a pretty good price for budded trees of the +kind you desire rather than incur the delay and the irregular growth of +young trees budded or grafted in the field. There is also danger of an +irregular stand from accidental injuries to new growth started in the +field without the protection which it finds in the nursery row. + + + +Budding Oranges. + + + +How late in the fall can budding of orange trees be done - plants that +are two years old - and what advantage, if any, is late budding? What +shall I do with some old trees that were budded about two months ago and +are still green but not sprouted yet? The budding was done on young +shoots. + +Late budding of the orange can be done as late as the bark will slip +well; usually, however, not quite so late as this. Such buds are +preferred because in the experience of most people they make stronger +growth than those put in in the spring. Such buds are not expected to +grow until the lowest temperatures of the winter are over. The buds +which you speak of as green but still dormant are doing just what they +ought to do. They will start when they get ready. + + + +Under-pruning of Orange Trees. + + + +My Washington Navels have a very heavy crop on the lower limbs, as is +usual. These branches are so low down that many of the oranges lie on +the ground, and it takes a good deal of time to prop them up so that +they will not touch the ground. What would be the result of pruning off +these low branches, after the fruit is off? Will the same amount of +fruit be produced by the fruit growing on the limbs higher up? + +Certainly, raise the branches of the orange trees by removing the lowest +branches or parts of branches which reach to the ground. A little later +others will sag down and this under-pruning will have to be continuous. +It would be better to do this than to undertake any radical removal of +the lower branches. The progressive removal as becomes necessary will +not appreciably reduce the fruiting and will be in many ways desirable. + + + +Keeping Citrus Trees Low. + + + +My tangerines last fall shot up like lemon trees - a dozen to twenty +shoots two or three feet high. The trees are eight years old and are +loaded with bloom and some of the shoots have buds and bloom clear to +the top. Some shoots have no bloom. What should I do with these shoots? +Cut them back like lemons or let them remain? + +You must shorten the shoots if you desire to have a low tree. This will +cause their branching and it will be necessary, therefore, to remove +some of the shoots entirely, either now or later, in order that the tree +will not become too compact. + + + +Dying Back of Fruit Trees. + + + +I have a few orange and lemon trees that are starting to die. One tree +has died on the top. What kind of spray shall I use? + +The dying back of a tree at the top indicates that the trouble is in the +roots, and it is usually due to standing water in the soil, resulting +either from excessive application of water or because the soil is too +retentive to distribute an amount of water which might not be excessive +on a lighter soil which would allow of its freer movement. Dig down near +the tree and see if you have not a muddy subsoil. The same trouble would +result if the subsoil is too dry, and that also you can ascertain by +digging. If you find moisture ample, and yet not excessive, the injury +to the root might be due to the presence of alkali, or to excessive use +of fertilizers. The cause of the trouble has to be determined by local +examination and cannot be prescribed on the basis of a description of +the plant. It cannot be cured by spraying unless specific parasite is +found which can be killed by it. + + + +Young Trees Dropping Fruit. + + + +I have a few citrus fruit trees about three years old. They have made a +good growth and are between seven and eight feet high with a good shaped +top or head. I did not expect any fruit last year and did not have any. +This spring they blossomed irregularly at blooming time, but quite an +amount of fruit set and grew as large as marbles, some of it the size of +a walnut, but lately it has about all fallen off the trees. + +There is always more or less dropping from fruit trees. Some years large +numbers of oranges drop. There may be many causes, and the trouble has +thus far not been found preventable. When the foliage is good and the +growth satisfactory, the young tree is certainly not in need of +anything. It is rather more likely that fruit is dropped by the young +trees owing to their excessive vegetative vigor, for it is a general +fact that fruit trees which are growing very fast are less certain in +fruit-setting. It is, of course, possible that you have been forcing +such action by too free use of water. You will do well to let your trees +go along so long as they appear thrifty and satisfactory, and expect +better fruiting when they become older. + + + +Orange Training. + + + +Is not a single leader in an orange tree more desirable than the +much-forked tree so commonly seen! Can a single-leader tree be made from +the nursery trees which have already formed their heads, by cutting off +the heads below so that only a straight stick without any branches is +left? + +An orange tree with a central leader would not be at all satisfactory if +it were carried very high. Of course, a central stem can be to advantage +taken higher than it is often done, but we would not think of growing an +orange tree with a central stem to the apex. The laterals would droop, +crowd down upon each other badly, open the center to sunburn, and +encourage also a growth of central suckers and occasion an amount of +pruning altogether beyond what is necessary with a properly branched +tree without a central stem. + + + +Curing Citron. + + + +I wish to know a way to cure citrons at home. I have a fine tree that +has borne very fine-looking fruit for the past two years. + +An outline for the preparation of candied citron is as follows: The +fruit, before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright yellow, is +picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and left for at least a +month. The brine is renewed several times, and the fruit allowed to +remain in it until required for use, often for a period of four or five +months. When the citrons are to be candied they are taken from the +barrels and boiled in fresh water to soften them. They are then cut into +halves, the seed and pulp are removed, and the fruit is again immersed +in cold water, soon becoming of a greenish color. After this it is +placed in large earthen jars, covered with hot syrup, and allowed to +stand about three weeks. During this time the strength of the syrup is +gradually increased. The fruit is then put into boilers with +crystallized sugar dissolved in a small quantity of water, and cooked; +then allowed to cool, and boiled again until it will take up no more +sugar. It is then dried and packed in wooden boxes. + + + +Crops Between Orange Trees. + + + +What crop can I plant between rows of young orange trees to utilize the +ground as well as pay a little something? + +It depends not alone upon what will grow, but upon what can be +profitably sold or used on the place, and unless sure of that, it is +usually better not to undertake planting between young trees but rather +to cultivate well, irrigate intelligently, and trust for the reward in a +better growth and later productiveness of the trees. It is clear, +California experience that planting between trees except to things which +are demonstrated to be profitable should not be undertaken, and where +one does not need immediate returns is, as a rule, undesirable. The +growth of a strip of alfalfa, if one is careful not to submerge the +trees by over-irrigation, would be the best thing one could undertake +for the purpose of improving the soil by increasing the humus content, +reducing the amount of reflected heat from a clean surface, and is +otherwise desirable wherever moisture is available for it. You could +also grow cow peas for the good of the land if not for other profit. You +can, of course, grow small fruits and vegetables for home use if you +will cultivate well. Common field crops, with scant cultivation, will +generally cause you to lose more from the bad condition in which they +leave the soil than you can gain from the use or sale of the crop. + + + +Navels and Valencias. + + + +Navel trees are being budded to Valencias in southern California, +because of the higher price received for the late-ripening Valencias. +Are the orchards in central and northern California being planted in +Navels, and is there any difference in soil or climate requirements of +Navels and Valencias? + +There is no particular difference in the soil requirements of Valencia +and Navel oranges. They are both budded on the same root. The +desirability of Navel oranges in the upper citrus districts arises from +the fact that the policy of those districts at the present time is to +produce an early orange. This they could not accomplish by growing the +Valencia. The great advantage of the Valencia in southern California, on +the other hand, lies in the very fact that it is late and that it can be +marketed in midsummer and early autumn when there are no Navels +available from anywhere. + + + +Orange Seedlings. + + + +What about planting the seed from St. Michael's oranges or of grapefruit +for a seed-bed to be budded to Valencias? + +Good plump St. Michael's seeds would be all right if you desire to use +sweet seedling stock. Grapefruit seedlings are good and quite widely +used, though the general preference is for sour-stock seedlings. + + + +Acres of Oranges to a Man. + + + +In your opinion, is it possible for one man, of average strength, to +take perfect care of a twenty-acre citrus orchard? Are the services of a +man who takes the entire responsibility of an orchard (citrus) worth +more than those of a common ranch hand? + +It depends upon the man, upon the age of the trees, upon the kind of +soil he has to handle, upon the irrigation arrangements and upon what +you mean by "perfect care." If you contract the picking and hauling of +fruit, the fumigation and allow extra help when conditions require that +something must be done quickly, whatever it may be, a man with good legs +and arms, and a good head full of special knowledge to make them go, can +handle twenty acres and if he does it right you ought to pay him twice +as much as an ordinary ranch hand. + + + +Roots for Orange Trees. + + + +What are the conditions most favorable to orange trees budded upon sour +stock; also upon sweet stock and trifoliata? + +The sour stock is believed to be more hardy against trying conditions of +soil moisture - both excess and deficiency, and diseases incident +thereto. The sweet stock is a free growing and satisfactory stock and +most of the older orchards are upon this root, but it is held to be less +resistant of soil troubles than the sour stock, and therefore +propagators are now largely using the latter. The trifoliata has been +promoted as more likely to induce dormancy of the top growth during cold +weather, because of its own deciduous habit. It has also been advocated +as likely to induce earlier maturity in the fruit and thus minister to +early marketing. The objection urged against it has been a claimed +dwarfing of the tree worked upon it. + + + +Citrus Budding. + + + +I wish to bud some Maltese blood orange trees to pomelos and lemons. +Will they make good stock for them, and, if so, is it necessary to cut +below the original bud? + +It is possible to bud as you propose, and it is not necessary to go back +to the old stock. Work in above the forks. + + + +No Citrus Fruits on Lemon Roots. + + + +Would it be any advantage to bud the Washington Navel on grapefruit and +lemon roots? + +The grapefruit or pomelo is a good root for the orange, and some +propagators prefer it. The lemon root is not used at present, because of +its effect in causing a coarse growth of tree and fruit and because it +is more subject to disease than the orange root. In fact, we grow nearly +all lemons on orange roots. + + + +Budding Oranges. + + + +My first attempt at budding, I cut 20 buds and immediately inserted in +stock of Mexican sour orange "Amataca." I left bands on them for ten +days at which time about half seemed to have "stuck," but after a few +days the bark curled away and the buds dried up and died. I then tried +again, but left the bands on for thirteen days and lightly tied strings +around below the bud to prevent the bark from curling, and also put +grafting wax in the cut and over the bud. These appeared fresh and green +at time of taking off the bands, but three weeks later I found them +rotted. The grafting wax used was made of beeswax, resin, olive oil and +a small amount of lard to soften it. Do you think that the action of the +lard on the buds would cause them to rot? + +Consider first whether the buds which you use are sufficiently +developed; that is, a sufficient amount of hardness and maturity +attained by the twig from which you took these buds. Second, use a waxed +band, drawing it quite tightly around the bark, above and below the bud, +covering the bud itself without too much pressure for several days, then +loosening the band somewhat, but carefully replacing over all but the +bud point. It is necessary to exclude the air sufficiently, but not +wholly. The use of a soft fat like olive oil or lard is not desirable. +If you use oil at all for the purpose of softening, linseed oil, as used +by painters, is safer because of its disposition to dry without so much +penetration. Having used olive oil and lard together you had too much +soft fatty material. + + + +Budding Orange Seedlings in the Orchard. + + + +What are the objections or advantages of planting sour stock seedlings +where one wishes the trees and one or two years later bud into the +branches instead of budding the young stock low on the trunk? + +Planting the seedling and at some future time cutting back the branches +and grafting in the head above the forks is an expensive operation and +loses time in getting fruit. You will get very irregular trees and be +disappointed in the amount of re-working you will have to do. Suckers +must be always watched for; that has to be done anyway, but a sucker +from a wild stock is worse in effects if you happen to overlook it. +Avoid all such trouble by planting good clean trees budded in nursery +rows. You may have to do rebudding later, if you want to change +varieties, and that is trouble enough. Do not rush at the beginning into +all the difficulties there are. + + + +Grapefruit and Nuts. + + + +Peaches, pears and plums predominate in this section, but would not +grapefruit, almonds and English walnuts be just as profitable? What is +your idea about English walnuts on black walnut root? + +You can expect grapefruit to succeed under conditions which favor the +orange. Therefore, if oranges are doing well in your district, +grapefruit might also be expected to succeed on the same soils and with +the same treatment. Planting of almonds should proceed upon a +demonstration that the immediate location is suited to almonds, because +they are very early to start and very subject to spring frost and should +not be planted unless you can find bearing trees which have demonstrated +their acceptance of the situation by regular and profitable crops. +English walnuts are less subject to frosts because they start much later +in the season. They need, however, deep, rich land which will be sure +not to dry out during the summer. English walnuts are a perfect success +upon the California black walnut root. + + + +Soil and Situation for Oranges. + + + +Is it absolutely essential that orange trees be planted on a southern +slope, or will they thrive as well on any slope? What is the minimum +depth of soil required for orange trees? How can I tell whether the soil +is good for oranges? + +Orange trees are grown successfully on all slopes, although in +particular localities certain exposures may be decidedly best, as must +be learned by local observation. How shallow a soil will suit orange +trees depends upon how water and fertilizer are applied; on a shallow +soil more fertilizer and more frequent use of water in smaller +quantities. Any soil which has grown good grain crops may be used for +orange growing if the moisture supply is never too scant and any excess +is currently disposed of by good drainage. There can be no arbitrary +rule either for exposure, depth or texture of soils, because oranges are +being successfully grown on medium loam to heavy clay loam, providing +the moisture supply is kept right. + + + +Transplanting Orange Trees. + + + +Can you transplant trees two years old with safety to another location +in same grove, same soil; etc.? + +Yes; and you can move them a greater distance, if you like. Take up the +trees with a good ball of earth, transplanting in the spring when the +ground has become well warmed, just about at the time when new growth +begins to appear on the tree. The top of the tree should he cut back +somewhat and the leaves should be removed if they show a disposition to +wilt. You should also whitewash or otherwise protect the bark from +sunburn if the foliage should be removed. + + + +Protecting Young Citrus Trees. + + + +Is it necessary to have young orange trees covered or leave them +uncovered during the winter months? + +It is desirable to cover with burlaps or bale with cornstalks, straw or +some other coarse litter, all young trees which are being planted in +untried places; and even where old trees are safe, young trees which go +into the frost period with new growth of immature wood should be thus +protected. Do not use too much stuff nor bundle too tightly. + + + +Not Orange on the Osage. + + + +Can the Navel orange be grafted on the osage orange? I understand it is +done in Florida, and would like to know if it has been tried in +California. + +It cannot. It has not been done in Florida nor anywhere else. The osage +orange is not an orange at all. The tree is not a member of the citrus +family. + + + +No Pollenizer for Navels. + + + +I read that the flowers of the Navel orange are entirely lacking in +pollen, or only poorly supplied. If this is true, what variety of orange +would you plant in a Navel grove - to supply pollen at the proper time? + +We would not plant any other orange near the Navel for the sake of +supplying it with pollen. Pollen is only needed to make seeds, and by +the same process to make the fruit set, and Navels do not make seeds, +except rarely, nor do they seem to need pollen to make the fruit set. + + + +Water and Frost. + + + +From how many acres could I keep off a freeze of oranges with 1000 +gallons per minute? The water is at 65 degrees. + +The amount of water will prevent frost over as large an area as you can +cover with the water, so as to thoroughly wet the surface, but the +presence of water will only be effective through about four degrees of +temperature and only for a short time. If, then, the temperature should +fall below 27 degrees and should remain at that point for an hour or +two, it is doubtful if the water would save your fruit. Water is only of +limited value in the prevention of frost, and of no value at all when +the temperature falls too low. + + + +What to Do with Frosted Oranges. + + + +What is the best plan of treatment for frosted orange trees? The crop +will be a total loss. It does not show any tendency to fall off the +trees, however. Should it be picked off, thrown on the ground and plowed +under? Should this be done right away or later? + +Unsound fruit should be removed as soon as its injury can be +conveniently detected and worked into the soil by cultivation; never, +however, being allowed to collect in masses, which is productive of +decay and which may be injurious to roots. If trees are injured +sufficiently to lose most of their leaves, the fruit should also be +removed if it shows a disposition to hang on. This will be a +contribution to the strength of the tree and its ability to clothe +itself with new foliage. + + + +Pruning Frosted Citrus Trees. + + + +How shall I prune two-year-old orange orchard, also nursery stock buds +that are badly injured by frost; how much to prune and at what time? + +As soon as you can see how far injury has gone down the branch or stem, +cut below it, so that a new shoot may push out from sound wood, and heal +the cut as soon as possible. This applies to growths of all ages. In the +case of buds, if you can only save a single node you may get a bud +started there and make a tree of that. In the case of trees, large or +small, it is always desirable to cut above the forkings of the main +branches, if possible, and when this much of the tree remains sound, a +new tree can be formed very quickly. If the main stem is injured, bark +cracked, etc., cut below the ground and put scions in the bark without +splitting the root crown; wax well or otherwise cover exposed wood to +prevent checking. If this is successfully done, root-rot may be +prevented and the wound covered with new bark while the strong new stems +are developing above. + + + +Pruning Oranges. + + + +Is it best to prune out orange trees by removing occasional branches so +as to permit free air passage through the trees? Some are advocating +doing so; but as I remember, the trees in southern California are +allowed to grow quite dense, so that we could see into the foliage but +very little. + +It is a matter of judgment, with a present tendency toward a more open +tree than was formerly prescribed. Trees should be more thrifty and +should bear more fruit deeper in the foliage-wall if more air and light +are admitted. But this can be had without opening the tree so that free +sight of its interior is possible. We believe thinning of the growth to +admit more light and air is good, but we should not intentionally cut +enough to make holes in the tree. + + + +Pecan Growing. + + + +Would you advise planting of pecans in commercial orchards here? Walnuts +in their proper location constitute some of California's best +improvements. After visiting some bearing paper-shell pecans here in +Fresno county, I believe a pecan orchard of choice variety would be more +desirable than a walnut orchard. + +Pecans do well on moist rich land in the interior valleys where there +are sharper temperature changes than in the coast valleys, except +perhaps near the upper coast. Such planting as you propose seems +promising on lands having moisture enough to carry the nuts to full +ripening. + + + +Growing Filberts. + + + +Please give information about growing filberts. + +Filberts have been largely a disappointment in California and no product +of any amount has ever been made. Good nuts have been produced in the +foothills of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range. Theoretically, the +places where the wild hazel grows would best suit the filbert, and so +far this seems to be justified by the little that has actually been +done, but there is very little to say about it beyond that. It requires +much more experience to lift the nut out of the experimental state. + + + +Early Bearing of Walnuts. + + + +Please inform me if young walnut trees grafted on black walnut stock +will produce fruit within 18 months after being planted. + +It is true that the French varieties of English walnuts have produced +fruit the second summer of their growth. This does not mean, however, +that you can count upon a crop the second year. These are usually grafts +in nursery rows, and one would have to wait longer, as a rule, for trees +planted out in orchards with a chance to make a freer wood growth. This +is rather fortunate, because it is better to have a larger tree than to +have the growth diverted into bearing a small amount of fruit while the +tree is very young. We do not know any advantage in getting nuts the +second year except it be to see if you really have secured the variety +you desire to produce later. + + + +Handling Walnut Seedlings. + + + +What is the best time to transplant seedlings of the black walnut? + +Transplant during the dormant season (as shown by absence of leaves) +when the soil is in good condition. Handle them just as you would an +apple tree, for instance. + + + +How to Start English Walnuts. + + + +In starting English walnuts, shall we get nursery stock grafted on +California black, or shall we start our black walnut seedlings in +nursery plats, or plant the nuts where the tree is wanted, and graft +them at two or three years? What is the advantage, if any, of the long +stock from grafting high, over the grafted root? + +If we had the money to invest and were sure of the soil conditions, +etc., we should buy grafted trees of the variety we desired, just as we +would of any other kind of fruit. If we were shy of money and long on +time, we would start seedlings in nursery, plant out seedlings, and +graft later, because it is easier to graft when the seedling is two or +three years in place. We count the planting of nuts in place troublesome +and of no compensating advantage. The chief advantage known to us of +grafting high and getting a black walnut trunk is the hardier bark of +the black walnut. + + + +Walnut Planting. + + + +I am planning to plant walnuts on rather heavy soil. I have been told to +put the nut six inches below the surface, but think that too deep, as +soil is rather heavy. + +In a heavy soil we should not plant these nuts more than three inches +below the surface, but should cover the surface with a mulch of rotten +straw to prevent drying out. + + + +Pruning Grafted Walnuts. + + + +Should English walnut trees be pruned? I have along the roadside English +walnuts grafted on the California black, and they have grown to very +large size and the fruit seems to be mostly on the outside of the trees. + +English walnuts are not usually pruned much, though it is often +desirable, and of course trees can be improved by removing undesirable +branches and especially where too many branches have started from +grafts, it is desirable that some be removed. They should be cleanly +sawed off and the wound covered with wax or thick paint to prevent the +wood from decaying. + + + +Pruning Walnuts. + + + +When is the best time to remove large limbs from walnut trees? + +This work with walnuts or other deciduous fruit trees should be done +late in the winter, about the time the buds are swelling; never mind the +bleeding, it does no harm, and the healing-growth over the wound is more +rapid while the sap is pushing. + + + +Grafting Walnuts. + + + +In cleft grafting walnuts is it necessary to use scions with only a leaf +bud, or with staminate or pistillate buds? Is cutting the pith of the +scion or stock fatal to the tree? + +In grafting walnuts it is usual to take shoots bearing wood buds, and +not the spurs which carry the fruit blossoms, although a part of the +graft containing also a wood bud can be used, retaining the latter. +Cutting into the pith of the scion or of the stock is not fatal, but it +is avoided because it makes a split or wound which is very hard to heal. +For this reason it is better to cut at one side of the pith in the +stock, and to cut the scion so that the slope is chiefly in the wood at +one side of the pith and not cutting a double wedge in a way to bring +the pith in the center. + + + +Grafting Nuts on Oaks. + + + +I have 10 to 15 acres of black oak trees which I wish to graft over to +chestnuts. Can grafting be done successfully? + +Some success has been secured in grafting the chestnut on the chestnut +oak, but not, so far as we have heard, on the black oak. But grafts on +the chestnut oak are not permanently thrifty and productive, though they +have been reported as growing for some time. The same is true of English +walnut grafts on some of the native oaks. + + + +Grafting Walnut Seedlings. + + + +Would it be proper to graft one-year California black walnut seedlings +that must also be transplanted? + +As the seedlings must be moved, plant in orchard and graft as two or +three-year-olds, according to the size which they attain. + + + +Pruning the Walnut. + + + +What is the proper time for pruning the walnut? Is it bad for the tree +to prune during the active season? I have recently acquired a +long-neglected grove in which many large limbs will have to be removed +in order to allow proper methods of cultivation to be practiced, and I +am in doubt as to the wisdom of doing this during the rise of sap. + +The best time to remove large limbs to secure rapid growth of bark from +the sides of the cut, is just at the time the sap is rising. There will +be some outflow of sap, but of no particular loss to the tree. As soon +as the large wounds have dried sufficiently, the exposed surface should +be painted to prevent cracking of the wood. + + + +Eastern or California Black Walnuts? + + + +I am told that the Eastern black walnut is a more suitable root for the +low lands in California than the California black. Is this true? + +There has been no demonstration that the Eastern black walnut is more +suitable to low moist lands than the California black walnut. Our +grandest California black walnut trees are situated on low moist lands. +Walnut Grove is on the edge of the Sacramento river with immense trees +growing almost on the water's edge. Walnut Creek in Contra Costa county +is also named from large walnut trees on the creek bank land. We have +very few Eastern black walnut trees in California and although they do +show appreciation of moist land, they are not in any respect better than +the Californian. + + + +Ripening of Walnuts. + + + +I send you two walnuts. I am in doubt if they will mature. + +The nuts are well grown, the kernel fully formed in every respect. +Whether they will attain perfect maturity must be determined by an +observation of the fact and cannot be theoretically predicated. Where +trees are in such an ever-growing climate as you seem to have, they must +apparently take a suggestion that the time has arrived for maturity from +the drying of the soil. The roots should know that it is time for them +to stop working so that the foliage may yellow and the nuts mature. It +is possible that stopping cultivation a little earlier in the season may +be necessary to accomplish this purpose. + + + +Cutting Below Dead Wood. + + + +I have some seedling English walnut trees which are two years old, but +they are not coming out in bud this year. They are about three feet +high, and from the top down to about 10 inches of the ground the limbs +are dark brown, and below that they are a nice green. I cut the top off +of one of them to see what is the matter that they do not leaf out, and +I found that there is a round hole right down through the center of the +tree down to the green part. The hole is about three-sixteenths of an +inch in diameter. The pith of the limbs has been eaten away by some kind +of a worm from the inside. Would it be better to cut the tree down to +the green part, or let them alone? + +It is the work of a borer. Cut down to live wood and paint over the +wound or wax it. Protect the pith until the bark grows over it or you +will have decay inside. If buds do not start on the trunk, take a sucker +from below to make a tree of. You could put a bud in the trunk, but it +is not very easy to do it. + + + +Walnuts in Alfalfa. + + + +Will the walnut trees be injured in any way by irrigating them at the +same time and manner as the alfalfa - that is, by flooding the land +between the checks? Will the walnuts make as good a growth when planted +in the alfalfa, and the ground cultivated two or three feet around the +tree, as though the alfalfa was entirely removed? Is it advisable to +plant the trees on the checks rather than between the checks? + +Walnut trees will do well, providing you do not irrigate the alfalfa +sufficiently to waterlog the trees; providing also that you do use water +enough so that the trees will not be robbed of moisture by the alfalfa. +This method of growing trees will be, of course, safer and probably more +satisfactory if your soil is deep and loamy, as it should be to get the +best results with both alfalfa and walnuts. It would be better to have +the trees stand so that the water does not come into direct contact with +the bark, although walnut trees are irrigated by surrounding them with +check levees. Planting walnut trees in an old stand of alfalfa is harder +on the tree than to start alfalfa after the trees have taken hold, +because the alfalfa roots like to hang on to their advantage. In +planting in an old field, we should plow strips, say, five feet wide and +keep it cultivated rather than to try to start the trees in pot-holes, +although with extra care they might go that way. + + + +Walnuts in the Hills. + + + +Will walnuts grow well in the foothill country; elevation about 600 +feet, soil rich, does not crack in summer and seems to have small stones +in it? + +Walnuts will do well providing the soil or subsoil is retentive enough. +If you have water available for irrigation in case the trees should need +it, they would do well, but if the soil is gravelly way down and likely +to dry out deeply and you have no water available an opposite result +might be expected. It is a fact that on some of the uplands of the coast +mountains there is a lack of moisture late in the season which +interferes with the success of some fruit trees. + + + +To Increase Bearing of Walnuts. + + + +We have a walnut orchard which does not bear enough nuts. The trees are +all fine, even trees, 10 and 12 years old, and we are told that the crop +was light this year because the trees were growing so vigorously and put +most of their energy into the new wood. Is there any special fertilizer +which will make the trees bear more and not prompt such heavy growth? + +If your adviser is right that the trees are not bearing because of +excessive growth, it would be better not to apply any fertilizer during +the coming year, but allow the trees to assume more steady habit and +possibly even to encourage them to do so by using less cultivation and +water. If you wish to experiment with some of the trees, give them an +application of five pounds of superphosphate and two pounds of potash to +each tree, properly distributed over the land which it occupies. You +certainly should not use any form of nitrogen. + + + +Temperature and Moisture for the English Walnut. + + + +What amount of freezing and drouth can English walnuts stand? Under what +conditions is irrigation necessary? + +The walnut tree will endure hard freezing, providing it comes when the +tree is dormant, because they are successfully grown in some parts of +the Eastern States, though not to a large extent; but the walnut tree is +subject to injury from lighter frosts, providing they follow +temperatures which have induced activity in the tree. On the Pacific +Coast the walnut is successfully grown as far north as the State of +Washington, but even in California there are elevations where frosts are +likely to occur when the tree is active, and these may be destructive to +its profit, although they may not injure the tree. You are not safe in +planting walnuts to any extent except in places where you can find trees +bearing satisfactorily. Planting elsewhere is, of course, an +enterprising experimental thing to do, but very risky as a line of +investment. Irrigation is required if the annual rainfall, coupled with +the retentiveness of the soil and good cultivation, do not give moisture +enough to carry the tree well into the autumn, maintaining activity in +the leaves some little time after the fruit is gathered. + + + +Walnuts from Seed. + + + +There is a reliable nursery company selling seedling Franquette walnut +trees on a positive guarantee that they will come true to type. Are +orchards of this kind satisfactory? + +Walnuts do come truer to the seed than almonds and other fruits and the +Franquette has a good reputation for remembering its ancestry. Until +recently practically all the commercial walnut product of California was +grown on seedling trees. But these facts hardly justify one in trusting +to seedlings in plantings now made. The way to get a walnut of the +highest type is to take a bud or graft from a tree which is bearing that +type. + + + +High-grafted Walnuts. + + + +What is the advantage of a high-grafted walnut? I am about ready to +plant 10 acres to nuts and do not know whether to purchase Franquette +grafted high on California Black or not. + +The advantage of grafting English walnut high on California Black walnut +consists in securing a main trunk for the tree, which is less liable to +sunburn and probably hardier otherwise than is the stem of the English +walnut, and the present disposition toward higher grafting or budding +seems therefore justified and desirable. + + + +Grafting and Budding the Mulberry. + + + +What is the most approved manner of grafting mulberry trees? Am told +that they are very difficult to successfully graft. + +Most propagators find the mulberry difficult by ordinary top and cleft +grafting methods. A flute or ring graft or bud does well on small +seedlings - that is, removing a ring or cylinder of the bark from the +stock and putting in its place a cylinder from the variety desired, cut +to fit accurately. For large trees this would have to be done on young +shoots forced out by cutting back the main branches, but when this is +done ordinary shield budding in these new shoots would give good +results. Cut back the trees now and bud in the new shoots in July or +August. + + + +Hardiness of Hybrid Berries. + + + +How much cold will Phenomenal, Himalaya and Mammoth blackberries stand +in winter? Is it safe to plant where the temperature goes below 32 +degrees? + +These berries are hardy to zero at least, for they are grown in northern +parts of this coast where they get such a touch once in a while. They +have also endured low temperatures in the central continental plateau +States and eastward. Whether they can endure the lowest temperatures of +the winter-killing regions of the northern border cannot be determined +in California, for we do not have the conditions for such tests. The +berries are very hardy while dormant, and probably their value in colder +regions would depend rather more upon their disposition to remain +dormant than upon what they can endure when in that condition. + + + +Pruning Himalayas. + + + +Shall the old wood be cut away in pruning Himalayas? + +All the old wood which has borne fruit should be cut out in the fall and +new shoots reduced to three or four from each root, and these three or +four shoots should be shortened to a length of ten or twelve feet and be +trained to a trellis or fence, or some other suitable support. Vines +which are allowed to grow riotously as they will, are apt to be +deficient in fruit bearing. + + + +Strawberries with Perfect Flowers. + + + +Has Longworth Prolific an imperfect bloom? I have Longworths in bearing +which apparently are perfect. Is there another strain of Longworth that +are not self-fertilizing? + +The Longworth Prolific strawberry has both staminate and pistillate +elements. Possibly some other variety, because of its resemblance to +Longworth and the popularity of it, may have been wrongly given its +name. Most of the varieties which are largely grown in California are +perfect in blossom, though some of the newer varieties need association +with pollinizers. + + + +Pruning Loganberries. + + + +Should the new shoots of Loganberry vines, which come out in the spring, +be left or cut away? If cut, will more shoots put out in the fall and be +sufficient for the next year's crop? + +The Loganberry shoots which are growing should be carefully trained and +preserved for next year's fruiting. The old canes should be cut away at +the base after the fruit is gathered. The plant bears each year upon the +wood which grew the previous summer. + + + +Strawberry Planting. + + + +Should I plant strawberries in the spring or fall? + +Whether it is wise to plant strawberry plants in the fall depends on +several things, such as getting the ground in the very best of +condition, abundance of water at all times, splendidly rooted plants, +and cool weather (which is very rare at the time plants are to be +planted, August and September). Plants may be taken with balls of earth +around the roots, and water poured in the hole that receives the plant. +After planting, each plant should be shaded from the sun; after this the +ditches must be kept full of water so the moisture will rise to the +surface; this must be done till the plant starts growth. This method can +only be used in small plantings, as it is too expensive for large +plantings, as is also the potted plant method where each plant is grown +in a small pot and transplanted by dumping out the earth as a ball with +the plant and putting directly in the ground. From potted plants, set +out in the fall, one may count on a fine crop of berries the following +spring. Strawberry plants are never dormant till midwinter, and there is +no plant more difficult to transplant when roots are disturbed in the +hot season, which usually prevails in the interior valleys of +California. To have a long-lived strawberry field and to get best +results, planting must be done in the spring, as soon as the soil can be +put in best condition to receive plants. From this a fall crop can be +expected - Answer by Tribble Bros., Elk Grove. + + + +Blackberries for Drying Only. + + + +What variety of blackberries or raspberries are the best for drying +purposes? Are berries successfully dried in evaporators? This is a +natural berry country. Wild blackberries are a wonder here. +Transportation facilities do not allow raising for the city market. In +your opinion, would the planting of ten acres in berries for drying be a +success? + +The blackberries chiefly grown in California are the Lawton, Crandall +and the Mammoth. The raspberry chiefly grown is the Cuthbert. There are +very few of these berries dried. It would be better to dry them in an +evaporator than in the sun, but little of it is done in this State. It +is doubtful whether it would pay to plant blackberries for drying only, +because there is such a large product flow in various places where the +berries are either sold fresh or sold to the cannery, and drying is only +done for the purpose of saving the crop if the prices for the other uses +are not satisfactory. To grow especially for drying would give you only +one chance of selling to advantage, and that the poorest. + + + +Planting Bush Fruits. + + + +What is the best time to set out blackberries and Loganberries? + +Any time after the soil is thoroughly wet down and you can get good, +mature and dormant plants for transplanting. This may be as early as +November and may continue until February or later in some places. + + + +Growing Strawberry Plants. + + + +In a patch of strawberries planted this spring, is it advisable to cut +off runners or root some of them? + +In planting strawberries in matted rows, it is usual to allow a few +runners to take root and thus fill the row. It is the judgment of plant +growers that plants for sale should not be produced in this way, but +should be grown from plants specially kept for that purpose. + + + +Strawberries in Succession. + + + +Is there any reason, in strawberry culture, when the vines are removed +at the end of the fourth year, why the ground may not be thoroughly +plowed and again planted to strawberries? + +It is theoretically possible to grow strawberries continuously on the +same land by proper fertilization and irrigation. Practically, the +objection is that certain diseases and injurious insects may multiply in +the land, and this is the chief reason why new plantations are put on +new land and the old land used for a time for beans or some root crop, +so that the soil may be cleaned and refreshed by rotation and by the +possibility of deeper tillage. + + + +Limitations on Gooseberries. + + + +Why is it that gooseberries are not grown more in California? Is there +any reason, climatic or other, why the gooseberry should not be as +successfully grown in California as elsewhere? + +There are two reasons. First, the gooseberry does not like interior +valleys, although with proper protection from mildew or by growing +resistant varieties, good fruit can be had in coast or mountain valleys. +Second, practically no one cares for a ripe gooseberry in a country +where so many other fruits are grown, and the demand is for green +gooseberries for pies and sauce, and that is very easily oversupplied. + + + +Dry Farming with Grapes. + + + +I have heard that they are planting Muscat grapes on the dry farming +plan. Will it be successful? + +Grapes have been grown in California on the dry farming plan ever since +Americans came 60 years ago. Grapes can be successfully grown by +thorough cultivation for moisture retention, providing the rainfall is +sufficient to carry the plant when it is conserved by the most thorough +and frequent cultivation. Unless this rainfall is adequate, no amount of +cultivation will make grape vines succeed, because even the best +cultivation produces no moisture, but only conserves a part of that +which falls from the clouds. Whether grapes will do depends, first, upon +what the rainfall is; second, upon whether the soil is retentive; third, +upon whether you cultivate in such a way as to enable the soil to +exercise its maximum retentiveness. These are matters which cannot be +determined theoretically - they require actual test. + + + +Cutting Back Frosted Vine Canes. + + + +Vines have been badly injured by the late frosts, especially the young +vines which were out the most. Is there anything to be done with the +injured shoots now on the vines so as to help the prospects of a crop? + +If shoots are only lightly frosted they should be cut off at once as low +as you can detect injury. This may save the lower parts of the shoot, +from which a later growth can be made. Frosted parts ferment and carry +destruction downward, and therefore should be disposed of as soon as +possible. Where vines have run out considerably and badly frosted, the +best practice usually is to strip off the frozen shoots so as to get rid +of the dormant buds at the base, which often give sterile shoots. A new +break of canes from other buds is generally more productive. + + + +Dipping Thompson Seedless. + + + +What is the process of dipping and bleaching Thompson seedless grapes? + +One recipe for dipped raisins is as follows: One quart olive oil; +3/4-pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts water are made into an emulsion, +and then reduced with 10 gallons water in the dipping tank, adding more +soda to get lye-strength enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to +be added from time to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are +dipped in this solution and sulphured to the proper color. This is the +general outline of the process. The ability to use it well can only be +attained by experience and close observation. + + + +The Zante Currant. + + + +Is the currant that grows in the United States in any way related to the +currant that grows in Greece? If so, could it be cured like the currant +that comes from Greece? + +The dried currants of commerce are made in Greece and in California (to +a slight extent) from the grape known as the grape of Corinth. They are +not made from the bush currant which is generally grown in the United +States, and the two plants are not in any way related. + + + +Grape Vines for an Arbor. + + + +How shall I prune grape vines, viz: Tokay, Black Cornichon, Muscat, +Thompson Seedless, Rose of Peru, planted for a grape arbor? + +You can grow all the vines you mention with high stumps reaching part +way or to the top of the arbor as you desire side or top shade or both. +You can also grow them with permanent side branches on the side slats of +the arbor if you desire. Each winter pruning would consist in cutting +back all the previous summer's growth to a few buds from which new canes +will grow for shade or fruiting, or you can work on the renewal system, +keeping some of these canes long for quick foliage and more fruit +perhaps and cutting some of them short to grow new wood for the +following year's service, as they often do in growing Eastern grapes. + + + +Pruning Old Vines. + + + +I have some Muscat grape vines 30 years old. Can I chop off most of the +old wood with a hatchet and thereby bring them back to proper bearing? + +Not with a hatchet. If the vines are worth keeping at all, they are +worth careful cutting with a saw and a painting of all cuts in large old +wood. If the vines have been neglected, you can saw away surplus prongs +or spurs, reserving four or five of the best placed and most vigorous, +and cut back the canes of last summer's growth to one, two or three +buds, according to the strength of the canes - the thicker the canes, +the more buds to be kept. It is not desirable to cut away an old vine to +get a new start from the ground, unless you wish to graft. Shape the top +of the vine as well as you can by saving the best of the old growth. + + + +Topping Grape Vines. + + + +Is topping grape vines desirable? + +Topping of vines is in all cases more or less weakening. The more +foliage that is removed, the more weakening it is. Vines, therefore, +which are making a weak growth from any cause whatever can only be +injured by topping. If the vines are exceptionally vigorous, the +weakening due to topping may be an advantage by making them more +fruitful. The topping, however, must be done with discretion. Early +topping in May is much more effective and less weakening than later +topping in June. Very early topping before blossoming helps the setting +of the blossoms. Topping in general increases the size of the berries. + + + +Bleeding Vines. + + + +Will pruning grape vines when they bleed injure them? + +It has been demonstrated not to be of any measurable injury. + + + +Vines and Scant Moisture. + + + +Would it be well to sucker vines and take also some bearing canes off, +or in a dry year will they mature properly as in other years if the +ground is in good condition? + +Vines usually bear drouth-stress better than bearing fruit trees. On +soils of good depth and retentiveness, they are likely to give good +crops in a dry year with thorough cultivation; still, lightening the +burden of the vines is rational. Suckering and cutting away second-crop +efforts should be done. Whether you need to reduce the first crop can be +told better by the looks of the vines later in the season. + + + +Sulphuring for Mildew. + + + +For two years I have not sulphured my vineyard and had no mildew. My +vines seem as healthy and thrifty as any of the neighbors' that were +duly sulphured. Have I lost anything by not sulphuring? + +Certainly not. In sections where mildew is practically sure to come, +sulphur should be used regularly as a preventive without waiting for the +appearance of the disease. There are, however, many locations, +especially in the interior valley, where the occurrence of mildew is +rare in sufficient volume to do appreciable harm, and then sulphuring +should depend upon the weather, which favors mildew or otherwise. But be +always on the watch and have everything ready to sulphur immediately; +also learn to recognize the conditions under which appearances of mildew +become a menace. + + + +Grape Sugar in Canned Grapes. + + + +How can I prevent the formation of grape sugar in canned grapes? + +Take care that the syrup is of the same density as the juice of the +grape when the fruit and the juice are placed together in the can. The +density of the syrup and the juice are, of course, to be obtained by the +use of the spindle, the same arrangement employed for determining when +the percentage of sugar in the grape juice is right for raisin-making or +for wine-making. Whatever the density of the juice, make the syrup the +same by the use of the right amount of sugar. + + + +Part II. Vegetable Growing + + + +California Grown Seed. + + + +Which are the best garden seeds to use, those raised in Ohio and the +East or those raised in Washington and Oregon or those raised in this +State? + +It has been definitely shown by experience and experiment that is does +not matter much where the seed comes from, providing it is well grown +and good of its kind. There is no such advantage in changing seed from +one locality to another as is commonly supposed. Besides, it is now very +difficult to tell positively where seed is grown, because California +wholesale seeds are retailed in all the States you mention, and the +contents of many small packets of seeds distributed in California went +first of all from California to the Eastern retailers, who advertise and +sell them everywhere. + + + +Cloth for Hotbeds. + + + +Would cloth do to cover a hotbox to raise lettuce, radishes, etc., for +winter use where we get a very heavy rainfall? + +Yes, if you make the cloth waterproof for its own preservation from +mildew and other agencies of decay. The following recipe for +waterproofing cloth is taken from our book on "California Vegetables": +Soften 4 1/2 ounces of glue in 8 3/4 pints of water, cold at first; then +dissolve in, say, a washboiler full (6 gallons) of warm water, with 2 +1/2 ounces of hard soap; put in the cloth and boil for an hour, wring +and dry; then prepare a bath of a pound of alum and a pound of salt, +soak the prepared cloth in it for a couple of hours, rinse with clear +water and dry. One gallon of the glue solution will soak about ten yards +of cloth. This cloth has been used in southern California for several +years without mildewing, and it will hold water by the pailful. Where +the rain is heavy and frequent, the cloth should be well supported by +slats and given slope to shed water quickly. Of course, this is only a +makeshift. Glass would be more satisfactory and durable in a region of +much cloudiness and scant sunshine; the greater illumination through +glass will make for the greater health and growth of the plants. + + + +Soil for Vegetables. + + + +Some of my soil bakes and hardens quickly after irrigation, but I have +an acre or so of sandy soil. Would this be best for garden truck and +berries? + +Sandy, loamy soil is better than the heavy soil for vegetables and +berries, if moisture is kept right, because it can be more easily +cultivated and takes water without losing the friable condition which is +so desirable. A heavier soil can, however, be improved by the free use +of stable manure or by the addition of sand, or by the use of one or +more applications of lime at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre, as may +be required - all these operations making the soil more loamy and more +easily handled. + + + +Vegetables in a Cold, Dark Draft. + + + +What vegetables will thrive in localities where the sun shines only part +of the day? I have a space in my garden that gets the sun only between +the hours of 11 and 5, thereabouts; I would like to utilise those places +for vegetables if any particular kind will grow under such conditions. +The soil apparently is good, of a sandy nature, with some loam. The +place is high and subject to much wind. + +You can only definitely determine by actual trial what vegetables will +be satisfactory under the shade conditions which you describe. You may +get good results from lettuces, radishes, beets, peas, top onions, and +many other things which do well at rather a low temperature, while +tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, etc., would probably be worthless. Your +soil is probably satisfactory and you can easily keep the moisture right +by being careful not to use as much water as you would in open sunshine. +The behavior of the plants will be directly dependent upon the +temperature and the sunshine which they receive under the conditions +described. + + + +Jesusalem Artichokes. + + + +What is the best time for planting Jerusalem artichokes? + +Jerusalem artichoke tubers are planted in the spring after the ground +has become warm and the heavy frosts are over. The planting may be done +in rows far enough apart for cultivation, the tubers being set about a +foot apart in the row. This tuber grows like a potato, but is more +delicate than the potato. It is inclined to decay when out of the +ground, but will not start growth as early as the potato, and therefore +it is not desirable to start it early in the winter if the winters are +cold and the ground apt to be very wet. Do not cut the tubers for seed +as you would potatoes. + + + +Globe Artichokes. + + + +I have land that will grow magnificent artichokes. Two plants last year +(variety unknown) produced heavy crops of buds, but the scales opened +too wide and allowed the center to become fibrous and were unsalable. Is +this due to climate, lack of sufficient water, or to not having the +right variety? + +Many artichokes which are planted should really be put in the ornamental +class - they are either a reversion from a wilder type in plants grown +from the seed or they never have been good. In order to determine which +varieties you had better grow on a large scale, it is desirable to get a +few plants of the different varieties as offered by seedmen. In this way +you would find out just what are considered best in different parts of +the State, and propagate largely the ones which are best worth to you. +By subdivision of the roots you get exactly the same type in any +quantity you desire - ruling out undesirable variations likely to appear +in seedlings. + + + +Artichoke Growing. + + + +Is the Globe artichoke a profitable crop to raise commercially? Near +Pescadero a company has been formed to raise it for Eastern shipment. Is +it a very profitable crop to raise? Are certain varieties worthless? + +Considerable quantities of Globe artichokes are grown in southern and +central California for Eastern shipment. There is a limit to the amount +which can be profitably shipped, because people generally, at the East, +do not know the Globe artichoke and how to eat it, but more of them are +learning the desirability of it every year. There are species which are +only ornamental, as a bad weed. + + + +Asparagus Growing. + + + +What is the average commercial yield of asparagus to the acre in +California? Also, how long it takes asparagus to come into full bearing, +and what yield could be expected after two years' growth? Is asparagus +resistant to moderate quantities of alkali in the soil? + +The yield of asparagus is from one to four tons of marketable shoots per +acre, according to age and thrift of plants, etc., the largest yields +being on the peat lands of the river islands. On suitable lands one +ought to get at least two tons per acre. Roots may yield a few days' +cuttings during their second year in permanent place; the third year +they will stand much more cutting, and for several years after that will +be in full yielding. Asparagus enjoys a little salt in the land, but one +would not select what is ordinarily called "alkali land" for growing it +- not only because of the alkali but because of the soil character which +it induces. + + + +Bean Growing. + + + +We have a small field of beans, and would like to know which is the best +and most profitable way to crop them. + +Cultivate the beans so that the plants may have plenty of moisture to +fill the pods, then let them dry and die. Gather the dry plants before +the pods open much, and let them dry on a clean, smooth piece of ground +or on the barn floor. When they are well dried, thresh with a flail, +rake off the straw, sweep up the beans and clean by winnowing in the +wind or with a fanning mill with suitable screens. + + + +Hoeing Beans. + + + +Should beans be hoed while the dew is on the vine? + +Beans had better be hoed with the dew on them than not hoed at all. The +only objection to hoeing with the dew on is that the hoer will get his +feet wet, the vines will become untidy from adhering dust, with a +possible chance of the leaves becoming less effective and the +pollination of the blossom rendered less liable to occur. + + + +Beans as Nitrogen Gatherers. + + + +I grow string beans in my rotation to restore nitrogen, but I see it +stated that not all beans are valuable for this purpose. Are the common +bush varieties nitrogen gatherers? + +Probably they are all doing it in various degrees. Pull up or dig up a +few plants when growing actively, not too early nor too late in the +season, and look for nodules on the roots. Number and size considered +together will measure their activity in this line in your soil. + + + +Bean Growing. + + + +I want to plant beans of different varieties. The land is rich, black +loam with a little sand. When is the best time to plant? If planted +early, what shall we do to keep the weevils out of them? + +It is desirable to plant beans as early as you can without encountering +danger of frost killing. No particular date can be mentioned for +planting because the dates will vary in different locations according to +the beginning of the frost-free period. The best way to escape weevil is +to sell most of the beans as soon as harvested, treating those which you +retain for seed, or for your own use, with bisulphide of carbon vapor or +by gently heating to a temperature not above 130 degrees, which, of +course, must be done carefully with an accurate thermometer so as not to +injure germinating power. Unless you know that beans do well in your +locality, it would be wise to plant a small area at first, because beans +are somewhat particular in their choice of location in California, and +one should have practical demonstration of bearing before risking much +upon the crop. + + + +The Yard-Long Bean. + + + +I wish to ask about the very long bean which I think was introduced from +China into California. I remember seeing one vine when I was living in +California which I think must have been 20 or 30 feet long and had +hundreds of pods and each of these pods were from 2 to 3 feet long. Are +these beans generally considered eatable? Would they be at all suitable +to get as a field bean which the hogs eat? + +You probably refer to the "yard-long" pole bean. It is a world variety +and may have come to California from China as you suggest, but it has +also been well known for generations in Europe and was brought thence to +the Eastern States at some early date. It is generally accounted as an +unimportant species and certainly has not risen to commercial account in +California. The beans are edible and the whole plant available for stock +feeding, but there is no doubt but that the growth of some of the +cowpeas would be preferable as a summer field crop for hog pasture. + + + +Why the Beans are Waiting. + + + +Can you tell me why pink beans which were planted early in Merced +county, irrigated four times, hoed four times and cultivated, have no +beans on them? The vines look finely. + +Probably because you had too much hot, dry wind at the blooming. This is +one of the most frequent troubles with beans in the hot valley, but the +pink bean resists it better than other varieties. As the heat moderates +you are likely to get blossoms which will come through and form pods, +and then the crop will depend upon how long frost is postponed. You have +also treated the plants a little too well with water and cultivation. +You had better let them feel the pinch of poverty a little now; they +will be more likely to go to work. + + + +Blackeye Beans. + + + +What is the best way to prepare land for Black-eye beans? How much seed +is required per acre, and what is the estimated cost of growing them? +The soil is a well-drained clay loam. + +The cost of growing is not particularly different from other beans, and +will vary, of course, according to the capacity and efficiency of the +plows, harrows, teams, tractors, men, etc. Every man has to figure that +according to his conditions and methods of turning and fining the land. +Sow 40 pounds per acre in drills 3 feet apart, and cultivate as long as +you can without injuring the vines too much. Sowing must of course be +done late, after the ground is warm and danger of frost is past, though +the plowing and harrowing should be done earlier than that. + + + +Blackeye Beans are Cow Peas. + + + +I sent for some Blackeye cow peas; they look like Blackeye beans. Am +sending you a sample of what I got. What are they? + +Yes, they are in the cow pea group, but there are other cow peas which +would not be recognized as having any relation to them. All cow peas +are, however, beans, and they have not much use for frost. They are not +hardy like the true pea group. + + + +Growing Horse Beans. + + + +Does the soil need to be inoculated for horse beans? I intend to plant +five acres about January 1, on the valley border in Placer county and +they get heavy frost in the morning. Does frost hurt them? How shall I +plant them? + +California experience is that horse beans grow readily without +inoculation of the seed. Quite a good growth of the plant is being +secured in many parts of the State, particularly in the coast region +where the plant seems to thrive best. It is one of the hardiest of the +bean family and will endure light frost. How hardy it will prove in your +place could be told only by a local experiment. Whether it can be +planted after frost danger is over, as corn is, and make satisfactory +growth and product in the dry heat of the interior summer must also be +determined by experience. + +The horse bean is a tall growing, upright plant which is successfully +grown in rows far enough apart for cultivation, say about 2 1/2 feet, +the seed dropped thinly so that the plants will stand from 6 inches to 1 +foot apart in the row. + + + +Growing Castor Beans. + + + +Give information on the castor oil bean; the kind of bean best to plant, +when to plant and harvest, the best soil, and where one can market them. + +Castor bean growing has been undertaken from time to time since 1860 in +various parts of California. There is no difficulty about getting a +satisfactory growth of the plant in parts of the State where moisture +enough can be depended upon. Although the growing of beans is easy +enough, the harvesting is a difficult proposition, because in California +the clusters ripen from time to time, have to be gathered by hand, to be +put in the sun to dry, and finally threshed when they are popping +properly. The low price, in connection with the amount of hand work +which has to be done upon the crop, has removed all the attractions for +California growers. There is also, some years, an excess of production +in the central West, which causes prices to fall and makes it still more +impracticable to make money from the crop with the ordinary rates of +labor. The oil cannot be economically extracted except by the aid of the +most effective machinery and a well equipped establishment. Oil-making +in the rude way in which it is conducted in India would certainly not be +profitable here. + + + +Legume Seed Inoculation. + + + +Is there any virtue in inoculating plants with the bacteria that some +seed firms offer? I refer to such plants as