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diff --git a/old/51492-8.txt b/old/51492-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index eb1a5ef..0000000 --- a/old/51492-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19833 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenia, Travels and Studies (Volume 1 of 2), by -H. F. B. Lynch - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Armenia, Travels and Studies (Volume 1 of 2) - The Russian Provinces - -Author: H. F. B. Lynch - -Release Date: March 18, 2016 [EBook #51492] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIA, TRAVELS AND STUDIES *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the -Armenian Genocide. - - - - - - - - - ARMENIA - - TRAVELS AND STUDIES - - - BY - H. F. B. LYNCH - - - - Nature's vast frame, the web of human things. - - Shelley, Alastor. - - Who can foretell our future? Spare me the attempt. - We are like a harvest reaped by bad husbandmen - amidst encircling gloom and cloud. - - John Katholikos - Armenian historian of the Xth century Ch. CLXXXVII. - - - - IN TWO VOLUMES - - WITH 197 ILLUSTRATIONS, REPRODUCED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS - AND SKETCHES BY THE AUTHOR, - NUMEROUS MAPS AND PLANS, A BIBLIOGRAPHY - - And a Map of Armenia and Adjacent Countries - - VOL. I - - THE RUSSIAN PROVINCES - - - - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - LONDON: 39 PATERNOSTER ROW - NEW YORK AND BOMBAY - - 1901 - - - - - - - -PREFACE - - -This book contains the account of two separate journeys in Armenia, -the first extending from August 1893 to March 1894, and the second -from May to September 1898. Before embarking upon them, I was already -familiar with the contiguous countries, having spent a considerable -portion of the years 1889 and 1890 in Mesopotamia and Persia. The -routes shown in my map from Aleppo to Diarbekr and down the Tigris, -and from Batum across Georgia and the Caspian to Resht, were taken -during the course of these earlier wanderings, and they contribute -no part of the ensuing narrative. - -What attracted me to Armenia? I had no interests public or private in -a country which has long been regarded even by Asiatic travellers as a -land of passage along prescribed routes. One inducement was curiosity: -what lay beyond those mountains, drawn in a wide half-circle along -the margin of the Mesopotamian plains? The sources of the great rivers -which carried me southwards, a lake with the dimensions of an inland -sea, the mountain of the Ark, the fabled seat of Paradise. - -With each step forward in my knowledge of the countries west of India -came a corresponding increase of my original emotion. Sentimental -were reinforced by purely practical considerations; and I seemed to -see that the knot of politics tightening year by year around these -countries was likely to be resolved in Armenia. I became impatient -to set foot upon Armenian soil. - -When my wish was realised, my first experiences of the country -and of the Armenians in the Russian provinces exceeded my -expectations--fringed with doubt as these were by disappointment with -much I had seen in the East. So I passed over the Russian frontier, -struck across to the lake of Van, and spent the winter in Erzerum. - -When I came to setting down on the map my routes in Turkish Armenia, -the scantiness of existing knowledge was painfully plain. I soon -realised that it would be necessary to undertake a second journey -for the purpose of acquiring the necessary framework upon which to -hang the routes. Meanwhile the events occurred with which we are -all familiar--the Armenian massacres, and the comedy of the concert -of Europe. - -It was with difficulty that I was at length enabled to return to the -country. These later travels were almost exclusively occupied with -the natural features, our tents spread upon the great mountain masses, -whence plain and lake and winding river were unfolded before us like -a map. - -Primitive methods were rendered necessary for transferring these -features to paper. One is not allowed in Turkey the use of elaborate -or obvious instruments, and miles of ground had to be crossed in full -view of Turkish officials before reaching the field of our work. But -I was able to transport to Erzerum a standard mercurial barometer, -which was duly set up in that centre and read several times a day -during our absence. We carried two aneroids, a boiling-point apparatus, -a four-inch prismatic compass, used upon a tripod and carefully tested -at Kew; lastly, a rather troublesome but very satisfactory little -instrument called a telemeter, and made by Steward. The measurements -were checked by cross-readings with the compass, and we found that they -could be relied upon. Once we were upon the mountains our operations -were not impeded, and, indeed, were assisted by the authorities. - -I was accompanied on this second journey by my friend, Mr. F. Oswald, -who had been helping me disentangle the voluminous works of the great -Abich upon the geology of the Caucasus and Russian Armenia. The varied -talents of Oswald were of the greatest service to the work in hand, -while his society was a constant source of pleasure and repose. He -is now engaged with the geological results of this journey, and with -a well-considered study of the geology of Armenia as a whole. These -he hopes to publish before very long. - -The illustrations are for the most part reproductions of my -photographs, being a selection from a collection which fills several -cases. On my first Armenian journey I was accompanied as far as -Erzerum by Mr. E. Wesson of the Polytechnic in London, who not only -developed the films and plates upon the spot, but rendered the most -valuable assistance in the photographic work. He also displayed the -qualities of a veteran campaigner before the journey was done. And -I was always missing him after his return home and during the second -journey, when the work devolved entirely upon myself. - -My cousin, Major H. B. Lynch, now serving in South Africa, travelled -with us as far as Ararat and took charge of the camp. It is, I think, -a legitimate cause for satisfaction that, except for momentary lapses -on the part of the cook, not one of the party during either of the -two long journeys fell ill or became incapable of hard work. And on -both occasions the horses were sold at a small profit when the coast -was at length reached. - -Why does one write a book? I find it difficult to answer the question, -which, indeed, demands a knowledge of human nature greater than any I -possess. There are societies and individuals who, I feel sure, would -offer a price if the potential author would agree to keep his material -to himself. The sum might probably be augmented by the contributions -of weary students; and a revenue could be collected from these various -sources far exceeding any royalties received from publishers. Moreover -the author would escape the foreboding of condign punishment, which -he is made to feel suspended over his head. On the other hand, there -is the fascination of feeling possessed by a subject, stronger than -yourself and elemental. And there is the joy and the impersonality -of the work reacting upon the personality of the writer. - -The country and the people which form the theme of the ensuing pages -are deserving, the one of enthusiasm and the other of the highest -interest. It is very strange that such a fine country should have lain -in shadow for so many centuries, and that even the standard works of -Greek and Roman writers should display so little knowledge of its -features and character. Much has been done to dispel the darkness -during the progress of the expired century; and I have been at some -pains to collect and co-ordinate the work of my predecessors. In this -task I have been assisted by my friend, the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Pelham, -to whom the credit of the bibliography accompanying my second volume -is due. - -In taking leave of the book--and it has been a long connection--the -mind rests with pleasure and gratitude upon the help given without -stint by fellow-workers in the same or in different fields. To my -friend, Mr. R. W. Graves, now Consul-General in Crete, I am indebted -for a lengthy spell of hospitality and delightful companionship in -distant Erzerum. I have borrowed freely from his intimate knowledge of -extensive regions in Turkish Armenia, as well as from that acquired -by my friend, Major Maunsell, now our Consul at Van, the principal -contemporary authority on Kurdistan. Geheimrath Dr. G. Radde of -Tiflis has rendered me valuable assistance on more than one occasion; -and it is also a pleasure to feel conscious in many ways of my -obligations to my friend, Mr. L. de Klupffell, formerly of Batum. At -home I have received much kindness from Mr. Fortescue of the British -Museum library, and from Dr. Mill, who has so long presided over the -library of the Royal Geographical Society, and whose recent retirement -from that office in order to devote himself to his scientific work -is keenly regretted by those whom he encouraged by his assistance -and advice. The book has brought me several new friends, among -them Mr. F. C. Conybeare of Oxford, the extent of my debt to whom, -in various directions, it would be difficult to estimate. Professor -Sayce has kindly looked over the sheets dealing with the Vannic empire, -and contributed several valuable suggestions. Prof. E. Denison Ross -has helped me with the Mussulman inscriptions, besides informing me -upon a number of obscure points. - -A portion of the narrative of the ascent of Ararat has already appeared -in Messrs. Scribner's Magazine, reprinted in Mountain Climbing, -a book published by this firm. Parts of the concluding chapters of -each volume, entitled "Statistical and Political," have seen the -light in the shape of a series of articles in the Contemporary Review. - - -H. F. B. LYNCH. - - -The map which accompanies my first volume will be on sale separately -at Messrs. Stanford's in Longacre. - - - - - - - -CONTENTS - - PAGE - CHAPTER I - The Coast and the Port 1 - - CHAPTER II - Ascent to Armenia 37 - - CHAPTER III - To Akhaltsykh 53 - - CHAPTER IV - To Akhalkalaki 72 - - CHAPTER V - At Akhalkalaki 86 - - CHAPTER VI - Prospect from Abul 92 - - CHAPTER VII - Gorelovka and Queen Lukeria 96 - - CHAPTER VIII - To Alexandropol 118 - - CHAPTER IX - At Alexandropol 124 - - CHAPTER X - To Erivan 133 - - CHAPTER XI - To Ararat 143 - - CHAPTER XII - Ascent of Ararat 156 - - CHAPTER XIII - The Heart of Ararat 179 - - CHAPTER XIV - Return to Erivan 200 - - CHAPTER XV - At Erivan 206 - - CHAPTER XVI - Edgmiatsin and the Armenian Church 228 - - CHAPTER XVII - To Ani and to Kars 316 - - CHAPTER XVIII - Ani, and the Armenian Kingdom of the Middle Ages 334 - - CHAPTER XIX - Kars 393 - - CHAPTER XX - Across the Spine of Armenia 409 - - CHAPTER XXI - Geographical 421 - - CHAPTER XXII - Statistical and Political 446 - - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - Ararat from Aralykh Frontispiece - Trebizond from above the Head of the Western Ravine - To face page 12 - Trebizond: Hagia Sophia 24 - Trebizond: Façade of Hagia Sophia on the South 25 - Plain of the Rion from the Southern Slopes of Caucasus: - Kutais in the Foreground 46 - View North from the Zikar Pass Back to page 52 - View South from the Zikar Pass 53 - Safar: St. Saba from the West 62 - Safar: Porch of St. Saba 63 - Akhaltsykh from the Road to Akhalkalaki To face page 65 - Castle of Khertvis 76 - Vardzia, the Troglodyte City 80 - Mount Abul from Akhalkalaki 92 - Summer Pavilion at Gorelovka 109 - Alagöz from the Plain of Alexandropol 122 - Alexandropol from the Armenian Cemetery 125 - Ararat from near Aramzalu 153 - Great Ararat from above Sardar Bulakh 165 - Our Kurd Porters on Ararat 167 - Akhury: The Great Chasm from Aralykh 179 - Akhury: Inside the Great Chasm 194 - Erivan and Ararat from the North 208 - Erivan: Interior of the Kiosque of the Sirdars 216 - Edgmiatsin: The Great Court and the Cathedral 243 - Edgmiatsin: Ceremony of the Consecration of the - Katholikos--Anointing with Oil from the Beak of a - Golden Dove 254 - Edgmiatsin: Interior of the Cathedral 267 - Edgmiatsin: Exterior of St. Ripsime 269 - Edgmiatsin: Exterior of St. Gaiane 270 - Edgmiatsin: Exterior of Shoghakath 271 - Talin: Mouldings on South Side of Ruinous Church 322 - Walls and Gateway of the City of Ani from Outside, - looking East 369 - Ani: The Cathedral from South-East 370 - Ani: Niche in Eastern Wall of Cathedral 371 - Ani: Apse of the Cathedral 372 - Ani: Church of St. Gregory from the West 373 - Ani: North Wall of the Church of St. Gregory 374 - Ani: Detail of the Porch of St. Gregory 375 - Ani: Mosque and Minaret 376 - Ani: Detail of Doorway of Chapel near Citadel 379 - Ani: Chapel of St. Gregory, East Side 380 - Ani: Chapel of St. Gregory, Entrance 381 - Ani: Interior of the Chapel of St. Gregory 382 - Ani: Chapel of the Redeemer 383 - Ani: Doorway of the Castle 384 - Ani: Portal of the Church of the Apostles from the West 385 - Ani: East Front of the Church of the Apostles 386 - Khosha Vank: Pronaos 387 - Khosha Vank: Exterior of Pronaos and Church from South-West 388 - Khosha Vank: Hall of the Synod 389 - Looking down the Valley of Kagyzman 417 - A Rib or Buttress of Aghri Dagh 419 - Pass over Aghri Dagh 420 - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT - - Entrance to the Black Sea from the Bosphorus 3 - Interior of Hagia Sophia 27 - Banks of the Rion above Kutais 46 - Road in the Forest 50 - Georgians 51 - Portrait of Ivan 59 - Group of Villagers at Khertvis 77 - Archimandrite and Deacon at Vardzia 82 - Head Waters of the Arpa Chai 121 - Byzantine Picture in Greek Church 128 - Wedding Party at Alexandropol 130 - Church of Marmashen from S.W. 131 - Alagöz from the Head Waters of the Abaran 136 - Ararat: Aralykh in the foreground 155 - Our Cavalcade on Ararat 159 - Our Encampment at Sardar Bulakh 163 - Little Ararat from near Sardar Bulakh 164 - Summit of Ararat from the South-East, taken at a height - of about 13,000 feet 180 - Boulders near Akhury 191 - Ararat from a house-top in Erivan 207 - Alagöz from a house-top in Erivan 208 - Entrance to Gök Jami, Erivan 213 - Court with basin of Gök Jami, Erivan 214 - The Temple, Gök Jami 215 - Pilgrims' Court, Edgmiatsin 230 - The Katholikos Mekertich Khrimean 237 - The Lake at Edgmiatsin 246 - Ararat from the Lake at Edgmiatsin 247 - Armenian Nun 252 - Interior of the Portal of the Cathedral 266 - Episcopal Staves 268 - Sculptured Stone 271 - Village of Talin, with Mount Bugutu 322 - Mouldings on North Side of Ruinous Church at Talin 323 - Tartar Khan at Talin } 324 - Pristav of Talin } - Priest of Talin 325 - Tartar of Akhja Kala 326 - Alagöz from the Plains on the West 327 - Greek Girl of Subotan 331 - Ani: Bas-relief on the Inner Wall of the Gateway 369 - Ani: Sculptured Stone Moulding 373 - Ani: Walled Enclosure and Chapel 376 - Ani: Building on the Citadel 378 - Ani: Pilaster in the Building on the Citadel 379 - Ani: Landscape from the southern extremities of the site 380 - Ani: The Castle 383 - The Monastery of Khosha Vank: east side 386 - Khosha Vank: Chapels in the Ravine of the Arpa Chai 387 - The Citadel of Kars 406 - Molokan Elder at Vladikars 411 - House at Novo-Michaelovka 412 - Aghri Dagh from the Araxes Cańon 414 - Cliffs composing Northern Wall of Araxes Cańon 415 - The Araxes near Kagyzman 416 - Kara Vank on Aghri Dagh 419 - Map of the Armenian Plateau 452 - - - -LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS - - Plan of the Ancient Fortifications of Trebizond To face page 13 - Trebizond and Surroundings 30 - Plan of the Monastery and Churches of Edgmiatsin - Between pages 244 and 245 - Plan of the Deserted City of Ani To face page 390 - Kars and Surroundings 395 - The Structural Features of Asia Between pages 422 and 423 - Map of Armenia and Adjacent Countries Cover - - - - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COAST AND THE PORT - - -On four different occasions, both in summer and in winter, I have -sailed along the southern shore of the Black Sea almost from one -extremity to the other; yet I do not remember having seen the sky free -from heavy clouds during two consecutive days. As the ship speeds -eastwards along the mountains of Bithynia, a thin veil of haze will -blend the land outlines together; while, as the range grows in height -with every mile of progress, the vapour will collect about its upper -slopes in long, horizontal, black banks. Even when the sun of this -southern climate has swept the sky of every lingering film, when -the zenith and the water recall the hues of the Mediterranean--the -whole scale of brilliant blues--somewhere upon the wide circle of -the horizon will be lurking the scattered forces of the mist. But -the stronghold of the cloud is in the mountains of Akhaltsykh, at -the foot of Caucasus, in the extreme eastern angle of the sea. Can -there exist a more gloomy coast? There the sky is always lowering -above the inky water, and the forests of fir which clothe the range -from foot to summit wave darkly, like feathers over a pall. Such, -I think, are the impressions which the mind most closely associates -with the aspect of this sea and shore. What a contrast to the smiling -landscape of the Bosphorus, the strait through which we enter this -sad sea or leave it on our return home! The cold draught follows the -home-coming ship up the narrow channel between the wooded cliffs, -and frets the running tide into crisp little waves which sparkle in -the brilliant light. The dolphins leap from the blue water and dart -shining through the air. To the traveller who is returning from a long -journey in Asia and a tedious tossing on this grey sea, the Bosphorus, -always bright and gay and beautiful, may appear as the promised gate -of paradise beyond the world of shades. - -The character of the coast cannot fail to be affected by this climate, -by this atmosphere. Just as the vapours gather thickest where the -mountains are most lofty, at the south-eastern angle of the sea, -so the vegetation increases in luxuriance and variety the further -eastwards we proceed on our course. The cliffs or rolling hills about -the entrance of the Bosphorus--the closing cliffs of the Greek legend, -which caught the tail-feathers of the dove--soon give place to the -belt of wooded mountains which rise from the immediate margin of the -water, and stretch from west to east along the entire seaboard to the -Phasis and Batum. Tier upon tier they rise from the narrow strip of -sand and pebbles, and grow both in height and in boldness of outline -as they stretch towards the east. The winds of the open sea, the cold -winds of Scythia, fly over the barrier of the range; and the ship -may often anchor in smooth water at a point where least protection -would appear to be offered by the configuration of the shore. But the -moisture of the air is arrested at the coast-line, and hangs about the -upper tiers of the mountains or clings to the fir-clad slopes. These -natural conditions are extremely favourable to vegetation, and the -larger grows the scale upon which they are operating, the more abundant -becomes the growth of trees and shrubs. When at last we have reached -the neighbourhood of the Phasis, where the wall of this range towers -highest above us on the one side, and the line of Caucasus closes the -horizon on the other, the shore becomes clothed with dense forests, -plants and creepers flourish with tropical exuberance; the traveller, -threading the maze of evergreen woodland, might be walking along the -banks of the Amazon or through the glades of Mazanderan. - -August 13, 14.--Our ship is outward bound for the banks of the Phasis, -"the furthest point to which vessels sail." It was evening when we -hove anchor from Constantinople, and night had already closed as we -passed the cliffs of Buyukdere and opened the mouth of the strait -(Fig. 1). This morning we are skirting the Bithynian mountains, -our head well up towards Amasra, behind us the bluff of Cape Baba, -a promontory of twin hills. That cape hides the site of Heraklea, -one of the most important of the old Greek cities, now patched with -the relics of its former splendour, and shorn of the glory of its -statue of Herakles, with lion-skin, club, quiver, bow and arrows -all wrought of solid gold. The same lofty coast and bold headlands -accompany our course; in a few hours we double Cape Karembe, and -the sun has not yet set as we cast anchor off Ineboli, the outlet of -the rich districts about Kastamuni, and perhaps at present the most -prosperous of these western Pontic ports. - -Herakli, Ineboli, Sinope, Samsun--the ships often stop at one or -two of these places; yet how little now remains of the old Greek -cities of the Argonautic shore! Step on land, and there are the -high-prowed galleys drawn up, quite in the ancient fashion, upon the -narrow strip of sand. But the hill to which we look for the ancient -akropolis appears bare of any building now, and it is only by careful -searching and diligent enquiry that you will find some faced stone with -a Greek inscription of the Roman period built into the buttress of a -modern bridge, or mocking the ruder masonry of a Turkish wall. Here at -Ineboli, indeed, half-bedded in the soil a few paces from the shore, -lies a shining fragment of white marble with sculptures in relief. A -line of white-faced houses with roofs of red tiles nestles beneath the -mountain wall. The Greeks live on one side, the Turks on the other; -and the intelligent man to whom you naturally address yourself is -an Armenian in European dress. Our ship does not call at Sinope -this voyage--Sinope of the open site and spacious roadstead, whose -walls seem to have resisted the general crumbling, and rise from the -water a still perfect model of a fortified medićval town. During the -night we round the hump of Anatolia, and before mid-day we are lying -in the bay of Samsun, towards the centre of the long curve lined -with white-faced, red-tiled houses, beyond which the ruined walls -of ancient Amisus still emerge from the briars on the summit of the -hillside which closes the landscape on the north-west. But at Samsun -also destruction has been busy; I look in vain for the massive tower -of old acquaintance at the south-eastern extremity of the shore. I -recognise the spot where it stood at the end of the long sea-wall, -some parts of which still remain; but the foundations alone have -escaped demolition, and the few large blocks of stone which still -lie scattered on the ground testify rather to the carelessness of -the Turkish building-contractor than to any respect on the part of -his employers for the beauty and interest of their town. - -The sites of these coast towns have been determined by the -characteristics of the range of wooded limestone ridges which rise -along the shore. Sometimes it will be a cleft in this latitudinal belt -of mountains, a transverse fissure in the grain of the range, which, -with its rustling river giving access to the interior, has attracted -a settlement. The eye rests with pleasure on the deep green of these -narrow valleys; the limestone towers high above them and protects the -rich growth of trees and shrubs. Or the range recedes from the margin -of the water, sweeping inland in the shape of a vast amphitheatre, -and curving outwards again to form a distant promontory of the bold -and sinuous coast. The first description will apply to the position -of Ineboli; the second may be illustrated in a typical manner by the -site of Samsun. There the open stage of the wide hemicycle is filled -with rolling hills and level expanses which yield abundant crops of -cereals. It is true that the estuaries of the two larger rivers, -Halys and Iris, present exceptions to the normal configuration -of the seaboard. These considerable streams form extensive deltas -which project far out into the sea. For awhile, as you pass them, -you almost lose sight of the mountains, and the view ranges across -low, marshy tracts, studded with trees. As we skirted the delta of -the Halys, we looked down upon such a wooded plain across a narrow -bank of sandy shore. It appeared as if inside that slender barrier -the solid land had sunk beneath the level of the waters upon which -we sailed. The delta of the Halys is as celebrated for its tobacco -as that of the Iris for its Indian corn, and Bafra and Charshembeh -are becoming serious rivals to the old Greek cities of the coast. - -Indeed, even along this remote seaboard the flowing tide of Western -civilisation is surely setting eastwards again. How the conditions -of human life around these lonely waters have altered within the -last sixty years! Sixty years ago the first steamer drew her train -of smoke and foam past these forelands and bays of still uncertain -fame. The slave ships infested the harbours of the coast, and if a -sail rose upon the horizon it was likely to be a slaver's sail. Armed -bands still forayed into the recesses of Georgia for their loot of -beautiful boys and girls, and parents who wished to preserve their -daughters from the market would place them, when quite children, -in one of the numerous fortified convents which crowned the summits -of their native hills. Slowly the grip of law has fastened upon the -peoples of Caucasia, a stern force moving with the insistence of a -vice from distant Russia, from the north; while from the west, with, -perhaps, less system, less coherence of methods, European commerce -creeps along this Turkish shore of the sea, and extends ever further -into the inland country the solvent influences of her sway. Already -towards the middle of the century the Russians swept these waters -with their steam cruisers, while their police boats blockaded all -the coast of Circassia to guard against the import of arms. Only -when the season was most tempestuous, when the cruisers had retired -within their harbours and the Cossacks no longer dared to face the -open sea, the captain of the slave ship would venture out upon his -perilous voyage from some wooded inlet of the eastern shore. At the -present time this traffic has either ceased entirely or is conducted -through obscure and secret channels, where it would be difficult to -trace. To Russia belongs the credit of this achievement, which has -accompanied the extension of her empire down the eastern coast of the -Black Sea. To Europe and to the increasing intercourse with European -markets is due the growing prosperity of these towns of the Turkish -seaboard, and indeed the very appearance which they present. New -houses, in construction far more solid than their predecessors, are -transforming the aspect of the shore; burnt bricks or stone masonry -take the place of wood, and these materials are faced with a coat of -concrete, painted a pure white. The window apertures are large, and at -evening or morning a row of wide glass panes reflects the glow. Even -the Government can show some signs of progress; carriageable roads -have been constructed to the towns of the interior, from Ineboli to -the inland centre of Kastamuni, from Samsun to Amasia and Sivas. - -August 15.--Weighing from Samsun at night, it is early morning as we -cast anchor off Kerasun--Kerasun with its castled rock thrown seawards -from the range, the lofty headland of the bay, from which the town -curves westwards and sinks to the waterside under the shadow of the -mountain wall. Were it not for the needle forms of minaret and cypress, -rising against the terraces of white walls and red roofs which mount -from the water's edge, we might be sailing on the Rhine, past some -grim old burgh, dominating the cluster of peaceful habitations which -cower at its skirts. In less than three hours the barges are emptied, -and we are proceeding on our course. Almost immediately we pass close -to a little island, a rare object along this shore. It is a mere fleck -of rock, picturesquely encircled by feudal walls and towers. The range -on our right hand is always rising in elevation; hard porphyritic -rocks are beginning to take the place of the crumbling limestone; -the ridges, clad with firs to the very summits, stand up one behind -another ever loftier and more abrupt. At the same time the lower -slopes increase in verdure; orchards and plantations clothe each -respite of open ground. Small settlements succeed one another more -closely, the houses peeping out with their white faces from the soft, -leafy background of green. - -Such is the appearance of the shore we are skirting this morning--the -range growing in height, the vegetation increasing, the characteristic -beauties of the coast now, perhaps, for the first time imprinting -a lasting image upon the mind. Like the Mediterranean, this sea -is almost tideless--the narrow strip of sand, upon which the waves -plash, is unencumbered with those oozy beds of giant seaweed which, -scattered in fragrant streamers upon our English seaboards, whet the -freshness of our sea-breeze. Beyond this margin rise the first spurs -of the mountains, or immediately descend into the deep, clear waters -in the form of bold capes. If this coast yields to some in variety -of outline, and is wanting in those combinations of sinuous bays and -sea-thrown islands which lend such beauty to the landscapes of western -Asia Minor and to the European shore of the Mediterranean Sea, it -is surpassed by none in distinctness of character, in singleness of -effect. Day after day it is the same long belt of mountains always -following the shore, the same long series of parallel ridges rising -roughly parallel to the shore. The persistence of the range, the -regularity of the system, the many signs along the seaboard of an -ever-increasing development in the scale of the mountain walls which -lie behind--all contribute to the growing consciousness that this -foot of the barrier, the pleasing inlets of this shore, are but the -threshold of some commanding piece of natural architecture of which -we long to realise the plan. While the imagination is stimulated by -this largeness of feature, the eye also is pleased. Groves of lofty -fir trees clothe the slopes and climb the summits, standing out on the -undulating backs of the ridges against the light of the sky. Wherever -the soil favours, there are pretty orchards, and an abundant growth of -plants and trees. Nature strikes the first note of that "evergreenness" -for which the coast of Kolchis has been famed. - -Towards mid-day we are holding up for a well-defined headland, -projecting towards the north. It is distinguished by bold bluffs, -breaking off in the form of cliffs before they reach the water's -edge, and by a succession of deep valleys which descend on either -side to the margin of the shore. It is the promontory of the "sacred -mountain"--Hieron Oros, now called Yoros, Ieros, or simply Oros--and it -forms the western border of that series of smaller indentations which -make up the beautiful bay of Trebizond. Platana, most picturesque -of little settlements, nestles well under the shelter of this cape -upon the west, when once you have doubled the points; while on the -eastern side of the bay, exposed to the strong north-westerly winds of -the seaboard, lies the site of the old city of Trebizond. From this -port starts the principal avenue of communication between Turkish -Armenia and the sea; and beyond the mountains, on the south of this -wild coast range, now traversed by a metalled road, lie the plains -of the Armenian tableland. The width of this mountain belt which -borders Armenia--this continuous chain of latitudinal ridges which, -rising one behind and higher than the other, lead up like a ladder -to the edge of the Armenian plateau--is on this section of the range -a direct distance of nearly fifty miles. When the roses are blowing -in the gardens of the seaboard, the Armenian rivers may be bound with -ice; an unbroken sheet of snow may dazzle the eyes of the traveller, -as he penetrates from this border country of parallel crests and -depressions to the open landscapes of the tableland. - -Fifty miles of intricate mountain country, inhabited at all periods -by a sparse and little civilised population of doubtful or mixed -race! The fact goes far towards explaining the isolation of Armenia, -the remoteness throughout history of the great grain-growing plains of -the interior from the coast towns of the Black Sea. While the Greek -cities of the seaboard, sheltered behind the barrier of the range, -found a natural and almost uninterrupted connection with the main -currents of Western history and Western life, the Armenian country and -people, full exposed to the revolutions of Asia, belonged essentially -to the East. - -Yet these crumbling walls and towers, emerging at intervals from a -leafy overgrowth of creepers and trees, claim a larger share of our -attention than a merely passing notice of the port of Trebizond. For, -in the first place, no traveller, about to enter the interior by -this well-known and well-beaten route, can fail to undergo the spell -which belongs to these ruins, or to feel his interest aroused by -the monuments which still remain here of an empire long forgotten in -the West. Nor will a mind which has been fed upon Western literature -ignore the importance of realising the events of Western history as -they touch this remote shore. The annals of Trebizond, while they -illustrate and in themselves to a great extent resume the fortunes of -these coast towns, were joined by a thread which was seldom severed -to the web of Western things. - -August 16.--The morning is the time to arrive at Trebizond, perhaps -to wake when the ship lies secure at anchor, while a fresh land-wind -blows. The vessel coming from the west crosses the bay from Cape Ieros -to an answering headland in the east, and does not bring up till she -has doubled this lesser promontory and closed or almost closed the -wide bay from sight. The anchorage lies at the foot of the eastern -suburb of the city, now the most flourishing portion of the town, and -the suburb mounts the back of the little promontory, and descends to -the water on the opposite or western side. The inlet which recedes -from the cape is not deep or extensive, and the shelter which it -offers is so partial that in stormy weather a ship may be obliged to -run for Platana, and seek shelter under the lee of Cape Ieros, now -some fifteen miles away. This configuration of the shore may be said -to give two faces to the site of Trebizond. While the ancient city -with the ruins looks seawards and westwards, commanding the softer -landscape of the bay, to the anchorage belongs an easterly aspect, -and a view past the estuary of the famous river Pyxitis along the -wildest portion of the coast range. - -Facing the anchorage, on the east of the white houses which climb -the western skirts of the rising land, a bold cliff towers up above -the water with abrupt walls of dark rock. The face of this cliff -is almost bare of vegetation; but the summit, which is flat, is -completely covered with a soft carpet of old turf. The elevation of -this lofty platform above the sea-level is 850 feet. East and west the -hill descends with gentler gradients, on the one side to the estuary -of the Pyxitis, and on the other to the little cape and to the town; -but whether you approach it from the city or from the river valley, -the slopes are no light matter to climb. On the south it joins on to -the half-circle of the coast range, which recedes from beyond the -river in a wide amphitheatre, embracing both the bays and all the -town. Thus the town itself is shut off from the level ground about -the river by this peninsula of table-topped rock; and while one road -climbs these slopes to unite the two valleys, the other winds outwards -along the foot of the cliff, following the curve of the shore. - -I remember that, when for the first time I looked out upon the city, -I was at once impressed with the manner in which this bold natural -feature corresponded to the name of the town (Trapezous). Could -the shape which is denoted by the figure of a table be presented by -Nature in a more convincing manner than by this mass of rock, towering -up above the sea and from the valleys to a summit which is almost -perfectly flat? Yet the name does not appear to take its origin in a -justification at once so striking and so clear, but rather to derive -from the configuration of the ground in the western bay upon which -the ancient fortress was built. Still this platform is surely the most -impressive characteristic of the site of Trebizond. The Turks, who have -no antiquarian sympathies, apply to it the bald and undiscriminating -appellation of Boz Tepe, the grey hill, basing the name upon the colour -of the trachytic rock of which the hill is composed. The Greeks of -old knew it as the Mount of Mithros--Mithrios--from a statue of the -god Mithras which used to stand upon this elevated spot. It is not -easy to imagine a more delightful ground of vantage from which to -overlook the town and command the coast. You may step a distance of -some 500 paces by 200 on a level surface of springy turf, with no -object between you and the wide expanse about you, in air which is -at once full of sun and vigorous; and, if the day be clear, you may -descry beyond the endless stretch of water the faint blue line of -distant Caucasus closing the horizon in the east. - -The anchorage of Trebizond receives the first flush of morning; -a mellow light is thrown upon the terraces of the eastern suburb, -circling seawards down the lower slopes of Mount Mithros to the point -of the little cape. Here and there among the buildings rows of tall -cypresses still hold the shadows of night; but the white faces of -the houses soon dispel the darkness, and their glass windows reflect -in a glow of dazzling splendour the lurid brilliance of the rising -sun. Nowhere else than in these landscapes of the Black Sea and the -Caspian is the dawn more essentially the "rosy-fingered," or the -sea at sunrise "the glass-green." As the rays commence to break, the -wind freshens and the black cypresses wave and sway. Down the coast, -beyond the dark cliff of Mithros, the mountains of the seaboard -are massed in savage parapets beneath the rising sun; the faithful -clouds cling to their slopes or float above them, a sky of cold, -silvery greys. Westwards, above the point of the little promontory, -under the immediate lee of which we lie, you just discern the softer -setting of the greater bay itself, as the outline of the range sweeps -in long undulations far out into the western sea. The day wakes; the -colours start; the world of pinks and opals disappears. The aspect of -the town is warm and genial, even in winter, when the background of -broken ridges look their wildest and the sparse fir trees stand out -darkly from the snow. Sunny meadows and flashes of green turf caress -the traveller, who may have journeyed through the long Eastern summer -and autumn in countries where scarcely a blade of grass grows. The -shore is soon astir, and the cries of the boatmen are carried down -the wind. Large, high-prowed galleys bear down upon us, the crews -racing for the first berth. We are surrounded by a swarm of ragged -human beings, shouting, scrambling, gesticulating, as their boats -and heavily laden barges drive against our tall iron sides. - -The steamers anchor at some little distance from the shore, and -it takes a long pull, at a time when the wind is setting off the -land, to reach the little mole. The shore-boats are manned with -ill-miened youngsters, whose clamour never ceases from ship-side to -landing-stage. On the quay are arrayed the customs officers and their -assistants, motley groups in which the cast-off wardrobes of Europe -mingle with the coloured cottons of the East. What a relief to escape -from all this turmoil, to repose for a few minutes in a spacious -coffee-house, rising high above the harbour and the noise! A youth -is just completing his lustral service of the morning; the floor has -been swept and watered, the nargilehs are coiled--the peaceful figure -of Ion rises in the mind. - -Our road leads up the hillside, at first by the town garden and wide -streets, lined with houses and shops built in European style, and then -through the narrow alleys which intersect the Christian quarters, a -labyrinth of winding ways. These streets of Trebizond have a width not -exceeding six or eight feet, and sometimes less, and are lined by the -dull walls of garden enclosures which shut out all prospect over the -town. A raised pavement runs along them, sometimes on both sides of -the way, and always on one. Here and there the fresh green leaves of -a fig tree overhang the walls, or the cherry-laurel with its clusters -of claret-coloured fruit, or the pink flowers of the oleander. The -houses are, for a great part, quite Eastern in character--blank, -featureless wall, broken only at mid-height by little windows with -gratings made of laced strips or mortised cubes of wood. But the -modern villa is rapidly taking their place. - -What waifs of all the ages may be met within these alleys! Yet I -think, and our Consul, Mr. Longworth, seems inclined to agree with -me, that the Greek type prevails. Our conversation turns upon these -race questions; one can indeed never cease learning what fallacious -guides in such questions religion and nationality are. There are whole -villages on this seaboard whose inhabitants are Mussulmans, and would -resent being called by any other name than Osmanli; yet their Greek -origin is established both by history and by the traditions which -they themselves still in part retain. Thus take Surmeneh and Of, -two considerable villages on the east of Trebizond. These versatile -Greeks are as famous now for their theological eminence as they -were formerly under the Eastern Empire, with this difference, that -whereas in those days they supplied the Church with bishops, it is -now mollahs that they furnish to Islam. Yet, fanatical as they are, -they still hold to certain customs which connect them with the old -faith they once served with such distinction, and have, no doubt, -since persecuted with equal zeal. Under the stress of illness the -Madonna again makes her appearance, her image is again suspended above -the sick-bed; the sufferer sips the forbidden wine from the old cup of -the Communion, which still remains a treasured object with the whole -community, much as they might be puzzled to tell you why. As we are -talking, a little girl happens to pass down the lane, a child of some -ten years. Her limbs are scarcely covered by a loose cotton skirt, -although her complexion has not suffered from the sun. The waxen -texture of the flesh, the transparent colouring, and the rich setting -of auburn hair remind one of the favourites of Venetian painters and -of faces seen in North Italian towns. It is besides only natural that -the people of this city should possess a strain of Italian blood; -not so many centuries ago the Genoese controlled the commerce and -menaced the independence of Trebizond. - -It is a long climb from the anchorage to the British Consulate, which, -although within the limits of this suburb of gardens, has an elevation -of at least 150 feet. Still, the site has the advantages of a middle -position between the old fortified city in the western bay below us -and the open walks around Boz Tepe. And if the mornings be devoted -to the town and the ruins, the evenings may be spent on that airy -platform or upon the lonely slopes of the adjacent hills. - -There are many pleasant spots which, in the course of these rambles, -invite a view over the town. The landscape which you overlook is -that of the west--the vague succession of endless little capes and -inlets, disappearing and combining to form the single feature of a -wide and open bay. Below you lies the old city, medićval walls and -towers, overgrown by a canopy of leaves, gently sloping to the sea -(Fig. 2). Yet, however beautiful in itself may be the scene that -expands before you, it is rather upon the thoughts and the memories -which it raises that the mind is inclined to dwell. The sea is not so -much the blue floor without limits to which the sinuous outline of -the coast descends, as the open thoroughfare which leads across to -Europe, joining Asia to the West. The fir-clad ridges, which close -the prospect towards the interior, are rather the first outrunners -of that wide belt of troughs and ridges in which so many armies -have become entrapped, than the background of sterner features which -supports the peaceful landscape in which the ruined burgh lies. The -scene itself is the same that brought tears to the eyes of Xenophon, -and which was associated in the mind of the Emperor Hadrian with his -first view of this shore and sea. - -But the morning is not the time, nor is this the occasion for such -retrospective thoughts. Fresh from sleep, our first interest is the -ivy-grown ruins of Trapezus, which lie far below us in the western -bay. We descend from the slopes about Boz Tepe, by the neat villas -and garden enclosures of the eastern suburb, to the ravine which -separates this suburb, with the anchorage and commercial quarter, -from the site of the old fortified town. It is indeed a position not -readily forgotten and not easy to mistake. If the descriptions of -Trapezus which have come down to us portray in a defective manner the -many remarkable features which are characteristic of the place, they, -at least, leave no doubt as to the identity of the historical city with -the position of these ruins. At the foot of the precipitous slopes of -Boz Tepe, on the western side of that table-topped hill, the surface of -the ground is broken by two deep ravines, which, at a narrow interval, -descend from the interior to the seaboard about at right angles to the -margin of the shore. They represent the lower course of two of those -wooded valleys of which the landscape towards Cape Ieros contains a -succession, various in feature, but in character the same. Peculiar to -these two ravines is their close proximity to one another; the streams -which flow along them are only about 400 yards apart as they approach -the sea. Indeed, at one point, over 1000 yards from the coast, the -mass of rock by which they are separated forms a neck or isthmus of -which the top is less than 60 yards across. In this manner a site is -constituted which is bounded on three sides by natural defences--on -the west and east by the ravines, and on the north by the sea. Draw -a wall across the neck or narrowest portion of the rock, and you -at once enclose the figure of an irregular parallelogram, of which -the fourth side is the short cross-wall. These natural features, -so favourable for defence, have not escaped the ingenuity of man; -the cross-wall has been built in the shape of a massive tower and -citadel, while the inner sides of the ravines have been lined with -walls and castellations, which still frown above the leafy abysses -and the streams rustling through the shade. - -In appearance the protected enclosure, with its flanking ravines, -has been described by some writers as a peninsular plateau, while to -others it has suggested the shape of a table and seemed to justify -the name of Trebizond (Trapezous). Neither likeness appears to me to -be quite happily chosen. Both contain in themselves the conception -of a disparity of levels, the plateau of a stage raised above the -surrounding country, the table above the surface of the floor. Such are -not the characteristics of the site. The metaphor of a table seems the -more inappropriate, inasmuch as the least one might expect of such an -object is that it should have a flat and horizontal top. This site -possesses neither of these qualities. On the one hand, the upper -portion, which supports the citadel, rises above the lower like -a dais or step; while, on the other, the plane of the ground is an -inclined plane, and follows the general configuration of the country, -shelving from the hills towards the sea. - -Yet these images and the impressions from which they derive are no -doubt founded upon real conditions. The isolation of the figure, -together with its elevation--not indeed above the levels which -adjoin it on either side, but above the level of the sea--these -are the two factors which have supplied the real substance of such -impressions. The first of these features would appeal to the eye -with more distinctness, were it not for the thick growth of trees -and underwood which rises from the floors and up the slopes of the -ravines, and almost conceals the escarpment of their sides. The depth -of the gulfs may be gauged by the following measurement made at the -head of the western ravine. Standing at the bottom of the abyss, the -rock which supports the citadel and palace overtops you by about 150 -feet at the highest point. The width across them, from cliff to cliff, -varies considerably, according as each gulf opens or closes in; the -length of each of the two bridges which span the ravines is about 100 -paces. Both ravines tend to flatten as they descend towards the shore, -or in other words, to increase in width and diminish in depth. As for -the elevation of the enclosure, it is of course most considerable at -the narrow isthmus and the citadel. This highest portion, containing -the keep and palace, is about 200 feet above the sea. - -It is plain from the description which has just been given that the -characteristic features of the site attain their greatest development -in that part of the enclosure which is most remote from the shore; -that it is there the protecting gulfs are deepest, and the rock -loftiest which they flank. Indeed, during the Byzantine and earlier -Comnenian periods the fortress was confined to this upper portion, -and the outer wall on the side of the sea was drawn from gulf to -gulf at a distance of about 460 yards from the present margin of -the shore. A few sentences may suffice to present the plan of the -fortifications, as it may be traced among the ruins that remain. At -the very head of the formation came the keep and citadel, the outer -wall being drawn across the narrow isthmus between the two ravines; -this was the weakest point in the whole circumference of the fortress, -and the works were strongest upon this side. Built into this outer -wall stands a massive square tower, which rises boldly above the -battlements and faces the approaches from the south. The ground -shelves upwards almost from the immediate foot of the tower to the -amphitheatre of hills which surround the bay. Thus the fortress -is commanded by the slopes upon the south, where already it is by -nature most vulnerable. It was from the south that its assailants -delivered their principal attacks: the Goths, the Georgians, the -Seljuks, the Turkomans, the Ottoman Turks. All the space inside the -wall and between the two ravines was filled up at this uppermost part -of the fortress, first by the keep, and then by the palace itself; -the citadel served as the kingly residence, and the wall with the -bold windows which rises along the edge of the western ravine was -alike fortress and palace wall. This uppermost fortress or citadel, -with the palace of the king, was separated from the lower but more -extensive portion of the site by a cross-wall, equal in height to the -walls along the ravines, and supported at either end by towers. So much -loftier is this upper stage than the stage which lies below it that, -whereas the palace, which occupies the most elevated point, towers -high above the battlements of the cross-wall, the base of this wall -itself overtops the highest buildings of the second and lower stage. - -Below the cross-wall, with its massive double gate, lay that part -of the fortress which contained the cathedral and public buildings, -and formed the inhabited portion of the original fortified town. Like -the citadel, it was protected on two sides by the ravines, lined on -their inner edge by a lofty wall seven feet in thickness, with towers -at intervals. A second cross-wall, extending from ravine to ravine, -was its bulwark on the side of the sea, and constituted the outer -rampart of the enclosure as it existed in the ancient form. This outer -rampart followed the edge of a natural declivity in the surface of -the shelving ground, and presented a bold front to the lower levels -lying between it and the shore. - -The third and lowest stage of the fortified enclosure filled the -space that yet remained between this outer wall of the city and the -immediate margin of the sea. The ravines open outwards as they approach -the seaboard, and the figure widens which they bound; but on the other -hand, the sides of these natural barriers flatten and take the surface -of the adjoining ground. Thus the plan of the lower fortress did not -display the same subservience to the natural features of the site, -and was protracted on the west beyond the outer margin of the western -ravine. Indeed, the area enclosed by this later work of the fourteenth -century was considerably greater than that of the ancient burgh; -and in proportion as it was deficient in natural defences, so it was -stronger in those of art. A wall six feet and a half in thickness, -with towers at irregular intervals, surrounded the new work; and, -except on the side of the sea, this rampart was flanked by a second -and lower wall with a moat on its outer side. But, although the lower -fortress formed a third and separate unity, overstepping the natural -limits of the site, it was connected in the closest manner with the -upper enclosure, and with the walls flanking the ravines. On the east -the new ramparts joined the old wall, and continued its direction -in a straight line to the shore, at which point they turned at right -angles, along the shore. Thus the old cross-wall was completely covered -by the new fortifications, and the principal gate of the old city, -leading through that wall and facing the sea, instead of standing at -the outer extremity of the fortress, now became situated in about the -middle of the fortified plan. The new wall along the sea was protracted -further westwards than the western extremity of the old cross-wall; it -was drawn across the mouth of the western ravine, and far overlapped -the parallel line of the old wall. Some little distance west of the -depression it again changed direction, and stretched up towards the -south, until it reached a point opposite to the bridge which leads -out from the middle fortress, and over 100 paces from the edge of the -ravine. From this point, which was emphasised by a rectangular tower -of extraordinary size, the line of wall was taken at right angles, -and met the margin of the ravine. - -This threefold disposition of the walls and fortifications is -characteristic of the plan of the fortified city, and forms a -feature well noted in the descriptions of the topographers and still -distinguished in popular speech. Indeed, even at the present day, -when most of the great gates have disappeared, and houses with several -storeys obscure the plan, the hillside is lined by three complete -fortresses, each separated from the other and one higher than another, -yet all three welded closely into one. The appearance of the city -in the days of her splendour must have justified her reputation as -"Queen of the Euxine," and lent colour to her claim to be the capital -of a restored Roman Empire of the East. Between extensive suburbs, -filled with busy streets and markets, rising from the shore on either -hand, through a labyrinth of gardens and garden-houses, clustered -on the higher slopes, the two converging lines of massive parapets -and towers mounted slowly up the shelving ground. The further they -receded from the margin of the seaboard, the clearer grew the essential -features of the site--the ravines opening darkly at the immediate foot -of either wall, the walls closely following the irregular course of -the chasms, and now rising, now declining, along the uneven surface -of the cliffs. Near the head of the figure stood the royal palace, -raised high above the massive works of the citadel, deeply moated by -the sister gulfs on either side. Broad windows opened from the royal -reception hall of white marble to the varied prospects on every side, -while within, the vast apartment was adorned with rich paintings, the -portraits of successive holders of the imperial office, their insignia -and arms. On the east, beyond the abyss, the slope gathered gradually -to the side of Mithros, the table-topped hill, in which direction, -just opposite the palace, the church and fortified enclosure of -St. Eugenius crowned an almost isolated site which was flanked on -the further side by a third and lesser ravine. Towards the interior, -on the side of the narrow isthmus, the view ranged wide, above the -battlements, over the hills encircling the broad bay; while the -rising ground, opening upwards from the tongue of the isthmus, was -occupied by the theatre and by the extensive walled enclosure of the -polo-ground or hippodrome. A royal gate gave access from the palace -to these pleasure-places, the distance of a short walk from the wall; -and through this gate the imperial party and their brilliant court -would pass to their marble seats above the race-course, whence the -whole landscape of city and field and ocean lay outspread at their -feet. If the several divisions of the fortified enclosure may be -described as so many steps, or shelving terraces, rising one behind -another from the shore, then the race-course outside the walls will be -the fourth stage of the platform, the last and highest, and the fairest -of all. Indeed the prospect over the walls and towers of the city to -the distant sea beyond must at all times have been one of surpassing -beauty, whether seen from the windows of the Imperial residence, or -from these airy heights above the town. To the palace was displayed -the long perspective of the city architecture outlined against the -blue bay--the massive cross-walls cleaving the crowded quarters, -the domes of the churches glancing in the brilliant sunlight, and, -interspersed, quiet respites of shade and leafiness, where some portico -with frescoed walls and row of marble pillars recalled the habits of -the classical age. From the higher standpoint of the race-course all -the rich detail of this scene was blended and subdued; the eye would -follow the long line of parapets and towers descending by the side of -the sinuous streak of verdure which marked the course of the western -ravine. The palace windows, which still rise above the head of that -ravine, commanded the landscape of the west, the wide bay with its -peaceful setting of cultivated hillsides stretching seawards to the -distant cape. - -Among the most pleasing and, perhaps, not the least striking feature -in the composition of these scenes must at all times have been the -luxuriance and variety of the vegetation which is natural to this -soil. The necessary moisture is provided, not by stagnant pools and -marshes, as in the country watered by the Kolchian rivers further -east, but by salubrious springs, bubbling from the surface of the rock -and collecting in rustling streams. The sun is indeed the fiery orb -of Eastern landscapes; but the climate is tempered by the chilling -winds from across the sea, bringing rain and mist in their train. The -outcome of these conditions is the simultaneous exuberance of the -trees and plants which flourish upon the coasts of the Mediterranean -and of the leafy giants of our Northern woods; side by side with shady -thickets of chestnut, elm, oak and hazel, groves of cypress, laurel -and olive grace the shore. The wild vine hangs in festoons from the -branches, and in sheltered places the orange tree, the lemon, and the -pomegranate thrive and yield their fruit. All our fruits are found -in the well-stocked gardens, while the fig of Trebizond is of old as -famous as the grapes of Tripoli and the cherry of Kerasun. Cucumbers -are cultivated, and heavy pumpkins, and tobacco, and Indian corn, with -its reed-like stalks and luscious leaves. The beautiful pink flowers -of the oleander may be seen rising above some orchard wall. In the -middle of the seventeenth century we are told of upwards of thirty -thousand gardens and vineyards inscribed in the city registers, and -at that time the slopes about Boz Tepe were completely covered with -vines. But it is on the western rather than on the eastern side of -the fortress that Nature has most freely lavished her gifts; and on no -spot with more abundance or greater effectiveness than on the western -ravine. The beauties of that valley, almost as we see them to-day, -have been described in glowing language by Cardinal Bessarion in the -fifteenth century, himself a son of Trebizond, and by the historian of -the Comnenian empire whose warm imagination was kindled by scenes which -recalled and intensified the graces of his native Tyrol. [1] A path -leads down from the suburb on the west into the shade and freshness -of the gorge, through thickets of lofty forest-trees, their leafy -branches laced together by wild vines. Even at mid-day, when the sun -hangs cloudless over the narrow vista, the rays scarcely penetrate to -the deep shadows of the evergreens--a luxuriant undergrowth of myrtle, -laurel and ivy, rising from the floor and up the cliffs. From the -highest point of the castle rock some 150 feet above you, amongst a -wild confusion of creepers and trees, the bold wall of the palace, -now reduced to an empty skeleton, still stands up against the sky; -and the broad windows which once opened from the emperor's apartments -still overlook the verdant scene below. Past mossy banks, upon which -the iris and primrose flourish, through leafy brakes, where trees of -laurel hide the ground, the little stream cascades into the laps of -the hollows or plashes over ledges of hard rock. - - - But we are anticipating on our walk, which has not yet brought us - further than the edge of the eastern ravine. We cross the bridge, - and at once find ourselves within the fortified enclosure, - which is traversed by a broad road. Following that road, - we are passing through the middle fortress--that part of the - site which constituted the inhabited quarter of the walled city - in its original form. Now as in ancient times it is crowded by - buildings, while a considerable portion is taken up by the Serai, - or Government House (No. 17 on plan of Trebizond and surroundings), - which is situated about in the middle of the space between the - ravines, on the south side of our road. Here the pasha will be - sitting within an inner room, a bundle of papers by his side on - the divan. Entering the court, you have on one side this palace, - thronged with applicants, and, on the other, the iron gratings of - a prison, banding the faces of the captives as they stare on the - scene below. Past the gateway of the Serai, a narrow way leads - up the enclosure, diverging at right angles from the road which - joins the ravines. It conducts us to the upper fortress through - a quarter filled by private houses, and inhabited exclusively by - Mohammedans. A walk of some two or three hundred yards brings us - to the foot of the lofty cross-wall, which is almost as fresh - to-day as when it was reared. By a steep incline we enter a - gateway into a hollow tower adjoining the outer wall on the east, - which constitutes the only passage into the citadel. - - The massive ancient gate still rests upon its hinges, - its rusty iron plates riddled with bullets. A second gate, - placed at right angles to the first in the further wall, gives - issue from the tower. The citadel, like the middle fortress, - is occupied by modern houses; but they are less frequent, and - are almost confined to the spaces immediately neighbouring the - cross-wall. There is some difficulty in examining the extensive - ancient works which still in part remain upon the site. One of - the principal buildings is occupied by military stores, and is - forbidden ground. I contrive to effect an entrance, and find it - quite empty--a palpable reason for such exclusive measures. Then - the walls which enclose the gardens of the private dwellings are - no less the discreet protectors of the life of the harem than - the veil to hide the squalor of faded opulence. While one of us - is taking readings with the prismatic compass, the whole quarter - is raised by the protestations of a young minx, who will insist - that she is the object of his unmannerly stares. I have said that - the palace is now a mere skeleton; a rambling old house, with - a picturesque overhanging roof, fills a portion of the ground - plan of the royal apartments, where they overlooked the western - ravine. We are tardily given admission by a female voice. From - an embrasure in the massive wall of the fortress, just below the - row of eight arched windows, which stand up blank against the sky, - we feast our eyes upon the charming view over the western ravine, - following its sinuous outline into the background of leafy hills, - or resting upon the cypresses and minaret of the Khatunieh mosque - among the villas on the opposite margin of the abyss. - - Within this outer wall, a little south of our standpoint, a square - tower rises above the outline of the battlements, displaying in - its upper storey the interior of a spacious apartment with windows - opening upon the landscape. The fragment of a wall juts out towards - us from beside the tower; and three large windows, of which two - are double, with slim dividing pillars, have been spared to it by - the ravages of time. Just north of us, three more windows rise from - the outer wall, on a higher plane than those above our heads. Both - rows are but the remains of much longer series, once the life and - pride of these grim parapets. They enable us to reconstruct the - ancient splendour of the imperial residence, which, day by day, - is slowly passing towards the world of unsubstantial memories, - to share the fate of sacred Troy and of King Priam, rich in flocks. - - Above the palace, within the narrowing tongue of the - circumvallation, the space is occupied by the substructures - of the keep, over which we clamber to the parapets of the - outer wall. Beside us, the square tower at the extreme end - of the fortress frowns out upon the knife-like ridge between - the ravines. It is probable that this tower is composed of a - solid mass, for one cannot trace any sign of a passage in. The - battlements of the wall rise to a height of nearly 200 feet - above the western ravine. Just on the east of the tower is placed - the only entrance to the citadel from the side of the ridge. It - consists of a long passage, flanked by a parallel outer wall, - and abutting on a huge angular tower. But the inner doorway is - now walled up, and one is obliged to retrace one's steps to the - middle fortress, in order to pass without the walls. - - The gate is situated just below the entrance to the citadel, in - the wall on the east. It too is furnished with double doors, which, - like their neighbours, have been riddled by musket fire. South of - this gateway there is just enough room between the wall and the - edge of the eastern ravine to permit of a narrow road. Leaving - the interior of the fortress, one is taken along this road, - with the wooded precipice on one hand and on the other the - ivy-grown battlements. Peasants, carrying baskets, pass by on - their way to market; and beneath a fig tree, teeming with fruit, - some Mussulman women, resting from their wayfaring, cower within - their veils as we approach. The colossal angular tower projects - from the head of the irregular wall towards the leafy abyss, - a large inscription gleaming white upon the wall which faces us, - the record of the conquest of Mohammed II. - - But the point at which you pause is at the head of the - fortification, beneath the soaring escarpment of the square - tower. It is the same site upon which the peoples from the remote - recesses of Asia have stood with the lust of conquest in their - eyes. On the opposite bank of the eastern ravine the drum-shaped - dome of St. Eugenius rises from among a cluster of red-roofed - villas. It was there that the Seljuk sultan issued his threats and - insults, while the Greek emperor fasted and prayed. From within - the limits of that same sanctuary were heard the shouts of the - revellers, mingling with the voices of their concubines. And - a white minaret proclaims the event of the long and unequal - struggle between the full-blooded followers of the Prophet and - the emaciated children of the Cross. - - The tower itself has evidently been built at a later period than - the wall from which it rises in a continuous face. The colour of - the stone is slightly paler, and an inscription, now much decayed, - attests it to be the work of the Emperor John the Fourth, the - last but one of the Comnenian dynasty. The ground widens like - a fan from the foot of this tower, and the ravines, which have - almost met, diverge and become great valleys, stretching into the - bosom of the hills. Within that ampler space, a few hundred yards - south of the fortress, one may still recognise the enclosure of - the hippodrome and the great gateway on its northern side. The - wall still rises in places to a height of from six to ten feet, - but all the interior structures have disappeared. A field of - tobacco grows upon the site. Adjoining the gateway, and facing - the palace, one is impressed by the shape and appearance of a - projecting tongue of land with a flat top. The theatre may once - have stood upon this spot. - - The ancient churches of Trebizond, some converted into mosques - and others into public baths, are among the most interesting - relics which the town contains. Retracing our steps to the - middle fortress and to the road which joins the two ravines, - we have almost reached the bridge over the westerly depression - before attaining the old cathedral, sacred to the golden-headed - Virgin, of which the southern wall borders our road on the north - (No. 18). How bare and bleak it looks, shorn of its southern and - western porches, and covered with a thick coating of whitewash! A - little court, paved with flagstones, adjoins it on the east, - over which you pass to an entrance at the north-east corner which - has destroyed the side apse on that side. If you scrutinise the - outer wall of the principal apse, you may still distinguish - beneath the whitewash a design of figures in mosaic, one of - which perhaps represents the seated Virgin. Time has worn down - the few sculptured mouldings of which any trace remains. There - is little to attract the eye in this mangled group of gables, - surmounted by the drum of a duodecagonal dome. On the northern - side rises the minaret, adjoining the principal entrance which - has made use of the old porch on the north. Four marble pillars - with Ionic capitals, probably the spoil of some pagan temple, - support the roof of this spacious porch. We are about to enter, - when we are called aside to observe an old fountain in the court - on the east. It contains a marble slab with a Greek inscription, - which is illegible; and the water issues from a much-worn bronze - spout, representing the head of a serpent or dragon, which is - said to have belonged to a bronze model of such a monster, killed - by the spear of Alexius the First. Near the fountain is a tomb, - still maintained in good order, in which repose the remains of a - shepherd youth to whom the townspeople attribute the capture of - the fortress by the Ottoman Turks. The story runs that Mohammed - the Second, foiled by the strength of the citadel, had recourse - to a final expedient of which the result should determine the - alternatives of further effort or abandonment of the siege. A - number of shots were to be fired from a cannon at the chain - which supported the drawbridge. Should it be severed, it would - be a signal for a renewal of operations; in the contrary case - the siege was to be raised. The experiment failed; the sultan - broke up his camp and removed the bulk of his army, leaving, - however, the loaded cannon still in site. A young shepherd, - happening to pass by, was prompted by the hardihood of his years - to try his skill at the difficult mark. He discharged the gun, - and the drawbridge fell. This child of a short-lived future sped - to the camp of Mohammed, who was making his way up the valley of - the Pyxitis towards Baiburt. But his story was derided, and the - sultan, in a fit of anger, caused him to be killed. The rage of - the despot was turned to grief when the confirmation reached him of - this miraculous exploit. His return was followed by the fall of the - city; and he endeavoured to atone for his rash action by loading - his victim with posthumous rewards. Over the coffin one may still - see the ball suspended which decided the fate of Trebizond. And - the martyr is known by a name which repeats the sultan's sorrowful - exclamation: "Khosh Oghlan," or "Well done! Oghlan." - - The interior of the mosque produces an effect of extraordinary - massiveness, with its bulky piers supporting the dome, with the - walls which join these piers to the walls of the church and screen - off the aisles from the open space beneath the dome. Except for - the two inner columns of the porch, not a single pillar is to - be seen. The aisles are narrow, and their ceilings low; they are - surmounted by a gallery, from which you look through low, arched - apertures into the nave. The Turks have placed a wooden stage in - the northern arm of the church, between the two walls which screen - off the aisle. This erection faces their altar, and is reserved - for their women; you reach it by a staircase placed inside the - building, in front of the north-east entrance. A doorway leads - from this wooden structure into the old gallery over the aisle, - through which you pass to the women's gallery in the original - design, which fills the space above the ceilings of the narthex - and exo-narthex on the western side of the mosque. Two lofty - vaulted openings display the interior to this gallery; while the - wall between narthex and exo-narthex is pierced by three arches in - a similar style. The door on the west in the storey below, which - in Christian times gave access through these outer spaces into the - body of the church, is no longer used, now that the religious focus - of the building has been changed from the apse to the southern - arm between the aisles. The exo-narthex has a width of 18 feet, - and the narthex of 9 feet 7 inches. The piers upon which repose - the vaulted ceilings of these courts are of such thickness that - the entire space, measured from the inner side of the outer wall - to the outer side of the wall of the nave, amounts to 37 feet - 5 inches. The interior measurements of the church proper are a - length of 93 feet 6 inches from the commencement of the nave to - the head of the apse, and a breadth of only 50 feet 5 inches. It - is well lit from windows in the apse and along the walls; but the - twelve windows in the dome are small. Beautiful marble plaques of - various colours, and designs in mosaic, may still be admired in the - apse; but there is an almost total lack of ornament elsewhere. As - to the date of the building, it is ascribed by Texier to the - Grand-Comneni; with much less knowledge I hesitate to offer the - opinion that the design belongs to an earlier period. - - From this mosque of the middle fortress, Orta Hisar Jamisi, the - ancient cathedral, it is but a few steps to the bridge over the - western ravine. Like its fellow on the east of the enclosure, - it consists of a lofty stone embankment, with a single narrow - arch through which the stream flows. The prospect on either side - is of great beauty, while the deep shadows of the vegetation, - rising from the floor of the ravine, rest the eye and refresh the - sense. Towards the south, beyond an irregular line of ivy-grown - parapets, and towers of varying features and size, the stately - works of palace and citadel rise against the sky; while in the - direction of the sea, where the depression flattens and is lost - in a maze of houses, the tiers of red-tiled roofs are pierced by - a double series of battlements and embowered forts. The wall of - the middle fortress is seen extending for some distance along - the uneven edge of its rocky support; but it is overpowered in - the landscape by the outer line of walls, which, starting from - the opposite side of the ravine, are drawn in a long perspective - to the shore. - - Our goal is now the famous church of Hagia Sophia; it is - situated upon the coast on the west of the city, at a distance - of over a mile from the walls (No. 25). The bridge leads over - into the western suburb, and for a short space you follow the - outer wall of the lower fortress, stretching westwards at right - angles to the ravine. On the right hand this solid masonry and - a massive rectangular tower; on the left, a little further on, - the cypresses of the Turkish burying-field, the leaning white - headstones with their gilt Arabic inscriptions better disposed - and tended than is usually the case. We have passed the street - which turns upwards to the mosque Khatunieh (No. 20), the spacious - and still well-ordered mosque and medresseh which keeps alive the - memory of the mother of Selim the First. Like the middle and lower - fortress, this western suburb is inhabited for the most part by - Mohammedans--what a contrast to the bustling town on the east of - the city where the Christian quarters lie! There, busy streets, - lined with the broad-paned windows of offices and shops; here, - the silent graveyard and widely scattered dwellings which seem - to shrink from contact with life. A brighter aspect belongs to - the meidan or open place, to which we pass and which we cross - (Kavak Meidan, or plane tree square)--an extensive stretch of - green turf, resembling an English common, where in old times the - jerid or spear exercise was performed. Several tombs (kumbets) - are to be seen on this grassy lawn, but I do not know to whom they - have been raised. A little later we have left the last settlements - behind us, and are winding outwards towards the sea-shore. - - The church of Hagia Sophia, or the Divine Wisdom, now converted - into a mosque, has been described as one of the most interesting - monuments of Byzantine architecture, sculpture, and painting - that time has spared. [2] This appreciation can only be partially - tested by the traveller of the present day, because the frescos - which once covered the interior of the building have been daubed - over with successive coats of whitewash. It is possible that - when the time comes for restoring the building to Christian - worship, or at least, as we may hope, for preserving it as a - relic to instruct an enlightened age, the scales may fall away - and disclose in some of their ancient brightness the solemn faces - and gorgeous robes of the Grand-Comneni as they looked down upon - the congregation of monks and pilgrims six centuries ago. In - the meanwhile we may consult those descriptions of the paintings - which have come down to us in the accounts of modern travellers - more fortunate than ourselves, for at some periods a portion of - the plaster has fallen and revealed the rich work below. Of the - sculpture and architectural merits we are able to judge on the - spot, for, although the Turks have introduced some alterations - in the structure, they are too clumsy to mislead. - - The first view of the building, high-seated on the left hand - where the road debouches upon the sands, at once exhibits the - beauties which are peculiar to it: the choice of site and the - skilful grouping of the component parts (Fig. 3). A broad terrace - or esplanade, which is partly natural and in part supported by - an embankment and a wall, forms the summit of a gentle slope - which rises from the water beyond a fringe of cactus and leafy - shrubs. The surface of the platform is flat and even, and is - covered by a green carpet of turf. The prospect ranges wide - across the bay to Cape Ieros, and seawards without limit over - the waves. On the east, rising ground shuts out the city and the - suburb, while on the south, the open landscape of hill and valley - is felt rather than observed. - - From the peaceful elevation of this pleasant terrace the - well-preserved remains of an ancient monastery look down upon the - shore. On the west, at the further extremity of the platform, - a lofty square bell-tower or campanile stands out alone, like - a sentinel, fronting the sea; just below it lies the church, - a cluster of roofs and gables centring in a drum-shaped dome. Of - the monastic buildings only one has been spared, a massive square - edifice at the south-western corner of the platform, which is - almost concealed by trees. - - We mount the slope and reach the platform on the southern side, - with the church between us and the blue waters of the bay. A - custodian has been found in some hovel among the orchards, but - no meaner object breaks the grassy surface of the terrace from - which the building rises, the even masonry exposed from base to - dome. Against the plain grey spaces of the walls which lie behind - it, the rich façade of the southern entrance at once attracts the - eye (Fig. 4). It consists of a porch or lateral structure, which - once gave access to a door in the main wall of the church. Two - graceful marble pillars with Corinthian capitals supported the - façade; but the Turks have closed this entrance and walled up the - columns, which are only visible from the inside. The new work - does not rise much higher than the tops of the capitals, and - the openings of the three arches which spring from the pillars - have been filled with window glass. Of these, the central arch - is slightly pointed, and those on either side are round. A - pleasing feature of the design is the bold rounded arch which - spans the porch from one wall to the other, and envelops the three - lesser vaultings and their marble columns within a broad band of - unsculptured stone. On the outer side, a narrow beading of grapes - and vine-leaves accentuates the studied absence of all ornament - upon the masonry of the span; and the keystone is enriched by - the figure of the single-headed eagle of the Comneni, with open - talons and wings outspread. The space of wall which is framed in - this stately manner, and which is supported by the pillars of the - façade, forms a panel or panels which are admirably adapted to - receive that style of decorative treatment in which Byzantine - art excelled. About in the centre, the space is broken by a - quatrefoil window, above which, and on either side, plaques of - varied mosaic have been inserted into the wall. Below the window, - and from end to end, runs a frieze in low relief, surmounted - by an inscription in Greek, "Have mercy upon me, save me from - my sins, O succour me, Lord, God, Holy! Holy!" In the frieze - may be discerned among the shapes of plants and trees, rendered - with the highest skill and with much grace, human figures which - indeed have suffered mutilation, but which, like corresponding - works of the Romanesque style, appear deformed in size. Adam lies - asleep among the foliage of the garden; a serpent, coiled round - a leafless trunk, confronts the standing figure of Eve. Of the - mosaics two at least of the plaques have been removed or have - perished; you see the vacant oblong spaces on either side of the - quatrefoil. The largest panels contain geometrical patterns; but - the most beautiful and best preserved, if perhaps the smallest, - is composed of two doves and two sprays of pomegranate in white - on a black ground. This plaque has been placed just above the - window and below the talons of the royal bird. - - The reader will have divined that the great charm of this façade - lies as much in the skill of the design--the wide span of the - arch above the lesser arches, and the pleasing combination of - these forms with the vertical lines of walls and columns, and - with the sharp angle of the roof--as in the decorative effect - of delicate mouldings and elaborate sculptures, and of rich - mosaics thrown on the grey stone. Porches of similar plan give - access to the interior, both on the western and northern sides; - but their tympana or panels are without ornament. The western - porch has an Arab niche with a deep honeycomb moulding from - which the outer arch springs, and this moulding is continued - in the form of imposts above the capitals of the columns. That - on the north is without any remarkable feature, except that the - capitals, which are of fresh white marble, appear to be of much - later date. They are without carving, but in each is cut a panel, - bearing the figure of a Latin cross. - - A walk round the building confirms the impression which a first - view produced. It is the number of roofs at various levels, the - different grouping of the gables at every turn, that arrests and - pleases the eye. The walls themselves are of hewn stone, with - plain mouldings, of which the most delicate runs round the apse - and side chapels, above the windows, in a continuous band. On the - face of the apse itself you see the eagle of the Grand-Comneni, - set in panel in the wall. - - The entrance to the mosque is through the porch on the west. It - is much shorter or less deep than its two counterparts, but, - unlike them, gives access through a marble doorway to a second - vestibule or outer court. This court or narthex extends the whole - width of the building, and is both lofty and well lit. A door - opens from it into the church proper, an airy interior of pleasing - proportions, into which the light streams from the twelve windows - in the circumference of the dome (Fig. 5). Four massive marble - pillars with carved Byzantine capitals support the pendentives - from which the dome springs; but the sharpness of the sculpture - has been obliterated by thick coats of buff and green paint. The - Turks have also introduced some structural changes. The southern - porch has been thrown into the body of the building, and an altar - (mihrab) placed between the two columns which properly belong - to the façade. In this manner the porch, with its orientation - towards Mecca, has become the religious focus of the mosque; - a wooden gallery, from which my illustration was taken, has been - erected against the opposite wall. The apse, which is lit by three - windows, is supplemented by two smaller apses or side chapels at - the extremities of the aisles. - - Like most of the ancient churches we are about to visit during - the course of our journey south, Hagia Sophia is a building of - small dimensions according to modern ideas. The interior has a - length of not more than 69 feet from the inner door to the head - of the apse, with a breadth, excluding the side porches, of 36 - feet. A building of this size is admirably adapted to the art of - the painter in fresco, while his work derives the greatest possible - advantage from the features of the design. The lofty vaulted spaces - of the dome and apse were once resplendent with bright effects; - and on the walls were depicted the richly-apparelled figures of - the princes of the Comnenian line. From the partial glimpses of - the paintings obtained by various travellers, it is possible - to realise, at least in some measure, the former splendour of - the scene. At the entrance above the door was seen the image - of Alexius, first emperor of Trebizond, surrounded by his court, - like Justinian at Ravenna; in his hands the golden globe of empire, - and on his forehead a white diadem. On the right of the same door - stood the first Manuel (r. A.D. 1238-63), the prince who was known - as "the great captain," and who, according to the description at - the side of the figure, was the founder of this monastery. The - emperor was without crown, but his forehead was encircled by a - cinglet with a double row of pearls. The front of the royal robe - was adorned on either side by a band of large circular medallions, - bearing the device of the single-headed eagle; a similar ornament, - engraved with the equestrian figure of St. Eugenius, hung upon the - royal breast. Many of the successors of these two princes were - without doubt represented on the remaining spaces of the walls; - while the portraits included those of saints and evangelists, - all attired in costliest style. The apse displayed a group of - three figures, of whom the central one appears to have designated - St. Paul; on his right hand St. James and on his left St. John - were identified by written scrolls. From the inner sides of the - arches, as from the vault of heaven, the faces of angels looked - down. The floor was paved by a rich marqueterie of marbles; you - admired in particular a design of geometrical character in which - the tracing was done in black marble on a ground of vivid reds - and pinks and greens. - - But the impression which we should take away from this elaborate - interior would be one of sadness, perhaps of pain. The art, the - life, here represented, was an art in shackles, an expiring phase - of life. The peculiar wooden quality of these expressionless - faces may be gauged by the examples which have been preserved - for us by the care of Texier. Strict conventions had taken the - place of realities alike in life and in art; and how sad after - the unsurpassed beauty of Hellenic vigour are the gaudy get-up - and childish love of baubles which mark the declining years - of the Greek world! Vanished, or hidden from sight behind the - inexorable whitewash, lies the vivid evidence of that departed age; - repugnant alike to the spirit and to the mission of Mohammedanism, - this rich collection of Christian images must, from the first, - have courted effacement. At the time of our visit the walls had - been recently limed over to purify the edifice after the service - of State prison to which, during the prevalence of cholera in - the town, it had been temporarily assigned. In the upper storey - of the campanile, a later work of the fifteenth century, the - frescos are still exposed; but it is evident that they can never - have possessed much importance. The baptistery, which is said - to have been covered with such paintings, has been removed many - years ago. It stood near the edge of the terrace, on the north. - - Before retracing our steps towards the city, it is worth while - to extend the excursion to the neighbouring ruin of Mevla Khaneh - (House of gods, No. 23), if only for the sake of a ramble through - the pleasant country lanes and a view over the peaceful landscape - of the bay. Against the background of the line of heights, at - a distance from Hagia Sophia of about three-quarters of a mile, - the scanty remains of a heathen temple emerge from a leafy brake - which fills a recess of the hillside. Portions of a tower and - doorway, the lower parts of two walls have escaped the ravages of - time. Small square niches are seen in the walls at close intervals, - said to have contained the statues of the gods. From the floor - of the temple rise tall elm trees, festooned with wild vine; and - an ancient laurel tree bends over the ivy-grown masonry. Rarely - do people pass this way; and, on the occasion of our visit, we - were the unwilling authors of a rather serious offence. Among the - lanes below the ruin we surprised a young woman, combing her long - hair on the margin of a stream from which she had just stepped out. - - One may return to Trebizond by the old road towards Platana, which - has been replaced by a new chaussée nearer the shore. From the - Kavak Meidan, with its one fine plane tree, we proceed through - the quarter of Sotke towards the gate of the same name in the - wall of the lower fortress. The riparian quarters on the east of - the city are well worthy of a visit; they may be reached either - by crossing the crowded spaces of the fortified enclosure, or by - making the more pleasant circuit by the side of the sea. Choosing - the second alternative, we soon arrive at the angle of the wall, - and are treading the broad strip of sand. All the elements of the - picturesque are present in the varied scene--the line of walls, - the massive tower just on the east of the gate of Molos, the - broad-prowed ships drawn up on the shore, the groups of people in - motley attire. In the autumn large quantities of nuts are spread - out on the sand, awaiting shipment to France. The tower is flanked - on the west by the parapet of a modern battery, while on the east - it is adjoined by the vault through which the stream issues which - comes from the western ravine. In front of the vault there is a - little bridge. The submerged remains of a semicircular mole--a - work of the old Greek times--are indicated by a line of surf in - the sea. It is evident that the entrance to this harbour was on the - east. On that side too there is a tower, projecting into the waves - with the form of a wedge, and still joined to the north-eastern - angle of the fortress by the substructures of a massive wall. - - It is through an opening in that wall that we pass from the - life of the sea-shore into the more intense and throbbing life - of the bazar. In old times one of the great gates gave issue - from the lower fortress to the important riparian quarters on - the east. This gate, the bazar gate or gate of Mumkhaneh (candle - factories), has been removed to give space to a broad street. The - stream from the eastern ravine, which passes outside the walls, - is taken by a tunnel through this crowded quarter. The bazars - adjoin the fortress; they are well stocked and extensive. The - more one walks in Trebizond, the more one is impressed by the - shyness of the women; nowhere in the East have I seen them more - ashamed to show the face. Nowhere does one realise more keenly - the loss of colour and gaiety which this muffling and veiling of - women entails. A fine example of an old Italian magazine may be - seen in this neighbourhood; it is called the Bezestan (repository - of stuffs, No. 16). Where the bazar is at its busiest, a massive - square building of stone and brick rises above the lines of booths - with their shadowed recesses. It is entered by four doors, of wood - plated with iron, one on each side. In the centre is a well; the - roof rested on four piers and sprang from vaultings at each angle - of the square. The piers and vaultings still remain, but the roof - is gone. The place is occupied by sellers of quilts, or coverlets - stuffed with cotton, which take the place of blankets in the East. - - South of this building, beyond the large mosque of the quarter, - which is without architectural interest, are situated the two Greek - churches of Aivasil and Aiana, the first almost on the fringe of - the bazars. Aivasil (No. 14) has been rebuilt, or rather the site - of the old church has been covered by a modern and tasteless - erection. But a long stone, part of a frieze, containing an - inscription of Justinian, which belonged to the earlier edifice, - is still preserved as an historical relic in the body of the - church. Aiana (No. 13), its close neighbour, is, on the other - hand, quite intact, and remains a most interesting example of the - beginnings of Christian architecture. A small and unpretentious - building of stone, not too evenly put together, with the arches - over the little windows constructed of brick, it would almost - escape notice were it not for a large bas-relief in marble which - is inserted into the wall over the door on the south. Although - the stone is cracked and the sculpture has suffered mutilation, - one can recognise that there is represented a colossal seated - figure, with a smaller figure, holding a shield, at her feet. The - interior is built of brick, and consists of a nave and two aisles, - the principal apse being flanked by two side apses. [3] But there - is no dome; and the scanty light which falls on the withered - frescos comes from nine little windows in the walls. Each aisle - has two arches, the more easterly pair resting on piers, and the - more westerly on marble pillars with Ionic capitals. One remarks - the narrowness of the apse, in which is placed a primitive altar, - resembling those in the oldest Armenian churches. It consists - of a horizontal slab resting on a circular stone, and on the - side of the slab is a Greek inscription. Several of the frescos - remain with which the walls were once covered, the building being - still used as a church. Besides Biblical subjects, one observes - several portraits upon the wall on the west. The greater portion - of the space is filled with the pictures of saints and monks; - but on the north side there is represented a colossal figure, - of which the head has unfortunately been effaced. The figure is - attired in a purple robe, with bands of gold embroidered in black, - the same costume as that in which the Emperor Alexius III. is - depicted in the Bull at Sumelas. He holds a circular ornament - or emblem in his left hand. An inscription, partially effaced, - is seen on the wall below the figure. [4] Such is this relic - of the early city, with its spoils of still earlier temples, - bridging the periods of the old worship and the new. - - Returning to the commercial quarter from the narrow alleys which - surround this building, we pass an old house which is an example - of a style of architecture now rapidly being replaced by the - modern villa. The exterior, with its projecting upper storey - and semicircular, roofed balcony, where the inmates would enjoy - the freshness of the afternoon, produces an impression at once - of somewhat costly solidity and of picturesque charm. The rooms - are panelled in wood, both walls and ceilings; and screens of - open woodwork, placed before the windows, preserve the privacy - of the life within. In the little niches and in the details of - the ornamentation the spirit is that of Persian art. - - The magazines of the merchants are situated along the shore between - the fortified city and the point of Güzel Serai. Proceeding - eastwards, we need scarcely stop to visit the Greek cathedral - (No. 12), a large modern building of extraordinary ugliness on the - margin of the sea. On the south side of this pretentious church we - are shown the tomb of the last of the Georgian kings. A road leads - upwards through the crowded Christian quarter, Frank Mahalla, past - the wall and tower of Güzel Serai (No. 10). These buildings date, - I believe, from a comparatively recent period; but they occupy - the site of the famous fortress of Leontocastron, long in dispute - between the Comnenian emperor and the Genoese. The companion - fort of Daphnus, another Genoese possession, probably stood in - the bay on the west, where the quarter of Dia Funda, an Italian - corruption of the Greek name, faces the modern anchorage. The - walls of Güzel Serai overlook a park of artillery, drawn up on - a grassy platform at the point. - - Our walk through the eastern suburb may be protracted to the slope - of Boz Tepe, where an ancient nunnery, famous for its frescos, - commands the landscape of the city from a well-chosen site just - outside its extreme fringe (No. 6). Adjacent to the building, - which presents the appearance of a fortress, was placed the - summer residence or pleasure-house whence the Grand-Comneni used - to survey their beauteous capital. I can well remember the ruin - of this palace, with its blank windows, such a pleasant frame - to the charming view which they overlooked. Alas! this fragment - has disappeared, to make room for an ugly guest-house which the - avaricious