peas and beans. + +If the land is yielding good crops of these plants and the roots are +noduled, it does not need addition of germs. If the growth is scant even +when there is enough moisture present and the roots are free from +nodules, the presumption is that germs should be added. Speaking +generally, added germs are not needed in California because our great +legume crops are made without inoculation. Presumably, burr clover and +our host of native legumes have already charged the soil with them. If, +however, such plants do not do well, try inoculation by all means, to +see if absence of germs is the reason for such failure or whether you +must look for some other reason. If the results are satisfactory, you +may have made a great gain by introduction of desirable soil organisms +which you can extend as you like by the distribution of the germ-laden +soil from the areas which have been given that character by inoculation +of the seed. + + + +Beans on Irrigated Mesas. + + + +Would white and pink beans do well on the red orange land at Palermo +with plenty of water? I have in mind hill land, the hills being very red +and running into a dark soil in the lower part. How many beans could I +get per acre? + +Probably nothing would be better for the land or for the future needs of +the trees than to grow beans. An average crop of beans, for the whole +State and all kinds of beans, is about one ton to the acre. What you +will get by irrigation on hot uplands we do not know. Beans do not like +dry heat, even if the soil moisture is adequate. They do not fructify +well even when they grow well. The pink bean does best under such +conditions. All beans, except horse beans, must be brought up after +frost dangers are all over, and this brings them into high heat almost +from the start in such a place as you mention. You should find out +locally how beans perform under such conditions as you have, before +undertaking much investment. + + + +Leases for Sugar Beets. + + + +I have land in Yolo county that has made an average yield yearly of from +12 to 18 sacks of wheat and barley. A beet sugar company proposes +renting this land and plant it to sugar beets and I would prefer not to +consider any agreement of less than five years' duration. The particular +point that I would like to have you advise me on is the effect sugar +beet has upon the soil. + +You certainly have good soil, and it is not strange that a sugar company +should desire to rent it for its purposes. There is, however, a great +question as to whether it would be desirable to run to beets continually +for five years. Beets make a strong draft on some components of the +soil, and it is a common experience that they should not be grown year +after year for a long period, but should take their place in a rotation, +in the course of which one or two crops of beets should be followed by a +crop of grain, and that if possible by a leguminous plant like alfalfa +or an annual legume like burr clover used for pasturage, and then to +beets again. Beets improve soil for grain, because of the deep running +of the root, and because beet culture is not profitable without deep +plowing and continuous summer cultivation. This deepens and cleans the +land to the manifest advantage of the grain crop, but still the beet +reduces the plant food in the soil and some change of crop should be +made with reference to its restoration. We would much prefer to lease it +for two years than for five years of beet growing. + + + +Topping Mangel Wurzels. + + + +Does it harm the mangel wurzels if their tops ore cut off once a month? + +Removing leaves will decrease the size and harden the tissues of the +beet root. If you wish to grow the plant for the top, the root will +continue to put out leaves for you for a time; if you grow it for the +size and quality of the root, you need all the leaf-action you can get, +therefore do not reduce the foliage. + + + +Blooming Brussels Sprouts. + + + +Are Brussels sprouts male and female? Some of my plants are flowering +and show no signs of sprouts, while those that are not, show some small +eyes at stem that look like young sprouts. + +Brussels sprouts ought to form the sprouts without flowering, just as a +cabbage heads without flowering. Those plants which show flowers have +been stopped by drought or otherwise, and have taken on prematurely the +second stage of growth which is productive of seed and is undesirable +from the point of view of growing heads. + + + +Blanching Celery. + + + +I desire to know the different methods by which the celery is bleached, +and particularly whether boards or other material other than earth is +used for this purpose. + +There is some blanching of celery with boards, cloth wrappings, +boot-legs, old tiles, sewer pipes, etc., in market gardens in different +parts of the State, but the great commercial product of celery for +export is blanched wholly by piling the light, dry earth against the +growing plant. As we do not have rains during the growing season and as +the soil on which celery is chiefly grown is particularly coarse in its +texture, there is no rusting or staining from this method of blanching. +It shakes out clean and bright. Conditions which make earth-blanching +undesirable in the humid region do not exist here. + + + +Corn in the Sacramento Valley. + + + +Is it practical to raise corn in the Sacramento volley? Are the soil and +climatic conditions suitable? + +The success of corn on plains and uplands in the Sacramento valley has +not yet been fully demonstrated, although good corn is grown on river +bottom lands, and it is possible that much more may be done with this +grain in the future than in the past. Corn does not enjoy the dry heat +of the plains, and even when irrigated seems to be dissatisfied with it. +How far we shall succeed in getting varieties which will endure dry heat +and still be large and productive will ere long be determined by the +experiments which are in progress. The old Sacramento valley farmer has +been justified to some degree in his conclusion that his is not a corn +country. Still it may appear so later. + + + +Plant Corn in Warm Ground. + + + +I also put in a lot of corn and none of it came up. The ground was damp +and rather cold, as well as being alkali. + +Corn should never be planted in cold, wet ground - in fact, very few +seeds should be. Besides, corn has no use for alkali. + + + +Sweet Corn in California. + + + +I have been informed that sweet corn cannot be raised in this part of +the country, an account of worms eating the kernels before the ear has +matured. Is there any method of overcoming this difficulty? + +You have been correctly informed concerning the difficulty in growing +sweet corn. Although many experiments have been made, no method of +overcoming this pest has yet been demonstrated. For this reason canning +of corn is not undertaken in this State, and for the same reason most of +the green corn ears sold in our markets have the tops of the ears +amputated. It is sometimes possible to escape the worm by planting +rather late, so that the ears shall develop after the moth, which is +parent of the worm, has deposited its eggs. + + + +Forcing Cucumbers. + + + +Give information on growing hot-house cucumbers, and also if you think +it would pay me to go into the business in southern California. + +Forcing of cucumbers has been undertaken for a number of years in +California and formerly was considered unprofitable because cucumbers +grown in the open air in frostless places came in before the forced +product could be sold out at sufficiently high prices to make the +venture profitable. Recently, however, owing to our increased population +in cities and larger demand of products out of season, forcing becomes +more promising and is worthy of attention. Forcing of cucumbers in +California can be done at very much less expense, of course, than +elsewhere, because of the abundance of winter sunshine and the fact that +sufficiently high temperatures can be secured in glass houses with +exceedingly little if any artificial heat: The chances of growing +cucumbers out of season for shipment eastward and northward can be +discussed with the officers of the California Vegetable Growers' Union, +which has offices and warehouse in Los Angeles. + + + +Cucumber Growing. + + + +I have a piece of red so-called orange land which has produced excellent +wheat. Will you give information about its adaptability to cucumbers? +Are there pickle factories in the State which would demand them in +quantities, and is there much other demand for them? About when should +they be planted, and how much water would they need? + +The cucumber needs a retentive soil which does not crack and bake, and +such a soil is made by abundance of organic matter. Your orange soil, +unless heavily treated with stable manure and given plenty of time for +disintegration, would probably give you distressful cucumber plants, if +it has come right out of wheat-growing. Besides, cucumbers do not like +dry heat, even if the soil be kept moist by irrigation. Oranges will do +well under conditions not favorable to cucumbers. Cucumber plants must +come up after danger of frost is over. The amount of water they require +depends upon how moist the soil is naturally, and as the crop is chiefly +grown on moist river lands and around the bay, it is chiefly made +without irrigation. Such lands have a cucumber capacity equal to the +consumption of the United States, probably, and the pickle factories can +usually get all they can use at a minimum transportation cost. +Large-scale plantings should only be made by men who know the crop and +have definite information or contract for what they can get for it. + + + +Ginger in California. + + + +We have ginger roots in a growing condition with sprouts and bulbs +growing an them, but we do not understand how to raise the plants. + +Growing ginger in California in a commercial way has not been worked +out, although roots have been introduced from time to time. Plant your +roots in the garden, just as you would callas, where you can give them +good cultivation and water, as seems to be necessary, and note their +behavior under these favorable conditions before you undertake any large +investment in a crop. + + + +Licorice Growing in California. + + + +I have for some time been seeking far some information as to the method +of preparation for market and sale of licorice roots. I have a lot of +them and have never been able to find a market, and do not know how they +are prepared for market. + +Licorice was first planted in California about 1880 by the late Isaac +Lea, of Florin, Sacramento county. Mr. Lea grew a considerable amount of +licorice roots and gave much effort to finding a market for it. He found +that the local consumption of licorice root was too small to warrant +growing it as a crop; that the high price of labor in digging the roots, +and the high cost of transportation of the roots to Eastern markets +would make it impossible for him to undertake competition in the Eastern +markets with the Sicilian producers, unless, perhaps, he could build an +extracting factory and market licorice extract, the black solid which is +sold by the druggist, and which the Sicilians produce in large +quantities. The preparation of licorice root is simply digging and +drying, but the preparation of the extract requires steam extractors and +condensers. California could produce licorice, for we have a good +climate for it. If it is grown on light, sandy loams, it could be pulled +from the ground by the yard at rather small expense, and yet, one should +not undertake the production unless he wished to put in much time and +money in working up economical production and marketing in competition +with the foreign product, produced by cheap labor and with the advantage +of processes well known and established by long usage. Experiments +should be circumspectly undertaken, for licorice is one of the worst +weeds in the world, and extremely difficult of eradication probably. + + + +Growing Lentils. + + + +Give information regarding the planting and raising of lentils. Can they +be grown in the Sacramento valley in the vicinity of Colusa, and at a +profit? + +Lentils are as easily grown in California as common peas, and will do +well as a field crop if started during the rainy season, as they are +hardy enough to survive our ordinary valley frosts. With respect to +lentils, it may be said that excellent as these legumes are for many +purposes, they do not seem to be well known to American consumers, and +therefore the amount to be grown is limited, until you know who will buy +larger quantities of them at a good price. + + + +Canada Peas for Seed. + + + +I want to raise Canada peas for the seed. In what month of the year is +the best time to plant them; also how many pounds to the acre to be +sowed broadcast on rolling land in Napa? + +Broadcast from 80 to 100 pounds of seed per acre as soon as you can get +the ground into good condition. What you get will depend much upon how +late spring rains hold this year. We should only try a small area this +year to see what happens, for you probably should have started earlier +in the season. On uplands it will always be a question whether your soil +will hold moisture enough to mature a good seed crop. + + + +Growing Niles Peas. + + + +How shall I plant and handle a crop of Niles peas? + +Niles peas are hardy and will make a good crop on any good soil, if +planted early in the season so as to make the main part of their growth +before the heat of the summer comes on. Under garden conditions they +can, of course, be grown all summer. + + + +Transplanting Lettuce. + + + +I have lettuce plants that have been transplanted to head. Occasionally +I find a head that has withered away and upon examining it find it +rotted away at the stem. Can you suggest a remedy for it? + +Your lettuce plants are destroyed by the "damping, off" fungus. It would +be preventable by reducing the amount of moisture until the transplanted +plant had opportunity to re-establish itself in the soil and thus come +into condition to take water. The chance of it could also be reduced by +using a certain amount of sand in connection with the soil, unless it is +already very sandy, and by a shallow covering of sand on the surface +around the plants after they are reset, in order to prevent too great +accumulation of moisture. + + + +Handling Winter Melons. + + + +Give particulars regarding harvesting, storaging, and shipment of winter +melons. How do you harvest and pack them for distant market? + +There is no particular system in the handling of winter melons. They are +gathered into piles on ground where water will not gather and covered +with the trash of the vines on which they grow. They will keep for +months in this way, as our autumn temperatures do not freeze them. Other +growers collect them in open sheds shaded from sun and rain, and still +others put them into barns or shallow cellars under buildings, etc. The +melons are very durable and seem disposed to keep in any old way. The +melons are shipped in large packing cases with slat sides, or in the +smaller slat crates that are used for summer cantaloupes. No packing is +used, generally. If it seemed necessary, a little clean straw would be +sufficient. + + + +Ripe Melons. + + + +How can I tell when a watermelon is fully ripe? What is the method used +by growers in picking for commercial shipping? + +Gently press the sides of a melon and if it crackles a little bit, all +right; if it makes no sound then go to another. Commercial pickers look +at the little spiral between the melon and the nearest leaf. If it is +withered they pick the melon, if fresh, pass it until next picking. + + + +Growing Onion Seed and Sets. + + + +Will you give localities of the leading production of onion seed or dry +sets in your State? + +Onion seed is grown in several parts of the State, largely in the Santa +Clara valley adjacent to the city of San Jose. Onion sets are largely +produced in Orange county, near Los Angeles, for eastern shipment, for +which purpose they are grown under contract. + + + +Ripening Onions. + + + +I am raising some onions from bottom sets and as they are growing nicely +and are beginning to swell at the bulb some advise me to cut the tops +off and some advise me to bend them over or tramp them down. + +Do not cut off the tops of the onions. If they seem to be overgrowing +and not disposed to ripen the bulb, the top can be broken down, thus +partly arresting the vegetative energy of the plant and causing +maturity. + + + +Onions from Sets. + + + +Will onion sets planted in July grow and mature in the fall months? + +Good onion sets grown during the winter and spring should be mature by +July and if planted after drying would proceed to make a full growth of +large onions if growing conditions should be right for them; that is, +the soil moist and the temperature not too high. + + + +How Many Crops of Onion Seed? + +Does the growing of onion seed exhaust adobe land, and if so, how many +years' cropping before it requires rest or fertilizing? + +The growth of any seed crop, including cereal grains, of course, makes a +supreme draft upon soil fertility. How long a certain soil can stand it, +depends upon the amount of fertility it has when the draft begins. The +best rough way to tell how it is going, is to watch the growth and crop, +when moisture conditions are known to be favorable. If you get a good +growth of the plant it is still good to make the seed. + + + +Onions from Seed. + + + +Will onions from seed mature the same season if they are irrigated? Some +tell us they will not, so we would be very much pleased to hear from +you. + +Onions grown from the seed do fully develop during the growing season +following the planting of the seed. In fact, nearly all California +onions are grown in that way. Our growing season is so long that we do +not need to use onion sets to any extent, as they do in short-summer +climates. + + + +Dry Farming with Chili Peppers. + + + +If I set chili pepper plants down six or eight inches lower than the +surface of the ground and fill in as the plants grow larger, will this +help in case I could not get water enough? My soil is a deep sandy loam. +We have had between five and six inches of rain. Do you think water +every fifteen days would be enough? + +On such light soil as you mention, the plants can be planted deeply and +a certain amount of soil brought up to the plants by cultivation without +injury. As this plant has a long growing season and matures its crop +rather late, you will undoubtedly need irrigation. Probably irrigation +twice a month will be sufficient in connection with good cultivation, +but you will have to watch the plants and apply the water as it seems to +be needed, rather than by a specific scheme of days. + + + +Harvesting Peanuts. + + + +I would like information regarding the curing of peanuts. Should they be +bleached, and, if so, how is it done? Does bleaching affect the keeping +qualities? + +It is not usual to bleach peanuts. They should be grown in such light +soil that they will not be stained, and the common method of curing is +to dig or plow up, throw the vines, with nuts attached, into windrows +and allow them to lie a week or ten days for drying. Then the nuts are +picked into sacks and cleaned before shipment in revolving drums, +followed by a grain fan which throws out the light nuts and other +rubbish. Bleaching would not destroy the keeping quality probably, but +it would destroy the flavor and the germinating power. The latter would +not matter, except with such nuts as you wish to keep for seed, because +the roasting destroys the germinating power also, but sulphuring, which +would reduce the flavor, would give the product a bad name. Possibly +some growers do bleaching, but, if so, they have to be pretty careful +about it. The cost of the operation would also be a bar to profit, for +peanuts are grown on a narrow margin owing to competition with +importations grown with cheap labor. + + + +Adobe and Peanuts. + + + +Is adobe land good for the peanut? Is it harder to start than in other +soils or not? + +It is not good at all. Peanuts require the finest, mellowest loam with +sand enough to prevent crust, and moisture even and continuous. The +surface must be kept loose so that the plant can bury its own bloom stem +and the under soil light and clean so that it will readily shake from +the nuts and not stain them. Adobe is the worst soil you could find for +peanuts. + + + +Cutting Potatoes. + + + +What would be the most profitable potato to plant in the Salinas valley, +and how small can a potato be cut up for planting? How many eyes should +each piece contain in order to make a good growth and be profitable? + +Probably the best potato for your district would be the Burbank, which +is largely grown near Salinas and brings the highest price. It is +customary to cut a medium-sized potato in two pieces and a large one in +four pieces. One can be very economical of seed by smaller cutting, but +it would require the most favorable conditions to bring a vigorous +growth. Probably pieces weighing not less than two ounces would be best +under ordinary conditions. Potatoes which are rather small may be used +for seed if well matured and have good eyes. It is dangerous, however, +to use the small stuff - too small for sale. Unless the soil and +moisture conditions are extra favorable, the growth will be weak and +unsatisfactory. + + + +Potato Planting. + + + +How many sacks of potatoes are to be planted to an acre, and how many +eyes are to be left in a seed? If, for instance, we plant seed with +three eyes, how many potatoes should we get from that vine? + +Potatoes are planted all the way from five to fifteen sacks to the acre, +probably about ten sacks being the average. There is no particular +number of eyes specified in preparing the seed, according to common +practice. Good medium-sized potatoes are generally cut in two pieces +crosswise, and large potatoes in four pieces, cutting both ways. There +is no definite relation between the number of eyes planted and the +number of potatoes coming from them. This has been the subject of +innumerable experiments, and the conclusion is that the crop is more +dependent upon good soil and favorable growing conditions than upon any +way of preparing the seed. + + + +Northern Potatoes for Seed. + + + +Do you regard northern-grown seed potatoes sufficiently better to make +it worth while paying freight on them from the State of Washington? + +Experience seems to indicate the superiority of northern-grown seed +potatoes, not only in this State, but on the Atlantic Coast, and they +are largely depended upon. Systematic demonstration by comparative tests +has been made by the Vermont station and preference for northern-grown +seed seems, to be justified. + + + +Potato Planting. + + + +I have ten acres of land in Placer county which I propose to put into +potatoes next spring. It has been recommended to me to put potatoes in +as early as January. It seems to me that January is rather early; +however, it is said that this land is in the orange belt and practically +free from frost. + +Whether you can plant potatoes to advantage in January or not depends +upon the temperatures which you are likely to meet after that date, also +whether the ground is warm enough in January, because there is no +advantage in planting in cold ground nor in soil that is too wet at the +time. The earliest potatoes, of course, come from planting much earlier +than January; usually as soon as the ground is moistened enough in the +autumn. The potato will stand some frost, but autumn planting is not +feasible in places which are under hard freezing or receive too much +cold rain water. + + + +Potatoes Should be Planted Early. + + + +I have Early Rose potatoes planted about May first. The tops look fine, +but there are few potatoes and small, and, though not developed, have +commenced growing a second time, sprouts starting from the new potatoes. +When should I plant and what care should they have? + +Your potatoes act peculiarly because of intermittent moisture - the +plant being arrested by drought and then starting again, which is very +undesirable. To avoid this, potatoes should be planted earlier so as to +get a large part of their growth during the rainy season. If planted +late the ground should be well wet down by irrigation, and then plowed +and cultivated, and irrigation should be used while the plant is growing +well. If this is done, potatoes can be successfully grown by irrigation, +but if the land is allowed to become dry the plant is arrested in its +growth for a time and a second and undesirable growth is started. + + + +Potato Balls. + + + +I find in potato writings of forty years ago that the seed from the +potato balls which form on the tops of the plants is recommended for +growing the best potatoes. In later books I find no mention of them and +all are advised how to cut the tubers to get seed potatoes. + +The seed of the potato plant which is found in the "balls" which develop +on the tops of the plant is only valuable for the origination of new +varieties, with the chance, of course, that most of them will be +inferior to the tubers produced by the plant which bears the seed. +Therefore, these seeds are of no commercial importance. There has also +sometimes developed upon the top of the plant what is called an aerial +tuber, which is even of less value than the seed ball, because it does +not contain seed nor is it good as a tuber. + +Forty years ago there was a great demand for newer and better kinds of +potatoes which has, since that time, been largely supplied, and +commercial potato-growing consists in multiplying the standard varieties +which best suit the soil and the market. This is done by planting the +tuber itself, which is really a root-cutting and therefore reproduces +its own kind. Those who are originating new kinds of potatoes still use +seed from the balls, either taking their chances by natural variation +or, by hybridizing the blossoms, increasing the chances for variation +from which desirable varieties are taken by selection, to be afterward +multiplied by growth from the tubers. + + + +Seed-Ends of Potatoes. + + + +Is it bad practice to plant the seed-ends of potatoes? + +The seed-end of the potato is the least valuable part of it, but it is +better probably to plant than to reject it. + + + +The Moon and Potato Planting. + + + +Is there any foundation to the oft-repeated story about potatoes in the +light of the moon running to tops and the dark of the moon to spuds? + +If we paid any attention to the moon in planting, we should plant in the +dark of the moon so as to give the plant opportunity to make use of +whatever additional light the full moon afforded. + + + +Planting Whole Potatoes. + + + +One man states the only way to cut seed is to take a potato and cut the +ends off and not divide the potato any more; or, in other words, a whole +potato for each seed. + +Good results are obtained by planting whole potatoes, but in that case +there is no advantage in removing the ends. + + + +How to Cut Seed Potatoes. + + + +Would it pay in returns to use large potatoes for seed in preference to +culls? + +Large potatoes are better than culls, but medium-sized potatoes are +better than either. Many experiments have been made to determine this. +At the Arkansas station whole tubers two to three inches in diameter +yielded 18 per cent more than small whole tubers three-quarters to one +and one-quarter inches in diameter, and large cut tubers yielded 15.8 +per cent more than small cut tubers. + + + +Cutting Potatoes to Single Eyes. + + + +Some say only one eye to a piece; others say several eyes - which is +better? + +In one experiment potatoes cut to single eyes with each piece weighing +one-sixteenth of an ounce yielded 44 bushels to the acre, while single +eyes on two-ounce pieces yielded 177 bushels to the acre. Experiments in +Indiana showed that the yield usually increased with the weight of the +set and that the exact number of eyes per cutting is relatively +unimportant. + + + +Potato Scab. + + + +Can potatoes be treated in any way before planting to prevent the new +ones from being what is called "scabby"? + +There are two successful treatments for scab in potatoes. One is dipping +in a solution of corrosive sublimate. Dissolve one ounce in eight +gallons of water and soak the seed potatoes in this solution for one and +one-half hours before cutting. This treatment kills the scab spores +which may be upon the exterior of the potatoes. More recently, however, +to avoid danger in handling such a rank poison as corrosive sublimate, +formaldehyde has been used, and one pint of commercial formaldehyde, as +it is bought in the stores, is diluted with thirty gallons of water, and +potatoes are soaked in this for two hours. Thirty gallons of this dip +ought to treat about fifty bushels of potatoes. + + + +Double-Cropping with Potatoes. + + + +I am told that here two crops of potatoes can be raised by planting the +second crop in August. I have five acres which will be ready to dig in +July. Can I dig these Potatoes and use them for seed at once for another +crop, or won't they grow? I have a crop of barley, and as it is heading +out now, I want to put potatoes on the ground after I take the barley +off. I have plenty of water to irrigate. + +If your potatoes ripen in July and you allow those which you desire for +seed to lie upon the ground and become somewhat greenish, they are +likely to sprout well for a second crop. They should not, however, be +planted immediately. Whether you get a second crop successfully or not +depends upon how early the frosts come in your district. Whether you get +potatoes after barley or not depends also upon how much moisture there +remains in the soil. By irrigating thoroughly after harvesting the grain +and then plowing deeply for potatoes, you would do vastly better than to +plant in dry ground and irrigate afterward. + + + +When to Plant Potatoes. + + + +I have been puzzled to understand Potato growing in California. Do you +have more than one cropping season, and if so, about what dates are they +due? + +Every month in the year potatoes are being put into the ground and being +taken out of the ground somewhere in California. We have, then, +practically a continuous planting and harvesting season. There is, +however, a division possible to make in this way: Plantings undertaken +in September and October are for winter supplies of new potatoes, which +begin about the holidays and continue during the winter. There is also +in southern California a planting beginning in January, which might be +called the earliest planting for the main crop, and other plantings for +the main crop in the central and northern parts of the State begin in +February and continue until May, according to the character of the land; +that is, whether it is upland, on which the planting is earlier, or +whether it is lowland along the rivers where excessive moisture may +render the land unsuitable until April or May. The harvesting of the +main crop then begins in May and continues during the whole of the +summer, according to the character of the land cropped over, lapping the +planting time for early potatoes first mentioned. It is also true by use +of properly matured seed one can secure, in some places, two crops a +year, if there is sufficient inducement therefor. Thus it comes about +that we are continually planting and digging potatoes according to local +conditions and the possibility of selling advantages. + + + +Keeping Potatoes. + + + +Advise me how to keep my potatoes. What is the best way? Would a dark +room be suitable? Some people are digging holes in the ground to put +them in. + +Potatoes, if properly matured and free from disease, will keep for a +considerable time in dark rooms kept as cool as possible. They must be +kept away from the reach of the moth, which is parent to the worm +producing long black strings inside of the potato. If they are +thoroughly covered with boards or sacking or straw, so as to keep the +moth from reaching the potato, they may be held for a long time in the +open air, and covering with earth, as your neighbors are doing, will be +all right until the rains come and cause decay by making the soil too +wet. The main point is to keep the tubers as cool as possible and out of +reach of the potato moth. + + + +Potato Yield. + + + +What is the yield per acre of potatoes on the best land around Stockton, +Cal., where work is done properly; also what is the yield for potatoes +along the coast? + +The average yield of potatoes in California, taking the whole acreage +and product as reported by the last United States census, is 147 bushels +to the acre. In Stockton district, on good new reclaimed land the yield +has been reported all the way from 300 to 800 bushels per acre - the +crop declining rapidly when continued on the same land. One year's crop +in the Stockton district was estimated at 45,000 acres averaging 125 +sacks per acre. The coast yield would be more like the general average +for the State as first given. + + +New Potatoes for Seed. + + + +Can I plant American Wonder potatoes for the first crop, and let enough +of them mature to use for seed for the second crop, to be planted the +first or middle of July? + +It is possible to use potatoes grown the same year as seed for the later +crop, providing you let the potatoes mature first by the complete dying +down of the vines, and second by digging the potatoes allow them to lie +in the open air, with some protection against sun-burning, until the +potatoes become somewhat greenish. If this is the case the eyes will +develop and seed will grow, while without such treatment you might be +disappointed in their behavior. Of course, the question still remains +whether it would be desirable to do this or to plant some later variety +earlier in the season when the growing conditions would be better. + + + +Potato Growing. + + + +In what locality are the best early potatoes grown in California? Can +they be raised on wheat lands without irrigation as an early crop? + +Early potatoes are grown in regions of light frosts in all parts of the +State - around the bay of San Francisco, on the mesas in southern +California, and to some extent at slight elevations in the central part +of the State. The potato endures some frost, but one has, for an early +crop, to guard against the locations subject to hard freezing. Most of +our potatoes are grown without irrigation because, on uplands, winter +temperatures favor their growing during the rainy season. The +middle-season and late potatoes are grown on moist lowlands where +irrigation is not necessary. In proper situations, much of the land +which is used for potatoes has at some time produced wheat or barley, +corn or sorghum, and other field crops. + + + +Potatoes After Alfalfa. + + + +I have been a successful potato grower in Ohio. I have the best alfalfa +soil and it is now in its fourth year of productiveness in that crop. I +would like to grow potatoes in a small way. + +Proceed just as you would at the East in getting potatoes upon a red +clover sod. Turn under the alfalfa deeply now if the soil will work +well, and roll your sandy soil. You must use a sharp plow to cut and +cover well. If there is moisture enough the alfalfa, plowed under in the +fall, ought to be decayed by February, when you could plant potatoes +safely, probably, unless your situation is very frosty. If you plant +early you ought to get the crop through without irrigation if you +cultivate well and keep the land flat. + + + +Flat or Hill Culture for Potatoes. + + + +Is it better to hill potatoes or not? + +During the dry time of the year potatoes should be grown with flat +cultivation, except as it may be necessary to furrow out between the +rows for the application of irrigation water. Potatoes grown during the +rainy season in places where there is liable to be too much water, can +often be hilled to advantage, but dry-season cultivation of practically +everything should be as flat as possible to retain moisture near the +surface for the development of shallow-rooting plants. + + + +Bad Conditions for Potatoes. + + + +Our potatoes were planted early and were frosted several times while +young. As we come to harvest them we find them with very large green +tops but the potatoes are about the size of a hen's egg and from that +they run down to the size of a pea. The larger ones are beginning to +send out roots, four or five to a potato. The potatoes have not been +irrigated lately and the ground they are in is dry. + +The ugly behavior of your potatoes is doubtless due to irregularities in +temperature and moisture which have forced the plants into abnormal or +undesirable activity. Potatoes should have regular conditions of +moisture so that they shall proceed from start to finish and not stop +and start again, for this will usually make the crop unsatisfactory and +worthless. Excessive moisture is not desirable, but the requisite amount +in continuous supply is indispensable. + + + +Potatoes on Heavy Land. + + + +Will potatoes grow well in adobe land, or partly adobe, that has not +been used for seven years except for pasturing? + +Although potatoes enjoy best of all a light loam in which they can +readily expand, it is possible to get very good results on heavy land +which has been used for pasturage for some years, providing the land is +broken up early and deeply and harrowed well in advance of planting and +thorough cultivation maintained while the crop is growing. The content +of grass roots and manure which the land has received during its period +of grazing tends to make the soil lighter and will also feed the plant +well. For this reason better potatoes are had on heavy land after +pasturage than could be had on the same land if continually used for +grain or for some other crop which tended to reduce the amount of humus +and to make the land more rebellious in cultivation. + + + +Storage of Seed Potatoes. + + + +We need potatoes for late planting and have found a good lot which is +being held in cold storage at temperatures from 34 to 36 degrees F. They +have not been there long, however. Would that hurt them for seed, and +also how long could they be safely left there now before planting? + +Seed potatoes would not be injured in storage, providing the temperature +is not allowed to go below the freezing point. They should not, however, +be allowed to remain longer in storage, but should be exposed to the sun +for the development of the eyes, even to the sprouting point being +desirable before planting. The greening of the potato by the sun is no +disadvantage. We would not think of planting potatoes directly from +storage, because, owing to the lack of development in the eyes, decay +might get the start of germination. + + + +Potatoes and Frosts. + + + +Can I keep frost off of potato tops by building smudge fires! I would +like to plant about February 1, but we usually have a few light frosts +here during March. If I were to turn water in the field when too cold, +would that keep the frost off, and if so, would I have to turn water +down each row, or would one furrow full of water to about every fourth +or sixth row be enough? + +You can prevent frost by smudging for potatoes just as you can for other +vegetables. The potato, however, needs little protection of this kind +and will endure a light frost which would be destructive to tomatoes, +melons, and other more tender growths. Unless you have a very frosty +situation, you can certainly grow potatoes without frost protection, and +they should be planted earlier than February first if the ground is in +good condition. The great secret of success in growing potatoes in +southern California is to get a good early start before the heat and +drought come on. Water will protect from frost if the temperature only +goes to about 28 degrees and does not stay there too long. The more +water there is exposed the longer may be the protection, but probably +not against a lower temperature. + + + +Growing Sweet Potato Plants. + + + +How shall I make a hot-bed to raise sweet potato plants? I don't mean to +put glass over bed, but want full description of an up-to-date outfit +for raising them. + +Manure hot-beds have been largely abandoned for growing sweet potato +slips, though, of course, you can grow them that way on a small scale or +for experiment. In the large sweet potato districts, elaborate +arrangements for bottom heat by circulation of hot water or steam are in +use. In a smaller way hot air works well. The Arizona Experiment Station +tells how a very good sweet potato hot-bed at little cost is constructed +as follows: A frame of rough boards seven feet wide, twenty feet long +and fourteen inches deep is laid down over two flues made by digging two +trenches one foot deep and about two feet wide, lengthwise of the bed. +These trenches are covered with plank or iron roofing, and are equipped +with a fire pit at one end and short smokestack at the other. + +Four inches of soil is filled into this bed and sweet potatoes placed +upon it in a layer which is then covered with two or three inches more +of soil. Large potatoes may be split and laid flat side down. The whole +bed is then covered with muslin, operating on a roller by which to cover +and uncover the bed. Thus prepared, the bed may easily be kept at a +temperature of 60 to 70 degrees F. by smouldering wood fires in the fire +boxes. The potatoes, kept moist at this temperature, sprout promptly and +will be ready to transplant in about six weeks. A bed of the size +mentioned will receive five to seven bushels of seed roots, which will +make slips enough to plant an acre or more of potatoes. + + + +Growing Sweet Potatoes. + + + +Please inform me how to keep sweet potatoes for seed; also how many +pounds it takes for one acre, and what distance apart to plant, and the +time to plant. + +Sweet potatoes may be kept from sprouting by storage in a cool, dry +place. Sweet potatoes are not grown by direct cutting of the tuber as +the ordinary potato is, but the tubers are put in January or later in a +hot bed and the sprouts are taken off for planting when the ground +becomes warm and all danger of frost is over in the locality. The number +of sprouts required for an acre is from five to ten thousand, and a +bushel of small sweet potatoes will produce about two thousand sprouts +if properly handled in the hot bed, which consists in removing the +sprouts when they have attained a height of five or six inches, and in +this way the potatoes will be yielding sprouts in succession for some +time. The sprouts are planted in rows far enough apart for horse +cultivation. They are usually hilled up pretty well after starting to +grow well. They cannot be planted until the danger of frost is over, for +they are much more tender than Irish potatoes. + + + +Sweet Potato Growing. + + + +In planting sweet potatoes, do we have to make hotbeds just like those +for tomatoes, or if just a plain seed-bed will do? Is it necessary to +irrigate them or not? + +You can bed your sweet potatoes in a warm place on the sunny side of a +building or board fence, and get sprouts all right. You will, however, +get them sooner and in greater numbers by using a slow hotbed in which +the manure supply is not too large. The fact that sweet potato growers +do use some artificial heat, either from manure or by piping bottom-heat +in their propagating houses, is a demonstration that such recourse is +desirable to get best results. The necessity of irrigation depends upon +the soil and its natural moisture supply. On a fine retentive loam, the +crop is chiefly made without irrigation, if the plants are all ready to +put out in the field as soon as it is safe. If you are late in the +planting, or if the soil is dry or likely to dry before the tubers are +grown to good size, irrigation, some time ahead of the need of the +plant, is essential. + + + +Sweet Potatoes. + + + +What kind of soil and climate does it take to grow sweet potatoes, and +can I grow them in any part of Contra Costa county, and about what time +is the best to plant them? + +Sweet potatoes do best in a light warm loam which drains well and does +not bake or crust by rain or irrigation. Sprout the tubers in a hot-bed +or cold-frame in February and break off the shoots and plant as soon as +you are out of danger by frost. Sweet potatoes are more tender than +common potatoes. There are places in Contra Costa county where they do +well, though some parts of the county do not have enough summer heat. + + + +Sweet Potatoes Between Fruit Trees. + + + +I am expecting to grow a fall crop of about twenty acres of sweet +potatoes. The land is a heavy, sandy loam in the interior, which has +been set out this spring to almonds, apricots and prunes. I wish to grow +sweet potatoes between trees. Would an irrigation every forty days be +often enough? Also, if either sweet or Irish potatoes grown between rows +are harmful to either of the varieties of fruit mentioned? + +We see no reason why you should not get your crop, providing you do not +have to run the plants into the frosty period, and sweet potatoes will +not, of course, stand frost as well as the common potato. The moisture +which you propose to give ought to be enough for a retentive soil in +connection with good cultivation until the vines cover the ground. +Growing any crop between orchard trees is apt to be an injury to the +trees, because of the spaces which are not and cannot be adequately +cultivated, so that the ground around the trees is apt to become +compacted either by the run of water or the lack of cultivation, or +both. Our observation has been that Irish potatoes are no more injurious +than other crops. Any crop will injure young trees if it takes moisture +they ought to have or interferes with good cultivation of the land. + + + +Giant Japanese Radish. + + + +In discussing sakurajima (giant Japanese radish) Eastern publications +advise planting late, about August 1, and not earlier than July 1. What +can you tell me about the plant here? + +The Asiatic winter radishes can be successfully planted in California in +July or August if the soil is thoroughly saturated by irrigation before +digging and planting. It is, however, not so necessary to begin early in +California as at the East, because our winter temperatures favor the +growth of the plant, while at the East they have to make an early start +in order to get something well grown before the ground freezes. For the +growth of winter radishes, then, in California you can wait until the +ground is wet thoroughly by the rain, which may be expected during +September, and afterward you can make later plantings for succession at +any time you desire during the rainy season. This applies to all kinds +of radishes. + + + +Rhubarb Rotting. + + + +I have planted rhubarb roots in the San Joaquin valley and find the root +crowns rot below the surface. + +The old-fashioned summer rhubarb usually goes off that way in very hot +localities. If there is too much alkali or hardpan, or if planted too +late, the same results will be had with any sort of rhubarb. Where it is +very hot, plants, irrigated in the morning near the plants, scald at the +crown and die in a few days. If irrigated in the afternoon and the +ground worked before it gets hot the next day fine results are obtained. +The winter rhubarb varieties do well in hot districts if the roots are +planted from September 15 to May 1, while in cooler sections, April, +May, June and July are the best months and will insure a crop the +following winter. + + + +Squashes Dislike Hardship. + + + +What caused these squashes, of which I send you samples, to be so hard +and woody? They were grown without irrigation. + +Your squashes were grown without irrigation under conditions which were +too dry for them and became inferior in quality. Possibly the variety +itself is not of good quality or the specimen from which the seed was +taken may have been inferior. A squash, in order to be tender and +acceptable, needs rich feeding and plenty of drink. Otherwise, it is apt +to resent ill treatment by very undesirable growth. + + + +Harvesting Sunflowers. + + + +What is the method used in saving or threshing the seed from the Giant +Russian sunflower? + +Cut off the seed heads of your sunflowers when the seed seems to be well +matured but before any of it falls away from the head. Throw these heads +on a smooth piece of ground or a tight floor and when they become +thoroughly dry thresh out the seed with a flail, removing the coarse +stuff with a rake and afterwards cleaning the seed by shoveling it into +the wind so that the light stuff may be blown away. A more perfect +cleaning afterwards could be secured with a grain fanning mill or a +simple sieve of the right mesh. + + + +Irrigating Tomatoes. + + + +How much water does it take (in gallons or cubic feet) to properly +irrigate an acre of land for tomatoes? The soil is adobe, and the +customary way of planting tomatoes is 6 feet apart each way, plowing a +trench of one furrow with the slope of the land for irrigating, that is, +a trench between every row and a cross trench as a feeder. The land is +low and in the driest part of the year the surface water is from 2 to 3 +feet beneath the top of the ground. + +It is not possible to state a specific quantity of water for any crop, +because the amount depends to such a large extent upon the retentiveness +of the soil, the rate of evaporation and the kind of cultivation. The +best source of information is the behavior of the plant itself, bearing +in mind that tomato plants require constant but not excessive moisture +supply, and that if moisture is applied in excess it will promote an +excessive growth of the plant, which will cause it to drop its blossoms +and therefore be unsatisfactory and unproductive. In such land as you +describe no irrigation whatever would be desirable except in years of +short rainfall, and such land, if properly cultivated, would always +furnish moisture enough by capillary action to support the growth of the +plant. + + + +Less Water and More Heat. + + + +What chemicals should I put into the soil to insure a good crop of +vegetables, such as tomatoes, string beans, or other over-ground +producers? Last year my tomatoes and string beans grew plentifully, but +never produced any tomatoes or beans, yet turnips and parsnips were all +right. + +Vegetables which behave like your tomatoes and string beans, making too +much growth and not enough fruit, do not need fertilization. The land is +perhaps too rich already, or you may have used too much water. Use less +water so that the plants will make a more moderate growth, and they will +be fruitful if the season is warm enough in the later part of summer. +This, of course, would be one of the drawbacks to growing tomatoes and +beans in San Francisco. Turnips and parsnips do well with less heat. You +may have to modify the San Francisco summer climate by wind screens or +glass covers. + + + +Continuous Cropping With the Same Plant. + + + +What would happen on the crops of cucumbers, tomatoes and eggplants, +etc., planted on the same place continuously? + +There would be in time a decadence of crop from soil exhaustion, but +that you could prevent by fertilization. The greatest danger from +continuously growing these vegetables on the same land is the +multiplication of bacteria which injuriously affect them, in the soil. +The plants which you mention are all subject to "wilt" diseases from +this cause, therefore, they should have new ground. If you have to use +the same garden ground continuously, the plants which you mention should +be rotated with root crops or with other kinds of vegetables, so as to +frequently change plants and soil within the general area which has to +be used for them. + + + +Big Worms on Tomatoes. + + + +I have a nice patch of tomatoes in my garden, and only recently I notice +large green worms on them with one large brown horn on their head. They +strip the leaves off. They look to me like a tobacco worm. + +They are tobacco worms; that is, they are the larvae of hawk moths, some +of which take tobacco, tomatoes, grapevines and many other plants, +including some of the native weeds of your valley. Pick them off and +crush them, or give them a little snip with the scissors if you do not +like to handle them. They are so large and easily found that such +treatment is easily applied, as in "worming tobacco." + + + +Loss of Tomato Bloom. + + + +I have tomato plants which are very strong and healthy and full of +blossoms, but there is something cutting the blossoms off and just about +to ruin my plants. + +The trouble with your tomato plants is that life is too easy for them, +that they have so much moisture and plant food that they can grow +comfortably and rapidly without thought of the future. So, because they +do not have to think of making fruit, the blossoms drop off. This is a +very common occurrence with tomatoes, especially in home gardens where +the owners have not the experience or the information on the subject +that they might have, and give the tomatoes too much water. Many other +plants act the same way and will not set fruit while they can grow +easily, and only begin to produce when they have made a great growth or +when moisture begins to get a little short. If you irrigate the +tomatoes, stop, and put no more water on until the plant begins to set +fruit as if it meant business, or gives some sign that water would be +appreciated. If the ground is naturally moist you will have to wait +until the plants make more growth and the weather gets drier and hotter, +and the plants will then set fruit. Some growers have found that by +trimming up the vine and staking it, the fruit sets much more readily. + + + +Part III. Grains and Forage Crops + + + +Wants Us to Do the Whole Thing. + + + +Can you help, me to determine a good product to plant somewhere in +California; also what particular section would be most suitable for the +raising of that which you would advise? I wish a crop of permanent +nature (as orchard trees). I also desire advice on some product which +would give a quick return while I am waiting on the more permanent one +to mature and bear. I have not procured land yet, and am thinking +seriously of trying to get government land, therefore, you are free to +give me the best location for the raising of that which you would, +suggest. I want a money-making product and one which is not already +overdone. + +The choice of crops depends quite as much upon the market demand and +opportunity as it does upon the suitability of the soil and local +climate. Choice of crops indeed involves almost the whole business of +farming, and although we can sometimes give a man useful suggestions as +to the growth of plants and the protection of plants from enemies, we +cannot undertake to plan his farming business for him. He must form his +own opinions as to what will be most marketable, and therefore +profitable, if he succeeds in getting a good article for sale. A wise +man at the East once said: "You can advise a man to do almost anything. +You can even select a wife for him, but never commit the indiscretion of +advising him what to grow to make money. That is a matter he has to +determine for himself." + + + +Pasturing Young Grain. + + + +Would it be advisable to herd milch cows for a few hours each day on a +field of black oats which is to be grown for hay? The oats are now about +four inches high and rank, as the land was pastured last year. The land +is sandy, rolling soil and will soon be dry enough so that the cows +would not injure the plants. The idea is that the leaves which are green +now will all dry up and are really not the growth which is cut for hay; +therefore, I should think it would do no harm to feed it down a bit. + +Over-rank grain with abundant moisture will make a more stocky growth +and stand against lodging if pastured or mowed. The leaves which you +speak of as being lost in the later growth of the plant serve an +important purpose in making that growth, and removing them is a +repressive process which is not desirable when rain is short. We should +allow the plants to push along into as good a growth of hay as a dry +year's moisture will give. + + + +Dry Plowing for Grain. + + + +We have land that we could very easily plow now with our traction engine +and improved plows, but the people here claim that it does not pay to +dry-plow, that is, before the land has had a good rain on it and the +vegetation has started. I believe in dry plowing. Two of our oldest +farmers in Merced county dry-plowed, that is, they commenced plowing as +soon as harvesting was over. + +If the rainfall is small and likely to come in light showers, dry +plowing, if it turns up the land in large clods, might yield poorer +results than land which is plowed after rain, because there would be so +much moisture lost by drying out from the coarse surface when it came in +amounts not adequate for deep penetration. Plowing after the rain for +the purpose of killing out the foul stuff which starts is, however, +quite another consideration. It is a fact that dry plowing and sowing is +not now desirable in some places where it was formerly accepted, because +the land has become so foul as to give a rank growth of weeds which +choke out the grain at its beginning. Such land can be cleaned by one or +two shallow plowings and cultivations after there is moisture enough to +start the weeds to growing. These are local questions which you will +have to settle by observation. In a general way, it is true that opening +the surface of the ground before the rains, reduces the run-off and loss +of moisture, but whether there would be any loss of moisture by run-off +or not depends upon the slope of the land and also upon the way in which +the rain comes, and the total amount of moisture which is available for +the season. + + + +Sub-varieties of California Barley. + + + +Can you tell where I can buy seed of varieties of California six-rowed +barley, described as "pallidum" and "coerulescens," and what the seed +will cost? + +No one knows where the six-rowed barley, known as "common" barley in +this State, came from, nor when it came. It has been here since the +early days and it has naturally shown a disposition to vary, so that it +is quite possible to select a number of types from any large field, of +it. These variations have been studied to some extent by Eastern +students who are endeavoring to develop American types of barley for +brewing purposes as likely to be better than the brewing varieties which +are famous in Europe. In Europe brewing barleys are chiefly two-rowed. +Under California conditions the plant is able to develop just as good +brewing grains on a six-rowed basis, and this seems to be a commendable +trait in the way of multiplying the product. The names "pallidum" and +"coerulescens" indicate two of these varieties recognized by Eastern +students. It is not possible at this time to get even a pound of +selected grain true to this type, and no one knows when it will be +worked out to available quantities. + + + +Chevalier Barley. + + + +Has Chevalier barley more value to feed hens for egg production than +common feed barley or wheat? + +Chevalier barley is no better for chicken feed than any other barley +which is equally large and plump. Brewers like Chevalier because of its +fullness of starch to support the malting process; also, because it is +bright, that is, white, and not stained or tinged with bluish or reddish +colors. Color points do not count for chicken feed, but good plump +kernels do. Besides this, however, darker kernel (not chaff) usually +indicates more protein, and therefore a darker kernel of either wheat or +barley might be more valuable for feeding. A hard, horny kernel is +richer than a softer, more starchy one, either in wheat or barley. + + + +Barley on Moist Land. + + + +What would you do with land subject to overflow by the Sacramento when +that river rises 20 feet, and which you wanted to plant to barley this +season? Would you take a chance on the river rising that high this year, +or wait until after that danger was over, and take a chance on not +getting enough rain to make the grain come up; also, if the river did +come up for 48 hours after the grain was in, but did not wash, would the +grain be lost? Should the grain be planted deeper than on ordinary land, +and, if so, should a drill be used? How much seed should be sown per +acre on good river-bottom soil? + +Get the barley in and watch for the overflow rather than to fear it. An +overflow for 48 hours would give you the greatest crop you ever saw, +unless it should be in a settling basin and the water forced to escape +by evaporation. From your description we judge that this is not so and +that the land clears itself quickly from an overflow. Depth of sowing +depends upon the character and condition of the soil - the lighter and +drier the deeper. By all means use a drill if the soil is dry on the +surface. Short rainfall makes the advantage of drill seeding most +conspicuous. On the University Farm 22 trials gave an average gain of +over 10 per cent in yield. The difference would be much greater in a dry +year; it might be 25 per cent greater, possibly, and save high-priced +seed at the same time, as about 90 pounds of seed per acre will do, +instead of 120 pounds broadcast, in accordance with the approved heavy +seeding practice on the river lands. + + + +Barley and Alfalfa. + + + +I have some alfalfa which is a poor stand. Can I disc it up heavily and +seed in some barley for winter pasture? + +You can get barley into your alfalfa as you propose, but you should not +seed until fall. The more barley you get into your alfalfa, however, the +less alfalfa you will have afterward. If you want to improve your +afalfa, keep everything else out of the field and help the plants by +regular irrigations during the balance of the growing season. + + + +Beets and Potatoes. + + + +Which is the best for dairy cows, plain red mangels or a cross between +these and sugar beets? Can you suggest a more profitable variety of +potato than the Oregon Burbank? + +If you can get a cross which gives you more tonnage than a mangel and a +higher nutritive content you would have something better to grow. The +first point you have to determine by growing the two side by side and +weighing the product; the nutritive value of each will have to be +determined by chemical analysis. Until these determinations are actually +made a comparison of desirability is nothing but conjecture. There are +several other potatoes which are sometimes more profitable here and +there for early crop when grown in an early locality. If you are not in +an early locality you are obliged to produce for the main crop, and +nothing, to our knowledge, sells as well as the Burbank, if you get a +good one. + + + +Beets for Stock. + + + +Will sugar beets grow on black alkali land? How many pounds of seed per +acre should be used and when is it time for sowing in the San Joaquin +valley? Which kind would be best for cows? + +Beets will do more on alkali than some other plants, but too much alkali +will knock them out. You must try and see whether you have too much +alkali or not. You can sow at various times during the rainy season, for +the beets will stand some frost. Sow 8 pounds per acre in drills 2 1/2 +to 3 feet apart, so as to use a horse cultivator. For stock you had +better grow large stock beets like marigolds or tankards - not sugar +beets. It costs too much to get sugar beets out of the ground, because +it is their habit to grow small and bury themselves for the sake of the +sugar maker, while stock beets grow largely above ground. + + + +Summer Start of Stock Beets. + + + +How can I make Mangel Wurzels grow in hot weather? The land is level and +can be irrigated by flooding or ditching between the rows. How often +should the water be applied, and which method used? The land is in fine +shape; a sandy loam bordering on to heavier land. + +Wet the land thoroughly; plow and harrow and drill in the seed in rows +about 2 1/2 feet apart. This ought to give moisture enough to start the +seed. Cultivate as soon as you can see the rows well. Irrigate in a +furrow between the rows about once a month; cultivate after each +irrigation. + + + +Corn Growing for Silage. + + + +With fair cultivation, will an acre produce about 10 tons of ensilage +without fertilization - it being bottom land? How should it be planted? +- the rows closer together than 3 feet, or should it be planted the +usual width between rows, and thick in the rows? If fertilizers were to +be used, what kind would you recommend? Would you recommend deep plowing +followed by a packer and harrow so as to preserve the moisture? + +You ought to be able to get 10 tons of silage per acre from corn grown +on good corn land. It can be best grown in rows sufficiently distant for +cultivation, closer in the row than would be desirable for corn, and yet +not too crowded, because corn for silage should develop good ears and +should be cut for silage about the time when the glazing begins to +appear. If your land needs fertilization, stable manure or a "complete +fertilizer" of the dealers would be the proper thing to use. It would be +very desirable to plow corn land deeply the preceding fall, followed by +a packer or harrow to settle down the land below, but do not work down +fine. Keep the surface stirred from time to time during the winter and +put in the crop with the usual cultivation in the spring as soon as the +frost danger is over. + + + +Irrigation for Corn. + + + +What amount of water is necessary per acre for the best possible yield +of corn under acreage conditions and proper cultivation in the San +Joaquin or Sacramento valleys? + +No one can answer such a question with anything more than a guess. It +depends upon how much rain has fallen the previous winter, how retentive +the soil is naturally, and what has been done to help the soil to hold +it. Nearly all the corn that is grown is carried without any irrigation +at all on moist lowlands, which may be too wet for winter crops. If you +demand a guess, make it six acre-inches, with a good surface pulverizing +after each run of water in furrows between the rows. This water would be +best used in two or three applications. + + + +Eastern Seed Corn for California. + + + +The question has been raised as to Eastern-grown seed corn, comparing it +with California-grown seed. Some claim that the former does not yield +well the first season. + +We cannot give a complete refutation of the impression that Eastern seed +corn does not yield well the first season in California. It is a +somewhat prevalent impression. All that we can announce now is that we +have grown collections of Eastern seed corn and have found the product +quite as good as could have been expected, and did not encounter, +apparently, the trouble of which you write. + + + +Need of Corn Suckering. + + + +To insure the best crop of corn possible, does