nuns have built in its place. The chapel of the nunnery, - dedicated to the Virgin, Panagia Theoskepastos, is built into the - side of the cliff, its inner end being, in fact, a cave. Damp - has blurred the frescos; but one may still recognise the royal - portraits upon the north wall. The upper portions of two kingly - figures, attired in purple robes, and on their right hand, side - by side, two queens with jewelled crowns, still colour the mouldy - side of the cave, and are almost hidden by a row of stalls. They - have been identified by inscriptions which, I presume, have become - effaced, as Alexius III. and his queen Theodora; as Andronicus - and Eirene, mother respectively and son of the first-named prince. - - Nor should the traveller omit a visit to the church of St. Eugenius - (No. 19), although he may not have time to visit the grottoes in - the face of Boz Tepe, and to protract the excursion beyond the - embouchure of the Pyxitis to the site of Xenophon's camp. That - famous church is situated in the opposite direction, and has been - already mentioned in the description of the upper fortress. It - stands on the margin of the eastern ravine, almost opposite to - the great polygonal tower. The site is separated from the slopes - of Boz Tepe by a second and smaller ravine, which shows remains, - on the western bank, of walls and towers. Houses cluster round - the building, their horizontal outlines topped by its gables and - crowned by its polygonal, drum-shaped dome. St. Eugenius dates from - the period of the Grand-Comneni; but the frescos on the western - wall, which some travellers have noticed, are now nothing more - than patches of colour. It is a somewhat larger edifice than - Hagia Sophia, which, although less graceful, it resembles in - some respects. The dome rests upon two fluted columns on the - west side, while, on the east, it is supported by piers. A - flood of light fills the interior, which is plain and bare, - the church having been converted to the service of Islam by the - Ottoman conqueror. It was here that Mohammed II. is said to have - worshipped on the first Friday after the capture of the city by - his troops. The event is commemorated by the name of New Friday - (Yeni Juma) under which the mosque is known. - - -One is fortunate if it be possible to spend the later afternoons of -days devoted to the study of the town among the restful surroundings of -the pleasant country-side, upon the slopes of the adjacent hills. Such -was my privilege in 1898. Our tents were pitched on the lofty plateau -north-west of the city, the view ranging on the one side to the rocky -cliffs of Boz Tepe, and, on the other, to the distant promontory -of the sacred mountain. The crowded impressions of the day would -take proportion and perspective. One saw a city which, in spite -of the modern aspect of certain quarters, has lost little of the -romance of the Middle Age. The earlier imprint upon its buildings -is that of the era of Justinian; [5] their actual appearance is -due to the Grand-Comneni; a great sleep has bridged the interval -to the present time. Yet the life of the place, such as it is, -pursues the old channels, and the throng in the streets is to-day -not less heterogeneous than it was four centuries ago. The French, -the Austrians, and the Russians conduct the carrying trade with -Europe, reviving the function of the Genoese. The wares they bring -are largely of British origin, and are largely imported by British -merchants trading in Persia. Strings of Bactrian camels may be seen -in the streets, about to start on the long stages which separate the -seaport from Erzerum and Tabriz. The various peoples of Asia and of -Europe still meet in the bazars. [6] But the romance of the city can -never have equalled the romance of her surroundings, Nature being -the subtlest weaver of mysteries, the mother with unending fables in -whom the romantic spirit finds the only wholesome refuge from the dull -realities of daily life. The most permanent memory which the traveller -may take away from his visit may be the fruit of those half-hours -between daylight and night which he spends in his encampment above -the town. When once the sun has set there ensues a period of twilight, -in which the glow of the south appears to be blended with the gorgeous -effects of northern latitudes. Indeed, the view over the sea by day -recalls the colouring on our English coasts; and the little silken -Union Jack which fluttered over the tent of my companion, who was -acting as consul, would often seem to wave on a field of its native -blue. But in the evening there is produced a combination of elements, -at once much softer and much sterner than the setting of our English -scenes. The spirit of Scythia, of the frozen North, meets the languid -Mediterranean spirit, and spreads a robe of fire and paleness over -the sea. Only the cypresses and the luxuriant foliage preserve the -identity of the sinuous bays; and the succession of meridional ridges -which feature the coast towards Cape Ieros are clothed with a forest -of trees, fretting the splendour of the western sky. - - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE - -For the topography and antiquities of Trebizond I would refer the -student who may be desirous of going more closely into the subject to -the following works:--Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vol. xviii. pp. 852 -seq.; and in particular to the following authorities, cited by Ritter, -viz. Travels of Evliya, translated by von Hammer, London 1850, -vol. ii. pp. 41 seq.; Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, Paris 1717, -vol. ii. pp. 233 seq.; Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, etc., -London 1842, vol. ii. appendix v. p. 409 (inscription No. 49, over the -gateway); Fallmerayer, J. P., Fragmente aus dem Orient, 2nd edition, -Stuttgart 1877, with which should be read the Original-Fragmente of -the same author, published in the Abhandlungen of the Academy of Munich -(Hist. Classe), vols. iii. and iv., 1843-44. Fallmerayer was the first -to investigate the subject in an adequate manner; his descriptions -are charmingly written; and, while I have availed myself freely in -composing a part of this chapter of the results of his researches, -I must also acknowledge having come under the spell of his personality -(for a slight biography of the historian see Mitterrutzner, Fragmente -aus dem Leben des Fragmentisten, Brixen 1887). - -Among those who have advanced our knowledge of the place since Ritter -wrote I would cite the following:--Texier, 1839, Description de -l'Arménie, etc., Paris 1842, two vols. folio, with plates (see also -the magnificent work by Texier and Pullan, L'Architecture Byzantine, -London 1864); Pfaffenhoffen, Essai sur les aspres Comnénats ou blancs -d'argent de Trébizonde, Paris 1847; Finlay, Medićval Greece and the -Empire of Trebizond (vol. iv. of History of Greece, revised edition, -Oxford 1877); Tozer, Turkish Armenia, London 1881, pp. 450 seq. I -have also had access to a book in Armenian which was shown to me at -Trebizond, and which is entitled: History of Pontus, by the Rev. Father -Minas Bejeshkean (Mekhitarist), a native of Trebizond, Venice 1819. [7] - -The plans which accompany this chapter were made at the close of my -second journey by kind permission of the Turkish Government, and after -I had already perused the accounts of my predecessors. There is one -point in connection with the topography which one would like to feel -sure about, namely, upon what eminence in the neighbourhood the statue -of Hadrian was set up. I fancy it must have been erected on the Karlik -Tepe, a bold peak about four miles south of the town, commanding a -magnificent view. A small chapel now stands upon the summit. - -The history of the empire of the Grand-Comneni of Trebizond forms -a most instructive episode in the immemorial struggle between the -East and the West. It was Fallmerayer who may be said to have given -this history as a new possession to knowledge in his admirable -Geschichte des Kaiserthums von Trapezunt, Munich 1827, followed by -the Original-Fragmente, cited above. These sources have been utilised -by Finlay in his History of Greece and Trebizond; but it is to be -regretted that Fallmerayer himself did not rewrite his Geschichte after -his later discoveries of new and important material. The outline of -the subject may, perhaps, be presented in the following brief notice. - -The further one pursues one's studies of the countries west of India, -whether in the camp or in the library, the larger looms the stately -fabric of the Roman Empire of the East, and the more is felt the -need of a work dealing comprehensively with this great subject. Our -historians have allowed their interest to be absorbed by Europe; upon -Asia and the rule of the Cćsars over some of the fairest portions -of her vast territories for a period, which, commencing with the -Roman Republic, may be said to extend down to the suppression of the -despots of Trebizond by the Ottoman Turks in the latter half of the -fifteenth century, they have scarcely bestowed more than an impatient -glance. The period covers the bloom and fall of at least six great -Asiatic dynasties--the Arsakids, Sasanians, Arab caliphs, Seljuk Turks, -shahs of Kharizme, Tartar khans. It comes to an end among the ruins -of Asiatic prosperity, when the Turkomans are pasturing their flocks -among the débris of civilisation, and the Ottoman sultans, deriving -their origin from a nomad Turkish tribe, are being carried to their -zenith by the former subjects of the Cćsars, severed in the corps of -Janissaries from their Western culture and Christian religion, and -living only with the breath of their Mohammedan and Oriental king. This -startling revolution in the political and economical condition of Asia, -the effects of which are operative at the present day, may be traced -back to the decisive blow which was struck at the Roman Empire of -the East by the victory of the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, over the -Cćsar Romanus near Melazkert in Armenia in the year 1071. The three -centuries of imperial rule in Asia which succeeded this event reveal -few and spasmodic interruptions to the inclined plane of Western -relapse. Then the darkness finally closes in; Constantinople falls -(1453), and Western commerce is expelled from the Black Sea. - -The empire of Trebizond takes its place in this great tragedy of -history when the end is already in view. In the same year and the -same month in which the Latins took Constantinople and the nobility -of the imperial capital fled to the cities of Asia (April 1204), -two youthful scions of the illustrious House of Comnenus appeared -at the head of a body of Georgian mercenaries before the gates -of Trebizond. The Comneni, whose name perhaps reveals an Italian -origin, emerge into the light of history in the latter part of the -tenth century, from a private station among the Greek nobility of -Asia, where their hereditary estate was situated near Kastamuni, -a town in the interior, which one may reach at the present day by a -carriageable road from the port of Ineboli on the Black Sea. Manuel -Comnenus, the first to bring fame to the family, was prefect of all -the East under the Cćsar, Basil the Second (in 976); and his son, the -scholarly Isaac Comnenus, was chosen by his contemporaries to occupy -the imperial throne. The nephew of Isaac, the Emperor Alexius Comnenus -(r. 1081-1118), is well known for the part which he played during -the crusading era; and he was followed on the Byzantine throne by -two of the most martial figures of that age of heroes, Kalo-Joannes -(r. 1118-43) and Manuel (r. 1143-80). Manuel was succeeded by his -cousin Andronicus Comnenus (r. 1182-85), an emperor who did much to -purify the corrupt provincial administration of the Byzantine monarchy, -and who perished in a domestic revolution, due to his severe measures -against the high nobility. The murder of this prince was followed at -no long interval by the Latin conquest of the capital; and the two -Comneni who came to Trebizond in 1204 were sons of Manuel, son and -heir to Andronicus, who had also perished in the aforesaid revolution. - -Their names were Alexius and David; and they were assisted in their -enterprise by their paternal aunt, Thamar, the offspring of their -grandfather and a Georgian lady. The political condition of Trebizond -during the interval between the murder of Andronicus and the Latin -conquest of the capital is not definitely known; but the Greek city was -probably feeling the pressure of the neighbouring kingdom of Georgia -at the time of the advent of the two Greek princes. The prospects -of relief, on the one hand, from this pressure, and, on the other, -from dependence upon the rotten court of Constantinople under the -hopeful rule of an illustrious family, must have operated as powerful -inducements to the townspeople to welcome the new régime. Alexius -Comnenus is accepted as master of the city, and his rising fortunes -attract to his victorious standard some of the noblest of the refugees -from the capital, flying into Asia before the Latins. Others range -themselves round the person of Theodore Laskaris in Bithynia; and two -rival Greek or Roman empires are established upon Asiatic soil, that of -Nicća, or Nice, the capital of Bithynia, and the empire of Trebizond. - -The successors of Laskaris fought their way back to Constantinople, -which was recovered from the Latin barons in 1261. A much less splendid -fate was reserved for the family of Alexius Comnenus; yet the little -empire on the Black Sea survived the restored Byzantine Empire; and -a space of nearly a hundred years separates the fall of the last of -the Greek cities of the interior (conquest of Philadelphia by the -Sultan Bayazid in 1390) from the overthrow of the rule of the Comneni -at Trebizond (1461). During a period of over 250 years these petty -Greek princes contrived to elude the storms of Mussulman conquest -behind the wall of mountains interposed between the interior and -the coast. Sometimes as vassals of the Oriental dynasties, at other -times in a state of independence, they ruled over the beautiful city -and a narrow strip of seaboard of varying extent. Their possessions -even included a part of the Crimea, of which the tribute was conveyed -across the expanse of waters in the imperial galleys. Proud of their -pompous titles of Grand-Comneni and Emperors of the Romans, or lords -of all Anatolia, Georgia, and the Transmarine, they supplied their -deficiencies in real power by elaborate ceremonials, and substituted -the gorgeous cult of their patron saint, Eugenius, for the devotional -exercises of the Christian religion. They might be consigned without -regret to the limbo of history, were it not for the cause of which they -were the late and debased representatives, but which, nevertheless, -they contributed to sustain. Their territory afforded a home and -holding ground to commerce; and, when the land routes through Asia -Minor fell into disuse owing to the increase of anarchy, Trebizond -became an emporium of the trade with the further Asia, diverted to the -more secure avenue of the Armenian plains. This trade was conducted -with great spirit by the Genoese from their factories at Trebizond, -until Grand-Comneni, Italian merchants, and all the apparatus of -civilisation were swept away by the Ottoman sultan, Mohammed the -Second (1451-81). This type of Oriental exclusiveness came marching -across the mountains some years after his conquest of Constantinople -(1453). The citadel of Trebizond was given over to the Janissaries, -the palace to a pasha; the last of the Comneni was transported to an -exile in Europe, whence, not long afterwards, he was summoned to the -capital and commanded to abjure the Christian faith. The firmness of -his refusal and the dignity of his martyrdom cast a parting ray of -glory through the shadows which had already closed upon his House. His -body and those of the princes who died with him were thrown to the dogs -beyond the walls of Constantinople. Only one-third of the inhabitants -of Trebizond, and these the dregs of the populace, were suffered to -remain in their native city. The remainder were compelled to emigrate, -and their estates were confiscated. In 1475 the policy of expulsion -of all Western influences was crowned by the Ottoman occupation of -Caffa and Tana, the more northerly depôts of the Genoese in the Black -Sea. European ships were expelled from these waters; where trade was -banished ensued barbarism; and for three centuries these shores were -forgotten by the West. A new era found expression in the Treaty of -Adrianople (1829), which secured the free navigation of this sea. The -first steamer made her appearance in 1836, and since then commerce -has steadily increased. It flows along the shore, to be distributed -throughout the interior, until it reaches the solid barrier of the -Russian frontier. It is carried across Asia just outside that barrier -on the backs of camels and mules. On the far side of the wall is heard -the whistle of the locomotive, and the rumble of a train which not a -bale of the hated products of European industry is permitted to invade. - -Let the progressive states of modern Europe take heed lest their -domestic rivalries result in the conversion of the Black Sea into a -Russian lake, and the re-establishment of the old and melancholy order. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ASCENT TO ARMENIA - - -It had never been our intention to enter Armenia by the well-beaten -avenue of Trebizond and Erzerum. The season was advanced; our first -objective was Ararat; and it appeared doubtful whether, even with -the utmost possible expedition, we should be able to accomplish -the ascent of the mountain before the commencement of the winter -snows. The attack is no doubt feasible from the side of Turkey; at -least on two occasions it has been successful; but the journey is long -from Erzerum to Bayazid, and the stages must be covered by your own -horses; there is no posting system to furnish you with relays. Nor -is it likely that you will find the same facilities at Bayazid that -are offered in Russian territory, through the courtesy of the Russian -Government, by the detachment of Cossacks which is stationed on the -northern slopes. These considerations were decisive in determining -us upon the approach from Georgia; but I was also anxious on other -grounds to become acquainted with the Russian provinces of Armenia -before investigating the condition of those under Turkish rule. With -these purposes we rejoined our steamer on the night of the 16th of -August and continued the voyage to Batum. - -August 17.--From Trebizond to the Russian port is a run of a hundred -miles; the early morning saw us skirting the redoubts that line -the shore and doubling the little promontory on which the lighthouse -stands. In the bight or tiny inlet that recedes from that low headland -a depth of water of some thirty fathoms may be found; yet the bay as -a whole is shallow and full of silt, and it is only on this western -side, close in upon the land, that such soundings are obtained. The -largest vessels may be seen brought up so near to the beach that their -lofty sterns almost overhang its shelving slopes. But the space is not -extensive in this favoured quarter, and if this natural harbour is -protected on the east by the wall of the coast range, it is exposed -towards the north. The Russians have endeavoured to overcome these -disadvantages by constructing a long breakwater of solid masonry, -which projects from the side of the mountains into the bay; for years -they have been engaged in dredging operations, but they have been -hampered by the continual tendency of the anchorage to fill with -sandy deposit along the eastern shore. - -I should not trouble or divert my reader with a humble incident -of travel, were it not that I am anxious to dispel the prevailing -prejudices which attribute an unusual degree of severity to the service -of the customs at this port. Some years ago, when returning from Persia -to Europe, I had been summoned to the fearful presence of the presiding -officers and had been amiably dismissed; but on that occasion I was -invested with the more innocent character of an export, whereas now -it was with the savoury attributes of imports from Great Britain that -we were walking into the lion's mouth. Stories were abroad of ladies -who had arrived in silken dresses and who had been seen to issue from -the portals of this redoubtable Custom-House in whatever garments may -have escaped the confiscation from their persons of the more valuable -products of European looms. It was therefore with some apprehension -and not without anxiety that we awaited the arrival of the inspector -and his men. Their white caps and white tunics are soon in evidence on -the ship's ladder; they step on deck, appear uncertain and desirous of -information; then, after a cast or two, we see them settling to the -line. In a remote corner of the deck, almost covered by the gigantic -frame of Rudolph, lies a pile of miscellaneous but extremely creditable -luggage, of which the hapless owners are ourselves. When the Swiss -is interrogated he smiles blandly; the salute on their side is not -less gracious and more effusive; then they leave the steamer and we -are free. What is the incident? If you measure it by the paradoxical -nature of the occurrence, it was more than an incident, it was an -event. For the rest we were not slow to discover the explanation; -there is not in Russia a more courteous official or kinder personality -than the Director of Customs at Batum. M. de Klupffell is a veteran -sportsman, and, as such, a friend of Englishmen; in my cousin he found -an ardent votary of his own science and a companion in its pursuit; -and we were linked together by a number of pleasant memories before -the day of departure hurried us apart. - -Five valuable days, of which not a minute was vacant, were consumed -in completing the preparations for our journey and in procuring a -supplementary supply of letters of introduction to those in authority -at the centres through which we should pass. We were about to enter a -country which, both for strategical and political reasons, is hedged -in with scarcely visible but extremely palpable restrictions, and for -the unprepared and ill-recommended traveller is almost of the nature -of forbidden ground. There are wide districts in which our consul at -Batum is not permitted to travel; I am sure he would not venture to -cross the threshold of Kars. To make certain of being allowed to move -about without hindrance and to enjoy the luxury of the confidence -that your presence will be tolerated and that you will not suddenly -be summarily expelled, it is necessary to supply yourself with a -special authorisation from the proper Minister at St. Petersburg. But -our ambassador at the Russian capital refuses to put forward the -application; he has made a rule which nothing will induce him to -break through. At Constantinople our embassy is of course completely -helpless; there remains the doubtful method of private approach. The -days were swelling into weeks while we lingered on the Bosphorus; -it was useless to proceed without some form of pass in our pockets, -but the precious months of summer were gliding away. At length we -were sufficiently provided with recommendations to be warranted in -trusting fortune to do the rest; we owed much to the kindness of our -Russian acquaintances at Constantinople, and we were able to realise -a fact of which we subsequently received such abundant evidence, -that the highest Russian officials are as a rule enlightened men of -the world as well as the kindest and most hospitable of hosts. - -On the side of Georgia there are two principal approaches to Armenia, -and the traveller who desires to consult his comfort may be advised to -restrict his choice to these two roads. The more westerly ascends the -valley of the Kur river and reaches the highlands about Akhaltsykh by -the romantic gorge and passage of Borjom; the other, further east, -leaves the railway between the Black Sea and the Caspian at the -station of Akstafa, some fifty miles below Tiflis, and, mounting from -the trough of the Kur along the course of the Akstafa, issues upon -the open country on the west of Lake Sevan, near the posting-stage -of Delijan. [8] A bifurcation at that point leads by one branch to -Alexandropol and by the other to Erivan. You may ride in a victoria -and with relays of post-horses on either of these roads. Both conduct -you from the steppes at the southern foot of Caucasus and from levels -that are comparatively low across or aslant the grain of the peripheral -ranges to the edge of the Armenian tableland. Those ranges are the -continuation upon the east of the mountains which we have followed -from the Bosphorus to Batum; they stand up like a wall from the -flats of the Rion and from the plains which border the lower course -of the Kur, with much the same appearance as we saw them rise with -ever-increasing proportions along the floor of the Black Sea. Beyond -those lowlands a mighty neighbour, the parallel chain of Caucasus, -faces them on the north. Only at one point do these two great systems -join hands together, in the belt of mountainous country which separates -the watershed of the Kur from that of the Rion and which the railway -crosses by the pass of Suram (about 3000 feet). This linking chain -is known to geographers under the name of the Meschic or Moschic; -geologists are inclined to connect it with the structure of Caucasus; -our senses might invest it with a separate existence, a transverse -barrier as it were, thrown from range to range across the hollow -which extends from sea to sea. - -I was disinclined for several reasons to traverse this barrier, so -that we might avail ourselves of either of the main roads. Erivan -was our destination, the railway and the valley of the Akstafa our -readiest means of access; but I was already familiar with the trough -of the Kur between Tiflis and the Caspian, and I had read so many -accounts of this approach to Armenia that the natural features of -the several stages between the Georgian river and Lake Sevan seemed -imprinted upon my mind. I was also anxious to gain some knowledge of -the western portion of the tableland, of which I had only succeeded in -obtaining from the literature of travel a wholly insufficient idea. To -these districts the route by Borjom is at once the best-known avenue -and that which combines with a lavish display of magnificent scenery -the comforts of a beaten track. But to worm myself up the valley of -the Kur to the Armenian highlands was, I thought, to miss an occasion -which might not subsequently be offered of realising at the outset of -our long journey the essential features and characteristics of the -country we had come to see. In Asia so vast is the scale upon which -Nature has operated, so much system has she bestowed upon her works, -you may follow for hundreds of miles the same manifestations, till -from some favourable point of vantage you may discover unfolded before -you the clue and the abiding principles of her extensive and majestic -plan. What approach was better calculated to offer large views over -Nature and to instruct us in her designs than one which scaled the -walls of the girdle ranges where they tower highest above land and -sea? From Batum it might be possible to penetrate the mountains of -Ajara, and debouch upon some of the most elevated regions of the -plateau from which the upper waters and earliest affluents of the -Kur decline; but the lower reaches of the Chorokh and its alpine -tributaries intersect a most intricate and savage country, where the -process of elevation has resulted in dislocation of the range, and -has produced convulsions which, while they afford a most interesting -field to the geologist and to the student of mountain-structure, -have placed obstacles in the way of human communications which the -traveller is not required to overcome. By following the bend of -the chain up the coast and along the Rion until it again assumes a -normal course, he may avoid this knot of ridges and maze of valleys -and at the same time obtain a clearer and more definite conception of -the geography of these lands. We learnt that there was a road from -the plain of the Rion up the side and to the summit of the range; -we soon decided upon the superior attractions which it promised, -and took our tickets for the capital of the country on the west of -the Meschic barrier, the ancient city of Kutais. - -August 22.--Rain was falling as we slowly steamed away from the -station; it is almost always raining at Batum. The clouds cannot leap -the gigantic bulwark of the mountains at this south-eastern angle of -the sea; they cling to the fir-clad slopes or put out hands and scale -the escarpments until they become exhausted and dissolve. The town was -soon behind us as we wound along the foot of the range on the narrow -respite of the shore--Batum, with her grim defiance of the written law -of Europe, with her peaceful situation at the gate of the oil industry, -of which she receives the products by the railway from the Caspian -to distribute them over all the world; a creation of modern Russia -on the familiar official pattern of spreading boulevards with fine -shops and large hotels. Here is the starting-point of the first train -which skirts the coast of the Euxine--and even this remote example -of the species turns aside from the mysterious seaboard to the cities -of the interior after a brief space of some twenty miles. Yet within -such limits we are carried through the wildest piece of country that -may be found between the mouth of the river Rion and the entrance to -the Black Sea, a district endowed with extraordinary fertility, which -still remains unexploited and unreclaimed. It is inhabited here and -there by a few straggling settlements, which contrast to the splendour -of his natural surroundings the squalor of uncivilised man. We have -outreached the furthest extension of the fringe of Greek elements; -Georgian peoples live in the valleys of the interior and are thinly -scattered upon the malarious coast; while further east, where the -chain has left the sea and is aligned upon the plains, lowlands as -well as mountains, the skirts of the range and its innermost recesses -are the home of a population of Georgian race. Between Trebizond and -the Russian fortress first the Lazis and then the Ajars may perhaps -be regarded as transitional factors to the new order which commences -after you have left Batum. I should not venture to pronounce upon the -racial connections of the Lazis; they may represent the aboriginal -occupants of their country, the wild tribes who harassed the army of -Xenophon and were the settled plague of the Byzantine governors and -of the emperors of the Comnenian line. The Ajars would appear to be of -mixed parentage; like the Lazis they profess the Mohammedan faith. The -Georgian districts which we are now entering still retain the names of -the several independent principalities to which they formerly belonged, -and except in the case of Abkhasia, up in the north at the foot of -Caucasus, the Christian religion almost exclusively prevails. First -comes Guria along the shore and the bend of the mountains; Imeritia -extends on either bank of the Rion and as far as the pass of Suram; -Mingrelia is the name of the country on the north of the Kolchian -river, and it is bounded by Imeritia in the east. - -For a distance of some fifteen miles the landscape was monotonous; -on the one hand the almost vertical bulwark of the mountains, on the -other the little grey waves breaking on the stony shore. But just -before we arrived at the station of Kobulety the oppressive proximity -of the range was relaxed, the country opened, and between low forest -and maize-grown clearings the soil-charged waters of a river wound -their way down towards the sea. It was the commencement of the -scenery which is characteristic of Guria, a tract of virgin woodland -which clothes the spurs of the receding chain and the alluvial flats -and marshes of the coast. Rolling hills take the place of the abrupt -wall of rock; they are covered with a jungle of bush and little trees, -which is broken here and there by irregular patches planted with Indian -corn. Dark streams heavy with loam descend between high banks. Not -a village could we see, nor any human habitation; distant prospects -were obscured by a veil of mist. Yet the day was fairly fine, and, if -the clouds were deeply banked on the horizon, the zenith often burst -to pure blue. As we proceeded, the forest increased both in grandeur -and in luxuriance; clusters of magnificent trees rose from the bush -and above the brushwood, until the features of hill and spur became -lost beneath the lofty overgrowth and transformed to masses or ledges -of tall stems and spreading branches outlined against the sky. The -withered forks of lifeless trunks stood out in grim relief from this -ground of shadow, or were projected in weird tracery upon the field -of light--an eloquent proof that no human hand had yet disturbed the -natural order of these primeval woods. The sea was lost behind leafy -brakes festooned with luscious creepers, which flourish with almost -tropical development in this warm climate and upon this soaking -soil. Not a single road did we see; the stations are mere stages, -and the only sign of the presence of man was one of the long-legged -dappled pigs so common in Imeritia, which was trespassing on the line. - -Such are the characteristics which broadly prevail between Kobulety -and Lanchkhuty, a space of some twenty-four miles. But we had not yet -reached the latter station, which is situated due north of the capital -of Guria, Ozurgeti, when new features were discovered in the scene. On -the left hand the view opened across an even country where the sappy -stems and reed-like forms and flowers of the maize-plants alternated -with stretches of unreclaimed bush; and in the distance a bold hill, -only partially wooded, projected into the plain from a long, vague -line of mountains which closed the horizon on the north. We felt that -these must surely be the spurs of Caucasus, and that the Phasis would -shortly be disclosed. - -You cross that fabled river--the modern Rion--by the commonplace -method of a railway bridge; it flows between high banks through -the wide expanse of these surroundings on the southern margin of the -plain. Some distance east of these lower reaches the impetuous current -that has pierced the Caucasus, from which it issues at Kutais, has -been deflected by the mountains of the southern border, which turn -it towards the west. You do not follow its tortuous course, which -skirts the outworks of these mountains as they stretch inwards from -the coast; the ground is flat, the railroad points more directly for -the capital at the foot of the great chain on the north. - -Mile upon mile the plain of the Rion was unfolded about us, a fertile -province which might be made the granary of Georgia, but which would -now appear to produce little else but the lowest of the cereals, -an endless succession of plantations of Indian corn. The land is -ill-reclaimed; little labour has been expended, and the bush starts -up among the canes. At the stations we remarked groups of women and -young girls clad in loose cotton dresses with cotton kerchiefs on -their heads. Geese strutted along the line or paddled in the shallow -streams, and we became familiar with the strange appearance of the -Imeritian pigs. But still no village! At rare intervals a wooden hut -with a large verandah, and here and there among the maize one of the -rude wooden stages erected to command a prospect over the fields. - -As we advanced, the dim and misty boundary of the Caucasus took shape -and colour about the lower slopes. The soft hues of vegetation, -the brighter flashes of naked strata were distinguished from the -uncertain background of rock and cloud; bold ridges with fantastic -outlines stood up on the horizon; but here and there the white -vapour was still clinging to their highest parapets and spreading -fanwise to the brief circle of clear sky. Above them lay a world -of half-lights and banked cloud-masses, the veiled presence of the -main chain. Behind us rose the wooded ridges of the southern range, -till they vanished in the folds of the murky canopy which they hold -so firmly and love so well; but the marshes had disappeared and the -lowest spurs which met the plain were almost devoid of trees. On our -point of course the two great ranges appeared to mingle together and -arrest our even progress towards the east. - -For a second time we were overlooking the stream of the Rion to regain -the left bank. It was flowing with a rapid current in a direct line -from the Caucasus, channelling the beached-up shingle of an extensive -bed. In places the waters spread in shallow lakes and deposit a thick -sediment of soil. This upper portion of the plain is barren and stony; -it is partially covered with a low jungle of bush. It is confined on -either side by the meeting flanks of the mountains; and as we made -our way due north with the river serpenting beneath us, all prospect -on our right hand was shut out by rising ground clothed with a forest -of low oak trees. - -On the opposite slopes, among the deepening tints of wood and -clearing, beneath the growing distinction of light and shade, we -could discern the white faces of a few scattered houses and then the -gardens among which they stood. Two larger buildings were apparent, -crowned with conical cupolas, of which the roofing was coloured a -soft green. Such are the outskirts of Kutais; the town is hidden -from the plain. Towering above the scene and almost infinitely high, -we might feel vaguely but could scarcely see the gigantic framework -of Caucasus, except where here and there a dazzling light among the -clouds revealed the presence of a snowfield in the sky. - -We were tempted to linger in the capital of Imeritia, and I can -confidently recommend to the more leisurely traveller a protracted -stay in this fascinating place. You will never tire of the beauty -of site and grandeur of surroundings, while few street scenes are -more picturesque than those which are disclosed during an afternoon -ramble in the Jewish quarter of Kutais. It is a convenient centre -for excursions into the recesses of Caucasus, and you have only -to follow the windings of the valley of the Rion to be introduced -to the inmost sanctuaries of the chain. In the ruins of the noble -cathedral beyond the outskirts of the town, in the neighbouring and -well-preserved monastery of Gelat, with its enchanting prospect from -the slopes of Caucasus over the open landscape of the south, both the -archćologist and the student of architecture will discover an abundant -source of interest; while, if the study of Nature herself be among -the objects of your journey, what richer field could be offered to -the geologist or the naturalist than these mountains and untouched -forests and flowery hills? But we ourselves were hurried away by the -exigencies of travel after a short sojourn of two and a half days, -and my present purpose must be confined to the elucidation of those -natural features which accompanied the early stages of our ascent to -Armenia, and which were unfolded to our view in an extensive panorama -from the declivities about Kutais. - -I shall therefore take my reader to some convenient standpoint in -the environs, let us say to the cliffs on the right bank of the Rion -and the hill upon which the massive ruins of the cathedral rise on -the sky-line above the leafy brakes (Fig. 6, a). I can show you the -position from the opposite bank of the river in a picture which was -taken over a mile above the town from the road which ascends the -valley and which we followed on our way to Gelat (Fig. 6). The Rion -is flowing from you into the middle distance coming from the north; -Kutais itself is hidden by a wooded promontory (Fig. 6, d); but you -see the group of buildings which compose the Armenian and the Catholic -churches, and which crown the extreme northerly projection of the site -(Fig. 6, b). Three bridges span the Rion where it sweeps past the town -confined between lofty banks, and lead from the busy streets to the -peaceful heights which overlook them and command all the landscape -of the plain. I cannot imagine a more charming walk than by the hill -church of St. George (Fig. 6, c) to the pleasant eminence which I -have already described. - -We reach our point, and there before us expands the open landscape of -which the second photograph embraces a considerable part (Fig. 7). We -are standing on the southern slopes of Caucasus, with a wide belt of -hill and ridge behind us, and, beyond and far above such familiar -natural features, the white serrations and air-borne snowfields of -the inmost chain. The atmosphere is fresh and crisp even at this -season and with this temperature; [9] and banks of white cloud float -in the sky. At our feet lies Kutais, with head upon the hillside and -foot upon the margin of the plain; the eye follows the winding river -which has just escaped from Caucasus and is flowing outwards towards -the opposite range; the horizon is closed by that wall of mountain, -emerging solid from a tender veil of mist. The plain itself is flat as -water; it is coloured with the golden hues of the ripening maize-fields -and featured by a labyrinth of vague detail. On the left hand, outside -the photograph, a little north of east, you just discern high on the -slopes beyond the left bank of the Rion the site of the monastery of -Gelat; and the other day we thought we could descry from its lofty -terrace, at the base of a distant promontory of Caucasus the shimmer -of the sea in the west. - -Let us realise for a moment the meaning of the landscape, and allow the -mind to assist the eye. The opposite mountains belong to the girdle of -ranges which buttress the Armenian tableland, the same which we have -followed along the coast of the Black Sea, and which we left at our -entrance upon the plain of the Rion stretching eastwards away from the -shore. Here they constitute the barrier which separates the lowlands -of Imeritia from the highlands about Akhaltsykh in the south; and, -if you wish to examine the structure of this barrier more closely, -you will find that the back or spine of the system consists of a -ridge which extends in an easterly direction to about the longitude -of Tiflis. The Caucasus, with an axis inclining south-eastwards, steps -up to this latitudinal chain, and just east of Kutais the two systems -join hands in the belt of picturesque hill scenery which divides -the watershed of the Kur from that of the Rion, and which we already -know under the name of the Meschic linking range. East of Tiflis the -axis of the Armenian border ranges is turned towards south-east, and -follows a direction parallel with that of Caucasus along the trough of -the Kur towards the Caspian Sea. Like the Caucasus here in the north, -its opposite neighbour, that southern bulwark extends from sea to sea; -and some geographers have applied to it the name of Little Caucasus, -a misleading and, if we attach importance to the phenomena of Nature, a -most inappropriate name. For while the northern range may be described -as an isolated and independent structure--independent in appearance -at least--which rises on the one side from about the same levels as -those to which on the other side it declines, that on the south is in -reality nothing more than a succession of steps or buttresses which -lead up to and flank the Armenian highlands. The first stages of our -journey will conduct us up the slopes of those mountains, from a plain -which does not much exceed the sea-level, across a ridge of which -the pass has an altitude of about 7000 feet, to plains which range -between a height of 7000 and not less than 3000 feet above the sea. - -August 25.--From Kutais to where the southern range perceptibly -commences to gather, about the village of Bagdad, is a direct distance -of close on fifteen miles. So even is the plain that the road makes -little deviation and covers the space in seventeen miles. At half-past -eight on the morning of the 25th of August our victoria, drawn by -four horses abreast, made its start from the little hotel in which we -had lodged; it was followed by the cart which we had engaged for the -luggage and to which was harnessed a similar team. We had hired both -conveyances for the whole of the journey to Abastuman on the further -slopes of the southern range; the regular avenue of communication with -that summer watering-place is by the valley of the Kur and Borjom, -and it is necessary to make your own arrangements if you desire to -take the Imeritian road. We spent five hours upon the first stage of -only seventeen miles; our coachman was obliged to harbour the strength -of his horses for the long ascent to the summit of the chain, and we -were always halting to take photographs and to realise the interest -of the magnificent scenery which forms the distant setting of these -lowlands. We were crossing the uppermost portion of the plain of the -Rion, where it rises to the belt of hill and mountain which links -the northern with the southern range; long stretches of woodland -with an undergrowth of wild rhododendron had taken the place of the -expanse of golden maize-fields, broken by little trees and intervals -of bush. To emerge from the shady avenue upon a tract of open country -was to feast our eyes upon a landscape of no ordinary character. On -the one hand the airy pinnacles and gleaming snowfields of Caucasus, -on the other the forest-clad walls of the Armenian border chain; -in the west the varied detail that covers the floor of the plain as -with a carpet, and behind us the spurs meeting in the east. - -We were impressed by the hush of life over the plain and in the -woodlands, by the sparseness of human habitations, and by the absence -of traffic along the road. Such are the certain signs in the East of -economical stagnation, when man is idle and the earth sleeps. It was -therefore with pleasure that about one o'clock we came upon a tiny -village and lingered beneath a spreading tree. Not very far from this -little settlement we crossed a stream at the base of the mountains, -and at half-past one we came to a halt in the street of the village of -Bagdad, after a short but perceptible rise. We noticed some vineyards -during the course of our upward progress; the elevation of Bagdad, -according to the single reading of my barometer, is 922 feet. [10] - -It is at Bagdad that you begin the ascent of the mountains of the -southern border. So broad is the range, the pass so lofty and the -road so tortuous, that it would be no easy matter to cross them in -a single day. The direct distance measured on a map from the village -to the pass is no less than seventeen miles, and along the road you -cover some thirty-one miles. There is a hut at about half-way which -is a convenient night's quarter, and we resolved to make it the goal -of our second stage. - -We left Bagdad at three o'clock, with the valleys still open about us, -with the wooded slopes rising on every side. After we had passed to the -right branch of the stream which we had crossed below the village, the -gradients commenced to make themselves felt, and here and there among -the foliage the first fir trees started, the delicate blue firs. We -followed the course of the running water up the spacious valley, -through the forest which clothes the range from foot to summit and -stands up along the ridges against the sky. - -The saturated atmosphere and warm climate of the seaboard were -still with us; the one feeds, the other stimulates this luxuriant -growth. Even on this fine day the clouds still lingered in the -uppermost hollows, and when at four o'clock we opened up a beautiful -side valley, all the landscape of wooded fork and winding torrent -reflected the silvery hues of a crown of captive vapour clinging to -the recesses at the head of the glen. - -Verst after verst we might count our progress on the white milestones, -but we rarely observed a sign of the presence of man. A Georgian -wayfarer, staff in hand, a peasant's cottage with its wide verandah, -were the infrequent incidents in a scene which still belonged to -Nature, and with which such figures and such objects harmonised. At -last at the side of the road where the forest was thickest we came -upon a solitary little cabin, a neat wooden structure, which we at -once recognised as our shelter for the night. It was a quarter-past -seven o'clock and we had reached an altitude of 1900 feet. [11] -During the space of some fourteen miles from our mid-day station, -the valley to which we had throughout been faithful had narrowed to a -deep trough; and an hour before our arrival at the hut of Zikari the -read was taken for a short space along the left bank of the stream, -in order to avoid a projecting buttress of its eastern wall. - -August 26.--Some distance below the hut the stream which we had -followed is joined by a tributary coming from the east; the two -branches of the fork collect a number of smaller affluents which have -their sources near the summit of the chain. In continuing our course -next morning up the more westerly of these branches, we were rapidly -transported to the more open landscapes of the higher slopes, and made -our way almost in a direct line for the pass, circling the outworks -of the principal ridge. Filmy white clouds were suspended from the -pine woods above us, when at a quarter-past seven we again took to -the road; but for five hours the forest trees remained with us and -increased rather than diminished in size. In one place it was a lime -of unusual proportions rearing a maze of branches from a quadruple -trunk; at another we stood in wonder before a gigantic beech which -measured 17 feet 6 inches round the base. The undergrowth was supplied -by laurel and holly, and cascades leapt from the rocks. The reader -may see our road as it wound through this sylvan scenery (Fig. 8), -but he must allow his imagination to supply the inherent deficiencies -of photographic methods. The rare inhabitants of these solitudes are -of Georgian race and wear the dress of Georgia (Fig. 9), but their -straggling tenements are few and far between. - -Above the forest the groves of fir, higher still the grassy slopes -and naked crags--such is the familiar order of mountain scenery as -you slowly rise to the spine of a range. The two last features became -apparent at the sixty-sixth verst-stone, or some twelve and a half -miles from the hut. A profusion of wild raspberries were growing on -the mossy banks and provided us with a delicious meal. We remarked the -sharpness of the summits of the ridge above us and read the number of -the seventy-second verst. The pass is just above this lofty standpoint, -and we left the carriage to reach it by a short cut. We arrived there -after a brief climb to find a fresh breeze blowing and all the wide -belt of mountain at our feet. - -I doubt whether there exists in the nearer Asia a standpoint which -commands a prospect at once so grand and so instructive as that which -is unfolded from the summit of the Zikar Pass (Zikarski Perival; -altitude by my Hicks mountain aneroid, 7164 feet; Russian survey, -7104 feet). With its double front towards north and south and the -contrasting features of the dual landscape, it may be said to overlook -two worlds. On the north the view ranges across the broad belt of -wooded mountains, which culminate in this ridge, to the gigantic -barrier of the Caucasus of which the peaks are distant some ninety to -a hundred miles (Fig. 10). Invisible in the hollow lies the plain of -the Rion; the crests before you, boldly vaulted and clad with forest -to the very summits, sweep away to a dim horizon of grey mist; above -that uncertain background the snows and glaciers of Caucasus appear -suspended in the air among the clouds. Dense vapour shrouds the scene, -and above the flashes of the snow a long bank of white cloud spreads -fanwise up the sky. - -But turn to the south--the forms and texture of the earth's surface, -the lights and shadows falling through a rarer atmosphere from lightly -floating filaments of cloud, are those of a new world (Fig. 11). The -pine wood still struggles down the hillside, and gathers from the -blighted trunks around you to clothe the first valleys of the southern -watershed. But the view will no longer close with successive walls of -mountain; the road ceases winding up the slopes of successive outworks; -every vertical line, each deep vaulting relaxes and disappears. The -highest plains of the tableland attain about the same elevation as -the pass upon which you stand; all the outlines in the distance are -horizontal, all the shapes shallow-vaulted and convex. If you follow -the long-drawn profiles of the loftier masses, it is the form of a cone -that breaks the sky-line, and never that of a peak. The colours are -lightly washed ochres and madders; the surface of the volcanic soil -is bare of all vegetation; the shadows lie transparent and thin. Such -was our first view of Armenia and such the impression which our later -travel confirmed. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III - -TO AKHALTSYKH - - -Where else except in London will you see clever driving? Is not England -the only country where you can trust your coachman to shave his corners -and keep his team in hand? With four horses abreast the process is -perhaps not easy, especially down a fairly steep incline. We were -pursued by a landau which contained some Russian officers who had -been spectators of our photographic and hypsometrical operations on -the summit of the pass; our driver became inspired with the spirit -of rivalry, and within a few minutes the trot had developed into a -canter, the canter into a headlong career. On the left hand a deep -abyss, on the right a mossy bank, and the post of danger occupied -by our plump little dragoman who sat on the left-hand box seat! The -carriage grazed the bank and, before we had time to pull the Armenian -to us, struck and overturned. No damage to the horses or to the rest -of the company, but the unfortunate dragoman, moaning and sobbing on -the road! Happily his contusions were not serious, and a draught of -brandy almost restored him to the possession of himself. Assisted by -our kind acquaintances, who were the unwitting cause of the disaster -and who had hurried to the scene, we conveyed him down the slope to -where a gay picnic party were regaling themselves with cakes and tea -and a variety of strong liqueurs. At once the ladies busied themselves -with the bruised and dust-covered youth, whose numbed senses quickly -revived under their care. But the incident delayed us, and it was -night before we arrived at the outskirts of Abastuman, situated in -the pine woods some ten miles south of the pass, at an elevation -of 4278 feet. We were tempted to pitch our tents above the village, -on the banks of a pleasant stream; but the darkness as well as the -lateness of the hour decided us to have recourse to a crowded hotel. - -We were again in the midst of wealth and luxury--an oasis strangely -incongruous with the solemn character with which these vast and lonely -landscapes are impressed. The strains of music floated on the air; -a dance was proceeding, to which after a hurried meal my cousin and -myself repaired. All that was most brilliant in the official world -of the Caucasus was gathered in the bright ball-room; and as we made -our way there through the garden we met a group of returning guests -gathered about a slender and youthful figure, to whom all appeared -to defer. It was the Grand Duke George of Russia, since Tsarevich, -who was residing in this lofty station alike in winter as in summer -for the benefit of his health. In the afternoon of the following day, -which was devoted to work and to preparations, came a message from -His Imperial Highness inviting us to mid-day dinner; so we deferred -our start from early morning to a later hour. His villa was situated -just above the street of pleasure-houses among the fir trees which -clothe the valley from trough to ridge; and on the opposite side of -the road the slope had been converted into a park, which contained -living specimens of the big game of the Caucasian wilds. The dinner -was al fresco in the garden of the villa; the Grand Duke welcomed -us in perfect English and placed my cousin on his right and myself -on his left hand. Opposite me and on my cousin's right sat the Duke -of Oldenburg, a practised sportsman and a charming personality, -whose lively humour made the talk flow. On my left I had a graver -but extremely well-informed gentleman whose conversation impressed -me, but whose name I forgot to record. M. Asbeleff of the suite of -His Highness was also of the party, and most kindly provided us with -introductions which were of great service to us at a later stage of -our journey. Quite a respectable number of guests were gathered round -the circular table, the majority clad in the white cotton tunics -which are the summer uniform of the official class. - -A purée or thick soup was served, which I thought delicious, but -which brought a twinkle from the playful eye of the Duke. As each -successive dish of this dinner ŕ la Russe made its appearance a smile -came from across the table, or "Isn't it nasty?" or some even less -mildly deprecating words. I ventured to demur to his good-humoured -criticism and to submit that, if the French alone possessed the art of -cooking, the Russians succeeded, where the English failed signally, -in making things taste nice. The champagne came in for a particular -share of attention, having been produced by the Duke from his vineyards -at Kutais. My cousin let out the secret that we had already made its -acquaintance: that we had visited his cellars and had been greatly -interested in his enterprise, especially on the evening at the -hut of Zikari, when we had regaled ourselves with a bottle of his -sparkling wine. He now insisted on our taking a little case with us, -and promised it should be dry to suit what he said he knew to be our -taste. My companion on the left discussed the objects of our journey, -and was of opinion that we might succeed in reaching the slopes of -Ararat before the first snows commenced. I told him that we were also -anxious to study the condition of the country, and the conversation -turned upon the limitations which he said were imposed in India upon -foreigners travelling with similar aims. Can there be anything more -fatuous than such restrictions? We both agreed that it was perfectly -possible to guard against political intriguers and at the same time to -leave bona-fide travellers free. The Grand Duke spoke English like an -Englishman, and you could not have a more amiable host. We remarked -that his features resembled those of his cousin, the Duke of York, -of whom a portrait was placed on his writing-table together with the -photographs of other members of our Royal House. - -Two four-horsed posting carriages had been prepared for the drive to -Akhaltsykh, distant 16 1/2 miles. By four o'clock we had rejoined the -rest of our party and were leaving behind us the pleasant station of -Abastuman. We followed the tripping stream down the narrow valley, -the rocky and beetling sides studded with firs from foot to summit; -and from among them a ruined castle, ascribed as usual to Queen Thamar, -frowned out upon the passage which it controls. But we had not gone far -before a complete change came over the landscape; the valley opened, -distant prospects were disclosed. Before us lay the scenery which -is typical of Armenia and upon which our eyes had rested from the -summit of the Zikar Pass. Nature is seldom abrupt in her processes; -a transitional character invests the first slopes of the southern -watershed; the narrow belt of pine-clad ridges interrupts the contrast -between the luscious forests which cover the range on the side of -the Black Sea littoral and the barren highlands through which the -upper waters of the Kur descend. We had issued from those recesses, -and around us in a wide circle were unfolded the Armenian plains. The -view ranged over an open country, for the most part bare of vegetation, -and featured by a succession of convexities in the friable surface, -from the foreground of hummock and hill to the sweeping outlines of -the higher masses, changing colour and complexion with every change -in the sky. - -The ground was crumbling with excessive dryness; the soil is rich, -and would no doubt yield crops of great value were it cultivated on a -liberal scale. Yet all the cultivation we could see was of the nature -of little patches of yellow stubble or lightly ploughed land. It was -evident that the primitive methods of the East had not been superseded, -and that agriculture still partook of the precarious character which -is the outcome of centuries of political disturbance--the peasant -uncertain of reaping what he has sown. Stony tracts interrupted these -plots of reclamation, but in general the surface was apt for the -plough. The springs of life had been exhausted by the drought of an -Eastern summer; the fertile earth was bare as water, and transparent -tints of pink and ochre invested the landscape far and wide. A spirit -of vastness and loneliness breathed over the scene; the air was clear -and crisp and recalled the bracing climate of the Persian tablelands. - -Such characteristics were strange to some among our party, for only -my cousin and myself knew the interior of Asia and recognised in the -note which was now for the first time sounded the commencement of a -familiar theme. We pursued our way in silence, each absorbed by his -own reflections and all responsive to the same spell. Through the -bleak landscape wound the little river and stretched the white line -of the road. Here and there on the margin of the water or beyond the -irregular border of the pebble-strewn bed a little orchard or a patch -of garden planted with potatoes, formed a spot of verdure contrasting -with the hues around. [12] - -Where were the villages? For it seemed that there must be inhabitants -who had gathered this scanty harvest and ploughed the surface of -the darker soil. They select the slope of a hill or the rise of an -undulation; the door and front of their dwellings are alone visible, -the back is caverned into the shelving ground; you must pass close -to such a settlement and by daylight to notice the incidence of a -human element in the scene. We came upon four villages of this pattern -before the mid-way station was reached. They were peopled by Tartars, -who were occupied in threshing and winnowing the season's corn. The -husks were flying in the air and the bright cottons of men and women -fluttered in the breeze. - -Benara, the posting-house which supplied us with fresh horses, is -situated close to the bank of the stream, at no great distance above -the point where it joins the Koblian Chai, a river which collects the -drainage of the extreme north-western angle of the tableland. A little -below this junction the united waters receive a further affluent, -known as the Poskhov Chai, which gathers the streams from south-west -and south-east. Even at this season the three combined form a river -of fair size, flowing through the plain on an easterly course in a -bed of many channels, and joining the Kur after passing through the -town of Akhaltsykh. This river is usually called the Akhaltsykh Chai. - -Our road followed its course, taking an abrupt bend eastwards and -still faithful to the left bank. Some hillocks closed the view on the -north for a short space; then they flattened, and in that direction -the great plain rolled around us, bounded in the distance by hummock -hills. At intervals we caught a glimpse of the pine-clad ridges of the -border range, standing up on the horizon in the east. Behind us the -long-drawn outlines and bare slopes of the mountains of the tableland, -and towards the south the ground rising from the right bank of the -river to the summit-line of a mountain mass of this character which -has the hummock formation throughout. - -Massed battalions of Russian soldiers, it seemed a whole army corps, -were drawn up on the plain. We were passing a permanent camp with -pavilions and stationary cannon, and for some distance the ground -was dotted with white tents. A review was proceeding, and the dark -uniforms of the troops gave their columns the appearance of a series -of black blocks. A hymn was being sung; the stately music swelled -over the hushed scene. - -What a contrast between the landscape and such accidental incidents, -the Russian road, the Russian camp! On the road little piles of -stones heaped at regular intervals; but the country without a fence, -without boundaries or divisions, a mere expanse of rolling soil. - -The first town or larger village that we saw was Suflis, rising among -orchards from the right bank. It is backed by the bleak mountain -mass which the river skirts; the flat roofs, ranged in tiers, were -scarcely distinguishable from the shelving ground, but the vertical -lines of several minarets were seen from afar. Could you be shown a -more typical example of a tumble-down Eastern township? Yet you are -on the threshold of an important fortress and provincial centre where -modern appliances are in vogue.... Suflis passed, we approached more -closely to the river; the mass on our right broke off in cliffs to -the margin of the water, while on our left hand a low ridge, which -had the appearance of an outcrop of volcanic rock, stepped up to the -border of the stream. The road followed down the defile, skirting -huge boulders and overtowered by bold crags; until the heights on -our left were crowned with masonry, partly ruinous; and before us, -across the river, where the gorge opened, the cherry-coloured roofing -of the modern town of Akhaltsykh was outspread among gardens on the -level ground. A little further down we crossed a substantial bridge, -and, without entering the town, pitched our tents on the sand of the -river-bed. It was nearly seven o'clock, and night had fallen before -our camping operations were complete. - -From the Olympian eminence of the Grand Duke's circle at Abastuman and -from the steps of the Imperial throne, we came near to being hurled -forth at Akhaltsykh into the abyss of a Russian prison. The gods -must surely weep at the sorry manner in which their human ministers -interpret their laws. Day broke without any shadow of presentiment--a -fresh and breezy morning, the river rippling before us, and on -the opposite bank the ancient fortress edging the steep crags and -outlined on the luminous sky. The delicious sleep beneath a tent was -followed by an early bathe; the town was silent, but, as we made our -way up the margin of the current, a little village was discovered, -of which the feminine occupants were already descending the slope -with their many-shaped water-jars and divesting themselves of their -loose cottons to splash on the brink of the stream. A little later we -passed their hovels and recognised them as Armenians, and admired the -beauty of one among them, now busy with the routine of her household, -who with her arched eyebrows, aquiline nose, massive forehead, and -coal-black tresses reminded us of Biblical heroines. The fascination -of travel consists in its many-coloured contrasts; nothing ruffled the -composure of our mood of detachment as we left this peaceful scene -to explore a fresh hive of human beings with the easy confidence of -men to whom the land belongs. Our first visit was as usual to the -civil governor; he was to conduct us to the hive, remark upon the -peculiar qualities of the honey, and deferentially withdraw while we -pursued our own investigations into the mysteries of insect life. If -our attitude could be convicted of any element of such fatuous vanity, -the illusion was quickly and rudely dispelled. We were taken to a mean -structure on the southern outskirts of the town, which resembled wooden -boxes placed one above another, with broad wooden verandahs running -round. These balconies were indeed the distinguishing feature; and, -when we observed the groups of ill-miened loafers who loitered within -them, it was hard to believe that we were anywhere else but in Turkey -visiting a pasha at the Serai. After some palaver with the menials, -who were not disposed to excessive courtesy, it transpired that the -governor had left that very morning on a visit to Abastuman. We -asked to see his deputy, and were ushered into the presence of a -broad-shouldered official whose little eyes and cast of face were -essentially Russian, and who did not receive us with any excessive show -of warmth. Such is the manner of deputies all the world over--but our -disappointment turned to surprise when who should enter the apartment -but Wesson, closely escorted by a formidable individual whom we at -once recognised as a commissary of police! - -May I introduce the reader to Ivan Kuyumjibashoff, a personality -no less alarming than his name (Fig. 12), and may I take this early -opportunity to place him on his guard against the fallacy that the -Armenians are not a martial race? For this man was a pure Armenian, -in spite of the Russian termination of -off instead of -ean. Erzerum -was his native city; his family had emigrated to Russia, and during -the last war against the Turks Ivan had gained the cross of honour -for personal bravery in the field. At his side hung a sword of which -the scabbard and hilt were adorned with chased silver; the blade was -his special pride, being of ancient Khorasan workmanship, a trophy -from the Kurds. His features inspired fear; his skin of leather was -the result of exposure; but we had not yet learnt that, like all true -warriors who are not barbarians, the lion's fierceness was tempered -by the meekness of the lamb. A cloud settled over the face of the -deputy as the massive fist turned the handle of the door and the heavy -tread fell on the bare boards. Arrived at his side, Ivan whispered -something in his ear, and I ventured to ask what might be the business -of this man. The official replied that he was the emissary of Captain -Taranoffsky, the chief of the so-called gendarmerie, and that he had -been sent to conduct us to the presence of his superior, who would -personally explain the purport of his summons. I enquired whether -Colonel Alander was not the governor of Akhaltsykh, and his office -the seat of supreme power; I was answered that there was another and -separate jurisdiction which the governor did not control. The deputy -added with an agreeable humour that, should we be thrown into prison, -he would be powerless to take us out. Nothing therefore to be done -but to follow Ivan; and would that his master had been as capable -as himself! - -In these Armenian provinces of Russia the machinery of administration -is conducted by a handful of Russian officials through Armenians, -who are employed even in the higher grades. The Armenian is a man of -ancient culture and high natural capacity; neither the instinct nor the -quality would be claimed by his Russian superior, who is the instrument -of a system of government rather than a born ruler, and who in general -is lacking in those attributes of pliancy and individual initiative -which it is the tendency of rigid bureaucracies to destroy. Moreover -the Russian official gives the impression of being overwhelmed by his -system, like a child to whom his lessons are new; and, when you see him -at work among such a people as the Armenians, you ask yourself how it -has happened that a race with all the aptitudes are governed by such -wooden figures as these. There are of course notable exceptions to this -general statement, which resumes one's experience of the subordinate -officers rather than of those who are highest placed. Taranoffsky was -about as bad a specimen of his class as it has been my misfortune to -meet. A short man of portly figure, fat red face, and little eyes, he -had all the self-assertion which so often accompanies small stature, -all the unfriendliness which seems the almost necessary outcome of -a lack of physical grace. I at once perceived all the elements of -an unpleasant situation; nor were my apprehensions disproved by the -result. We were taken to a hotel, deprived of our papers and letters, -and placed under close police surveillance pending a decision as to -our future fate. The warmest pass of arms was that which took place -over our photographic negatives, which our persecutor peremptorily -required. I represented that many of the films were as yet undeveloped, -and was absolute in my refusal to give them up. On the other hand -I expressed myself anxious that he should see them developed in his -presence, for which purpose I begged him to prepare a dark room. I -forget whether he accepted this tempting proposal; the negatives -remained intact. Permission was given us to drive under escort to -the monastery of Safar, and the arrival that night or the following -morning of Colonel Alander appeared to alleviate the disfavour with -which we were viewed. Not that these two imperia work harmoniously -together! How can it be expected that they should? The political police -are particularly active in fortress towns such as Kars or Akhaltsykh; -but I understood from Ivan that they are pretty widely distributed -over the country, and that their functions extend to tracking down -Socialists and Nihilists, and in general to the diffusion of alarm -and annoyance far and wide. "How ugly is man!" has exclaimed a French -novelist; indeed how ugly at such moments he appears. - -If the morning was consumed by these unforeseen complications, the -afternoon held in store for the harried travellers a further contrast -and a rich reward. The monastery of Safar is situated a few miles -[13] south-east of Akhaltsykh on the lofty slopes of a volcanic ridge; -the drive thither displays the landscape of the town and surrounding -country, and the goal is a group of buildings, of which the principal -church is a gem of architecture, instinct with the graces that -adorn and elevate life. For awhile we followed down the right bank -of the river along the road toward Akhalkalaki and the east; then, -almost reversing direction, turned up a side track on the right hand, -which conducted us, always rising, across the bleak undulations at -the back of the modern town. Here and there the soil had been sown -and was yellow with stubble, or lay exposed in patches of plough; -but cultivation was only partial, and for many a mile not a village -could be discerned. Far and near, the surface of the earth was of a -hummocky nature, like sands modelled by children's spades. - -After jolting along this track for some distance, we again struck -a metalled road. It winds along the side of the ridge upon which -Safar is situated, and overlooks a deep ravine. The slope of the -ridge is clothed in places by a scanty growth of bush and dotted by -low trees; but the ravine and opposite hillside are bare and stony, -and the landscape is bleak and wild in the extreme. The only signs -of life and movement proceeded from a village of which the tenements -were built into that opposite slope. The peasants in their gay cottons -were threshing the season's harvest, and, as we returned, we saw them -transporting it in little carts, drawn by eight oxen apiece, from the -fields, where it had been left since the end of June in convenient -places, up to the village threshing-floors. We were surprised at the -evident prosperity of the occupants of this Georgian settlement; what -could be more quaint than women with white gloves and parasols who -dwelt in such hovels as those? We met several such groups on the road -and about the monastery, which was the goal of their afternoon's walk; -several families also, who had come from afar, were encamped at Safar, -at once a pilgrimage and a pleasant residence during the summer months. - -A similar practice no doubt prevailed with the powerful governors of -Upper Georgia, of that remote and extensive province of Semo-Karthli -which comprised the uppermost valleys of the Kur and Chorokh and -the mountains of Ajara to the Kolchian coast. Known under the -title of atabegs, they flourished in the fourteenth, fifteenth, -and sixteenth centuries, became independent of the kings of Georgia, -and were only suppressed at a late date by the Ottoman Turks. [14] -Here was their seat of predilection during the heats of summer, and, -except for the arid soil and crops of stones that cover the valleys, -one cannot but approve their choice. You are at a height of some -1000 feet above the town of Akhaltsykh; deep below you flows the -Kur, the river of Ardahan as they call it, on its way to pierce the -barrier of the border ranges by the passage of Borjom. On the side -of the ridge a narrow site, whence the ground declines abruptly to -the abyss below, is filled by a cluster of little chapels, backed, -at the extreme end, by an imposing church. I wish I could offer my -reader an ampler description; but just at this point I am trusting -entirely to my memory and bewailing the loss of a portion of the day's -notes. Counting the chapels, they would tell you that the monastery -contained twelve churches, while according to our notions it possesses -only one. That one is St. Saba, of which I offer two illustrations, -one to present the ensemble of the building with the adjacent belfry -(Fig. 13), the other to exhibit the charming detail of the porch on -the west (Fig. 14). - -In a treeless country, devoid of the rich bewilderment of a luxuriant -Nature, and moulded on a scale which would mock the more ambitious -creations of human effort and is everywhere present to the eye, -such a jewel in stone as St. Saba and many another Armenian temple -are seen at an advantage which they would scarcely possess in Western -landscapes. Planted on the rough hillsides, overlooking vast expanses -of plain and mountain, winding river and lonely lake, they offer -at once a contrast to the bleakness of Nature and a quiet epitome -of her startling forms. Take this church as an example of the most -finished workmanship; what a pleasure to turn from the endless crop of -chaotic boulders to the even surface of these walls of faced masonry -which the dry climate preserves ever fresh, to the sharply chiselled -stone-work of the elaborate mouldings and bands of arabesques! Or, -if you extend the vision to comprise the distant scene about you, it -will often happen that the mountain masses tower one above another -like the roofs and gables by your side, and culminate in the shape -of a dome with a conical summit which repeats these outlines, like -a reflection, against the sky. - -St. Saba, although created through the munificence of a Georgian -atabeg, is probably the work of an Armenian architect, and may -certainly be counted as an example of the Armenian style. If we may -trust a mutilated inscription in the interior, which has been in part -deciphered by Brosset, the present church was built by the Atabeg -Sargis, the son of Beka, who flourished between 1306 and 1334; and, -if we could only be certain of the signification of the four numeral -letters which are plainly seen on the face of the wall at one side -of the window of the western porch, we should perhaps be able to fix -the exact date. Dubois, indeed, supposes that it was constructed -by Manuchar, brother of the last of the atabegs, Kuarkuareh, who -fought with such valour against the Turks. But Dubois is relying -upon what he terms "constant tradition," and Brosset cautions us -against accepting anything that he has written about Safar. One would -certainly not have thought that such a well-instructed traveller, as -was Dubois, could have mistaken a monument of the fourteenth century -for a production of the later years of the sixteenth; and personally -I should be inclined to attribute the edifice to a period at least -as early as the fourteenth century. [15] - -August 30.--The Tartar who had accompanied us on the excursion to -Safar had fired my cousin with an account of some stag and big game -shooting which was to be found some four hours' journey from the -town. According to arrangement he made his appearance in the early -morning, and found my cousin already prepared. I had resolved to devote -the day to the town and outskirts, should our persecutors leave me -free. But I had no sooner reached the bridge from our encampment on -the bed of the river, in order to see my cousin on his way, than the -plans of both of us were arrested by the advent of Ivan the Terrible, -who rose from the cushions of a landau and summoned us to be seated at -his side. I need not devote space to a repetition of fresh annoyances, -since they had already almost reached their term. Was the departure of -Colonel Alander connected with our arrival, and had he gone to satisfy -himself about us at Abastuman? When at length we were able to see him -he greeted us kindly, and furnished me with all the information of -which I was in want. Let me therefore at once introduce the reader -to the town of Akhaltsykh and to the people who dwell therein. - -The view of the place which I offer (Fig. 15) was taken on the road -to Akhalkalaki from the right bank of the river, some distance below -the bridge. Within the precincts of the town the camera was strictly -interdicted, although, since our tents were pitched just opposite the -fortress, we might well have sketched that old-fashioned stronghold -from memory when the canvas was closed for the night. The river is -flowing towards you through grassy meadows, which are verdant even -at this season, and which are being browsed by flocks of sheep and -goats. On the right bank, on the left of the picture, and stretching -across the middle distance to a promontory which is washed by the -stream, lies the modern town with its gardens and substantial houses -(Fig. 15, a); on the opposite shore, following the cliff from the -extreme right of the illustration, you have first the old town (b), -then the fortress (c), and last the gorge (d). - -The inhabitants of Akhaltsykh are censused at 15,000--at the time -of our visit the registered figure was 15,120, although the latest -tabulated statistics which Colonel Alander was able to show me gave -a total of 15,914 for 1891. This total was divided in the following -manner, according to religion and race: Gregorian Armenians, 9620; -Catholic Armenians, 2875; Georgians and Russians, excluding the -garrison, 782; Roman Catholics, 97; and 2540 Jews. I cannot help -thinking that the proportion of Armenians is excessive, and that -the governor has included among those of the Catholic persuasion a -considerable number of Armenian Catholics who are of Georgian race. At -Kutais I had been informed by a Roman Catholic priest that I should -find among the communion of the Armenian Catholics at Akhaltsykh many -Georgians whose ancestors had been devout Catholics and had become -united to the Armenian Catholics, as the nearest Catholic Church, -when the Georgian Church followed the Greek in cutting off relations -with Rome. The Georgian kings forbade them to hold their services in -Georgian, which had been their practice previously. These men were no -doubt the converts of the old Roman Catholic missions; it is known that -at the commencement of the thirteenth century the kings of Georgia were -in correspondence with the popes, and that these communications and the -despatch of missionaries to Georgia were continued in the following -century. [16] The published statistics of 1886 give the number of -Georgians as 2730 souls, and evidently include the large majority of -them among the Roman Catholics. It is therefore probable that both -lists fall into error, and that of the two the published table is the -more reliable in all that concerns distinction of race. I append it in -a footnote, [17] and have only to add in this connection that in both -lists the number of males exceeds that of females, and that for this -reason the totals are in general too small. In Colonel Alander's list -the male population amounts to 8335, in the published list to 8480 -souls. The women must be at least as numerous as the men, although, -owing to Eastern prejudices, they are much more difficult to count. - -In several senses the town of Akhaltsykh has undergone a revolution -during the course of the present century. At the commencement of -this period we are introduced to a flourishing city of the Ottoman -Empire, the capital of a pashalik, which was composed of six -sanjaks or administrative divisions, [18] in close communication -with the neighbouring cities of Kars and Erzerum and the emporium -of an extensive traffic in Georgian slaves. [19] At this time it is -said to have contained some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom the greater -portion were Mussulmans. [20] The site of the city was the same as -that of the old town of the present day, but the houses extended to -the immediate confines of the citadel. The whole was defended by moats -and a double row of walls with battlements and flanking towers. The -right bank of the river was embellished by numerous gardens, but there -does not appear to have been anything like a town upon this side. The -citadel was remarkable for its beautiful mosque, with an imposing -minaret more than 130 feet high. This minaret, like the mosque, -was built of blocks of hewn stone; and, so solid was its structure, -that it suffered little damage during the Russian bombardment, -although hit by no less than seven cannon balls. Such was Akhaltsykh -prior to its conquest by the Russians under Paskevich in 1828. [21] -The conquerors introduced far-reaching changes, of which the evidence -remains to the present time. They razed a portion of the town in the -vicinity of the fortress, which had furnished cover to the Turks in -the desperate attempt which they subsequently made to recapture their -old stronghold. The outer walls of the city were either demolished -or fell into ruin and disappeared. The mosque of the citadel was -converted into a Russian church and shorn of its minaret. [22] A -new town was founded on the right bank of the river and assigned to -Armenian colonists. The Mussulman population emigrated into Turkey; -and Akhaltsykh, which received a large body of Armenian immigrants -from Kars and Erzerum, became practically a Christian town. The native -inhabitants who were Christians erected belfries near their churches -and heard with joy the sound of Christian bells. But it would seem that -no great measure of prosperity attended this new birth. The immigrants -were bent on doing business and opening shops; only those among them -who were agriculturists did well. Commerce declined owing to the -inclusion of the town within the frontier line of the Russian customs -and the consequent interruption of relations with the neighbouring -cities in the south. The traffic in slaves was, of course, abolished, -and no considerable industry took its place. Akhaltsykh was shut up -in her corner of Asia; for the impracticable barrier of the border -ranges walls her off from the sea. Still the fact that the place was -a frontier fortress of the Russian Empire must have been productive of -at least a local trade. In 1833 the population appears to have numbered -only 11,000 souls; [23] but it probably increased from that date, year -by year. When Kars came into the permanent possession of the Russians, -the newly-acquired fortress in part supplanted Akhaltsykh; and the -progressive decline of the Turkish Empire has further contributed to -relieve the Government of the necessity of providing the last-named -stronghold with modern fortifications. At the time of my visit it -was evident that the town was declining and losing importance year by -year. I questioned several of the better-informed among the inhabitants -as to the cause of this unhappy state of things. "You have long enjoyed -the blessings of security," I observed, "both for property and life; -yet in place of a steadily increasing prosperity I see nothing but -signs of impoverishment and falling-off." As usual in the East, I -received several answers; but all were unanimous in declaring that -the principal reason was the depopulation of the surrounding country, -owing to the persistent emigration of the Mussulmans and the want -of colonists to take their place. Another cause, they said, was the -decline in military importance to which I have already referred. - -The modern town on the right bank was nearest to our encampment; -may I therefore commence the account of what we saw at Akhaltsykh -with a stroll through its garden-lined streets? The houses are nice -little one-storeyed dwellings, some built of brick, others of stone. A -feature were the quaint little spouts to carry off the rain-water, -shaped at the ends to resemble dragons' heads. I have already spoken -of the "cherry-coloured roofing"--an effect which we discovered -was due to no more interesting process than a coat of paint applied -to corrugated iron. In a similar manner the roof of a church would -be tinted a cool green, and the combination of these hues with the -rich foliage was extremely pleasing to the eye. Where the scattered -tenements collect together and you reach the business quarter, here -and there a modern shop may be seen; but the handicrafts for which -Akhaltsykh is in some degree famous are still carried on in those -brick-built booths with their shadowed recesses which constitute -the little world of the Eastern artificer, at once his workshop and -the mart for his wares. We examined some of the productions of the -workers in silver without being tempted to buy. We were made aware -of the existence of a silk industry for which the raw material is -brought from Georgia. We visited the schools and conversed with the -masters; but the scholars were making holiday. Akhaltsykh possesses -two important schools, the one belonging to the Armenian community, -the other a Russian State school. That of the Armenians provides -education to some 300 boys and youths, and to a still larger number -of girls. Both the Gregorian Armenians and the Catholics attend -this establishment; religious instruction is imparted to the members -of either communion by teachers of their own persuasion in separate -classes. We were told that the yearly income amounted to 14,000 roubles -(Ł1400), exclusive of what was received from the girls; and that this -sum included the receipts of the theatre which is attached to this -enterprising school. The Russian institution boasts of 300 scholars, -of whom 75 per cent are Armenians; it does not possess a branch -for girls. On the other hand, it indulges in the modern fashion of -technical instruction, a side which does not appear to be cultivated -in the Armenian school. Its staff consists of fifteen teachers; a fee -of twelve roubles (Ł1:4s.) a year is levied, but many poor pupils are -admitted free. A few boarders are received, whose parents live at a -distance; and I may here remark that, except in cases which I shall -endeavour to specify, all the schools of which I shall make mention -in the following pages are practically day-schools. We were taken to -see the churches--commonplace edifices--of which the Armenians, with -so many examples of noble architecture about them, ought really to be -ashamed. The largest of them is called the cathedral, and belongs to -the Gregorians; there is also, not far from it, an Armenian Catholic -church. West of the cathedral on the hillside--it appears in my -illustration--we were shown a second church belonging to the Gregorian -community; but I do not remember its name. It was at Akhaltsykh that -we were first impressed by the custom of the Armenians to kiss the -ground when they face the altar in prayer. Such abject prostration in -the dust we had never before witnessed in any Christian church. It was -Oriental; it was pathetic--the gesture of a poor raya at the feet of -his savage lord.... Last of all we were shown the Court of Justice, -where a resident magistrate and visiting judges from Tiflis dispense -the law behind a barrier of baize-covered tables beneath a life-size -portrait of the Tsar. And that is what we saw of the modern town of -Akhaltsykh; I doubt whether there is much more to be seen. - -The old town on the left bank presents a striking contrast to its -young rival across the water. You gain the bridge and pause for a -moment to follow the many-channelled river threading the banks of -yellow pebbles in its bed; flowing through a landscape of wild and -bare hills, which streams with the garish daylight of the East. The -road mounts the slope of the opposite cliff or convexity, which, a -little further west, joins the more abrupt ridge of crag and precipice -crowned by the battlements of the fortress. In this cliff, with its -swelling shapes, soft soil and irregular hummocks, the Armenians have -discovered a burrowing-ground exactly suited to their requirements; -the gaping apertures of chimneys and windows threaten to engulf -the guileless traveller who walks, unwitting, between the houses up -the hillside. No vegetation relieves the monotony of the constant -hues of ochre, and the tiers of clay and stone which represent the -larger tenements mingle naturally with the stone-strewn surface of -the friable earth. We saw two churches; one is administered by the -Armenian Catholics, the other, which is situated a little above the -first, is a Russian Orthodox church. Besides these larger buildings -there are two chapels or prayer-houses, which scarcely attain the -dignity of a church. These belong to the Gregorians, and we were told -that the Roman Catholics have a small chapel within the precincts -of the old town. But what interested us most was the Jewish quarter -with its two spacious synagogues. We admired the simplicity of these -airy chambers--in the middle the pulpit, the benches disposed around; -and we pictured to ourselves the eager faces of the congregation, -upturned from those benches to the grave preacher and mobile to -every turn of his discourse. The Jew is a rare creature upon the -tableland of Armenia; he finds it difficult to exist by the side -of the Armenian, who is his rival in his own peculiar sphere. [24] -There is a saying that in cleverness a Jew is equal to two Greeks, -a single Armenian to two Jews. - -The community gathered round us and almost filled the synagogue, in -which we sat and rested for a considerable space. Two distinct types of -physiognomy were represented; on the one hand the fat, florid cheeks -and thick lips which are so characteristic of the coarser strain of -Jew, on the other the cavernous features, wrinkled skin, aquiline nose -and penetrating eyes which are the monument of the ancient refinement -of the Jewish race. When we contrasted the destitution and even the -misery of this quarter with the air of prosperity which the synagogue -displayed, it was evident that the community were undergoing a period -of adversity, and we enquired the reasons of this decline. They -attributed their fallen state to the competition of the Armenians; -the Armenians, they said, were good workers and a great people, -the Jews few in numbers and isolated. There was nothing left for the -poor Jew but to tramp round the villages, carrying his goods upon his -back. They must emigrate, they were emigrating.... Alas! we thought, to -what distant land across the mountains, across the sea, shall the poor -Jew wander out? How shall he escape the dangers of the way, with the -hand of the Government against him, with hatred and contempt dogging -his weary steps? And the Christianity by our side appeared detestable -to us, doubly odious by its want of every Christian virtue and by the -mummery of its gaudy symbols and vulgar shows. The Jew carries with -him the vastness of Asia, the sublimity of the worship of a single -God; may the nations be fertilised by the powerful intellect and -their religions elevated by the high conceptions of the Hebrew race! - -The fortress, with which the old town naturally communicates, was to -us strictly forbidden ground. Although I urged its worthlessness as -a reason why we should be permitted to visit it, Captain Taranoffsky -would on no account give way. The mosque, the present church, to which -I have already alluded, was of course all that we wanted to see. It -stands on the northern side of the fortress enclosure; the base of -the minaret still remains and is crowned by a little cupola to which -is affixed a cross. An inscription on the gate by which the court -is entered gives as the date of construction the year of the Hegira -1166 (A.D. 1752-53). [25] Dubois informs us that the architect was -an Italian; [26] but Brosset, who says that it was built upon the -model of St. Sophia, is silent upon this point. For the character -of the interior as it existed before the Russian occupation I may -refer the reader to Dubois. The fountain in the centre of the court -is supplied by an underground aqueduct which conveys the waters of -a limpid spring, some seven miles off. [27] - -From the old town we slowly made our way back to the encampment, -enjoying the scene, observing the passers-by. Here and there we would -meet a group of Russian soldiers in their white tunics, taking their -evening stroll. Their large frames, fair hair, shaven faces and coarse -features contrasted with the neatness of the Oriental type. Their -little eyes, deeply set behind the flat nose, were answered on every -side by the glances that proceeded from the large and lustrous eyes -of the Armenian race. The sheep and cattle were winding into the town -from the meadows, each animal finding its stable for itself. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -TO AKHALKALAKI - - -The distance by road between Akhaltsykh and Akhalkalaki is 66 versts, -or nearly 44 miles. The post divides the journey into four stages, -of which the shortest is 9, the longest 12 miles. The charges, which, -I think, were uniform, whenever we were able to avail ourselves of -posting facilities, were three kopeks or farthings per verst for each -horse supplied, and twelve kopeks for the carriage between each two -stations, said to be a charge for greasing the wheels. In addition, -a tax of ten kopeks for the whole journey is levied upon each horse, -the proceeds of which are due to Government by the contractors who -supply the teams. A victoria may be procured in the larger centres, -and for this luxury there is, I believe, no extra charge. Four horses -will usually be harnessed to it abreast, and an equal number to the -luggage cart. - -August 31.