it pay to sucker it or +not? + +The removal of suckers is a matter of local conditions largely in +California, and growers are getting out of the habit of suckering. In +some places suckering is needed, and in others it apparently does not +pay to do so, although with very rare exceptions a larger yield can be +secured by suckering than without. + + + +Cow Peas Not Preparatory for Corn. + + + +What time of the year can cow peas be planted, and can the entire crop +be plowed under in time for planting field corn? + +Cowpeas are very subject to frost. They are really beans, and therefore +can be grown in the winter time only in a few practically frostless +places. Wherever frosts are likely to occur they must be planted, like +beans and corn, when the frost danger is over. Field peas, Canadian peas +and vetches are hardy against frost and therefore safer for winter +growth, and treated as you propose they may be preparatory for +corn-growing providing you plow them under soon enough to get a month or +more for decay before planting the corn. + + + +Oats and Rust + + + +Is there any variety of oats that is rust-proof, or any method of +treating oats that will render them rust resistant? We are situated on a +mountain, only about 12 miles from the coast, and have considerable +foggy weather, which most of the farmers here say is the cause of the +rust. + +There is no way of treating oats which will prevent smut, if the variety +is liable to it. There is a great difference in the resistance of +different varieties. A few dark-colored oats are practically rust-proof, +and you can get seed of them from the seedsmen in San Francisco and Los +Angeles. Such varieties are chiefly grown on the southern coast. Foggy +weather has much to do with the rust, because it causes atmospheric +moisture which is favorable to the growth of the fungus, which is +usually checked by dry heat, and yet there are atmospheric conditions +occasionally which favor the rust even in the driest parts of the State. +The fog favors rust, but does not cause it. The cause is a fungus, long +ago thoroughly understood and named puccinia graminis. + + + +Midsummer Hay Sowing. + + + +Can I sow oats or barley in July upon irrigated mesa land, with the +object of making hay in the fall? Which of the two would do the better +in summer time? I have plenty of water. + +We have never seen this done to advantage. If you desire to try it, +irrigate thoroughly and plow and sow afterward. Use barley rather than +oats and irrigate when the plant shades the land well, if you get growth +enough to warrant it. It will be easier to get the crop than to figure a +profit in it. + + + +Loose Hay by Measure. + + + +How many cubic feet should be allowed for a ton of alfalfa hay loaded on +a wagon from the shock? I must sell more or less in that way, as no +scales are near enough to be used. + +It is a proposition, as to the weight of loose hay, which could of +course keep changing the higher you built the load on the wagon. It is +easier to give figures on weight from a stack in which there has been +something like uniform pressure for a time. In the case from a 30-day +stack it is common to allow an eight-foot cube to a ton, etc. Perhaps +you can guess from that. + + + +When to Cut Oat Hay. + + + +To make the best red oat hay should it be cut when in the "milk," +"dough" or nearly ripe! + +It should be cut in the "soft dough" or, as some express it, "between +the milk and the dough." This is probably as near an approach in words +as can be made to that condition which loses neither by immaturity or by +over-maturity from the point of view of hay which is to get as much as +can be in the head without losing nutritiveness in the straw. Of course +there are other conditions intruding sometimes, like the outbreak of +rust or the premature ripening through drought. In such cases care must +be taken not to let the plant stand too long for the sake of reaching an +ideal condition in the head - which for lack of favorable growing +conditions the plant may not be able to reach. + + + +Rye for Hay. + + + +When is the best time to cut rye for hay, and how should it best be +handled? Would it be well to cut it up and blow it into the barn, and +would it do all right for silage? + +Rye makes poor hay on account of its woody stems and must be cut earlier +than other grains. After that it is handled as is other hay. Cutting it +up would probably be more of a help than to other grain hay. It could be +put into the silo, but would of course have to be cut pretty green and +would have to run through a cutter and blower. Putting it in whole would +be out of the question. In the silo, the fermentation would largely +overcome the woodiness of the stems. It would also as a silage balance +up nicely with alfalfa, and the best way to do would be to mix it with +alfalfa when putting it in. + + + +Rye in California. + + + +Which kind of rye is the hardiest, the best yielding, and the best hay +varieties in your State? + +Rye is the least grown of all the cereals in California, and no +attention has been paid to selection of varieties. That which is +produced is "just rye," of some common variety which came to the State +years ago and still remains. No rye is grown for hay, as the toughness +of the stem renders it undesirable for that purpose. There is a certain +amount of rye grown for winter feeding. This is grown in the foothills +principally and it serves an excellent purpose, but it is fed off before +approaching maturity. + + + +That Old Seven-Headed Wheat. + + + +We are sending you some heads of grain which was grown in this county. +The land was planted with an imported Australian wheat, which we believe +the smaller heads to be, but the wheat is about evenly mired with grain +like the large heads, which we think to be a species of barley. + +The grain is an old, coarse, bearded wheat which is continually +appearing in fields of ordinary grain and naturally excites interest +among all to whom the variety is a novelty. It is the old seven-headed +Egyptian wheat, which has never proved of any cultural value, because +its manifolding of the head is of no advantage. It is better to have a +straight well-filled head than to have a branching head of this kind. +This matter has been fully demonstrated by experience during the last +thirty or forty years, not only in this State, but in other States, for +the variety has a way of getting around the world, and seed has +sometimes been sold at exorbitant prices to people who have been +persuaded that it is of particular value. + + + +Speltz. + + + +I have heard of a Russian grain called "Speltz" or "Emmer." Can I raise +it successfully and, if so, what is the very best time of year to sow +some for the best crop obtainable? Can it be sown in the fall, say +November? Would springtime be a better time to sow it on soil that is +very soft in winter? + +If your land yields good crops of wheat or barley or oats, you have +little to expect from speltz or emmer. This is a grain generally +considered inferior to those just mentioned and advocated for conditions +under which the better known grains do not do well. It is hardy against +drought and frost, particularly the latter, and is, therefore, chiefly +grown in the extreme north of Europe. It may be sown in the fall or in +the spring in places where rains are late and carry the plant to +maturity. + + + +Italian Rye Grass. + + + +What kind of grass is enclosed? Also the best method to eradicate it? + +The grass is the Italian rye grass, or as it is sometimes called, the +Italian variety of the perennial rye grass. It is proving a very +satisfactory grass in California for moderate drought resistance and for +winter growing, and a great deal of it is being sown for these purposes. +You can readily kill it out by cultivation, but most people are more +occupied with its propagation than with its destruction. + + + +Fall Feed. + + + +Can I irrigate and plant a forage crop n July to feed dairy cows this +fall and winter? Would you recommend cow peas or some kind of sugar +corn? If cow peas, how many pounds to the acre? + +If you wet down the land thoroughly and then plow and harrow and plant +either cow peas or Indian corn, you ought to get a good green crop +before frost. Drill in or drop the seed in rows about three feet apart +and keep cultivating and irrigating as long as you can get through +without injuring the crop too much. Use about 40 pounds of cow peas to +the acre. + + + +Hurry-up Pasture. + + + +What can I plant this fall which would produce pasturage for a small +amount of stock this winter, and until I can get the land under +irrigation and seeded to alfalfa? + +For quick fall and winter growth nothing is better probably than oats +and vetches sown together as soon as you get rain enough to plow, but it +would be a question whether it is worth while to work for that, because +you ought to get your land ready for February sowing of alfalfa and that +will keep the land busy after the rain gets it into working condition. + + + +Johnson Grass. + + + +I am informed that Johnson grass makes fine hay. I have not sown the +seed yet, but would like to know if the hay is good and if it will grow +on dry land. I have the seed on hand, but do not want to sow it if it is +not good. + +Johnson grass is poor, coarse stuff. The plant is most valuable for +grazing when young. Johnson grass will not grow on really dry land, but +it will take the best moist land it can find and hold on to it. It is +sensitive to frost and is not a winter grower except in the absence of +frost. + + + +Improving Heavy Land for Alfalfa. + + + +My land is very heavy, red loam, and crusts over very hard in dry +seasons. I would like to know if it would be best to use barnyard +compost over the surface as a mulch, or would it be best to use plain +straw for that purpose? + +A very heavy soil can be brought into better surface condition for +alfalfa by plowing in stable manure as soon as possible after the fall +rains, in order that the manure may have opportunity to become +disintegrated and mixed with the soil by the time for alfalfa sowing, +which is from February to April - whenever the heavy frosts of the +locality are over. For a small piece, you might get a better stand by +using a light mulch of disintegrated coarse manure or even straw, +scattering it after the sowing, but for a large acreage this would +involve too much labor. It is not desirable to work in much manure or +other coarse stuff at the time of sowing the seed, but you can make a +light surface application after the plant has made a start. + + + +Cultivating Alfalfa. + + + +When is the best time to cultivate alfalfa, and how often during the +season is it advantageous to do so? Which is the best implement to use? + +Cultivated alfalfa is a term applied to alfalfa sown in rows and allowed +to grow in narrow bands with cultivated land between, and the irrigation +is then done in a furrow in the narrow cultivated strip. This will give +thriftier growth and perhaps more hay to the acre than flooded, +broad-casted alfalfa, but it will cost so much more that the acre profit +would probably be less. This is an intensive culture of alfalfa, which +is still to be tested out in California, if any one should be inclined +to do it. Some one-cow suburbanite would be in condition to try the +scheme first. Probably you refer to disking, and for that an ordinary +disk is used with the disks set pretty straight to reduce the side +cutting, and this is done at different times of the year by different +growers. By doing it when the ground gets dry in the early spring much +of the foul stuff is cut out before the alfalfa starts strongly. But +disking seems to be good whenever in the year the soil is dry enough to +take it well. + + + +Suburban Alfalfa Patch. + + + +How can we rid the alfalfa of weeds? As we are obliged to hire help, and +do not succeed in getting the hay cared for until we have mostly stalks +without leaves, I have put the cow on it to pasture it off. + +The cow knows how to handle it, but you will not get as much alfalfa as +if you cut and carried it to her. If you cut sooner you will get rid of +many plants which are propagated by the seeds which they produce, and +you will also get better hay, more leaves and fewer stalks. Cut it about +the time it begins to bloom, not waiting for the full bloom to appear. + + + +Alfalfa and Bermuda. + + + +I have land which was seeded to alfalfa some 15 years ago and has been +pastured continuously until it was almost all Bermuda. I had it +thoroughly plowed, disk harrowed and sowed to oats; disk harrowed in, +and drag harrowed. After cutting for hay this year I intend putting it +in Egyptian corn in rows, so it can be cultivated to get rid of Bermuda. +I have also been advised to plow the land immediately after harvesting +corn and let it lie until next January and then plow and sow to barley +and alfalfa as I wish to grow alfalfa. Kindly let me know if method is +right. The land is sandy loam and under irrigation. + +Whether you will fully succeed against Bermuda grass or not is doubtful. +It is probable, however, that you can reduce the Bermuda so that other +cultivated crops can be continuously grown. Common experience is that +Bermuda will hold on unless you have hard freezing of the ground to a +considerable depth, as they have in the northern States. The best use +that you can make of land infested with Bermuda is to get as good a +stand as you can of alfalfa and let the alfalfa fight for itself. The +combination of alfalfa and Bermuda grass makes very good hay or +pasturage. We should, however, sow the alfalfa alone and not handicap it +by sowing with barley. The Bermuda will smile at that advice. Egyptian +corn can be planted in rows, 2 1/2 to 3 feet between the rows to admit +of easy cultivation + + + +Bermuda Grass. + + + +What is the value of Bermuda grass as a forage crop for cattle, more +particularly dairy cows? + +Bermuda grass is generally condemned because of getting in places where +it is not desirable and of being almost impossible of eradication +therefrom. Still, Bermuda grass will make good pasturage on land which +is too alkaline to make other crops, and therefore is highly esteemed by +some owners of waste lands in the San Joaquin valley. It is good +pasturage and is most easily propagated by cutting the roots up into +short pieces by use of the hay-cutter, nearly all the pieces retaining +an eye which will make a new plant. It is easy to get in and hard to get +out. + + + +Salt Grass and Alfalfa. + + + +I have some land in Sutter county and it has some of this salt grass in +spots. I am about to take a twenty-acre piece and put in alfalfa, but +some old-timers tell me that the salt grass on it is bad stuff to +handle. + +Your trouble will probably be not so much the salt grass, but the alkali +in the soil which the salt grass can tolerate and which other plants +cannot stand. You cannot then substitute alfalfa for salt grass without +getting the alkali out of the soil, and you cannot do this without +having sufficient drainage so that the rainfall may wash the alkali out +from the soil and carry it away in the drainage water. You probably +cannot get a satisfactory growth of alfalfa on the spots where the salt +grass has established itself, although the land round about may be very +satisfactory to alfalfa. + + + +Giant Spurry. + + + +I would like information about spurry. How much frost will it stand? +What is time for sowing? Its value as crop to plow under? + +From a California point of view, spurry is a winter-growing weed which +has been approved by orchardists in Sonoma county because it yields a +considerable amount of vegetation for turning under with the spring +plowing of the orchard. For this purpose it should be sown at the +beginning of the rainy season. Its value as a crop to turn under depends +upon the amount of growth you can get. It is not a legume and, +therefore, does not have the value of the nitrogen-gathering plant. +Still, it yields humus and, therefore, is valuable for winter growing as +ordinary weeds, grasses, grains, etc., are. + + + +Light Soil and Scant Moisture. + + + +Advise me as to plowing under a crop of last year's weeds where I intend +to plant beans, corn, etc. The soil is "slickens," on the Yuba river, +and the weeds grew up last year in a crop of volunteer barley, which was +hogged off. I expect to plow five inches deep, and calculate that the +barley straw and weeds will contribute to the supply of humus, which is +always deficient in most of our soils. I expect to try to grow beans +without irrigation, and wonder if the trash would hold the soil too open +so as to dry them out. + +Considering the character of the soil which you describe and the shallow +plowing you intend we should certainly burn off all the trash upon the +land. With deep plowing early in the season this coarse stuff could be +covered in to advantage, but it would be dangerous to do it in the +spring. Clean land and thorough cultivation to save moisture enough for +summer's growth is the only rational spring treatment. + + + +Clovers and Drought. + + + +I have sandy loam with some alkali. In wet years it is regarded as too +damp in some places. Can you give me any information on the following +points? I have practically no water for irrigation and I feel sure that +alfalfa would not grow without it. Do you think that clover would make +one or more cuttings without water? + +Red and white clover are less tolerant of drought than alfalfa, which, +being a deep-rooting plant, is especially commended in dry-farming +undertakings. Red clover will grow better on low wet lands than will +alfalfa, but the land must not dry out or the red clover will die during +the dry season. None of the plants will stand much alkali. + + + +Clover for Wet Lands. + + + +What kind of alfalfa will do best on sub-irrigated land which is very +wet? I have sown it in alfalfa and it grows finely for two or three +years, but then the roots rot and die. + +It is impossible to make any kind of alfalfa grow well on very wet land, +that is, where the water comes too near the surface. Alfalfa has a +deep-running tap root which is very subject to standing water. You can +get very good results from the Eastern red clover on such land, because +the red clover has a fibrous root which is content to live in a shallow +layer of soil above water. But red clover will not stand drought as well +as alfalfa, because it is shallower rooting. It is necessary, therefore, +that water should be permanently near the surface or surface irrigation +be frequently applied, in order to secure satisfactory growth of red +clover in the drier sections of California. It is also necessary that +neither land nor water carry alkali. + + + +Frosted Grain for Hay. + + + +The freeze struck us pretty severely. I had 125 acres of summer-fallowed +wheat which I had estimated to make 20 sacks to the acre of grain. It +was breast high in places already, and was just heading out. The frost +pinched the stalks of this grain in several places and the heads are now +turning white. It is ruined for grain. There is lots of fodder in it, +and it should be made into hay. If so, should it not be cut and cured at +once? What is the relative worth of such hay as compared with more +matured hay? Would the fact that it is frozen make it injurious to feed? + +If the whole plant seems to be getting white, the sooner it is cut the +better. If the head is affected and the leaf growth continued, cutting +might be deferred for the purpose of getting more of it. Hay made from +such material will not be in any way dangerous, although it would be +inferior as containing less nutritive and more non-nutritive matter. +Such hay would seem to be most serviceable as roughage for cows or +steers in connection with alfalfa hay or some other feed which would +supply this deficiency. + + + +Forage Plants in the Foothills. + + + +We have 3,000 acres of foothill land and hope to be able to irrigate +some land this spring and wish to know the best forage crops, for sheep +and hogs, especially. Kafir corn, stock peas, rape, sugar-beets and +artichokes are the varieties about which we desire information. + +Where you have irrigation water available in the foothills you can get a +very satisfactory growth of red clover. We have seen it doing very well +on sloping land in your county where water was allowed to spill over +from a ditch on the ridge to moisten the slope below. Winter rye and +other hardy stock feeds could also be grown in the winter time on the +protected slopes with the rainfall. Some such plants are not good summer +growers, owing to the drought. Rape is a good winter grower by rainfall, +but not so satisfactory as vetches and kale. Sugar beets are not so good +for stock purposes as stock beets, which give you much more growth for +the same labor and are more easily gathered because they grow a good +part out of the ground. They will stand considerable freezing and may be +sown at different times throughout the year, whenever the land is moist, +either by irrigation or rainfall. Artichokes are of doubtful value. We +have never found anyone who continued to grow them long. Of course, on +good, deep land, with irrigation, nothing can be better than alfalfa as +supplementary to hill range during the summer season. + + + +Winter Forage. + + + +At what time of the year should I plant kale, Swiss chard, etc., so as +to have them ready for use during the months from February to June? + +You should plant Swiss chard, kale, etc., as soon as the ground is +sufficiently moist from the rain in the fall. In fact, it would be +desirable for you to plant the seed earlier in boxes and thus secure +plants for planting out when the ground is sufficiently moist. These +plants are quite hardy against frost, and in order to have them +available by February, a start in the autumn is essential. + + + +A Summer Hay Crop. + + + +What can I put on the land after the oat crop is taken off to furnish +hay for horses during the coming winter? I had thought millet would be +good. I have water for irrigation. + +You could get most out of the land you mention during the hot season by +growing Kafir corn or milo, cutting for hay before the plant gets too +far advanced. If your land can be flooded and takes water well, so that +you can wet it deeply before plowing, the sorghum seed can be broadcast +and the crop cut with the mower while the stalks are not more than half +an inch in diameter. This makes a good coarse hay. If you have not water +enough or the land does not lie right for flooding, you can grow the +sorghum in drills and irrigate by the furrow method, being careful, +however, not to let the crop go too far if you desire to feed it as hay. + + + +Teosinte. + + + +What about "Teosinte," its food value, method of culture, and +adaptability to our climate, character of soil required? + +Teosinte is a corn-like plant of much lower growth than Indian corn. It +may be of value as a forage plant on low, moist, interior lands in the +summer season. It is very sensitive to frost and is, therefore, not a +winter grower. It abhors drought and, therefore, is not a plant for +plains or hillsides. It was grown to some extent in California 25 years +ago and abandoned as worthless so far as tried. + + + +Bermuda Objectionable. + + + +Bermuda grass as pasture for summer to supplement burr clover and +alfilaria in winter on the cheap hill pasture lands along the coast or +the foothill ranges of the Sierras. Stock like it and do well on it, and +I have noticed it growing in places where it had no water but the little +rains of winter in southern California. So the question occurred to me, +why should it not be a profitable pasture for the dry summers on the +coast or foothill ranges of the State? + +Bermuda grass will not make summer growth enough on dry pasture land to +make it worth having. It will not make much growth in the rainy season +because of frost, and if it has possession of the ground it will not +allow either burr clover or alfilaria to make such winter growth as they +will on clean land. Besides, this grass is generally counted a nuisance, +because it will get into all the good cultivated land and it is almost +impossible of eradication. Bermuda grass is of some account on alkali +land where it finds moisture enough for free growth. We would not plant +it in any other situation. + + + +Rye Grasses Better than Brome. + + + +I see in an Eastern seed catalogue "Bromus Inermis" very highly spoken +of as pasturage. Do you know anything of it, and do you think it would +be suitable for reclaimed tule land in the bay section? + +Both English and Italian rye grasses have proved better than Bromus +Inermis on such land as you mention. The latter is commonly known as +Hungarian brome grass or awniess brome grass and it was introduced to +this State from Europe about 25 years ago and the seed distributed by +the University Experiment Station. Hungarian brome may be better on +rather dry lands, although it will not live through the summer on very +dry lands in this State, but we would rather trust the rye grasses or +reclaimed lands, providing, of course, that they are sufficiently free +from salt to carry tame grass at all. On the upper coast Hungarian brome +has been favorably reported as an early-winter growing grass with +comparatively low nutritive value, but is especially valuable because it +will grow in poor soil. It is especially suited to sandy pasture and +meadow lands and is quite resistant to drought. It is a perennial grass, +reproducing by a stout rootstock, which makes it somewhat difficult to +eradicate when it is not desired. It is desirable to keep stock off the +fields during the first year to get a good stand. + + + +Black Medic. + + + +Will you kindly name the enclosed; also explain its value as forage! + +The plant is black medic. It has been very widely distributed over the +State during the last few years. It is sometimes called a new burr +clover, which it somewhat resembles. It is not very freely eaten by +stock and is apparently inferior to burr clover for forage purposes. It +is a good plant to plow under for green manure. + + + +Crimson Clover. + + + +About crimson clover in California. Has it proved satisfactory? If so, +can you give me data how to plant, etc.! + +Crimson clover must be sown after frost, for it is tender. It will give +a great show in June and July on low moist land. It is not good against +either frost or drought. It has been amply tried in California and +proved on the whole of little account. + + + +California Winter Pastures. + + + +We have a great deal of pasture land on which the native grasses yield +less feed each year. A great part of this land can be cleared of brush +and stone, ready for the plow, but what can we sow to take the place of +the native pasture? The ground in many places is not level enough for +alfalfa and in some places water is not available. Can we break up the +land and sow pasture grasses as the farmers are exhorted to do at the +East? The annual rainfall is from 12 to 15 inches. + +The perennial grasses which they rely upon for pasturage in the East and +which will maintain themselves from year to year, will not live at all +on the dry lands of California, nor has investigation of the last +twenty-five or thirty years found anything better for these California +uplands than the winter growth of plants which are native to them. Such +lands should be better treated, first by not being overstocked; second, +by taking off cattle at the time the native plant needs to make seed, +because, as they are not perennial, they are dependent upon each year's +seed. After the plants have seeded, the land can be pastured for dry +feed without losing the seed. + +Of course, if one has land capable of irrigation he can grow forage +plants, even the grasses which grow in moist climates, like the rye +grasses, the brome grasses and the oat grasses, etc., which will do well +if given a little moisture, but it will be a loss of money to break up +the dryer lands with the idea of establishing perennial grasses upon +them without irrigation. California pastures are naturally good. In +early days they were wonderful, but they are restricted to growth during +the rainy season, or for a little time after that, and are therefore +suited for winter and spring pasturage, while the summer feeding of +stock, aside from dry feed, should be provided from other lands where +water can be used. The improvement of these wild pastures consists in a +more intelligent policy for their production and preservation rather +than an effort to improve them by the introduction of new plants. +Pastures may, however, be often improved by clearing off the brush and +harrowing in seed of burr clover, alfilaria, etc., at the beginning of +the rainy season. + + + +Alfilaria and Winter Pasturage. + + + +Will alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium) grow well on the hills of Sonoma +county partially covered with shrubs? I want something that will be food +for stock another year. I have heard of alfilaria and that it grows well +without being irrigated. + +Alfilaria is a good winter-growing forage plant in places where it +accepts the situation. It is an annual and therefore does not make +permanent pasturage except where it may re-seed itself. On the coming of +the dry season it will speedily form seed and disappear. It is therefore +of no summer use under the conditions which you describe, nor is it +possible to secure any perennial grass which will be satisfactory on dry +hillsides without irrigation. Improved winter pasturage can be secured +by scattering seed of common rye at the beginning of the rainy season, +or of burr clover, both of which are winter-growing plants. Pasturage is +also capable of improvement by being careful not to overstock the land, +so that the native annuals may be able to produce seed and provide for +their own succession. The secret of successful pasturage on dry uplands +is to improve the winter growth. It is too much to expect much of them +for summer growth without irrigation. + + + +Grasses for Bank-Holding. + + + +We desire a grass to be used on levees, to keep from washing. Bermuda or +Johnson gross are dangerous to farming lands. What we desire is a grass +that will grow in good dirt with no water to support it during most of +the year, except the annual rainfall of Fresno county. Of course, this +grass will also have to endure a great deal of water during the flooded +season of the year. We have heard that the Italian rye grass would be +suitable. + +The rye grasses do not have running roots; therefore are not calculated +to bind soil particles together as Bermuda grass does. If you want a +binding grass, you must take the chances of its spreading to adjacent +lands. Of course, if you could get a sod of rye grass it would prevent +surface washing from overflow, etc., to a certain extent. We are not +sure how far it would prevent bank cutting by the flowing water, for it +makes a bunchy and not a sod-like growth. It would not live through the +summer unless the levee soil keeps somewhat moist. The only way to +determine whether you can get a permanent growth of it, will be by +making a trial. Seed should be sown as soon as the ground becomes +moistened by rain. It is a very safe proposition, because if it is +willing to live through the summer, it is one of the best pasturage +grasses for places in California where it will consent to grow, and it +is not liable to become an annoyance by taking possession of adjacent +land, because it would be readily killed by cultivation. + + + +Alfalfa and Alkali. + + + +I sowed several acres of alfalfa seed with a disc this season and none +of it has come up. I think the reason for it not coming up is that the +disc put it into the ground too deep. We sowed some by hand and it came +up very well. Is there any probability that later in the season this +seed will germinate, or has it rotted in the ground? Water stands within +three feet of the surface and has considerable alkali. What can I plant +on this land and get a crop? It is our intention to sow it to alfalfa +next fall. The land adjoining, although higher, has a good stand of +alfalfa now. + +You are right about covering the alfalfa seed too deeply. It is not +likely to appear. Your chance of getting a durable stand of alfalfa on +such shallow soil over alkali water is not good, but you can hardly +determine that without trying. Sometimes conditions are better than you +think; sometimes worse. The plant itself is the best judge. On your +lower land you could probably get a better stand of rye grass than +anything else - sowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Of course, +however, even that will depend upon how much alkali you have to deal +with. + + + +Alfalfa on Adobe. + + + +Is adobe land good for alfalfa? Is it harder to start than in other +soils or not? How much seed is required to sow an acre? Also state what +time alfalfa should be sowed. + +Alfalfa will thrive on an adobe soil if the moisture is kept right - +especially guarding against too much water at a time. It is necessary to +irrigate more frequently and apply only as much as can be absorbed by +the soil before the hot sun comes on the field, for that scalds the +plant badly. It is harder to get a good stand because of the cracking +and hardening of the surface. Sow about 20 pounds to the acre just as +soon as the soil comes into good condition - that is, moist and warm. +February and March are usually the best months, according to the season +in the interior valleys. + + + +Alfalfa and Soil Depth. + + + +Do you consider soil which is from 4 to 6 feet deep to hardpan of +sufficient depth for alfalfa? Is there hardpan in the region of Lathrop +in San Joaquin county, and can it be dissolved by irrigation, or can any +good be accomplished by blowing holes at different places to allow the +water to pass to lower levels? Are other crops affected by hardpan being +so close to the surface? + +You can grow alfalfa successfully on land which is from four to six feet +deep if you irrigate rather more frequently and use less amounts of +water each time, so that the plant shall be adequately supplied and yet +not forced to carry its roots in standing water. The Eastern alfalfa +grower is fortunate when he gets half the depth you mention, although it +does seem rather shallow in California. Shallow lands are distributed +over the valley quite widely. A deepening of the available soil is +usually accomplished by dynamiting, especially so if the hardpan is +underlaid by permanent strata. Alfalfa will penetrate some kinds and +thicknesses of hardpan when it is kept moist, but not too wet, to +encourage root growth. + +Winter-growing green crops are less affected by shallow soil because +they generally make their growth while the moisture is ample, if the +season is good. + + + +Curing Alfalfa with Artificial Heat. + + + +It is current rumor that "out in California they are hauling alfalfa +green and curing it by artificial heat," thus reducing loss through bad +weather and producing a superior hay for feeding or milling purposes. + +It is true that alfalfa is being cut green and dried by artificial heat, +but this is only being done in preparation for grinding. No one thinks +of doing it for the making of hay for storage or for feeding. This +method is undertaken, not because the alfalfa hay does not dry quickly +enough in the field, but because after drying in the field so many +leaves are lost in hauling to the mill. We have no trouble sun-drying +alfalfa for ordinary hay purposes; in fact, we have to be very careful +that it does not get too dry. + + + +Cheap Preparation of Land for Alfalfa. + + + +I am about to put a piece of land into alfalfa, and want to use the most +economical system of preparing the land for irrigation. My neighbors +tell me that it will be necessary for me to have the land leveled; at a +cost of $6 to $10 per acre. Now I am informed that in Alberta, and some +places in California, they do not go to the expense of leveling land, +but use a system of preparing land for irrigation at a cost of about 60 +cents per acre. + +Nothing except a highly educated gale of wind, with discriminating +cutting and filling ability of a very high order, could do it for that +price. The cheapest way to prepare land for irrigation is the contour +check method, which is largely used, or the flooding in strips between +levees at right angles to the supply ditch; but neither of these could +be put in properly for that money, even if the land was naturally in +such shape that a minimum amount of soil-shifting is necessary. + + + +Where Alfalfa is Grown. + + + +In what counties is alfalfa most successfully grown? By this I mean +where three crops of hay may be had each growing season. Also, will corn +grow good paying crops in same sections? + +Alfalfa is grown all through the valleys and foothills of interior +California; also to a certain extent in coast valleys. On suitable +lands, three crops can sometimes be secured without irrigation, while +twice or three times as many cuttings are secured on irrigated lands +where the frost-free season is particularly long. According to the last +census, we are growing alfalfa on 19,104 farms with a total acreage of +484,098. The total value of the product is over $13,000,000. Corn is +widely grown, but is small as compared with alfalfa. It is grown in +alfalfa districts and in coast valleys where there is not much done with +alfalfa. + + + +Sowing Alfalfa. + + + +What is the proper time to sow alfalfa? Some advocate fall and others +spring sowing. What seasons are given for each sowing? + +We shall undoubtedly soon get to sowing alfalfa all the year round +except in the short season of sharp frosts and cold wet ground in +November, December and January. If you can get a good start in September +and October, all right; if not, wait until February and March, according +to the season. Where it is never very cold or wet, sow whenever moisture +is right. There never can be any rule about it, for localities will +differ. + + + +Foxtail and Alfalfa. + + + +Will foxtail choke out and exterminate alfalfa? Some fields look as +though the foxtail had crowded the alfalfa out, but I hold that the +alfalfa died from some other cause and the foxtail merely took its +place. + +Foxtail will not choke out alfalfa, providing, soil and moisture +conditions are right for the latter, and a good stand of plant has been +secured. If anything is wrong with the alfalfa, the foxtail will be on +the alert to take advantage of it. You will always have foxtail with +you, and considerable quantities of it, perhaps, in the first cutting, +because foxtail will grow at a lower temperature than alfalfa, and, +therefore, will keep very busy during the rainy season, while the +alfalfa is more or less dormant, but as the heat increases, if the soil +is good and moisture ample, the alfalfa will put the foxtail out of +sight until the following winter invites it to make another aggressive +growth. Therefore, we answer that alfalfa does not die from foxtail, but +from some condition unfavorable to the alfalfa, which must be sought in +the soil, or in the moisture supply, or traced back to bad seed, and a +poor stand at the beginning. + + + +Which Alfalfa is Best? + + + +I have in Stanislaus county ten acres of Arabian alfalfa, which was sown +the first week in April this year. It was clipped in July and irrigated. +It is now about 14 inches high, but looks sickly, turns white at the +tips, and some dies down. There are several places here with the Arabian +alfalfa on them and with the same trouble, while the ordinary variety is +looking fine by the side of it. + +Arabian alfalfa usually makes a good show at first and begins to run out +afterward. It does not seem to be so long-lived and satisfactory as the +common variety. With this prospect ahead of you, according to present +experience, it would seem to be desirable to plow the crop in and seed +again with the common variety, or with the Turkestan, which is proving +the most satisfactory of the recently introduced varieties. + + + +Fall Sowing of Alfalfa. + + + +We have summer-fallowed land which we know will grow good alfalfa, and +as we have just had four inches of rainfall upon it, we were wondering +if we could not plow the twenty acres and get a stand upon it in time to +stand the cold weather this winter. Do you think this is practicable? + +If four inches of rain on summer fallow connects well with the lower +moisture which a good summer fallow ought to conserve in the soil, such +sowing is rational; but if the summer fallowing was not done well, that +is, if it was rough plowing without enough harrowing, as is too often +the case, the four inches of rain might not be safe because of the dry +ground beneath waiting to seize the moisture and so dry the surface that +sprouting alfalfa plants would perish between dry soil below and dry +wind above. Fall sowing will give enough growth to resist frost killing +in many places in the valley if the moisture in the soil is enough to +carry the plant as well as start it, or if showers come frequently - +otherwise it is dangerous, not from frost but from drouth. + + + +Alfalfa Hay and Soil Fertility. + + + +We are feeding all our hay to dairy cows, returning the manure to the +soil. At present prices of hay, my neighbors who sell theirs, seem to be +as well off, with considerable less work; but how about the future? Can +this soil be cropped indefinitely and the crops sold, without returning +anything to the land? + +It is a mistake to think that you can sell alfalfa hay indefinitely +without reducing the soil. It may gain in nitrogen by the wastes of the +plant, but it will lose in other constituents unless reinforced by +fertilization. No single act can make for the maintenance of the soil as +the growing and feeding of crops and return of manure does. + + + +Dry-Land Alfalfa. + + + +I am in a country of strictly dry farming. I have a wash or gulch on my +place and would like to know if I could, with success, plant it to +alfalfa without irrigation; soil is sandy loam, no evidences of springy +moisture at all. What kind should I try? + +Alfalfa will endure much drouth. What it will do in a particular place +can only be told by trying. Sow Turkestan alfalfa. If the rains come +early so as to wet the land down in September and October, sow the seed +then. The endurance of the plant will depend much upon its having a +chance to root deeply before the drouth comes on. + + + +Inoculating Alfalfa. + + + +Is it profitable to inoculate alfalfa seed before planting to increase +its yield? Can it be done by leaching soil from old alfalfa ground, +providing it has been plowed up and allowed to stand for a year? Are +commercial inoculants a safe thing to inoculate with? + +Apparently alfalfa does not need inoculation in this State. Probably not +one acre in ten thousand now profitably growing alfalfa has ever had +artificial introduction of germs. You can make germ-tea, if you wish, of +the soil you describe; one year's exposure would not destroy the germs. +It is safe enough to use commercial cultures. You will have to decide +for yourself whether it is worth while. + + + +Irrigating Alfalfa. + + + +I am making parallel ridges for alfalfa, sending a full head of water +down to the end of the field between each ridge. Should I calculate the +lands to be mowed one at a time in even swaths? The mower being 5-foot +cut, would you count on cutting a 4 1/2 or 5-foot swath? This soil is +sandy, water percolating rapidly. The fall is 8 feet to the mile. How +wide, then, would you advise making the ridges to suit the mower, and to +flood economically, using from 2 to 4 cubic feet per second? The length +of the lands is across 40 acres. + +Growing alfalfa in long parallel checks, to be flooded between the +levees, is the way in which much alfalfa is being put in at the present +time where the land has such a slope as you indicate. It is calculated, +however, to seed the levees as well as the check bottoms, and to run the +mowers across the levees, thus leaving no waste land and mowing across +the whole field and not between the levees as you propose. For that +purpose these levees are made low, not over a foot in height, +calculating that they will settle to about six or eight inches, which is +sufficient to hold the water and direct its flow gently down the slope. +There is, however, a limit to the distance over which water can be +evenly distributed in this way, the difference being dependent upon the +character of the soil, slope, etc. A length of nine hundred feet is +sometimes found too great for an even distribution, and, for this +reason, supply ditches at shorter intervals are introduced. + + + +Unirrigated Alfalfa. + + + +In what part of the State does alfalfa grow best without irrigation? + +Obviously the parts which have the greatest rainfall in connection with +retentive soil and plenty of summer heat. Alfalfa grows best without +irrigation on "sub-irrigated" land where the ground water is +sufficiently deep to allow a deep rooting of the plant in free soil and +yet not too far down to be readily reached by the deep-running roots. +Good results can be obtained with anywhere from four to ten or twelve +feet of soil above water. On shallower soils the plant is apt to be +short-lived through root troubles. Unirrigated alfalfa is also reduced +by the incursions of gophers which flooding at least once a year will +destroy. + + + +Alfalfa and Overflow. + + + +How long can alfalfa stand water without being drowned out? I have a +piece of alfalfa on which the water will stand for considerable time in +the winter time. + +Alfalfa while dormant will endure submergence for several weeks. We do +not know exactly how long, but evidently for a considerable period, +providing temperatures are too low to invite growth. On the other hand, +growing alfalfa is quickly and seriously injured by overflow. + + + +No Nurse-Crop for Alfalfa. + + + +Is it advisable to use oats with alfalfa seeds in seeding for alfalfa? +Some growers of alfalfa here advise it strongly, others advise against +it. + +The general experience in California is decidedly against using oats, +barley, or any other nursecrop with alfalfa. Get the land in the best +possible condition and let the alfalfa have the full benefit of it. The +ripening of the grain crop will do the young alfalfa plants more harm by +robbing them of moisture than any protection which the taller plant can +afford. + + + +Reseeding Alfalfa. + + + +This spring I planted alfalfa and only got about half a stand on some of +the land. I want to reseed this fall and I thought of putting more seed +on the ground and then disc it in. Or would you advise replanting the +land? What do you think of putting manure on young alfalfa? Do you think +there is any danger of burning it out? + +Stir it up with a spring tooth harrow or disc it lightly to make a nice +seed bed and then sow your seed as if you were planting alfalfa for the +first time. This will give you a good seed bed and will not hurt the +alfalfa already growing. Prepare the surface first and then sow, rather +than disking in the seed. The manure in moderate application would not +burn out the young alfalfa if properly applied after the rains begin. + + + +Taking the Bloat Out of Alfalfa. + + + +Will Italian rye grass and red top clover be a success under irrigation +as cow pasture in this county, either separately or mixed with alfalfa? +To sow in bare spots in the alfalfa, would the rye grass prevent bloat? + +Italian rye grass and red clover will make good pasturage under +irrigation and will make a fight with the alfalfa to the best of their +ability. The admixture of rye grass will reduce the danger from +bloating. Red clover will not have that effect, because red clover is a +pretty good bloater on its own account. This seems to be the function of +all the clovers according to the rankness of their growth at the time +that they are grazed. + + + +The Time to Cut Alfalfa. + + + +What is the best period to cut alfalfa hay for cow feed and the best +method for curing? + +The best time to cut alfalfa is just when new shoots are starting out at +the crown. This will give the greatest yield of hay during a season, and +the hay will be much more palatable than if the alfalfa is permitted to +get well into the blossoming period. The leaves, which are the best part +of the hay, also remain on better than if the stems are older. If a +person does not care to take the trouble to find out whether the new +shoots are coming out or not, he can approximate the time to cut fairly +well by waiting until a blossom here and there appears, cutting +immediately. It would be difficult to tell on paper exactly when alfalfa +was properly cured, as that is a matter of individual judgment. It is +usual to cut in the morning and rake into windrows in the afternoon. +With the usual weather in interior California that stage of the curing +is completed by that time. The next day it can be gathered into cocks +and gotten ready to move. That is about all the curing that is done. The +size of the windrows depends upon the amount of hay, as thick hay should +be put up in small windrows to give plenty of circulation of air. It is +considered better also to build the cocks on raked land, otherwise the +hay lying flat at the bottom will not cure properly and cannot be +gathered up clean. + + + +Which Crop of Alfalfa for Seed? + + + +Which cutting of alfalfa should be left for seed bearing? + +Which cutting is best for seed depends, of course, on the way the plant +grows in your locality. Where it starts early and gives many cuttings in +a season with irrigation a later growth should be chosen for seed than +with a short season where fewer cuttings can be had. The second cutting +is best in many places, but O. E. Lambert of Modesto after threshing +about 30 lots in one year tells us that some growers had left second, +some third and some fourth cuttings for seed. He found the second +cutting very poor both in yield and grade, much of it not being well +filled and the seed blighted, as the growth of hay was too heavy. The +seed on third cutting was good both in grade and yield. Much of the seed +on fourth cutting was not matured. For good results the stand should be +thin. Our drier, heavier lands give the best results, sub-irrigated +lands not seeding. All irrigation should stop with the previous cutting +for hay. + + + +Siloing First Crop Alfalfa. + + + +How about putting first cutting of alfalfa and foxtail into the silo? Do +you think there is any danger of fire in a wooden silo, and do you add +salt and water when filling, and how long after it is cut would you +advise putting it into the silo? + +Put it through the silo cutter as soon as you can get it from the field. +Do not let it cure at all, and be sure to cut and pack well. If at all +dry, use water at the time of filling, and some salt then also, if you +desire. There is no danger of firing if you put it in with good +moisture, and by short cutting and hard packing you exclude the air. If +you do not do this you will get a silo full of manure, and possibly have +a fire while it is rotting. + + + +Soil for Alfalfa. + + + +What kind of soil is best for alfalfa on a dairy ranch? + +An ideal soil for alfalfa is a deep well drained soil into which the +roots can run deeply without danger of encountering standing water or +alkali. Still we are finding that alfalfa is very successful on soils +which are not strictly ideal, providing the moisture is supplied in such +a way that the soil shall not be waterlogged nor the water be allowed to +remain upon the surface during the hot weather, because this kills the +plant. + + + +Handling Young Alfalfa. + + + +I have alfalfa that is doing very well for the first year. My soil is +sandy loam with light traces of white alkali, although it does not seem +to be detrimental to the growth thus far. I am in the dairy business and +will have by winter enough manure to top-dress the field. Would it be +good policy to use the manure, or would it be more satisfactory to +top-dress with gypsum? Would it injure alfalfa to pasture lightly after +the last cutting? + +Presumably your soil contains enough lime, and therefore the application +of gypsum at this time of the year would not be necessary. It may be +desirable to top-dress with gypsum near the end of the rainy season to +stimulate the growth of the plant. Gypsum, however, has no effect upon +white alkali. So far as alkali goes, gypsum merely changes black alkali +into white, thus making it less corrosive. + +There would be no objection to pasturing lightly this fall. Be careful, +however, to keep off the stock while the land is wet and not to +overstock so as to injure root crowns by tramping. The manure can be +used as a top dressing during the rainy season, unless you think it +better to save it for the growth of other crops. Alfalfa is so deep +rooting where conditions are favorable that it does not require +fertilization usually on land which has been used for a long time for +grain or other shallow-rooting plants. + + + +Alfalfa Sowing with Gypsum. + + + +I intend sowing alfalfa this fall on land that has some very compact +hard spots. I aim to doctor these spots with gypsum at the rate of about +1000 pounds per acre and cultivate the gypsum in thoroughly two or three +weeks before sowing the alfalfa seed. Would this be all right? Is there +danger of injury to seed by coming in contact with gypsum? + +Gypsum will not hurt the alfalfa seed. It is not corrosive like an +alkali. Whether it will have time enough to ameliorate the soil in the +spots in the period you mention depends upon there being moisture enough +present at the time. + + + +Red Clover for Shallow Land. + + + +What can you say of red clover on shallow soils in the Sacramento valley +under irrigation? How many crops, etc.? + +Red clover is fine under the conditions you describe. We could never +understand why people do not grow more of it on shallow land over +hardpan which is free from alkali and not irrigated too much at a time. +It is good on shallow land over water, where alfalfa roots decay, etc. +Though we have no exact figures, we should expect to get about +two-thirds as much weight from it as from an equally good stand of +alfalfa. + + + +Clovers for High Ground-Water. + + + +Where, in California, is alfalfa being raised successfully above a +water-table of, say, 4 feet or less, and are any unusual means used to +accomplish this? + +Over a high water-table, the alfalfa plant will be shorter lived +according to the shallowness of soil above water. One could get very +good results at from 4 to 6 feet, whereas at 2 or 3 feet the stand of +alfalfa would soon become scant through decay of its fleshy root. Where +the water comes very near the surface, a more shallow and fibrous +rooting plant, like the Eastern red clover, should be substituted for +alfalfa in California. It is a very vigorous grower and will yield a +number of crops in succession although the water might be very near the +surface, as in the case of the reclaimed islands in the Stockton and +Sacramento regions and in shallow irrigated soils over bedrock in the +foothills or over hardpan on the valley plains. In this statement, +freedom from alkali is presumed. + + + +Vetches in San joaquin. + + + +In Michigan I was familiar with the use of the sand vetch as a forage +plant, for hay, for green manure, and as a nitrogen producer. In western +Michigan, on the loose sandy soil, I sowed in September or October 20 +pounds per acre for a seed crop and 40 pounds per acre for pasture, hay, +or green manure. Can I expect good results in Fresno and Tulare counties +without irrigation? Will fall seeding the same as wheat produce a seed +crop? Will sand vetch grow on soil having one-half of one per cent +alkali? + +Most of the vetches grow well in the California valleys during the rainy +season; the common vetch, Vicia sativa, and the hairy vetch, Vicia +hirsuta, are giving best results. The proper time to plant is at the +beginning of the rainy season. They will stand some alkali, especially +during the rainy season, when it is likely to be distributed by the +downward movement of water, but it is very easy to find land which has +too much alkali for them. These plants seed well in some parts of the +valley, but a local trial must be made to give you definite information. + + + +Growing Vetch for Hay. + + + +How many pounds of vetch seed should be sown to the acre? How many tons +per acre in the crop? As I desire to change my crop, having to some +extent exhausted the soil with oats, how advisable will it be to sow +wheat with the vetch to give it something to climb on? If so, and wheat +is not desirable under the circumstances, what? In using vetch for horse +fodder, how much barley should be fed with it per day for a driving +horse? For a draught horse? Is vetch sown and harvested at about the +same time as other crops? + +Except in very frosty places, vetch can be sown after the rain begins at +about 40 to 60 pounds of seed to the acre. The yield will depend upon +the land and on the moisture supply, and cannot be prophesied. One +grower reports three tons of hay per acre near Napa. If the land usually +yields a good hay crop, it should yield a greater weight of vetch. In +mowing for hay purposes it is desirable to raise the vetch off the +ground to facilitate the action of the mower. Oats would be better than +wheat, because rather quicker in winter growth. If the vetch is to be +fed green, rye is a good grain, but not good for hay purposes because of +the hardness of the stem. There is no particular difference in the +plant-food requirements of the different grains, so that there is +nothing gained in that way in the choice of wheat. In feeding a combined +vetch and barley hay, the ration is balanced; the feeding of grain would +not be necessary, except in case of hard work under the same conditions +grain is usually fed to horses and in about the same amounts. Vetch +requires a longer season than ordinary oat or barley hay crop to make a +larger growth, consequently an early sowing is desirable. + + + +Cover Crop in Hop Yard. + + + +Will you please give information concerning cow peas or the most +suitable crop to sow in a hop field for winter growth, to be plowed +under as a fertilizer in the spring? Also, would it injure the vines to +be cut down before they die, so as to sow the mulch crop soon as +possible after the hops are gathered? + +Cow peas would not do for the use which you propose, because they would +be speedily killed by frost on low lands, usually chosen for hops, and +would give you no growth during the frosty season. Probably there is +nothing better than burr clover for such a winter growth. Hop vines +should be allowed to grow as long as they maintain the thrifty green +color, because the growth of the leaves strengthens the root. But when +they begin to become weakened and yellow they can be removed without +injury. It is not necessary to wait for them to become fully dead. + + + +Growing Cowpeas. + + + +What is the best variety of cow peas for a forage crap? I want a variety +which with irrigation will come up after it has been cut, so as to keep +growing and not be like some which I tried last year. They grew up like +ordinary garden peas and were just a waste of ground. + +Possibly you did not get cowpeas; they do not look like garden peas at +all: they look more like running beans, which they are. The crop is not +counted satisfactory except on low, moist land, for on uplands, even +with irrigation, it does not seem to behave right. We do not know that a +second growth can be expected, for in the Southern States it is grown as +a single crop, and resowing is done if a succession is desired, the +point being made at the South that the plant is adapted to this method +of culture because it grows so rapidly that it can be twice sown and +harvested during the frost-free period. + + + +Cowpeas in the San Joaquin. + + + +How late in the season will it be profitable to plant cowpeas? What is +the best manner of planting? Are there several varieties? If so, which +one is best adapted to plant after oats? The land can be irrigated until +about August 10. Will it be advisable to plow up a poor stand of alfalfa +about July 1 and plant to cow peas? + +You can plant cowpeas all summer on land which is moist enough by +natural moisture or irrigation to promote growth. What you will get by +late planting depends upon moisture and absence of an early fall frost. +If your alfalfa stand is bad enough to need re-sowing anyway, you may +get a good catch crop of cowpeas by doing as you propose. If, however, +you plow under much coarse stuff in putting in the peas the growth may +be irregular. It can, of course, be improved by free irrigation. On +clear land moderately retentive much more is being done in summer growth +of cowpeas without irrigation than expected. There are several good +varieties. One of these is the Whippoorwill. Cowpeas can be sown in +furrows three feet apart and cultivated, using about 40 pounds of seed +to the acre, or they may be broadcasted, which takes about twice as much +seed. + + + +Cowpeas and Canadian Peas. + + + +Would Canadian field peas and cow peas be valuable as a forage crop for +cows and hogs; also as fertilizer? Please tell us also when to plant, +how to plant, etc. + +These plants are of high forage value as cow feed; also as a soil +restorative when the whole crop is plowed under green or when the roots +and manure from feeding add to the soil. But for either purpose the +result depends upon how much growth you can get, and that should be told +by local trial before any great outlay is undertaken. Canadian peas are +hardy against frost and can be broadcasted and covered with shallow +plowing as soon as the land is moist enough from fall rains - except in +very frosty parts of the State. They can also be sown in drills to +advantage. Cow peas are beans, and cannot be planted until frost danger +is over in the spring. They are only available for summer feeding, and +whether they will be worth while or not depends upon how much moisture +can be held in the soil for summer growth. They should be sown in drills +and cultivation continued for moisture conservation until the plants +cover the ground too much to get the cultivator through. + + + +Canadian or Niles Peas. + + + +I send a sample of peas which I bought for Canada field peas, and they +were so labeled. I would like to know what they are. + +The peas are, apparently, one kind of Canada peas. There is some +variation in Canada peas, but these are peas of that class. Some of the +Canada pea are hardly distinguishable from the so-called Niles pea of +California growth, and it does not matter much, anyway, for one is about +as good as the other. + + + +Sunflowers and Soy Beans. + + + +I would like information concerning cultivation, method of feeding and +food value of soy beans. Also sunflowers. + +Soy beans are grown like other beans, in rows which, for convenience in +field culture, should be about 2 1/2 feet apart and cultivated up to +blooming time at least. They should be sown after frost danger is over +and the weather is settled warm, for they enjoy heat. For feeding they +can be made into hay before maturity, or the beans can be matured and +prepared for feeding by grinding. As with other beans, small amounts +should be used in connection with other feeds. They are a rich food and +somewhat heavy on the digestion. The same is true of sunflowers, except +that the seed is richer in oil than in protein, as beans are. Sunflowers +in field culture are planted and cultivated like beans. The seed is +flailed out of the heads after they lie for a time to dry. + + + +Jersey Kale. + + + +Please inform me how to plant Jersey or cow kale. + +Jersey kale can be planted by thin scattering of seeds in rows 2 1/2 +feet apart so as to admit of cultivation, or the plants can be grown +just as cabbage plants are and set out 2 1/2 or 3 feet apart, the +squares to admit of cultivation both ways. The plant needs a good deal +more space than an ordinary cabbage, for it makes a tall free growth, +and space must be had for the growth of the plant and for going into the +patch for stripping off leaves and cultivation. The plant can be started +in the rainy season whenever the land comes into good condition. It is a +winter grower in California valleys. + + + +Rape and Milo. + + + +Would rape be a good pasture crop sown broadcast? If so, at what time +should it be planted? Will Milo maize grow profitable in Sonoma county? + +Rape can be sown as soon as the land gets moist enough from early rains +to start the seed and hold the growth. It is a wintergrowing plant in +this State. We believe, however, you will get better results with common +vetch, which is also a winter grower and more nutritious. If you desire +one of the cabbage family, kale will probably serve you better than +rape. Milo is one of the sorghums and will only grow during the +frostless period, like Kafir, Egyptian corn and other sorghums. It will +do well with you, but probably make less growth than in the interior +valleys. + + + +Sweet Clover Not an Alfalfa. + + + +I send you a sample of alfalfa which grows very vigorous here on my +place spontaneously and would like you to give me all the information +about it you will, as a feed for cows and hogs. The stock seem to eat it +well. + +The plant is not alfalfa at all. It is white sweet clover (melilotus +alba), and it is usually considered a great pest in alfalfa fields, +because although it grows vigorously as you describe, it is not +generally accepted by stock, unless once in awhile some one considers it +a good thing, perhaps because he keeps stock hungry enough to enjoy it +in spite of its rank taste and smell, but, usually when they can get +alfalfa they will not pay much attention to this plant. It is good for +bee pasturage, however, and is grown to some extent for that purpose. +You probably had the seed of it in your alfalfa seed. It is a biennial +and not a perennial like alfalfa. It will disappear if you can keep it +from going to seed. + + + +Sweet Clover as a Cover Crop. + + + +How about melilotus as a cover crop? Last year in certain sections it +proved very successful, while in others it did not give satisfaction. + +Melilotus, by virtue of its hardiness in growing at low temperatures, +its depth of root penetration, the availability of the seed, the +smallness of the seed so that the weight required for the acre is not +large, is to be favored for a cover crop. The objections are two: The +fact that it does not seem to grow well under some conditions; second, +that when a growth is made it is coarse and rangey, and the amount of +green stuff to the acre is much less than its appearance would indicate. +We know of cases where what seemed to be a good stand of melilotus +yielded only about ten tons of green stuff to the acre, and what +appeared to be a less growth of vetches or peas yielded from fifteen to +twenty