--At ten o'clock we left Akhaltsykh on our journey southwards -and followed the tripping river on the right bank. It was the same -road we had taken for a short distance on our way to Safar, the same -aspect of the picturesque site of the town (Fig. 15). Between us and -the stream lay the stretch of meadow where the sheep and cattle of -the townspeople browse--a grassy plain set in the barren landscape, -a rare incident in an Eastern scene. Beyond the water the ground rose -in gentle undulations of bank and hummock and hill, the parched and -friable surface yellow with stubble or with the exhausted growth of -weeds. In the background, some five miles distant, stretched the -spurs of the border ranges, scantily wooded along the summits and -upon the slopes. On our other hand, towards the south, all prospect -was excluded by barren hummocks of crumbling soil. - -We had covered about 2 1/2 miles, when before us lay the junction of -the rivers, of the river of Akhaltsykh with the Kur or Ardahan river, -for it is known under both names. From their nearer margins to our -road extended a stretch of alluvial ground, filling the angle between -the two streams. Their further banks are high, and are bordered by -hummock hills, a feature most pronounced on the bank of the Kur. The -united waters break through the soft hummocks and become engulfed -in the rocky barrier of the border ranges--a bold and lofty wall of -mountain, partially covered with wood. In the hollow is situated a -village with trees and pleasant verdure, an oasis in the sterile -landscape around. We were told that its name was Tsinis and that -it was inhabited by Mussulmans; beyond it, through the glasses, -we discerned the road to Tiflis entering the jaws of the gorge. - -Skirting the barren convexities which closed the view on our right -hand, and upon slightly higher ground, we gained the left bank of the -Kur and proceeded along it for a short space up stream. Leaving on our -right a small Armenian village, we then descended to the river-bed; -strips of vegetables had been planted along the water, which is here -crossed by a strong wooden bridge. The stream was flowing towards us, -newly escaped from the narrows, where it is confined by rocky cliffs -of forbidding aspect, harbouring a scanty growth of stunted bush. A -few poplars lined its immediate margin, and a slender fringe of -green. It had a width of some 30 yards at the mouth of the passage, -a rapid current, charged with soil and tawny, which divides into -several channels and forms a broad and pebbly bed as it issues upon -the open plain. After crossing the bridge to the right bank, we passed -a Mussulman village where the women were sifting the season's grain. - -Our course for the rest of the day lay on this bank of the river; -the road leaves the plain and dives into the narrows, where walls of -rock enclose the swirling stream. The Kur is following the base of -the border ranges, piercing the spurs where they meet the outskirts -of the Dochus Punar. In places it has a width of some 50 yards or -more, and the eye cannot penetrate the dull depths; but more often -it is a narrow and shallow torrent, wreathing and foaming over the -rocks. On the left bank, as we passed a break in the mountains, it -is joined by the clearer waters of a little tributary, the Uravel, -which wound below us at Safar. - -The weather was delightful; a cool air, a brilliant sun, a few -white clouds floating in the blue. Eagles, a small species, circled -against the heaven or alighted on grisly crags. The sides of these -low mountains are composed of a lava, dry and barren, which in -places is disposed in layers of conglomerate, like the masonry of a -Cyclopean wall. We passed the seventh verst-stone from Akhaltsykh, -having covered over 4 1/2 miles. A short space further and we were -opposite a Georgian village, placed on the hillside of the left bank. - -Between the thirteenth and sixteenth verst-stones (8 1/2 and 10 1/2 -miles) the range opens, and is seen, beyond a plain of about half a -mile in width, pursuing a direction from south-east towards north-west -on the right bank. On our left hand we passed a few miserable houses -which, we ascertained, were inhabited by Kurds. We entered a country of -bleak hummocks, where barren and yellow hills closed the view. Among -such surroundings lies the posting station of Rustav, 18 versts or -12 miles along our road. By half-past twelve o'clock we had changed -horses, having arrived a quarter of an hour before. - -The characteristics of the landscape between Rustav and Khertvis -may be summarised in a few words. For awhile the bare, low mountains -again border the river on either side, at no great distance from the -shore. But they tend to circle in amphitheatres and to leave a respite -of even ground. Little rills descend from the heights above the valleys -and give birth to verdure and shade. The further we proceed, these -oases increase in extent, enhancing the contrast between sterile, -lonely walls of rock, and luscious gardens where bright birds flit -through the scene. - -Thus on the left bank, shortly after leaving Rustav, the eye was -greeted by such welcome relief. A high ridge of grey rock descended -to the river, but rich verdure clothed its base. The lower slopes -were terraced with plantations of Indian corn, and among the stubble -herds of heifers grazed the sweet herbs. Rivulets started from the -very summit, where a grove of trees was outlined on the sky. The -falling water was diffused into a network of tiny channels, which fed -the fertile earth. Such were the outskirts of a Mussulman village, -of which the name is Gobet. The foreground, on our side of the river, -was strewn with boulders of volcanic rock. Large lizards darted from -cranny to cranny, and brilliant birds with blue breasts and yellow -collars took wing at our approach. - -The note, thus early sounded, attained increasing volume in the -valleys of Akhashen, of Aspinja and of Khertvis. The first is situated -some five miles from Rustav, and takes its name from a Mussulman -village on the left bank. [28] Akhashen is a characteristic Eastern -village; the tenements are built in terraces up the slope, scarcely -distinguished from the soil. We admired the bold site and pleasant -setting of garden; at our feet, in the fuller light of this open -circus, the Kur sent flashes of blue, reflecting the bright zenith, -from the transparent surface of its yellow stream. On our left hand -we recognised the familiar outline of the border ranges stretching -away from south to north. - -Next, Aspinja lay before us, an open valley, a bower of trees, water -trickling from the hillside and collected in little channels which -seamed the floor of fertile earth. [29] We were skirting the gardens -of two Mussulman villages, and some of the inhabitants happened to -pass by. They looked unhappy; we spoke to one of their number and -elicited the usual quantity of doubtful truths. It is certain that -all the Mussulmans of the Kur valley are discontented; and these two -communities were preparing to emigrate. Mention was made to us of a -recent ordinance of the Russian Government under which they would be -required to serve in the Russian army, and perhaps to fight against -the forces of Islam. [30] Aspinja, which we soon reached, is also -inhabited by Mussulmans. The slopes above the village are planted with -orchards, and every corner of the little plain is cultivated. Indian -corn, tobacco and the stubble of cereals were on all sides present to -the eye. It is some distance beyond the oasis to the posting station, -a stage of 16 versts (10 1/2 miles) from Rustav. - -It was nearly three o'clock when we arrived at this station; luscious -water-melons grew in the little garden and relieved the dulness -of our mid-day meal. But the smiling landscape lay behind us, long -out-distanced; and we were again in the fork of a barren gorge. Low -ridges break off to the river in rocky cliffs, which descend to -a narrow margin of level ground. From the valley of Aspinja these -uninteresting walls are continued to the outskirts of Khertvis. - -Such was the monotonous scene through which the Russian road wound -during the course of our afternoon's drive. Beside us raced the river; -we faced the current; at short intervals large, loose stones were -disposed in the shape of circles in the shallows at no great distance -from the shore. We were told that in winter fish are caught within -these circles by means of traps placed at opposite sides. In summer the -Georgian fisherman trusts to his casting-net, a laborious process which -was being pursued by one of the fraternity for the reward of a few -small fish. On the opposite bank we were impressed by the proportions -of a cliff of lava, of which the face was disposed throughout in -spheroidal blocks rising immediately from the water's edge. - -At last the landscape opened, the most extensive of these oases, -the fertile valley of Khertvis. It is heralded from afar by a line -of orchards and by gardens terraced up the slope. A well-planned and -elaborate system of aqueducts and channels dispense water on every -side. Then the road rises up a hillside and commands a startling -scene. Below you, crowning a crag at the confluence of two rivers, -a well-preserved example of a medićval castle on a large scale lifts -its towers against a background of lofty cliffs (Fig. 16). A village -cowers at the foot of the fortress, almost hidden by dense trees. Such -is the castle and township of Khertvis, situated at the junction of -the river of Akhalkalaki with the Kur. The road follows the right -bank of the first of these streams, and the station is some distance -from the town. We were obliged to leave the carriage and entrust our -effects to the villagers, who carried them down the steep sides of the -high cliff. It was six o'clock; we crossed the river of Akhalkalaki -by a little footbridge, and pitched our tents on the floor of a shady -garden, not far from the margin of the Kur. - -A motley group of people collected about us; of what race, of what -faith? Mussulmans! We expected and received the answer, although there -was little except our knowledge of the checkered history of these -valleys to indicate their adhesion to Islam. The owner of the garden -bore the name of Bin Ali Bey Vishnadzi, and was of mixed Georgian and -Turkish blood; he stands in the centre of my illustration, in Cossack -dress, with his cap on one side (Fig. 17). His cast of countenance is -Georgian, and the hair is somewhat fair; yet his uncle, Hasan Bey, -has the Turkish type. His mixed ancestry is no exception among the -villagers, and they all call themselves Turks. Their number was given -to me as 1500, with 200 houses; the Russian census, which classes them -as Georgians, bears out these figures as approximately correct. [31] -Among them are a handful of Armenian Christians; the old man with a -staff, seated in the foreground of my picture, was our guide from the -road to our pleasant camping-ground, and belonged to the Armenian race. - -If reliance can be placed on the figure given by Dubois, the population -of Khertvis has almost doubled since 1833. [32] However this may be, -the township is now in full decline; misery was written in the faces -of a great part of the inhabitants, of whom many were preparing -to leave Russian soil. As we passed through the streets, between -the tumble-down houses, we observed that some of the shops had been -permanently closed. Is it their unfitness to flourish under systematic -government? Or the policy of the Russian Government to discourage -Mussulmans, with their Turkish sympathies, or some special causes -which we were unable to ascertain? Our stay was too short to sift fact -from fable; and a rigid reticence was observed by the leading people, -who were evidently under the influence of fear. [33] - -The river of Akhalkalaki, or the Toporovan river, as it is sometimes -called, enters the valley from a little north of east. It appeared to -us to contain as much water as the Kur, into which it swirled. [34] -The united streams for a short space pursue a westerly direction until -they settle to a normal course towards the north. The affluent washes -the northern side of the castled rock, which protects a tongue of -alluvial ground at its southern base. On this land is situated the -little township, embowered in leafy groves. The castle dates from a -remote period; and even the present structure is ancient, although -it belongs to different epochs. The citadel with the little chapel, -occupying the summit of the perpendicular rock, is a work of the -middle of the fourteenth century, when the Georgian atabegs were the -lords of the land; the remaining portion, with its several towers, -is more modern. [35] We ourselves were unable to visit the edifice, -which we were never tired of admiring from the river-bed. Behind -it soar the walls of volcanic material, where the younger have been -forced through the older lavas and have produced fantastic contortions -of the rocks. [36] - -September 1.--From Khertvis we made an excursion up the valley of -the Kur to the crypts of Vardzia, situated on the left bank, some -nine miles above the confluence with the Toporovan. For the greater -part of the journey, which is performed on ponies, you follow the -right bank of the river, along a path which in many places becomes a -mere track. We had soon left the shady groves behind us, our clever -little ponies often obliged to pick their footsteps, where an outcrop -of rock or blocks of fallen stone obstructed the margin of level -ground. On either bank, beyond this margin, high hills enclose the -narrow valley; here and there with naked crags, more generally with -stone-strewn slopes, harbouring a scanty growth of parched grass. No -oasis, not a sign of a human being, no visible animal life. The -landscape streaming with light, and the brawling Kur breaking over -the boulders which encumber its bed. But the climate was delicious, -and the blue zenith was flaked with luminous cloud. - -After over an hour's ride in this confined valley, we reached the -ruins of a fort, or small castle, and issued upon more open ground. The -valley expands on the right bank of the river in an irregular series of -hill and dale. We passed the rush-grown banks of a little lake, so blue -and clear that it lay like a jewel on the waste. It is called Sülük, -or lake of leeches; and Hasan Bey, our guide, told us that leeches -abound. In a hollow on the further side of this lake we came upon the -gardens of the Mussulman village of Margistan. Beyond this oasis, and -beyond the open ground about us, we could see the valley contracting, -the river flowing through a gorge, overhung by perpendicular cliffs; -and we were shown our path climbing the side of the cliff and entering -the jaws of the gorge. - -We had crossed or skirted the volcanic circus, with the lake in -the extinct crater, of which Dubois has furnished us with a learned -account. [37] Before us lay the defile through the gigantic dam of -volcanic mountain which has opened, as if by miracle, to the puny -stream. - -Soon we are winding along that path, about at mid-height of the cliffs, -the river brawling far beneath us, a tortuous thread of foam. It is a -remarkable scene, a freak of Nature on a large scale, of which none of -us, at least, has seen the like. The volcanic layers have been split -by vertical fissures, and huge masses of conglomerate rock tower high -above us, almost separated from the mountain side. Their masonry -of cemented blocks gives them the appearance of castles, the work -of a more than human hand; they threaten to tumble headlong into the -valley, a fate to which some have already succumbed. They remind me of -the Devil's city of Montpellier-le-Vieux, in the Cevennes country--a -mere sprite's village by their side. The dark colour of the rocks, -the gloom of the passage, the height of the cliffs, soaring from the -twilight in the hollow to jagged summits some 500 to 600 feet above -the gulf, all contribute to enhance the impression of mystery and to -suggest the presence of a prince of fiends. - -Opposite us, on the left bank, the bold outline of the fish-backed -ridge is crowned with the ruinous remains of masonry, barely -distinguished from the rock. A long line of crumbling edifices -marks the site of a considerable fortress; in the depths beneath, -at the foot of the perpendicular mountain, a wall descends the last -slope to the margin of the water and cuts off access to the valley -from the river-bed. A few miserable huts are seen in the hollow: -who could inhabit such a weird and lonely spot? Kurds, they say, -as though they were no human beings--a lingering remnant of Turkish -times. The ruins are the relics of Zeda Tmogvi, a stronghold famous -in the history of these lands. [38] - -Beyond this gorge the valley opens and resumes the more normal -character of a torrent bordered by lofty hillsides. The further you -proceed, the floor of the hollow is covered by richer verdure, while -a grove of fruit trees spreads shade. Are they wild or were they -planted? The extreme loneliness of the scene was scarcely broken by -a sign of human life. We forded the Kur, and, after winding through -these orchards of the river margin, doubled a projecting spur of -the valley wall. We were at the foot of a perpendicular cliff which -displayed irregular rows of gaping caves at a considerable height above -the river-bed. These grottoes have been cut in the face of a layer -of volcanic rock of extraordinary smoothness and of flesh-coloured -hue. The layer does not extend to the summit of the cliff, which is -composed of a conglomerate with greyish tints (Fig. 18). - -It was Vardzia, a troglodyte city of a remote antiquity, which the -Georgians and Armenians believe to have been founded in the twelfth -century by the father of Queen Thamar, and to have been completed by -that princess. They say it was a favourite residence of Thamar; you -are shown the cave in which she resided during winter, the terrace -where she spent the summer days, the chapel where her brilliant -court assembled, even, it is affirmed, the tomb where her remains -were placed. This last object had evidently escaped the knowledge -of the resident priest, although Dubois has sought to establish -its identity with a curious structure which he found in the little -sacristy on the inner side of the church. [39] Vardzia is, in fact, -the city of Thamar, just as every castle in Georgia is the castle of -Thamar and every antiquity a relic of the great queen. - -We picked our way among the boulders up the steep side of the cliff -until it became a perpendicular wall. There commence the irregular -horizontal rows of caves, stretching eastwards, where the escarpments -are most abrupt. A narrow path ends at a polygonal structure of -which the roof has fallen off. This edifice is either modern or has -been extensively restored; it forms a gateway and seals the approach -to the caves. The gate passed, you stand on a level footway, partly -hollowed in the rock and partly supported by rude masonry, which takes -advantage of the inequalities of the cliff-side. In the steepest places -this footway is tunnelled through the rock, and it can, of course, -be barricaded at any point. Thus it would appear that Vardzia is -inaccessible to siege, at least by any of the usual means. But one -remembers that Timur employed an ingenious contrivance to reduce the -Georgians, when they fled to their caves. From the heights above -he suspended wooden stages, from which his warriors leapt into -the crowded grottoes or scattered fire among the panic-stricken -foe. Vardzia itself is said to have been taken by this conqueror, -by what methods I do not know. - -We were met by an old archimandrite and his deacon, the only -inhabitants of this long-deserted place (Fig. 19). They are supported -by the occasional contributions of pilgrims, who visit the church in -great numbers at certain times. Both were sunk to an equal degree in -abysmal ignorance, and the deacon was so shy in manner and movement, -he seemed a half-tamed creature of the rocks. I asked them the meaning -of the name Vardzia, which, according to Dubois, signifies, both in -Georgian and Armenian, the fortress of the roses. They derived it from -zia, which means uncle, and vard, I am here. They stoutly maintained -this extraordinary derivation, in face of the doubt which we displayed. - -We passed along the footway for some distance, with grottoes above us -and beneath. Then we came to an imposing vaulted balcony, of which the -inner side and roof are hollowed in the rock, and the other parts are -built up with masonry. The footway forms the floor of this balcony, -which looks important when seen from below. The vaulted ceiling is -adorned with old frescos, which are in a state of advanced decay. A -doorway opens from the inner wall to a spacious cave--an oblong area -with an arched roof, disposed in the familiar shape of a simple nave -and apse. This church has a length of 46 feet 3 inches and a breadth -of 27 feet. For decoration it depends upon richly-coloured frescos, -some of which may still be seen. In the apse are depicted Mary and -the infant Christ; on the Virgin's right is placed a female aureoled -figure, clad in white and with embroidered bands. On a pilaster, left -of the apse, you discern the features of a woman whose dark complexion -impresses the eye. It seems an Egyptian type; she has been honoured -with an aureole; the old priest declared the portrait to be Queen -Thamar's, but he was almost certainly in error. In the panel of the -arch, which lies beyond, a king and queen are represented, aureoled, -their hands extended towards a stage upon which are seated the Virgin -and Child. An angel is flying towards the Virgin, bearing an object -the nature of which we were unable to ascertain. A passage leads from -the church to an adjoining chamber, in which the articles of value -are preserved. Dubois informs us that above this church, and as it -were a second storey, a second temple has been hewn of equal size. A -subterranean passage connects it with the sacristy; and this same -passage tunnels the cliff and debouches at the caves where the wine of -the city was made and stored, and which are situated in an adjoining -gorge. Dubois, who discovered this passage, found it blocked with -débris and in disuse; its existence was not mentioned to ourselves. - -Beyond the church we were taken to the apartments of Queen Thamar, -which are situated further to the east. On our way we were shown a -cave which must have served as a bath-chamber; an oblong well has been -sunk into the floor. In the recess behind, a broad drain is visible, -said to be the receptacle of the water-vessels. We also noticed a -grotto which displayed a number of hewn pigeon-holes, and which had -probably served the requirements of a chemist's shop. - -The queen's grotto is a spacious vaulted chamber, 32 feet 4 inches -in length, 20 feet 1 inch in breadth, and some 14 feet in height. A -doorway gives access to this interior, and there is a small aperture -or window on either side. On the opposite wall, and towards its right -corner, you see a communicating apartment of much smaller dimensions; -and to the left of this recess has been hewn an arched niche with -a depth of over 4 feet. Several smaller niches adorn the chamber, -of which a feature is a low divan, cut at the foot of each wall, a -continuous ledge only 13 inches broad. On the right of the entrance, -in the wall which runs at right angles, is situated another small -apartment, lit by an aperture on its outer side. It may be that these -smaller chambers served as sleeping-places; the ingenious Dubois -boldly assumes that the first was a wardrobe and the second a kind -of boudoir. In the floor are several hollow spaces, as usual in these -caves. Above the grotto is situated the so-called summer apartment--an -open cave issuing upon a terrace from which a fine view is obtained. - -But what impressed us more than the caves and their associations -was the solitude of the place, the sense of extreme remoteness--some -pulseless corner, as it seemed, of the living world. A torrent winding -between grave cliffs, covered with a scanty growth of parched herbage; -no runnel diffusing life, and by our side the precious water collected -in a cistern with a floor of cement. Where are the vineyards which -must once have clothed the lower slopes, protected by the walls of -the volcanic valley against the rigorous climate of a region over -4000 feet above the sea? Nature had blighted the scene with layers -of lava and cinders; man reclaimed the spot with laborious patience, -until the work perished under the curse of his fellow-man. But what -enemy would penetrate to this hidden valley, concealed behind the most -inaccessible zone of the border mountains, defended by the Devil's -gorge? Perhaps the appearance of the opposite cliff affords a clue to -this mystery. It is higher than the summit which towers immediately -above you; the outline is horizontal and the edge flat. It is in fact -an exposed rim of the great tableland, broken here by the cańon of -the Kur. A series of plains extend hence to the furthest skirts of -Persia, vague divisions of a single elevated stage. [40] - -The afternoon was far advanced as we retraced our steps to our -encampment, and night already rested in the gorge. We were disappointed -of a photograph of its solemn horrors, and made our way in silence -beneath the twilight, following the murmuring stream. On the following -day we proceeded to Akhalkalaki up the valley of the Toporovan. The -posting station of Abazbek, 14 versts from Aspinja, is situated some -distance up the valley, and the stage between it and Akhalkalaki is one -of 18 versts or 12 miles. It was between these points that we travelled -for the first time in a brichka, or springless posting cart. The drive -occupied about three hours, and the road, which was well constructed, -mounted continuously, following and fronting the swirling current of -the Toporovan. The gardens of Khertvis extend for some distance beyond -the castle, and a portion of the township lies upon this side. Then -the margin of the river contracts to the verge of disappearance, -and stony cliffs, with an elevation of about 200 feet, border the -water on either bank. It is in fact a deep crack in the surface of -the plateau, upon which the town of Akhalkalaki stands. Not a village -did we pass, or any oasis among the rocks; it was indeed a bleak -scene. But the sky, flaked in places with wandering white clouds, -was intensely clear and blue, and the foaming river refreshed the -scene. After passing the low edifice of the castle of Akhalkalaki, -which lines the edge of the cliff on the left bank, we crossed to -that bank by a wooden bridge and wound slowly up the hillside. It was -evident that we had arrived almost at the head of the formation, the -point where the watercourse descends from the surface of the plateau -and eats deeply into the volcanic soil. It was almost night when we -reached the level summit of the cliff and breathed the crisper air. A -place was found for our tents in an open space of the little town, -which is situated at an elevation of 5545 feet above the sea. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V - -AT AKHALKALAKI - - -At Akhalkalaki we had reached a country which is peopled in -large preponderance by the Armenian race. The town is the centre -of an administrative division (ouezde), which is dependent upon -the Government of Tiflis. This division is partitioned into two -administrative districts, of which the most northerly takes its -name from the village of Baralet, on the way to Lake Tabizkhuro; -while the more southerly is called the district of Bogdanovka, a -Russian settlement on the road to Alexandropol. The population of the -division amounts to a total, according to the published statistics, -of 59,500 souls; or, according to the figures which were kindly -communicated to me by the Governor, of 66,000 souls. The numbers of -the Armenians are given in the first of these lists as over 42,000, a -proportion of seven-tenths of the whole; while in the Governor's list, -which, I presume, is the most recent, they are censused at 58,000, -a proportion of seven-eighths. I am inclined to place more reliance -on the total furnished by the Governor than upon his subdivision -according to race; and I shall conclude that the Georgians contribute -a sixth of the inhabitants and the Russian settlers something less -than a tenth. These figures do not comprise the town of Akhalkalaki, -which, out of a total population of something over 4000, contains -4000 Armenian inhabitants. [41] - -Be they immigrants or aboriginal, the character of their surroundings -is in harmony with the instincts of their race. A vast and elevated -plain upon which the snow lies in winter and a southern sun shines. A -fertile volcanic soil, abounding in springs and favourable to cereals -of every kind. Measured from north-east to south-west, the plain of -Akhalkalaki has a length of nearly forty miles; [42] its latitudinal -extension may be gauged by the course of the Kur on the west, and, -on the east, by that of the stream which issues from Lake Madatapa -and skirts the outworks of the eastern meridional range. The plain is -situated at an altitude which ranges between 5500 and 7000 feet. The -soil, when exposed by the plough, is black in colour, or, perhaps, dark -chocolate, and reveals the influence of the lavas below. The extreme -evenness of the surface is due to the fluid nature of these lavas, -which streamed, at a comparatively recent period, from fissures at the -southern base of the Trialethian Mountains and from vents at other -points of the mountain girdle which encircles the flat expanse. On -the floor of the plain itself the effects of volcanic action are -visible in the forms of hummock and rounded hill. Volcanic emissions -have produced the lap-like enclosures which are the reservoirs of the -lonely lakes. Their waters are fed by springs from beneath the surface, -and by copious rains from the clouds of the Pontic region, which -fly the topmost bulwarks of the tableland and distil on the western -slopes of the meridional volcanic barrier, the limit on the east -of the even ground. From Agrikar to Karakach is the section of this -barrier along which this process of condensation is most pronounced; -the mountains are known by the natives under the collective name of -Mokri Gori, the wet mountains. The principal stream, besides the Kur, -is that which issues from Lake Toporovan, and, descending south, flows -through Lake Tuman. After emerging on the southern shore, it receives -an affluent from Lake Madatapa, and pursues a northerly course. Where -we arrived upon its margin, half an hour south of Akhalkalaki, it -was a nice flash of water, flowing slowly over the surface of the -plateau. Below the town it is joined on the left bank by a stream -which has descended from the northern slopes of the Chaldir Hills; -and further west, on the right bank, by the river of Samsar, which -brings the drainage of the north-easterly arm of the plain and flows -in a deeply eroded bed. [43] - -At Akhalkalaki the Toporovan is bordered by lofty cliffs, a cańon or -trough which has the appearance of a sinuous crack in the surface of -the plain. Gaining the summit of either cliff, you stand on level -ground, with a flat or undulating country sweeping around you to -the distant limits of the mountain chains. You breathe a keener -air when you emerge from the narrow valley; the town is placed at a -little distance from the edge of the cliff which rises along the left -bank. But how present my reader with a picture of a settlement which is -nothing more than an agglomeration of one-storeyed, flat-roofed houses, -placed, as it were at random, on the floor of the plain? It seemed -ridiculous to focus the camera at such an insignificant object--the -flat roofs, with their covering of withered turf, repeating and -lifting the texture and colour of the ground. Moreover Akhalkalaki is a -fortress; the camera is interdicted--a happy thought in this particular -case. Fortress-spying would be a poor amusement in this country; like -the fleet of Spain, they are so extremely difficult to detect. The old -castle above the river has been restored and converted into a barrack; -a similar purpose is served by some stone buildings in the environs of -the town. I do not know that the god of war is otherwise represented; -but greater honour has been paid to the demigods of justice, and the -Governor remarked to me--what was indeed sufficiently evident--that -the prison on the outskirts was the only two-storeyed edifice in the -place. Just a house or two, including that of the Governor, had been -provided with a roofing of metal sheets, painted a pleasant red. But -all the tenements appeared well built, of solid stone masonry; and -the street or two which the place contains were certainly spacious, -although ill-maintained and deep in dust. When we arrived, we were -greeted by a chorus of the pariah dogs, as though we were entering -a purely Eastern town. Still there are a few modern shops, notably a -large drapery establishment, where the necessaries of civilised life -may be procured. A feature were the wooden hoods on the tops of the -houses, a feature not uncommon in the towns of Armenia; they serve -as screens to the apertures of the chimneys, and appear a dangerous -contrivance to European eyes. Such was our impression of the aspect -and character of Akhalkalaki, the new fortress. Vague tracks lead -away into the surrounding country, which is bare and bleak in the -immediate neighbourhood of the settlement. - -In addition to the principal avenue of outside communication by -way of Akhaltsykh and the passage of Borjom, the town is connected -with Georgia by a road which crosses the Trialethian Mountains and -debouches by a short cut at the last-named place. We were shown this -road, where it mounts the cliff on the right bank of the river, -as we crossed to the left bank. Leaving Lake Tabizkhuro on the -right, it mounts to the spine of the system, which it crosses by -a pass of about 8000 feet. [44] Tiflis may no doubt be reached by -the valley of the Khram, but I have no information upon the nature -of the route. Metalled roads are scarce in these distant provinces; -it may surprise the reader to learn that the road we travelled over -from Akhaltsykh was only completed in 1892. During all those previous -years of Russian occupation the post was carried from the important -centre of Alexandropol to foreign countries along a stony track in -the valley of the Toporovan. - -Akhalkalaki has belonged to Russia since the campaign of 1828, when -it was taken under Marshal Paskevich by assault. It was not the first -time that Russian troops had entered the fortress; it had fallen in -1812 to the arms of General Kutlerusky, who marched from Gori and took -the garrison by surprise. In the time of Paskevich the defenders were -a determined body of men, recruited from among the most warlike of the -inhabitants of these countries, and serving in their own land and under -their own chiefs. Flushed by the fall of Kars, the general appeared -before the place and summoned the Turkish commander to submit. His -emissaries received the reply that the women and children had been -removed, and that the men were determined to die at their posts. They -numbered 1000, with fourteen cannon; and they reminded the Russians of -the proverb that one soldier of the province of Akhaltsykh was equal -to two of Kars and three from Erivan. Red standards were displayed -on the walls, and, during the progress of the siege, the garrison was -heard making the responses to the mollah, who led their prayers from -the gallery of the minaret and who had himself sworn to share their -fate. A Cossack officer stepped forth and endeavoured to parley with -them; he fell, pierced by a number of bullets. No opposition was -offered to the establishment of the batteries; no attempt appears -to have been made to outwit the foe. The Russian cannon beat down -the walls, their rifle fire decimated the defenders, following them -from wall to wall. Paskevich then gave the order to cease firing, -and called upon them afresh to submit. The old answer was returned; -the assault was sounded; nor were the Cossacks appeased and the honour -of the defenders satisfied until six hundred of the men of Akhaltsykh -had eaten the dust. [45] - -At the time of our visit Colonel Tarasoff was civil governor of the -town and administrative division; he received us with the utmost -courtesy. We would leave our tent to join his hospitable family -circle, to discuss the many interesting features of the country and -to drink endless glasses of delicious tea. We learnt that the road to -Akhaltsykh had been made under his directions; Greek workmen performed -the blasting and stone-cutting, while for the levelling forced labour -was employed. The road is the property of the Russian Government, -and horses are provided by contractors to carry the post. The -administration is conducted on a primitive but common-sense principle: -a head man in every village, responsible to a head of a group of -villages, who is again answerable to the Governor himself. Besides -police--among whom the Armenians are prominent, their fierce faces -belying the reputed meekness of the race--Colonel Tarasoff has a -force of Cossacks at his disposal; and it is of course open to him -to send for the troops of the district, should any special emergency -arise. In addition to the Governor, there is in each larger town a -resident judicial officer, who dispenses justice ex contractu as well -as ex delicto, and whose judgments are subject to revision at assize. - -As usual in the Armenian provinces, the need of elementary education -is supplied from a double source. Foremost in the field are the -Armenians, with a separate organisation; the Russian State school -is not so well attended, and, in this province, is probably not so -well served. Yet the Russian principal impressed me as a capable and, -certainly, as a most amiable individual; he was a Georgian, speaking -Georgian as his native language; his wife and family affected the -Georgian dress. His pupils consisted of 150 boys and youths, all, -or almost all, Armenians. The school supplies a kind of secondary -education as well as the elementary course. Of this privilege to its -rival, the Armenian school was justly jealous; it is only allowed the -two primary classes, which the scholars complete in their twelfth -year. The roll consisted of 250 boys and no less than 300 girls. A -reading-room and library were attached to the institution, and it -was evident that the teachers were men of greater attainments than -are required by the kind of instruction they are supposed to dispense. - -I sat with Colonel Tarasoff in his Court, a well-ordered building, -in which he is wont to reverse the procedure of his classical -prototypes. Enter to us an old turbaned Mohammedan; status, mollah of -doubtful fame. He has come to Akhalkalaki with the object of collecting -money wherewith to purchase sacred books. But only the chief mollah -has the right to take subscriptions for this purpose; and where is -the written authorisation in favour of this mendicant, bearing the -seal of the most holy man? Enough, that he cannot produce it; he must -desist from his collection. He must be silent: the next case is called. - -Enter a roughly-clad Georgian peasant, a lean figure, a dejected -mien. He has been staying overnight at a village in the district, and -has been robbed of three cows. The Governor has given orders that they -must immediately be restored to him; two have been returned, he cannot -recover the third. Decided that the village itself must pay the full -equivalent; a look of delighted surprise lights the poor man's eyes. - -Enter a Georgian of the middle class who impresses us as a stupid -fellow; but he brings a highly original plaint. It appears that -he has fallen out with his brother, and that they both occupy the -same house. They have separated their goods and do not speak to one -another. Complainant applies to the Governor to order his brother to -open a separate door. I can scarcely refrain from betraying my host -by a peal of laughter; he knits his brows and dismisses the case with -a volley of hard words. - -Enter a young man, one of two brothers who live together and share a -common employ. It so happens that both have been summoned to perform -military service; may one of them be exempt? Supporters of families -are excused, and the conscription in Transcaucasia is as yet conducted -on a very small scale. Still the Colonel upholds the summons; the -service covers a short period, and will do both brothers good. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -PROSPECT FROM ABUL - - -East of the town of Akhalkalaki, which almost touches the long train -of the western slope, a bold mass of mountain features the landscape, -square-seated on the floor of the plateau (Fig. 20). It rises to a -height of nearly 11,000 feet; but this imposing altitude is shorn of -half its grandeur by the lofty levels of the adjacent plain (5500-6000 -feet). Still the mountain overpowers all the surrounding outlines; -the summit overlooks the neighbouring heights. When we had issued -from the chasm of the Toporovan river and gained the surface of the -plateau, our first thought was to ascend this elevated viewing-stage, -and command the flat expanse, bordered by dim and distant ranges, -which was now unfolded before us on every side. - -Horses were impressed on the morning after our arrival to take us to -the foot of the higher slopes. We were informed that it was necessary -to make the half-circuit of the mountain and to start climbing on -the eastern side. But why reject the tempting gradients of the nearer -western slope, sweeping towards you with a succession of harmonious -curves? Yet where obtain a satisfactory answer to this question? The -actual experiment might involve the loss of a day. So we bowed to -the decision of our native conductor, and became reconciled to the -long ride. Mile after mile the great plain stretched to the westward, -a solid sea, patched in places with fallow and stubble, but treeless, -without a hedge, without a boundary of any kind. We were approaching -the stony confines of the mountainous zone which borders the plateau -on the east. The wretched village of Abul rears its stacks of cow-dung -fuel among a waste of stones. - -Seen from the side of Akhalkalaki, the mountain presents the -appearance of a composite mass. A long trough mounts to the summit -region, dividing the fabric into two halves. Each half is crowned -by a well-defined summit; that on the south is single of form and -considerably lower, its loftier neighbour on the north appears to -possess two peaks. In reality this double peak conceals a third fang, -which is prominent on the eastern side. The three-fanged summit -communicates with its less elevated neighbour by a lofty col, the -uppermost edge of the trough. The slopes of Abul display the volcanic -origin of the mountain, and descend in long-drawn outlines to the -plain. The lengthiest declines westwards from the more northerly -summit, and has the shape of a long back or ridge. The steepest is -the slope just beneath this summit, facing north; it is inclined at -an angle of 30 degrees. The village of Abul is situated to the south -of the western slope, and would present a convenient starting-point -from which its easy gradients might be scaled. Our guide, however, -assured us, I cannot conceive upon what foundation, that the ascent -would occupy two days. So we left the village to skirt the base of -the southern half of the mountain, of which the sides have a gradient -of 18 degrees. Rounding the mass, we were able to reach on horseback -some grassy uplands of the further slopes. This favourable nature of -the ground extends to a considerable elevation, and had probably been -the inducement which had influenced our leader to bring us such a long -way. From these pastures it was a climb of one and a half hours over -the rocks to the pinnacles of the loftiest and most northerly mass. We -sent the horses back, with directions to meet us on the further side, -since we had decided to descend by the western ridge. - -Throughout the length and breadth of the Armenian highlands, themselves -the loftiest section of the bridge of Asia between India and the -Mediterranean Sea, there is perhaps no summit, with the possible -exception of that of Ararat, which possesses a prospect at once so -distant, so extensive and so full of interest as that which expands -on every side from the triple peak of Abul. [46] You stand on a stage -which commands the fabric of the nearer Asia, without dwarfing the -proportions of the majestic structure, without confusing the varied -members of the vast design. The tableland with its open landscapes -is unfolded before you, swelling and falling from plain to hummock, -from hummock to rounded ridge, from vaulted ridge to the soaring arcs -of an Alagöz and an Ararat, crowned with perpetual snow. The troubled -outlines of the border ranges encircle the mysterious scene; and, -far away, from a gloomy background to this full sunlight and radiant -atmosphere, lurid flashes are reflected through layers of murky vapour -by the snows of Caucasus, infinitely high. - -The detail of the landscape engages the mind with the same engrossing -fascination as the panorama impresses the sense. From west right -round to south, vast tracts of level ground are outspread at your -feet. Here and there the plain is broken by barren convexities, -of which the outlines mingle with the outlines of the surrounding -chains. No wood or leafy hedgerows dull the mobile surface, which is -responsive to every mood of the sky. But a large area is checkered -with black and yellow patches--alternate fallow and stubble-field and -standing corn. The reclamation extends to the slopes and recesses -of the neighbouring mountains, struggling upwards to the verge of -the rock. Yet this human note is lost in the immensity of the scene, -which displays no other sign of the presence of man. Lonely lakes lie -lapped in the hollows of these mountains and upon the floor of the -plain. A deep crack in the solid earth features the distance from west -to south, and is drawn towards you almost at right angles through the -plain. It is formed by the sinuous clefts of the Kur and the Toporovan, -and it is almost the limit of the level ground upon the west and north. - -Beyond this cańon of the Kur, which is distant some twenty miles, -ridge upon ridge of lofty and barren mountains are massed upon the -horizon from south-west. They belong to the Dochus-Punar volcanic -system, and they overpower all the ranges about us, with the exception -of the dim Caucasian chain. From those slopes, as from these slopes -upon which we are standing, lavas have streamed over the surface of the -intermediate country and levelled the inequalities of the ground. That -eruptive action is long extinct; the fires are dormant; no wreath -of smoke crowns the familiar volcanic forms. The system is seen to -sink to the cańon upon the north, where a gap in the outlines gives a -passage to the Kur. On the northern side the heights are resumed by a -long, serrated ridge, which belongs to the northern border mountains, -and which extends from west by south to east by north. A little west -of north lies Lake Tabizkhuro, with the dome of Samsar rising from -its shores. The foreground towards the north is filled with mountain -masses, with vaulted summits and rounded slopes. Our guide was unable -to name them to us, and I therefore busied myself with an outline -sketch. A long ridge sweeps away from Abul on the north-eastern -side in a hemicycle concave to the west. It mingles with the forms -of the nearer masses, of which the most prominent may, I suppose, -be identified with Kör Ogly and Godorebi, members of the Abul-Samsar -eruptive group. The long bulwark of the Trialethian chain is either -hidden by these nearer mountains, or only disclosed through brief -vistas to a sea of outlines beyond. The northern horizon is closed -by the snowy peaks of Caucasus, over a hundred miles away. - -Towards the east we were not impressed by any commanding features in -the mountain landscape, although we were overlooking the eastern wing -of the meridional eruptive system, flanked by the Somkethian ridges -on the further side. Between us and those vague shapes was lapped an -extensive lake, Lake Toporovan, broken by the outline of the eastern -fang of Abul. But what are those gleaming snows, just protruding above -the horizon from a snowless vaulted ridge in the south-east? The flat -horizontal outline is broken towards the centre by a low serration of -snow-clad peaks. It is Alagöz, seventy miles distant in a straight -line; it is even said that from here the dome of Ararat is visible, -when it is not concealed by its faithful wreath of cloud. Compared to -these, the nearer heights in the south are thrown into insignificance; -the eye completes the circle to the point from which it started, -the lofty ridges in the south-west. - -Slowly we made our way over the piled-up boulders, down the back of -the long ridge which descends to the westward, along the northern -side of the deep trough. Before us, on the plain, we followed the -fissure in the even surface which marks the course of the hidden river -of Akhalkalaki, until it was lost in the radiance of the setting -sun. Regaining our horses, we paused for awhile on the margin of a -little marsh which is situated about at the foot of the mountain, -some 4000 feet below the topmost peak. The mournful chorus of frogs -broke the intense silence, and contributed to the impression of the -loneliness of Nature which inspired the mood of our homeward ride. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -GORELOVKA AND QUEEN LUKERIA - - -Discussing the projects of our future travel, I was reminded by -Colonel Tarasoff that we must not fail to make a stay in one of the -villages of Russian peasants which were situated upon the route of our -journey south. The Governor had so often sung the praises of these -villagers that we were all anxious to comply with his advice. If -only this fertile country could be inhabited by such a peasantry; -what crops it would bear, what riches it would produce! He added: -"Be sure to visit Gorelovka; there you will see what Russian colonists -can bring to pass." - -Russian colonists! But, of course, Russia is not yet in a position -to colonise, however much these distant provinces of her Asiatic -empire may be in need of new methods, of new blood. Indeed, the -rulers of Russia early recognised the expediency of introducing -into their lawless possessions beyond Caucasus a leaven of orderly -and strenuous elements from the West; and in the dearth at home -of such material, which might be available for the purpose, they -invited or encouraged settlements from abroad. It is possible that -they were shown the way by the finger of Providence; it is at least -certain that, when once the favourable opportunity arose, they did -not suffer it to pass them by. In the earlier years of the present -century the kingdom of Würtemberg was the scene of a struggle among -the Protestant community, of which the origin was no less curious -than the results were strange. It had been solemnly announced by -several popular pastors that the second coming of Christ was near -at hand. Such was the confidence of the reverend teachers in their -prophetical powers, that they had already fixed the date when the -sun and moon should be darkened, the celestial bodies should reel, -the ocean roar, and men expire from fright before the crowning event -had been accomplished--the Son of Man appearing with glory in the -clouds. These signs and stupendous portents should be revealed to a -distracted world in 1836. - -Greater credence was attached by the people to these terrible -predictions by reason of what was passing in their little world. Their -clergy were divided on a religious question well calculated to touch -to the quick the popular mind. The predominant party succeeded in -effecting an alteration in the prayers and hymns of their beloved -Church. Passions became inflamed which appeared to herald persecution, -which rallied the faithful in defence of the old forms. Were not the -days of tribulation already upon them; and in what asylum among the -mountains should these Christians of a larger Judća find the refuge -which had been promised by the word of Christ? The same teachers -assured them that such an asylum would not be wanting, and might be -found in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea. The fearful nature of -the Divine warning, the conviction that it would be early realised, -the aversion which the new-fangled forms of worship inspired in many -earnest souls--all contributed to steel the old Protestant courage; -to induce a large body of human beings to leave home and native -land behind them, and, without superfluous forethought, to embark on -the perilous journey to that distant land where they might await in -peace and spiritual contentment the glorious coming of the Redeemer -of the human race. Their ranks were swelled--such is the irony of our -complex society--by many who were in search of change and adventure; -they left Würtemberg 1500 families strong. Two-thirds of these are -said to have perished before reaching Odessa, where the remnant was -reinforced by a further body of their countrymen, to the number of -100 families. In the Emperor Alexander I. they found a friend who -extended to them extensive privileges upon their arrival in Georgia -in 1817. They were settled in several colonies in the Governments of -Tiflis and Elizabetpol, which have endured to the present day. They -have been tried by afflictions and internal dissensions; some have -perished by wild beasts, some were carried into captivity during the -course of the Persian war. Still their numbers have increased, their -standards of life have been maintained, and the traveller rests with -pleasure within their villages. But neither the paramount object of -their migration nor the wider purpose of Alexander has been fulfilled -up to the present time. The jealousy of the Russian Church-State has -deprived them of much of their potential usefulness; and mankind are -still groping beneath dark clouds of error, faintly silvered with -the precious promise of perfect light. [47] - -The fate or fortune of these German settlements was recalled to me -at Akhalkalaki not only by the mention of the Russian colonial -experiment, but also through our intercourse with a forlorn -individual, whose history linked him with the early history of that -courageous company. What use to conceal his name, since I cannot -hide his identity, since I am only dealing with the current facts of -provincial life? It was the mission of Sembat Baghdasareantz to sow -abroad the seeds of the Gospel, carrying his liberty and even his -life in his hand. An Armenian by birth, he had pursued his studies -in Europe, where he had resided among the Methodists of Frankfurt, -although not a member of that persuasion himself. A Protestant, he -disclaimed allegiance to any particular denomination; he belonged -to the society of Evangelical preachers which had been founded some -seventy years ago in Shusha, the capital of the province of Karabagh, -by missionaries from Basle. Zaremba is the name of the teacher whom -his successors most closely associate with the origin and early -struggles of their brotherhood; his memory is joined with that of -his colleague Dittrich, who shared his labours from the first. These -missionaries represented a Society whose devout zeal had been directed -to the Mohammedans of distant Persia; prudence dictated the choice of -a base within the territory of Russia; yet the Russian Church was a -formidable enemy on Russian soil. She claimed the right of baptizing -and holding within her own communion all converts to the Christian -faith. But an exception had been made in favour of those communities of -heterodox Christians which were tolerated by the Russian State; it was -permissible for a Mohammedan to become converted to their tenets and -to be enrolled as a member of their sect. The Society of Basle were -therefore encouraged to attempt the expedient of a protected colony, -which should receive a special charter from the Russian Government -and be invested with the character of a tolerated sect. An example -of such a colony was already before them; their Scotch brethren were -engaged in preaching to the mountaineers of Caucasus from an adopted -home at Karass. In the pursuit of this purpose, Zaremba and Dittrich -were sent to St. Petersburg in 1821. They were received by the same -Alexander who had favoured the Germans, and in a spirit which partook -of their own zeal. Liberal provisions were attached to the charter of -their prospective colony, among which the right of baptizing converts -was included. They were further authorised to establish a printing -press, to found elementary schools, and to organise a seminary in -which the higher learning should be dispensed. In the meanwhile they -were invited to travel in Transcaucasia with the view of selecting -a locality for their future home. - -When the missionaries arrived in Georgia in the spring of 1823, their -interest was aroused by the condition of the German colonists--their -co-religionists, almost their countrymen, settled in this remote -country without spiritual direction, without the elements of -ecclesiastical order. Could there exist a prior claim upon their -own activities than was furnished by the spectacle of this flock -without shepherds, severed from the homestead and wandering where it -might? Their first summer was devoted to the charge of these brethren, -among whom the slow blight of purely worldly preoccupations had already -sapped the vigour of early zeal. The success of their efforts appears -to have awakened the Lutheran Consistory of St. Petersburg, to whom the -spiritual interests of their co-religionists in Russia are entrusted -by Russian law. The Consistory sent a pastor, duly commissioned; and -the colonists were resigned into his hands. But the hardy Germans had -not quarrelled with ecclesiastical authority in their native country -in order to subject themselves to similar tyranny in their new seats; -they disclaimed any connection with the Consistory, and refused to -accept its nominee. The dispute was referred to Alexander, and was by -him decided with his usual good sense. He consented that the Society -of Basle should supply them with pastors, and he went so far as to -endow their churches himself. - -When the missionaries next turned their attention to the pursuit -of their original purpose, they were confronted by difficulties -of a different kind. To their surprise they were informed by the -Governor-General of Transcaucasia that the Government possessed no -land on the Persian frontier which could be spared for the settlement -they had in view. The Mission itself would be allotted a building -in any town which they might select; and, although the privilege of -receiving converts would not be legally attachable, the Governor -himself would exert his influence to protect them in its exercise -should their efforts be blessed with fruit. Shusha was their choice for -the establishment of their Mission; schools were opened and a printing -press set up. But in the countries west of India the conversion of -Mohammedans has at all times been an arduous and ungrateful task. Our -own missionaries, established in Persia, are roused to extreme -enthusiasm should a stray Moslem embrace their faith. I remember -travelling across Persia with one of these pampered individuals, who -appeared to me to be admirably equipped for early perdition among -the surroundings in which his walk in life lay. The experiment was -boldly made by the missionaries of Shusha, although the conquests -of Russia, a few years after their installation, provided them with -an ample field for conducting their operations without crossing into -Persian soil. Zaremba followed in the track of the armies of Paskevich, -distributing the Scriptures, duly translated into Turkish, and arguing -the eternal truth of Christianity and the errors of Islam. But his -books were torn in pieces by a population among whom contempt for -Christians is engendered through their mother's milk; and I do not -know that the bread which he cast upon the waters has been found up to -the present day. Better results might be expected from their labours -among the Armenians, whose clergy they discovered sunk in the depths -of ignorance, where the beginning of the twentieth century finds them -still. But they had not anticipated the existence of this sphere for -their activities; and in the absence of special powers it was not -permissible to them to receive converts from a Christian Church. It -was open to the proselyte to enter the Orthodox Church of Russia; -but, if he desired to be baptized by a minister of the tolerated -sects, his own clergy could claim him back. It was inevitable that, -with the progress of their schools and religious teaching, such a -case should soon arise. It is, no doubt, the lofty virtue and the -traditional practice of the Armenian Church to respect the religious -tenets of other Christian Churches, and to inculcate a large tolerance -among their congregation of the doctrines held by their brothers of a -varying creed. In this respect the reverend traveller, to whose work -I am indebted for this little history, might have learnt but failed -to learn a valuable lesson from a clergy whose general standards he -justly condemns. [48] But the attitude of these militant missionaries, -no less than the success of their efforts, touched the vanity of the -Armenian hierarchy to the quick. Two deacons of their persuasion had -become allied to the Swiss teachers, without formally renouncing their -own Church. They were accused of influencing the people against their -old religious practices, and, according to a time-honoured usage, -it was ordered by the katholikos that they should be bound and sent -to Edgmiatsin. The missionaries appealed to the Governor-General, -who, in the spirit of a Roman proconsul, inquired for what reason -they were interfering in the concerns of the Armenian Church. Let the -Germans remain Germans and the Armenians remain Armenians--a ruling -which was modified by the Imperial Government, to whom this high -functionary referred the case. It was decided, much to the dismay -of the religious communities, that if a man were determined to leave -the bosom of the Armenian Church, it was not permitted to the clergy -to retain him by force. But this favourable disposition on the part -of the central Government was in advance of Russian methods. The -victory of the missionaries was not of long duration; the multitude -of their enemies overbore the power of their few friends. Their -printing press is long since silent; they have no successors, -except a few Armenian preachers, faithful to the old traditions, -of whom our friend at Akhalkalaki was one. He himself was confined -by Government within the limits of this remote fortress; two years -he had already passed in this manner of imprisonment; for three more -years he was sentenced to remain. He earned his own subsistence as -clerk and assistant in the large draper's shop. In Shusha itself, -if I may trust the official statistics, the members of the Armenian -Protestant community did not exceed twenty-six souls in 1886. [49] -Russian policy of the present day abhors missionary effort; it has -been justly remarked by a recent clerical traveller that if a priest -wishes to travel in the Russian provinces he must divest himself of -his clerical character and clerical garb. [50] I myself can testify -to the extreme difficulty with which the Protestant missionaries in -Turkey obtain permission to cross Russian soil. Such is the jealousy of -that Orthodox Church, the object of British episcopal blandishments, -to whose mercies it is announced that the Archbishop of Canterbury is -about to transfer his long-cherished pupils, the Chaldćan or Assyrian -Christians of Kurdistan. [51] - -To Sembat the Russian colonists were an object of peculiar interest, -not indeed in the same capacity in which they appealed to the Governor, -but by reason of the kind of religion which they professed. Here was -a people who, like himself, were exiles for the sake of religion, -who resembled, in their aversion to the trammels of ecclesiasticism, -the congregations in whose bosom he had himself been reared. The -history of the Dukhobortsy or Dukhoborians--I became familiar with -the latter termination, and such is the name of the sect to which -these settlers belong--composes a chapter which is neither the least -remarkable nor the most creditable in the history of the Russian -Church-State. Their origin would appear to be wrapt in some mystery; -according to one account a discharged soldier first disseminated the -teaching in the Government of Kharkov and in the year 1740. [52] Count -Tolstoy adopts the view, which would appear the more probable, that it -was a foreigner, a Quaker, immigrant to Russia, who spread the seeds -of their belief. [53] Neither their opinions, nor the temper which -was the outcome of their convictions, were calculated to promote -the smoothness of their early course. In a country where Church -interests permeate every act of policy, they denied the necessity, -even the expediency of a Church. Among a people attached with devotion -to their temples, images and eikons, they professed the uselessness of -all such external aids to religious life. The crusty formulas cracked -under their merciless logic; and the grim earnestness with which -these spiritual combatants grappled with themselves and with society -wore out the patience or aroused the apathy of the State. Already in -the eighteenth century they suffered persecution; and so bitter grew -the feeling against them, that in the early years of the nineteenth -century the Emperor Alexander I. settled them in the Tauric province, -in the neighbourhood of the Sea of Azov. But Alexander was not the man -to become the instrument of their enemies, whose hostile instances -provoked an Imperial rebuke. It had been proposed that a further -migration of the sect should be required; the ukase of 1816 enacted -that no such migration should take place. The same edict recited the -favourable testimony to their character which had been received from -the official in whose district they lived, dwelt on the proved futility -of the measures previously taken against them, and proclaimed that, -far from meditating the repetition of any such measures, it was the -Imperial will that every unnecessary restriction should be removed -and that all annoyance of the sectaries should cease. The humane, -the wise policy of this enlightened ruler has not been followed by -his successors on the throne. Nicholas the First expelled them to the -Transcaucasian provinces, and they are being persecuted at the present -day. The principal emigrations took place between 1841 and 1845. They -were allotted seats in the bleak country on the south of Akhalkalaki, -whence they have spread into the Government of Elizabetpol and into -the more recently acquired province of Kars. According to the census -of 1886 their numbers in their adopted country amounted to 12,500 -souls at that date. [54] - -In the eyes of a philosopher the Dukhobortsy may appear to practise -pure religion, and to observe the spirit of the teaching of Christ. Yet -in the view of the majority of Christians their doctrines would be -deemed heretical and their religious usages would be condemned. Such -an attitude is the fruitful parent of misrepresentation and calumny; -and the account of them which we received from our itinerant -preacher was not untinctured by these defects. In justice to him -one must remember that his own services would be repudiated by these -fellow-offenders with him against the majesty of the Orthodox Church; -that neither a Zaremba nor an Eli Smith would be welcomed by these -simple peasants and solicited to direct and elevate their spiritual -life. The imagination of the Oriental may have been coloured by the -prejudice of the Christian teacher; yet I cannot doubt that the tales -which he told us about them were widely current in the gossip of the -countryside. According to Sembat, considerable mystery surrounded -the religion of these peasants, which he himself had not sufficient -knowledge to dispel. Pagan practices were freely imputed to them; and -they were said to worship images of birds and beasts. Whether they -worshipped them, or only regarded them as symbols, it was at least -certain that they were in the habit of making such images, and we could -judge for ourselves what purpose they served. And then he related to -us a portion of the story of Lukeria--half-goddess and half-queen. - -September 5.--In the East mankind is usually a monotonous animal, -which you would scarcely notice, such is the majesty of his natural -surroundings, were it not for the needs which you share in common -with him, and which he most indifferently supplies. It was therefore -with expectations of no ordinary character that we set out from -Akhalkalaki to visit the Russian colonies on the southern margin of -the great plain. The direct distance between the town and Gorelovka, -the principal settlement, is seventeen miles. The road, although it -constitutes the avenue of communication with Alexandropol, is little -better than a track. In places the carriage is jolted in a merciless -manner by protruding boulders, embedded in the soil. We started at -half-past two, on a course a little east of south; the vastness of -the expanse and the billowing surface of the naked soil suggested the -appearance of the sea. But the horizon was outlined by the forms of -lofty ranges, encircling the floor of the plain. Banks of white and -grey cloud were suspended about their summits, while the zenith was -blue and the air crisp, yet full of sun. - -At three o'clock we gained the margin of the Toporovan river, a -flash of water slowly flowing over the surface of the plain. On the -further bank a small Armenian village; a little Tartar settlement on -this shore. We paused awhile, that we might realise the features of -the landscape, the same we had commanded from the summit of Abul. On -our left hand we were skirting some stony hummocks, which flank the -mass of Abul. That broad-based mountain rose beyond them, closing -the landscape in the east. On our point of course, some eight miles -distant, a range of gentle vaulting stretched from east by south to -west by north. It may be identified with the outer framework of the -mountains which encircle Lake Chaldir. In the south-west we discerned -a break in the ranges, the distant passage of the Kur. On our right -the level plain; and beyond it, at a long interval, the lofty ridges -which border the Kur on the left bank. Behind us, from a second cleft -or opening in the mountains, a long serrated ridge, which belongs to -the northern border ranges, and which formed a striking feature in -the prospect from Abul. This chain and that in the west appeared to -be the highest, except for the nearer outline of Abul. - -In another half-hour we had passed the track which leads to Manzara, -and were crossing the richest portion of the plain. The deepness -of the furrows in the black earth argued careful cultivation; the -crops had already been gathered in. We were now pursuing a rather -more easterly direction, and could see a gap in the outlines on our -point of course. The hummocks still followed us, at an interval of -a couple of miles, and, beyond them, the meridional range to which -Abul belongs. But, on our right hand, we now lost the open prospects; -low, rocky hills advanced from the region of Lake Chaldir. It seemed a -neck of the plain; for, further south, the view again opens, and the -plain expands anew, in the form of a gulf-like extension, towards the -water-parting between the Araxes and the Kur. It was evident that we -were reaching considerably higher levels, for the crops were still -standing, although ripe. The reapers were busy, gaily clad Armenians, -the women helping in the work. In the distance, at the base of the -eastern mountains, we saw a village, which was inhabited by Armenian -Catholics. The cereals consisted of oats, from which they make bread, -and a species of bearded wheat. At half-past four we arrived at the -first considerable village, which, indeed, proved to consist of two -villages, both of which adjoin the road. The first is called Khojabek, -and is inhabited by Armenians; it contains fifty houses, and possesses -a church but no school. The second, Bogdanovka, is a Russian settlement -with eighty houses, the first of those settlements which we were so -anxious to see. [55] At this double village we crossed a stream which -was said to issue from Lake Chonchal, and which bears the same name -as the lake. - -Bogdanovka is not a favourable specimen of its species. I did not -notice any appreciable contrast between the Russian and the Armenian -village; it is indeed possible that they may have mutually affected -one another, not to the advantage of the Russian settlement--in -both cases rambling, stone-built tenements, and flat roofs, topped -with turf. Dirty little lanes, of uneven surface, debouch upon the -principal street. But the gait, the physiognomy of the two races--what -a remarkable contrast in this respect! Large, lustrous, coal-black -eyes: little, colourless pupils; shapely features, animate with -expression: formless protuberances from a massive, heavy skull. The -ugliness of the women especially appalled us, and we were impressed -with the deliberate slouch of the men's walk. - -We had come a distance of 18 versts (12 miles). After changing horses, -we gained some rising ground on the further side. From here we could -see Lake Chonchal, with a village at the foot of the rising ground -on its opposite shore. In half an hour we were at the tiny lake and -village of Orlovka--a ragged-looking place, of which a striking feature -was the stacks of tezek or dried manure. This was the second Russian -village; we were disappointed. Gorelovka, the goal of our journey, -was to come next. - -The range on our left still continued; but on our right the hills had -receded, and were replaced by gently rising ground. Patches of arable -land mounted the slopes about us, suggesting that the rising tide -of reclamation was flowing into these remote solitudes. We noticed -that the soil had become more turf-like and fibrous in character; -we thought it well adapted to potato culture, but not a field of -potatoes could we see. These uplands provide good pasture during -summer and sweet hay for the long winter months. It was a landscape -of open downs at a great elevation; we had reached a height of some -7000 feet. Such are the bleak surroundings of Gorelovka. We were -chilled to the bones when we arrived at half-past six. - - - -The impression which we had received at the two smaller villages was -quickly dispelled by our new surroundings. Great was our pleasure -when we recognised that the high opinion of Colonel Tarasoff was amply -justified by those to whom it applied. It is true that these sectaries -are the flower of the peasantry in Russia; but that peasantry is none -the less honoured by what they have achieved. - -Gorelovka is the largest village in the district; it contains 150 -houses and a population of some 1500 souls. The inhabitants said -it was fifty-two years since they came hither from Russia, and -were allotted lands. Each house pays fifteen roubles (about thirty -shillings) annually to the State for the rent of their lands. Snow -lies on the ground for about eight months in the year, and, like the -Armenians, they heat their houses with tezek fuel, or cakes of dried -manure. I admired their ploughs and spacious waggons; they are their -own handiwork. You do not see such ploughs and waggons among their -neighbours--Armenians, Tartars and Turks. On the other hand, they -have not improved upon the usual threshing implements--the flat beams -encrusted with sharp stones. They said they had found this method in -use in the country, and that it satisfied their needs. Their markets -are Alexandropol and Akhalkalaki. Cereals struggle for existence at -this altitude; yet the patches of plough and stubble, spread upon the -hillsides, climb higher every year. [56] It is pleasant to watch the -waggons, loaded with hay, winding homewards over the springy turf. - -A Dukhobortsy village is not built into the earth, like the burrows -of the Armenians and the Kurds. The Russians cheat the climate -by the additional thickness which they put into their solid stone -walls. Their dwellings are low, one-storeyed houses; the masonry is -covered over with plaster, which receives several coats of whitewash. A -long street traverses the village--straight, broad and well maintained; -the houses are aligned upon it at intervals. The roofs are almost flat, -and consist of stout beams, supporting a superstructure of earth and -sods of turf. The chimneys are mere apertures in the roof, protected -by little wooden hoods. We found the interiors clean and comfortable; -the wooden ceilings are neatly mitred, and the walls are distempered -white. The deep embrasures of the windows testify to the thickness -of the walls. In some of the Russian settlements, through which we -passed later, the people had adorned their homes with gay shutters -and combings of fretwork design; in Gorelovka no work of fancy adorns -the dwellings of the peasants, and they have lavished all their skill -in wood-carving upon the residence of their queen. - -The inhabitants are tall and powerfully built, and, although they are -bronzed in complexion almost beyond recognition, the fair hair bears -witness to their northern origin. Their limbs are loosely put together, -so that, apart from the difference of their dress and demeanour, -they present a strong contrast to the neatly-made natives of the -country, by reason of their lofty stature and the unbuckled slouch -of their walk. The features are irregular, the eyes small, and the -countenance is wanting in animation, in the case of both women and -men. The dress of the men consists of dark blue trousers and jacket -and a peaked military cap; this costume gives them the appearance of -old soldiers, and all seem to shave the beard. The women wear very -clean cotton dresses of showy patterns and bright hues. - -Next morning, according to arrangement, we were to visit, in company -with our host, Alexei Zupkoff, the venerable starshina, or head of -the village, the residence and garden of the queen. The brother of -the queen joined our party--Michael Vasilievich Ghubanoff, the same of -whom Count Tolstoy speaks. We passed down the long, straight street of -the village, the spacious intervals between the white houses opening -to the breezy downs. Entering an enclosure, we found ourselves in a -delightful flower-garden, among trees and thick rose-bushes, allowed -to spread in freedom, and only saved from rankness and riot by the -loving hand of man. How strange, after our wanderings among peoples -whose material standards hover on the extreme margin where life is -just possible and no more, appeared to us the sight of these garden -flowers and the scent of the double rose. A low one-storeyed building -faces the garden on two sides; the one wing contains the chapel and -reception room, the other the private apartments in which the queen -used to live. Passing within the doorway, we stood in a little hall -from which rooms opened, one on either side. Both apartments are -spacious, and their size was enhanced by the complete absence of -furniture. Large stone stoves are built into the rooms, and form -the most prominent feature in them; these stoves are usual in all -the houses, but in this house they are decorated with a scroll of -stone carving, which is not the case elsewhere. The ceilings are low, -and the walls are so thick that the windows have the appearance of -fortress embrasures, with their deep cavernous sills. The two large -rooms on either side of the hall were formerly devoted, the one -to prayer meetings and the other to social gatherings; but it was -evident that they were not in use at the time of my visit, and I was -told that assemblies in this house had been interdicted by Government, -on account of the fresh outbreak of fanaticism which was apprehended -should the people come together beneath the roof of their former queen. - -The general arrangement and appearance of the chapel or apartment -in which they used to meet for prayer is this--the low ceiling is -composed of narrow pine planks, the surface being relieved by delicate -wood beadings along the seams where plank meets plank. The large pier -of the stove projects boldly into it from the side of the door. The -walls of such rooms are in general covered with a neat paper of common -Russian pattern, and the floors are either painted a reddish colour, -or the boards are left natural, and stopped, and scrubbed daily, like -the deck of a yacht. Round this particular apartment there runs a low -bench; this is the only sitting-place. Large pots of flowers, carefully -pruned and tended, bloomed in the deep embrasures of the windows, -and broke the light, diffused about the sober apartment in a warm and -regular glow. In that part of the building where the queen used to -live, the rooms, although smaller, presented a similar appearance; -they were maintained in the same state of scrupulous cleanliness as -though she inhabited them still. The furniture had all been removed -from them; but, in addition to the pots of beautiful flowers, there -was in each a dish of Easter eggs. - -In the centre of the garden among the rose-bushes stands the summer -pavilion of the queen (Fig. 21). The kernel of the structure may -be described as consisting of two square boxes, placed one above -the other, and serving as living rooms. Each side of the upper room -is broken by a large window; so that the view from within embraces -the whole settlement and all the landscape around. The lower room -contains a bed and a row of pegs, on which, behind a light covering, -hang the dresses of the queen; that above is bare of all furniture, -and was always used as a sitting-room. A broad wooden balcony with -staircase runs round this inner kernel, supported on pillars of -wood. They have lavished all their skill upon the decoration of -this balcony, enriching it with delicate fretwork traceries and with -figures placed at the angles of the roof. At each corner sits a dove -with wings outspread, while on the summit of the roof a dove is just -alighting, the wings just closing, the legs outstretched. In front -of the pavilion, on the side of the house, there is a large standard -lantern, a work of curious design and fancy, surmounted by an image -of St. George and the dragon, carved with much life and vigour in wood. - -By my side stood the man who had made these images, and I asked him -whether they had any religious meaning, peculiar to their creed. I was -loath to put the question, so obvious was their purpose, so universal -the symbolism they implied. He answered good-humouredly that they -were pure ornaments, and that he was flattered by my appreciation of -his skill. - -In a room, removed from the part of the village in which the queen -lived, they showed us her furniture and effects, her personal -ornaments, and every detail of her attire. Everything that belonged -to her had been carefully kept and cherished, like the relics of -a saint. Her possessions had been those of a simple peasant woman, -verging on the middle class--a velvet chair or two, some statuettes in -plaster, a few chromo-lithographs. Many trays of coloured Easter eggs -were here collected--the offerings, I suppose, of many happy Easters, -when she had led their congregations of prayer. - -Seven years had elapsed, at the time of our visit, since they had lost -their beloved Lukeria Vasilievna, their leader both in spiritual and -in temporal matters; they honoured and obeyed her like a queen. [57] -Her influence was supreme among the settlers on these highlands; and it -appears to have extended to all the colonists in Transcaucasia of the -Dukhobortsy sect. The traveller Radde, who visited Gorelovka in 1875, -was privileged to meet her in her home. He describes her as a widow -in the thirties, strong, tall, of full but still shapely forms. Her -features wore the imprint of beauty. He testifies to the veneration -in which she was held. That Lukeria was nothing more to them than the -contemporary holder of an office which had been the outcome of their -religious and social needs, would, I think, be no less fallacious -to suppose than to credit the rumours current in the country that -it had been in the character of a divine personage that her people -had submitted themselves to her will. A childlike nature, at once -the product of the religious temperament and its peculiar pride, may -find it difficult to discriminate between the emotions of worship and -of love. When I questioned them, they strongly disclaimed for Lukeria -any pretension to supernatural gifts, and they rejected as a fable the -imputation that they had paid her divine honours. They had loved and -revered in her a good and noble woman, who raised their lives, relieved -their sorrows, and led their aspirations towards the higher life. The -evidence of her work and example is written in the appearance of this -model village, and in the demeanour of its inhabitants. All were well -clothed and clean and well nourished; it was a pleasure to see them go -about their business in their quiet, earnest way. I saw no poor people -in Gorelovka, not a sign of the habitual squalor of the East. Provision -had been made for the orphans and the destitute, and I understood that -all the colonists of the neighbourhood contribute to the funds. But -what impressed me most, beside the evidence of their affection in -these dwellings and this enclosure maintained in neatest order, as -though in spirit she inhabited them still, was the love of flowers -which the queen appears to have developed in her people and brought -them to share with her. In the decline of wealth and of the arts, -the sight of garden flowers becomes more and more rare in the East; -and, at best, they are there little more than the ornament of luxury -and the setting of sensual delights. At Gorelovka one cannot doubt -that these geraniums and roses are cultivated for their own sake alone. - -The religion of the Dukhobortsy resembles that of our own extreme -Protestants; it is the Government fans their zeal into destroying -flames. That they are Christians there can, I think, be scarcely any -doubt; they told me positively that they acknowledged and worshipped -Christ as God. [58] But God is a spirit, and they that worship God -must worship Him in spirit and in truth. The spirit of God dwells -in the souls of His servants, who themselves are sons of God. How -therefore can a church, an image or an eikon claim reverence as a -holy thing? In these there dwells no spirit, no effluence of Godhood; -the Church of God is the human soul. Reasoning thus, the Dukhobortsy -bow to one another after prayer, saluting the divinity that resides -in man. Scripture they accept; but the book of God must be a living -book, a book to which there is never any end. Hence their religious -conceptions float about in the mouths of the people, in the form of -psalms. New psalms may be sung; but the old psalms never perish--the -Word of God, old yet ever new. They reject priests and all the -apparatus of official religion, and themselves conduct whatever simple -ceremonies may be necessary upon birth, at marriage and after death. - -The moral ideas of the Dukhobortsy are such as might be expected -from a people who hold this lofty view of the nature of man. Man, -being the receptacle of the divinity, must not injure, must not -kill his fellow-man. Hence they do not see the necessity of judicial -tribunals; for they do not wish to wrong any man. Nor do they consider -that one man should exercise authority over another; each one must do -his duty, because it is his duty, and no compulsion can be necessary -from outside. - -That from such peaceful surroundings there should issue fierce -dissensions, that a people trained to mutual love and forbearance -should be inflamed by the worst passions of an opposite nature, and -turn the hand which they had been unwilling to lift against their -fellow-men upon the brothers of their own creed, is a melancholy -example of the failure of purely emotional methods to elevate -permanently the nature of man. It seems there are no short cuts -to virtue; the standards attained under the impulse of religious -enthusiasm have but an ephemeral life. With the death of Lukeria -was removed the personality and visible example for which simple -natures crave; and the exaggeration of sentiment, of which she -had been the object, brought with it its own revenge. Although cut -off at the early age of forty-three years, the queen was already a -widow when she died. Her marriage had been childless, and, even had -she possessed a natural successor, the place which she occupied in -the imagination of her people would perhaps have been impossible to -fill. Yet scarcely a year had elapsed from the time of her death when a -pretended successor arose--a boy, who, I believe, claimed relationship -with her, and who presumed to be worthy to wear the mantle which -had hitherto descended on none. The inhabitants of Gorelovka, whose -version of the story I am giving, were emphatic in their statement -that this youth was an impostor. "He told lies," was the expression -which they used. His authority had never been acknowledged by them, -and he had stirred up their own brethren against them. I gathered -that they had not stopped short of actual violence in the ardour of -religious and partisan zeal. Gorelovka, it appears, had been solid -against the usurper; but opinions had been divided in the neighbouring -villages and throughout the community settled in Transcaucasia of the -Dukhobortsy sect. The Russian Government, as was natural, surveyed -the situation from the standpoint of hard-headed prudence; they were -not anxious to see installed a successor to Lukeria and a revival of -the old religious flame. The weight of their authority was thrown in -the scale against the pretender; he was suppressed without delay and -banished from the country to a remote exile in the north. - -At the time of our visit the feud was slumbering; Count Tolstoy informs -us how it broke out anew. It would appear that the pretender--his -name was Peter Veriguin--was supported by the large majority of the -Dukhobortsy, who were incensed at the action of the authorities in -making over to the brother of Lukeria, our friend Ghubanoff, the -succession to the communal funds. From his place of exile Veriguin -corresponded with his disaffected brethren; Government, apprised of -the fact, removed him to Siberia during the winter of 1894-5. While -he was in Moscow on his way to the land of forgetfulness, he was -visited by his relations and by some of his spiritual allies. Them he -charged to convey a proposal to the brethren: that they should abstain -from participation in the violent acts of Government, should refuse -to serve in the capacity of soldiers, and should destroy all their -arms. This proposal was accepted by the whole of the larger party; -and they prepared to translate it into action without delay. - -In the Government of Elizabetpol, on the first day of the festival of -Easter, eleven Dukhobortsy, who were performing military service with -a reserve battalion, refused to parade, and formally signified that -they intended to serve no more. At their head was an individual who, -in spite of his legal disability as a sectarian, had been promoted -to the rank of a non-commissioned officer for his high qualities and -the exceptional nature of his deserts. Their example was followed -in other provinces, in Akhalkalaki, in Kars. No pains were spared -by the authorities to save them from their rashness; when persuasion -failed, fear was tried. Five recalcitrants in Akhalkalaki were taken -into the prison yard and placed in line. A firing party of Cossacks -was called in and ordered to load with ball; the prisoners asked and -received permission to pray. The command "make ready" was next issued, -and a few minutes passed. The former soldiers quietly awaited the -word to fire. It was not given; the muzzles were lowered, and they -were conducted to their cells. In other places Cossacks charged the -prisoners and made pretence to cut them down. When the sectarians still -persisted in their decision, they were beaten with the lash. Asked how -they justified their action, they answered that they were Christians, -endeavouring to observe the precepts of Christ. Nor was their refusal -to serve in the army the only issue with Government into which they -were carried by their aversion to violence in human affairs. It so -happened that a certain prisoner, in course of transportation, was -brought to one of their villages. It was the duty of the elder of the -village to provide for his further escort and to hand him over to -a sure man. This charge had fallen by turn upon the brother of the -sergeant who had renounced service on the first day of Easter. The -man informed the elder that he could not escort the prisoner because -he would be unable to use force. He asked him to report his refusal -to the authorities; but the elder answered that he was not prepared -to turn traitor; he should bring the prisoner to the house of his -temporary warder, who would act as he thought best. The man returned to -his house; the elder brought the prisoner, and went away. The warder -treated his charge as though he were a pilgrim, warmed him, gave him -to eat and drink, gave him a bed. Next morning, observing that the -prisoner was a poor man, he supplied him with money and offered to -direct him on his way. When they had arrived outside the village, -he showed him two roads, of which he gave him the choice. He told -him that the one led to his destination as prisoner and the other -to liberty. The prisoner preferred the first road, and came to the -place of his destination. In this case no evil consequences ensued. - -In 1895 the prison of Elizabetpol contained no less than 120 members -of the Dukhobortsy sect. All had been sentenced for offences of the -nature already described; but the crown of the people's offence was -not yet come. In a country where the holding of arms is regarded in -the light of a civil duty, they determined to burn every weapon in -their possession of which the purpose was to kill men. The night -of the 28th of June, the eve of the feast of Peter and Paul, was -chosen for the simultaneous execution of this resolve. In Kars and -in Elizabetpol the event passed off without serious trouble; but -the case was different in the province of Akhalkalaki. About three -versts from the village of Orlovka there is an excavation in the rock, -which the people call "The Cave." In this spot it was their habit to -hold their large prayer meetings; it was now chosen as the tryst for -the burning of arms. On the appointed night about 2000 people were -there collected; a pile was made, fuel and petroleum added, and the -whole ignited in due course. In the morning, when the flames were -exhausted, the assembly offered up prayer, and each man returned to -his home. The day passed quietly; they returned in the evening, and -collected together the metal parts which had escaped the fire. These -they melted into a mass, in the presence of a still larger concourse, -among whom were many women and young children. - -In Gorelovka, which was on the side of Government, the restless -symptoms among the opposite party, and the fact that they were -collecting arms, had not passed unobserved. Anticipating attack, -the villagers had denounced their co-religionists and had received a -garrison of Cossacks and regular troops. On the 30th of June an order -came to all the settlements that the Governor was about to arrive -in Bogdanovka from Gorelovka and that he required all the settlers -to repair to that place. Those who were at home obeyed the summons; -their absent kinsmen, although apprised of the order, remained where -they were and engaged in prayer. A messenger arrived and repeated the -injunction. The old men answered that they were praying, that their -prayers would continue, and that, if the Governor wished to see them, -it was his part to come to them, they being many and he one. A second -messenger was sent with no better fortune. Then the watchers ran in -with the news that the Cossacks were close at hand. No sooner had -the assemblage closed together than the horsemen were upon them. An -officer rode at their head and cried "Oura!" The crowd was ridden down -and mercilessly beaten with the sharp lashes which the Cossacks use. A -man was seen to brandish his whip in the air for shame of striking. The -officer approached him, shouted to him that he was deceiving the Tsar, -and struck him in the face with his lash. Bruised and covered with -blood, the people were taken to the Governor; the women followed, -although the Cossacks tried to whip them away. Approaching Bogdanovka, -they met the carriage of the high official, and the officer shouted -"Hats off!" The old men answered him that they would know how to do -their duty when the Governor passed and saluted them. Again "Whips, -Oura!" and a second pitiless beating, until the grass was red with -blood. The Governor stopped the whipping and proceeded to Bogdanovka, -where he collected the brethren who had remained behind. When he began -to upbraid them, a man stepped forward with a military certificate -in his hand. This document he handed in to the Governor, announcing -that in future he refused to serve. The Governor lost command of his -temper and beat him with a stick. Then the people declared that they -would no longer obey Government or comply with any of its demands. The -Governor retaliated by ordering them to be whipped, and even threatened -to shoot them down. The next measure was to quarter Cossacks in their -villages, who lived at free quarters and violated the women. Four -hundred and sixty-four families were expelled from the district and -sent to starve in Georgian villages. These became labourers to the -Georgians and continued to maintain their high character. [59] - -Reflecting upon this story after reading these accounts, the mind -travels back to the dawn of Christianity and to the annals of the early -Church. The famous letter of Pliny appears fresh and modern, while -the grave language of the London Times in the leading article which -it publishes mingles naturally with the spirit of a pre-Christian age: -"The first principles of their creed lead straight to social anarchy, -tempered only by the whims of the 'sons of God.' They are doubtless -sincere fanatics, and as such must be looked upon with a measure of -pity and respect." It is interesting to place by the side of this -paragraph in a modern newspaper the words of the great historian of -the Roman world: "The Christians were not less averse to the business -than to the pleasures of this world. The defence of our persons and -property they knew not how to reconcile with the patient doctrine -which enjoined an unlimited forgiveness of past injuries and commanded -them to invite the repetition of fresh insults. Their simplicity was -offended by the use of oaths, by the pomp of magistracy, and by the -active contention of public life; nor could their humane ignorance be -convinced that it was lawful on any occasion to shed the blood of our -fellow-creatures, either by the sword of justice or by that of war, -even though their criminal or hostile attempts should threaten the -peace and safety of the whole community;... while they inculcated -the maxims of passive obedience, they refused to take any active -part in the civil administration or the military defence of the -empire.... This indolent, or even criminal disregard to the public -welfare exposed them to the contempt and reproaches of the pagans, -who very frequently asked, What must be the fate of the empire, -attacked on every side by the barbarians, if all mankind should adopt -the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect?" - -Have the Christians of the present day become pagans, or did the -pagans only change their name? - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -TO ALEXANDROPOL - - -To-night we are to sleep on the banks of the Arpa, by the waters -which swell the flood of the Araxes and sweep the base of Ararat! This -was the reflection which lightened the mood of sorrowful meditation -that our visit to Gorelovka had inspired. Our grave hosts, for whom -one felt a vivid sympathy, a warm affection, conducted us in their -spacious waggons to the posting station of Efremovka, a few versts' -distance along our road. It is a Russian settlement with some ninety -houses and a population of 860 souls, besides a collection of huge and -formidable dogs. The station is a stage of 16 versts (10 1/2 miles) -from Bogdanovka, and of 21 versts (14 miles) from the succeeding post -house of Shishtapa, which was our destination for the afternoon. At -Efremovka we took leave of our companions, and, at the same time, -of the solid villages of this Russian zone. - -A country of elevated uplands, a natural carpet of springy turf, -broken here and there by patches of cultivation which struggle upwards -from the plainer levels to the hillsides. Grey lights descending from -a grey heaven upon a surface swelling and falling like the sea. In -the east the near reliefs of the mountains of the meridional border, -their base checkered with plots of fallow and stubble, their summits -veiled with cloud. At their foot the lake and marsh of Madatapa, -with the Russian village of Troitskoy upon its shore. In the west -the vague downs, rising to a distant horizon of loftier shapes, -similar to themselves. Such were the opening phases of the scene -through which we passed to the scarcely perceptible water-parting -between the Araxes and the Kur. After less than an hour's drive from -Efremovka we could see the village of Korakhbur (Armenian Catholic) -on the hillside, about a mile away on our left hand; on our right was -an Armenian hamlet, which was named to us Jaila; both are situated in -the southern watershed. The height of the parting between the basins, -at the point where we crossed it, is placed by the Russian map at -6777 feet, a figure which, if it errs, is below the truth. And now -for the first time were disclosed the gleaming peaks which we had -seen from Abul--beyond a line of hummock hills the group of snowy -teeth which break the horizontal outline of Alagöz. - -Tazaken, a Turkish settlement; Khancharli, a large village of Armenian -Catholics, were rapidly left behind. The landscape opened to a lofty -range of swelling shapes and rounded outlines on the western margin of -the plain. They were the mountains about Lake Chaldir; the declining -sun was about to touch them from behind a shroud of mist. Sheets of -light were thrown upon those distant opaline masses as upon the coast -of a hazy sea. - -At a quarter to six--we had left Efremovka at 4.20--we were winding -between the two Shishtapas, on our right the Turkish Shishtapa, washed -by the young stream of the Arpa; the Armenian Shishtapa further away on -our left. At six o'clock we crossed a bridge which spans a tributary -of the Arpa, coming from the east. The confluence takes place some -hundred yards below the bridge, and the name of the tributary was -given to us as Kizil-Goch (the red lamb). It is a solid stone bridge -with a curious stone ornament; on the further side you rise to an -eminence which overlooks the Arpa, and upon which the lonely post -station of Shishtapa is built. - -The doors were heavily barred; when at length they yielded, after many -grumblings, a wizened figure in official uniform stepped forth. It -was the postmaster--it seemed the embodiment of some immense -and ideal sorrow of which all human griefs are but the mirrored -images. How cross the threshold upon which he stood, how enlist -his sympathy with our puny wants, who himself was the incarnation -of Want? But the keenness of the air overcame our hesitation; a -night in tents and without blankets was the alternative course. So -with a greeting, which was coldly returned, we led the way to the -interior, followed by our dismal host. It appeared to consist of a -single room, a spacious apartment with bare floor and white-washed -walls. A few chairs and a large table were the only furniture; the -only ornaments the usual coloured oleograph of the reigning emperor, -and, perhaps, the almanac and the posting map, which were suspended -on the walls. Yet the postmaster was not the only occupant of the -building; children appeared, and with them a young and beautiful -girl. A Polish maiden? one could not doubt of the answer, as one -admired the slender form, the swelling bust, the full lips and the -pale face with its animated eyes. Ah! the pitiful story eloquently -told by this unambiguous presence--the mother already a victim to -the prolonged atrophy of these cheerless surroundings, the father a -sapless tree in an alien soil. Who sent them to such cold solitudes, -these warm natures and passionate temperaments? Find a wilderness and -it will be tenanted by a Pole.... The practical question arose: how -accommodate ourselves and the family within the four white walls? The -father protested that it was completely impossible; the girl came to -our assistance, and revealed the existence of an adjoining closet, -which she offered to share with the children for the night. After -partaking of a frugal meal, after several futile attempts at sustained -conversation, our strange party disposed itself for the night. - -For myself, I could not sleep, for all the comfort of my camp bed, -and memories of sound slumbers which it evoked. Was it the grave -faces of the Russian peasants and the strange irony of their history -and circumstances that haunted and kept the mind strung? Or were the -senses fluttering under the presence of the fair woman whose soft -breathing one could almost hear? God residing in those frames of -steel, God incarnate in her voluptuousness!--Yet their God was not -the God of the pantheist, but a stern, a militant God.... And thought -wandered out into the stony by-paths, the home of the sprites that -mock thought. The ingenious wickedness of man with his Churches and -his heretics, and all the cowering crowd of Jews, Armenians, Poles! - -A faint light was already diffused over the cheerless apartment as -I passed down the row of heavy sleepers and gained the door and the -open air. Day had broken--a morning of perfect stillness, the vapours -lingering on the saturated grass. A cold, grey world of bleak uplands -and mist-veiled mountains, a chill atmosphere which sent one pacing -to and fro. But when the sun rose above the haze into the clear vault -of heaven, the colours started, the chill softened into delicious -freshness, and the peculiar beauty of the scene was revealed. One -looked in vain for the snowy fangs of Alagöz; they had been lost to -view behind the amphitheatre of nearer outlines which composed the -closing phases of our stage of yesterday. But within the limits of -those gentler shapes was outspread an ideal landscape, typical of the -most elevated areas of the tableland (Fig. 22). The plainer levels -were invested with the character of swelling downs, and down and -hillside were carpeted with turf. Over the green and fibrous surface -flowed the Arpa and its tributary, flashes of white and luminous -blue. Here and there brief patches of cultivation checkered the soil, -especially towards north-west and west. In the middle distance one -could discern two villages of moderate size--the two Shishtapas, -barely distinguished from the waste. Beyond the Turkish Shishtapa, -obscuring all but the first line of the settlement, lay a captive -cloud, an opaque opaline mass. The illustration shows the rivers -descending towards you and uniting at your feet. The hills which line -the distance circle round and mass behind you, closing the prospect -towards the south. In that direction the united waters bid farewell -to the grassy uplands, and enter the stony tracts which slope to the -plain of Alexandropol between the outworks of the Chaldir system and -those of the meridional border range. - -September 7.--By half-past eight we were following the course of the -Arpa and taking leave of the green meadows and blue streams. We were -soon involved among the hummock ridges which confine the amphitheatre -of the Shishtapas, and through which the river winds in a stony -valley, at some little distance to the west of the track. Progress -was retarded by the steepness of the inclines as we crossed this -elevated ground. Once again in possession of a prospect, we were -skirting the bases of successive promontories, which projected, -on our left hand, from the mountains of the meridional border into -the broken surface of a volcanic plateau. This plateau extends for -many miles to the westward, and is bounded by lofty mountains on -that side. The Arpa was running off into the easier levels in the -west, while the road hugged the rocky eastern shore. The waters of -the river were not visible after leaving Shishtapa; they are buried -in a cańon, of which you trace the sinuous edges through the bleak -and boulder-strewn waste. Ala-Kilisa, a village of Armenian-speaking -Greeks; Amasia, a Turkish settlement; Karachanta and Kara Mehemet, the -first inhabited by Turks, the second by Armenians, were successively -left behind. At half-past ten we arrived at the station of Jellap, -a stage of twenty versts (thirteen miles). - -The post house is situated at some little distance from the village--an -Armenian settlement which is exposed to view after you have left the -station, high-seated among the rocks above the road. It is a gloomy -habitation, standing in a stony valley by the banks of a stream which -descends to the trough of the Arpa from the rocky hummocks to which -the road adheres. Starting at a few minutes after eleven, we commenced -by crossing a projecting promontory, mounting the slopes of the puny -ridges by steep gradients, and never regaining the prospect which had -been lost before reaching Jellap. At length, at half-past eleven, -the valleys opened; and we overlooked the landscape of the plain -of Alexandropol. - -A vast plain lay before us, level as water, to the floor of which -the ground declines on every side. A single mountain, which has the -appearance of a gigantic bank of soil, is drawn in a long horizontal -outline along its southern verge. This outline is the dominant -feature in the scene, extending from north of east to south of west -(Fig. 23). The heart and highest points of the volcanic elevation are -situated in the easterly portion of the mass; they are represented -by the jagged profile of the broken outer side of a crater, and -they gleam with perpetual snow. Some conception of the stupendous -proportions of the mountain may be derived from a rough measurement -of its protraction in a latitudinal sense. On the east the volcanic -emissions have been arrested by the barrier of the border ranges; on -the west they have descended from the central or subordinate points -of eruption to the valley of the Arpa Chai. From that valley, in the -neighbourhood of Ani, to the road which passes between the volcano -and the meeting slopes of the border chain is a distance of over 40 -miles. Throughout this space the bulk of the giant is thrown across -the landscape, his head and body resting against the framework of the -border ranges, his feet extended to the margin of the historic stream. - -Such a prospect is the rich reward of the traveller; we paused to -admire and to realise the scene. It was difficult to believe that -those snowy peaks were over 30 miles distant; yet a glance at the map -brought home to us this fact. The floor of the plain has an elevation -of some 5000 feet, while those peaks are 13,000 feet high. Between -us and the base of the mountain no meaner object disturbed the view, -which ranged uninterrupted across dim tracts of earth and stone, -tinted with shades of ochre in the burnt grass and scanty stubble, -but treeless, without verdure of any kind. In the east the limit -of the plain is the outline of the border ranges, of which we were -touching the skirts; they describe a wide curve, concave towards the -expanse, and appear to pass over into a meridional direction before -the point of intersection with the volcanic mass. Their sides are bare -of vegetation, as are those of the volcano, and they are much broken -into hummock forms. From north-west descend the slopes of the Chaldir -system, of which the base is inclined towards the plain. In the west -the eye is unable to discern a boundary to the misty distance of flat -or undulating ground. A little to the right of the white summits in -the south your attention is directed to a slender line of grey--a -low relief upon the surface of the plain. It is Alexandropol; such -is the first view of the site of the city, backed by Alagöz. We made -rapid progress across the level interval and arrived in the town at -a quarter before one. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -AT ALEXANDROPOL - - -The city and district of Alexandropol are included in the -administrative division of the Government of Erivan. Yet they are -separated from the capital and territory of that name by a natural -barrier of vast extent. The mass of Alagöz, which one may compare -to a gigantic shield with a central boss, interrupts communication -with the valley of the Araxes. It must be turned and cannot be -crossed. In a geographical sense the province of Alexandropol unites -more naturally with that of Kars; while, if we measure its importance -by the populousness of its principal town, it deserves to enjoy a -position of primacy in the Government of which it may form part. The -city has double the number of inhabitants as compared to Erivan, -if I can trust the figure given me by the governor and corroborated -by the leading notables--a round total of 30,000 souls. [60] - -Its extreme youth and the fact that it is almost exclusively peopled -by Armenians are the most remarkable features about Alexandropol. At -the commencement of the nineteenth century the site was partly vacant -and partly tenanted by an insignificant village called Gümri. The -district formed part of the outlying province of Shuragel, [61] which -belonged to the Georgian kingdom at the time of the annexation of -Georgia by Russia in 1801. The Cossacks who came to take over this -important piece of territory appear to have established a camp in -the vicinity of Gümri; the place was early developed into a frontier -station on the side of Turkey, and in 1817, when it was visited by -an English traveller, was already occupied by a considerable Russian -garrison. [62] In the war between Russia and Turkey, which broke -out in the spring of 1828, this partially fortified position served -the Russians as an advanced base. It was on the line of advance or -defence on the side of Gümri that the Russian military authorities -placed the greatest store. There the Russian possessions were most -open to attack; but, on the other hand, it was through Gümri that -they could take the offensive with the greatest advantage, since it -enabled them to cut off Akhaltsykh and the northern provinces from -Erzerum and those upon the west. How Turkey could have permitted her -powerful neighbour to acquire this strip without an appeal to arms can -probably best be explained on the ground of Oriental fatalism. When -Marshal Paskevich had taken Erivan and concluded the war with Persia -by the Peace of Turkomanchai (February 1828), his hands were free -to cut large slices from the Ottoman empire; and it was at Gümri, -overlooking the Arpa Chai, the boundary against Turkey, that he -effected the concentration of his troops. From Gümri he set out in -person at the head of his army on the 26th of June 1828. The outcome -of this war was the capture of Kars and Erzerum, and the permanent -acquisition by Russia of Akhaltsykh and the northern districts under -the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). The restoration to the Sultan of the -two first-named strongholds increased the strategical value of the -station on the Arpa Chai. Gümri was slowly but persistently converted -into a first-rate fortress, the necessary timber for the constructions -being supplied to his hereditary enemies by the Pasha of Kars from -the forests of the Soghanlu Dagh. In 1836 the place was visited by -the Emperor Nicholas I. in person, who inspected the works, which, -however, were only in an inchoate state. [63] The inhabitants date -the prosperity of their town from the Imperial visit, which at once -inaugurated an era of rapid expansion and transformed the village of -Gümri into the city of Alexandropol. Since Russia has become possessed -of Kars, the fortress on the Arpa has somewhat declined in importance; -but it is still occupied by a considerable garrison, and the strength -of its defences should enable it to give a good account of itself in -time of war. - -Our experiences at Akhaltsykh had warned me to proceed with caution in -endeavouring to realise the topography of the site. It was not often -or in public that I could have recourse to my compass; yet I contrived -to collect sufficient particulars of an innocent nature to supply my -own wants and those of my lay readers. Conceive in the first place a -fordable river flowing on a southerly course through a plain of vast -extent and slightly basin-like surface. On the left or eastern bank -beyond a strip of quite level ground rises a ridge of insignificant -elevation, roughly parallel to the stream. Of no great breadth upon -the summit, it tends to circle inwards on the north of the town, which -it screens from the river. South of the site it dies away into the -plain. The north-west angle of this ridge is occupied by the citadel, -and consists of a spacious table surface, with plenty of room for -barracks and magazines. The entire formation is strongly fortified -with earthworks and with massive structures in brick or stone. Such -is the principal or, at least, the most conspicuous feature in the -defences of Alexandropol. But it is by no means the only advantage -which they derive from Nature. - -Just inside and, therefore, east of this longitudinal ridge a second -back of nearly equal height and of similar direction rises beyond a -ravine which is threaded by a brook, and which widens as it extends -from the citadel towards the south. It forms the standpoint from which -I took my photograph of the town (Fig. 24), extending eastwards at -its skirts. The tombs seen in the foreground belong to a straggling -Armenian cemetery. From this position on the inner ridge I estimated -the distance across the ravine at about five hundred yards, and our -distance from the river at about three-quarters of a mile. As the -valley narrows towards the citadel, it is filled with the trees of -a little park, whither the citizens repair to escape the dazzling -light of summer and to enjoy the contrast of deep shade and murmuring -waters. It forms a welcome patch of verdure in the treeless expanse. On -this same ridge, but further south, are seen the graves of officers -and men who fell in the last Russo-Turkish war. They are grouped -about a monument to Loris Melikoff; but I believe that great general -of Armenian origin is buried at Tiflis. - -In the manner I have tried to describe, Alexandropol is screened on -the west at first by the river, and then by two long ridges, with a -valley between which may be compared to a gigantic moat. I am not -aware that the inner crest is strengthened by fortifications; but -it offers an admirable second line of defence. The curious feature -about the site is that the ridging formation is not yet exhausted; -three minor and roughly parallel elevations are covered with the -houses of the town. They cause the streets to go up and down, and make -them none too pleasant walking. As a fortress, I should be inclined -to conclude that the place is weak upon the east and south; while -the nature of the ground beyond the river, rising as it does from -the right bank to a height almost equal to that of the outer ridge, -exposes it to a bombardment from that side. - -It must not be supposed that these characteristics of the topography -are prominent in the landscape. They are lost in the folds of -the plain and overpowered by the scale of their surroundings. Look -where you will, you have around you the floor of a sea-like expanse, -bounded at immense intervals by mountainous coasts. In the east it -is the indented outline of the range on the side of Georgia, curving -round from a south-easterly into a due meridional direction as it -approaches the point of intersection with Alagöz. From that point -the great volcano composes a side of the frame, inclining a little -south of an east-west line. It forms a magnificent object as seen from -Alexandropol, high in the sky, yet with scarcely perceptible gradient -in the profile on either side of the core of precipitous peaks. You -follow its train declining into the vague spaces of the west, where -the bulging convexities become broken into hummock forms. The greatest -breadth of the plain, as it appears to the eye, would be measured from -the wall of the range which intersects with Alagöz to a distant mass -of mountain in the south-west. That vague boundary probably belongs -to one of the elevations on the plateau which extends between Kars -and the Araxes. Between it and the skirts of the volcano there is a -broad depression in the outlines, giving passage to the Arpa Chai. The -misty prospects on the west and north-west did not reveal during the -course of our stay the limits of the level surface in those directions. - -Let us see now what these latter-day Armenians have made of their -city; for the public and private edifices are creations of their -own. It is evident that they have inherited the love of building -which distinguished their forefathers, and that the craft of that -excellent masonry which we admire in their ancient monuments has not -become extinct. On the other hand, they share to the full in the -tastelessness of the modern peoples in the decorative arts. Their -churches are at once pretentious and commonplace both in design and -in ornamentation. Of those exquisite mouldings with their lace-work -chisellings which adorn the exteriors of their medićval counterparts -there is, indeed, scarcely a trace on these ambitious structures. But -even the standard of the seventeenth century, of which many a specimen -has been preserved elsewhere, notably in the porches of much older -churches, has not been maintained into our times. Size and a certain -effect, rather than elegance of proportion and a loving care for -detail, are the characteristics of the new style. The cathedral, -dedicated to the Trinity, is a spacious building, which is held up -to your admiration, as blending the features of the old models. It is -difficult to understand how such an assertion and such a comparison can -be forthcoming from people who have at their doors in the neighbouring -cloister of Marmashen an example of the art of their ancestors. I need -only say of the cathedral that it is built of black volcanic stone, -relieved by courses of the same material but with a ruddy hue. I was -informed that it was commenced in 1859 and completed in 1874. - -Besides this temple the Gregorian Armenians have three churches, -of which the most considerable is a large structure in grey stone, -named after the Virgin Mary. The Armenian Catholics are possessed of -a single but roomy church. The Greek chapel of St. George is of some -interest because of its connection with the Greek colony of Erzerum, -who, like so many of the ancestors of the Armenian inhabitants of -Alexandropol, followed the armies of Marshal Paskevich upon his -evacuation of Turkish territory. It contains a picture of St. George -and the dragon (Fig. 25) which is of considerable merit, and is said -to contain the date of 1327. But those figures, as they now appear, -are due to a recent restoration. The father of a M. Mergoroff, whom I -met during my stay, was principally concerned in its transportation -at the time of the exodus. I understand that it was brought to -Gümri, whence it migrated to a village called Zalga, only returning -after the lapse of seven years. M. Mergoroff writes a curious hand, -partly composed of Greek letters and partly based upon the Russian -alphabet. This characteristic may correspond to the present culture -of his countrymen at Alexandropol, numbering some four hundred souls. - -This flourishing town is badly supplied in respect of education, the -Armenian schools being restricted by Government to a purely elementary -course, and having the rank only of schools of two classes. [64] -They are three in number and are attended by 700 boys, besides two -institutions which dispense instruction to 500 girls. The Russian State -school is said to be limited in accommodation, and is attended by no -more than 140 youths, principally Armenians. The inhabitants have -been agitating for a Russian gymnasium or High School, such as has -been vouchsafed to their less numerous compatriots at Erivan. They -attribute their ill-success and the greater advantages enjoyed by -Akhaltsykh to the fact that the latter town belongs to the Government -of Tiflis while they are dependent upon Erivan. At Alexandropol I heard -little of the much-vexed school question, which I shall treat in a -subsequent chapter. But the inhabitants were loud in their complaints -that, while forbidden to raise the standard of their own schools, -they were not provided with adequate education by Government. Such -a situation is typical of the application of Russian methods, and -would be humorous if its results were less grave. - -I must have spent much of my time in attending the various ceremonies -attendant upon the wedding of a M. Ter Mikelean. I think I may have -come near to getting married myself, the lady being none other -than his intended bride. For on one occasion, when we were all -assembled in a lower apartment, and, the bride's father being dead, -her nearest male relation was conducting her sale by formal auction, -my own bid seemed for some time to hold its own against all rivals, -amounting, so far as I remember, to twenty pounds. I was relieved at -discovering that there was a want of reality about the proceedings, -and that it had been arranged beforehand that the damsel should be -knocked down to the chosen bridegroom. When we were taken upstairs, -and, among a throng of women, were permitted to gaze upon the girl's -features, my apprehensions were almost converted into regret. Such -a sweetly pretty face, recalling the favourites of Andrea del Sarto, -with their fresh simplicity and candid eyes! I was in part rewarded -by her consenting to form the centre of a wedding group, and thus -to enable me to perpetuate her youthful beauty (Fig. 26). The lady -with the head-dress, standing behind her, is her amiable mother, a -type of Giovanni Bellini; while the gentleman with his back to the -wall is M. Vahan Barsamiantz, engaged in an export business of the -fruits of the castor-oil plant, which is cultivated in the valley of -the Araxes. The musicians in the foreground were the most lively and -strenuous performers I have ever met, being rarely silent and never -tired. Every member of the group was an Armenian. When night came there -were dances in the open air to the light of streaming torches. The -strains were not yet hushed as we regained our encampment, which we -had placed in a shabby garden of the suburbs. - -I must not omit a notice of an excursion which we made to the -neighbouring cloister of Marmashen. It is a monument of the period of -the medićval kings of Armenia, and is of the same order of architecture -as those at Ani. It is situated about five miles north of Alexandropol, -on the rocky banks of the Arpa Chai. As we drove over the plain, we -remarked that ploughing had not yet commenced, and that the stubble -still stood in the somewhat stony soil. Not a fence or other boundary, -and not a single tree diversified the expanse of ground. Sowing takes -place in April, rains fall in May and June, and the harvest is gathered -during July and August. The surroundings of the monastery are bleak -and unrelieved by vegetation; the church and chapels are falling into -ruin, and rise from among piles of débris. My illustration (Fig. 27) -displays the principal edifice from the south-west and the chapel -which adjoins it on the south. A companion but larger chapel on the -north is hidden from view, [65] and a third structure of the same -order, but more distant on that further side, is beyond the range of -the picture. The visitor cannot fail to admire the simplicity of the -design of the church and the absence of any excrescences. The device -of the niche has been used to lighten the wall on the east, where the -plan of the interior requires an apse and two side chapels. Each of -the two recesses upon that side has a depth of 3 feet 8 inches; while -the similar features on the north and south sides have probably been -added for the sake of uniformity. The wall spaces have been diversified -with elegant false arcades, and the window on the west is framed in a -band of exquisite chiselling. All these features will be familiar to my -reader when he has read my account of Ani, and I need not, therefore, -dwell upon them in this place. He will also become acquainted with -the personages who erected these edifices, and whose names figure -in the long inscriptions on the walls of the church. From these we -learn that it was built by none other than the great prince Vahram, -the hero of the resistance offered by the inhabitants of Ani to the -occupation of their city by the Byzantine Cćsar. It was commenced in -the year A.D. 988, and does not appear to have been completed until -1029. [66] On the other hand, a memorial tablet, inserted into the wall -on the west, contains a well-preserved inscription which we copied, -giving the date of 470 of the Armenian era, or A.D. 1021. Presumably -the building would have been in use at that time. According to an -inscription on the north wall it was extensively restored in A.D. 1225 -by descendants of Vahram. [67] The wife of that prince and perhaps, -too, his own remains were buried at Marmashen. - -The interior, a nave and two narrow aisles, has a length of 61 feet, -measured to the head of the apse, and a breadth of 34 feet. The daďs -of the apse is not less than 4 feet in height, the face of the daďs -being decorated with a sculptured frieze of intricate design. In -other respects the masonry is free of ornament, and the walls have -been left bare. The name of the cloister is said to be a corruption of -Marmarashen, which would signify the marble edifice. Yet the material -used is a pink volcanic stone, and I did not observe any marble about -the church. A porch extended at one time the whole breadth of the -façade, and must have had a length of nearly 37 feet. A prominent -feature of this approach were four octagonal pillars, of which the -remains still exist. They have a circumference of 7 feet 10 inches in -the shaft. I cannot say that I admire the dome, and it is, perhaps, -due in its present form to the restoration of the thirteenth century. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X - -TO ERIVAN - - -During our stay at Alexandropol it had required no small effort -to detach our minds from the paramount object with which they -were filled. Every day, every hour, which separated us from Ararat -diminished the prospects of a successful ascent. We were impatient, -and anxious to leap the intervening stages, like pilgrims almost in -sight of their long-sought shrine. - -It was, therefore, with a sense of relief that, at one o'clock, on -the 12th of September, we set out from the city in the direction of -Alagöz. We were to make for the passage between the volcano and the -border mountains, and to rest in that valley for the night. The road -is a mere track, yet we were able to engage a private carriage to take -us to Erivan. One is astounded in the East at the performances of a -victoria, should the necessities of a European or the ostentation -of an Oriental have summoned such an object of luxury to their -wilds. Our luggage accompanied us in a springless waggon, which, -like the carriage, was privately horsed. The post road to Erivan -makes the long deviation down the valleys of the border ranges to -the junction with the road from Tiflis at the station of Delijan. - -The great plain lay around us, level and devoid of objects, like the -bosom of a sea. Before us stretched the mountain, the unwieldy bulk -of a colossus, a formidable barrier to the country on the south. In -such an expanse the human note is overwhelmed by Nature; one hardly -notices the signs of the presence of ubiquitous man. There are villages -which you scarcely see until you have passed within their precincts; -such were Tapa Dolak, through which we drove at a quarter before one, -and Golgat, which we reached at four o'clock. Both are inhabited -by Armenians; neither possesses a school or school-house, but the -second owns and the first was building a church. After obtaining a -view, on our right hand, of two considerable Armenian villages, we -arrived at Norashen, where we were to rest the horses, at half-past -four o'clock. It is an Armenian settlement with ninety-five tenements -and a population of 900 souls, and it was in process of erecting a -school. Let the reader picture to himself rude structures of stone and -wood and earth, which, at one end, issue upon irregular little lanes, -and, at the other, are buried into a slope of the ground. Through such -entrances you pass to subterraneous chambers which serve as stables -and as living rooms. In the midst of these sordid surroundings four -stone walls are a prominent object; they belong to a little chapel, -which has a roof of sods and a bare interior; the bells are hung in -a wooden structure at the side. Men with tanned complexions, deep -wrinkles, and bent knees issue from the tenements and slouch along the -lanes. Children crowd about you, their little stomachs unduly swollen -and barely covered by a single cotton shirt. Nobody can read or write; -we questioned several. Such is the description which, with variations, -applies to most of these villages, and is true of Norashen. - -With what emotion one turned to the contemplation of the magnificent -landscape which was outspread at our feet! The squalor of man, the -grandeur of his natural environment--the reflection recurs and recurs -in the East. We were standing on the lower slopes of the mountain, -some 1500 feet above the floor of the plain. A gentle incline, of -which the surface was checkered with alternate patches of fallow and -stubble, stretched away from a foreground of loose stones and garnered -corn-land to the dim lights and opaline mists of a vast amphitheatre, -where the expanse of level land was confined and choked by a wide -girdle of mountains--long volcanic outlines and fantastic shapes of -cone and peak mingling with the gloom of the distance and the gloom of -the sky. But the zenith was intensely blue, and we breathed a strong, -yet sunlit air. Behind us, in the opposite segment of the heaven, -white, luminous clouds touched and concealed the snowy region where -Alagöz sits enthroned; yet we were able to observe that the snow lies -in drifts within that region, for many of the flatter places were -free of snow. A prominent feature, to which I have already alluded, -is the manner in which the heart, or central rock mass of the volcano, -is seen to rise beyond the edge of a rounded bank of softer texture, -which follows the inner ridge at a respectful interval, and appears -to be separated from it by a deep ravine. One cannot fail to observe -the contrast between the roundness and softness of the outwork and -the steep sides and black rocks of the inner ridge. - -In fact, as you skirt the slopes of the volcano, you never touch -the sides which mount immediately to the snows. You follow along the -direction of gently vaulted banks of soil, parallel to the upstanding -core of the mass. Their surface is patched with cultivation to a height -which has been estimated at 8300 feet. [68] The herbage is sweet and -produces excellent crops of hay; the earth is black and rich. Soon -after leaving Norashen--we started at about six--you turn the flank -of the range which meets the volcano at right angles, and then recedes -in a hollow, concave to the shield-shaped pile. You enter the passage -between Alagöz and the border mountains, and you arrive at the head -waters of the southward-flowing streams. In this region are situated -Güzeldere and Kerwanserai, the first an Armenian village, the second a -Kurdish settlement. In the latter we found a station-house maintained -by Armenians, who provided us with a guide and a Chinese lantern to -take us to the guest-house, distant about two versts, which stands -above the village of Haji Khalil. It occupied us some little time, -groping our way through the thick darkness, and we did not arrive -until eight o'clock. - -The little guest-house proved a dreary and comfortless shelter; we -sighed for the comparative luxury of a Persian chapar-khaneh or the -cleanliness of a Swiss hut. A fetid odour exuded from the peeling walls -and cracked flooring, and legions of active fleas rose from beneath -the boards. We slept, as we might, on the wooden takht or daďs, until, -at half-past one, the door thundered with heavy knocks. After some -parley the intruders were admitted to our chamber--was it a dream, -or whence issued these strange shapes? One awaited the wild staccato, -followed by the flowing iambic:-- - - - astrôn katoida nykterôn homęgyrin - kai tous pherontas cheima kai theros brotois - lamprous dynastas emprepontas aitheri [69] - - -Yet the floor, the walls, the companions were all real--everything, -except those figures at the door. The flicker of a lamp was reflected -upon their bearded faces and bare necks, upon the heavy folds of the -brown draperies hanging about their shoulders, upon the blunt ends of -their wooden staves. Did they proclaim the line of bonfires?--Watchmen, -stationed by an unseen hand to guard us, and come to announce the -break of day. The break of day? It cost us a pang to convince them -of their error; we were loth to commence fresh contests with the -fleas. Poor watchmen, who had forestalled the stars with longing for -the morning! How many times was Troy taken in watchmen's dreams? - -September 13.--At a quarter to six we were on the road. A chill was in -the air, and heavy, sleepy clouds lay on the ground. But the zenith -was softly blue, and a pleasant light fell on the valley with its -spacious floor and ample expanse of sky. Our station was situated at -a slightly higher altitude than the threshold of the pass; I should -estimate our elevation, from the readings of my barometers, at about -7000 feet. After an hour's drive, our track joined a newly-made -road, metalled and ditched on either side; progress was fairly rapid -down the incline of the valley, parallel with the current of the -Abaran. This road was intended to serve as the postal avenue to Erivan -from Alexandropol, and it bifurcates from the existing post road; -but a series of misfortunes appear to have attended its construction, -and it had not yet been used by the post. Verst after verst we drove -along it, through a landscape which changes little from the features -at the entrance of the pass. On our right hand rose the huge volcano, -no longer an extended horizontal outline, but a shield-shaped mass, -bellying upwards to the rim of a crater, which circled from us with -a wide sweep (Fig. 28). The slopes of the mountain were inclined -at an angle of scarcely more than eleven degrees--soft convexities, -broken into gullies and little hummocks, and, here and there, strewn -with a shingle of greenish hue. The peaks had gradually disappeared -as we rounded the base of the pile--a transition of which the phases -were frequently withdrawn from observation through the incidence of -clouds. On our left, at varying but always ample interval, the outer -spurs of the border mountains described a parallel half-circle with the -contour of Alagöz--one might almost mistake them for some outer shell -of the volcano, so closely did they appear to follow the curve of its -base. But, unlike their big neighbour, the slopes of these outworks -were covered with brushwood, which developed into dwarf trees as we -advanced. The floor of the valley revealed in most parts the hand -of the reclaimer, by the side of a stretch of turf, by the margin -of a rotting marsh. Yet mile after mile we could see no settlement; -we seldom met a wayfarer, except for some drivers with a string of -donkeys, laden with grapes from the valley of the Araxes, and a group -of supple Kurdish girls. At a quarter to eight we drew rein for a few -minutes in the large Armenian village of Bash Abaran. The inhabitants -were busy getting in their corn from the open; here and there it had -not yet been cut. In another hour we opened out a vista of Ararat, -and, at a quarter to ten, we feasted our eyes upon the whole majestic -fabric, before descending into the village of Ali Kuchak. - -One may safely say of the scene which expanded before us that it -is unsurpassed upon the surface of our globe. Nor is it difficult -to account for the strength and permanence of the impression which -it produces upon the mind. Nowhere has Nature worked on a scale -more stupendous; yet on none of her works has she bestowed greater -unity of conception, a design more harmonious, surroundings more -august. Whatever mysteries compose the spell of the wide ocean and -the open firmament, all the exquisite shades of light which temper -the gloom of a northern climate, all the many-coloured radiance of -the south, have been lavished upon the panorama which centres in -Ararat and is spread like a kingdom at his feet. - -Seen at this distance--measured on the map it is a space of fifty-six -miles to the summit--the mountain is little more than an outline -upon the horizon; yet what an outline! what a soul in those soaring -shapes! Side by side stand two of the most beauteous forms in Nature, -the pyramid and the dome. Both are developed on lines of almost -ideal perfection, with proportions which startle the eye in spite -of all their symmetry; and both are supported by a common base. The -pyramid is one, and the dome is one; yet the structure is single -which they combine to raise. From the dim east into the dim west you -follow that long-drawn profile, rising from a distant promontory, -declining to a distant promontory, centring in the roof of the dome, -in the peak of the cone. The dome has an elevation of 17,000 feet, -the cone of nearly 13,000 feet; and the base reclines on a plain -which forms the greatest depression in the relief of Armenia, and -which has an altitude of scarcely more than 3000 feet above the sea. - -The standpoint from which we looked upon the wonders of this landscape -were the basal slopes of the opposite colossus of Alagöz, where they -descend to that same spacious plain. It is the plain which the Araxes -waters; yet we could not see the river, hidden in the unseen hollow -of the expanse. Between us and our horizon flat tracts of naked earth -stretched away from the stony ground about us to a distant region -of half lights and soft mist; above those shadows rose the mountain, -bathed in light and luminous vapour, to wreaths of white cloud, hanging -to the snows of the dome. On our left hand, a wooded hill--the only -spot of verdure in the scene--jutted out into the levels from the -border ranges, which here recede from the plain. Its summit outline -is broken by a fantastic peak, like the comb of a cock, and it may -perhaps be identified with the volcanic elevation of Karniarch. Below -us lay the village, a cluster of stacks of tezek fuel, and driving -smoke, proceeding from scarcely visible huts of mud and stone. Ledges -or tongues of rock and cliff projected on our right from the base -of Alagöz; they represent the extreme outrunners of the northern -mountain and sink into the landscape, like the capes of a rock-bound -coast. We were about to leave that coast behind us and to cross the -floor of this sea-like plain; hues of ochre were lightly laid upon -its gently undulating surface and mingled with the nearer tints of -yellow and umber in the stubble and fallow of the cultivated land. - -All our thoughts, our whole ambition, were centred on that distant -mountain; our emotions satisfied, we reflected that the spot where -we were standing was the nearest point which we should reach to the -summer resort of Darachichak. It might be possible to hire horses -and ride the distance of some twenty miles; all the official world -of Erivan would be assembled in that pleasant valley, and we had -need of their assistance for our ascent. So, once arrived within -the village, we sent for the elder; and we were glad to hear that -the place was the seat of a Pristav, or head of an administrative -group of villages. A lean and lank Armenian responded to our summons; -he came with a slouching gait and with sleep in his eyes, and he was -engaged in buttoning his long grey coat. The official dress of Russia -and the peaked cap of white canvas on such a truly Oriental figure as -this! However, he promised to procure us horses, and, putting faith -in his official dignity, I decided to split our party into two. My -cousin and myself would adventure upon the journey into the mountains; -Wesson, Rudolph and the Armenian would proceed in the victoria and -with the waggon to the town of Erivan. - -Our companions started on their journey, while we with our saddles -made our way to a neighbouring village in which the horses were to be -found. We were accompanied by the Pristav's man, a sinister-looking -villain; the saddles followed on a bullock cart. But at a winding of -the path, just after leaving the settlement, the wheels sank into an -abysmal depth of mud. I have no doubt that this incident is of daily -occurrence, and that neither village would entertain the notion of -making a road. The horses were on the meadows; their owners refused -to catch them, and we were obliged to essay the task ourselves. But -in this open country they eluded all our efforts; we were obliged to -return without attaining our end. The Pristav received our maledictions -with equanimity, and we were reduced to the tame expedient of two -sorry ponies, which were only equal to carrying us to the nearest -considerable station on the road to Erivan. - -How poor in resources is this magnificent country! what a curse -appears to lie on these fertile lands! Our Pristav had the charge of -thirty-six villages, of which six were inhabited by Persian Tartars -and the remainder by a population of his own race. His district -extended from Bash Abaran to Ashtarak; yet he told us that in the -whole of this considerable region there did not exist a single school. - -Baffled of our purpose, we mounted our ponies and took to the road -to Erivan, two solitary figures in the lonely waste. The provincial -capital was over thirty-five miles distant, and it was already -half-past four o'clock. The prospect over the plain, which I have just -described, is so far deceptive that you under-rate the extension of -these stony basal slopes. This mistaken estimate is due in part to -the position of the hill of Karniarch, which blocks the view towards -the south-east. To gain Erivan, you are obliged to round the base of -that elevation; nor, in that direction, do the rocky inclines die -away in the level campagna before you have reached the gardens of -the town. The base of Alagöz appears to mingle with the base of the -volcanic masses which line the inner edges of the border range; mile -after mile you cross a bleak and boulder-strewn country which sweeps -into the plain. To add to our impression of the complete forlornness of -this region, a violent storm arose. The immense expanse of heaven was -filled with driving clouds, riven by lightning; the torrents roared, -and the blast bent the stunted bushes which rise along their margin -among the rocks. We were reminded of the famous night upon the Brocken, -as our tired ponies tottered forward into the blinding rain. Shelter -there was none; it was a case of struggling onwards and taking pleasure -in the elemental war. And the road! was there ever outside of Persia -such a strange caricature of a road? It wound like a snake, avoiding -every hillock; the traffic made short cuts from bend to bend. There -were bridges broken in the back with a ford alongside them; there -were yawning culverts and parallel tracks avoiding the horrors of the -metalled way. Not a soul did we meet, until, as the evening advanced, -we passed through some considerable Armenian villages which presented -the strange spectacle of a lamp-lit street. But where was Ashtarak, -the goal of our journey? should we ever accomplish our self-imposed -stage? When our mounts could go no further, my cousin points out a long -building by the side of a large church. No door could we see or opening -on to the ground, only a lofty verandah with a ladder, a feature which -recalled the old lawless times. We clamoured, and were admitted after -sundry explanations, and a stable was found for our weary hacks. - -We were received by a young Armenian who spoke a little French, and -who ushered us into the presence of a vardapet or monastic priest. I -regret my inability to place on the page the handsome features of our -host, Monseigneur Achote--so he transcribed his rank and name. He -told us that we were welcome to the monastery of Mugni, and that -he himself happened to be the only priest in residence. Assisted by -his clerk, he busied himself about our comforts; clothed us afresh, -gave us to eat and drink. Monseigneur belongs to the new school of -Armenian ecclesiastics; he has received an excellent education, and -possesses wide sympathies and broad views. His room was littered with -books and papers; his talk was animated, and one could not doubt that -his ardent patriotism was sincere. Next morning--September 14--we -visited the church of Mugni, a plain but solid stone structure, -quite in the grand style. An open portal, resting on four solid -piers, gives access to the doorway with its richly carved mouldings, -and is surmounted by a little tower in which the bells are hung. The -exterior is of grey stone, varied by blocks of red volcanic rock; here -and there carved slabs of such rock have been inserted, a familiar -feature in Armenian architecture. The interior is quite plain and the -masonry uncovered; so thick are the walls that in the apse you are -shown two secret chambers built into the frame of the church. Access -to these chambers is obtained by removing a block of stone in the -ceilings of two recesses in the apse. In the old lawless times these -rooms served as a refuge; they are capacious and receive the light of -day. The head of St. George is preserved in a little side chapel, a -treasure of considerable value to the monastery. It seemed so strange -that our enlightened host should be profiting by the possession of -this relic, and I thought that he answered my smile. An inscription -informs us that the church was built--or may it not be restored or -embellished?