tons to the acre. And yet we believe that in some places it will +be found extremely desirable for a cover crop in harmony with what was +reported some time ago as the result of experiments by the Arizona +Experiment Station. + + + +Spineless Cactus. + + + +There seems to be two distinct kinds of cactus: One for forage, the +other for fruit. It is claimed by some people that the spineless cactus +is more valuable as a forage plant than alfalfa. What is your opinion? + +There are many varieties of smooth cacti. Some of them bear higher +quality fruit than others, and some are freer growers and bear a greater +amount of leaf substance for forage purposes; therefore, varieties are +being developed which are superior for fruit or for forage, as the case +may be. Spineless cactus is in no way comparable with alfalfa, either in +nutritive content or in value of crop, providing you have land and water +which will produce a good product of alfalfa. Cactus is for lands which +are in an entirely different class and which are not capable of alfalfa +production. + + + +Probably Not Broom-Corn. + + + +I have a side-hill ranch on which I would very much like to raise broom +corn. The soil produces good grapes, fruit, corn, oats, peas, etc., and +I wish to know if there are possibilities of broom-straw. + +All the broom-corn which has been successfully produced in California +has been produced on moist, riverside land. The plant is a sorghum - +consequently subject to frost injury, and can only be grown during the +frostless season as Indian corn is. This makes it impossible to get the +advantage of rainfall on winter upland and necessitates the use of +lowlands, which carry moisture enough to secure a free growth of the +brush, for poor broom-corn is worthless practically, being too low +priced to be profitable for brooms and too fibrous to be of value for +feeding purposes. Even in a place where the plant grows well its product +is worthless unless properly treated, and that requires full knowledge +and a good deal of work. + + + +The Outlook for Broom Corn. + + + +Broom corn is way up in price, but that is an indication that everyone +who has ever grown broom corn is likely to plant it this year. What is +the outlook in California? + +Nothing but a local experiment will determine whether you can get a +satisfactory brush under the conditions prevailing in your vicinity. +Undoubtedly, the high price of broom corn will stimulate production, but +under quite sharp limitations in California, because a good, +satisfactory brush cannot be grown on dry plains, although a good +product is made in the river bottoms not far away. But there are so few +people in California who understand how to handle broom corn to produce +a good commercial article, and there are such rigid requirements in the +size, quality, etc., that those who break into the business without +proper knowledge cannot command even profitable prices. Therefore, if +your enterprise is conducted with a full knowledge and with proper local +conditions it would not encounter such a local disadvantage in the great +increase of the product as one might think at first. + + + +Smutty Sorghum. + + + +The various plantings of Egyptian corn on the ranch have turned smutty, +very much after the manner of wheat and barley. Is there any unusual +reason for this, or could irrigation have caused it, and what is the +best method of preventing it? + +Sorghum is affected by a smut similar to that of other grains. It is due +to the introduction of the germ of the disease which comes with the use +of smutty seed. Possibly the growth of the smut may have been promoted +by moisture arising from soil rendered very wet by irrigation, and for +this plant free irrigation should not be used, because it will do more +with less water than any other plant we are growing, and is likely to be +more thrifty in a drier atmosphere. Get seed for next year from an +absolutely clean field; get as much growth as you can without +irrigation, and then use water in moderate quantities as may be +necessary, followed by a cultivation for the drying of the surface. + + + +Late-sown Sorghum. + + + +How late can Egyptian corn be planted on good sediment soil capable of +growing 40 to 50 socks of barley per acre in good years with ordinary +rain? The field was cut this year for hay on account of rank growth of +wild oats, after irrigating; land is still moist. Can I put in Egyptian +corn with on assurance of crop, or is it too late? How much seed should +be planted to the acre, also should seed be drilled in or broad-casted? + +There is no difficulty in getting a start of Egyptian corn during the +dry season providing the soil contains moisture enough to germinate the +seed. Afterward the growth will be more or less according to the +moisture present and will be available for forage purposes. Whether a +seed crop can be had by late sowing depends upon the frost occurrence in +the particular locality, for it only takes a light frost to destroy the +plant. To get the best results, particularly with late sowing, the seeds +should be drilled in rows far enough apart for horse cultivation; about +forty pounds of seed to the acre. What you get in this way will depend +upon the amount of moisture in the soil and the duration of the +frost-freedom. + + + +Kaffir and Egyptian Corn. + + + +Does Kaffir corn yield as well here as Egyptian corn? The fodder is good +feed and the heads stand erect and at a more even height from the +ground, which makes three advantages over Egyptian. Irrigation in either +case is the some. + +The reasons you mention have no doubt had much to do with the present +popularity of an upright plant like Kafir over a gooseneck like the old +dhoura or Egyptian, which was the type first introduced in California. +For years there has been more gooseneck sorghum in the Sacramento valley +than in any other part of the State. It may have superior local +adaptions or the people may be more conservative. The way to determine +which is better is to try it out, and, unless the Egyptian does better +in grain and forage than the upright growers, take to the grain which +holds its head up. + + + +Sorghums for Seed. + + + +Which sorghum is the most profitable to plant for the seed only White +Egyptian, Brawn Egyptian or Yellow Mila? + +Which sorghum is best is apparently a local question and governed by +local conditions to a certain extent. Egyptian corn (with the goose-neck +stem) has held more popularity in your part of the Sacramento than +elsewhere, while Kaffir corn (holding its head upright, as do many other +sorghums) has been for years very popular in the San Joaquin. In the +Imperial valley Dwarf Milo is chiefly grown for a seed crop shattering +and bird invasion are very important. G. W. Dairs of the San Joaquin +valley, says there is a very great difference in the different varieties +regarding waste from the blackbird. The ordinary white Egyptian corn is +very easily shelled, and the birds waste many times more of the grain +than they eat, after it has become thoroughly ripe. The Milo maize, or +red Egyptian corn, does not shell nearly so easily as the white corn, +and the grain is considerably harder and less attractive to the +blackbirds. In fact, blackbirds will not work in a field of this variety +of corn if there is any white corn in the vicinity to be had. The dwarf +Milo maize yields much more crop than the white Egyptian corn, or any +other variety. Blackbirds do not damage the white Kaffir corn to the +extent they do the ordinary white Egyptian corn. + + + +Sorghum Planting. + + + +What is the best time to sow Egyptian corn; also how much per acre to +sow? + +All the sorghums, of which Egyptian corn is one, must be sown after +frost danger is over - the time widely known as suitable for Indian +corn, squashes and other tender plants. Sow thinly in shallow furrows or +"marks," 3 1/2 or 4 feet apart and cultivate as long as you can easily +get through the rows with a horse. About 8 pounds of seed is used per +acre. If grown for green fodder, sow more thickly and make the rows +closer, say 2 1/2 feet apart. + + + +Buckwheat Growing. + + + +Two or three farmers in this locality desire to plant buckwheat. Not +having done so heretofore they are in doubt as to the soil and other +conditions that go to make a successful crop. + +The growing of buckwheat in California is an exceedingly small affair. +The local market is very limited, as most California hot cakes are made +of wheat flour. There is no chance for outward shipment, and the crop +itself, being capable of growing only during the frostless season, has +to be planted on moist lands where there is not only abundant summer +moisture but an air somewhat humid. Irrigated uplands, even in the +frostless season, are hardly suitable for the common buckwheat, although +they may give the growth of Japanese buckwheat for beekeepers who use +dark honey for bee feeding. The Japanese buckwheat is well suited for +this because it keeps blooming and produces a scattered crop of seed, +but this characteristic makes it less suitable for a grain crop, and it +has therefore never become very popular in this State. We consider +buckwheat as not worthy of much consideration by California farmers. + + + +Variation in Russian Sunflowers. + + + +In an acre of mammoth Russian sunflowers there seems to be three +varieties, some of the plants bear but one large flower; others bear a +flower at the top with many other smaller ones circling it, while others +have long stalks just above the leaf stems from the ground level all the +way up to the largest flower, which appears at the very top. Are all +these varieties true mammoth Russian sunflowers? What explanation is +there for these variations? Will the seed from the variety carrying but +one natural head produce seed that will reproduce true to the parent? + +Your sunflowers are probably only playing the pranks their grandfathers +enjoyed. If seed is gathered indiscriminately from all the heads which +appear in the crop, succeeding generations will keep reverting until +they return to the wild type, or something near it. If there is a clear +idea of what is the best type (one great head or several heads, placed +in a certain way) and seed is continually taken from such plants only +for planting, more and more plants will be of this kind until the type +becomes fixed and reversions will only rarely appear. No seed should be +kept for planting without selecting it from what you consider the best +type of plant; no field should be grown for commercial seed without +rogue-ing out the plants which show reversions or bad variations. If you +find sunflowers profitable as a crop in your locality, rigid selection +of seed should be practiced by all growers, after careful comparison of +views and a decision as to the best characters to select for. + + + +Sacaline. + + + +My attention has been brought to a plant called Sacaline by an Eastern +plant dealer. He states that this plant will grow in any kind of soil +and needs practically no water. + +The plant Sacaline (Polygonum saghalience) was introduced to California +as a dry-land forage plant about 1893, and has never demonstrated any +particular forage value. It is a browsing shrub, making woody stem, and +cattle will eat it readily when not provided with better food. It has +possible value on waste land, but probably is in no sense superior to +the native shrubs of California which serve that purpose. It is a +handsome ornamental plant for gardens or parks. + + + +Mossy Lawns. + + + +What will destroy patches of moss which are spreading over our lawns and +apparently destroying the grass? + +More sunlight would have a tendency to discourage the growth of moss on +a lawn. If this is not feasible, irrigation less frequently but a more +thorough soaking each time will give the surface a better chance to dry +off, and moss will not grow on a dry surface. The frequent spraying of a +lawn with just enough water to keep the surface moist and not enough +water to penetrate deeply will tend to the growing of moss and to less +vigor in the growth of the grass, A good soaking of the soil once a week +is better than daily sprinkling, but, of course, very much more water +must be used when you only sprinkle at long intervals. The drying of the +surface may be assisted by sprinkling with air-slaked lime and this will +discourage the growth of moss, but of course lime must not be used in +excess or it will also injure the grass. + + + +Scattering Grass Seeds. + + + +We live on the west side of Sonoma valley, and want to seed some of our +fields with a good wild grass. We want to carry bags of it in our +pockets to scatter when we ride. Timothy we should like, but this is not +its habitat, is it? Can you suggest a grass or grasses that would do +well here? + +There are really wild grasses worthy of multiplication, but no one makes +a business of collecting the seed for sale, so that such seeds are not +available for such purpose as you describe. Of the introduced grasses, +those which are most likely to catch from early scattered seed are +Australian and Italian rye grasses, orchard grass, wild oat grass and +red top. You can get seed of all these from dealers in any quantity +which you desire at from 15 to 30 cents a pound, according to the +variety, and make a mixture of equal parts of each grass, which you can +carry and scatter as you propose. Some of them will catch somewhere, +particularly in spots where the shade modifies the summer heat and where +seepage moisture reduces soil drought. You are right about timothy; it +is good farther up the coast and in the mountain valleys, but not in +your district. + + + +Poultry Forage. + + + +I have light sandy loam on which I desire to grow forage for chickens. +It lies too high for irrigation. + +You could probably grow alfalfa to advantage if the soil still deep and +loose, getting less, of course, than by irrigation, but still an amount +that would be very helpful in your chicken business. Otherwise, as the +land lies higher and perhaps out of sharp frosts, you could grow winter +crops of vetches and peas and thus improve the land while furnishing you +additional poultry pasture. The latter purpose could also be served by +growing beets, cabbage or other hardy vegetables during the rainy +season. This is prescribed because of the apprehension that the soil may +not contain moisture enough for summer cropping without irrigation. + + + +No Grain Elevators in California. + + + +Is California wheat shipped in bulk or in bags at the present time? + +There are no elevators in this State, owing to the fact that hitherto +grain cargoes have been acceptable to ship only as sacked grain, because +of claimed danger of shifting cargo and disaster during the long voyage +around the Horn. A novel by Frank Norris, entitled the "Octopus," +describes a man being killed by smothering in a grain elevator at Port +Costa, but there never was an elevator at that point, and consequently +there never was a man killed by getting under the spout thereof. +Answering specifically your question, California grain is shipped in +bags and not in bulk. It is handled in sacks from the separator to +roadside or riverside storage, to the loading point into the ships and +out of the ships on the other side - still in bags. + + + +New Zealand Flax. + + + +Give information about Phormiun tenax (New Zealand flax), which I see is +imported to San Francisco in large quantities yearly for making cordage +and binder twine, and is said also to be the best of bee pasture. Can I +get the plants on the coast, and is California soil and climate adapted +to the culture? + +New Zealand flax grows admirably in the coast region of California. You +will find it in nearly all the public parks and in private gardens, for +it is a very ornamental perennial. Plants can be had in any quantity +from the California nurserymen and florists. It produces plenty of +leaves, but we should doubt whether it is floriferous enough for bee +pasturage except where it occurs wild over a large acreage. You could +get vastly more honey from other plants grown for that purpose. + + + +No Home-made Beet Sugar. + + + +Is there any simple process of making sugar from beets so that I could +make my own sugar at home from my own beets while sugar is so very +expensive to buy? + +There is no simple way of making beet sugar. It can only be economically +done in factories costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. + + + +Don't Get Crazy About Special Crops. + + + +I want information about flax as a crop. I have been having some land +graded for alfalfa and I have had to wait so long I am now doubting the +advisability of seeding it all under these conditions until fall, as hot +weather will soon come. I want some good crop to plant in the checks and +give two good irrigations. What would you think about rye for straw for +horse collars? I do not wish to consider corn, as the stalks would be +troublesome. Potatoes would necessitate disarranging the land too much +and would require more attention than I am in shape to give just flow. +Everybody grows wheat, barley and oats. I want something that I can get +a special market for. + +To succeed with flax, the seed ought to be sown in the fall, or early +winter, in California, and the plant will make satisfactory growth under +about the same conditions that suit barley or wheat. Spring sowing would +not give you anything worth while except on moist bottom land. Rye is +also a winter-growing grain. To grow rye straw for horse collars would +be unprofitable unless you could find some local saddler who could use a +little, and it is probable you could not get a summer growth of rye +which would give good straw, even if you had a market for it. You could +get a growth of stock beets, field squashes, or pumpkins for stock +feeding. In fact, the latter would give you most satisfaction if you +have stock to which they can be fed to advantage. Sorghum is our chief +dry-season crop, but that makes stalks like corn and would, therefore, +be open to the same objections. Has it never occurred to you that people +grow the common crops, not because they are stupid, but because those +are the things for which there is a constant demand and the best chance +for profitable sale? Efforts to supply special markets are worth +thinking of, but seldom worth making unless you know just who is going +to buy the product and at what price. + + + +California Insect Powder. + + + +What part of the plant is used in making insect powder and how is it +prepared? Is the plant a perennial? What soil suits it best? + +The plant is Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium and has a white blossom +resembling the common marguerite. The powder is made of the petals and +the seed capsules or heads are thoroughly dried in the sun and ground +with a run of stone such as was formerly used for making flour. The +powder must be finely ground, and only good powder can be made in a mill +suitably equipped for that purpose. The plant is a perennial, beginning +to bloom the second year from seed. It will grow in any good soil with +ordinary cultivation. Twenty-five years ago it was thought that a great +California industry might be established on that basis, but there is at +the present time but one establishment, which grows about all the +material it can use on its own ranch in Merced county, on a fine, deep +loam which the plant seems to enjoy. + + + +Rotations for California. + + + +I wish to work out a practical system of crop rotation suitable to the +climate and conditions obtaining in southern California. Would you +recommend different systems for grain lands and irrigated lands? + +General schemes of rotation are hard to work out in California. They +must be locally revised according to the local temperature conditions +and the local market also. We should endeavor to find out what has been +successfully grown on similar lands to those which you have in mind and +arrange the rotation on that basis, from what we knew of the relation of +the different plants to soil fertility, etc. You cannot make out a +satisfactory local scheme for the seven counties in southern California, +because of the widely different behavior of the separate plants in the +different parts of the district. You can hardly work on the basis of +soil character: moisture supply and temperatures are more determinative. +Surely you should make a scheme for irrigated land different from that +for dry land, and it could not only be a longer rotation, but many more +plants would be available for its service. + + + +Berseem? + + + +Berseem has been introduced into this country from Egypt, and would like +to know if it has been used in California, and if it has came up to +expectations. + +Berseem is an annual clover supposed to grow only during the summer +time. It has been tried widely in California, but practically abandoned +because it will not grow during the rainy season. It is in no way +comparable to alfalfa, which is a deep rooted perennial plant, nor would +it be comparable with burr clover as a winter grower on lands which have +a moderate amount of water. + + + +Heating and Fermentation. + + + +Please explain why dampness will cause anything like hay, Egyptian corn +or other like products to heat. + +Heating is due to fermentation, which means the action upon the +vegetable substance of germs which begin to grow and multiply after +their kind whenever conditions favor them. The earlier stages of this +action is called "sweating," and it is beneficial as in the case of hay, +tobacco, dried fruits, etc., as is commonly recognized - resulting in +what is known as curing - and it is the art of the handler of such +products not to allow the action to go beyond what may be called the +normal "sweating." If not checked by proper handling, which involves +drying, cooling, etc., fermentation will continue, and other germs will +find conditions suitable for them to take up their work of destruction, +and this new action produces higher temperature still, and if not +checked by cooling or drying or otherwise making the substance +inhospitable to them, "heating" will result, and thence onward rapidly +to decay, if they have everything their own way. + + + +Moonshine Farming. + + + +What influence, if any, has the moon on plant growth? Are there any +reliable data of experiments available? + +Very prolonged investigation by the Weather Bureau determined that no +difference was found in planting in different phases of the moon. If we +paid any attention to it, we should plant in the dark of the moon, so as +to get the plants up so that they could use the little more light which +the moon gives. It is, however, more important to have the soil right +than the moon. + + + +Part IV. Soils, Fertilizers and Irrigation + + + +What is Intensive Cultivation? + + + +From whom can I receive instruction or information regarding intensive +cultivation? + +Intensive cultivation has, so far as we know, not been made the subject +of any treatise or publication. Intensive cultivation means the use of a +maximum amount of labor, fertilizers and water for products of high +market value. There is no better example of intensive cultivation in the +world than is afforded by the practice of the best market gardeners and +producers of small fruit. Next to them, on larger areas, would be the +policies and methods of the fruit growers of California. Intensive +culture, then, is not a particular method or system, but consists in +doing the best thing for maximum production of any product which is +valuable enough to spend the large outlay which is required. Just how +this cultivation should be done depends upon the nature of the product +and the conditions of soil and climate in whatever locality intensive +cultivation may be undertaken. + + + +Can a Man Farm? + + + +Is it possible for a man with a few acres well cared for and carefully +tilled to make a living and pay out on a purchase of land at $123 per +acre? Could a good carpenter make wages and take care of a small tract +for a year or so until well under way? + +We consider $125 per acre for good land with a good water right a fair +price. Financing a farming operation depends more upon the man than upon +the good land. There are men who would, by intensive cultivation of +salable stuff and right use of water, pay off the full value of the land +from its produce in a couple of years. Others will never pay off. Of +course, the nearer you can come to paying for the land at the beginning, +and the more money you have for improvements, the more satisfactory your +situation should be in every respect. There is a good chance for +carpenter work in colony development, and considerable self-help could +be secured in that way. You do not say whether you know anything about +farming. Farming is a very complicated business and a basic knowledge +derived from experience is a proper foundation to build upon in the +light of the fuller application of scientific principles. + + + +Soil Depth for Citrus Trees. + + + +I have a top soil of rich loam containing small rocks and pebbles. +Underneath it is washed gravel, rocks, boulders, yellow sand, etc. What +is the limit as to thinness before trees will not grow, or thrive? + +Orange trees are growing quite successfully on shallow soil overlying +clay where the use of water and fertilizers was carefully adjusted so as +to keep the trees supplied with just the right amount. Under such +conditions a good growth may be expected so long as this treatment is +maintained. There should be, however, not less than three feet of good +soil to make the large expenditure necessary to establish an orange +orchard permanently productive, and all the depth you can get beyond +three feet is desirable. We question the desirability of planting orange +trees even on a good soil overlying gravel, rocks or sand. Roots will +penetrate such material only a short distance usually. It is almost +impossible with such a leachy foundation to keep the surface soil +properly moistened and enriched; You are apt to lose both water and +fertilizer into the too rapid drainage. + + + +Soils and Oranges. + + + +I find this entire district underlaid with hardpan at various depths, +from 1 to 6 feet down, and of various thicknesses. This hardpan is more +or less porous and seeps up water to some extent, but is too hard for +roots to penetrate. It is represented to me that if this hard pan is +down from 4 to 5 feet it does not interfere with the growth of the +orange tree or its producing. Is 4 or 5 feet of the loam enough? + +Four or five feet of good soil over a hardpan, which was somewhat +porous, is likely to be satisfactory for orange planting. There has been +trouble from hardpan too near the surface and from the occurrence of a +hardpan too rich in lime, which has resulted in yellow leaf and other +manifestations of unthrift in the tree. Discussion of this subject is +given on page 434 of the fifth edition of our book on "California +Fruits," where we especially commend a good depth of "strong, free +loam." This does not mean necessarily deep. The orange likes rather a +heavier soil, while a deep sandy loam is preferred by some other fruits. +If you keep the moisture supply regular and right and feed the plant +with fertilizers, as may be required, the soil you mention is of +sufficient depth - if it is otherwise satisfactory. + + + +Oranges Over High Ground Water. + + + +Does California experience show that citrus trees can be grown upon land +successfully where the water-level is 6 feet from the surface; that is, +where water is found at that level at all seasons and does not appear to +rise higher during the rainy season? + +We do not know of citrus trees in California with ground-water +permanently at six feet below the surface. If the soil should be a free +loam and the capillarity therefore somewhat reduced, orange trees would +probably be permanently productive. If the soil were very heavy, +capillary rise might be too energetic and saturate the soil for some +distance above the water-level. In a free soil without this danger the +roots could approach the water as they find it desirable and be +permanently supplied. Orange trees are largely dependent upon a shallow +root system, the chief roots generally occupying the first four feet +below the surface. From this fact we conclude that deep rooting is not +necessary to the orange, although unquestionably deep rooting and deep +penetration for water are desirable as allowing the tree to draw upon a +much greater soil mass and therefore be less dependent upon frequent +irrigations and fertilizations. + + + +Depth of Ground-Water. + + + +Is there probable harm from water standing 12 feet from the surface in +an orchard? Also probable age of trees before any effect of said water +would be felt by them? The soil is almost entirely chocolate dry bog. - +W. E. Wahtoke. + +Water at twelve feet from the surface is desirable, and water at that +point will be indefinitely desirable for the growing of fruit trees. Of +course, conditions would change rapidly as standing water might approach +more nearly to the surface, a condition which has to be carefully +guarded against in irrigation. But it can come nearer than twelve feet +without danger. + + + +Summer Fallow and Summer Cropping. + + + +I own some hill land which has been run down by continuous hay cropping. +I am told that a portion must be summer-fallowed each year, but I wish +to grow some summer crop on this fallow ground that will both enrich the +soil and at the same time furnish good milk-producing feed for cows - +thoroughly cultivating it between the rows. What crop would be best? I +am told the common Kaffir or Egyptian corn are both soil enriching and +milk producing. + +If you grow a summer crop on the summer-fallowed upland, you lose the +chief advantage of summer fallowing, which is the storing of moisture +for the following year's crop. A cultivated crop would waste less +moisture than a broadcast crop, surely, but on uplands without +irrigation it would take out all the moisture available and not act in +the line of a summer fallow. + +Kaffir corn is not soil enriching. It has no such character. It probably +depletes the soil just as much as an ordinary corn or hay crop. It is a +good food to continue a milking period into the dry season, but you must +be careful not to allow your cattle to get too much green sorghum, for +it sometimes produces fatal results. We do not know anything which you +can grow during the summer without irrigation which would contribute to +the fertility of your land. If you had water and could grow clover or +some legume during the summer season, the desired effect on the soil +would be secured. + + + +Soils and Crop Changes. + + + +Peas and sweet peas do not grow well continuously in the same ground. I +know this practically in my experience, but in no book have I ever found +why they do not grow. + +There are two very good reasons why some classes of plants cannot be +well grown continuously in the same piece of ground. One is the +depletion of available plant food, the other the formation of injurious +compounds by the plants, or the gradual increase of fungoid, bacterial +or animate pests in the soil, which finally become abundant enough to +seriously hinder growth. Different plants take the plant foods, as +nitrogen, lime, potash, phosphates, etc., in different proportion. More +important, perhaps, is the fact that the root acids that extract these +foods are of different types and strength. Thus before many seasons it +may happen that most of the plant food of one or more kinds may be +nearly exhausted as far as that kind of plant is concerned that has +grown there continually, while there would be plenty of easily available +food for plants with a different kind of root system and different root +acids, etc. This is one reason why rotation of crops is so good; it +gives a combination of root acids and root systems to the soil during a +term of years, and it also frees the soil from one certain kind of +organism because it cannot survive the absence of the particular plants +on which it thrives. + + + +Summer-Fallow Before Fruit Planting. + + + +I recently bought a ranch at Sheridan, Placer county, and was intending +to put 10 acres to peaches and 50 acres to wheat or barley, but the +residents tell me that the land must be summer-fallowed before I can do +anything. The soil is a red loam and has not been plowed for six years. + +Your local advisers are probably right as to the necessity for +summer-fallowing in order to conserve moisture from a previous year's +rainfall and to get the land otherwise into good condition. There might +be such a generous rainfall that an excellent crop might come without +summer-fallowing, and the results will depend upon the rainfall. If it +should be small in amount, you might not recover your seed. By the same +sign you might not get much growth on your fruit trees, but you could +help them by constant cultivation and by using the water-wagon if the +season should be very dry. Therefore, you are likely to do better with +trees than with grain without summer-fallowing, although even for trees +it is a decided advantage to have more moisture stored in the subsoil +and the surface soil pulverized by more tillage. + + + +Defects in Soil Moisture. + + + +I have apricot trees that appear to be almost dead; all but a very few +small green leaves are gone, and they look bad, still I think they might +be saved if I only knew what to do. + +Presumably your apricot tree is suffering from too much standing water +during the dormant season, or from a lack of water during the dry +season. The remedy would be to correct moisture conditions, either by +underdrainage for winter excess or by irrigation for summer deficiency. +When a tree gets into a position such as you describe, it should be cut +back freely and irrigation supplied, if the soil is dry, in the house +that the roots may be able to restore themselves and promote a new +growth in the top. + + + +Dry Plowing for Soil and Weed Growth. + + + +Is there any scientific reason to support the belief that it is +injurious to the soil to dry-plow it for seeding to grain this fall and +winter? Will dry-plowing now cause a worse growth of filth after the +rains than the customary fallowing in the spring? Should the stubble be +burned, or plowed under! + +The points against dry-plowing to which you allude may arise from two +claims or beliefs: first, that turning up land to the sun has a tendency +to "burn out the humus"; second, that dry-plowing may leave the land so +rough and cloddy that a small rainfall is currently lost by evaporation +and leaves less moisture available for a crop than if it is plowed in +the usual way after the rains. The first claim is probably largely +fanciful, so far as an upturning in the reduced sunshine of the autumn +goes. Whatever there may be in it would occur in vastly increased degree +in a properly worked summer-fallow, and even that is negligible, because +of the greater advantage which the summer-fallow yields. There may be +cases in which one will get less growth on dry-plowing than on winter +plowing, if the land is rough and the rain scant, and yet dry-plowing +before the rains is a foundation for moisture reception and retention - +if the land is not only plowed, but is also harrowed or otherwise worked +down out of its large cloddy condition. When that is done, dry-plowing +may be a great help toward early sowing and large growth afterward. As +for weeds, dry-plowing may help their starting, but that is an advantage +and not otherwise, because they can be destroyed by cultivation before +sowing. If the land is full of weed seed, the best thing to do is to +start it and kill it. The trouble with dry-plowing probably arises, not +from the plowing, but from lack of work enough between the plowing and +the sowing. Stubble should often be burned: it depends upon the soil and +the rainfall. On a heavy soil with a good rainfall, plowing-in stubble +is an addition to the humus of the soil, because conditions favor its +reduction to that form, and there is moisture enough to accomplish that +and promote also a satisfactory growth of the new crop. + + + +Treatment of Dry-Plowed Land. + + + +We are plowing a piece of light sandy mesa land, dry, which has +considerable tarweed and other weeds growing before plowing. Which would +be best, to leave the land as it is until the rains come and then +harrow, or harrow now? Would the land left without harrowing gather any +elements from the air before rain comes! The above land is for oat hay +and beans next season. + +Roll down the 'tar-weed, if it is tall and likely to be troublesome, and +plow in at once so that decay may begin as soon as the land gets +moisture from the rain. It would be well to allow the land to lie in +that shape, and disc in the seed without disturbing the weeds which have +been plowed under. If all this is done early, with plenty of rain coming +there is likely to be water enough to settle the soil, decay the weeds, +and grow the hay crop. Of course, such practice could not be commenced +much later in the season. The land gains practically nothing from the +atmosphere by lying in its present condition. If there is any +appreciable gain, it would be larger after breaking up as proposed. In +dry farming, harrowing or disking should be done immediately after +plowing, not to produce a fine surface as for a seed bed, but to settle +the soil enough to prevent too free movement of dry air. If your +rainfall is ample, the land may be left looser for water-settling. + + + +For a Refractory Soil. + + + +What can I do to soil that dries out and crusts over so hard that it +won't permit vegetable growth? A liberal amount of stable manure has +been applied, and the land deeply plowed, harrowed and cultivated, but +as soon as water gets on it, it forms a deep crust on evaporation. Will +guano help, or is sodium nitrate or potash the thing? + +None of the things you mention are of any particular use for the +specific purpose you describe. Keep on working in stable manure or +rotten straw, or any other coarse vegetable matter, when the soil is +moist enough for its decay. Plow under all the weeds you can grow, or +green barley or rye, and later grow a crop of peas or vetches to plow in +green. Keep at this till the pesky stuff gets mellow. If you think the +soil is alkaline, use gypsum freely; if not, dose it with lime to the +limit of your purse and patience, and put in all the tillage you can +whenever the soil breaks well. + + + +More Manure, Water and Cultivation Required. + + + +I have a small place on a hillside, with brown soil about one to two +feet deep to hardpan and I am getting rather discouraged, as so many +things fail to come up and others grow so very slowly after they are up. +A neighbor planted some dahlia roots the same time I did. Only one of +mine came up and it is not in bloom yet, while several of his have been +blooming for some weeks and are ten times as large in mass of foliage as +mine with its lone stalk and one little bud on the top. Peas came up and +kept dying at the bottom with blossoms at the top tilt they were four or +five feet high, but I never could get enough peas for a mess. Can you +help me get this thing right? + +Use of stable manure and water freely. Your trouble probably lies either +in the lack of plant food or of moisture in the soil. This, of course, +is supposing that you cultivate well so that the moisture you use shall +not be evaporated and the ground hardened by the process. During the +summer a good surface application of stable manure to which water can be +applied would be better than to work manure into the soil, which should +be done at the beginning of the rainy season. As your soil is so shallow +it will be well for you to stand along the side of the plant much of the +time with a bucket of water in one hand and a shovel of manure in the +other. + + + +Planting Trees in Alkali Soil. + + + +My land contains a considerable quantity of both the black and white +alkalies, the upper two feet being a rather heavy, sticky clay, the next +three feet below being fine sand, containing more or less alkali, while +immediately underneath this sand is a dense black muck in which, summer +and winter, is found the ground-water. Do you think the following method +of setting trees would be advantageous. Excavate for each tree a hole +three feet in diameter and three feet deep. Fill in a layer of three or +four inches of coarse hay, forming a lining for the excavation. Then +fill the hole with sandy loam in which the tree is to be set. The sandy +loam would give the young tree a good start, while the lining of hay +would break up the capillary attraction between the filled-in sand and +the ground-water in the surrounding alkali-charged soil. + +The fresh soil which you put in would before long be impregnated through +the surface evaporation of the rising moisture, which your straw lining +would not long exclude. The trees would not be permanently satisfactory +under such conditions as you describe, though they might grow well at +first. It would be interesting, of course, to make a small-scale +experiment to demonstrate what would actually occur and it would, +perhaps, give you a chance to sell out to a tenderfoot. + + + +Planting in Mud. + + + +Why does ground lose its vitality or its growing qualities when it is +plowed or stirred when wet, and does this act in all kinds of soil in +the same way? We are planting a fig and olive orchard at the present +time, but some were planted when the ground was extremely wet. The holes +were dug before the rain and after a heavy rain they started to plant. +After placing the trees in the holes they filled them half full with wet +dirt, in fact so wet that it was actually slush. What would you advise +under the circumstances and what can be done to counteract this? We have +not finished filling in the holes since the planting was done, which was +about a week ago. + +The soil loses its vitality after working when too wet, because it is +thrown into bad mechanical (or physical) condition and therefore becomes +difficult of root extension and of movement of moisture and air. How +easily soil may be thrown into bad mechanical condition depends upon its +character. A light sandy loam could be plowed and trees planted as you +describe without serious injury perhaps, while such a treatment of a +clay would bring a plant into the midst of a soil brick which would +cause it to spindle and perhaps to fail outright. The best treatment +would consist in keeping the soil around the roots continually moist, +yet not too wet. The upper part of the holes should be filled loosely +and the ground kept from surface compacting. The maintenance of such a +condition during the coming summer will probably allow the trees to +overcome the mistake made at their planting, unless the soil should be a +tough adobe or other soil which has a disposition to act like cement. + + + +Electro-Agriculture. + + + +Kindly tell me of any one who is working upon the application of +electricity to stimulating agricultural growth-especially here on the +Coast. A friend who has done some work in this line seeks to interest +me. I have seen notices of this work, and have read of Professor +Arrhenius stimulating the mental activity of children, etc., but I +desire more definite information, if possible. Does the idea seem to you +to be feasible? + +So far as we know, there has been no local trial of the effect of +electric light in stimulating plant growth. Much has been done with it +in Europe and in this country. There is much about it in European +scientific literature. It is perfectly rational that increased growth +should be attained by continuous light in the same way, though in less +degree than occurs in the extreme north during the period of the +midnight sun. It is known that moonlight, to the extent of its +illumination, increases plant growth, and it has been amply demonstrated +that light is light, just as heat is heat, irrespective of the source +thereof. Of course, the commercial advantage must be sought in the +relative amount of increased growth and the selling value of whatever is +gained in point of time. + + + +High Hardpan and Low Water. + + + +What detriment is hardpan if 14 inches below the surface and in some +places 12 inches? I have been plowing so I could set peach trees, but I +have been told that they will not grow. I would like your opinion about +it. I intended to blast holes for the trees, and the water is 30 feet +from surface. The top soil is red sandy and clay mixed, but it works +very easily. + +You cannot expect much from trees on such a shallow soil +over hardpan without breaking it up, because the soil mass available to +the trees is small; also because the shallow surface layer over hardpan +will soon dry out in spite of the best cultivation, because there is no +moisture supply from below. If such a soil should be selected for fruit +trees at all, the breaking through the hardpan by dynamite or otherwise +is desirable, and irrigation will be, probably, indispensable. + + + +Depth of Cultivation. + + + +I would be glad to know whether in cultivating an orchard a light-draft +harrow could profitably be used, which cultivates three and a half +inches deep? I have used another cultivator, and try to have it go at +least seven inches. + +A depth of 3 1-2 inches is not satisfactory in orchard cultivation, +although there may be some condition under which greater depth would be +difficult to obtain because of root injury to trees, which have been +encouraged to root near the surface. Both experience and actual +determinations of moisture in this State show that cultivation to a +depth of 5 inches conserves twice as much moisture in the lower soil as +can be saved by a 3-inch depth of cultivation under similar soil +conditions and water supply. It is all the better to go 7 inches if +young trees have been treated that way from the beginning. + + + +Alfalfa Over Hardpan. + + + +I have land graded for alfalfa and some of the checks are low and water +will stand on the low checks in the winter. There is on an average from +two to three feet of soil on top of hardpan and hardpan is about two +feet thick. Will water drain off the low checks if the hardpan is +dynamited, and will this land grow alfalfa with profit? + +Yes; much of the hardpan in your district is thin enough and underlaid +by permeable strata so that drainage is readily secured by breaking up +the hardpan. Standing water on dormant alfalfa is not injurious. + + + +Trees Over High-Water. + + + +Which are the best fruit trees to plant on black adobe soil with water +table between 3 and 4 feet from surface? The soil is very rich and +productive. The land is leveled for alfalfa also; will the alfalfa +disturb the growth of trees? + +We would not plant such land to fruit at all, except a family orchard. +The fruits most likely to succeed are pears and pecans. On such land +alfalfa should not hurt trees unless it is allowed to actually strangle +them. The alfalfa may help the trees by pumping out some of the surplus +water. + + + +Soil Suitable for Fruits. + + + +I am sending samples of soil in which there are apricots and prunes +growing, and ask you to examine it with reference to its suitability for +other fruits. Will lemons thrive in this soil? + +It is not necessary to have analysis of the soil. If you find by +experience that apricot and prune trees are doing well, it is a +demonstration of its suitability for the orange, so far as soil is +concerned. The same would also be a demonstration for soil suitability +for the lemon because the lemon is always grown on orange root. The +thing to be determined is whether the temperature conditions suit the +lemon and whether you have an irrigation supply available, because +citrus fruits, being evergreen, require about fifty per cent more +moisture than deciduous fruits, and they are not grown successfully +anywhere in this State without irrigation, except, possibly, on land +with underflow. The matter to determine then is the surety of suitable +temperatures and water supply. + + + +For Blowing Soils. + + + +I am going to dry-sow rye late this fall. I want some leguminous plant +to seed with the rye for a wind-break crop, not to plow under. The land +varies from heavy loam to blow-sand. I have under consideration sweet +clover, burr clover, vetches. I see occasional stray plants of sweet +clover (the white-blossomed) growing in the alfalfa on both hard and +sandy soil. I read in an Eastern bee journal that sweet clover can be +sowed on hard uncultivated land with success. Could I grow it on the +hard vacant spots that occur in the alfalfa fields? + +You can sow these leguminous plants all along during the earlier part of +the rainy season (September to December) except that they will not make +a good start in cold ground which does not seem to bother rye much. But +on sand you are not likely to get cold, waterlogged soil, so you can put +in there whenever you like - the earlier the better, however, if you +have moisture enough in the soil to sustain the growth as well as start +it. We should sow rye and common vetch. Sweet clover will grow anywhere, +from a river sandbar to an uncovered upland hardpan, but it will not do +much if your vacant spots are caused by alkali. + + + +More Than Dynamite Needed. + + + +I have some peculiar land. People here call it cement. It does not take +irrigation water readily, and water will pass over it for a long time +and not wet down more than an inch or so. When really wet it can be +dipped up with a spoon. Hardpan is down about 24 to 36 inches. I have +tried blowing up between the vines with dynamite, and see little +difference. Can you suggest anything to loosen up the soil? + +You could not reasonably expect dynamite to transform the character of +the surface soil except as its rebelliousness might in some cases be +wholly due to lack of drainage - in that case blasting the hardpan might +work wonders. But you have another problem, viz: to change the physical +condition of the surface soil to prevent the particles from running +together and cementing. This is to be accomplished by the introduction +of coarse particles, preferably of a fibrous character. To do this the +free use of rotten straw or stable manure, deeply worked into the soil, +and the growth of green crops for plowing under, is a practical +suggestion. Such treatment would render your soil mellow, and, in +connection with blasting of the hardpan to prevent accumulation of +surplus water over it, would accomplish the transformation which you +desire. The cost and profit of such a course you can figure out for +yourself. + + + +Is Dynamite Needed? + + + +I have an old prune orchard on river bottom lands; soil about 15 or 16 +feet deep. Quite a number of trees have died, I presume from old age. I +desire to remove them and to replace them with prune trees. I have been +advised to use dynamite in preparing the soil for the planting of the +new trees. + +Whether you need dynamite or not depends upon the condition of the +sub-soil. If you are on river flats with an alluvial soil, rather loose +to a considerable depth, dynamiting is not necessary. If, by digging, +you encounter hardpan, or clay, dynamiting may be very profitable. This +matter must be looked into, because the failure of trees on river lands +is more often due to their planting over gravel streaks, which too +rapidly draw off water and cause the tree to fail for lack of moisture. +In such cases dynamite would only aggravate the trouble. Dynamiting +should be done in the fall and not in the spring. The land should have a +chance to settle and readjust itself by the action of the winter rains; +otherwise, your trees may dry out too much next summer. + + + +Improving Heavy Soils. + + + +What is adobe? What kind of plants will grow best in adobe? In this +Redwood City I find clay-like soil which looks very dark and heavy. What +kind of plants will grow best in this soil? + +The term adobe does not mean any particular kind of soil. It is applied +locally to clay and clay-loam soils indiscriminately. It generally +signifies the heaviest, stickiest, crackingest soil in the vicinity. +Most plants will grow well on heavy soils if they are kept from getting +too dry and too full of water. This is done by using plenty of stable +manure and other coarse stuff to make the soil more friable, which +favors aeration, drainage, root extension and plant thrift. Friability +is also promoted by the use of lime and by good tillage. The particular +soil to which you refer is a black clay loam which can be improved in +all the ways stated. It is a good soil for most flowers and vegetables +if handled as suggested. You can get hints of what does best by studying +your neighbors' earlier plantings. + + + +For a Reclaimed Swamp. + + + +I have land, formerly a pond which dried up in the summer months. It has +been thoroughly drained now for several years. The land surrounding it +is good fertile soil and produces good crops. On this piece, however, +crops come up and look fairly well until about two inches high when they +turn yellow and die. Mesquite grass and strawberries seem to be the only +crops that will live, and they do not do at all well. Sorrel grows +abundantly in the natural state. + +Apparently the reclaimed land which you speak of needs liming to +overcome the acidity in the soil. Common builders' lime applied at the +rate of 1000 pounds to the acre at the beginning of the rainy season +ought to make the land much more productive and the soil, at the same +time, more friable. Deep plowing with aeration will also help the land, +and this treatment can begin at once if the soil is workable. Other +additions of lime can be made later as they may be required to make the +improvement permanent. + + + +Improving Uncovered Subsoil. + + + +What is the best treatment for spots that have been scraped in leveling +for irrigation? + +The land can be improved by plowing deeply and turning in stable manure +or green alfalfa or any other vegetable matter which may decay, +rendering the soil rich in humus and more friable. Of course, it will +take some time to accomplish this improvement, and it is necessary that +there be moisture enough present to cause the material to decay in order +that the improvement may be secured. + + + +Sand for Clay Soils. + + + +Will beach sand do adobe or clay soil any good? It gets hard at times +and I thought that if I was to put beach sand in the ground the salt in +the sand would do the ground harm. + +It is certainly desirable to mix sand with heavy soil for the purpose of +making it lighter - that is, better drained and more friable and +therefore improving it for the growth of plants. Sometimes beach sand +contains a good deal of salt, which, however, is readily removed by +fresh water, and sand hauled and exposed to the rains rapidly loses any +excess of salt it may contain. Probably with such an amount of sand as +you are likely to use to mix with your adobe, there is no danger at all +from salt. Even if such sand should contain considerable salt, if +applied at the beginning of the rainy season it would be so quickly +distributed as to not constitute a menace to the growth of plants. The +worst adobe can be transformed into a most beautiful garden soil by the +application of sand and stable manure. + + + +Plowing from or Towards. + + + +Which is the proper way to plow an orchard? First to plow to the trees +and then to plow from them, or to plow from the trees and then to them, +and your reasons? I have had many arguments with my neighbor farmers. + +There is difference of opinion everywhere as to whether the first +plowing should be toward or away from the trees. In places where the +soil is pretty heavy and the rainfall is apt to be quite large, plowing +toward the trees and opening a dead furrow near the center seems to +promote rapid distribution of surplus water. If the rainfall is less and +arrangements for deep penetration are more necessary, the plowing can +well be away from the trees, so as to direct the water toward the row. +It is, of course, exceedingly important in this case, that the land +should be worked back before it has a chance to dry out by exposure and +this is one of the chief objections to the practice, because one is apt +to let the land lie away from the trees, hoping for a late rain which +may not come. Whatever theoretical advantages there may be in either of +these methods, they can only be secured by the greatest care to avoid +the dangers which attend them. This uncertainty is the reason why people +so generally disagree as to which is the best practice, and they are +right in disagreeing. + + + +Dry Plowing and Sowing. + + + +I dry-plowed my grain field to a depth averaging seven inches; it turned +up very rough. I then disked and harrowed it, but it is still very +rough. I intended to drill the seed, wait for sufficient rain, and +harrow to a satisfactory condition, but have been advised to put no +implement on after the drill, as a harrow would spoil the work done by +the drill, and a slab or roller would cause the ground to bake. If I +wait for rain to work the soil before drilling, it will bring the +seeding too late. + +You have probably done a pretty good job of dry work. If the land is +still too rough for the drill, we should broadcast and harrow again. It +is not desirable to harrow after the drill, and to roll or rub is likely +to smooth too much, because the land would bake or crust after the heavy +rains. This would cause loss of moisture and it is therefore better to +leave the surface a little rough. You can roll lightly after the grain +is up, if the surface seems to need closing a little. + + + +Artesian Water. + + + +I have a large tract of adobe soil, a black clay top soil. For about +five months in the year there is not sufficient water on the place. I +have sunk wells in different parts, but with very poor results, the +further we went down the drier and harder the soil got. What little +water we did obtain was unfit for domestic use. Can you give me an idea +as to what might be the result of an artesian well in such soil? + +Artesian water has nothing to do with the soils. It is a deeper +proposition than that. Artesian water comes from gravel strata overlaid +with impervious layers of rock or clay in such a way that water in the +gravel is under pressure because the gravel leads up and away to some +point where water is poured into it by rain falling or snow melting on +mountain or high plateau. As the water cannot get out of this gravel +until you punch a hole in its lid, its effort will be to shoot up to +something less than the elevation at which it gained entrance to this +gravel - as soon as your puncture gives it a chance. Geologists who know +the locality may be able to tell you that you have little or no chance, +but no one can tell you whether you have a good chance or not until he +has tested the matter by boring. The quality of the artesian water is +determined by its distant source and the bad water you have found is +therefore no indication of the quality of what may be below it. No one +should enter an artesian undertaking, except to tap a stratum of known +depth, without a long purse. Probably one in a thousand of the bores +made into the crust of the earth yields as many gallons of artesian +water as gallons of various liquids used in boring it - and yet some of +them are good wells to pump from because they pierce other strata +carrying water, but not under pressure causing it to rise. + + + +Treatment of Alkali. + + + +I am advised that in some cases alkali may be drained and that in others +it is treated with gypsum. + +Gypsum is not a cure for alkali, but simply a means of transforming +black alkali into white, which is less corrosive and therefore less +destructive to plants, but there may be easily too much white alkali +present - so much that the land would be made sterile by it. You cannot +remove alkali by flooding unless two conditions can be assured: first, +that the water itself is free from alkali before application to the +land; second, that you underdrain the land at a depth of from three to +four feet with tile, so that the fresh water on the surface can flow +through the soil into the drains, carrying away from the land the +alkali, which it dissolves in its course. To flood land even with fresh +water without making arrangements for carrying off the alkali water +below, is to increase the alkali on the surface as the water evaporates, +and such treatment does land injury rather than benefit. We cannot give +you any estimate as to the cost of washing out. It depends altogether +upon local conditions: whether you use hand work or machinery for the +ditching, and what your water will cost. + + + +Alkali, Gypsum and Shade Trees. + + + +Kindly advise how to apply gypsum, and how much, to heavy, sticky soil, +the worst sort of adobe and heavily saturated with alkali. We want to +plant shade trees. Eucalyptus and peppers succeed fairly well after once +started. Gypsum seems to help, but I don't know how much to use. + +The amount of gypsum required to neutralize black alkali depends upon +how much black alkali there is to be neutralized, and no definite +amount, therefore, can be prescribed beforehand as sufficient without a +determination of the amount of alkali. In some experiments gypsum to the +amount of thirty tons to the acre or more has been used just for the +purpose of seeing how much the land would take, and a fine growth of +grain has been secured after using that much gypsum, but that, of +course, would be out of the question because the outlay would be more +than the land or the crop would be worth. + +In the planting of trees at some distance apart, the tree can be +protected from destruction and enabled to make a stand in the soil by +using gypsum on the spot rather than the treatment of the whole surface. +In this way five or ten pounds of gypsum could be used by mixing with +the soil to fill a good-sized hole. + + + +Distribution of Alkali. + + + +I am told by all the ranchers on the east and south sides of the valley +that their wells are excellent. But they all say that on the west side - +they are bringing up alkali. One also said that the water level was +rising throughout all the valley. Is it safe to depend on this in part, +or will the alkali spread over all the valley and the foothills? + +It is not unusual to find people who predict the rise of alkali almost +anywhere except on their own premises. No one can exactly tell where +alkali will go, because no one has complete knowledge of the water +movement in underlying strata. Wherever the ground water rises on lower +levels because of irrigation on higher levels there is danger of the +rising of the alkali, for which the only cure is underdrainage with tile +so that this rising water is carried to an outflow and not allowed to +approach within three or four feet of the surface. If you have such an +outflow and desire to undertake the expense of tiling, you can insure +yourself against a serious rise of alkali indefinitely. We do not see, +however, how alkali can rise to the higher lands of the valley. Its +first effect would be to make lakes or ponds in the lowest parts of the +valley, and even then the surrounding mesa lands would not be injured. + + + +Plants Will Tell About Alkali. + + + +Please give information as to the application of gypsum to my soil which +is somewhat alkaline. I do not care to have an analysis made of my soil, +and believe that you can advise me without it. + +If your soil is too alkaline for the growth of plants you can +demonstrate that fact by experiment, or if it is capable of being used +by the application of gypsum, that also can be determined by experiment +and noting the behavior of the same plants afterwards. It is rather a +slow process but it is sure enough. + + + +Litmus and Alkali. + + + +Is there any simple soil test for alkali that can be made without a +chemical analysis? + +You can ascertain the presence of alkali by using red litmus paper, +which will be turned blue by the alkali in the soil, if the soil is +moist enough. This does not determine the amount of alkali, but the +quickness of the turning to the blue color and the depth of the color +are both attained when the alkali is very strong. When there is less +alkali, the reaction is slower and weaker. This test, however, gives you +only a rough idea whether the soil is suitable for growing plants. You +can tell that better by the appearance of the plants which you find. Any +druggist can furnish the litmus paper, and give you a demonstration of +how it acts on contact with alkali. + + + +Using Gypsum for Alkali. + + + +Is it better, to kill the black alkali in the soil with gypsum, just to +scatter it over an alkalied spot or to plow the soil first and then use +the gypsum? I am going to sow alfalfa. + +Use the gypsum after plowing, for it will wet down more quickly, and the +gypsum has to be dissolved to act freely. The best way to cure your spot +is to run an underdrain into it, if possible, so the rain-water can run +through the soil freely and take the alkali with it. + + + +Blasting or Tiling. + + + +In planting trees where hardpan is four feet from the surface is it +necessary to blast the hardpan, or is there no benefit derived by the +blasting? + +If there should be a good available soil under a shallow layer of +hardpan, which you say is four feet from the surface, it might be of +considerable advantage to bore into the hardpan and explode a dynamite +cartridge in it. But if your good soil is really only four feet deep and +hardpan continuous below, the blast might cause fissures which would +prevent standing water in the upper stratum. If you are sure of four +feet of good soil above the hardpan you will have no difficulty in +growing good trees, if you get the moisture just right and the hardpan +slopes in such a way that surplus moisture will move away. If, however, +you have hardpan at different depths on the tract, so that it may really +make basins which will hold water, you are likely to have trouble from +accumulations of water which will not only prevent the roots extending +to the full depths of the soil, but will also cause some trees to die. +Such a danger could be removed by draining the soil to a depth of three +and a half or four feet with tile, in order to prevent accumulations at +any point. This would be expensive perhaps, but you would be sure that +you had rendered your four feet of soil safe and available. If you trust +to blasting you will have to wait several years for the trees to tell +you whether you helped them or not. + + + +Effects of Blasting. + + + +I have land which is underlaid with hardpan two or three feet deep and +this in turn is underlaid with sand or sandpan. What I would like +to know is whether blasting the holes before setting trees would allow +more moisture coming from this sandpan, or, rather, what effect it would +have as to moisture. + +We do not know. It might make the soil better for the trees by allowing +escape for surplus water through previous layers. It might allow the +tree to root more deeply for moisture in those strata. It might allow +water to rise from such strata if they have water under pressure. It +might do other things good or bad, according to conditions prevailing +under the hardpan. If you are to irrigate the land the effects would +probably be good. + + + +The Sub-soil Plow. + + + +I am contemplating using a sub-soil plow for the purpose of breaking +plow-sole on grain land. This is about 4 1/2 inches below the surface +and is about 5 inches thick. This soil is comparatively loose and seems +to be of good quality. Do you think that the sub-soil plow run low +enough to break this plow-sole will benefit the land? + +There can be no question about the benefit of breaking up this tight +stratum, provided you use a long-tooth harrow or a subsoil packer +afterward to reduce the land so that it will not be too open to loss of +moisture by too free circulation of air. The best way to treat such a +soil would be to use a tractor and plow to a full foot of depth, for +this, followed by good harrowing, would disintegrate the hard stuff and +commingle it with the loose surface soil and make it somewhat more +retentive - doing this when the moisture is just right for +disintegration and mixing. If you are not ready to go to this expense, a +subsoiler, following the plow with another team, would put your land in +better shape for dry farming or for irrigation than it is now. Starting +late, however, might give you less crop the first year on such deep +working than by shallow plowing if the year's rainfall should be scant. +It would, however, be a good start for summer-fallowing and a big crop +the next year. + + + +Sour Soil. + + + +What is "sour" soil? Is that the name by which it is commonly known, and +what is the treatment for it? + +Sour soil is soil in which an acid is developed by plant decay and +exclusion of air. The proper treatment is the application of lime, and +aeration by open tillage and underdrainage. + + + +Old Plaster for Sour Land. + + + +Can house plaster be used in reclaiming sour ground and how much per +acre? The ground produces some sour grass - not a great deal. The +plaster is from an old building that is being torn down. + +House plaster is desirable as an application to land which is sour. It +also adds to the mellowness of land which is hard, because of the sand +contained in it. It has always been considered a good dressing for +garden land. So far as the correction of sourness goes, it is much less +active than fresh lime, but it acts in the same way to a limited extent. +It is certainly worth using, providing it does not cost too much for +delivery, and can be freely used if the land is heavy and needs +friability. + + + +Application of Manure Ashes. + + + +Having recently got a lot of manure plentifully supplied with redwood +shavings that had been used with the bedding, and being afraid to use +the same in that shape, as it takes such a long time for the wood to +rot, I reduced the pile to a heap of ashes. How can it be best applied +to ornamental trees and shrubbery in a light gravelly soil? + +You have done unwisely in burning the manure. We would have taken the +risk of a single use of shavings for the sake of the manurial matter +associated with them, and this risk of too much lightening of a gravelly +soil would be especially small in connection with deep rooting plants +like ornamental trees and shrubbery. You have left merely the skeleton +of the manure, and much of that of doubtful solubility, if the +temperature ran very high by burning in a mass. You need not be fearful +about using these ashes. Scatter or spread them over the ground just as +you would have spread the manure, let the rains dissolve and carry down +what they can and go on with your usual methods of cultivation. + + + +The Best Fertilizer for Sand. + + + +How can I best fertilize soil that is pure sand? + +The best fertilizer for pure sand is well-rotted stable manure, because +it not only supplies all kinds of plant food, but increases the humus in +the soil, which is exceedingly important in making the sand more +retentive of moisture as well as more productive. + + + +Fertilizers in Tree Holes. + + + +Would it be harmful to add 2 or 3 pounds of steamed bone meal to the +hole of a young tree just before planting? + +There would be no injury, providing you mix it with a considerable +amount of soil by digging over the bottom of the hole, but our +conviction is that on lands which are good enough for the commercial +planting of fruit trees, it is not necessary to stimulate a young tree +in this way, but that it is better to postpone the use of fertilizers +until the trees come into bearing and show the desirability of more +liberal feeding. Of course, if young trees do not make satisfactory +growth, they may be stimulated either with some kind of a fertilizer or +with a freer use of water, and it is generally the latter that they are +chiefly in need of. + + + +Wood Ashes and Tomatoes. + + + +Is there any harm to vegetable growing to dig sufficient of wood ashes +in for mellowing heavy soil? My tomato plants grew splendidly this year, +but the fruits were all rough and wrinkled. I gave them plenty of horse +and poultry manure at planting and plenty of wood ashes and falling +leaves of cypress later. + +Wood ashes do not mellow a heavy soil. The effect of the potash is to +overcome the granular structure and increase compactness. Coal ashes, +because they are coarser in particles and devoid of potash, do promote +mellowness, and are valuable mechanically on a heavy soil although they +do not contain appreciable amounts of plant food. You are overfeeding +your tomato plants, probably. The chances are that you had poor seed. +There is no best tomato, because you ought to grow early and late kinds: +there is also some difference in the behavior of varieties in different +places. + + + +Was It the Potash or the Water? + + + +Last year the lye from the prune dipper was turned on the ground near +two almond trees which seemed to be dying, and to my surprise they have +taken a new lease of life. Hence my conclusion that potash was good for +our soil. + +Your experience seems to justify the application of potash, surely, but +the question still remains, how much good the potash did the trees, and +how much they needed the extra water which the waste dips supplied. It +would be desirable for you to make another experiment with other trees, +applying wood ashes, if you have them, or about four pounds per tree of +the potash which you use for dipping, scattering well and working it +into the soil after it is moistened by the rains, and not using any more +water than the trees ordinarily received from rainfall. After this trial +you will be in a position to know whether your trees need potash or +irrigation - by comparing with other trees adjacent. Besides are you +sure that your lye dip was caustic potash and not caustic soda? The +latter has no fertilizing value. + + + +Prunings as Fertilizer. + + + +Is orchard and vineyard brush worth enough as a fertilizer to pay for +cutting or breaking and putting back on the land? + +We should say not. It takes too much labor to put it in any form to +promote decay, and is even then too indestructible. It is also possible +that its decay may induce root rot of trees. We should burn the stuff +and spread the ashes. Vineyard prunings are more promising because more +easily and quickly reduced by decay. Vinecane-hashers have been proposed +from time to time, but we do not know anyone who long used them. + + + +Gypsum on Grain Land. + + + +Is there any profit in sowing gypsum on grain land, say on wheat or oat +crop? At what stage should it be applied and in what quantity? + +It would have a tendency to make the surface more friable and therefore +better for moisture retention, and it could be used at the rate of 1000 +pounds to the acre, broadcasted before plowing for grain. As our soils +are, however, usually well supplied with lime, there is a question +whether there would be any profit in the use of gypsum, for, aside from +lime, it contains no plant food, although it does act rather +energetically upon other coil contents. Gypsum is a tonic and not a +fertilizer from that point of view. The best way to satisfy yourself of +its effect would be to try a small area, marked so as you could note its +behavior as compared with the rest of the field. + + + +Gypsum and Alfalfa. + + + +What is gypsum composed of? Is it detrimental to land in future years? +Have the lands of California any black alkali in them? I notice my +neighbors who sow gypsum on their alfalfa get a very much better yield +of hay than those who do not. + +Gypsum is sulphate of lime. It is not detrimental to the land in after +years except that its action is to render immediately available other +plant foods and this may render the land poorer - not by the addition of +anything that is injurious but by the quicker using up of plant food +which it already contains. Black alkali is very common in California in +alkali lands. In lands which show their quality by good cropping, there +is no reason to apprehend black alkali nor to use gypsum to prevent its +occurrence. The use of gypsum does stimulate the growth of alfalfa and +makes its product greater just as you observe in the experience of your +neighbors, but the more they use up the land now the less they will have +later, unless they resort to regular fertilization to restore what has +been exhausted. But even that may be a good business proposition. + + + +What Gypsum Does. + + + +I intend to fertilize alfalfa and should like to know about gypsum. I +have heard it stimulates the growth temporarily but in three or four +years hurts the land. I have heavy land. + +The functions of gypsum are: (a) to supply lime when the soil lacks it; +(b) to make a heavy soil more mellow, and (c) to act upon other soil +substances to render them more available for plant food. These are some +of the soil aspects of gypsum; it may have plant aspects also. It is too +much to say that gypsum hurts the land; it does, however, help the plant +to more quickly exhaust its fertility, and in this respect is not like +the direct plant foods which comprise the true fertilizers - one of +which gypsum is not. It might be best for your pocketbook and for the +mechanical condition of the soil to use it, but do not think that it is +maintaining the fertility of the land (a service which we expect from +the true fertilizers) except as it may supply a possible deficiency of +lime. + + + +How Much Gypsum? + + + +How much per acre, how frequently and what seasons of the year are the +best time to apply gypsum? + +Of gypsum on alkali, we should begin at the rate of one ton to the acre +and repeat the application as frequently as necessary to achieve the +desired result. If the alkali was quite strong we would use twice as +much. Without reference to an alkaline condition in the soil, and to +give heavy soil a more friable character, which promotes cultivation, +aeration, etc., and, therefore, ministers to more successful production, +half a ton to the acre can be used, applications to be repeated as +conditions seem to warrant it. + + + +Wood Ashes in the Garden. + + + +There is available in my neighborhood a free supply of wood ashes. Can +you tell me how best to distribute the same in a garden (flowers and +garden truck), and what, if any, treatment is to be given the ashes for +the best results. + +Wood ashes long exposed to rain lose most of their valuable contents, +and leached ashes are only of small value. If they are fresh ashes or +ashes which have been kept dry, they are chiefly valuable for potash, +which is good in its way, but not all that a plant needs. If, however, +your soil is shy of potash, the use of ashes will notably improve growth +if not applied in excess in the caustic form in which it occurs in the +ashes. They require no treatment. Spread, say, a quarter of an inch +thickness all over the ground and dig in deeply. It may also help you by +destruction of wire worms and other ground pests. + + + +Coal Ashes in the Garden. + + + +What is the effect of coal ashes on the red clay soil of Redlands or +wood and coal ashes combined? + +Coal ashes are exceedingly desirable upon clay land because their +mechanical mixture with the fine particles of the clay renders the soil +more friable, permeable and better adapted to the growth of most plants. +Coal ashes, however, possess no fertilizing value - their action is +merely mechanical. The wood ashes which may be combined with them are +desirable as a source of potash which most plants require. + + + +Liming a Chicken Yard. + + + +I have a small family orchard of half an acre, fenced in as a chicken +yard, the soil of which has become very foul. When would be the best +time to apply lime and how much? + +Put on 500 pounds of lime and plow under as soon as you can - that is, +spread the lime just before the plowing, with a shower or two on the +lime before plowing, if the weather runs that way. + + + +Poultry Manure. + + + +Give directions for using chicken manure. For use of young trees, is +there any difference in treatment of deciduous and citrus trees? For use +in the vegetable garden and the flower garden, what should be mixed with +it and in what proportions? So many people say poultry manure is so +strong, I am afraid to use it. + +It is a fact that poultry manure, free from earth, contains even as high +as four times as much plant food as ordinary stable manure. It is, +therefore, to be used with proportional care, so that the plants shall +not receive too much, and particularly so that there may not be too much +collected in one place. Probably the best way to guard against this is +to thoroughly mix the manure with three or four times its bulk of +ordinary garden soil and then use this mixture at about the same rate +you would stable manure. If you do not desire to go to all this trouble, +make an even scattering of the manure and work it into the soil. There +is no reason to fear the material; simply guard against the unwise use +of it. It is good for all the plants which you mention; in fact, for any +plant grown, provided it is sparingly and evenly distributed. + +It should be pulverized so that there shall not be lumps and masses in +the same place for fear of root injury. Of course, the strength depends +upon how much earth is gathered up with the manure. Sometimes there is +so much waste material that it can be handled just as ordinary farm +manure is. + +We should not use over 20 pounds of clean droppings to a young tree and +should mix it with the soil for a considerable distance around the tree. +Old bearing trees might stand two or three tons to the acre if +distributed all over the ground. The material contains everything that +is necessary for the growth of the tree and formation of the fruit. + + + +Ashes and Poultry Manure. + + + +It is said that ashes mixed with chicken manure is not good. I use ashes +altogether on the drop boards because I can keep the boards cleaner. The +refuse is then scattered around the fruit trees. + +Wood ashes and lime should never be used as you propose, because they +set free the nitrogen compounds which are the most valuable content of +poultry manures. This action is conditioned largely upon the presence of +moisture, and if the droppings are kept dry and hurried into the soil +the loss is lessened. Coal ashes, on the other hand, are a thoroughly +good absorbent when the coal burns to a fine ash or is sifted. They do +not act as wood ashes do, because they do not contain soluble alkali. +They also have a good mellowing effect on heavy soil. + + + +Caustic Lime Not a Good Absorbent. + + + +Would air-slackened lime be suitable to sprinkle over the dropping +boards in hen houses? + +Gypsum is greatly superior to air-slacked lime for the hen houses, as it +has every beneficial effect of the latter, while the air-slacked lime +will set free much of the fertilizing value of the manure, which the +gypsum will not do. + + + +Too Much Chicken Manure for Young Trees. + + + +I have peach trees and apple trees, 3 to 6 years old, that are very +thrifty but grow only wood. The soil was poor when planting, and I have +put on plenty of sweepings from the chicken-yards. I suppose that is the +cause of the trouble. + +Undoubtedly you have overmanured your soil with chicken manure, which is +a very strong fertilizer and should only be used in limited quantities. +In order to counteract any acidity or ill effects which have been +produced by its excessive application, it would be desirable for you to +apply about 500 to 1000 pounds per acre of common builders' lime at the +beginning of the rainy season, working it into the soil with the fall or +early winter plowing. Do not cut back the tree during the dormant +season, although, of course, you may have to remove surplus or +interfering branches for the sake of shaping the tree. Winter pruning +induces a greater wood growth during the following summer; therefore, it +should be avoided under such conditions as you describe. Having adopted +such a policy, there is nothing for you to do but to wait for the trees +to slow down and assume a normal bearing habit proper for their ages. +Summer pruning is an offset for excessive wood growth. + + + +Suburban Wastes. + + + +We keep a cow and poultry and have a dry-earth toilet. We have been +burying the manure in the little garden spot or along by the fences or +spreading it out on the alfalfa before it is rotted, but do not get good +results. How shall we apply it to get the best results ? We have a town +ordinance against leaving it in piles to rot. + +You can compost it in a tight bin made of planks, and using enough water +to prevent too rapid fermentation and loss of valuable ingredients. +During the dry season you can probably use enough dry earth or road dust +to render the material inoffensive, and you can also distribute it then +without undesirable results. + + + +Composting Garden Wastes. + + + +You recommend making a compost of all scrapings, garbage, weeds, etc. Is +there any danger in having this in a pit near the house? + +If you desire to put garden wastes, including manure, into a pit, the +only objection would be the heavy work of digging it out again. If you +allow waste water from the house to run into the pit, there would +probably be not enough dry material to absorb it, and the pit would be +not only objectionable on account of odors, but possibly dangerous to +health. The water would also prevent decomposition, because of exclusion +of air. At the same time, enough moisture to promote slow decomposition +is essential. It is usually more convenient to compost garden wastes on +the surface of the ground, enclosing them with a plank retainer, because +moisture can easily be applied with a hose, as desirable, the material +can be occasionally forked over to promote decay, and the heavy work of +digging material out of a pit is avoided. Such a collection is neither +offensive nor dangerous if handled right. + + + +Composting Manure. + + + +Will the dry barnyard manure, when heaped up and dampened with water, +make a valuable fertilizer? + +For garden use, dry manure in heaps should be dampened with water from +time to time so as to prevent too active fermentation. Of course, water +should not be supplied so freely as to cause a leaching of the pile. It +is also desirable that the material should be forked over from time to +time to distribute moisture and promote decay. When this is done a +thoroughly first-class fertilizer is produced. + + + +Barnyard Manure and Alkali. + + + +In spots my land is hard and has some black alkali. Will barnyard manure +help the hard land if cultivated in? + +Use stable manure because that would not only furnish nitrogen, if your +plants need any more, but it would add coarse material and ultimately +humus which would overcome the tendency of your soil to become compact +and thus concentrate alkali near the surface by evaporation. Mellow the +soil, increase the humus, make water movement freer and good cultivation +easier and alkali will become weaker by distribution through a greater +mass of the soil and may be too weak at any point to be troublesome, +unless you have too much to start with. Put on manure at the beginning +of the rainy season and plow it under, with all the green stuff which +grows upon it, during the winter or early spring. + + + +Stable Manure and Bean Straw. + + + +What are the approximate contents of common stable manure; also, how +much of the above is contained in bean straw? + +The composition of mixed stable manure is given as containing in one +ton: Nitrogen, 10 pounds; phosphoric acid, 5 pounds; potash, 10 pounds. +The constituents of bean straw in one ton, are given as: Nitrogen, 28 +pounds; phosphoric acid, 6 pounds; potash, 38 pounds; Of course, a large +part of the difference in composition is due to the excessive amount of +moisture which ordinary stable manure contains. Air dried stable manure, +such as is found in a California corral, would have much higher +fertilizing value than such moist manure as an Eastern chemist would be +likely to handle. + + + +Roofing a Manure Pit. + + + +Is it necessary to roof a manure pit, if the pit is tight so that all +rain on manure is caught in the liquid manure and nothing is lost? + +To secure satisfactory composting of stable manures in a pit it is +necessary to be able to regulate the moisture of the mass. If it becomes +too dry, too rapid fermentation takes place and the material is +destroyed by what is called fire-fanging. If too much liquid enters the +pit, so that the material is submerged, the air is excluded and +fermentation stops. For these reasons it is necessary that a pit in the +region of large rainfall be covered, and water be used from a hose or +other source of supply in just sufficient quantity to keep the material +right for slow fermentation. How much water should be added to bring the +moisture to a right condition depends upon how much liquid waste runs +into the pit, and where water is used for cleaning a stable care has to +be taken that the pit is not submerged. Success with a pit is, +therefore, conditioned on the amount of moisture admitted, and this +cannot be controlled unless the pit has a cover fit to shed rainfall. Of +course, it may be adjustable so that some rainfall may be admitted as +may be desirable. + + + +Value of Animals in Manure. + +In the operation of our fruit and dairy ranch we have the manure from +some forty head of horses and cattle, which is distributed over the +place. We cut our alfalfa and feed it and do very little pasturing. In +order to give our dairy the proper credit, we would kindly ask what you +consider a fair price for the manure of a cow for one year. Also what +would the manure from a horse for one year be worth? + +A compilation of a considerable number of weighings, analyses and +valuations in Europe, cited by Prof. Roberts in his book on the +"Fertility of the Land," gives an average value of the voidings of a cow +for a year as $32.25 and of a horse at $24.06. This is based, of course, +upon the collection and saving of all excrements which is never secured +except in careful experimentation. The value of manure depends upon the +quality of the feed. In two experiments, considered a safe substitute +for the straw, apart from the fact that the gave a value in manure of $1 +per ton of hay fed; cows fed on clover and bran gave value in manure of +3.80 per ton of mixed feed. Your alfalfa feeding would approach the +higher value. You will have to make an estimate from the above data to +serve your purpose and you can figure it either by the number of animals +or by the tonnage of the feed. + + + +Value of Fresh and Dry Manure. + + + +What is the relative value of the weekly or semi-weekly corral scrapings +which are tramped fine and air-dried; and of the fresh, wet manure from +the stable? I do not understand that the latter has appreciable water +added, and the amount of sand in the corral scrapings would be small. + +Fresh, mixed animal manure is usually calculated to contain about 75 per +cent of water. Manure which has been quickly dried, without fermentation +and without leaching by rains, may be worth four or five times as much +per ton. Nothing, however, short of analysis would determine the value +of any particular lot, for that depends somewhat upon the way the +animals are fed, as well as upon the moisture content. + + + +Shavings in Stable Manure. + + + +Is barnyard fertilizer containing shavings instead of straw, desirable? + +Barnyard manure containing shavings is chiefly objectionable because of +the amount of inert material. The shavings are exceedingly slow to +decompose, and in light soil in considerable quantities would cause a +serious loss of moisture. If applied, on the other hand, to a heavy soil +and accompanied by sufficient irrigation water, the effect of making the +soil more friable might be very desirable. It depends then upon +circumstances whether shavings can be concited by Prof. Snyder in his +"Soils and Fertilizers," cows fed on hay straw is more valuable not only +because more easily decomposed, but because its content of plant food is +greater. + + + +Handling Grape Pomace. + + + +In the case of grape pomace, would not the large value shown by analysis +be chiefly in the seeds? My observation is that these are exceedingly +slow to became available in the soil. Would composting break down the +shell of the seed? + +Grape pomace is slowly available because of the slow disintegration you +mention. It could be hastened by drying and grinding, but we doubt if +this or other treatment would return its cost. Decay by moisture +promoted by composting with manure, kept at a low temperature by +continuous moisture would render it sooner available, but this would +involve labor which, at our wage rates, would probably make the material +cost more than it is worth. This is probably a cost in which time is +cheaper than money. + + + +Sheep and Goat Manure. + + + +I can buy goat manure from an inclosure where this is deposited to an +amount of about five carloads. Will goat manure be of great value in +fertilizing an orchard? If so, how much of it should be spread an an +acre? + +Accumulations of sheep and goat manure in a dry situation, that is, +where not leached out by heavy rainfall, have been found to run as high +as $13 per ton in fertilizing constituents. The average would, however, +be not above $7.50, and would depend not only upon the unleached +condition of the material but upon the amount of sand mixed with it. If +it is in a situation where sand blows very freely, it might not be worth +over $4 or $5 per ton, possibly not that much. You have, therefore, to +deal with a condition largely unknown. So far as its fertilizing quality +goes, however, it is freely available and directly calculated to +stimulate the growth of plants, and probably four or five tons could be +used to the acre without injury if well distributed over the surface of +the land. Application can be made at any time of the year, for the +drying will not injure it. It will not, however, become available until +the soil is sufficiently moist to carry its contents to the roots of the +plants. Under ordinary conditions in California, application should be +made just before the beginning of the rainy season. + + + +Hog Manure and Potatoes. + + + +What is the fertilizing value of hog manure, and also what is the best +fertilizer to use for potatoes? Our potatoes are planted early in +January. + +Hog manure is rather a rank and strong fertilizer, usually very rich, +although the quality of it depends upon how well the hogs have been fed +- that from grain-fed hogs being notably better. The valuation of hog +manure ranges from $2.50 to $3.25 per ton, according to the feeding as +noted, while ordinary stable manure may be worth from $2 to $2.75 per +ton. It is not a good idea to apply these organic manures directly for +the growth of potatoes. It is better to apply them to the land for the +growth of a grain or forage crop, plowing in the stubble and using the +land for potatoes the following year. If you wish to fertilize directly +for potatoes, the use of a commercial fertilizer containing a good +amount of potash would be a better proposition. + + + +Fertilizer for Sweet Potatoes and Melons. + + + +I have sandy soil that has been used for sweet potatoes until it is worn +out for that crop, and would like your advice as to the best fertilizer +to use. Also, what fertilizer would be best for melons on land that has +been planted to melons for the past three years? + +There is not much difference in the plant food required by the two crops +you mention, but both evidently need a freshened soil and an increase of +humus. We should apply a half ton to the acre of a complete fertilizer, +of which any dealer can give you descriptions and prices. If you wish to +do a good job, start a growth of peas or vetches or burr clover, and sow +the fertilizer evenly with the seed. Plow the growth under in February +and roll (as the soil is sandy) to close down and promote the decay of +the green stuff, which ought to be so well accomplished by the date that +it is safe to plant sweet potatoes or melons that it will give no +trouble in summer cultivation. + + + +An Abuse of Grape Pomace. + + + +I got in an argument with a neighbor of mine who stated that grape +pomace is not a fertilizer. Is it so? My neighbor says that two years +ago he had two apricot trees in his yard, and they were fine bearing and +healthy trees. After making his wine he put the pomace on the ground and +they died. Could that be the cause? + +Yes, probably. He used too much fresh pomace and the resulting +fermentation of its products may have killed the trees. But grape +pomace, after going through fermentation and in the process of decay, +makes humus in addition to giving potash and other desirable substances +to the soil. + + + +Manuring Vineyard. + + + +Does barnyard manure have any injurious effect on the vines if applied +on my vineyard? One of my neighbors claims barnyard manure burned his +vines so he got no crop wherever he spread the manure, and nothing would +now induce him to use it again. + +Barnyard manure can be safely used in a vineyard at the beginning of the +rainy season, working it in with the plowing, but not using too much. +Wine grapes are sometimes injuriously affected in flavor by the use of +such fertilizer, but the growth of the vine itself can be stimulated by +the rational use of it. Your neighbor apparently either used too much or +made the application at the beginning of the dry season or made some +other mistake. + + + +Bones for Grape Vines. + + + +I am going to plant out some grape vines, and would like to know if it +is a good plan to put old bones, broken up fine, into the holes when +planting. + +Yes, if you do not use too much and it is mixed with earth, a little +beyond the touch of the roots at planting. You do not need to finely +break the bones. The roots will take care of that. But do not put in too +much coarse stuff, for fear of causing too rapid drainage. + + + +Reviving Blighted Trees. + + + +I have a couple of apple trees here that were hurt by the pear blight +three years ago and were cut back since then; they come out each year, +but the leaves curl up, and they do not do anything. I would like to +know if putting any fertilizer around them would help them to put out +their leaves, and if so what I should use? + +Put some stable manure on the top of the soil around your trees now so +that the rains may reach the contents of the soil, then later in the +season dig the manure into the soil. Apply water during the summer time +and this will encourage the trees to grow, if there is any vigor +remaining in them. This treatment, however, will not protect them from +the blight. + + + +Fertilizing Pear Orchard. + + + +I have pear trees 15 years old which have fruited heavily for years and +have never been fertilized. What is the best fertilizer for the soil +which is heavy, and when is the best time to apply it? I intend planting +rye to plow under in the spring, but thought possibly the fertilizer +should be applied first. + +If you have stable manure available, nothing could be better for the +feeding of the trees and for its mellowing effect upon your heavy soil. +Application can be made at once, to be worked into the land when the rye +is sown. It will help the trees and give you more rye which in the end +will help the trees. If you have no stable manure available, what is +called by the dealers a "complete fertilizer" for orchard purposes is +what you should use and apply it when you work the land for rye. + + + +Fertilizing Olives. + + + +What is the best means of fertilizing an olive orchard? My orchard gives +me a perfect quality of oil, but a poor quantity. My soil is dry +calcareous, red and gray, and is very thin in places, therefore, it +lacks moisture. + +An olive orchard can be fertilized with stable manure or with a +"complete fertilizer," or with the special brands of different +manufacturers of special fruit fertilizers. But you must be sure that +your trees do not need moisture more than they need fertilizers, for +without adequate moisture fertilizers cannot do their best work. The +increase of the humus content of the soil, either secured by stable +manure or by the plowing under of winter-grown cover crops, is +desirable, as they not only give the trees more plant food, but make the +soil also more retentive of moisture. You will have to experiment along +this line to see just what is best for your trees. + + + +Consult the Trees. + + + +Can I send you a little soil out of my one-year-old pear orchard so that +you can advise me what I can do to improve its fertility. The trees are +fairly thrifty, but as fruit growing is my pleasure I wish to make it a +model orchard and add whatever it requires of nitrogen, humus, etc., +immediately so as to increase the growth for this summer. Next winter I +intend to put manure around them and cultivate about every other month. + +Careful experimenting with fertilizers will teach you more than analysis +would do, because the behavior of the tree under various conditions +tells you more than a chemist possibly could. Besides, we are of the +conviction that on good soils young fruit trees should not be pushed +beyond the growth which they would naturally make with a regular and +adequate moisture supply. Be careful about using fertilizers on young +trees, either in the summer or in the winter. When they come to bearing +age and yield large crops of fruit, that is another question. Any +California soil which will not grow young fruit trees thriftily should +not be used for orchard purposes unless an amateur desires to grow trees +on a picturesque lot of rocks or sand. + + + +Results of Fertilizing Olives. + + + +We have 100 acres in olives about six miles northeast of Rialto in San +Bernardino county. In 1908 we got about five tons from the 100 acres. We +began fertilizing and cultivating in 1909, and have put on the 100 acres +about the same amount of fertilizer each year. In 1909 we got 15 tons; +in 1910, 116 tons, and 1911 is estimated at 325 to 350 tons. + +It is important that your olive trees are responding to good treatment +and fertilization. Unfortunately, that does not seem to be always the +case and a good many olive trees have been made into firewood because +nothing seemed to bring them into satisfactory bearing. Good bearing +olive trees are now among the very best of our horticultural properties, +while non-bearing olive trees are worth about $7 a cord for fire wood. + + + +Nursery Fertilizers. + + + +I have light sandy loam, well drained. It has been in blackberries, and +I now have it planted to nursery fruit tree stock. I have given it this +spring two applications of nitrate of soda, but no other fertilizer. +Will the nitrate act alone, or must I apply also the phosphate and +potash to get results? + +Nitrate of soda will act alone and will stimulate growth, and there are +cases in which there is enough phosphate and potash already in the soil +to act with it. Usually, however, it is customary to use a complete +fertilizer containing phosphate and potash as well as nitrogen, in order +that the plant may be more roundly supplied and promoted, and one would +be a little safer in using that sort of fertilizer than in relying upon +the nitrate of soda alone. You will, of course, be careful not to use +these fertilizers in too large amounts, for nitrate of soda is +especially dangerous if used in excess. + + + +Almond Hulls and Sawdust. + + + +Is there any fertilizing value in the hulls of almonds? Would pine +sawdust from the lumber mills be a good substance to mix in and plow +under in a three-acre adobe patch in order to loosen and lighten the +soil for truck gardening? + +Almond hulls have considerable fertilizing value, but they are slow to +decompose, and, therefore, may be a long time unused by the plant. They +also have a good feeding value for stock, and if you can expose them in +the corral so the stock can eat as they like, this is the best way to +get them into fertilizing form. If they can be cheaply ground their +availability as a fertilizer would, of course, be quickened. Redwood +sawdust is better than pine sawdust, but any kind of sawdust can be made +to serve a good purpose in mellowing heavy soils if not used to excess +and if there is plenty of moisture to promote decay. + + + +Fertilizing Fruit Trees. + + + +I have an orchard of prunes, apricots and cherries, which has been +bearing since some 30 years ago, without fertilization, except possibly +muddy sediment from occasional irrigations of mountain streams. Various +people are advocating the use of nitrates and other fertilizers. Should +I have samples of this earth analyzed in order to ascertain what the +soil most needs? + +To find out whether your trees need fertilization, study the tree and +the product and do not depend upon chemical analysis of the soil. If +your trees are growing thriftily and have sufficiently goodsized leaves +of good color, and if fruit of good size and quality is obtained, it is +not necesssary to think of fertilization. If the trees are not +satisfactory in all these respects, the first thing to do is to +determine whether they have moisture enough during the later part of the +summer. This should be determined by digging or boring to a depth or +three or four feet in July or August. The subsoil should be reasonably +moist in order to sustain the tree during the late summer and early fall +when strong fruit buds for the coming year will be finished. If you are +sure the moisture supply is ample, then fertilization either with stable +manure or with commercial fertilizers containing especially nitrates and +phosphates should be undertaken experimentally, in accordance with +suggestions for application made to you by dealers in these articles, +who are usually well informed by observation. When you have the tree to +advise you of the condition of the soil, you do not need a chemist, +although if the tree manifests serious distress and is unable to make +satisfactory growth the suggestions of a chemist may be very helpful. + + + +Fertilizing Oranges. + + + +What is the general and what do you consider the ideal, manuring, and +when applied for orange trees from 15 to 12 years old under irrigation? +I use about 2 cwt. each of superphosphate, nitrate of soda and sulphate +of potash per acre, but am dissatisfied with my yields as compared with +yours in California. + +There is not only no standard for fertilizing orange trees, but there is +no "ideal" which might be considered as a basis for a standard. All +growers who are awake to the necessity of doing something for bearing +trees, try all things and hold fast to what (they think) is good. +Practically none of them has any enduring conviction or demonstration as +to what is good, but they keep on trying. There is, however, one clear +and enduring conviction, and that is, that continuous fertilizing must +be done for profit, and our best growers are using the same materials +you mention in considerably larger amounts than you apply, and use also +other forms of nitrogenous fertilizers. The amounts of superphosphate +and nitrate which you use would be considered homeopathic treatment by +our growers. + + + +Cow Stable Drainage for Fruit. + + + +I have been told that the drainings from a cow barn make an excellent +fertilizer for orange and lemon trees, in fact, anywhere on plants where +manure is considered beneficial. + +The drainage from a cow barn is excellent for fertilizing almost any +crop unless it is used in too large quantity. If it should be combined +with a considerable amount of water used for cleaning out the stable, it +would be excellent for the irrigation of all kinds of fruit trees. Care +should be taken, however, not to oversaturate the ground, which would be +the case if the washing of the stable was allowed to run continuously +alongside a single row of trees. The water should be changed from row to +row in succession, cultivating the ground meantime to promote aeration +and to prevent too great compacting of the soil. + + + +Seed Farm Refuse as a Fertilizer. + + + +Would cleanings from sweet peas or all kinds of seeds grown on a seed +farm be of any value as a fertilizer on sandy loam soil for an orchard? +This has been in a pile for three years or more, and I can get it for +the hauling. There are a hundred loads or more of it and not very far to +haul. + +It would be worth more on a heavy soil, because the danger of drying out +would be less and the surety of reduction to humus greater. To get the +highest value from such stuff it should be composted with water and +turning in heaps, but that would occasion expense beyond value probably, +unless it could be composted with manure for market garden purposes. The +hauling might be good work for idle teams. Spread the stuff rather +thinly to be covered in with fall plowing, so that its decay could be +promoted during the rainy season. + + + +Slow Stuff as a Fertilizer. + + + +How can we use sawdust and shavings from our high school shop so as to +combine it with street sweepings, lawn cuttings, etc., and insure ready +decay without objectionable features? + +Do not mix sawdust and shavings with lawn clippings and street +sweepings, because of the great difference in susceptibility to decay. +The lawn clippings and street sweepings, which would contain +considerable horse manure, would be readily transformed into a good +fertilizer by composting. Such treatment, however, would have no +appreciable effect upon sawdust or shavings for a considerable period of +time, and they would still be too coarse in their character to be of any +value unless you have to deal with heavy clay soil, and in that case the +sawdust and fine shavings might be dug in at once and trusted to decay +slowly in the soil, at the same time improving its friability by their +coarser particles. If, however, you are dealing with light sandy loam, +such coarse material would cause too rapid drying out and injure the +plant, which might be benefited by lawn clippings and street sweepings. +The best way to get rid of the sawdust and shavings is to set up an +altar, such as we have in our own backyard - a piece of an old boiler +about two feet in diameter and two and a half feet high, in which we +currently burn all rubbish which is not available for quick composting +into a fertilizer. + + + +Lime on Sandy Soil. + + + +Do you think 500 pounds of lime per acre would help a sandy soil which +has not been enriched by pasturing or legumes? Of course, we would not +apply the lime until next fall before plowing. + +Lime is not usually called for in a sandy soil, which probably requires +direct fertilizing with stable or commercial fertilizers. + + + +Lime on Alfalfa. + + + +What effect does putting lime on land have in holding moisture? Also, +will it pay to put it on a large field of alfalfa? The land is adobe. I +can get slaked lime for the hauling, distance being about five miles. + +The lime will make the land more friable and, therefore, less disposed +to bake and lose moisture by evaporation. Alfalfa is hungry for lime and +is generally advanced by the application of it. + + + +Fertilizing Alfalfa. + + + +Can new cow manure be put on alfalfa? Is not the best way to use the +above as a fertilizer in form of liquid being run from barn via pipes to +a settling-tank and from there via irrigation ditches to the land to be +irrigated? What is the best way to get rid of cow manure so as to keep a +barn sanitary and the place free from stench? + +Cow manure can be used to advantage on alfalfa. Corrals can be cleaned +up and the manure spread at the beginning of the rainy season. During +the winter the manure can be spread as it is produced and very good +results will be noticed in the growth during the following summer. It is +perfectly rational for you to use the liquid fertilizer as you propose +in connection with irrigation water, but this is not generally done +because of the cost of the outfit and the labor of handling the material +in that way. The best way to keep a barn sanitary is to keep it clean, +removing all the waste matter to a considerable distance daily, allowing +nothing to accumulate, and have the stable drainage arranged so that the +stable can be frequently flushed out into good drainage outlets, +carrying the water to grass or alfalfa land if possible. + + + +Fertilizing Corn. + + + +We are going to plant about 20 acres to corn on a sidehill and intend to +put some fertilizer on, but want to give it to the corn only. Would it +be a good plan, after we have marked out our rows, to scatter some +fertilizer in these marks and put the corn right on top of it? + +We take it you ask about the use of a readily soluble commercial +fertilizer. If so, you can do as you propose, being careful not to use +too much. The operation of planting will distribute the fertilizer +through enough soil if the application is not too heavy. The effect will +depend something upon what showers you get after planting. + + + +Scrap Iron as a Fertilizer. + + + +Is cast or other iron in small pieces plowed into the land of any +benefit to trees as a fertilizer? If so, what would be the value as such +per 100 pounds? Junk dealers sometimes offer 25 cents per 100 pounds. If +it has any value as a fertilizer, I am satisfied it must be worth four +times that price. We pay three cents a pound for sulphate of iron as a +fertilizer. Of course, it is a salt and dissolves quickly, therefore, I +believe cast iron, even if it works slowly, has some value, and at the +same time farmers can clean up and get rid of a lot of rubbish. + +In most cases the California soils are sufficiently supplied with iron +by nature. Iron scraps have a little and remote value because they are +so slowly available by the process of rust disintegration. It might, +therefore, be worth while for farmers to bury such scrap iron as +accumulates on the place below the reach of the cultivating tools. But +it would not be profitable to buy iron scraps at junk dealers' price, +nor would it be profitable to haul this material any long distance, even +if it could be had for nothing. + + + +Kelp as a Fertilizer. + + + +Are there ill effects from using sea kelp as a fertilizer for orange +trees? + +There is no ill effect. Sea kelp has been dragged from the beaches at +low tide, partly dried and used, for centuries perhaps, as field +fertilizer for all sorts of crops in Europe, and for decades, to some +extent, on the New England coast. The dangerous substance in it would +seem to indicate that that is not present in sufficient quantity to +cause trouble. The great difficulty lies in securing and transporting +the substance, for less than its fertilizing equivalent can be obtained +by purchase of other more concentrated manures. + + + +Applying Thomas Phosphate. + + + +When is the best time to apply Thomas phosphate slag on orchard land? + +As Thomas phosphate is slowly soluble, it can be applied at any time +during the rainy season without danger of loss, and for the same fact, +it should be applied early during the rainy season in order to be +available to trees during the following summer's growth. It ought, +perhaps, to be added that other forms of phosphate have largely +displaced slag during the last few years in the United States, other +forms being more available. + + + +Sugar Factory Lime for Fertilizing. + + + +Is the lime from a sugar factory a good fertilizer for either oranges or +walnuts; if so, about what amount to the acre would you recommend? + +If your land needs lime or if it is heavy and needs to be more friable, +or if you have reason to think that it may be soured by exclusion of air +or by excessive use of fermenting manures, the refuse lime you speak of +will do as a corrective just as other lime does, though, perhaps, not so +actively. Beyond that there is nothing of great value in it. You can use +two or three applications of 500 pounds to the acre without overdoing it +- if your land needs it at all. + + + +Nitrate With Stable Manure. + + + +I am going to plant about 2000 plants of rhubarb. I intend to put some +cow and horse manure under the plants as a fertilizer, but I do not +think I will have enough for all the plants, so I bought some nitrate of +lime, with the intention of mixing the cow and horse manure with the +lime nitrate, which I thought would allow me to spread the manure much +thinner and I could cover more surface. Now I am not sure but the +nitrate of lime will burn the manure if mixed with it. + +You can mix either nitrate of lime or nitrate of soda with the stable +manure as you propose; in fact, it is frequently done. These nitrates +are neutral salts and do not act on manure as caustic lime or wood ashes +would do. They are quite content to keep along without kicking their +neighbors. But, of course, the more nitrate you add the more careful you +must be about using too much of the mixture, and as for putting manure +under any plant, at spring planting particular, it is dangerous +business. + + + +Nitrate of Soda. + + + +How shall I apply nitrate of soda as fertilizer for roses and other +flowers and lawns during the summer months? + +One has to be very careful in the use of nitrate of soda not to use too +much and not to apply it unevenly, so that too much is brought in +contact with the roots of particular plants. From one to two hundred +pounds an acre evenly distributed is the usual prescription for nitrate +of soda, although in the case of bearing orange trees considerably +larger amounts have been successfully used. This would be at the rate of +about one ounce to one square yard of surface. It would be a safe +application to begin with and could be increased a little on the basis +of observation of results. Of course, the application should be +accompanied by copious irrigation in order to dissolve and distribute +the substance. + + + +Fertilizing Strawberries. + + + +I have half an acre of strawberries which will fruit their second season +this spring, and half an acre set last month. I had intended to use +nitrate of soda on them, but was talking to a friend who told me it +would kill my soil. That the first year it would produce an enormous +crop and the next year I couldn't raise anything. Which would be better +to use here, stable manure or commercial fertilizer? + +It is true that nitrate of soda is a stimulant of plants, and by +rendering soil fertility immediately available may seem to reduce the +supply later, and yet it is a most available forcing fertilizer if used +with great caution, not over 200 pounds to the acre evenly scattered +over the whole surface or a less amount, of course, if confined to +particular areas. If used in excess it may actually kill the plants. +Still nitrate of soda is being used actively and intelligently by nearly +all growers of plants and must be counted on the whole a valuable +agency. If you can get stable manure, nothing is better as a complete +plant food. Application to strawberries must be made at the close of the +season, rubbish scraped away and manure applied and allowed to stand on +the surface during the early rains, being worked into the soil during +the rainy season. If the soil is light, sandy loam, too much coarse +material must be avoided. Therefore, well-rotted manure is important on +such soils while on a heavy soil coarser material may be used to +advantage if applied early in the rainy season. If you have no +well-rotted manure, a complete commercial fertilizer will give best +results. + + + +Late Applications of Nitrate. + + + +I have some prune trees which blossomed some time ago and the prunes are +already set, and of small size. Would you recommend me to use an +application of, say 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda, applied +immediately, or is it a little too late in the season to get the desired +result? + +It would be perfectly safe to use 100 pounds of nitrate of soda to the +acre well distributed now; in fact, you could safely use twice as much, +but we doubt if you would get any benefit from it unless you should +irrigate, for there is no reason to expect showers that would have +penetrating powers enough to carry the nitrate any appreciable distance +into the soil. Of course, the nitrate could be plowed or cultivated in +to a considerable depth, but that would probably result in losing +moisture by deep opening or turning, which would do more harm than any +gain which the nitrate produces, if it were to become available. Our +judgment would be, then, that it is too late for any benefit to accrue +unless the land can be irrigated. + + + +Charcoal is a Medicine, Not a Food. + + + +Recently a lumberyard burned, leaving quite a quantity of charcoal. I +have a lot 50 x 150 feet in rhubarb. Would the charcoal be of any +service on that lot as a fertilizer? I now have it well fertilized with +horse manure, but would like to use the charcoal if it would be of any +material assistance to the plants. + +Charcoal is of no value as a fertilizer. It is practically +indestructible in the soil. In fact, they are digging up now charcoal in +the graves of ancient Egyptians, who departed this life five thousand +years ago. Charcoal has corrective influence in absorbing some +substances which might make the soil sour or otherwise inhospitable to +plants. It has been found desirable sometimes to mix a certain amount of +charcoal with soil used in potting plants for the purpose of preventing +such trouble. The only way to make your charcoal of any value as a +fertilizer would be to set it on fire again and maintain the burning +until it was reduced to ashes, which are a source of potash and, +therefore, desirable, but it will probably cost more than the product of +potash will be worth. + + + +Humus Burning Out. + + + +I would like to know whether or not dry-plowing land, in preparation for +sowing oats for hay, injures the soil? I have heard that dry plowing +tends to wear out the soil, as the soil is exposed to the sun a long +time before harrowing. I have been dry-plowing my land to kill the, +weeds, but had a light crop of hay this year. + +There is believed to be what is called "a burning out of humus," by long +exposure of the soil to the intense heat of our interior districts. It +is probable that the reduction of humus is due more to the lack of +effort to maintain the supply than to the actual destruction of it by +culture methods. Such a little time as might intervene between dry +plowing and sowing could not be charged with any appreciable destruction +of soil fertility. It is altogether more probable that your hay crop was +less from loss of moisture than from loss of other plant food; and it is +desirable to harrow a dry plowing, not so much to save the soil from the +action of the atmosphere, as to conserve the moisture, which, as you +know, will rise from below and will rapidly be evaporated from the +undisturbed bases of your furrows. Therefore, we should harrow a dry +plowing as soon as practicable, but with particular reference to the +moisture supply rather than to other forms of fertility. + + + +Straw for Humus. + + + +Do you consider straw good to plow under for humus, and which kind, +wheat, oat, or barley straw, is best? + +Straw, by its decay in the soil, produces humus and, therefore acts in +the same way just as does the decay of other forms of vegetation. As, +however, straw is less easily decomposed than fresh vegetation, it is +less valuable and may be troublesome by acquiring a greater amount of +moisture by interfering with cultivation or by tending to dry out the +soil to the injury of other plants. If the soil is heavy and moisture +abundant, straw may be desirable, while in the case of a light soil and +scant moisture, may be injurious. There is no particular difference in +the straw of the different grains from this point of view. + + + +The Best Legume for Cover Crop. + + + +What would you advise to sow as a crop to plow under? When should it be +sowed, and when plowed under? + +The best crop for green-manuring in any locality is the one which will +make the best growth when surplus moisture is available for it, and when +its growth can be undertaken with least interference with irrigation, +cultivation and other orchard operation. Generally in California, such a +crop can be most conveniently grown during the rainy season, but in some +parts of the State where irrigation water is available, a summer growth +can be procured with very satisfactory results; so that we are now +growing in California both wintergrowing legumes, like field peas, +vetches, burr clover, etc., which are hardy enough to grow in spite of +the light frosts which may prevail, and are also growing summer legumes +which thrive under high temperature, like cowpeas and other members of +the bean family, and for which water can be spared without injury to the +fruit trees which share the application of the land with them. The +plants which are worth trying are burr clover, common or Oregon vetch, +Canadian field pea, and the common California or Niles pea. Whichever +one of these makes the best winter growth so that it can be plowed under +early in the spring, say in February or March, while there is still +plenty of moisture in the soil for its decay, without robbing the trees +or rendering the soil difficult of summer cultivation, is the plant for +you to use largely. All these plants should be sown in California +valleys and foothills, as soon as there is moisture enough from rainfall +to warrant you in believing they will catch and continue to grow. If the +land is light they can be put in with a cultivator and plowed under +deeply in the spring, as stated. If the land is heavy, probably a +shallow plowing would be better to begin with. + + + +Cowpeas for Cover Crop. + + + +I planted cowpeas between peach trees which I have kept irrigated; when +should they be plowed under? + +Cowpeas will be killed by frost in most places and should, therefore, be +plowed in this fall whenever you have a large growth of green stuff and +the ground gets moist enough so that the trees will not be endangered by +drying out of the soil, which is likely to occur after plowing in coarse +material, unless the soil is kept moist by rain or otherwise. + + + +Garden Peas for Green Manure. + + + +Would it be possible to plant the Yorkshire Hero pea in on orange grove +as late as December 25 and get a crop from the peas? Would this pea add +much to the fertility of the soil? + +You can sow any garden peas as late as December 25, if the ground is in +good condition and the temperature not too low. They are grown as a +winter crop except when the ground freezes. You would not get as much +good for the grove by growing these peas for the market as you would by +plowing the whole growth under green, but you certainly will get +advantage from the decomposition of the pea straw and of the root growth +of the plant. + + + +Grass for Green Manuring. + + + +I wish to sow this fall some green grass to be plowed in next spring to +improve the soil of part of my land. I read for that purpose a bulletin +I had from the government, but the conditions are so different here in +California that I am very much puzzled which kind to select. + +There is no grass which grows quickly enough to be worth seeding in the +fall for spring plowing. It is a good deal better to use a grain, either +barley or rye, for the seed is cheap, the growth quick and you can get a +good deal of green stuff to plow under. Legumes are, of course, better +because of their ability to absorb atmospheric nitrogen, but any plant +which makes a large green growth is good, and it is better to have a +heavy weight of wild vegetation than to have a light growth of an +introduced legume. + + + +Manure with a Clover Crop. + + + +I have an old apple orchard in which I intend to sow burr clover. In +order to get the clover to grow I know that I shall have to use +fertilizer of some kind and this is what I want your advice about. + +If you can get it, use stable manure at the time of sowing the clover +seed. Stable manure alone will restore the humus and overcome the +rebellious behavior of the soil. Possibly you cannot secure sufficient +quantities of it. In that case a little with the burr clover seed will +give the plant a good start, or use a complete fertilizer to secure the +growth of a legume in the freest and quickest way. + + + +Fenugreek as a Cover Crop. + + + +Fenugreek has been recommended to be as a nitrogen-gathering plant, but +I cannot find information as to the amount of nitrogen it gathers in its +roots and tops, nor the amount of crop per acre. + +Fenugreek is a good nitrogen gatherer and is desirable for green +manuring wherever you can get a good growth of the plant. You can count +it worth as much as peas, vetches, etc., if you can get as much growth +of the plant. It is most largely used in the lemon district near Santa +Paula. The best way to proceed would be to try a small area of all the +nitrogen gathering plants of which you can get the seed easily, and +determine by your own observation which makes the best growth under your +conditions. + + + +Improvement of Cementing Soils. + + + +I would like some advice in handling the "cementy" gravel soil. Manure +is beneficial in loosening up the soil, but there is not enough +available. Would the Canadian field pea make a satisfactory growth here +if sown as soon as the rains begin? I would try to grow either peas or +vetch and plow under in February or March and then set trees or vines on +the land. + +The way to mellow your soil is certainly to use stable manure or to plow +under green stuff, as you propose. This increases the humus which the +soil needs and imparts all the desirable characters and qualities which +humus carries. You ought to get a good growth of Canadian field peas or +common California field peas or the common Oregon vetch by sowing in the +fall, as soon as the ground can be moistened by rain or irrigation, and, +if the season is favorable, secure enough growth for plowing under in +February to make it worth while. Be careful, however, not to defer +planting trees and vines too late in order to let the green stuff grow, +because this would hazard the success of your planting by the reduction +of the moisture supply during the following summer by the amount which +might be required to keep the covered-in stuff decaying, plus loss of +moisture from the fact that the covered stuff prevented you from getting +thorough surface cultivation during the dry season. For these reasons +one is to be careful about planting on covered-in stuff which has not +had a chance to decay. This consideration, of course, becomes negligible +if you have water for summer irrigation, but if you expect to get the +growth of your trees and vines with the rainfall of the previous winter, +be careful not to waste it in either of the ways which have been +indicated, and above all, do not plant trees and vines too late. +Theoretically, your position is perfect. The application of it, however, +requires some care and judgment. Rather than plant too late, you had +better grow the green stuff the winter after the trees have been +planted. + + + +Needs Organic Matter. + + + +I have what I believe to be decomposed sandstone. Many rocks are still +projecting out of land which I blast and break up. The soil works freely +when moist or wet, but when dry it takes a pick-axe to dig it up; a plow +won't touch it. Among my young fruit trees I tried to grow peas, beans, +carrots and beets, and although I freely irrigated them during the +summer and fall, and although I planted at different times, my peas and +beans have been a total failure, and the beets, carrots and onions +nearly so. For years the land has grown nothing but weeds. + +Your soil needs organic matter which would make it more easy of +cultivation, more retentive of moisture, and in every way better suited +to the growth of plants. Liberal applications of stable manure would +produce best effects. No commercial fertilizer would begin to be so +desirable. If you can dig into the soil large amounts of weeds or other +vegetable waste material, you would be proceeding along the same line, +but stable manure is better on account of its greater fertilizing +content. You ought to be thankful that the soil has spunk enough to grow +weeds. The Immanent Creator is still doing the best he can to help you +out; take a hand yourself on the same line. + + + +Two Legumes in a Year. + + + +I have land on which I wish to plant to fruits, and I wish to build up +the soil all I can, by planting cover crops and plowing under. What +would be the best to plant this fall, to be plowed under next spring, +and to plant again next spring to plow under in the fall? I will not be +able to plant any trees before next fall or the following spring. + +Get in vetches as soon as the ground is in shape in the fall. Plow them +under early in the spring and close the covering and compact the green +stuff by running a straight disk over the ground after plowing. This +will help decay and save moisture. Follow with cow peas as soon as you +are out of the frost, disking in the seed so as not to disturb the stuff +previously covered in. Do not wait to put under the winter growth until +it is safe to put on the cowpeas, for, if you do, you will lose so much +moisture that the cowpeas will not amount to much. + + + +Handling Orchard Soil. + + + +We average about 35 inches of rainfall. With this heavy rainfall, is +there any advantage to be gained by early plowing and clean cultivation +right through the winter? Would such plowing and cultivation result in +any serious loss of plant food? Would you advise an early or late +application of nitrogen, such as nitrate or guano? If there is any loss +from an early application, can it be determined by any means? + +The old policy of clean winter cultivation has been largely abandoned. +Nearly everyone is trying to grow something green during the rainy +season to plow under toward the end of it. Even those who do not sow +legumes for this purpose are plowing under as good a weed cover as they +can get. This improves the soil both in plant food and in friability, +which promotes summer pulverization and saves moisture from summer +evaporation. Much less early plowing is done than formerly unless it be +shallow to get in the seed for the cover crop; the deeper plowing being +done to put it under. Guano can be applied earlier in the winter than +nitrate, which can be turned in with the cover crop, while the former +may be sown with the seed to promote the winter growth. Whether you are +losing your nitrate or not the chemist might determine for you by +before-and-after analyses. If you are a good observer you may detect +loss by absence of the effects you desire to secure. + + + +Soaking Seeds. + + + +Do you think it a good practice to soak seeds before planting? + +It is more desirable with some seeds than others and when the ground is +rather dry or the sowing time rather late, than when sowing in moister +ground or earlier in the rainy season, when heavy rains are to be +expected. Soaking is simply a way to be sure that the seed covering has +ample moisture for softening and the kernel has what it requires for +awakening it germ and meeting its needs. The soil may not always have +enough to spare for these purposes and germination may be delayed or +started and arrested. Ordinarily seeds can be helped by soaking a few +hours in water at ordinary temperatures. Some very hard seeds like those +of acacia trees, etc., are helped by hot water - even near the boiling +point. + + + +Irrigating Palms. + + + +My palms are quite small, but they do not seem to grow; they seem to be +drying up. + +The growth of palms is proportional to the amount of soil moisture +available, providing it is not in excess and not too alkaline. Some +palms are quite drouth-resisting, but it is a mistake to think of a palm +as a desert plant and try to make a desert for it. A young palm, +especially, needs regular and ample water supply until it gets well +established. Your plants may be drying up, or they may have had too much +frost or too much alkali. If they are not too far gone, they will come +out later if you give them regular moisture and cultivation. + + + +Water from Wells or Streams. + + + +One of our neighbors insists that water from a well is, in the long run, +very hard on the land, and that irrigation water is much to be +preferred. + +There is no characteristic and permanent difference between waters from +wells and waters from streams so far as irrigation is concerned. The +character depends upon the sources from which both are derived. Some +wells may carry too much mineral matter in the form of salt, alkali, +etc., and some stream waters sometimes carry considerable alkali. For +this reason some wells may be better than streams and some streams +better than wells. There is no general rule in the matter. Your neighbor +may be right as applied to your location, and may know from his +experience that the well water carries too much undesirable material. +That could only be determined by analysis, and the analysis must be made +when the water is rather low, because during the rainy season, or soon +after it, the water may have less mineral impurity than later in the +season when it may be more concentrated. + + + +Shall He Irrigate or Cultivate? + + + +Our soil is of an excellent quality, and I feel if the moisture were +properly conserved by suitable methods it could be made to produce +fruits or some other very much more profitable than from hay and grain +crops. + +Whether you can grow deciduous fruits successfully without irrigation +depends not only upon how well you conserve the moisture by cultivation, +but also whether the total rainfall conveys water enough, even if as +much as possible of it is conserved. Again, you might find that thorough +cultivation will give you satisfactory young trees, but would not +conserve moisture enough for the same trees when they come into bearing. +This proposition should be studied locally. If you can find trees in the +vicinity which do give satisfactory fruit under the rainfall, you would +have a practical demonstration which would be more trustworthy than any +forecast which could be prepared upon theoretical grounds. + + + +Condensation for Irrigation. + + + +If a circular funnel of waterproofed building paper, or some better +cheap device, were fastened about the base of the tree in such a manner +as to catch and concentrate most of the drippings from the leaves, and +that water made to run down through a tube leading a suitable depth into +the earth, it seems to me that the number of foggy nights that occur in +many localities during the season might thus supply ample water for a +tree's needs. + +The probability is that water would not be secured in sufficient +quantities to serve any notable irrigation purposes, or if the fogs were +so thick as to yield water enough, the sunshine would be too scant for +the success of the plant. Put your idea to the test and see how much +water you could get from a tree of definite leaf area, which could be +readily estimated. + + + +Winter Irrigation. + + + +Last May I irrigated my prune trees for the first time, again during the +first two weeks of last December. If no rain should come within the next +two weeks, would you advise me to irrigate then? Should I plow before +irrigating, or should irrigation be done before the buds swell? + +Unless your ground is deeply wet down by the rains which are now coming, +irrigate it once, and do not plow before irrigating. The point is to get +as much water into the ground and as much grass growth on top as you can +before the spring plowing. Never mind about the swelling of the buds. +The trees will not be affected injuriously by getting a good supply of +winter water into the soil. There might be some danger with trees which +bloom late in the spring, like citrus trees or olives, because by that +time the ground has become warm and the roots very active. At the +blooming time of deciduous trees less danger would threaten, because +there is less difference between the temperature of the ground and the +water which you were then applying from a running stream. If you +irrigated in furrows and, therefore, did not collect the water in mass, +its temperature would rise by contact with air, which would be another +reason for not apprehending trouble from it. + + + +How Much Water for Oranges? + + + +How much water would you consider absolutely necessary to carry to +full-bearing citrus trees an clay loam-that is, how many acres to a +miner's inch, figuring nine gallons per minute to the inch? + +It would, of course, depend upon the age of the trees, as old bearing +trees may require twice as much as young trees. We would estimate for +bearing trees, on such retentive soil, 30-acre inches per year applied +in the way best for the soil. + + + +Damping-off. + + + +My orange seed-bed stack has "damp-off." Same say "too much water;" "not +enough water;" "put on lime;" etc. I use a medium amount of water and +more of my stack is affected than that of any other grower. One man has +kept his well soaked since planting, and only about six plants were +affected. Another has used but little water, keeping them very dry; he +has lost none. + +Damping-off is due to a fungus which attacks the tender growth when +there is too much surface moisture. It may be produced by rather a small +amount of water, providing the soil is heavy and the water is not +rapidly absorbed and distributed. On the other hand, a lighter soil +taking water more easily may grow plants without damping-off, even +though a great deal more water has been used than on the heavier soil. +Too much shade, which prevents the sun from drying the surface soil, is +also likely to produce damping-off, therefore, one has to provide just +the right amount of shade and the right amount of ventilation through +circulation of the air, etc. The use of sand on the surface of a heavier +soil may save plants from damping-off, because the sand passes the water +quickly and dries, while a heavier surface soil would remain soggy. Lime +may be of advantage if not used in too great quantities because it +disintegrates the surface of the soil and helps to produce a dryness +which is desirable. Keeping the surface dry enough and yet providing the +seedlings with moisture for a free and satisfactory growth is a matter +which must be determined by experience and good judgment. + + + +Irrigated or Non-Irrigated Trees. + + + +Is there any difference between the same kind of fruit trees grown +without irrigation and with it? + +It does not make a particle of difference, if the trees are grown well +and matured well. Overirrigated trees or trees growing on land naturally +moist may be equally bad. Excessively large trees and stunted trees are +both bad; with irrigation you may be more likely to get the first kind; +without it you are more likely to get the latter. There is, however, a +difference between a stunted tree and a wellgrown small tree, and as a +rule medium-sized trees are most desirable than overgrown trees. The +mere fact of irrigation does not make either good trees or bad trees: it +is the man at the ditch. + + + +Too Little Rather Than Too Much Water. + + + +Looking through an orchard of 18-year-old prune trees on riverbottom +land, I found a number of the trees had died. A well bored in the +orchard strikes water at about 15 feet. I find no apparent reason far +the death of these trees unless it is that the tap roots reach this body +of water and are injuriously affected thereby. + +We do not believe that water at 15 feet depth could possibly kill a +prune tree. It is more likely that owing to spotted condition of the +soil, gravel should occur in different places, and with gravel three or +four feet below the surface a tree might actually die although there was +plenty of water at a depth of 15 feet. There is more danger that the +trees died from lack of water than from an oversupply of it, and it is +quite likely also that you could pump and irrigate to advantage large +trees which did not seem to be up to the standard of the whole place, as +manifested by lack of bearing, smallness of leaves, which would be apt +to turn yellow too early in the season. + + + +Possibly Too Much Water. + + + +My trees are four years old and are as follows: Peach, fig, loquat, +apple, apricot and plum. Last year they had plenty of blossoms, but I +got no fruit. I always watered them twice a week in summer. + +You are watering your trees too much; stimulating their growth too much, +and this, while a tree is young, is apt to postpone its fruit bearing. +Give the soil a good soaking about once a mouth, unless you are situated +in a sandy or gravelly soil, in which more frequent applications may be +necessary. + + + +Too Little Water After Dynamiting. + + + +In planting almonds on a dry hard soil I dynamited the holes and ran +about 200 gallons of water into each hole before planting. About 95 per +cent of the trees started growth, but seem now to be in a somewhat +dormant state, the leaves of some being slightly wilted. All the trees +were watered since planting. I have been told I made a mistake by +throwing water in the dynamited holes. When the holes were watered the +ground was very dry and the water disappeared in a few minutes. + +You have used too little water rather than too much. Dry soil of fine +texture can suck up an awful lot of moisture, which can be drawn off so +far, or so widely distributed, that there will not be enough for the +immediate vicinity of the roots. The dynamiting tended to deep drying +and necessitated much more irrigation. + + + +Irrigating Young Trees. + + + +We have just put out 50 acres to walnuts. The party who put them out +wants me to have some boxes or troughs made 15 inches long with a 3-inch +opening, and put in on the slant so as to have the water hit the roots. + +Many such arrangements of boxes, perforated cans, pieces of tile, etc., +have been proposed during the last fifty years in California for +accomplishing the purposes which are mentioned in your letter, and all +such devices have been abandoned as undesirable. They may bring the +water to bear upon a lower level as intended, but the free access of air +and the fact that, with their use, proper stirring of the soil is +neglected renders them undesirable. The best way to water young trees +singly is to make a trench around tree, but not allowing the water to +touch the bark, applying the water and then thoroughly hoe when the +surface soil comes into proper condition. Young trees treated in this +way, with the surface always in good condition, do not require much +water. The amount depends, of course, upon whether the soil is naturally +porous or retentive. + + + +Underground Irrigation. + + + +How extensively used and with what results is the underground tile +system for irrigation used, and what especial character of soil is it +best suited for? + +Not extensively at all; in fact, if there is an acre of it which has +been for three years in continuous and successful operation, it has +escaped us. After forty years of trial of different systems, none has +demonstrated value enough to warrant its use. Theoretically, they are +excellent; in practice they are defective. Surface application in +different ways, according to the nature of the soil, accompanied with +thorough cultivation, is the only thing that at the present time +promises satisfactory results, except that where the land suits it, +irrigation by underflow from ditches on higher elevations is being +successfully used on small areas in the foothills. For gardens the most +promising arrangement seems to be a laying of drain tiles rather near +the surface, which shall be taken up each year, cleaned of silt and +plant roots, and relaid along the rows before planting; but this calls +for too much labor, except perhaps for amateur gardeners. The kind of +soil best suited to such a system is a medium loam which will distribute +water sufficiently to avoid saturation and air-exclusion. Both a heavy +soil which does this, and a coarse sandy loam which takes water down out +of reach of shallow-rooting plants too rapidly and lacks capillarity to +draw it up again, are ill adapted to underground distribution. + + + +Irrigation of Potatoes. + + + +Will you kindly tell me when is the proper time to irrigate potatoes, +before they bloom or after they bloom, and do they require much water? + +It should seldom be necessary to irrigate potatoes after the bloom +appears. Potatoes do not need much water, and there is danger of giving +them too much. It is absolutely essential to see that there is no check +in the growth of the plant, for once the growth is at all checked by +drought, and irrigation is done, a new lot of potatoes start and new and +old growth of tubers are worthless. Give what irrigation is needed and +make cultivation do the rest. The secret of success is keeping the soil +continually at the right moisture, so that the first growth of the plant +may continue regularly until the tubers are brought to maturity. + + + +Irrigated or Non-Irrigated Apples. + + + +Where soil and climatic conditions are favorable to the raising of +apples, what effect has irrigation an them? + +The commercial product of California apples is chiefly made upon deep +soils in districts of ample rainfall so that the fruit can be perfected +and the trees maintained in thrift by thorough cultivation and without +irrigation. In the foothill and mountain regions, however, apple trees +are irrigated and first-class fruit produced by the process. There is no +particular virtue in the absence of irrigation nor in the presence of +it. All that the tree requires is that the moisture supply should be +adequate and timely. There are undoubtedly many apple orchards grown +without irrigation where a little water during the latter part of the +summer would be a great advantage for the perfection of winter +varieties. + + + +Irrigating Walnuts-Checks or Furrows. + + + +Which is the best method to irrigate a tract of 25 acres of sandy +sediment sail, nearly level, preparatory to planting walnuts? + +By all means use the furrow system of irrigation unless your land should +be so light that the water would sink in the furrows and distribution +would be very unequal without covering the whole surface as is done by +filling checks. When the land cannot be covered well by the furrow +system, checking is resorted to, but not otherwise. + + + +Summer and Fall Irrigation. + + + +Is it desirable to irrigate peach trees in the fall after the crop is +gathered? + +The popularity of autumn irrigation for peaches in the San Joaquin +valley is based upon the experience of the last few years where trees +that have been allowed to become dormant too early in the season and +have been weakened by a long period of soil-drought during the autumn, +have cast their blossoms or manifested other indications of weakness +during the following year. It is thoroughly rational to apply irrigation +to hold the leaves and secure their service in the strengthening of +bloom buds for the following year by irrigation. Such irrigation should +be applied immediately after the fruit is gathered or even before that, +if the yellowing of the leaves indicates lack of strength in the tree +and the frequency and amount of irrigation during the autumn depends +upon whether the soil will hold moisture enough to carry the tree to its +proper period of dormancy. This may be determined by the aspect of the +trees and by digging down two or three feet to see whether the soil +carries moisture which is likely to be sufficient until the coming of +the rains. Whether late irrigation will be necessary is also +determinable by the character of the soil; on close retentive soil it +may not be necessary, while on loose, sandy or gravelly soil it may be +essential to the life of the tree. One has to settle all these matters +by judgment and not by recipe. + + + +Fertilizers in Irrigation Water. + + + +Do you recommend putting fertilizers in irrigating water? I am about to +water the orchard and am thinking of putting some nitrate in the water. + +You can distribute any soluble fertilizer by dissolving it in irrigation +water, but few have ever done it because of the difficulties of getting +equal strength in running water. It is much easier to distribute on land +before irrigation. + + + +Irrigating Alfalfa on Heavy Soils. + + + +How does alfalfa succeed on adobe and soils slightly modified from it? +Does irrigation work well an adobe planted to alfalfa? + +If you get the irrigation adjusted so that the soil shall not be +water-logged and so that the water does not stand on the surface when +the sun is hot, you can get plenty of good alfalfa on a heavy soil. +Irrigation on adobe soils must be done more frequently and a less amount +at each application to guard against the dangers named above. + + + +How Much Water for Crops? + + + +Same of my land is heavy but the most of it is light soil. I want +alfalfa mostly, same potatoes and grain, and later oranges, olives and +other fruit. How much water in inches or acre feet is required per acre +per year far the irrigation of it? + +The amount of water required to grow different crops depends upon the +crop itself, upon the time of the year in which it grows, the character +of the soil, etc. There is no such thing as stating how much water would +be used for all crops on all soils, and at all times of the year. The +range would be from, say, ten acre inches for irrigation of deciduous +fruits, which need moisture supplementary to rainfall; twice or thrice +as much for citrus fruit trees; four or five times as much for alfalfa +where a full number of cuttings are required. These are, of course, only +rough estimates which would have to be modified according to local +rainfall and soil character. Water should be applied frequently enough +to keep the lower soil amply moist. A color of moisture is not enough +and a muddy condition results from too much water. One has to learn to +judge when there is moisture enough, and a good test of this to take up +a handful of soil, squeeze it and open the hand. If the ball retains its +shape it is probably moist enough. If it has a tendency to crack upon +opening the hand, it is too dry. This test, of course, is somewhat +affected by the character of the soil, but one has to form the best +judgment possible how far allowance has to be made for that. + + + +Sewage Irrigation. + + + +What is the usefulness or harmfulness of the outflow from septic tanks +for use an fruits and vegetables? + +There is no question as to the suitability of the affluent from a septic +tank for irrigation purposes. Waste waters are sometimes injurious when +they are loaded with antiseptics, but the septic tank will not work +unless it has a chance for free fermentation in the absence of +antiseptics, therefore, this objection against waste water does not hold +with the out-flow from septic tanks. It has the advantage over straight +sewage irrigation because fermentation in the septic tank is believed to +free the water from many dangerous germs, though not all of them. + + + +Creamery Wastes for Irrigation. + + + +Will the waste water from a creamery, pumped into a ditch and used for +irrigating sandy loam orchard land, or nursery stack, in any way be +injurious to the land or the trees? + +It will depend upon the amounts of salt and alkaline washing materials +which it carries. This would be governed, of course, by the amount of +fresh water used for dilution in the irrigation ditch. There are two +ways to determine the question. One would be to make an analysis of a +sample of the water taken when it contains the largest amount of these +materials after the dilution with ditch water. Another way would be to +plant some corn, squashes, barley and other plants, so that they would +be freely irrigated by the water during one growing season. This would +be rather better than an analysis, because everybody could see whether +the plants grew well or not, and would be apt to be better convinced by +what they see than by an opinion which a chemist might give on the basis +of an analysis. The use of this water on a sandy loam would obviously be +less injurious than upon a heavy retentive soil. + + + +House Waste Water. + + + +Is it feasible to use wash water, etc., for watering fruit trees and +vegetables? + +Kitchen sink water is not desirable because of its great content of +grease, but wash-tub and bathtub water are good. Strong soapsuds should +be mixed with considerable rinsing water to escape excessive content of +alkali. Run the water in hoe-ditches, along the rows of vegetables, +hoeing thoroughly as soon as the land hoes well, changing the runs of +water so that the soil does not become compacted but is kept friable and +lively. + + + +Draining a Wet Spot. + + + +I have a spot of about an acre that in a wet winter becomes very miry +and as a rule is wet up to July. Can I put in a ditch two and one-half +feet deep and fill in with small stones for a foot or a foot and a half, +until I can afford to buy tiles? + +Drains made of small stones are often quickly filled with soil and stop +running. However, it will work for a time, and such drains were formerly +largely employed in Eastern situations when cash was scant and stones +abundant. Dig the ditch bottom to a depth of not less than 3 or 3 1/2 +feet, then put in the stones deep enough not to be interfered with by +plowing. If you have flat stones you can make quite a water-way with +them and fill in with small stones above it. + + + +Part V. Live Stock and Dairy + + + +Legal Milk House. + + + +What is a legal milk house in California? + +The State dairy law says little concerning the construction or equipment +of the milk house. It says that the house, or room, shall be properly +screened to exclude flies and insects, and is to be used for the purpose +of cooling, mixing, canning and keeping the milk. The milk room shall +not be used for any other purpose than milk handling and storing, and +must be 100 feet or more distant from hogpen, horse stable, cesspool or +similar accumulation of filth, and must be over 50 feet from cow stalls +or places where milking is done. In regard to the size of the milk room +and equipment, nothing is said provided it is large enough for the milk +to be handled conveniently. Concrete milk houses, however, had best have +smooth-finished floors and walls. The interior of the milk house is also +to be whitewashed once in two years or oftener. If milk from the dairy +is to go to a city, the requirements will be more severe than provided +in the State law, and must conform to the ordinances of the city to +which the milk is to be sent. + + + +Cure for a Self-Milker. + + + +What shall I do for a young cow that milks herself? + +Fit a harness consisting of two light side slats and a girth and neck +strap in such a way that the cow cannot reach her udder. Unless she is +particularly valuable for milk, it will save you a lot of worry to fix +her up for beef. + + + +Strong Milk. + + + +How can I overcome strong milk in a three-quarter Jersey cow? I had been +feeding alfalfa hay with two quarts alfalfa meal and one quart middlings +twice a day. Thinking the strong milk came from the feed I changed to +oat hay and alfalfa with a soft feed of bran and middlings. + +There is nothing in either ration that could cause strong milk, nor will +a change of feed likely benefit the trouble. If the cow is in good +physical condition the trouble probably comes from the entrance of +bacteria during or after milking. Thoroughly clean up around the milking +stable, followed by a disinfection of the premises. Have the flanks, +udder and teats of the cow thoroughly cleaned before milking and scald +all utensils used for the milk. Harmful bacteria may have gotten well +established on the premises and the entrance of a few is enough to +seriously affect the flavor of the milk. Once the trouble is checked it +can be kept down with the usual sanitary methods. + + + +Separator as Milk Purifier. + + + +I have a neighbor who contends that a cream separator purifies the milk +that passes through it. I say that it does not purify the milk. I agree +that it does take out some of the heavy particles of dirt and filth, but +that it cannot take out what is already in solution with the milk. + +The purification naturally cannot be very great, and if milk is produced +in unsanitary fashion, running through the separator will do little, if +any, good. Nevertheless, the separator does remove more than just the +solid particles of dirt. The purifying comes by leaving behind the +separator slime, so called, the slimy material left behind after a good +deal of milk has been run through. In fact, some creameries separate +milk, only to mix milk and cream again, largely for the purpose of +removing the impurities found in the slime. In this slime are not only +the impurities that fall into the milk, but also some of the fibrous +matter that is part of the milk, and this gathers, being pulled out by +gravity as are the fat particles, it seems to gather with it a few more +bacteria than remain in the milk itself. Material in real solution, as +sugar is in solution in water, naturally is practically unaffected by +separation. You are, therefore, right to the extent that you cannot +produce unsanitary milk and clean it with the separator, but your +neighbor is right to the extent that the separator does remove some +impurities and is used just for that purpose. There is also in the dairy +trade a centrifugal milk clarifier which is constructed in somewhat +similar manner to a cream separator, but acts differently on the milk in +not interfering with cream rising by gravity when separated cream and +milk are mixed after cleaning. + + + +Butter Going White. + + + +I bought some butter and during the warm weather it melted. About 40 or +50 per cent was white, while the balance was yellow and went to the top. +When the butter remelted, the yellow portion melted, leaving the white +portion retaining its shape. The white portion did not taste like +ordinary butter. The butter made from our cows' cream melted at a higher +temperature, but did not have a white portion. Why did our butter not +act like the creamery butter? + +Samples of butter have occasionally been sent to this office that have +turned white on the outside, and since the white part has a very +disagreeable, tallowy flavor, people think that tallow or oleomargarine +has been mixed with it, but we have never been able to find any foreign +substance in any of the samples. We have found that some of the best +brands of butter will turn white first on the outside and the white +color will gradually go deeper if the butter is exposed to a current of +air or if left in the sun a short time - F. W. Andreason, State Dairy +Bureau. + + + +What Is "Butter-fat?" + + + +I would like to know what "butter-fat" means. I have asked farmers this +question and no one seems to know. I suppose all parties dealing with +creameries understand what the standard of measure or weight of +butter-fat is, but it is my guess that there are thousands of farmers +whom, if they were asked this question, would not know. We, of course, +know that butter is sold by the pound and cream by the pint, quart or +gallon, but what is butter-fat sold by? + +Butter-fat is the yellow substance which forms the larger part of +butter. Besides, this fat butter is composed of 16 per cent or less of +water and small amounts of salt, and other substances of which milk is +composed. From 80 to 85 per cent or so of ordinary butter is the fat +itself. It is sold by weight. The cream from which butter is made is +taken to the creamery and weighed, not measured. A small sample is +tested by the so-called Babcock test to determine the exact percentage +of fat, and payment mode on this basis. For instance, if 1,00 pounds of +cream is one-third butter-fat, the dairyman receives pay for 33 1/3 +pounds of this substance. If it is only one-quarter fat, he receives pay +for 25 pounds. Ordinary cream varies within these limits, but may be +much richer or thinner. Cream after the butterfat is removed is much +like skimmed milk, although it has less water in it. + + + +Why Would Not Butter Come? + + + +What is the trouble with cream that you churn on from Monday until +Saturday, then have to give up in despair and turn it out to the hogs? +We warmed it, and we cooled it, and used a dairy thermometer, but +nothing would do. + +If the cream was in churnable condition otherwise, the probability is +that it was too cool when you started churning. It should be about 62° +Fahrenheit. + + + +Drying a Persistent Milker. + + + +My cow is to come fresh about the middle of next mouth, and in the last +two weeks her milk has changed in some way so that the cream makes very +yellow butter and comes to butter nearly as quick as when the cow was +fresh. Would it best for her to go entirely dry before coming fresh, or +will it be all right if she does not entirely dry up? + +If your cow has been able to pick up any special amount of grass since +the rains came it might add to the color of the butter. A cow's milk +also gets richer toward the end of her lactation period, which may make +a richer cream and make the butter come quickly There does not seem to +be anything to worry about. The cow would probably do better if she +could become entirely dry before calving, but unless you can easily dry +her up it would be dangerous to try to force her to do so. + + + +Butter-fat in Sweet and Sour Cream. + + + +The creamery wagon takes our cream every other day. Without ice it is +almost impossible to keep the cream sweet during the hot weather. By the +time the wagon gets here, several hours after the fourth milking, the +cream is quite sour. Does sour cream test lower than sweet cream! Is any +butter-fat lost due to evaporation in dry weather? + +The test of sour cream will be as accurate as of sweet cream, if +properly made, but it is rather more difficult to make; or rather, to +get the material into condition to work well. There is no fat lost by +evaporation. + + + +Cream That Won't Whip. + + + +When I sell my cream from the separator they say they cannot whip it. +Can you tell me if there is any way that I can make the cream whip? + +There appears to be no good reason for blaming the separator for your +difficulty with the cream. Possibly the cream may be too thin, as thin +cream is sometimes difficult to whip. There is also the possibility that +the fat globules in the cream may be rather small, but that will be the +fault of the cows, not of the separator. Another reason why the cream +may not whip well may be that it is used too quickly. If the milk is all +right, the cream not too thin and it is permitted to stand for 12 hours +or so there should be no trouble with it. Occasionally when cream is +pasteurized it will not whip well. In these cases, or any other that may +develop, the application of lime water to the cream at the rate of 1 +gallon to 60 will remove the difficulty. + + + +What Is Certified Milk? + + + +What process has milk to go through to be called "certified," and what +demand is there for it? + +Certified milk is simply milk that is produced and marketed under +prescribed sanitary conditions. The dairies are inspected periodically +by representatives of some medical society or other organization to see +that all regulations are observed, who certify that this is done; hence +the name. Milk from other dairies is prohibited by law from being sold +under the name "certified milk." Among the requirements in its +production are that the cows must be free from tuberculosis and +otherwise perfectly healthy, the stable to have a concrete floor which +is washed out after each milking, the milkers to have special clothes +for milking, etc. The milk is cooled and bottled immediately after +milking, and kept at a low temperature until it reaches the consumer, to +prevent the entrance of dirt of any kind or the development of the few +bacteria that must gain entrance before it is bottled. To produce such +milk requires much expensive apparatus and much more labor than to +produce ordinary milk, and as a result it sells for a much higher price, +both to distributor and consumer, so that the market for it is rather +limited. + + + +Jersey Shorthorn Cross. + + + +If I cross Registered Shorthorns with a Jersey bull, what dairying value +will the progeny have? + +This makes an excellent cross. Even beef-strain Shorthorns have lots of +milking power if it is developed and the Jersey cross will bring it out +in the progeny. The cows have excellent milking qualities and give very +rich milk. They also have a big frame and fine constitution. About the +finest cows in Humboldt county were of this cross although Jersey bulls +have been used so long that the Shorthorn blood is almost eliminated. +The first "improved" cattle in California and the first cross made for +dairy purposes was Jersey bulls upon grade Shorthorn cows. Later the +Holstein Friesians became popular and they and their grades are now most +abundant. + + + +A Free Martin. + + + +I have a Jersey cow who has just had twin calves, a heifer and a bull. +The heifer was born about five minutes before the bull and seems to be +the stronger. My neighbors tell me to fatten both for the butcher, for +they say the heifer will be barren. The mother is a young cow, as this +is her second calf. Kindly inform if this is one of nature's laws or if +there is a possibility of the heifer turning out all right? + +The probability is that it will be better to veal the heifer than to +raise her, as most heifer calves twinned with a bull are free martins, +or animals of mixed sex and no good for breeding purposes or for +profitable milk production. If the bull is a good animal, he probably +will be all right, as this twinning does not seem to affect a bull calf, +though it does the heifer. It does not always happen that the heifer is +worthless for breeding, but the probability is so great that you had +better have her killed and be done with it. + + + +What Is a "Grade"? + + + +Does the term "grade" mean an animal whose sire is a thoroughbred and +whose dam is a scrub, or just one who is selected from others because of +her good points or those of her mother? + +Roughly speaking, a grade animal is one having more or less pure-bred +blood, but not enough, or otherwise too irregular, for registry under +the rules of the association of the breed to which it has affiliation. +It does not refer to selection without use of a pure-blood sire at some +point in the ancestry, but this is not a distinction of much moment, for +it is hard to find animals which have not borrowed something from some +cross with pure blood, though remote. The terms high and low grade are +sometimes used to signify amount of pure blood recognizable by form and +other characters or remembered by owners or their neighbors. Generally +speaking, a grade is anything not entitled to registry, though +ordinarily it refers to the offspring of a pure-bred sire and a cow of +another or of no breed. The offspring of a pure-bred cow and a scrub +bull would also be a grade. + + + +Breeding a Young Mare. + + + +I have a beautiful colt 22 months old that will weigh 1200 or 1300 +pounds; very compactly built, and has extra health, life and vigor. I +want this colt for a broodmare. Would you advise breeding at two or +three years old? + +Authorities agree at placing the age from two to three years, according +to the development of the animal and other circumstances. + + + +"To Breed in the Purple." + + + +What is meant by breeding a sow in the purple? I have seen this +statement used many times by breeders who advertised "sows safe in pig +bred in the purple." + +To be "bred in the purple" means to be of royal or princely parentage. +It originally was used in reference to the nobility of Europe, as purple +was the insignia of royal blood, due to the fact that purple was the +rarest and most costly color and only the rich and noble could buy it. +When used in referring to live stock, it signifies that the animal in +question has a long line of blooded ancestry. + + + +Cows for Hill Country. + + + +What breed of dairy cows do you think would be preferable to keep for +butter, at an altitude of about 1800 feet, in Nevada county - Jerseys, +Guernseys or Ayrshires? I do not mean to have them to rustle for their +own living, but to feed them well, house and care for them in all +weather, particularly in stormy weather. + +The best breed for a man is the one he likes best, providing it has been +bred for the purposes he desires to attain. All the breeds you mention +are suited to the scheme you outline. + + + +Foothill Dairying. + + + +Is there any risk to run in taking cows to an altitude of 2000 from a +much lower one? + +There is no quarrel between a cow and a mountain. Ever since the +settlement of the State cows have been driven directly from the valley +up to the mountain meadow pastures, both for butter and for beef-making, +in the summer time. The foothill elevation you mention is only a +starting to elevations of 6000 feet and more to which cattle are driven +every season. + + + +Bad-Tempered Jerseys. + + + +Jersey bulls are apt to become vicious after a time; is it so to the +same extent with bulls of the other named breeds? + +The Jersey bull is conceded to be crosser and more dangerous than other +bulls, but no bull should ever be allowed to have a chance at a man. +Never consider a bull gentle and you will be safe with him. + + + +Breeding in Line. + + + +Is it right and proper to breed a pedigreed registered bull to his +daughter, who is the offspring of a grade cow? If it is not right, +explain why. If it can be done, will the offspring be physically perfect +and an improvement, or will it have poorer qualities than its sire and +mother? If this inbreeding can be done successfully, how long can it be +carried on, or, in other words, how long could one bull be bred back +into his own offspring? Can a herd be perfected in this way? + +It is right and proper to breed a registered sire to his daughter, who +is the offspring of a grade cow. The first cross is all right and the +offspring ought to be physically perfect. This is a first step in what +we call line breeding, but in line breeding proper, both animals must be +pure bloods and registered, having ancestors on both sides which have a +long line of good individuals with strong constitutions and true to +type. To do this, one must have a perfect ideal in mind. This line +breeding is what has developed the breeds today up to the high standard +of perfection. Breeding sire to daughter, if followed along these lines, +will be all right; at least, it was so in the case of Amos Cruickshank, +the great shorthorn breeder. You cannot successfully breed back on the +daughter's offspring, but if you use a straight out-cross on the +daughter's offspring you can again use this sire on her produce with +marked success. In the case of a grade cow and registered sire, there +are two things which will make you either lose or win with one cross, +and that is regarding the breeding of your sire. If he is just an +ordinary-bred fellow it will be a hit-and-miss game, but if he is from a +long line of good ancestors on his dam's side, you can very materially +improve the, herd, because always keep in mind the female produce from +the sire's dam will grow with age toward the sire's dam. So if your +first cross from your first sire is all right, use a straight out-cross +bull, but be sure he is what he ought to be, and then you can use your +old bull back on his heifers. Of course, a man practicing this breeding +ought to be a thorough stockman and a first-class judge of live stock. - +W. M. Carruthers. + + + +Whitewashes for Stock Buildings. + + + +I desire whitewash recipes which have given durable results on +outbuildings. + +It is so desirable to make outbuildings neat and clean, and so important +to keep trees from sunburning, etc., that a durable whitewash as cheaply +and easily made as possible is very important. The following are +commended: No. 1 - To half a bucketful of unslaked lime add 2 handfuls +of common salt, and soft soap at the rate of 1 pound to 15 gallons of +the wash. Slake slowly, stirring all the time. This quantity makes 2 +bucketfuls of very adhesive wash, which is not affected by rain. No. 2 - +Whitewash requires some kind of grease in it to make it most durable. +Any kind of grease, even though it be old and partly spoiled, will +answer all right, though tallow is best. The grease imparts to the +whitewash an oil property the same as in good paint. Tallow will stay +right on the job for years, and the cheapest of it will do. In order to +prepare this grease and get it properly incorporated into the white +wash, it is necessary to put the grease in a vessel on the stove, and +boil it into a part of the whitewash so as to emulsify it and get it +into such condition that it can be properly incorporated with the +whitewash mixture. No. 3 - For every barrel of fresh lime, add 16 pounds +of tallow, 16 pounds of salt and 4 pounds of glue, dissolved. Mix all +together and slack; keep covered, and let stand a few days before using. +Add water to bring the right consistency to spread readily. For nice +inside work strain it. When less than a barrel of lime is used, the +quality of the wash does not seem so good. It is better to apply hot, +but it does well cold. + + + +Government Whitewash. + + + +What is the government recipe for whitewash? + +"Take a half bushel of well-burned, unslaked lime, slake it with boiling +water, cover during the process to keep in steam, strain the liquid +through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it 7 pounds of salt, +previously dissolved in warm water; 3 pounds of ground rice boiled to a +thin paste and stirred in while hot; half a pound of Spanish whiting and +1 pound of glue, previously dissolved by soaking in cold water, and then +hanging over in a small pot hung in a larger one filled with water. Add +5 gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir well and let it stand for a +few days, covered from dirt. It should be applied hot, for which purpose +it can be kept in a portable furnace. A pint of this mixture, if +properly applied, will cover a square yard." + + + +Whitewash for Spray Pump. + + + +Can you give a recipe for a durable whitewash which can be prepared +simply and in large quantities? The whitewash will be applied with a +spray pump. + +To 25 pounds of lime, whole, slacking with 6 gallons of water, add 6 +pounds of common salt and 1 1/2 pounds of brown sugar. Stir and mix well +and allow to cool. When cool stir in 1 ounce of ultramarine blue. Then +add 2 gallons of water, and sprinkle and stir in 2 pounds of Portland +cement. If two coats are to be applied, add 1 more gallon of water. +Strain for work on smooth surface. + + + +Buttermilk Paint + + + +How is paint made with buttermilk for farm buildings? + +One gallon buttermilk, 3 pounds of Portland cement, and sufficient +coloring matter to give the desired shade. Apply as soon as made, and +stir a great deal while being applied. It is said to dry in about 6 +hours and to be a good preservative for fences, barns and other +outbuildings. + + + +Trespassing Live Stock. + + + +Is there a fence law in this State? In other words, do I have to fence +against my neighbors' stock, or does the law require him to care for his +stock and keep it off my property? + +The old "no-fence law" which was enacted during the troubles between +wheat growers and stock rangers has been put out of commission by more +recent legislation. The trespassing live stock is liable for damage, but +just how to proceed to protect yourself you should learn from a local +lawyer who knows statutes and your county ordinances also. + + + +Rat-Proof Granary. + + + +How can I make a rat-proof granary for alfalfa meal and barley? + +Omit all boarding of the sides below the floor level and place a heavy +inverted pan, milk pan, between the top of each of the supporting posts +and the floor beams. Care should be taken that the diagonal bracing of +the underpinning or posts does not allow a rat to secure a foot hold +near enough the floor to permit of gnawing through. + + + +Concrete Stable Floor. + + + +Is a concrete floor good for a horse stable? + +Concrete floors are satisfactorily used for horse stables, provided the +floor is ribbed or otherwise roughened in a way to reduce the danger of +slipping. Some stablemen have stall floors made that way. Some use a +wooden grating over the concrete in places where the horses have to +stand for any length of time. Others soften the standing by free use of +bedding. + + + +Silo-Heating Not Dangerous. + + + +Is there any danger of a barn burning from spontaneous combustion due to +a silo being built in the barn? + +There is no danger of the silo overheating and setting fire to a barn. +When the ensilage is curing, it often gets warm, but never anywhere near +the point of combustion. + + + +To Make Shingles Durable. + + + +What is the best material with which to coat the shingles on my barn +roof? + +The best coating is a wood preservative, the principal ingredient of +which is creosote. There are several reliable brands of preservatives +and stains that may be had at a cost of about half that of paint. We +must remark also the natural durability of redwood shingles in this +climate if the roof has a good pitch. We reshingled our house roof after +20 years of use and found the shingles so sound that we turned them and +shingled the sides and roof of a shed with them where they promise to be +good for another score of years. + + + +Best Breed of Hogs. + + + +What is the best breed of hogs for pen feeding, shutting them up in +small pens from the time they are little pigs and feeding them mostly on +skim milk and slops? + +There is no best breed. It is a matter of personal preference. Any of +the breeds are all right to pen up and feed. The principal thing is to +see that the hogs are all pure bred and have not been crossed too often +to cause deterioration. Choose one breed of hogs and keep them as pure +as possible and you will have no trouble in raising them. All the breeds +are good; but some are fancied more than others. Dark-colored hogs are +preferred in California because less liable to sunburn. + + + +Part VI. Feeding Farm Animals + + + +Feed for Plow-Horses. + + + +While doing heavy plowing, how many pounds of rolled barley per day +should I feed to keep 1300-pound horses in good condition? If I feed +part oat hay and part alfalfa hay, together with rolled barley, what +ration would be ample? + +A ration used by the California Experiment Station was 12 pounds of +alfalfa hay, 11 pounds of wheat hay and 7 pounds of crushed barley for +1000 pounds of horse at hard work. The larger the horse the less food +for the amount of work he does in proportion to his size, so multiplying +these figures by 1.2 would bring a person somewhere near the ration for +a 1300-pound horse, and an approximation is as close as one can come to +any general ration. Probably more alfalfa and less of the other feeds +could well be given, since many farmers are succeeding in feeding +alfalfa exclusively. + + + +Vetch for Horses. + + + +Does vetch make good feed for horses? Will vetch produce a heavier crop +than grain? When is the best time to sow vetch for hay, and what is the +best variety? + +Vetch makes excellent stock feed whether used as hay or as pasturage. +Vetch falls to the ground so badly that it is very difficult to cut hay +from it unless some grain is planted to hold it up. Oats make an +excellent hold-up crop and is more generally used. A half a bushel of +vetch seed is mixed with a bushel of oats and this is enough to plant an +acre. Some growers, however, prefer a bushel of vetch as that makes the +stand much heavier. + + + +Sorghum Feeding. + + + +Can I allow milk cows to pasture on growing Kaffir and Egyptian corn +during the summer? Which one is the best for pasture and milk? + +There is no difference between Kaffir corn and Egyptian corn so far as +feeding goes. They are both sorghums. There is a danger in pasturing on +young sorghums, because stock is often killed from overeating it, and +they are quite apt to do this when they come upon it from dry feed. If +you cut and wilt the young sorghum, or if it is fed sparingly with hay, +etc., it becomes innocent of injury. After the sorghum has obtained +considerable growth, it also loses its dangerous character. + + + +Salting Hay. + + + +What kind of salt is used for salting hay, how much to use and how to +apply it? + +Any good commercial salt such as is used for pork or beef packing is +satisfactory for salting hay. A good handful to the ton, scattering it +as the hay is stocked is as good a formula as can be had. + + + +Stover. + + + +What is stover? How is it cut and handled? + +Stover is corn fodder after the ears are taken off. The best time to cut +the corn for stover is immediately after the kernel becomes dented and +the leaves or blades commence to dry. Immediately after the ears are +taken off, the stalks should be cut and stacked. The size of the shock +depends upon the climate. If it is a foggly climate and stalks are +green, it is better to make a smaller shock, but in the interior valley +where the weather is warm it is best to make large shocks, so that the +stacks will not dry up very rapidly. + + + +Feed for Cows. + + + +What shall I feed cows when they are fresh and when they are dry! + +When they commence to freshen, give some green feed, such as alfalfa or +corn; if possible, also give, say, two or three pounds of barley or +bran, and gradually increase this for two or three weeks until six or +seven pounds of bran or barley is being fed. Also give a small amount of +hay. Bran may be rather expensive feeding and a substitute is being +used. Take four parts of barley to one of bran and mix. With barley at +its low price, this makes rather inexpensive feeding. Another substitute +is to take the chopped alfalfa hay and barley. These are mixed +thoroughly together and moistened. After the cow freshens and gives her +full flow of milk, let her eat all the alfalfa hay she wants. A good +ration is about 15 to 20 pounds of hay, 6 or 7 pounds of barley or bran +and about 10 pounds of roots such as beets or mangels. When the cow is +dry, pasture is the best food, supplemented with some green food. + + + +Sorghum Silage. + + + +Will Egyptian corn make good ensilage and at what time should it be cut +to make the best feed for dairy cows? + +Sorghum makes good silage. It must be cut while surely juicy enough, for +it is a little more apt to dry out than Indian corn. + + + +Barley for Hay Feeding. + + + +Should the barley for hog feeding be rolled, ground or fed whole, dry or +wet? Also, how much should be fed and how often to get best results? + +To obtain the best results, the barley should be ground into a meal (not +too fine) and have the hulls screened or floated out. This is best fed +when made into a thick slop. Some good feeders believe in letting it +stand until fermentation sets up, that is, gets a little sour. We prefer +a sweet to a sour feed. However, hogs will do well on either, provided +there is no change from sour to sweet. The change is the bad part. Hogs +should be fed just the amount that they will clean up well, and no more. +A hog should always be ready for his feed at feeding time. We would not +feed oftener than twice a day: night and morning. - Chas. Goodman. + + + +Sugar Beets and Silage. + + + +Will sugar beets keep in a silo and how sugar beets rank as a hog feed? + +Sugar beets would probably keep all right if stored in a silo just as +they might if kept in any other receptacle, but it is not necessary to +store beets for stock-feeding in this State. They can be taken from the +field, or from piles made under open sheds in which the beets may be put +because more convenient for feeding than to take them from the field in +the rainy season. Beets put whole into a silo would not make silage. For +that purpose they would need to be reduced to a pulp, but there is no +object in going to the expense of that operation where beets will keep +so well in their natural condition and where there is no hard freezing +to injure them. Beet pulp silage is made from beets which are put +through a pulping process for the purpose of extraction of the sugar +and, therefore, best pulp silage is only made in connection with +beet-sugar factories and is a by-product thereof which is proving of +large value for feeding purposes. + + + +Feeding Value of Spelt. + + + +What is the food value of spelt? It is a Russian variety of wheat, and +yet, I am informed, it has about the same value as a stock food that +barley has. + +We have no analysis of spelt at hand. It is presumably like that of +barley, as you suggest, because the spelt has an adhering chaff as +barley has. This fact makes it better for feeding than wheat, not in +nutritive content, but because the chaff tends to distribute the starchy +material, making it more easily digestible; just as barley and oats are +better than ordinary wheat for stock feeding. + + + +Concentrates and Corn Stalks. + + + +Is it necessary to feed mulch cows any hay or concentrated feed in +addition to green corn stalks? + +It is necessary. Green corn is an excellent thing for milch cows, but it +is a very unbalanced ration and needs alfalfa or something else to +balance it up. Green corn, for example, contains only about one per cent +of digestible protein and 11.5 per cent of digestible carbohydrates and +0.4 per cent fat, or a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 12 1/2. A proper +ration would be about 1 to 6 or 7, or less. To balance this up alfalfa +can be fed better than anything else in California, for that is very +rich in protein and the cheapest supply of protein that there is. If you +give the cows a good supply of alfalfa hay with the green corn, you will +have an ideal combination. + + + +Dry Sorghum Fodder. + + + +Is Egyptian corn fodder good for cows? I have been told it would dry up +the milk. I have several acres and would like to feed it if it is not +harmful. + +Dry sorghum fodder is counted about the poorest roughage that one would +think of harvesting. It is much less valuable than Indian corn fodder. +Egyptian corn is one of the non-saccharine sorghums which are valuable +both for grain or for green feeding. We never heard of direct +milk-drying effect, though such a result might be expected from feeding +such innutritive material, which is also difficult of digestion. If fed +for roughness it should be in connection with concentrated foods like +bran or oil meal or with green alfalfa. No cow can give much milk when +the feed is hardly nutritive enough to keep her alive. + +There seems to be, however, much difference in the dry fodders from +different varieties of sorghum. One grower writes: "Kaffir corn is the +only variety within our knowledge of which the fodder is of much value. +We consider the fodder much more preferable than that of the ordinary +Indian corn, and our stock eat it much more readily than the sweet +sorghum. However, it requires a much longer season in which to ripen +than does any of the other varieties, for which reason it is less +desirable to plant in midsummer." + + + +Steers on Alfalfa. + + + +How much alfalfa hay will a two or three-year-old steer eat per day, and +about what is the gain in weight per day? + +A steer will clean up about 33 pounds per day. Steers will make about 1 +1/2 pounds gain in weight per day. + + + +Concentrates with Alfalfa. + + + +I have a good supply of alfalfa hay and have been feeding this as a +straight feed for my dairy cows. They are not, however, doing as well as +they should and I am looking for some good feed to go with it. + +You could probably get better returns by feeding about a pound of +cocoanut meal and three of dried beet pulp than by any other combination +of concentrates with straight alfalfa. If you are producing market milk +or butter prices justify it, more concentrates could profitably be fed. +It is an expensive proposition to build up a properly balanced ration +with alfalfa and concentrates alone, and unless market milk is being +sold, it usually does not pay. The cheapest way to provide a balanced +ration is not by concentrates, but by wheat or other grain straw, and +let the cows eat all they care for. This is very cheap and helps to +balance a ration with green or dry alfalfa hay, is usually cheap, and is +fine for cows. Both are much less expensive than concentrates. + + + +Chopping Hay for Horses. + + + +What saving may be made by chopping all oat hay when fed to horses? + +There is no particular saving in chopping hay unless the horses are +worked very hard and for very long hours, as is often the case with +express horses in the cities, or unless the power for cutting is very +cheap and feed high. The idea is that, except in unusual cases as above +mentioned, the horses can do their own grinding cheaper than it can be +done by power. Somewhat less hay is wasted when fed cut than when fed +long, but if they are not fed too much long hay they will waste very +little. + + + +Grain for Horses. + + + +What is the best formula for feeding work horses with oat hay, alfalfa, +barley (crushed) and corn as rations? + +Feed one-half oat hay and one-half alfalfa hay, about 1 to 1 1/2 pounds +per day for each 100 pounds live weight of the horse. Add to this from +3/4 to 1 pound of rolled barley or corn for each 100 pounds live weight. +If the corn is on the cob, four-fifths of its weight is corn; that is to +say, 5 pounds of corn on the cob has 4 pounds of grain. + + + +Feeding Cut Alfalfa Hay. + + + +Would alfalfa hay, cut, say, from one-half to three inches in length be +better than whole hay for hogs, cattle and horses, and if it is better, +should it be fed wet or dry? + +Cattle and horses do much better when fed chopped alfalfa hay than when +fed whole hay. They can eat the required amount in much less time and +with less exertion. For cattle and horses the hay should be cut about +one inch long and fed dry. There is no advantage in chopping alfalfa hay +for hogs unless it is mixed with ground grain and made into slop. - L. +P. Denny. + + + +Storing Cut Alfalfa Hay. + + + +We are planning on cutting our next season's crop of alfalfa with a feed +cutter and storing it in a barn for winter feeding. + +The hay must, of course, be thoroughly cured, because of the great +danger of heating in a tight mass. A. Balfour says: "I have been cutting +alfalfa into a barn for wo seasons. It is absolutely necessary to have +the sides and floor tight, and it is easier to feed it if it is in a +loft. The hay is best stacked first, and must be thoroughly cured." + + + +Alfalfa Grinding. + + + +Is the curing of alfalfa for grinding different from ordinary; has it to +be chopped before grinding, and what is the cost of grinding? + +Alfalfa hay should be cut when the very first blossoms commence to +appear. At this point the plant contains the greatest amount of protein; +from that time on until seed time, the protein diminishes and fiber +increases. To make meal, hay should be well cured, have gone through the +sweat, and should be dry, or as near dry as possible. It mills easier +when dry and makes a finer product. It should be cured so as to retain +the green color. To grind it, it is not necessary to cut it before +grinding, it mills better if ground just as it comes from the stack. The +cost of milling hay varies with the size of the machine, condition of +hay, whether dry or damp, or whether tough or tender. With larger plants +of a capacity of four to five tons per hour, it costs about 45 cents a +ton to put it in the sack, exclusive of the cost of sacks; and with +smaller, it runs from that on up to $1 to $2 per ton. + + + +Feeding Calves. + + + +How soon can calves be weaned and not hinder their growth? After +weaning, what would you advise to feed them? + +After the calf has once nursed, it should be taken away from its mother, +but fed its mother's milk for a few days, depending on the vigor of the +calf. Commence to add skim-milk after a week or ten days, adding a small +amount at first and increasing it daily until the calf is on an entirely +skim-milk diet. The milk must be sweet, it must be as warm as its +mother's milk and the calf must not have too much of it. Four quarts at +a feed twice a day is sufficient for the average sized calf for the +first month, then increase it accordingly. Add a spoonful of ground +flaxseed to each feed and teach the calf to eat a little grain as soon +as possible. Ground barley is the most economical feed to balance a +ration containing so much skim-milk. If calves show a tendency to +looseness of the bowels, feed less milk, and when this does not remedy +the trouble, heat some skim-milk to boiling and when it is cooled to a +proper temperature feed this to the calf. A good grain ration to feed +calves along with skim-milk is ground barley with green alfalfa hay. +When the milk is cut off, feed barley and bran soaked with molasses +water. Put a pint of molasses in a pail of water and dampen feed with +it. This amount will dampen three bushels of feed. - W. M. Carruthers. + + + +Winter Feed for Sheep. + + + +What would be the best to sow for sheep pasture - barley, oats, rye, vetch +or rape? + +Of the grains, rye is usually found to be best for quick winter growth, +and rye and vetches sown together are very satisfactory, because the rye +holds the vetches up so that the whole growth can be more successfully +handled with the mower, and if grown that way and fed green in a corral, +a very large amount of good feed can be secured. Sufficient experiments +have not yet been made with rape to fully demonstrate its value. Even if +it grew well, it would be inferior in nutritive value to vetches and +rye. + + + +Balanced Rations. + + + +What is a balanced ration for milk cows and brood sows? + +When plenty of alfalfa is available many dairymen feed that alone. It is +better to feed a little corn, grain hay, beet pulp or the beets +themselves to balance up the ration. Some of the best concentrates to +feed to offset alfalfa hay are ground barley and dried beet pulp. The +same thing can be said about the sows. They will consume about 10 pounds +of chopped alfalfa per day and all the skim-milk that is likely to be +given them. Not more than eight pounds of concentrates need be fed, of +which one-fifth may be bran, the same amount, or more, of cocoanut oil +cake, and the rest corn or barley. With plenty of skim-milk and alfalfa, +but little grain or other concentrates will be needed. A few beets will +also go well with alfalfa. + + + +Pasture and Cover Crop. + + + +I am thinking of sowing burr clover with rye to be plowed under in the +spring. Is it good policy to sow rye with clover? + +Burr clover and rye would be very satisfactory for sowing, after the +rains, to secure a winter growth for plowing under in March or April, or +earlier if the growth should be large enough to warrant. Such a cover +crop can be pastured lightly to advantage. + + + +Cutting Corn for Silage. + + + +What is the best time to cut corn for the silo? What length is it cut? +Is water put on it when it is put in the silo? + +The best time to cut corn for the silo is just as the kernels are +beginning to glaze. It is cut with a proper ensilage cutter into half or +three-quarter inch lengths. No water is used, unless the corn should be +unusually dry, with shriveled leaves; in that case, the use of water to +compensate for the loss of moisture in the stalks and leaves is +desirable. + + + +Fall and Winter Pasturage. + + + +What do you advise for planting in the fall for winter pasture in the +Sacramento valley? Are field peas suitable? + +The common California field pea, called Niles pea, the Canadian pea, the +common vetch (which is sometimes called the Oregon vetch because the +seed is largely grown in that State) are all suitable for fall planting +and winter growth because they are not injured by ordinary valley +frosts. Aside from legumes, you can get winter feed from fall-sown rye, +Essex rape or kale. + + + +Summer Pasture for Hogs. + + + +I want to pasture hogs in the San Joaquin valley this spring and summer. +Have water for irrigation, but will not have time to get alfalfa started +sufficient to pasture. + +Sorghum can be planted with pumpkins or some root crop between the rows. +The root crop or the pumpkins could be used in the later summer, while +the sorghums could come between the natural grasses of the early spring +and the root crops. A strictly pasturage scheme is to sow wheat or +barley and turn the hogs on this, so that they will eat within certain +prescribed limits. In order to do this, the field needs a shifting +fence, so that the hogs can be driven from one section to another - +never letting the hogs eat too closely, as they will kill off the stand. + + + +Size of a Silo. + + + +I am planning to build a silo 8 feet high and 10 feet across. Will +ensilage (corn, oats) keep well in a silo of those dimensions? + +The silo you are intending to build is too shallow, and would hold only +a very small amount of silage. There would be several inches loss of +silage before you could start feeding, and you would have to feed at +least two and probably three inches off per day in order to keep the +food from spoiling. Sixty inches of silage would thus only last about +twenty days. Also, the deeper a silo is, the tighter the ensilage is +packed and the more will be contained in a cubic foot. The following +table will give suggestions as to dimensions: + +Diameter. Height. Capacity. Diameter. Height. Capacity. +10 feet 25 feet 36 tons 14 feet 34 feet 115 tons +10 " 28 " 42 " 15 " 34 " 131 " +11 " 29 " 60 " 16 " 35 " 158 " +12 " 32 " 73 " 20 " 35 " 258 " +13 " 33 " 83 " + +A cow can consume four tons of silage in 180 days and more or less as +you care to feed, so by figuring out how long you will probably feed, +you can see the size of silo to build at once. + + + +Soiling Crops in California. + + + +What are the dates for planting crops to be used for soiling in your +State? + +We are using Indian corn and sorghums of various kinds for soiling to a +certain extent. There is also some cutting and carrying of alfalfa, +although most of the alfalfa is pastured. Dates of planting depend upon +the frost-free period; sometimes beginning in April, and successive +planting for later growth as water may be available for irrigation. +There are places where one can see standing corn and sorghum untouched +by frost as late as December 1. In other locations the growth of these +plants have to be made between May and September. We have also +winter-soiling practiced to a small extent in this State and for that +purpose rye and barley sown at the beginning of the rainy season are +used to some extent. + + + +Brewer's Grains for Cows. + + + +Are sprouted barley grains that may be had from breweries good for milch +cows? Will it increase the milk, or will it dry up the cows? + +Professor Henry, in his standard work on "Feeds and Feedings," says: +"Fresh brewer's grains constitute one of the best feeds for the dairy +cow. She is fond of them and they influence most favorably the flow of +milk. Fed while fresh in reasonable quantities, supplemented by bright +hay or corn fodder for dry feed, the grains being kept in tight +feed-boxes which can be kept clean, and with other conditions favorable +to the healthfulness of the cow, no valid objection can be raised +against this form of feed. From 20 to 30 pounds of wet grains should +constitute a day's allowance." + + + +Feeding Pumpkins. + + + +What is the proper way to feed pumpkins to cows? Some say to cut them in +halves; while others say they must be chopped fine enough so that the +cows cannot choke on them. Some tell me the seeds tend to dry the cows +up, and should not be fed with pumpkins. + +Pumpkins should be either cut in halves or broken in large fragments so +that the stock can get a bite at them or else should be chopped fine, +and we could never see the advantage of going to that trouble. Cutting +into medium-sized pieces is dangerous because of the temptation to +swallow them whole and thus getting choked. It is not necessary to +remove the seeds. + + + +Feeding a Family Cow. + + + +What shall I feed family Jersey cow in addition to alfalfa hay to insure +a good supply of milk? + +One of the best things to feed in addition to alfalfa hay is a couple of +quarts of middling or bran twice a day, with which is mixed a cup of +molasses with enough water to make a nice paste. Dried beet pulp is +exceptionally good with alfalfa, if it is available, this also to be +moistened before feeding. + + + +Rolled Barley for Cows. + + + +Will rolled barley hurt milk cows, say two light feeds a day? Will it +not do about as much good as the same amount of bran? + +Certainly not and otherwise will be good if not used in excess to +encourage fattening. Bran is a better feed for milk because it has a +higher protein content. + + + +Horse Beans and Pie-melons. + + + +Would it pay me to raise horse beans for fattening hogs? Horse beans do +well. Would citrons do well there without irrigation, and would they be +better than stock-beets for hog feed? + +We do not promise anyone that anything will pay. Horsebeans are good +with other feeds for hogs. Theoretically, they will balance well with +pie-melons and beets, and both the latter will produce well on good land +with proper cultivation in the valley you mention. Theoretically, also, +we would rather have beets than pie-melons. The hogs will tell you the +rest. + + + +Horse Beans. + + + +Are "horse beans" a leguminous crop and how does their feeding value for +hogs compare to cowpeas and Canadian field peas? + +They surely are legumes, and they resemble so closely in composition the +other legumes which you mention that their feeding value would be +practically the same. + + + +Storing Stock Beets. + + + +What is the best method of storing stock beets and stock carrots in this +climate? We can let them remain in the ground and grow until February or +March and would like to preserve them for feeding as long as possible. + +Stock beets and carrots can be stored in California without recourse to +covering with ground or use of a cellar. They keep very well during the +winter if piled under cover in such a way as to keep cool and dry. + + + +Kale for Cow Feed. + + + +What is kale worth for cow feed as compared with alfalfa, also can it be +cut and cured the same as alfalfa and what variety is the best? + +Kale is very similar to cabbage in growth, and for feeding purposes. For +cow feed it would have about three-fourths the amount of digestible +nutrients as green alfalfa, but would have an added value on account of +its succulency. It would go especially well with alfalfa hay. The Jersey +or Thousand-Headed kale is considered the standard for stock or poultry +feed. It is always fed fresh and is not made into hay. + + + +What Kind of Beet for Stock? + + + +Which would be most valuable to plant on river-bottom land for cattle +and hog feed, sugar beets or mangels? + +Grow a large stock of beet by all means - either a mangel or a tankard. +Usually you will get more weight than with sugar beets; the cost of +harvesting is far less, and the nutritive contents high enough. + + + +Keeping Pumpkins. + + + +What is the best way of storing pumpkins, under ordinary farm +conditions, in a climate such as we have here in northern California? I +have no facilities for cold storage. + +All you have to do in this climate to keep pumpkins is to keep them out +of reach of the stock. They do not need storage of any kind, but will +keep in good condition during the late autumn and winter months in any +open-air place where they may be convenient for feeding purposes. In +parts of California where there is hard ground freezing, protection must +be given by covering with boards or straw or any other material +available. We have no need for root cellars or cold storage, for our +winter temperatures are neither high nor low enough to hurt them. + + + +Grape Pomace as Hog Feed. + + + +What is the value of grape pomace as a hog feed? + +It has been sold for 50 cents a ton as it comes from the press at the +winery and when a person has not got any surplus of other feeds, it is +evidently worth that and then some. The only way to feed it is to put it +up in a big pile and let the hogs take it as they want it. It will help +keep them growing through the winter provided they have other feed with +it that might not be sufficient without the pomace. + + + +Proper Feeding of Young Pigs. + + + +If I put two 50-pound shoats to an acre of barley that will yield 10 or +12 sacks of grain, how many months could they be kept there to +advantage, and what gain could I expect them to make in that time? + +If the pigs have been properly fed and were of good stock, they should +have attained a weight of 50 pounds at three or four months of age. Pigs +in this condition would be more likely to lose than gain turned on a dry +barley field, even if the yield were double what you state. Barley is an +excellent fattener for mature hogs, but is a poor food for young growing +pigs. Young pigs should have a balanced ration, which may be defined as +a little of almost all kinds of feed and not all of any one kind. We +have pigs running on a barley field such as you describe, and in +addition to the barley we feed them once a day a slop composed of wheat +middling and bran in equal parts by measurement, to which we add about 8 +per cent tankage, and they seem to be moving along nicely. Without the +slop we don't think they would hold their own. - Chas. Goodman. + + + +Pie-melons and Pigs. + + + +I have 14 sows which were fed almost entirely on pie-melons and milk, +not much of the latter. Out of the 14, only 3 sows have saved any pigs; +the rest lost all the young they had. Four or five sows that for the +last three weeks have had no melons, nothing but green grass and a +little whole barley each day, are saving their pigs all right. + +Pie-melons are poor feed and pigs which are not given anything better +ought to fail. "Green grass and a little whole barley" is much better +feed than pie-melons. Pie-melons are useful fed with alfalfa hay or some +richer food. + + + +Wheat or Barley for Hogs. + + + +Which would be the better grain for me to buy for hog feed; wheat at +$1.30 per hundred, or barley at $1? Would it be worth paying 10 cents a +hundred for rolling, and then haul the grain 8 miles by wagon? + +Wheat is only considered about 10 per cent more valuable as a hog feed +than barley, so that in your case, barley at $1 is the cheaper. In +Bulletin 80 of the Oregon Station it was found that crushed wheat was 29 +per cent more efficient than the whole grain, and it is safe to say that +barley will run about the same, enough so at any rate to pay the extra +10 cents a hundred for crushing and the hauling. + + + +Grain and Pasture for Pigs. + + + +What is the most profitable amount of grain to feed to spring pigs while +on alfalfa pasture, from the time of weaning to the time of marketing? + +We doubt the profit of feeding whole grain to hogs of any age while on +green pasture. On almost all kinds of land they will get enough grit to +keep their teeth sore, hence they will not masticate the grain +thoroughly. Perfect mastication is very essential. We would feed the +pigs all the slop that they would clean up good twice a day. The slop to +be composed of equal parts of corn, barley meal ground fine, and wheat +middlings mixed with milk. There is nothing in all the world like milk +for growing pigs. If milk is not to be had, we would add from 5 to 10 +per cent meat meal, which we consider next to milk. If whole grain is to +be used, it should be thoroughly cooked on account of the pigs' teeth +not being in condition to chew the hard grain. - Chas. Goodman. + + + +Growing Pigs on Roots and Barley. + + + +We can raise all kinds of root crops, such as carrots, sugar beets, +rutabagas, etc., and cow peas and pumpkins do wonderfully well. Will +hogs do well an that kind of diet, especially if given a little barley +with it? + +The plants that you mention are good for hog feeding and can be used to +advantage with a little barley as you suggest. None of these plants are, +however, rich in protein as alfalfa and the other clovers are. The +reason why we get such a rapid and satisfactory growth of young hogs in +California is due to the fact that they are largely kept on alfalfa and +rapid growth is the product of a sufficient protein content in the +fodder. Both common field peas and cowpeas do not possess this element, +and if you can grow them they will serve as a substitute for the other +legumes, such as alfalfa. If you are feeding skim-milk, which is rich in +protein, roots and grain will go well with that. + + + +Wheat and Barley for Feeding. + + + +What is the difference in the feeding value of wheat and barley for hogs +and horses? + +There is very little difference in the chemical composition of wheat and +barley. In their physical condition there is much difference, chiefly +because of the adhering chaff of the barley, which makes it more +digestible because it separates the starchy mass and enables the gastric +juice to work upon the particles more readily and quickly. Oats also +have this character. This is very important in the case of horses, which +can quickly be put out of condition by feeding wheat. For hogs and +chickens it makes much less difference, and the absence of the chaff +gives a greater amount of nutritive matter to the ton, so that wheat is +worth more at the same ton price. But look out about giving horses too +much wheat. + + + +Part VII. Diseases of Animals + +This division is largely compiled from the writings of Dr. E. J. Creely +of the San Francisco Veterinary College. + + + +Abscess of Parotid Gland. + + + +My horse has had a bad cold and it has a large lump on its neck which +keeps running and does not seem to get any better; it has been running +for two weeks. + +This horse has an abscess of the parotid gland and the abscess should be +opened large enough so that the finger can be introduced to break down +adhesions, so that proper drainage can be established, after which wash +out with a 5 per cent solution of permanganate of potash. As this is a +dangerous location for a layman to interfere with, owing to the +branching of the carotid artery, pneumogastric nerve and jugular vein, +it should be done by a qualified veterinarian. + + + +Forage Poisoning. + + + +Last fall one of our horses was taken ill and had a swollen jaw. He died +soon and we supposed that he had been kicked and died of lockjaw. This +spring another was taken ill. He began dragging around, making an effort +to eat and drink, but not being able to swallow much. Something seemed +wrong with his throat and his hind legs. In two or three days he got +down, seeming to have no strength in his back. He kept struggling for +two days, not being able to swallow much; so we put him out of his +misery. Since then two others have gone off the same way. + +The trouble is due to forage poisoning, caused by the eating food +infested with poisonous moulds. The symptoms are inability to swallow +(paralysis of the muscles of deglutition) and paresis of the hind and +forequarters. When the symptoms become advanced, treatment is of little +avail. However, further troubles can be prevented by ascertaining the +food which is infested with this mould. Ofttimes, however, such food may +be apparently clean to the eye. Make a complete change of food and a +thorough cleaning of your stable and corrals of all old fodder which +might be in the mangers, or in any accessible place. Very frequently old +food which is left in the bottom of mangers becomes mouldy, and horses +picking for grain which might be left in it, eat considerable quantities +of this spoiled fodder, get poisoned. + + + +For a Scabby Swelling. + +One of my cows has a swelling on her hind leg with little scabs on it, +first it was on the front leg. It is as big as your hand. + +Use the following, applied once daily: Olive oil, 1 pint; turpentine, 2 +ounces; oil cedar, 2 ounces; lysol, 1 ounce; mix and apply. + + + +An Easement in Bloat. + + + +What can be done for bloating? + +It does not seem to be generally known that to put a bridle on a cow or +put a stick in her mouth and tie tightly with a string or strap up over +her head, so as to keep her jaws working, will relieve bloat. We have +given common soda and salt with good results to our milk cows. Take a +whip and run her around the corral, after giving the soda. This +treatment causes the wind to pass off. + + + +Fatal Skin Disease. + + + +About two months ago a horse was turned out in pasture. Several of the +horses in the pasture started to lose their hair. It seemed to fall away +from the hide, and leave the skin exposed. The horse that was newly +turned to pasture got the same disease and died. The other horses did +not die. The hair on the horse that had died had fallen off from the +sides and hind legs. + +This is gangrenous dermatis, a gangrenout inflammation of the skin. It +is due to mould, must or vegetable fungi. Remove to a new pasture, give +food free from the fungi, and apply the following ointment to the skin: +Lanoline, 8 ounces; zinc oxide, 1 ounce; Pearson's Creoline, 1/2 ounce; +tannin, 3 drachms; mix and apply once daily. + + + +Shoulder Injury on Mare. + + + +A young mare that bruised her shoulder on the point with collar. It was +lanced and now has a hard lump or callous, about three inches in +diameter. What is best to do? She is not lame, but it would interfere +with the collar. + +Get a qualified veterinarian to operate and entirely remove the growth +or you may use the following mixture to see if it will not cause it to +partly absorb and then use a dutch collar or a specially padded collar: +Compound tinct. iodine, 4 ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; oil cedar, +2 ounces; turpentine, 4 ounces; mix and apply once daily until +blistered. + + + +Horse with Worms. + + + +What is the best remedy for a horse that has worms? I would like to +know, as I have a horse that is getting poor with this trouble. + +Mix 1/2 pound pulverized and dried iron sulphate and 1/2 pound +bicarbonate of soda, and give one teaspoonful each morning until the +medicine is gone. After the last dose give the following: Turpentine, 2 +ounces; fluid extract male fern, 1/2 ounce; Pearson's Creolins, 1 ounce; +raw linseed oil, 1 pint. Mix and give all at one dose. To improve the +general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad salts, 1 +tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 3 to 5 +grains arsenious acid. If plenty rock salt is allowed for horses to +lick, they will be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight +but useful degree. + + + +Is It Mange? + + + +We have a horse five years old that is always scratching and biting +himself as if he had mange or lice. He seems to itch more on his +shoulders and front legs than any other place. We have washed him with a +carbolic wash, also with a tea made from tobacco, but so far have been +unable to stop it. He often bites his legs below the knees until he +takes off all the hair and part of the skin. None of the other horses +are, troubled, although this horse has been troubled for three years. + +Apply the following: Lysol, 1 ounce; kerosene, 4 ounces; formalin, 2 +drachms; cotton seed oil, 9 ounces. Mix and apply once daily after +washing with hot sheep dip solution 10 to 100. + + + +Horse with Itch. + + + +For about a year my horse has been itching so badly that he has rubbed +off all the hair on certain parts of his body. Lately he bites his tail. + +Whitewash the stall once weekly, scrub the harness, brushes, combs and +every stable appliance that he has come in contact with. Don't use the +same appliance on other animals that you use on this horse. Use the +following mixture once daily on affected spots: Milk of sulphur, 4 +ounces; tincture of iodine, 4 ounces; turpentine, 4 ounces; kerosene, 16 +ounces; cottonseed oil, 120 ounces. + + + +For a Bowel Trouble. + + + +What can I do to relieve a horse that balls up on alfalfa at the time of +the first symptoms? I have been bothered considerably with this, and +although I know the symptoms, I can never seem to relieve the pain +before the veterinary is called. + +Give the following prescription: Fluid extract Cannabis Indica, 3 +ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; spirits turpentine, 3 ounces; oil +peppermint, 10 drops; raw linseed oil, 24 ounces. Mix. Give one-half at +once, balance in one hour. If not relieved give several hotwater +soap-sud injections. + + + +Abnormal Thirst of Horse. + + + +I have a horse with an abnormal desire for water. I notice that in +drinking she always wants more than the others. I also notice she +perspires more freely in the harness and even will sweat in the barn at +night. + +Your horse has kidney affection, probably due to feeding hay rich in +alkalines. Treatment: Change the feed and give 1 quart of thick flaxseed +tea three times daily. + + + +Scours. + + + +Kindly recommend a treatment for a horse troubled with scours. He is on +dry feed, but the trouble continues. + +Give very little water mornings and while worked, but give plenty at +night. Feed dry rolled oats, oat hay, one handful of whole flaxseed at +night, and the following powder: Bismuth subgalate, 4 ounces; iron +sulphate, dessicated, 8 ounces; bismuth subnitrate, 8 ounces. Mix, and +give a heaping teaspoonful each morning. + + + +Depraved Appetite. + + + +I have a colt about one year old that continually delights in chewing up +harness, ropes, chews on the manger and, in fact, anything it can get a +hold of. + +This is a condition caused by something being lacking in the system +(lime, salts, etc.). Give plenty of salt, good food, grain, etc. Get +this prescription: Iron sulphate, 2 ounces; soda syposulphate, 4 ounces; +Gentian root pulv., 2 ounces; ginger, 1 ounce. Mix and give teaspoonful +daily. + + + +Good Dentist Needed. + + + +I have an old horse which has always been fat and quite full of life +until right lately. Now he is getting thin and looks bad. He eats his +food all right. I had his teeth fixed a few weeks ago. The man said they +were bad and he fixed them as well as he could. + +There is probably an excessively long molar projecting into a cavity and +the projecting molar should be cut off by a qualified veterinarian. The +horse will begin to pick up and grow fat almost as soon as the condition +is relieved. Most horse owners will permit every person with a float to +ruin a horse's mouth without inquiring whether the dentist possesses +proper qualifications as certified by a State license and diploma. + + + +Kidney Trouble. + + + +My horse has some trouble in passing water. What can I give him that may +be put in the mash? I don't think his trouble is due all to old age, for +it didn't come on gradually. + +Give gran. sal nitre: a teaspoonful daily in water is good to stimulate +the kidneys. + + + +For Chronic Indigestion. + + + +I have given my horse condition powders for indigestion, but her hair is +rough still. Do you advise feeding on the road when a horse leaves the +stable at 10 a. m., traveling continually for thirty miles, returning +5:30 p. m., being fed at 7 a. m.? + +A great majority of condition powders contain resin and antimony. While +a slight amount may be beneficial, continued use results in affection of +the kidneys by over-stimulation. Give the following for indigestion: +Bismuth subintrate, 1 ounce; powdered pepsine, 1 ounce; soda bi +carbonate, 12 ounces; carbonate iron, 2 ounces. Mix and give a heaping +teaspoon twice daily. By all means feed your horse three times daily and +water as often as you can. It is unnecessary to warn you that the horse +must not be overheated when you give the noonday feed. + + + +Wound Sore. + + + +My colt got its hind leg cut on barbed wire some weeks ago. There is a +hole about an inch and one-half deep in the center of the sore which +will not heal. The inside of the sore does not seem very tender, but the +leg stays swollen all of the time and is somewhat feverish. + +This is probably a fistulous track that should be curetted by a +veterinarian, after which the following formula could be used to heal: +Acetanilide, 1/2 ounce; zinc oxide, 1/4 ounce; bismuth subgalate, 1 1/4 +ounce. Mix and apply on cotton and bandage once daily after washing. + + + +Warts on Horse. + + + +How can warts be removed from a horse's hide? + +We use sulphuric acid. The results were favorable from the very start. +The warts rapidly shrunk away and finally disappeared entirely. The acid +is applied to the crown of the wart with a small swab or similar +instrument, and only in sufficient quantities to wet the crown surface +of the wart. It should be applied about three times a week until the +wart is well reduced. Don't use too much acid, and don't keep up the +application too long - A. F. Etter. + + + +Kidney Trouble in Horse. + + + +What is the remedy for a horse that stops often to urinate while +working? + +The horse is affected by an irritation of the kidneys. Give 1 quart of +flaxseed tea daily, change the food and give 1 drachm of C. P. +hydro-chloric acid in one bucket of drinking water. + + + +Castration of Colt. + + + +Which is the correct and best way to castrate a yearling colt, with an +emasculator or a blade, and when is the proper time? + +An emasculator is the only instrument to use in castrating. The object +in using any instrument is to prevent a hemorrhage, and nothing works +with so much certainty and quickness. The A. Hausman and Dunn +emasculator is recommended. The proper time is when the weather is mild, +the grass at its best and the colt in good condition. + + + +For a Chronic Cough. + + + +We have a mare seven years old that is troubled with a chronic cough, +and at times shows symptoms of heaves, and also has occasionally a white +foamy discharge from the nostrils. She is a greedy eater and drinker and +her excreta is often very offensive. + +If she expels flatus when she coughs, this would indicate a +predisposition to heaves. Wet all food, as dry or dusty food aggravates +the cough. Give the following: Spirits camphor, 4 ounces; Fl. Ext. +belladonna, 2 ounces; neutral oil, 8 ounces; oil eucalyptus, 2 ounces. +Mix and give tablespoonful three times daily. + + + +Chronic Indigestion. + + + +I have a mare eleven years old. Give her plenty of oats, hay, grain and +a little alfalfa hay three nights per week and leave salt where she can +get at it, but she is falling off and her hair does not lie down +properly. She eats well and her system seems to be in good condition. +Have had her teeth attended to so she chews her food well. + +This condition is caused by the animal not being able to properly +masticate the food. Have your dentist examine the mouth again, or you +can carefully examine the feces and see if it shows whole grain, or long +pieces of hay. + + + +For Short-Wind or Heaves. + + + +I have a mare that has something wrong with her wind. About six months +ago I noticed her wind was not good and she had a slight cough, and +about a week later, while working her, she seemed to choke down and +almost died before she got her wind, and since then she sometimes takes +those spells should she trot off briskly for a short distance. + +Give two 3/2-ounce doses of Fowler's solution arsenic daily. Dusty or +musty hay will aggravate the symptoms. Thoroughly shake out the dust and +wet the hay. Feed hay only at night. Give the animal as little feed and +water as possible before being put to work. Continue this treatment one +month if necessary. The following is a case of experience with this +treatment: For a remedial agent we began to use Fowler's Solution of +Arsenic, in two teaspoonful doses at first. once a day, put in the water +with which the hay was moistened. These doses were given for a few days, +then skipped for a day, then continued for five or six days again. This +treatment has been continued. At times when the trouble was most severe, +giving a great spoonful at a dose, twice a day for two days, then +stopping for a day or two, always being sure to mix it with the water +which the hay is moistened, so that it shall be taken into the stomach +very slowly. This course of treatment has served to so relieve the +disease that nature has nearly or quite overcome it. + + + +Side-Bone. + + + +I have a 1500-pound 3-year-old colt with small brittle feet that has +side bone coming on left front foot caused by driving him barefoot on +the road two or three months ago. + +A good blister of the following once every six weeks for three times +will stop the side-bones from growing. Side-bones on a draft horse are +not considered an unsoundness; in light fast drivers it is an incurable +blemish causing lameness. Side-bones cannot be removed. Use this +blister: Simple cerate, 4 ounces; cantharides, 3 drachms; bin iodide +mercury, 2 drachms. Mix thoroughly and apply after clipping hair. + + + +Fungus Poisoning. + + + +One of my mares, every evening after a full day's work harrowing, stands +for an hour or so with her head to the ground, shaking it frequently and +not touching the feed till the spell was over. She does not seem to be +any worse off, and in the morning seems to be in good shape. + +This is due to a mold or fungus in the earth or hay. Let them have +access to plenty of water during the day. In the morning feed give a +handful of sodium hyposulphate. + + + +Treatment for Horse's Feet. + + + +The soles of the fore feet of a fine 4-year-old horse, weight 1350, are +rather spongy and grow down faster than the hoof, sometimes causing +slight lameness. He is not on soft pasture, but is stabled all the time. +Now have bar shoes on him. What treatment do you recommend? + +Use leather, tar and okum and a dish-shoe. + + + +For a Cleft Hoof. + + + +I have a horse with a cracked hoof. One hind foot has been in a bad +condition, the other seems to be beginning to crack. Can anything be +done by feeding or otherwise to toughen the hoofs and render them less +liable to crack? + +Apply the following: Honey, 2 ounces; yellow wax, 4 ounces; tar, 2 +ounces; olive oil, 8 ounces. Melt, mix and apply once daily. + + + +Stiff Joints. + + + +I have a horse that was bruised on the ankle about two years ago. This +is now producing an enlargement of the bone and stiffness of the joint. + +Apply the following liniment: Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce; tinct. iodine, 1 +ounce; pulv. camphor, 1 ounce; alcohol, ounces; turpentine, 2 ounces; +oil of cedar, 2 ounces. + + + +Treatment for Nail Puncture. + + + +Our horse got a nail in his foot. It was a wire nail, rusty, entering +about one inch from the point of the frog, and just puncturing far +enough to reach a sensitive part of the hoof. It occurred six days ago; +the nail was pulled at once, the hoof cut open, and thoroughly cleaned +with turpentine (the first thing we could get), then later filled with +iodine. Since then I have kept on a flaxseed poultice. + +The treatment with turpentine and iodine was proper and should prove a +success. If the foot becomes tender and inflamed, it will be because all +dirt was not removed from the wound, and the poultice should be taken +off, all foreign matter removed from the wound, and the treatment +repeated. In case of similar accidents, other disinfectants could be +used in place of turpentine or iodine. + + + +Pregnancy of Mare. + + + +Is there any way to tell when a mare is in foal? I have had a +veterinarian and he could not tell me. + +There is no very good way to tell whether a mare is in foal for some +time. Practically speaking, the safest way to do is to have her bred +every time she comes in heat until she takes the stallion no longer. +Even then some mares will come in heat a couple of times after getting +in foal. If the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare +persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant, +though not surely so. Also if a vicious mare becomes gentle after +service it is an excellent indication of pregnancy; likewise pregnant +mares will very often put on fat rapidly after conception and will be +unable and unwilling to do as hard work as before. Enlargement of the +abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight falling in beneath +the loins and hollowness of the back are significant symptoms, though +they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with +the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even though it +appears only at intervals during gestation. A steady increase of weight +(1 1/4 pounds daily) about the fourth or fifth month is a useful +indication of pregnancy. The further along the mare is in gestation the +more pronounced the symptoms become. In the early stages it is naturally +much more difficult to detect, especially with the great differences in +different mares. Cessation of heat and changes of disposition are about +the best signs in early stages. + + + +Diseased Uterus of Mare. + + + +I have a brood mare that has given me two fine colts, but for the last +two years I have not been able to get her with foal. She takes service +and then refuses service for three or four months, and about the time I +come to the conclusion that she is safe with foal she will pass off +great quantities of mattery substance. I have had her thoroughly washed +out with Lysol previous to breeding, but so far she has repeated this +performance each time about three or four months after service. + +This is a disease of the ovaries or uterus; perhaps mumification of a +foetus. Irrigate with a normal salt solution (teaspoon salt to each pint +of warm water) only daily. Insert the solution through the neck of the +womb into the uterus. Give internally 1/2 ounce daily of Fowler's +Solution of Arsenic. + + + +Deep-Seated Abscess. + + + +I have a mule which has a swelling on the throat about where the +throatlatch touches. It just seems to be swollen hard and not sore. I am +using caustic liniment to fester it so it will come to a head and I can +open it, but the liniment does not seem to do much good. The mule is +losing flesh and does not eat much. + +This mule should be operated upon at once by a qualified veterinarian. +The application of liniments or blisters are useless; the knife only +will effect a cure. The fact that the mule is losing flesh makes the +case serious. + + + +Cure for Cocked Ankles. + + + +I have a 4-year-old mare that has cocked ankles, and would like to know +what treatment to give her. + +Cocked ankles are due to an inflammation of the tendons back of the +ankle and a drawing up or contraction in consequence. Put on heel calks +one inch, no toe, to rest and relieve the back tendons from strain. +Apply the following liniment at night, after which put on cold-water +swabs and let them remain all night: Soap liniment, 8 ounces; tincture +iodine, 2 ounces; oil cedar, 4 ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces. Mix +and apply once daily. + + + +Dehorning. + + + +Which is the best way to dehorn cows and calves? + +The best time to dehorn cows is in the spring, before the fly season +starts. It is best not to have a cow too far along in calf before +dehorning, as she is very apt to lose her calf. It is also better to +dehorn before your cows freshen, because when cows are milking and are +dehorned they will go back in their milk a great deal for the first +month after the dehorning has taken place. Calves can be dehorned by +blistering the little buttons before they adhere to the skull. This is +very simple and not painful. First clip the hair about the horns and wet +the little loose button and apply caustic potash, in stick form, by +rubbing it on the damp horn. Remember, this must be done before the horn +adheres to the skull. Also remember not to use water enough to run the +lye away from the button and rub until the skin reddens. Also, look out +to keep your end of the potash stick dry or you may dehorn the tips of +your fingers. + + + +Paralysis During Pregnancy. + + + +I have a cow that will freshen in a few days. About six days ago she +seemed weak in her hind legs and on going downhill would drag or stumble +for 10 or 12 feet, then catch herself and go on rather wobbly. + +Pregnant animals about to bring forth their young sometimes show a +paralysis or loss of power in their hind parts due to pressure of +foetus. Nature corrects this after birth. + + + +Bloody Milk. + + + +What can be done to stop bloody milk? + +Milk each teat in a separate glass jar, let stand to ascertain which +teat the red specks are coming from, then milk the teats clean and +inject the infected teat with equal parts of hydrogen dioxide and water. +After a few hours inject 4 drachms of ferric chloride in 1 ounce of +water. Then milk clean. + + + +To Cleanse Cows. + + + +My cows are healthy and calves all right, but seem to have trouble +throwing the afterbirth. + +Wash out twice daily with about 1 gallon of normal salt solution +(teaspoonful of salt to each pint of warm water). Give internally the +following powder: Pulv. gentian, 4 ounces; puv. slippery elm, 1 ounce; +puv. charcoal, 1 ounce; pulv. hyposulphate of soda. 8 ounces. Mix and +give a heaping teaspoonful twice daily. + + + +Treatment for Caked Bag. + + + +I have a cow whose udder is caked hard and has been swollen from the +udder to the forelegs. This latter swelling has gone down by applying +equal mixture of turpentine and lard, but the udder itself still remains +hard. When first noticed, one teat caked, then another, until all four +are caked alike. + +Insert a milk tube and inject the following: Hydrogen dioxide, 8 ounces; +tincture iron chloride, 1 ounce; water, 7 ounces. Inject into each +affected teat. Apply the following externally: Camphorated oil, 8 +ounces; tincture belladonna, 2 ounces; oil eucalyptus, 2 ounces. Mix and +apply twice daily. + + + +Garget. + + + +I have a cow which gave rich milk all the time, but now every time I +milk her some yellow, hard substance will come out instead of milk. +First from one teat, then the next, and when I strain the milk the +strainer will be full of hard yellow specks. + +Your cow has undoubtedly been affected with garget. This milk should not +be used. The condition is best treated by massaging the udder every day +with camphorated oil. It will also be necessary for you to continue to +milk her regularly until about six weeks before she is due to freshen, +at which time you should proceed to dry her up. + + + +Infectious Mastitis. + + + +We have a 2-year-old heifer, which, two weeks before she was due to +freshen, had a large udder slightly caked. Upon pressing the teat a +discharge of blood issues from each teat. + +This is infectious mastitis. It may be due to a bruise or blow or +infection introduced through the milk duct. The first is most likely. +Apply camphorated oil externally and inject into the affected udder some +hydrogen dioxide (peroxide of hydrogen. - EDITOR.). After ten minutes, +milk out again. Repeat once daily. + + + +A Mangy Cow. + + + +I have a milk cow with some trouble about her head, neck and shoulders, +which causes her to rub herself enough to make raw spots and take off +most all of the hair from the parts affected. The trouble has been +standing for 18 months, but I have been using medicine at different +times, which stops the rubbing, and the part will cover with hair nicely +again, but in due time the trouble shows up again. + +This cow seems to have mange or scabbies, which is caused by a parasite +and is easily spread by contact to other cattle. It should be treated by +two or three applications, ten days apart, of a hot solution of creolin, +well scrubbed into the skin. The solution is made by mixing five +tablespoonfuls of creolin in a gallon of hot water. The treatment should +be applied pretty well over the body to cover all the affected parts, +and needs to be repeated in ten days to destroy the younger generation. +The sheds should be cleaned and whitewashed. + + + +Irritation on Back of Udder. + + + +I have a yearling heifer which has sore teats and blotches just back of +her bag which seem to itch. Her mother had a sort of eczema on her neck. +I fear her sore teats will spoil her for milking when she comes in next +year. + +The following treatment is advised: Drench with 1 pound of Epsom salts +dissolved in a couple quarts of water. The sores may be treated by +washing them with a 2 per cent solution of one of the coaltar +disinfectants, such as creolin. After the sores have been allowed to dry +naturally, a very little powdered calomel may be dusted thereon. Do this +every other day for a few days. + + + +Enlarged Gland on Neck. + + + +I have a calf that has a lump on her neck, which appeared when she was +two days old. The lump is getting larger. + +This is probably an enlarged thyroid gland. Apply the following once +daily for several weeks and let it alone unless it becomes too large or +gets very soft, which is unlikely. Churchill's tincture iodine, 8 +ounces; turpentine, 1 ounce; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; oil aniseed, 1/2 +ounce. Mix and apply once daily. + + + +Lumpy Jaw. + + + +Some of my cows have hard lumps on their jaws, or lumpy jaw. Can that be +cured, and how? + +This is Actinomycosis (lumpy jaw) and is due to ray fungi (actinomyces) +which are found originally on plants which enter the body in various +ways. The trouble usually appears in the upper or lower jaws of cattle, +where it generally produces tumors of bone or soft tissues. For +treatment give 1 1/2 drachms of iodide of potash in 1/2 pint of water +daily for 14 days. Increase to 2 drachms for 14 more days, and then +gradually decrease. Divide the tumor and insert gauze saturated with +tincture of iodine for 4 days. In 8 days a visible improvement will be +noticed, + + + +A Neck-Swelling. + + + +My cow has a swelling under her neck between her jaw bones about the +size of a baseball and almost as hard. It is not attached to anything +apparently, but largely suspended by the skin at the entrance to the +throat. + +Cut directly through the center of the enlargement, clean to the bottom, +splitting it wide open. Clean it out with peroxide of hydrogen, after +which saturate absorbent cotton with tincture iodine, pack in tight and +sew the skin to hold it in place. Remove the dressing in 48 hours and +wash with sheep dip (tablespoon to 1 quart of warm water) twice daily. +This may be tubercular, or the result of foxtail, etc. + + + +Cow Chewing Bones. + + + +One of my cows is continually chewing bones. What can I do to prevent +it? + +Give the cow good clean hay; some root crop, cocoanut meal, bran or +soy-bean meal. If the cow does not stop mix in the drinking water twice +daily a little dilute hydrochloric acid. Also, have boxes arranged near +feeding stalls which contain wood ashes, slaked lime and salt. + + + +Swelling on the Dewlap. + + + +I have a cow that has a large lump at the point of the breastbone, the +dewlap. This lump is as large as a cocoanut, and was caused, I think, by +friction against a low manger in eating. + +Get equal parts of tincture of iodine and soap liniment and rub onto the +swelling twice daily for a week. + + + +Barren Heifers. + + + +I have three heifers, 3 years old, which have run with the bull right +along and have failed with calf; have had three different bulls to them; +what can be done? + +There is a possibility of contagious abortion causing these heifers to +fail to breed. If this has occurred in the herd, the heifers are very +apt to be affected. If apparently healthy, reduce me feed and make the +heifers take considerable exercise to reduce flesh. Give each a dram of +powdered nux vomIca and one-half dram of dried sulphate of iron once +daily in a little feed. Breed to a healthy bull when the heifers come in +heat. + + + +A Sterile Cow. + + + +I have a very fine Jersey cow. I have had her to the bull every month, +and can't get her with calf. + +In an isolated case of this kind there is probably some disease of the +generative organs or some condition whereby the impregnation cannot +occur even when the animal is bred. The ovaries may be cystic; there may +be chronic inflammation of the womb and possibly the mouth of the womb +was injured at last calf birth and the scar prevents its admitting the +fertilizing cells. If possible, a veterinarian should make a careful +examination of this cow in order to determine what the trouble is. +However, this treatment may be tried: About the time of coming in heat, +give the cow a large dose of glaubers salts (one pound) and the nux +vomica and iron treatment advised for "Barren Heifers" in another +paragraph. Before breeding the cow, apply a little extract of belladonna +and glycerine to the mouth of the womb and breed a few hours after. + + + +Supernumerary Teat. + + + +On the upper part of one of the hind teats of a young Jersey cow that +freshened recently for the first time, there is a small growth from +which the milk comes more plentifully than from the natural opening +below. How, if at all, can this opening be closed without drying the +cow? The milk from it runs all over the milker's hand and makes milking +very disagreeable. + +The only thing that can be done until the cow is dry is to tie the small +teat up before milking. This can be done with a string, rubber band, or +an ordinary clamp. If it is so small that the opening cannot be tied, +there is nothing to do, except, perhaps to use, her as a nurse for +calves. Two of these might run with her at a time, making way for others +as soon as they are able to look after themselves. Quite a number of +calves can sometimes be handled in a single year by a cow affected this +way and the benefit to the calves might be nearly as much as by using +the cow for butter production. When the cow is dry the teat can be +amputated and the opening will close when the sore heals, or a stick of +lunar caustic can be inserted into it, causing a wound that will heal +solid. + + + +Infection of Udder. + + + +Last year one of my cows had milk fever which affected her udder. This +year after freshening she milked two months when she suddenly went dry +on one side of her udder. She is now badly stiffened up in her hind +quarters and off her feed. + +The cow has infectious mastitis due to introduction of some infection. +Give a saline purge (1 pound. glauber salt), inject peroxide of +hydrogen, after which pump in, sterile air. Apply externally camphorated +oil once daily. Camphorated oil has a tendency to dry up the secretion +of the gland and is used advisedly. + + + +Lumps in Teats. + + + +My cow has hard lumps in, her teats and lower part of the bag. These +cause pain to her on milking, but there are no other symptoms of +disorder. This condition has prevailed several months. + +Give 1 drachm. iodide potash daily for one week; 2 drachms the second +week 3 drachms the third week, add reduce as you began. If tumors are +small and interfere with the flow of milk they can be removed. + + + +Wound in Teat. + + + +I have a cow with an open slit about one-fourth to one-third of an inch +in the side of one teat. I have lacerated the edges and stitched the +slit well together many times but the milk will ooze out and prevent +healing together. I have used numberless milk tubes to no avail, as the +flange on the tubes loose out. When I remove the flange the tubes creep +up into the udder and it is a trouble to get them out again. + +Wounds of a quiescent udder usually heal, but if the cow is in milk and +the lesions involve the teats it is exceedingly difficult to heal the +wound, as the irritation delays or interrupts the healing process. The +following lotion is one of the very best to use for teat wound: Tinct. +iodine, 2 ounces; tinct. arnica, 2 ounces; glycerine, 2 ounces; comp. +tinct. benzoine, 2 ounces. Mix and apply twice daily after washing with +5 per cent solution carbolic acid and castile soap. Your milk tube must +be an ancient one as all milk tubes of today are self-retainers and +could not slip into the udder. Care must be taken to boil the tube +previous to each using as you may cause an infection of the udder by a +filthy tube. + + + +Injury to Udder. + + + +I have a cow which has a gathering in the back of her udder which seems +to be some sort of injury. It has been there but a few days. + +This injury was caused by a blow or traumatism. Thoroughly scrape out +the diseased tissue and after washing with sheep-dip water (tablespoon +to one quart) apply the following powder: Mix the following powder and +apply it to the wound: Iodoform, 1 drachm; boric acid, 1 ounce; alum, +1/2 ounce; zinc oxide, 1/2 ounce. Be sure and insert this powder into +the bottom of the wound, so that it will reach all diseased parts. + + + +Blind Teat. + + + +What can I do for a "blind teat"? The cow has just freshened and that +quarter of her udder is very full, but there is no milk in the teat. I +have been rubbing and greasing the udder. The blind quarter is slightly +inflamed. + +An artificial opening should be made in the teat at once. Call in the +nearest physician unless you have a regular graduate veterinarian near. + + + +Cow Pox. + + + +I have a yearling heifer which is in fine condition and making good +growth. But all four of her teats have sores on them and are mostly +covered with scabs. + +It is probably cow pox. Give a physic of glauber and epsom salts mixed 4 +ounces of each to the heifer and double the dose to the cow. Apply +externally, once daily, after washing, the following prescription: Zinc +ointment, 4 ounces; iodoform, 1/2 ounce; glycerine, 2 ounces; carbolic +acid, 2 drachms. Mix thoroughly and apply. to sores. + + + +Cause of "Loss of Cud." + + + +About three months ago a pure-bred Jersey commenced to fail on her milk +and soon went dry, although on good feed. Did not seem to be sick, but +did not eat ravenously as she generally did, and little was thought of +it. During the past six weeks she has failed rapidly. Does not chew her +cud, froths at the mouth, runs at the eyes, and when she eats anything +much it bloats her. In fact, she seems bloated all the time. She is +lifeless and will hardly move around, getting very thin, and hair +standing the wrong way. Is there such a thing as a cow losing her cud? + +Most people imagine a cow's cud is something material. As a matter of +fact, in a certain sense the words appetite and cud are synonymous. You +can say a cow has lost her appetite or a cow has lost her cud. Now, any +sickness severe enough will cause a cow to lose her appetite. The +bloating is caused from indigestion secondary to some organic disease, +probably tuberculosis. Keep up the cow's strength by giving condensed +floods or drenches of egg-nogg, gruel or greens. Give warm salt-water +injections twice daily and give the following mixture: Quinine sulphate, +2 ounces; Antipyrine, 1 ounce; ammonia muriate, 3 ounces; alcohol, 1 +quart; water 1 quart. Mix; give 2 ounces every four hours. + + + +Calf Dysentery. + + + +I would like to know the reason for bloody discharges from the bowels of +a young six-day-old calf. There is a looseness of the bowels and the +blood is intermingled with the excrement. There is not a profuse amount +of blood, nor is it very dark in color, and it seems to be accompanied +with mucus or light, thick substance. + +This is dysentery, due to scours so prevalent in calves. Give 6 ounces +olive oil, 4 drachms bismuth subnitrate and 1 drachm Pearson's creoline. +The discharge is very dangerous to other animals. + + + +Bovine Rheumatism. + + + +Our Jersey cow got somewhat lame one year ago in one hip or leg after +calving but soon got better. Last June when she came in one leg was +lame. It seems to be in the stiffle joint and the first one above. When +she walks she gets real lame. + +Rheumatism is the trouble here. Give the following powder: Soda +salicylate, 3 ounces; salol, 2 ounces; pulv. gentian root, 2 ounces. Mix +and make 24 powders. Give four daily. Apply Pratt's, a good veterinary +liniment. + + + +Bleeding for Blackleg. + + + +I have read several articles on blackleg, and it seems strange to me +that no mention is made of an operation that is an absolute preventive, +namely, bleeding in the feet. + +The reason that no special mention of bleeding is made is that it is not +now considered the preventive that it once was. Some people appear to +have fair success with it, and others no success at all. The Bureau of +Animal Industry states that the evidence indicates that bleeding, +nerving, roweling or setoning have neither curative nor protective value +and, therefore, should be discarded for vaccination which is now widely +used as a preventive. + + + +Poor Feeding, Depraved Appetite. + + + +I have three cows. They have been fed alfalfa hay all winter and are in +very good condition and seem otherwise in good health, and have salt to +run to. Every time they chance to come to the yard they will pick up on +old bone and chew it for perhaps a half hour. I always take the bone +away from them when I discover it. + +These cows have a depraved appetite, owing to the fact the tissues of +the body are crying out for something lacking that is required in the +system. Administer the following powder; also put a lump of lime in the +watering trough: Pulv. gentian, 1 ounce; pulv. elm bark, 2 ounces; pulv. +iron sulphate, 1 ounce; pulv. bicarb. soda, 4 ounces; pulv. aniseed, 2 +ounces; pulv. red pepper 1/2 ounce; pulv. oilcake meal 10 pounds. Mix +thoroughly and give a tablespoonful in scalded grain once daily. + + + +Cows Swallowing Foreign Substances. + + + +We recently lost a valuable cow, and when we opened her we found a large +tumor or abscess at the top of the heart as large as a gallon jar. What +caused it, or is there any danger of other cows taking it, and if so, +what can we do? + +This is a common disease among cows and is called traumatic +pericarditis. The trouble arises from the habit of the cows picking up +foreign substances such as wire, nails, or hairpins, and swallowing +them. They are taken into the paunch and the digestive movements of this +organ cause the foreign body to penetrate the lining and enter the +heart, where it gradually causes death as it enters deeper. It is very +common to find nails, etc., in the stomachs of old dairy cows which are +killed at the slaughter-houses. If you had examined the animal +carefully, you would find that some foreign body had penetrated the +heart and caused death. There is no danger of any contagion arising from +your cow. + + + +Defective Urination. + + + +I have a cow that seems to be in good health and gives plenty of milk. +Nearly every morning when she is being milked she seems to want to +urinate and will stand letting the water drip from her. + +This trouble often results from the cows eating alkaline hay. Give her +two quarts of flaxseed tea daily. Mix it with her food in which there +has been placed one-half teaspoon of powdered Buchu. + + + +Infectious Conjunctivitis (Sore Eyes). + + + +I have several cows and heifers that are affected with sore eyes. The +disease first makes its appearance by excessive watering of the eyes; +then the center or pupil becomes white and later turns red of bloodshot. + +Bathe thoroughly with the normal salt solution (teaspoon salt to 1 pint +warm water), after which place in the eye and all around the mucuous +membrane of the eye the following: Twenty-five per cent solution of +argyrol, one-half ounce; apply thoroughly once daily and keep out of the +sunlight if possible. Another treatment is: Bathe the eyes once daily +with boracic acid 1 teaspoon, water 1 pint, after which thoroughly +saturate the eyelids and eyes with 1 to 10,000 solution of bichloride of +mercury. You are dealing with a disease that will spread throughout your +herd if you do not take proper means to separate the affected from the +well ones. + + + +What to Do Against Tuberculous Milk. + + + +I should like to know what could be done with a dairy where cows are +dying with tuberculosis and the owner knows, but is selling the milk. + +The case should be reported to F. W. Andreason, Secretary of the State +Dairy Bureau, at San Francisco, for investigation by an inspector. If +conditions are found as represented, the sale of milk will be prevented, +as it is contrary to State law to sell milk from sick cows. County +boards of health have also authority to prevent the sale of such milk in +the county on the ground that this is a menace to the public health. + + + +Effects of Ill-Feeding Pigs. + + + +I have a couple of pigs, out of about 75 head farrowed last spring, +which seem to have the staggers. They are looking fairly well, feed well +on pasture and at feeding time are right there making as much noise as +the others. They run around as if they had a shot too much. + +Your pigs are suffering from acute indigestion, undoubtedly due to +improper feeding. Cut down the rations, especially if they are getting +grain. Give sick pigs two tablespoonfuls of castor oil each. + + + +Sore Eyes in Pigs. + + + +What is the matter with young pigs when their eyes swell shut? Before +they shut they look as if there was a white milky scum over them. + +There is some infection present, and a good cleaning up in needed. The +sows and pigs should be dipped in a warm solution of some coal-tar +disinfectant, and the quarters thoroughly cleaned and disinfected or +changed to a dry warm place. The pigs' eyes should be washed with warm +water and a few drops of the following solution dropped into eyes once a +day for a few days: Have druggist prepare a 1 per cent solution of +silver nitrate. After applying this the eyes had better be washed a few +minutes later with water to which a little common salt has been added. + + + +Hog Cholera. + + + +I have a number of pigs which have been ailing for three weeks or so. +They discharge a yellowish kind of manure at times, running of the +bowels. The most striking symptom seems to be a partial paralysis of the +hindquarters. The hogs will be walking along and seem to lose control of +their hing legs. It seems to be spreading to the other hogs and a number +have already died. Their appetite is poor. + +This is undoubtedly hog cholera. The owner should appeal to the +Experiment Station at Berkeley for serum and treat all well hogs and +clean up as thoroughly as possible. The matter should also be reported +to the State Veterinarian at Sacramento. + + + +Pneumonia in Pigs. + + + +What is the disease which may be said to confine itself, with few +exceptions, to young pigs weighing 100 pounds or less? Its symptoms are +at first sneezing and a mild cough. These quickly change to hard +coughing and labored breathing, which as the disease progresses shows +evidence of much pain. The appetite is lost and the eyes become gummed +and inflamed. In some cases the pig lingers on for weeks, while in +others death occurs almost immediately. Vomiting sometimes occurs. + +It is pneumonia and in its treatment "an ounce of prevention is worth a +pound of cure." Once pneumonia gets a foothold in a hog, the chances are +so strongly in favor of death that recovery may be considered out of the +question. Since remedies are not certain in the cure of pneumonia, it +will be found that the prevention of the disease is the only real way to +combat it. The main causes of the disease are exposure to draughts, +sudden changes in temperature, damp beds, manure heaps as sleeping +quarters, and exposure to the disease itself. Pigs in thin condition or +weak constitutionally are more liable to contract the trouble than pigs +in good flesh and healthy specimens. Good, dry, warm, comfortable +sleeping houses, well ventilated and so arranged as to prevent crowding +and piling up, will, I think, do more to prevent pneumonia than any +other one thing. Some such preparation as advocated by the Government +for the prevention of hog cholera will help keep the stock in a good +healthy condition, the better to combat exposure. It is the little +attentions that keep the herd healthy and in a vigorous condition, and +by using simple preventatives, remedies will he found unnecessary. - H. +B. Wintringham. + + + +General Prescription for Hog Sickness. + + + +My hogs seem to be mangy and scabby, but am unable to find any lice on +them. They eat well, but vomit a good deal and are falling off in flesh. + +They may be affected with a chronic type of cholera, and this should be +determined by some one who can see the hogs. Make a general cleaning up +of the hogs and quarters, using a dip and repeating in ten days. Hogs +have a true mange as well as other animals. A change of feed may also be +needed, depending on what is being fed and how the hogs are managed. +Green alfalfa pasture with a moderate feed of shorts or middlings of +wheat and ground barley made into a slop would be a good ration. +Evidently there is some digestive trouble here, and a dose of croton oil +(3 drops) mixed in a teaspoonful of raw linseed oil for each hog would +be beneficial. Charcoal, ashes, salt and a little epsom salts would be +of benefit to tone the digestion. The oil should be carefully mixed in +the slop. + + + +Pigs Out of Condition. + + + +Of a litter of pigs weaned about a month several of them have itchy +scabs on their legs, ears and noses, and those having white feet show +reddish spots through the hoofs. They did not get it until after they +were weaned. They are fed on soaked whole barley and have alfalfa +pasture. + +Put the pigs on a slop composed of wheat middlings and barley ground +fine, with the hulls removed, and milk, or, in the absence of milk about +8 or 10 per cent of meat meal to which add some good stock food. Dip +them with some standard brand of dip or apply crude oil to be sure that +they were free from lice, fleas, etc. Give them good, clean, comfortable +sleeping quarters and trust to nature to do the rest. + + + +Paralysis of Sow. + + + +During the last few days one of my sows appears to be paralyzed in her +hind quarters and now cannot use her hind legs at all. She is about a +year old and is due to farrow her first litter in and about six weeks. + +It is paralysis due to advanced pregnancy. Give 4 ounces castor oil and +4 ounces olive oil. She will recover after parturition. + + + +Rickets in Hogs. + + + +A fine boar, 16 months old, weight about 380 pounds, well built, with +little surplus fat, until lately has been very thrifty, but appears to +be losing control over his legs. Can't step over the smallest stick +without falling forward and acts like a foundered animal. He carries his +back rather arching since this trouble came on. During my absence from +home a hired man gave this boar a good beating with a pick handle, and +it appears to have been the beginning of his troubles. + +This disease is Osteo Rachitis (rickets). The abuse has probably +aggravated the symptoms: This condition is due to a lack of hardening +principles in the bones. Give 4 ounces of cod liver oil daily and plenty +of lime water to drink. It will be all right to use him for breeding +when he recovers. In addition to good food and pure water give daily a +handful of a mixture of principally ashes and burned barley (charcoal) +with the usual addition of salt, sulphur and soda. This mixture is good: +Pulv. dried, iron sulphate, 4 ounces; soda bi-carbonate, 8 ounces; soda +salicylate, 2 drachms; pulv. aniseed, 4 ounces. Mix and give one-half +teaspoonful twice daily. + + + +Pigs Losing Tails. + + + +We have five pigs, 17 days old, and when they were farrowed they had +rings around the roots of their tails, and now their tails are dropping +off. + +This is caused by interference with circulation before birth. Apply +tinct. iodine around the affected parts once daily and if it shows no +signs of improvement after one week amputate. + + + +Over-Fat Sow. + + + +My brood sow is awfully fat; how should I feed her so that she don't get +too fat? She is bred and it will be her third litter. She was running in +the vineyard all winter, and I fed her a handful of barley every day or +a few potatoes. Now she has free access to my growing barley field, and +I give her half a dozen potatoes every day. + +You need not worry about getting her thin. She simply requires less +food. An animal excessively fat brings forth an inferior offspring. + + + +Musty Corn for Pigs. + + + +Would Egyptian corn that has been musty and then dried in the sun be fit +for pigs? It heated and musted quite a good deal, but is dried well. The +idea is, to grind it and then feed it in milk if good. + +It is very dangerous to feed any stock moldy or musty food, especially +pregnant animals. It is this kind of food which causes a majority of the +abortions. Mold or smut in food is poisonous both to man and beast. It +is usually almost impossible to get out of feed because it runs +throughout the structure of the hay or grain. + + + +Wounds and Wound Swellings. + + + +What is the proper treatment for a fresh wire cut on a horse? How should +saddle galls be treated? Is there any way to make the hair come in its +natural color where saddle galls have been? How can an enlargement of a +colt's leg, caused from a wire cut, be reduced? + +After all foreign matter has been removed from a lacerated wound, like +that made in a wire cut, the wound should be carefully fomented with +warm water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 +part to 100 of water. It should then be bandaged to prevent infection. +Zinc ointment would be a good thing to use under the bandage. For a +simple saddle, or harness gall, some ointment like the following should +be applied and the wound rested up: One pint alcohol in which are shaken +the whites of 2 eggs; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the +ounce of water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce +of water; and so on. Or advertised gall cures may be applied. If a +sitfest has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be cut out and the +wound treated with antiseptics. There is no way we know of to make hair +come in with natural color after a wound. The swelling on the colt's leg +may he reduced by rubbing it well several times a day and at night rub +in some 10 per cent iodine petrogen. + + + +Fly Repellants. + + + +Can you tell me what to use as a spray to kill the flies in my stable? +In the early, morning the ceiling and sides are thickly covered with the +pests partly dormant but not enough so that they can be swept down and +killed. What spray can I use that will destroy them? + +It is difficult to kill flies by spraying them. You can, however, spray +the sides and ceiling of the barn with a spray of epsom salts (sulphate +of magnesia) using about a cupful to the gallon, which will prevent them +from gathering there. And since prevention is better than cure, flies +can be kept from gathering around by, destroying their breeding places, +if those are under one's control, by having all manure and litter +removed before the flies have a chance to develop. The following may be +found useful to readers as a spray to keep away flies: Fish oil, 2 +quarts; kerosene, 1 quart; crude carbolic acid, 1 pint; oil of +pennyroyal, 1 ounce; oil of tar; 10 ounces. Mix thoroughly and apply in +a fine spray. The following has been successfully used to repel flies +from cows: Nitro benzine, 5 ounces; carbolic acid, 3 ounces; kerosene +oil, 3 ounces; sol. formaldehyde, 1 ounce; fish oil, 1 1/2 quarts. Mix +and just touch the hair with the mixture. + + + +To Destroy Fleas. + + + +My barn, is full, of fleas I tried to destroy them by using creso-dip, +but did not kill them, all. + +Fleas can only be permanently checked by destroying their breeding +places which are in the dust! and dirt that accumulate in cracks and +corners around barns, sheds and dwellings. Follow the cleaning up with a +thorough distribution of flake naphthalene. This is most effective where +the stable or room can be closed tight for half a day, or even 24 hours; +An ingenious suggestion is made that if a sheep can be let run in and +around the buildings where the fleas breed, they will soon be less +numerous and as new batches hatch out the sheep will soon get them +picked up, and after a while the place will be entirely free of them. +But the sheep must be allowed to run all around the sheds and breeding +places, as the flea jumps up, gets into the wool, and can never get out +again. A hog can also be used as a flea trap. One reader says: Pour a +little of the crude oil on the hogs' heads and along their backs, about +a gill on each hog; This would run down the sides of the hogs and kill +all the fleas on them. The oil also remains on the hogs for several +days, and all the fleas that jump on the hogs from the ground stick fast +and never jump off again. In about three weeks the fleas all disappear +and the hogs look fine and sleek from the use of the oil. + + + +Part VIII. Poultry Keeping + +Largely compiled from the writings of Mrs. W. Russell James and Mrs. +Susan Swapgood. + + + +Teaching Chicks to Perch. + + + +What is a good method of breaking in young brooder chicks to use the +roosts? + +At from six to eight weeks old the chicks should be taken from the +brooder quarters to the colony houses and range, or wherever they are to +be located, and at this time they should be taught to perch. Have the +new quarters arranged with low wide perches (1 by 3-inch scantlings); +also make slatted frames by nailing lath or other such narrow strips two +inches apart. Set these frames against the wall so that they will extend +slant-wise under the perches, and have the corners on the other side of +the room cut off by nailing boards across them. The chicks will run up +on the frame to find a huddling corner and land on the perches, as they +cannot rest on the open slanting frame. A little care for a few evenings +in putting up those that remain on the floor and straightening them out +on the perches will teach them the ropes. Where there are but a few to +be taught, all that is necessary is to provide the low wide perches and +shut out the corners, and a few of the smart ones will soon take to the +perches, and gradually others will follow until all will be roosting. + + + +Liver Disease. + + + +I have hens which seem well in every respect up to the time of their +combs changing color, when they die within three days. The combs turn a +faint yellow, almost white; they are heavy, have their usual appetite up +to the lost 24 hours. I have treated by giving small doses of castor oil +and Douglas mixture in the drinking water, feeding on dry mash with +plenty of green feed. There is no tendency to lameness nor limp neck. +The droppings are loose and very white. + +The fowls were victims of jaundice, which is a form of liver disease and +caused by over-feeding on rich starchy foods that also cause fowls to +become overfat. However, at the end of the laying season and the +beginning of the molt the poultry keeper will lose some hens, even when +kept under the best conditions, and especially hens of that age. In +doctoring such cases in the way described, if the fowl does not improve +in a couple of days, the hatchet cure is the most profitable. + + + +Rupture of Oviduct. + + + +I have had two other hens die suddenly when on the nest. The second one +- we opened and found one egg broken near the vent and another with +shell formed ready to be laid. + +Rupture of the oviduct was probably the cause of the hens dying on the +nest and is due to the same condition in the hens; that is, the +straining to expel the egg necessary in the engorged condition of the +internal organs from overfatness. + + + +Melons for Fowls. + + + +Have "stock melons" or "citrons" any merit as a green food for laying +hens? Are the seeds of the above injurious to hens or cows? + +Stock melons are desirable for chicken feeding if other succulent +materials are scarce, but they are inferior to alfalfa and other +clovers. Seeds are not injurious to stock unless possibly one should +feed to excess by separating them from the other tissues. If melons are +fed as they grow, no apprehension need be had from injury by seed. + + + +Rape and Vetch for Chickens. + + + +What time do you sow rape and vetch and are they good for chickens? + +They surely are good for chickens or for any other stock that likes +greens. They are winter growers in California valleys and should be sown +in the fall as soon as the land is moist enough to keep them growing, or +just as soon as you can get it moist either by rainfall or irrigation. +Neither plant likes dry heat or dry soil. + + + +Preserving Eggs. + + + +What is a good way to preserve eggs for home use? + +In a cool cellar, eggs will keep very well in a mixture of common salt +and bran. Use equal parts, mix well, and as you gather the eggs from day +to day pack with big end down in the mixture and see that the eggs are +covered. Waterglass eggs are good enough for cooking purposes, but when +boiled anyone that knows the taste of a strictly fresh egg can tell the +difference in an instant; when fried the taste is not so pronounced, but +it is there just the same; besides, when broken, they are a little +watery. This watery condition passes off if left to stand for a few +minutes. The best way is to use the waterglass method, is one quart of +waterglass to ten quarts of water. Boil the water and put away to cool, +when cold add the waterglass, mixing well, and store in 3 or 5-gallon +crocks in a cool place. They will keep six months if good when put in. +In all cases the eggs must be gathered very fresh, for one stale egg +will spoil the whole lot, so great care is needed. + + + +Dipping Fowls. + + + +How do you dip hens to kill lice? + +To dip fowls you must have a very warm day, or a warm room where you can +turn them in to dry. I have know people to use tobacco stems, but it +requires good judgment as to the right strength to use. The dips usually +sold already prepared are safer, in my opinion, because they give +directions as to quantity. Get a can of "zenoleum" or "creolium" - +either is good - and have the water a little over blood-heat to +commence; be very careful that the liquid does not get in the fowl's +throat. If there are no directions with the cans, put enough in to make +the water quite milky and strong smelling. It is best to make the hen +sit down and with a sponge wet the back and head thoroughly, then under +the wings and breast; if there are nits, don't be in a hurry to take +the hen out, but let the dip get to the nits and skin on the abdomen. If +the water is too warm it will be dangerous, as some fowls have weak +hearts; that is the only danger, providing you dry them quickly. + + + +Cure for Feather-Eating. + + + +What is the cure for feather-eating? + +Feather eating is the result of idleness or a shortage of green feed. +The best way to cure it is to furnish the fowls with exercise. Boil some +oats until soft, and when cooked stir in salt enough to taste and about +a quart of good beef scrap; feed this for breakfast several mornings +together. Make them scratch for the rest of their food in deep litter +and give them sour milk to drink if you have it. If sour milk is not +available, put a tablespoonful of flowers of sulphur in the boiled oats. +The object is to cool the blood and furnish exercise. See that the fowls +are supplied with mineral matter, such ash shells, bone meal and some, +sand if it can be had. It is surprising the amount of sand that chickens +will eat when carried to them in yards, so there must be a necessity for +it, and if they cannot get to it, it pays to carry a good box full once +in a while. + + + +Cannibal Chicks. + + + +What can I do to cure my chicks of eating each other? + +Some kind of animal food is necessary when the chicks begin to pick +toes, wings and vents. But the meat must always be cooked, the least bit +of raw meat drives them wild as does the blood they can bring on each +other. For that reason a strict watch must be kept to detect any case +before blood is brought. Remove all weak chicks as they always go for +the weakest, and as soon as one chick is picked on for a victim, remove +it at once. Some people paint the toes with tar or liquid lice paint, +but I have had the best success with bitter aloes mixed with water. A +nickel's worth covers a lot of toes. It is best to buy a powder, then +dissolve in a little water and paint wings, vent and toes. They won't +take many pecks at them when they find they are so bitter. + + + +Sunflower Seeds for Poultry. + + + +What is the food value of sunflower seed as a ration for fowls, mostly +laying hens? Should it be fed whole or crushed? + +Sunflower seed is rich in oil, having the same proportion as flaxseed; +otherwise it rates in value the same as grain. A little, not too much, +fed whole is well relished by fowls and is said to give luster to the +plumage in fitting birds for shows. Sunflower is greatly overrated for +poultry purposes. It is an ungainly plant of no use for forage and its +seed is so well liked by the sparrows that the only way to keep them +till ripe is to cover the heads with netting. + + + +Clipping Hens for Cleanliness. + + + +My hens foul all the feathers below the vent; they appear healthy, but +do not look nice. What can I do? + +Take a pair of scissors and clip the fluff away from that part of the +abdomen, give a teaspoonful of olive oil, and notice of they have any +discharge that is of an offensive color or odor. Sometimes it is nothing +but pure laziness with hens of the large breeds that causes this matting +together of the fluff below the vent. We rarely see hens of the small +breeds so affected. Whenever a hen soils her feathers clip her at once, +and, in fact, it is a good custom to follow in any case. When hens are +very heavily fluffed it interferes with the fertility of the eggs. In +such cases there is not anything for it but the scissors. + + + +Bowel Trouble in Chicks. + + + +What is the cause of bowel trouble in young chicks, and what to do for +it? + +Bowel trouble in very young chicks is usually caused by a chill. It is +very hard for us here to believe chicks get chilled because, not feeling +the cold ourselves, we forget that chicks have really undergone a +violent change from incubator to the outside atmosphere. In the Eastern +States, great care is exercised in moving chicks from incubator to +brooder oven, and also in seeing that the brooder itself is warm and fit +to receive the chicks. But we are, as a rule, very careless in these +little matters and the chicks feel the change and suffer from bowel +trouble. Sometimes, of course, the trouble may be traced to the food, +but more often it comes from a chill. The best way to cure it is to +remove the chicks to new ground at once, or if in a brooder, clean it +out well and spray with some disinfectant. Boil all the water that is +given to the chicks and feed boiled rice once or twice a day in which a +little cinnamon is mixed. Do not put in too much or they will not eat +it, keep all meat away and just feed dry chick feed and boiled rice. No +oatmeal or any other cereal but the rice; if chicks won't eat it, feed +dry chick feed and boiled water and a little lettuce. + + + +Quick Roosters and Laying Hens. + + + +How can I get the young roosters off quick and the hens to lay in +winter? + +These two happy results come from correct methods of poultry keeping +from the ground up. To get the cockerels off quick, they must be hatched +from strong-germed eggs, incubated properly and kept growing from the +first jump out of the shell. To get eggs in winter the pullets must come +from the same conditions. Very few hens will lay in the early winter +under any conditions. The pullets must be depended upon for that season +and the hens kept properly will drop in some time in January. + + + +Poultry Tonic. + + + +What is a good poultry tonic? + +The following is a very good tonic for general purposes: Tincture of red +cinchona, 1 fluid ounce; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 fluid drachm; +tincture of flux vomica, 4 fluid drachms; glycerine 2 ounces; water, 2 +ounces. Mix and give one teaspoonful to a quart of water, allowing no +other drink. + + + +Poultry in the Orchard. + + + +Kindly advise me about keeping hens in an orchard. I would like to know +if they will injure the trees in any way if kept in large numbers. In +what way would they benefit the trees? + +From the point of view of the trees there is no doubt that they would be +advantaged by the presence of the poultry, providing the coops are not +allowed to interfere with the proper irrigation and cultivation. If it +is practicable to handle the fowls in coops without causing the soil +around the coops to become compacted by continual tramping, and if they +are not kept upon the ground long enough to cause an excessive +application of hen manure, which is very concentrated and stimulating, +the result would unquestionably be beneficial. From the point of view of +the tree, this benefit of injury would depend upon how long the fowls +were kept around the tree and the maintenance of them in such a way that +the soil should not become out of condition physically or too rich +chemically for the satisfactory performance of the tree. If they can be +moved frequently, and if they are only put in place when the soil is in +such condition that tramping around the coops will not seriously compact +it, the presence of fowls would be an advantage. On the other hand, if +the coops are to be kept in place for a long time and all the ground +outside of them crusted and hardened by tramping and the soil under the +coops overloaded with droppings, the thrift and value of the trees will +be seriously interfered with. + + + +Caponizing. + + + +Can three to four month old cockerels be caponized successfully in +summer, and if so, what care, feed, etc., do they require afterwards? + +The birds should be between two to three months, not over four, unless +some very large variety that matures slowly. Size is equally important +as age, and a bird to be caponized should not weigh more than one and a +half pounds. The work can be successfully done in the summer season, but +the fowl must be kept without food or drink for at least 24 hours, +longer is better and keep in shady place. After caponizing, feed the +bird what soft feed he will eat up and let him have plenty of water. +Then leave him to himself as he will be his own doctor. In two or three +days look them over and if there are any wind-balls, simply prick with a +needle to let the air out; this may have to be done two or three times +before the wound heals up, but after it has healed, treat just as you +would other chickens and feed them about twice a day. There is nothing +made by trying to rush nature; it takes fifteen months to grow a good +capon of the large breeds. + + + +Roup Treatment. + + + +Up to a week ago the chickens had been exceptionally well in every way. +Now they seem to have a cold and a running at the nose and with it a bad +odor. It was suggested that this might be the beginning of roup, but I +see no swell-head. + +The distinguishing characteristic of roup is not so-called "swell head" +or other form of cold, but the offensive roupy odor. When the cold has +reached this stage it is a pronounced case of roup, and highly +contagious. Separate all the ailing fowls and segregate them in +comfortable hospital quarters, warm but with one side partly open for +fresh air. Disinfect the quarters of the well fowls by spraying with +distillate or cheap-grade coal oil and sprinkling the floors and about +the houses with air-slaked lime. Use some simple remedy like coal oil or +permanganate of potash to cleanse the throat and nostrils. With coal +oil, first wipe the eyes and bill with a clean cloth dipped in the coal +oil, then inject with a sewing-machine oil can enough coal oil to +open and thoroughly clean out the nostrils. If the throat is affected, +give a tablespoonful of sweet oil and coal oil, half and half, two or +three times a day until relieved. One of our correspondents has sent us +the following treatment with permanganate of potash which he has found +the best roup remedy he has ever tried: Dissolve 1 ounce of permanganate +of potash in 3 pints of water, hold the fowl's head in this for a +second, then open the beak and rinse out the mouth in the solution. Wipe +with a clean, soft cloth and apply a very little witch hazel or +carbolated salve to the eyes, nostrils and head. Repeat the operation as +often as the throat and head become clogged with mucus. Until the +disease is eliminated from the premises, keep permanganate of potash in +the drinking water of all the fowls, both sick and well. About 1 ounce +to each 2 gallons of water or enough to give the water a claret color. +The sick fowls should be allowed no other feed but a little stimulating +mash three times a day. Where the fowls do not show a decided +improvement in the course of a few days, or where the disease has +assumed a violent form, all such birds should be killed and the bodies +burned at once. + + + +Bad Food for Chickens. + + + +My chicks are about three weeks old and have always been strong and +sturdy, but when taken sick first appear a little dumpish, then the head +seems a little heavy and the neck lengthens out. As the disease advances +they become staggery. + +Your chicks have eaten soured food, decayed vegetables or tainted meat. +Baby chicks are just like other babies and the same care should be used +that their food be always sweet and fresh. Wet food should never be +given chicks, nor raw meat nor anything the least bit tainted or stale. +Put a teaspoon of coal oil in each pint of drinking water and see to it +that the latter is kept pure and cool. Mix a teacup of sulphur with +enough bran or shorts for each 100 chicks, moisten with sweet milk and +feed it on clean boards, what the chicks will eat up clean in some, +twenty minutes. Give them one feed of this each day for three days if +the weather is dry. Clean the brooders and runs daily, then dust white +with air-slacked lime and cover the lime with a sprinkling of clean +sand. Rake and clean up the yards where they range and never let them +eat any of their grain or food out of dirt and filth. You cannot doctor +such small chicks and must depend upon the coal oil in the drinking +water. Keep the water fresh, but add the coal oil until the chicks are +relieved. + + + +Open-Front Chicken Houses. + + + +In what direction shall I face open-front poultry houses? + +North or northeast is the proper direction to face the open fronts of +poultry houses and coops in the Pacific Coast climate. The prevailing +winds are from the south and southeast in the winter, and from the west +and southwest in the summer. The occasional north winds or "northers," +may be called dry winds, in fact, are an indication of dry weather, and +so do not harm the fowls even when cold. We like the upper half of the +north-end or slide of our poultry houses open with inch-mesh covering +the open space and the eaves extending several inches as a protection. +In case of an unusual storm from that direction, one thickness of burlap +may be tacked to the edge of the extending eaves, and to the lower part +of the opening. This will admit plenty of fresh air while breaking the +force of the wind. We also have a large trap door for the use of the +fowls, in the solid lower part of the open end, and the large door, for +cleaning and sunning the house, in the west side. + + + +A Point on Mating. + + + +I have fine roosters a year old this April; would you advise keeping +them for mating with the same hens next season, or do you advise selling +each year and getting fresh stock? + +The young males will be all right to mate with the same hens next season +- that is, if they come through the molt with vigor. They will be just +two years old and at their best. The molt is the test for both, hens and +cocks. If they show no signs of ailing or weakness during that period, +it is proof of the proper stamina and vigor. + + + +Age for Mating. + + + +At what age may a cockerel be mated with hens? + +From nine months to a year is the proper age to mate a Leghorn cockerel. +Cockerels of the larger breeds should not be mated before a year old. + + + +White-Yolk Eggs. + + + +Why are eggs watery and light-colored? + +The trouble is in the feed somewhere. Too much green feed, especially +green feed that springs from wet, soggy ground, will sometimes make the +eggs watery. Or if you are feeding more mash feed than dry grain, it +will have that tendency. Some people claim that the feed a hen eats does +not affect the egg at all; but if it does not, why do eggs differ in +color and quality? Eggs that are laid by hens fed wholly on wheat, or +the by-products of wheat, such as bran, shorts or middlings, all have a +pale yolk. Now feed the hens some green feed - any kind will do - and +the eggs from the same hens will have a yolk several degrees or shades +darker. + + + +Poultry Diarrhea. + + + +Will you kindly tell me the cause and cure for bowel trouble among hens? + +The "quick cure" for chick diarrhea has not yet been found. Prevention +is the only sure remedy. The first treatment in diarrhea (which must not +be confused with simple looseness of the bowels) should be a mild physic +to clean out the digestive tract. Epsom salts is probably best for this +purpose where a number of fowls are to be treated. This is usually given +in the drinking water, but Dr. Morse, who has charge of the +investigation of poultry diseases in the Bureau of Animal Industry, +gives the following directions for administering the salts: "Clean out +by giving epsom salts in an evening mash, estimating one-third to +one-half teaspoonful to each adult bird, or a teaspoonful to each six +half-grown chicks, carefully proportioning the amount of mash to the +appetite of the birds, so that the whole will be eaten up quickly." For +a few days afterward, feed only lightly with dry grain and tender +greens, such as fresh-cut mustard and lettuce leaves. Keep plenty of +pure, cool water, with just a thin skim of coal oil - one drop to each +pint - for drinking; also plenty of sharp grit and fresh charcoal broken +to the size of grains of wheat. + + + +Limber-Neck. + + + +A very peculiar disease is taking off my fowls. The head of the fowl +bends down to the breast and the fowl looks like dead, there is also a +slight discharge from the mouth. The head and tail droop and if the fowl +could stand up they would almost touch. + +When a fowl loses partial or entire control of the muscles of the neck +the common name of the affection is limber-neck. In medical science +limber-neck is regarded as a symptom rather than a disease, and may be +due to a number of causes, such as derangement of the digestive organs, +intestinal worms and ptomaine poisoning. The affected fowls should be +given immediately a full tablespoon of fresh melted lard or sweet oil, +to which has been added a scant teaspoonful, of coal oil. In an hour +repeat the dose. For a few days the fowls should be fed on some light +food, such as shorts scalded with sweet milk in which has been dissolved +a level teaspoonful of baking soda to every pint of milk, and also +allowed plenty of crisp, tender lettuce or similar greens. A little +Epsom salts should be added to the drinking water for a few days. This +treatment, if resorted to at the start, will be effectual, but if the +poisoning has had its course long, nothing will save the bird. + + + +Chicken Pox. + + + +My one and two-year-old fowls are getting scabby combs. It starts with a +round blackish spot and swells into many spots, finally nearly covering +one side of the comb. Sometimes accompanying this is the closing of one +eye, and later both eyes. + +The trouble is chicken pox, which is a very contagious disease. A +treatment which has been successful consists in bathing the sores with +strong salt and water and giving the fowls a mash containing one +teaspoonful of calcium sulphide for each 25 hens. With a large flock of +hens the method successfully employed by one of the large coast ranches +in stamping out an epidemic of the disease was to place a sulphur +smudge, to which had been added a little carbolic acid, in the poultry +house after the fowls had gone to roost. This was allowed to remain till +the fowls began to sneeze, when it was instantly removed. The affected +fowls were also treated by dipping the heads in a solution of +permanganate of potash. + + + +Roup in Turkeys. + + + +My turkeys have a disease that is spreading rapidly. They commence with +a running at the nose, have swelling under the eyes which are filled +with pus. + +This is clearly a case of cold developing into roup. Get one ounce of +permanganate of potash and pour a quart of boiling water over; after it +is cold, bottle for use. Now take an old tin can, three parts full of +warm, not hot water, and drop in enough of the permanganate of potash to +make it dark red. Hold the turk's head under in this can until it needs +breath then give it time to breathe, and dip again. Press the fingers +along the swollen parts towards the nostrils and get out all the pus you +can, then take a sewing-machine oil can and fill it with a little of the +mixture, and part olive oil, inject the liquid up the nostrils and in +the cleft of the mouth. Put a little of the permanganate in the drinking +water for all the flock. Make the water a light red, later it will turn +to a dirty brown, but don't mind that. + + + +Disinfectants. + + + +What can I use to disinfect poultry belongings? + +Sulphuric acid spray is good, but you will need to be very careful that +you do not get it on the hands or clothing. Get 16 ounces sulphuric acid +(50 per cent solution), water 6 gallons. Have the water in a wooden tub +or barrel and add the sulphuric acid to the water very slowly, in order +not to splash it on the flesh or clothes. But mind: nothing but wooden +vessels to mix it in. When made according to directions, and of this +strength it is a very valuable disinfectant, but is dangerous to use of +any stronger mixing. After mixing, it can be stored in glass bottles or +earthenware jugs. Another very good disinfectant for poultry houses and +runs is the formaldehyde disinfectant. Formaldehyde 1 pint (40 per +cent), water 2 gallons. This is fine for houses that you can shut up. +Turn the fowls out of the building, close all windows, and spray +thoroughly, then close the door and leave it do the work. Air well by +opening windows and door several hours before the fowls go to roost. + + + +Cloth for Brooding Houses. + + + +Would some good grade of white cloth on a frame do as well, or would it +be better than glass, for a brooder house, or would it keep out too much +sun-heat? + +Cheesecloth, not heavy cloth, would be better than glass, so far as the +sun is concerned. There would be none of the overheating during the +middle of the day followed by the chilling at night which are caused by +a large expanse of glass. On the other hand, there should not be +openings on opposite sides of the house to create a draft. Also, the rat +and vermin question must be considered. It might be necessary to have +wire screens made to fit firmly over the cloth at night. + + + +Grains for Chickens. + + + +What variety of grain adopted for poultry food will be the best to grow, +with and also without irrigation? + +Wheat is a standard grain for poultry feeding, and Egyptian corn is also +largely used. Indian corn is also satisfactory, under the general roles +for compounding poultry rations which are laid down by all authorities +on the subject. Egyptian corn is very successful in the interior parts +of the State, and, on lands which are winter-plowed and harrow to retain +moisture, very satisfactory results can be secured by summer growth +without irrigation from planting as soon as frost danger is over. + + + +Plucking Ducks and Geese. + + + +I would like to know about how, when and how often to pick old ducks so +as to get the feathers for pillows and not kill the ducks, either. Will +they lay any eggs while growing new feathers? + +Neither ducks nor geese should be plucked until after the laying season +is over, which will be in July. Just before the moult, when the feathers +begin to loosen, they may be plucked again. Those most considerate of +their birds make only this latter plucking, which does not greatly +inconvenience the fowls. At no time must they be plucked unless the +feathers are "ripe"; that is, dry at the root, so that no bleeding or +injury to the skin is caused. An old stocking is drawn over the head of +the victim, and the bird held in the plucker's lap on a burlap apron; +then the soft feathers on the body are quickly and very gently removed; +but those on the side of the body which support the wings should not be +taken. Great care should be exercised not to injure the skin or +pinfeathers or pull the down. To grow new feathers quickly and resume +laying are matters which depend largely upon the condition of the bird +and the feed. The latter should consist of some 15 per cent of animal +food. + + + +Feeding Hens for Hatching Eggs. + + + +Should soft feed be given to the mothers of chicks intended for +broilers? How about dry mash? How would you advise feeding animal +protein? + +Cut out all ground feed, except perhaps a little wheat bran. While you +may not get quite as many eggs, they will all have good strong germs and +the chicks will stand forcing to the limit, while if you force the egg +output you reduce the vitality of the germs and livability of chicks +hatched. The only way to feed hens whose eggs are intended for hatching +chicks for broilers is to feed whole grain and make them exercise for +it, good green feed, or, better still, sprouted oats, and feed beef +scrap in a hopper all the time. At first, while it is new, they may eat +more than you would give them but don't mind that they will regulate the +quantity in a few days better than you can. Get a good grade of beef +scrap and keep it in a hopper that will not let rain in or keep it under +cover and feed all the wheat and oats they require; if you are short on +green feed give them a bale of alfalfa hay to work on. + + + +A Dry Mash. + + + +Will you give a formula for a dry mash? + +Wheat bran, 500 pounds; middlings, 200 pounds; cracked corn, 200 pounds; +charcoal, 20 pounds; alfalfa meal 200 pounds; bone meal, 150 pounds; +blood-meal 100 pounds; meat cracklings, if ground, 200 pounds; ground +oats or barley, 300 pounds. Give oyster shell separately and supply +fowls with good sharp grit. + + + +Depluming Mites. + + + +My chickens are losing the feathers from their necks, some three inches +down the front and then extending around the neck. + +The loss of feathers is probably due to the depluming mite. Dust well +with buhach through the feathered portion of the bird and apply +carbolated vaseline to the bare skin and the edges of the feathers where +the insects work. Do this daily as long as needed. When vaseline is not +on hand, a mixture of coal oil and sweet oil applied with a soft sponge +squeezed nearly dry does as well. We would advise that you make a +general cleaning and spraying of your poultry quarters, nest boxes, etc. + + + +Part IX. Pests and Diseases of Plants + + + +Control of Grasshoppers. + + + +This county is having trouble with the grasshoppers as are other +counties. Would you kindly inform me what I could do to exterminate them +on my young orchard? + +The best thing for grasshoppers is to fix up a lot of poison. This is +made in the proportion of 40 pounds of bran, 2 pounds of molasses and 5 +of arsenic, mixed together as a mash. They will take this wherever they +find it, even when nice green leaves are close by, but it has to be kept +moist. Grasshoppers can also be reduced by driving a "hopper doser" over +ground where they are. This is made somewhat like a Fresno scraper, but +is much longer and the bottom is covered with crude oil. When disturbed +the hoppers jump up and fall into the oil. Besides the poison, you +should also protect the trunk of the tree to prevent the hoppers from +climbing up it. This can be done by applying tree tanglefoot, or putting +on one of the tree guards that prevent climbing insects from passing up +to the leaves. The combination of poison and tree guards will give you +about all the protection you need. + + + +Sunburn and Borers. + + + +Please state the best remedy for keeping the borer out of young fruit +trees. + +Sunburn can be prevented in many ways. The manufactured tree-protectors +are good if they are light colored and are kept in place so that the sun +does not scald above or below them. Wrapping spirally with narrow strips +of burlap, torn from old grain sacks, from the base to the forking of +the branches, is also good. A very effective and widely used method is +to apply a good durable whitewash which may be made of 30 pounds of +lime, 4 pounds of tallow and 5 pounds of salt, adding the salt to the +water used in slaking the lime, stirring in the tallow while the slaking +is in progress and hot, and then adding water to thin the wash so that +it will work well with pump or brush. + + + +Gumming of Prune Trees. + + + +I write to ask for information concerning my prune trees. They are from +two to six years old and the gum is exuding from them. As I notice the +branches dying I cut them out, but this doesn't seem to save the tree. I +would appreciate any information you can give me. + +This is a pretty hard matter to diagnose from a distance. There is a +good probability that the trouble is caused by sunburn, a point you +could determine on inspection. Whitewash would be a protection against +this and more or less of a cure also. Furthermore, borers may be the +cause, which can be determined by examining the points where the gum +exudes, seeing if any wood grains are present. These borers should be +dug out and whitewash applied, which latter also protects against this +trouble. Lastly, your ground may be drying out, which also you can +determine and remedy. + + + +Borers in Olive Twigs. + + + +There are quite a number of olive trees in this locality that have +something wrong with them. They make a growth of five or six inches and +the center twig dies back, then it sprouts out at the sides and makes +another growth in the same way. This makes a thick bush instead of the +tree coming up as it should. + +The dying back is caused by a beetle which bores into the twigs. The +twigs above the point where the beetle enters dies and then, of course, +buds come out from healthy wood below. No treatment has been devised +against it, though its breeding ground is limited if all dead wood and +brush and litter is cleaned up and twigs are cut off below the point of +injury whenever the work of the insect is seen. + + + +Raspberry Cane Borer. + + + +Can you tell me what to do for my Loganberries and raspberries? A small +worm got into them in the new growth of wood lost summer, right in the +tips of the new growth of wood, and then worked down through the pith of +the wood, and as fast as they worked down the can wilted. + +This is the raspberry horn-tail, or the cane-borer. The adults are +wasp-like insects about a half-inch long and very active. They come out +of the canes in spring and the females soon lay eggs in the tender tips +of the young shoots. These eggs soon hatch and the larvae eat their way +up toward the tip, which causes it to wither and die. It is this injury +that causes much notice. As the tip dies, the larvae turn and go down +into the canes, as in the sample sent, also injuring them greatly, +though possibly not killing them for some time. The only way to attack +them is to pinch the spots where the eggs were laid; then those that +escape and cause the tips to wilt should be destroyed by cutting off the +tips below the point of injury or cutting off the canes when they show +damage. Likewise, the insects work on the wild rose, and cutting all +those out around a place will prevent enough adults from developing to +permit little damage to be done, always provided the berries are well +looked after. + + + +Control of Red Spider. + + + +Can you give directions for the prevention of injury by the red spider +to almond and other trees in the Sacramento volley? + +The red spider on almond and prune trees is usually controlled by the +thorough application of dry sulphur to the foliage. On almonds the first +sulphuring should be done as soon as the leaves appear in March. A +second application is advised from the 1st to the 10th of May. A third +application should be made from the 1st to the 10th of June. Prune trees +should be treated as soon as the spider appears. In the Sacramento +valley this usually occurs about the first week of July. Full-grown +trees require about a pound of sulphur which should be thoroughly +distributed throughout the foliage. The old method of throwing a handful +of sulphur in the branches of the tree or on the ground under the tree +is valueless. The use of a blower is economical in large orchards, but a +can with perforated bottom is frequently used on young trees or small +orchards with good results. In normal seasons the spider is easily, +controlled by dry sulphuring. When the pest does not yield to this +treatment, a spray is recommended. + + + +Liquid Spray for Red Spider. + + + +Is there any liquid spray I can use in my spraying that will kill the +red spider without injuring the foliage of the almond? + +A liquid spray for red spider is made by taking sulphur 30 pounds; lime +(reduced to milk form by water), 15 pounds; water, 200 gallons; or use +commercial lime-sulphur, 4 or 5 gallons to 200 gallons of water. These +sprays can be applied without injuring the foliage. They are more +expensive in labor cost than dry sulphuring, but are more effective. + + + +Apple-Leaf Aphis. + + + +I am sending herewith a small piece from one of my young apple trees. If +you can, will you kindly tell me what the insects are an it, and what I +had better do for them? + +The apple twig which you send is infested with the eggs of the leaf +aphis or leaf louse. These eggs are very difficult to kill. A good +thorough spraying with lime-sulphur might, however, get rid of many of +them and would be good for the trees otherwise - diluting according to +condition of tree growth. The chief campaign against the leaf aphis, +however, must be made early in the growing season, just as these pests +are beginning to hatch out and to accumulate under the leaves of the new +growth. They should then be attacked with properly made kerosene +emulsion or tobacco extract with a nozzle suited to land the spray on +the under side of the leaves. Unless these pests are attacked early in +the season and repeated if necessary, your apples on bearing trees will +be ruined so far as they attack them, being small, misshaped and +worthless. On young trees the destruction of the foliage is fatal to +good growth. + + + +Woolly Aphis. + + + +Will you kindly inform me what you consider the best treatment for apple +trees affected by woolly aphis? + +The best way to kill the woolly aphis on the roots is to remove the +earth from around the tree to a distance of one or two feet, according +to the size of the tree, digging away a few inches of the surface soil, +Then soak the soil around the tree with kerosene emulsion, properly +made, of 15 per cent strength, and replace the earth. Be sure you get a +good emulsion, for free oil is dangerous. For the insects above ground +on the twigs, a good spraying while the tree is out of leaf will kill +many, but some will survive for summer spraying, and for this a tobacco +spray may be most convenient. + + + +Blister Mite on Walnuts. + + + +I am sending you some walnut leaves with some swellings an them. They +are very plentiful on some trees here. Is the trouble serious and will +it spread? + +This is merely Erinose, or Blister Mite, which is a very common trouble +on walnuts, but does not do enough damage to call for methods of +control. These swellings are caused by numerous, very small insects +which live within the blisters on the under side of the leaf amongst a +felt-like, heavy growth which develops there. While this effect is very +common, it produces no appreciable injury and needs no treatment for its +control. + + + +Scale on Apricots. + + + +I would like to know how to check the scale on apricot trees. + +The most common scale on apricots, the brown apricot scale, is usually +held in check by the comys fusca, which is as widely distributed as the +scale itself. If it gets beyond the parasite, you should spray in winter +with crude oil emulsion. If some scales are punctured or have a black +spot on top, the comys fusca is busy and you probably will be safe +enough without doing anything. + + + +Fumigating for Black Scale. + + + +I would like to know the best method of eradicating the black scale from +my orange trees, whether by spraying or fumigation? + +Spraying has been given up as a suitable method for controlling the +black scale on citrus trees, and the only recognized method of merit +where the scale is bad is by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. You +should communicate with your county horticultural commissioner, who, +through inspectors, will see that you have a good job done, at the right +time and at as moderate price as is compatible with good work. It is +impossible to 'eradicate' the black scale, but there is a great +difference in the amount that can be killed, and it pays to have a job +done as near perfectly as possible. Similar methods of attacking other +scale insects on citrus trees are used. + + + +Finding Thrips. + + + +How can the presence of pear thrips be detected in a prune orchard? Will +the distillate emulsion-nicotine spray control brown scale as well as +thrips? + +You can find thrips by shaking a cluster of blossoms, as soon as they +open, over a sheet of paper or in the palm of your hand. The thrips are +very minute, transparent, somewhat louse-like insects. The spray you +mention would probably have little effect on the brown scale which would +still be in the egg state and under cover, at the time the early spring +spraying for the thrips. + + + +Control of Pear Slug. + + + +I am sending, under separate cover, some samples of cherry tree leaves +that have been attacked by a small snail or slug. Kindly let me know +what they are, and how to rid the trees of them. + +The creatures you speak of are the pear slugs, or the cherry slugs, as +they are sometimes known. Although slimy, like the big yellow slug that +is a pest in vegetable gardens, it is no relation thereto, but is the +larva of an insect. Its olive green color, slimy appearance and the way +it eats the surface of the leaves make it about the easiest of all +insects to identify. Parasites and predacious insects usually keep it in +fair control. Whenever artificial methods of control are needed the +slugs can best be destroyed by sprinkling dust of any kind upon them. If +you can get a machine for sulphuring a vineyard and use some air slaked +lime or other fine dust, it will fix them quickly and inexpensively, +though any way of applying dust may be used. + + + +Cutworms and Young Trees. + + + +What method should be used to protect young fruit trees from cutworms? + +Hoe around the trees or vines and kill the fat, greasy grubs which you +will find near the foliage. Put out a poisoned bait which the worms like +better than the foliage, viz. Bran, 10 pounds; white arsenic, 1/2 pound; +molasses, 1/2 gallon; water, 2 gallons. Mix the arsenic with the bran +dry. Add the molasses to the water and mix into the bran, making a moist +paste. Put a tablespoonful near the base of the tree or vine and lock up +the chickens. + + + +Control of Squash Bugs. + + + +We are troubled with pumpkin bugs. Please tell us what to do for them. + +When the bugs first make their appearance in the field they can be +easily disposed of by hand picking and dropping into a bucket containing +about two inches of water with about one-fourth inch of kerosene on top +to kill the bugs. The picking should be done in the morning, as the bugs +are apt to fly in the warm part of the day and scatter where already +picked. Two persons can pick over an acre in one and a half hours, and +two pickings are usually sufficient for a season, as after the vines +begin to run over the ground pretty well the bugs will not be able to +hurt them much. A pair of thin old gloves will help to keep off one's +hands some of the perfume from the bugs. The sooner the work starts the +fewer bugs to pick. Cleaning up of all old vines in the fall and +removing litter in which the mature bugs hide for the winter will permit +less eggs to be laid in the spring and there will be fewer bugs to pick +as a result. + + + +The Corn Worm. + + + +Last year all my ears of corn were infested with maggot, growing fat +thereon. Can you help me scare them away? + +You have to do with the so-called corn worm which is very abundant in +this State and one of the greatest pests to corn growing. It is the same +insect which is known as the boll worm of the cotton in the Southern +States. No satisfactory method of controlling this has been found, +although a great deal of experimentation has been done. Nearly +everything that could be thought of has been tried without very +satisfactory results. A late planted corn has sometimes been free, for +the insect is not in the laying stage then. If it were not for this +insect the canning of corn would be an important industry in this State. + + + +Melon Lice. + + + +I have in about four acres of watermelons, and there seem to be lice and +a small gnat or fly, and also some small green bugs and white worms on +the under part of the leaves, which seem to be stopping the growth of +the vines, making them wilt and die. They seem to be more in patches, +although a few on all the vines. Can you please tell me what to do for +them? + +Melon lice are very hard to catch up with after you have let them get a +start. Spraying with oil emulsions, tobacco extracts, soap solutions, +etc., will all kill the lice if you get it onto them with a good spray +pump and suitable nozzles for reaching the under sides of the leaves. +The gnats you speak of are the winged forms of the lice; the white worms +may be eating the lice; the "small green bugs" may be diabroticas. If +you had started in lively as soon as you saw the first lice you could +have destroyed them in the places where they started. Now your chance +lies largely in the natural multiplication of ladybirds and the +occurrence of hot winds which will burn up the lice. It is too late +probably, to undertake spraying the whole field. + + + +Wire Worms. + + + +Is there any way to destroy or overcome the destructive work of the +wireworm, which I find in some spots takes the lion's share of crops, +such as beans, potatoes, onions, etc.? + +We do not know any easy way with wire worms. Nitrate of soda is believed +to kill or repel them, but you have to be careful with it, for too much +will either over-stimulate or kill the kill; about 200 pounds per acre, +well distributed, is the usual prescription for the good of the plants. +Wire worms can probably be killed with carbon bisulphide, using a +tablespoonful poured into holes about a foot deep, three or four feet +apart. The vapor would permeate the soil and kill all ground insects, +but the acre-cost of such treatment must be measured in its relation to +the value of the crop. The most promising policy with wire worms is +rotation of crops, starving them out with a grain or grass crop and not +growing such crops as you mention continually on the same land. + + + +Bean Weevil. + + + +How can I keep certain insects from getting into my dry beans? I have +finished picking the crop. Every year a little, short, stubby beetle +gets in them before spring and makes them unfit for use. + +You have to do with the bean weevil. The eggs are inserted by the insect +while the beans are still green in the pods; subsequently the eggs hatch +and the worm excavates the interior of the ripened beans. The beans can +be protected after ripening by heating carefully to 130° Fahrenheit, +which will destroy the egg, or the larva if already hatched. Of course, +this heating must be done cautiously and with the aid of a good +thermometer for fear of destroying the germinating power. The work of +the insect can also be stopped by putting the beans in a barrel or other +close receptacle, with a saucer containing about an ounce of carbon +bi-sulfid to vaporize. Be careful not to approach the vapor with a +light. After treatment for one-half hour, the cover can be removed and +the vapor will entirely dissipate. This is a safer treatment than the +heating. Similar methods of control can be used on other pea and bean +weevils. + + + +Slugs in Garden. + + + +Can you advise me how I can get rid of slugs in my garden? + +When barriers of lime, ashes, etc., are ineffective, traps consisting of +pieces of board sacking and similar materials placed about the field +prove inviting to the slugs. They collect under these and by going over +the field in the early morning they may be put into a salt-water +solution or otherwise destroyed. Arsenical sprays applied with an +underspray nozzle to the lower surface of the leaves will help control +the slugs. Poison bran mash consisting of 16 pounds of coarse bran, 2 +quarts of cheap syrup, and enough warm water to make a coarse mash, is +very good for cutworms and should be equally effective for slugs. It +should be placed in small heaps about the plants to be protected. +Cabbage leaves dipped in grease drippings and placed about the fields +also prove attractive bait for the slugs, which may then be collected +there. If a person has a taste for poultry, the keeping of a few ducks +may solve the slug problem without further bother. Cultivation or +irrigation methods that give a dry surface most of the time also +discourage these pests. + + + +Cause of Mottle Leaf. + + + +What is the cause and cure of mottle leaf of citrus trees? + +There are apparently a number of causes of this trouble, all more or +less obscure and hard to overcome. It is generally thought that it is +due to poor nutrition, whatever the reason for poor nutrition might be. +The presence of a nematode or eel worm on the roots has found to be a +cause of mottle leaf in many cases. Poor drainage, too sandy soil and a +number of other things frequently cause it. Whatever the cause, no one +good method of cure has been found. + + + +Potato Scab. + + + +I think most of my potatoes will have some scab. Will you please tell me +if my next crop would be apt to have scab, provided I got good clean +seed and planted in the same ground? + +It seems demonstrated that a treatment of the seed will practically +insure against potato scab. One method is dipping the potatoes in a +solution of corrosive sublimate. Dissolve one ounce in eight gallons of +water and soak the seed potatoes in this solution for one and one-half +hours before cutting. + + + +Gopher Poison. + + + +I have some alfalfa, some hogs and some gophers, also some strychnine +and carrots. If I put the strychnine on the carrots, and endeavor to +poison the gophers, and the hogs get hold of the poison will it kill +them? + +You will find that hogs are liable to poison like any other animal, and +the safest way to poison the gophers, while the hogs are running in the +field is to bury the poisoned carrots very deeply in the gopher hole and +then put a row of sticks or branches over the mouth of the hole so that +the hogs cannot root around and get at the poisoned carrots. + + + +How to Make Bordeaux. + + + +Use copper sulphate (bluestone) 5 pounds; quick-lime (good stone lime), +6 pounds; water, 50 gallons. Put the bluestone in a sack and hang it so +it will be suspended just under the surface of a barrel of water over +night, or dissolve in hot water. Use one gallon of water to one pound of +bluestone. Slake the lime in a separate barrel, using just enough water +to make a smooth, clean, thin whitewash. Stir this vigorously. Use +wooden vessels only. Fill the spray tank half full of water, add one +gallon of bluestone solution for each pound required, then strain in the +lime and the remainder of the water and stir thoroughly. The formula may +be varied according to conditions, using from 3 to 8 pounds of bluestone +to 50 gallons of water and an equal or slight excess of lime. Use the +stronger mixture in rainy weather. Keep the mixture constantly agitated +while applying. + + + +Formula for Lime-Sulphur. + + + +To make lime-sulphur take quick-lime, 20 pounds; ground sulphur, 15 +pounds and water 30 gallons. Slake the lime with hot water in a large +kettle, add the sulphur and stir well together. After the violent +slaking subsides add more water and boil the mixture over a fire for at +least one hour. After boiling sufficiently strain into the spray tank +and dilute with water to the proper strength. If a steam boiler is +available, this mixture may be prepared more easily on a large scale by +cooking in barrels into which steam pipes are introduced. This mixture +cannot be applied safely except during the winter when the trees are +dormant. A large proportion of the lime-sulphur used in the State is +purchased already prepared in more concentrated form. + + + +Index + + + +Fruit Growing. + + + +Almond + Grafting on Peach + Pruning + Budding and Grafting + Planting + Pollination + Roots for + Longevity of + Seedlings + Do Not Plant in Place + Stick-Tights + And Peach +Apples + Shy-Bearing + Not on Quince + Stock For + And Alfalfa + Top Grafting + Mildew on Seedlings + Pruning + Will They Be Same Kind + Places for + Grafting in Place + Resistant Roots + For Hot Place + Die-Back of + Storage of + Root-Grafts +Apricots + Pruning + Shy-Bearing + Propagation + Renewing Old + Summer Pruning +Bananas + In California +Berries + Pruning Himalayas + Hardiness of Hybrids + With Perfect Flowers + Pruning Loganberries + Strawberry Planting + Blackberries for Drying + Planting Bush Fruits + Strawberry Plants + Strawberries in Succession + Gooseberries, Limitations of +Carobs + In California +Cherries + For Hot Place + Wild + Pruning + Training Grafts + Restoring Tress + Pollination +Citron + Curing +Citrus Fruit + Temperatures + Filbert Roots +Filbert Growing +Figs + Stickers + No Gopher-Proof Roots + Trays, Cleaning +Fruit Trees + Depth of Soil + What Slopes + and Overflow + Roots for + and Sunburn + Budding + Starting from Seed + Square or Triangular Planting + Planting on Clearings + Dipping Roots of + Preparing for Planting + Depth of Planting + In Wet Place + Cutting Back at Planting + Branching Young + Coal Tar and Asphaltum + Regular Bearing of + Avoiding Crotches + Crotch-Splitting + Strengthening + Covering Wounds + Covering Sunburned Bark + Gravel Streak + Transplanting Old + Dwarfing + Seedling + Filling Holes in + Deferring Bloom + Repairing Rabbit Injuries + Crops Between + Scions for Mailing + Scions from Young Trees + Whitewashing + Deciduous Planting + On Coast Sands + Over Underflow +Grapefruit + and Nuts +Grapes + Dry Farming + Cutting Frosted Canes + Dipping Seedless + Zante Currant + Vines for Arbor + Pruning Old Vines + Bleeding Vines + Scant Moisture + Sulphuring for Mildew + Sugar in Canned + Planting +Grafting + Wax +June Drop +Killing Moss on Tree +Interplanting, Wrong idea +Lemons + Citrus Budding + No Citrus Fruits on Roots +Mulberries + Pruning and Grafting +Nursery Stock in Young Orchard +Orchard + Replanting + Plowing in Young + Pigs in + Forage Under Sprayed Trees +Oranges + Water and Frost + Thinning + Wind-Blown Trees + Handling Balled Trees + Navel Not Thornless + Over-Size + Budding or Grafting in Orchard + Under-Pruning Trees + Keeping Trees too Low + Dying Back of Trees + Young Trees Dropping Fruit + Training + Crops Between Trees + Navels and Valencias + Seedlings + Acres to One Man + Roots for Trees + Soil and Situation + Transplanting + Protecting Young Trees + Not on Osage + No Pollenizer for Navels + Water and Frost + Frosted, What to do + Pruning Frosted Trees + Pruning +Olives + Cultivating + Moving Old Trees + Darkening Pickled + Seedlings Must Be Grafted + Oranges and Peppers + Budding Seedlings + Budding Old + from Small Cuttings + from Large Cuttings + Trimming Up + Canning + Renewing Trees + Growing from Seed + Neglected Trees +Peaches + Lye-peeling + Aged Trees + Renewing Orchard + Will He Have + Fillers in Apple Orchard + Grafting on Almond + on Apricot + Replanting after Root Knot + Buds in Bearing Trees + Pollen Must Be Same Kind + Grafting on + Young Trees Fail to Start + Planting in Alfalfa Sod + Pecan Growing +Pears + Pollination of Bartletts + Comics + Not on Peach + Dwarf Pears + Yield in Drying + Problems + Blight and Bees + on Quince +Plowing, Young Orchard +Plums - Pollenizing +Prunes + On Almond + Re-grafting Silver + French or Italian + Myrobalan Seedlings + Drying + Sugar + Glossing Dried + Price on Size Basis +Pruning + Times + Shaping a Young Tree + Late + Too Much + In Frosty Places + Low Growth + Are Tap-Roots Essential + For a Bark Wound + Bridging Gopher Girdles +Roots, Whole or Piece +Soil, Binding Plant for Winter +Spineless Cactus Fruit +Stumps, Medication to Kill +Sucker, What will it Be +Walnuts + Early Bearing + Handling Seedlings + How to Start + Planting + Pruning + Grafting + on Oaks + Eastern or California Blacks + Ripening + Cutting Below Dead Wood + in Alfalfa + in the Hills + Increase Bearing + Temperature and Moisture + from Seed + High-grafted + + + +Vegetable Growing. + + + +Artichokes + Jerusalem + Globe + Growing +Asparagus Growing +Beets + Leases for Sugar + Topping Mangel Wurzels +Brussels Sprouts - Blooming +Bean + Growing + Hoeing + as Nitrogen Gatherer + Yard-Long + Why Waiting + Blackeye + Are Cow-Peas + Horse-Bean Growing + Growing Castor + Inoculation + On Irrigated Mesas +California Grown Seed +Cloth for Hotbeds +Celery, Blanching +Chili Peppers +Corn + in Sacramento Valley + in Warm Ground + Sweet, in California +Cucumbers + Forcing + Growing +Continuous Cropping +Ginger in California +In Cold, Dark, Draft +Licorice in California +Lentils, Growing +Lettuce, Transplanting +Melons + Winter + Ripe +Onions + Seeds and Sets + Ripening + from Sets + Crops from Seed +Peas + Canada for Seed + Growing Niles +Peanuts + Harvesting + and Adobe +Potatoes + Cutting + Planting + Northern Seed + Planted Early + Balls + Seed-ends + and the Moon + Planting Whole + How to Cut Seed + Scab + Double-cropping + Keeping + Yield + New for Seed + Growing + After Alfalfa + Flat or Hill + Bad Conditions for + On Heavy Land + Storage for Seed + and Frosts + Sweet, Plant Growing + Growing + Between Trees +Less Water, More Heat +Radish, Giant Japanese +Rhubarb, Rotting +Soil for Vegetables +Squashes Dislike Hardship +Sunflowers, Harvesting +Tomatoes + Irrigating + Big Worms + Loss of Bloom + + + +Grain and Forage Crops + + + +Alfalfa + Improving Land + Cultivating + Suburban Patch + and Bermuda + and Salt Grass + and Alkali + on Adobe + and Soil Depth + Irrigating + Curing + Preparation of Land + Where Grown + Sowing + and Foxtail + Which is Best + and Dry Land + Inoculating + Unirrigated + Time to Cut + and Overflow + No Nurse Crop + Re-seeding + Taking Bloat from + What Crop for Seed + Siloing First Crop + Soil For + Handling Young + With Gypsum +Alfileria, Winter Pasture +Barley + California Varieties + Chevalier + on Moist Land + and Alfalfa +Beet Sugar, Home-made +Beets + and Potatoes + for Stock + Stock, Summer Start +Berseem +Bermuda Grass + Objectionable +Black Medic +Broom Corn +Buckwheat Growing +Clover + and Drought + for Wet Lands + Crimson + for Shallow Land + for High Ground-Water + Not an Alfalfa + Sweet, Cover Crop +Corn + for Silage + Irrigation for + Eastern Seed + Suckering + and Cow Peas +Cover Crop for Hop Yard +Cow Peas in San Joaquin +Cowpeas + Growing + and Canadian Peas +Crop Rotation +Dry Plowing for Grain +Fall Feed +Forage Plants + in Foothills + Winter + Poultry +Flax, New Zealand +Grasses, for Bank-holding +Grass Seeds, Scattering +Hay + Midsummer Sowing + Loose by Measure + Oat, When to Cut + Rye for + Frosted Grain + Summer Crop +Heating and Fermentation +Insect Powder +Johnson Grass +Jersey Kale +Kafir and Egyptian Corn +Lawns, Mossy +Moonshine Farming +Oats and Rust +Pasturing + Young Grain + Hurry-up + California Winter +Rape and Milo +Rye in California +Rye + Grass, Italian + better than +Speltz +Spurry, Giant +Soil Light, Scant Moisture +Sunflowers + and Soy Beans + Russian +Spineless Cactus +Sorghum + Smutty + Late Sown +Sorghums + for Seed + for Planting +Sacaline +Special Crops +Teosinte +Vetches + for San Joaquin + for Hay +Wheat, Seven-headed + + + +Soils, Fertilizing and Irrigation. + + + +Alkali Soil + and Trees + Treatment of + and Gypsum + Distribution + Plants Will Tell + and Litmus +Alfalfa over Hardpan +Ashes + and Tomatoes + in Garden + and Poultry Manure +Blasting + or Tiling + Effects of +Barnyard Manure and Alkali +Bones for Grape Vines +Can a Man Farm +Charcoal, Medicine, not Food +Cover Crop, Best Legume +Cowpeas, best cover crop +Cementing Soils, Improvement +Cultivation, Depth of +Draining Wet Spot +Dry Plowing + Treatment + and Sowing +Dynamite, More Needed +Electro-Agriculture +Fenugreek as Cover Crop +Fertilizer + in Tree Holes + Best for Sand + Prunings as + Suburban Wastes + Composting Garden Wastes + for Sweet Potatoes + Pear Orchard + Olives + Consult Trees + Nursery + Almond Hulls and Sawdust + Fruit Trees + Oranges + Seed Farm Refuse + Slow Stuff + Alfalfa + Corn + Scrap Iron + Kelp as + Nitrate of Soda + Strawberries +Ground Water +Gypsum + on Grain Land + and Alfalfa + What it Does + How Much +Garden Peas for Green Manure +Grape Pomace + Handling + Abuse of +Hardpan and Low Water +Humus + Burning Out + Straw for +Irrigating + Palms + Condensation for + Winter + Young Trees +Alfalfa + How Much for Crops + Sewage + Creamery Wastes + House Waste +Intensive Cultivation +Irrigate or Cultivate +Irrigation + Underground + of Potatoes + of Apples + of Walnuts + Summer and Fall + and Fertilizers +Liming Chicken Yard +Legumes, Two in Year +Lime + Caustic not Absorbent + on Sandy Soil + Alfalfa + Sugar Factory Fertilizer +Manure + Water, Cultivation + Ashes + Poultry + too Much + Stable and Bean Straw + Pit Roofing + Value of Animals + Fresh and Dry + and Shavings + Sheep, and Goat + Hog and Potatoes + Vineyard + and Nitrate + with Clover +Nitrate, Late Applications of +Oranges Over Ground Water +Organic Matter, Needs +Oranges + How Much Water + Damping Off +Planting in Mud +Potash or Water +Reviving Blighted Trees +Soils + and Oranges + Crop Changes + Moisture Defects + Refractory + Suitable for Fruits + Blowing + Improving Heavy + Reclaimed Swamp + Improving Uncovered + Sand for Clay + Sour + and Old Plaster + Handling Orchard + Depth for Citrus +Summer Fallow +Sub-soil, Plow for +Stable Drainage for Fruit +Seeds, Soaking +Trees + over High-water + Plowing toward or from + Irrigated or not + Too Much Water + Too Little Water +Thomas Phosphate, Applying +Water + Artesian + from Wells or Streams + + + +Live Stock and Dairy. + + + +Buttermilk Paint +Butter + Going White + Fat, What it is + Why not Come + Fat in Cream +Breeding + Young Mare + in Purple + Line +Cream That Won't Whip +Cows in Hill Country +Concrete Stable Floor +Drying Persistent Milker +Foot-hill Dairy +Free Martin +Grade, What it is +Granary, Rat-proof +Hogs, Best Breed +Jersey + Short-horn Cross + Bad Tempered +Legal Milk House +Milk + Strong + Separator as Purifier + Certified +Self-Milker, Cure for +Silos, Heating not Dangerous +Shingles, Make Durable +Trespassing Live Stock +Whitewashes + for Buildings + Government + for Spray + + + +Feeding Farm Animals + + + +Alfalfa and Concentrates +Barley, Rolled + for Cows + for Hay Feeding +Brewers' Grains for Cows +Balanced Rations +Corn Stalks + and Concentrates + Cut for Silage +Calves, Feeding +Feed + for Cows + Family Cow + Young Pigs +Grape Pomace as Hog Feed +Grain for Horses +Horses, Vetch for +Horse Beans and Melons +Hay + Salting + Chopping for Horses + Cut Alfalfa + Storing Cut Alfalfa + Grinding +Kale for Cow Feed +Plow Horses, Feed for +Pumpkins + Feeding + Keeping +Pasture and Cover Crop + Fall and Winter + Summer for Hogs +Pigs + and Pie-Melons + Grain or Pasture for + Growing on Roots +Sheep, Winter Feeding +Sorghum, Feeding +Silage 200 Dry Fodder +Sugar Beets and Silage +Stover +Stock Beets + Storing + Kind of +Spelt, Value of +Steers on Alfalfa +Silo, Size of +Soiling Crops +Wheat or Barley + for Hogs + for Feeding + + + +Diseases of Animals. + + + +Abscess of Gland +Abnormal Thirst +Bloat, Easement +Bowel Trouble +Bloody Milk +Barren Heifers +Blind Teat +Bovine Rheumatism +Bleeding for Blackleg +Chronic Indigestion +Castration of Colt +Chronic Cough +Cowpox +Calf Dysentery +Cleft Hoof +Cocked Ankles +Cleanse Cows +Caked Bag +Cow Chewing Bones +Depraved Appetite +Dentist Needed +Dehorning +Forage Poisoning +Fungus Poisoning +Fly Repellants +Flea Destroyers +Garget +Gland Enlarged +Heaves +Horse with Itch +Horses Feet, Treatment +Hog Cholera +Hog Sickness +Infectious Mastitis +Irritation of Udder +Injury to Udder +Kidney Trouble +Lumpy jaw +Lumps in Teat +Loss of Cud +Mange, Is it +Mangy Cow +Musty Corn for Pigs +Nail Puncture +Neck Swelling +Pregnancy of Mare +Paralysis +Pneumonia in Pigs +Paralysis of Sow +Rickets in Hogs +Scabby Swelling +Skin Disease, Fatal +Scours +Side-bone +Shoulder injury +Stiff joints +Swelling in Dewlap +Sterile Cow +Supernumerary Teat +Sore + Eyes + in Pigs +Sow, Over-fat +Tuberculous Milk +Uterus, Diseased +Urination Defective +Warts on Horse +Worms in Horses +Wound + Sore + in Teat + Swellings + + + +Poultry Keeping. + + + +Bowel Trouble in Chicks +Cure for Feather-Eating +Cannibal Chicks +Caponizing +Chicken Pox +Clipping Hens +Dipping Fowls +Disinfectants +Dry Mash +Feeding for Eggs +Grain for Chickens +Liver Disease +Limber Neck +Melons for Fowls +Open Front Houses +Roup + Treatment + in Turkeys +Quick Roosters and Laying Hens +Preserving Eggs +Poultry + Tonic + in Orchard +Point on Mating +Poultry Diarrhea +Rupture of Oviduct +Rape for Chickens +Sunflower Seeds for Chicks +Teaching Chicks to Perch + + + +Pests and Diseases of Plants. + + + +Apple-Leaf Aphis +Bordeaux Mixture +Bean Weevil +Borers on Olive Twigs +Blister Mite on Walnuts +Black Scale, Fumigation +Cutworms in Young Trees +Control + of Pear Slug + of Grasshoppers + of Red Spider + of Squash Bugs +Corn Worm +Gumming Prune Trees +Gopher Poison +Lime-Sulphate Formula +Melon Lice +Mottle Leaf, Cause of +Potato Scab +Raspberry Cane Borer +Sunburn and Borers +Scale on Apricots +Spray for Red Spider +Slugs in Garden +Thrips, Finding +Wooly Aphis +Wire Worms + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, ONE THOUSAND QUESTIONS IN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE ANSWERED *** + +This file should be named 5152.txt or 5152.zip + +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, calag10a.txt + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US 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