--by Mgr. Peter of Argulis in the year of the Armenian -era 1118 or A.D. 1668, with his people's money and his own. - -Monseigneur's windows looked out upon a wretched village, which -appeared doubly miserable in the cold light. At half-past nine we -mounted our ponies, and set out for Ashtarak. Mugni lies to the south -of the hill of Karniarch--a name which our native guide pronounced -Garnara. The surrounding country maintains the stony and inhospitable -character of the waste through which we had lately passed. A short -ride brought us to the descent into the little township--an oasis of -verdure, a pretty church, with a cluster of roofs and gables, tall -poplars, terraces of flat house-tops. But when we had passed within -the precincts, this pleasant impression faded; were the crumbling -walls of the houses in course of demolition, or was this rude masonry -of mud and stone succumbing to the storm of yesterday? We proceeded -down a narrow street which is lined with lofty trees and channelled -by a swirling stream. Here the owners of the ponies were lying in -wait for us; a sure instinct had placed them upon our way. According -to the published statistics Ashtarak possesses some 3000 inhabitants, -all of Armenian race. - -By eleven o'clock we had procured horses and were again on the road to -Erivan. The entire region is strewn with rocks and presents the same -bleak appearance, except where, here and there, a stream descends the -barren slopes and sustains a slender line of green. In such places you -may discern the rare site of a village, a few poplars, the grouped -architecture of a church. At length, after long winding between the -stony eminences, we opened out a view over the great plain. The sky -had not yet cleared, and mists obscured the forms of the mountains; -but the whole lap of the plain was revealed. Patches of soft blue -relieved the surface of the dim country--the vegetation of the rich -campagna about the banks of the Araxes. We rode on, always descending, -over these stony uplands, until they dipped to the floor of the level -ground. Luxuriant gardens filled the gently-pursing hollow, intensely -green after the heavy rain of the preceding day. Pools of water lay -on the road; the water-courses were brimming over. The orchards were -clothed with fruit of ideal perfection in form and colour; we admired -the size and brilliant hues of the clustering peaches, side by side -with the bending branches of the apple and the pear trees, with the -deep shade of the walnut and the mulberry trees. Ripe grapes hung -in abundance from the low vine-stocks.... Such are the outskirts of -Erivan, a town embowered in foliage. We reached the central park at -half-past one o'clock. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -TO ARARAT - - -Erivan is a town of gardens in which a network of irrigation channels -preserves from early spring into late autumn the perfection of the -foliage. In the heart of the business quarter is situated a little -park, disposed into shady alleys and promenades for the citizens, -but presenting also pathless spaces of forest land. We were tempted -to pitch our tents in the secluded portion. But the storm had soaked -the soil; solid walls were a preferable shelter. We encamped in -the naked rooms of a building which faced the park and bore the -pretentious inscription, Hôtel de Londres. Our first care was to -dispatch a mounted messenger to General Frese, Governor of Erivan, -who was residing at the summer resort of Darachichak. I begged His -Excellency to instruct his people to assist us in our preparations, -and to furnish us with a letter to the commandant of the Cossacks, -stationed on the slopes of Ararat. - -On the morning of the 16th of September our courier returned and -informed us that the Governor had sent the necessary instructions -to the Nachalnik, or chief of the district police. I had already -made the acquaintance of that important official, chief of police -for the district of Erivan, and acting chief of police for the -town of Erivan. A brief experience had taught me that without his -active co-operation all private efforts were made in vain; the -forces one set in motion returned in useless circles to the point -from which they had started. But it so happened that the Nachalnik -was an extremely amiable person; he had helped us, he would help us -again. Without delay he provided us with a letter to the Cossacks; -nothing remained but to make a start. But in the East one can never -count upon being able to proceed on one's journey before the cavalcade -is already on the outward road. I had read of the difficulties which -had been experienced by previous travellers in finding horses in the -district neighbouring Ararat to convey them to the higher slopes. I -had therefore made contracts with owners in Erivan to provide us -with the necessary animals. When I summoned these individuals, they -were no longer forthcoming, they were nowhere to be found. I then -endeavoured to hire a carriage, to take us as far as Aralykh, with -the resolve to trust to fortune later on. I offered handsome prices -to several drivers; they pleaded the badness of the road and refused -to go. Finally I had recourse to the posting authorities; they swore -that in all their stables not a single horse remained. Convinced of -the futility of further steps on my own initiative, I sought out the -private abode of the chief of police. The hour of the mid-day meal -was already over; a fierce sun was beating upon the silent streets. - -I crossed the shady alleys of the little park, in which not another -person moved. A few steps through the blinding glare of an adjacent -side-road, deep in white dust, brought me to the enclosure which -surrounds the residence of the Nachalnik. I knocked at the little -postern door. A drowsy servant opened to me, and, in answer to my -enquiries, informed me that his master was asleep. Compromising for -once with the valuable principle of always addressing oneself to the -supreme authority, I turned away and walked to the station of the town -police. But not a single officer was in attendance at headquarters; -a couple of men were dozing in the guard room, outstretched upon the -wooden seats. No other course was open but to arouse the Nachalnik; -I returned and again knocked at the little door. It was pleasant to be -offered a seat in a spacious verandah, overlooking a garden; nor was -it long before the master of the house appeared. There are individuals -in whom a tendency to corpulence, while it appears to dispose them -favourably towards their fellow-men, has induced a provoking habit -of restful satisfaction, and has built up a wall of self-possession -against which nervous temperaments beat in vain. The Nachalnik was -not wanting in these passive qualities; and I could not doubt that -they would be exercised on the present occasion as I observed the -approach of his burly form. The white tunic was partially buttoned, -the hair was matted on the brow, the eyes were still heavy with -sleep. I quickly apprised him of the nature and extent of our troubles; -how the owners of our hired horses had broken their contracts, how -the various forms of transport had been successively requisitioned, -with equal failure in every case. Tartar pony men, Molokan droshky -drivers, Armenian posting contractors--not a man among them could -be induced to stir. Our luggage, accompanied by Wesson and Rudolph, -had left that morning in a waggon of the post; we ourselves were -determined to follow them, if necessary on foot. To this petulance -he replied with the utmost composure, to the effect that the people -were free to make their own bargains, and that he could not compel -them to go. It was the familiar story, the honourable attempt to rule -the East upon Western principles, the patient endeavour, rich both -in humour and in pathos, to infuse the drowsy mass with the elements -of vitality and make it respond to those inducements of enlightened -self-interest which move the peoples of the West. In the mouth of the -Nachalnik the enunciation of this principle was not without a certain -vein of almost tragic irony. Himself the child of a race which has -scarcely yet assimilated the motives and the restraints of civilised -life, he had been transplanted from the frozen North to this burning -valley; and the hot sun was already drying up those scanty springs -of action which had so recently been set free. It was plain that the -position could not be carried directly; but it occurred to me at that -moment that there was a weak place on another side. This heavy man, -whose languid negatives and long-drawn affirmatives were capable of -almost infinite resistance, could be stirred to a fury of words and -gestures by the suggestion that his authority had been slighted, -or his orders left unfulfilled. He had been endowed with a talent, -rare in one of his temperament, for grandiose histrionic expression; -and it was not so much, I think, the matter at issue which moved him, -as the favourable opportunity which was offered in such circumstances -for a luxurious display of his talent to himself. I had observed in the -garden the graceful figure of the young sergeant whom he had lent to -me the day before. He had changed his travelling dress for the elegant -skirted coat of Georgia; a row of silvered cartridge-heads glittered -upon his breast, and the dark moustache was carefully pencilled -upon the clean-shaven cheeks. I beckoned him to me and begged him -to confirm what I said. The sergeant had been obliged to use the -name of the Nachalnik, and in that name to threaten horse-owners -and posting contractors in turn. Yet not a man among them could be -made to move. I added that it would seem as if, in the absence of -the Governor, there was an end to all authority in the town. At this -speech the Nachalnik rose from his chair and summoned his servants -about him. He cursed the mongrel race of horse-keepers, Persians or -Tartars, the blood of brigands all. Who could tell in what holes these -thieves were hiding? We should go by the post, and post horses must -be found. Arrived at Aralykh, the Cossacks would mount us on their -own horses; and we should no doubt be able to impress some animals -in the neighbourhood for the transport of our tents. His emissaries -flew in all directions, with the result that, within the respectable -space of three hours, a post cart, drawn by a pair of horses, was -standing at our door. - - - -Erivan is situated on the northern skirts of the valley of the Middle -Araxes--a valley distinguished by its important geographical situation, -by the great works of natural architecture which are aligned upon it, -and by the high place which it holds both in legend and in history -as the scene of momentous catastrophes in the fortunes of the human -race. The natural avenue from east to west across the tableland of -Armenia, it gives easy access to the heart of Asia Minor from the -shores of the Caspian Sea. The nations about and beyond the Caspian -have found their way along this avenue to the coasts of the Black Sea -and the Mediterranean; and, while tradition connects these scenes with -the site of Paradise, the bloody wars which they have witnessed have -suggested to a graceful writer the appropriate recollection of the -curse of the flaming sword. [70] Along the line of the 40th degree of -latitude a succession of plains extend across the tableland, varying -in their depression below the higher levels, watered by the Araxes -and by the upper course of the Western Euphrates, and each giving -access to the other by natural passages. The first is this valley of -the Araxes, with its more narrow continuation westwards through the -district between Kagyzman and Khorasan; the second is the plain of -Pasin; the third the plain of Erzerum. Yet while the plains of Pasin -and of Erzerum are situated respectively at an altitude of 5500 and -5750 feet, the valley of the Araxes in the neighbourhood of Erivan -is only 2800 feet above the sea. Both on the north and south of this -considerable depression, even the plainer levels of the tableland -attain the imposing altitude of 7000 feet, while its surface has been -uplifted by volcanic action into long and irregular convexities of -mountain and hill and hummock. - -On either side of the extensive plain which borders the course of -the Middle Araxes rise mountains of astounding proportions and of -large variety of form. Let us dwell for a moment on the character -of the northern barrier, which closes the prospect from the slopes -of Ararat at a distance of from 30 to 50 miles. The immense bulk -of Alagöz extends across the horizon from the longitude of Ararat -to the districts adjoining the left bank of the Arpa Chai. In that -direction the mass occupies a space of about 40 miles, rising from -the level tracts through which the Araxes flows to a height of over -13,000 feet and inclined from north of east to south of west. The -snowy fangs of the shattered crater are situated a little west of the -longitude of the dome of Ararat; from those peaks the outline of the -mountain is shadowed on either side in an almost horizontal bar. On -the west the streams of molten matter have met with little resistance -to their onward flow; the eastern slopes have been confined by the -bulwark of the border ranges, and are of comparatively insignificant -extent. Where the base gathers beyond the river is a distance from -the slopes of Ararat of about 35 miles; the two summits are nearly -60 miles apart. Yet so large is the scale of this colossal mountain, -and so even the surface of the intervening plain, that, seen through -the clear atmosphere of an Eastern climate, it fills the eye with -its huge presence, sweeping the valley with massive foundations, -and drawn across the sky in a long and rounded bank, broken only by -the trident of shining peaks. - -Such is the character, to a point about north of Ararat, of the -northern wall of this valley of the Araxes--the length of a single -mountain, an unbroken barrier from west to east. At that point the mass -of Alagöz meets the spurs of the border ranges, and its base mingles -with the base of the volcanic elevations which rise along their inner -edge. These elevations continue the wall of mountain eastwards, but -incline it towards the south; they come forward in front of the giant -volcano and narrow the plain. Yet so gradual is the transition that it -is scarcely perceptible; until the eye is awakened by the change in -the sky-line, so even before, so restless now, fretted by the shapes -of cones and little craters which, behind the soft convexities of -flanking outworks, feature the chain which separates the basin of -Lake Sevan from the waters which wash the base of Ararat. - -On the southern side of the great plain there is a remarkable -correspondence with the northern border in the constitution of the -mountain masses, and an interesting difference in the manner in which -they are disposed. On the north you have first a single mountain, -and then a mountain system; on the south the line commences with a -mountain system and ends with a single mass. On the north the mountain -system steps out in advance of the mountain; on the south, by a happy -reversal of the order, the mountain stands forward alone. Alagöz and -the belt south of Lake Sevan are answered by the Ararat system and -by the fabric of Ararat. - -The range which I have termed the Ararat system is known in the country -under the name of Aghri Dagh, a name which is equally applied to -Ararat, but of which the roughness on the palate appears to express -with greater felicity the rugged character of the system to which -Ararat belongs. From the wild and mountainous country which, about the -42nd degree of longitude, borders the right bank of the Upper Araxes -before it enters the plain of Pasin, there extends across the plateau -in an easterly direction a long and comparatively narrow range, which, -skirted on the one side by the course of the Araxes, and on the other -by the plain of Alashkert, composes the spine of this central region -of the tableland, and is interposed as a barrier between north and -south. The appearance of the chain presents a striking contrast to -the convex shapes which feature the adjacent landscapes; the sides -are abrupt, the summits sharp, and the peaks rise from deep valleys -to a height which reaches over 11,000 feet. Where the Araxes leaves -the narrows near the town of Kagyzman, this range is seen massed upon -the right bank of the river; and after following the stream along -the 40th degree of latitude, it inclines to the south-east. Aided by -this slight inclination in the direction of its southern barrier, -the valley rapidly expands, and attains its greatest dimensions at -a point just south of Alagöz. It is at that point that the western -slope of Ararat, which has risen in advance of this satellite system -from a low cape in the west, begins to gather in height and volume, -concealing the rough features of these obsequious mountains behind -the royal sweep of a long train. - -At the back of this even western slope a pass of about 7000 feet -connects the fabric of Ararat with the spinal system which it succeeds -and resumes. Ararat takes up the line of the southern border, -and draws his entire length along the valley in a direction from -north-west to south-east (Frontispiece). There he stands, like some -vast cathedral, on the floor of the open plain. The human quality of -this natural structure cannot fail to impress the eye; and, although -its proportions are not less gigantic than those of the opposite mass -of Alagöz, it contrasts with the Cyclopean forms of that neighbouring -mountain a subtle grace of feature and a harmonious symmetry of -design. Slowly the long slope rises from the western distance, a -gently undulating line; and, as it rises, the base gradually widens, -advancing with almost imperceptible acclivity into the expanse of -plain. So it continues, always rising against the sky-ground, always -gathering at the base, until at a height of 13,500 feet it reaches -the zone of perpetual snow. The summit region of Ararat presents -the appearance of a vast dome of snow, crowning a long oval figure -of which the axis is from north-west to south-east. The whole length -of this roof, on its north-eastern side, is exposed to the valley of -the Araxes. The vaulting is less pronounced upon the west than on the -east, and ascends through a succession of snowfields to the highest -point of the dome. The average inclination of this north-western -slope, where it rises more immediately towards the summit from the -almost horizontal train, is only 18°, while its whole length has been -computed by Parrot at no less than 20 miles. From the massive roof, -which attains a maximum elevation of nearly 17,000 feet above the sea, -or 14,000 feet above the plain, the outline sinks by a steeper but -still easy gradient towards the south-east; the snow-covered slope -dips at an angle of about 30°, and the side of the dome, when seen -from that point of the compass, presents the appearance of an almost -perfect cone. The south-eastern side of Ararat is encumbered below the -snow-line by banks or causeways of piled-up rocks, which branch off -from wedge-shaped ridges descending fanwise from the summit region, -and fall into the plain. On the south-east these causeways narrow -the fork of an upland valley, of which the saddle is placed at a -height of 8800 feet. This valley separates the greater from the lesser -Ararat, and determines the extension of the south-eastern slope. The -horizontal distance of the valley from the summit of the greater Ararat -is about 5 miles. From this saddle the outline of the fabric rises, -and now more rapidly than before. The shape of a beautiful pyramid -is presented; the pointed summit reaches an altitude of about 13,000 -feet, and is placed at a distance from the valley of only 2 miles. The -south-eastern slope of this lesser mountain at first declines with -rapid gradients, which give sharpness to the graceful cone, and then -is drawn through the eastern distance, a gently undulating outline, -sinking to a dim promontory in the east. - -Such is the profile and such the appearance of the majestic structure -upon which eye and mind dwell. When we come to investigate the -underlying principle, we find that, along a line of upheaval which -has been uniform in a direction from north-west to south-east, two -mountains have been reared by volcanic action, their axes following the -line of upheaval and their summits 7 miles apart. The south-eastern -slope of the greater mountain and the north-western side of the -smaller are contiguous at an altitude of about 8000 feet; they meet, -as we have seen, in a fork or valley at an elevation which ranges -between 7500 and 8800 feet. In other words, this valley is the point of -intersection between the bases of either mountain; and that part of the -fabric which lies below it may be regarded as the common foundation -of both. But the base of the smaller and more pointed mountain is -merged into the base of the larger and less steep; and the forms of -the lower portion of the structure continue the contours of Great -Ararat as they sweep away to the south-east. The pyramid of Little -Ararat rises directly from the upland valley; Great Ararat rises from -the floor of the plain. These features lend unity to the whole fabric, -and preserve an exactly proportionate relation between the shape and -size of the two mountains and the protraction of their basal slopes. - -The base or foundation of the Ararat fabric gathers immediately from -the surface of the plain, advancing ever further into the even country -as the weight of the upper structure grows. If the ground plan of the -entire fabric may be described as a long elliptical figure of which -the axis is from north-west to south-east, then the point at which the -base is most developed lies north-east of the summit of Great Ararat, -in the latitude of Erivan. When already, along the axis of this figure, -we have followed the long-drawn outline from the cape in the distant -west to where, beyond the Little Ararat, it slowly falls away into the -east, the eye turns naturally to the face of the mountain, and dwells -with ever-increasing admiration upon the subtle structural qualities -there displayed--the combination of grace with extraordinary solidity, -the easy transition from the lower to the middle slopes, and of these -to the uppermost seams. From the margin of the marshes which border -the right bank of the Araxes the ground commences to incline; yet so -gradual is at first the rise that, if we measure on our base plan, -we find that it is not more than about 3000 feet within a space of 10 -miles. If it be permissible, in the gradual process from one gradient -to another, to fix a division between the upper structure and the base, -the dividing line may be drawn at an elevation of about 5800 feet, -at a distance from the summit of 6 1/2 miles, and of 10 miles from -the floor of the plain. Beyond that line, the seams which mount to -the dome of snow appear to commence their long climb; the eye follows -them on their upward course until they attain the summit region and -end in a long cornice of snow. The extraordinary elevation of Ararat -above the plain of the Araxes--it may be doubted whether there exists -in the world another mountain which rises immediately from a level -surface to such a height--is balanced and controlled by this broad -and massive base, and by the exquisite proportions of the upper -structure which rises to the snowy roof. Yet neither the strength -nor the symmetry of this admirable fabric has been proof against -decay. Momentous convulsions from within have completed the work of -gradual corrosion, and have opened a wide breach in the very heart -of the mountain, where it faces the river and the plain. From the -snow-beds of the lofty cornice to the base at the gathering of the -seams the whole side of Ararat has been fractured and rent asunder; -the standing portion overhangs the recess with steep walls, which -spread within it perpetual gloom. Further east, just in advance of -the saddle which divides the Ararats, a grassy hill of unwieldy shape -and flat summit interrupts the basal slopes, and offers an isolated -contrast to the symmetry of the neighbouring forms. The chasm of -Akhury and the hill of Takjaltu are minor features in the structure -of Ararat which are seen and recognised from afar. - -But most of all, as we realise the vision, which in the noblest shapes -of natural architecture, the dome and the pyramid, fills the immense -length of the southern horizon and soars above the landscape of the -plain, the essential unity of the vast edifice and the correspondence -of the parts between themselves are imprinted upon the mind. If -Little Ararat, rising on the flank of the giant mountain, may recall, -both in form and in position, the minaret which, beside the vault -of a Byzantine temple, bears witness to a conflicting creed, this -contrast is softened in the natural structure by the similarity of the -processes which have produced the two neighbours, and by their intimate -connection with one another as constituents in a single plan. In this -respect they suggest a comparison to a stately ship at sea, with all -the close weaving and interdependence of hull and masts and sails. In -the harmony of a common system each supplements and continues the -other, and what Great Ararat is to the western portion of the fabric -Little Ararat is to that on the east. The long north-western slope of -the larger mountain is answered on the south-east by the train which -sweeps from the side of the smaller towards the mists of the Caspian -Sea; and there is the same correspondence between the slopes which are -contiguous as between those which are most remote. The steeper side -of the greater Ararat is turned towards the needle form of the lesser; -and, standing in the valley which divides the two mountains, it appears -that the degree of inclination of either slope is in exactly inverse -proportion to their size. This pleasing interplay between constancy in -essential principles and diversity of form invests the long outline -of the dual structure with a peculiar charm. The differing shapes -repeat one another, and one base supports the whole. - -The plain itself, on the confines of which, and opposite to one -another, these several ranges and mountain masses rise, is not unworthy -of the works around it, and spreads at their feet a long perspective of -open and even ground. Where the valley attains its greatest extension, -just west of Erivan, the width of its floor, or level surface, is -over twenty miles; and even when the spurs of the Lake Sevan system -have inclined the northern boundary to the south, the space between -these spurs and the extreme base of Ararat is scarcely less than ten -miles. But these are divisions which the mind appreciates and the eye -is unable to perceive, so gradual is the transition from one level -to another, from plain to mountain-side. On the north the dappled -landscape of the campagna mingles with the patches of field and -garden which, fed by a number of slender rivulets, clothe the first -slopes of Alagöz; on the south the gathering foundations of Ararat -are accompanied by an almost insensible inclination in the surface -of the dry and sandy soil. From either side the prospect extends -unbroken to the long summit lines which confront one another at an -interval of nearly sixty miles. From invisible limits in the western -distance issues the looping thread of the Araxes, and, skirting the -base of the Ararat fabric, bends slowly south-eastwards and disappears. - - - -The shady walks of the little park were beginning to fill with groups -of loungers when, at five o'clock in the afternoon of the 16th of -September, we started from the central square of Erivan. A single -horseman accompanied us, a chapar or courier belonging to the country -police. This was the first occasion, since we had entered Russian -territory, upon which an escort had been considered necessary by those -responsible for our safety. We were approaching the Turkish border, and -along that extended mountain frontier acts of brigandage are still not -unknown. Yet the prince of brigands, the redoubted Kerim, no longer -flouts the nachalniks; and a stream of laden carts and leisurely -wayfarers attests the public confidence. Slowly we threaded the -clay-built walls of successive orchards, the trees within them bending -with fruit, until beyond this oasis of foliage and freshness opened, -like an ocean at the mouth of a harbour, the free expanse of plain. - -The springless troika bumped heavily on the projecting slabs of massive -boulders, embedded in the fairway. The road which leads through this -stony region is little better than a natural track. The rocky slopes -of the northern mountain border extend to the south of Erivan, until -they die away into the level surface of the valley a few versts from -the town. The evening was advancing and we had no time to linger; -we were obliged to put up with the jolting and push on. At the -promise of a rouble to the driver the pace quickened; we clutched -the bare sides of the little post cart, and tightened our seat on -the narrow belt of chains, cushioned with a bundle of hay. At the -half stage our courier took his leave and was succeeded by a fresh -horseman; and so throughout the journey one horseman gave place to -another with only a few minutes' delay. These chapars are young men, -native to the country, who find their own mounts; they wear the drab -skirted coat of Georgia and the usual lambskin cap. Their stations -are often isolated, and are distinguished by the curious structures -which adjoin them--lofty platforms, built upon piles, which serve the -purpose of watch towers, and from which they command the inequalities -of the ground (Fig. 29). Away on our right the distant chain of the -Ararat system was shadowed in tints of opal and indigo upon a rich -ground of orange and amber hues; the sun sets behind those mountains, -and it was touching with globe of red fire the fantastic peaks of -the range. About us the plain lay grey and dim, and all the light -and glory was in the western sky. In the south the misty fabric -of Ararat loomed more gigantic as night approached; ever higher, -before us, in the paling vault of heaven the dome and the pyramid -rose. As we neared the first station on the road to Aralykh, the -village of Aramzalu, it seemed as if the snowy roof of the mountain -were suspended in the sky above our heads, a cold and ghostly island, -holding the last glimmer of day. - -Of the forty versts (26 1/2 miles), which separate Erivan from Aralykh, -we had covered thirteen versts (8 1/2 miles) within the space of an -hour and a half. The next stage is the village of Kamarlu, a distance -of fifteen versts. Between these two stations the road follows the -course of the Araxes, at an interval of two or three miles, and is -lined on either side by the walls of extensive gardens, watered by a -network of little channels which carry the river into the plain. The -character of the soil favours the well-metalled avenue which leads -within the fringe of poplars and fruit trees and forms the principal -artery of this fertile and populous zone. Night had fallen; the road -was clear; the fresh pair of horses were less than an hour in covering -the ten miles. - -In the post house of Kamarlu, where we again changed horses, we -were surprised to find our cook. He had been retained as a hostage -for the way-money of the fourgon, which our people had been unable -to pay. We released him, and stowed him away with difficulty in -a corner of the cart. At Kamarlu you leave the region of gardens, -and make direct for the margin of the river, which flows between -high banks through a melancholy district of waste land and cracking -soil. In this yellow stream, of which the width at this point can -scarcely exceed eighty yards, it is difficult to recognise with -becoming emotion the haughty flood of the Araxes; yet the river is -still crossed by fords or ferries, and still retains, I believe, -the ancient distinction that it does not brook a bridge. A standing -hawser of woven wire is laid from bank to bank, and the force of the -stream propels along it a wide and solid pontoon. Transported without -delay to the opposite bank, we made rapid progress along the roadway -across low and marshy ground, and arrived just after nine at the row -of trim cantonments which compose the military station of Aralykh, -eleven versts from Kamarlu (Fig. 30). - -We made halt before the entrance to a single-storeyed dwelling built -of clay and painted white. A young Russian officer in white linen -tunic received us at the door. As we passed within the house, the -burly figure of Rudolph was seen emerging from the shades. Our host -had lodged the whole party in his quarters, and would not hear of -our living in our tents. At Aralykh there are stationed a squadron -of Cossacks and a detachment of regular cavalry. The regulars are -employed in protecting the customs, and the Cossacks in hunting the -Kurds. It was interesting to notice the contrast--in demeanour as -well as in habits--between the polished young lieutenant of regulars -and the kind but boisterous colonel of Cossacks. How small are the -differences between opposite nationalities when compared with such -essential divisions as these! In this hospitable house the manners of -Europe prevailed over those of the East. As we sat in the comfortable -room of the Russian officer it was strange to reflect that we were -at the foot of Ararat, face to face with the memories of primeval -simplicity among the thousand pretty nicknacks of a leisurely writing -table and the various implements of a modern toilette. Perhaps the -link, which connects all human development, was in this case supplied -by a primitive reckoning table with rows of skewered beads. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ASCENT OF ARARAT - - -Next morning the sun had already risen as I let myself down through -the open casement of the window and dropped into the garden among the -dry brushwood encumbering its sandy floor. Not a soul was stirring, -and not a sound disturbed the composure of an Eastern morning, the -great world fulfilling its task in silence and all nature sedate and -serene. A narrow strip of plantation runs at the back of Aralykh, -on the south, sustained by ducts from the Kara Su or Blackwater, -a stream which leads a portion of the waters of the Araxes into the -cotton fields and marshes which border the right bank. Within this -fringe of slim poplars, and just on its southern verge, there is -a little mound and an open summer-house--as pleasant a place as it -is possible to imagine, but which, perhaps, only differs from other -summer-houses in the remarkable situation which it occupies and in -the wonderful view which it commands. It is placed on the extreme -foot of Ararat, exactly on the line where all inclination ceases and -the floor of the plain begins. It immediately faces the summit of -the larger mountain, bearing about south-west (Frontispiece). - -Before you the long outline of the Ararat fabric fills the southern -horizon--the gentle undulations of the north-western slope, as it -gathers from its lengthy train; the bold bastions of the snowfields, -rising to the rounded dome; and, further east, beyond the saddle where -the two mountains commingle, the needle form of the lesser Ararat, -free at this season from snow. Yet, although Aralykh lies at the flank -of Ararat, confronting the side which mounts most directly from the -plain to the roof of snow, the distance from a perpendicular drawn -through the summit is over 16 miles. Throughout that space the fabric -is always rising towards the snow-bank 14,000 feet above our heads, -with a symmetry and, so to speak, with a rhythm of structure which -holds the eye in spell. First, there is a belt of loose sand, about -2 miles in depth, beginning on the margin of marsh and irrigation, -and seen from this garden, which directly adjoins it, like the sea-bed -from a grove on the shore. On the ground of yellow, thus presented, -rests a light tissue of green, consisting of the sparse bushes of -the ever-fresh camelthorn, a plant which strikes down into beds of -moisture, deep-seated beneath the surface of the soil. Although it -is possible, crossing this sand-zone, to detect the growing slope, -yet this feature is scarcely perceptible from Aralykh, whence -its smooth, unbroken surface and cool relief of green suggest the -appearance of an embroidered carpet, spread at the threshold of an -Eastern temple for the services of prayer. Beyond this band or belt -of sandy ground, composed no doubt of a pulverised detritus, which -the piety of Parrot was quick to recognise as a leaving of the flood, -the broad and massive base of Ararat sensibly gathers and inclines, -seared by the sinuous furrows of dry watercourses, and stretching, -uninterrupted by any step or obstacle, hill or terrace or bank, to the -veil of thin mist which hangs at this hour along the higher seams. Not -a patch of verdure, not a streak of brighter colour breaks the long -monotony of ochre in the burnt grass and the bleached stones. All -the subtle sensations with which the living earth surrounds us--wide -as are the tracts of barren desert within the limits of the plain -itself--seem to cease, arrested at the fringe of this plantation, -as on a magician's line. When the vapours obscuring the middle slopes -of the mountain dissolve and disappear, you see the shadowed jaws of -the great chasm--the whole side of the mountain burst asunder from -the cornice of the snow-roof to the base, the base itself depressed -and hollow throughout its width of about 10 miles. No cloud has yet -climbed to the snows of the summit, shining in the brilliant blue. - -It was the morning of the 17th of September, a period of the year -when the heats have moderated; when the early air, even in the plain -of the Araxes, has acquired a suggestion of crispness, and the sun -still overpowers the first symptoms of winter chills. [71] The tedious -arrangements of Eastern travel occupied the forenoon; and it had been -arranged that we should dine with our host, the Lieutenant, before -making the final start. Six little hacks, impressed in the district -and sadly wanting in flesh, were loaded with our effects; our party -was mounted on Cossack horses, which, by the extreme courtesy of the -Russian authorities, had been placed at our disposal for a week. We -took leave of our new friend under a strong sentiment of gratitude -and esteem; but a new and pleasurable surprise was awaiting us, as we -passed down the neat square. All the Cossacks at that time quartered -in Aralykh--the greater number were absent on the slopes of the -mountain, serving the usual patrols--had been drawn up in marching -order, awaiting the arrival of their Colonel, who had contrived to -keep the secret by expressing his willingness to accompany us a few -versts of the way. My cousin and I were riding with the Colonel, -and the purpose of these elaborate arrangements was explained to us -with a sly smile; the troop with their Colonel were to escort us on -our first day's journey, and to bivouac at Sardar Bulakh. The order -was given to march in half column. It was perhaps the first time that -an English officer had ridden at the head of these famous troops. We -crossed the last runnel on the southern edge of the plantation and -entered the silent waste. - -For awhile we slowly rode through the camelthorn, the deep sand -sinking beneath our horses' feet. It was nearly one o'clock, and the -expanse around us streamed in the full glare of noon. A spell seems -to rest upon the landscape of the mountain, sealing all the springs -of life. Only, among the evergreen shrubs about us, a scattered group -of camels cropped the spinous foliage, little lizards darted, a flock -of sand-grouse took wing. Our course lay slantwise across the base of -Ararat, towards the hill of Takjaltu, a table-topped mass, overgrown -with yellow herbage, which rises in advance of the saddle between the -mountains, and lies just below you as you overlook the landscape from -the valley of Sardar Bulakh. Gullies of chalk and ground strewn with -stones succeed the even surface of the belt of sand, and in turn give -way to the covering of burnt grass which clothes the deep slope of -the great sweeping base, and encircles the fabric with a continuous -stretch of ochre, extending up the higher seams. Mile after mile we -rode at easy paces over the parched turf and the cracking soil. When -we had accomplished a space of about 10 miles, and attained a height -of nearly 6000 feet, the land broke about us into miniature ravines, -deep gullies, strewn with stones and boulders, searing the slope about -the line of the limit where the base may be said to determine and the -higher seams begin. Winding down the sides of these rocky hollows, -one might turn in the saddle at a bend of the track, and observe the -long line of horsemen defiling into the ravine (Fig. 31). I noticed -that by far the greater number among them--if, indeed, one might not -say all--were men in the opening years of manhood--lithe, well-knit -figures, and fair complexions, set round with fair hair. At a nearer -view the feature which most impressed me was the smallness of their -eyes. They wear the long, skirted coat of Circassia, a thin and worn -khaki; the faded pink on the cloth of their shoulder-straps relieves -the dull drab. Their little caps of Circassian pattern fit closely -round their heads. Their horses are clumsy, long-backed creatures, -wanting in all the characteristics of quality; and, as each man -maintains his own animal, few among them are shod. Yet I am assured -that the breed is workmanlike and enduring, and I have known it to -yield most satisfactory progeny when crossed with English racing -blood. As we rounded the heap of grass-grown soil which is known as -Takjaltu, we were joined by a second detachment of Cossacks, coming -from Akhury. Together we climbed up the troughs of the ridges which -sweep fanwise down the mountain side, and emerged on the floor of -the upland valley which leads between the greater and the lesser -Ararat, and crosses the back of the Ararat fabric in a direction -from south-west to north-east. We were here at an elevation of 7500 -feet above the sea, or nearly 5000 feet above the plain. Both the -stony troughs and ridges, up which we had just marched, as well -as the comparatively level ground upon which we now stood, were -covered with a scorched but abundant vegetation, which had served the -Kurds during earlier summer as pasture for their flocks, and still -sheltered numerous coveys of plump partridges, in which this part of -the mountain abounds. - -At the mouth of this valley, on the gently sloping platform which its -even surface presents, we marked out the spaces of our bivouac, the -pickets for the horses, and the fires. Our men were acquainted with -every cranny; we had halted near the site of their summer encampment, -from which they had only recently descended to their winter quarters -in the plain. As we dismounted we were met by a graceful figure, -clad in a Circassian coat of brown material let in across the breast -with pink silk--a young man of most engaging appearance and manners, -presented to us as the chief of the Kurds on Ararat who own allegiance -to the Tsar. In the high refinement of his features, in the bronzed -complexion and soft brown eyes, the Kurd made a striking contrast -to the Cossacks--a contrast by no means to the advantage of the -Cis-Caucasian race. The young chief is also worthy to be remembered -in respect of the remarkable name which he bears. His Kurdish title -of Shamden Agha has been developed and embroidered into the sonorous -appellation of Hasan Bey Shamshadinoff, under which he is officially -known. - -From the edge of the platform upon which we were standing the ground -falls away with some abruptness down to the base below, and lends -to the valley its characteristic appearance of an elevated stage and -natural viewing-place, overtowered by the summit regions of the dome -and the pyramid, and commanding all the landscape of the plain. On the -south-west, as it rises towards the pass between the two mountains--a -pass of 8800 feet, leading into Turkish and into Persian territory, -to Bayazid or Maku--the extent of even ground which composes this -platform cannot much exceed a quarter of a mile. It is choked by the -rocky causeways which, sweeping down the side of Great Ararat, tumble -headlong to the bottom of the fork, and, taking the inclination of -the ever-widening valley, descend on the north-western skirt of the -platform in long, oblique curves of branching troughs and ridges, -falling fanwise over the base. The width of the platform, at the mouth -of the valley, may be about three-quarters of a mile. It is here that -the Kurds of the surrounding region gather, as the shades of night -approach, to water their flocks at the lonely pool which is known as -the sirdar's well. On the summit of the lesser Ararat there is a little -lake, formed of melted snows; the water permeates the mountain, and -feeds the sirdar's pool. Close by, at the foot of the lesser mountain, -is the famous covert of birch--low bushes, the only stretch of wood -upon the fabric, which is entirely devoid of trees. The wood was -soon crackling upon our fires, and the water hissing in the pots; -but the wretched pack-horses, upon which our tents had been loaded, -were lagging several hours behind. We ourselves had reached camp at six -o'clock; it was after nine before our baggage arrived. As we stretched -upon the slope, the keen air of the summit region swept the valley -and chilled us to the skin; the temperature sank to below freezing, -and we had nothing but the things in which we stood. [72] Our friends, -the Cossack officers, were lavish of assistance; they wrapped us in the -hairy coats of the Caucasus, placed vodki and partridges before us, and -ranged us around their hospitable circle, beside the leaping flames. - -But the mind was absent from the picturesque bivouac, and the eye -which ranged the deepening shadows was still dazzled by the evening -lights. Mind and sense alike were saturated with the beauty and -the brilliance of the landscape, which, as you rise towards the -edge of the platform after rounding the mass of Takjaltu, opens -to an ever-increasing perspective, with ever-growing clearness of -essential features and mystery gathering upon all lesser forms. The -sun, revolving south of the zenith, lights the mountains on the north -of the plain, and fills all the valley from the slopes of Ararat -with the full flood of his rays--tier after tier of crinkled hummock -ranges, aligned upon the opposite margin of the valley at a distance of -over twenty miles, their summit outline fretted with shapes of cones -and craters, their faces buttressed in sand, bare and devoid of all -vegetation, yet richly clothed in lights and hues of fairyland--ochres -flushed with delicate madder, amethyst, shaded opaline, while the -sparse plantations about the river and the labyrinth of the plain -insensibly transfigure, as you rise above them, into an impalpable -web of grey. In the lap of the landscape lies the river, a thin, -looping thread--flashes of white among the shadows, in the lights a -bright mineral green. Here and there on its banks you descry a naked -mound--conjuring a vision of forgotten civilisations and the buried -hives of man. It is a vast prospect over the world.... Yet vaster far -is the expanse you feel about you beyond the limits of sight. It is -nothing but a segment of that expanse, a brief vista from north to -east between two mountain sides. On the north the slopes of Great -Ararat hide the presence of Alagöz, while behind the needle form of -Little Ararat all the barren chains and lonely valleys of Persia are -outspread.... The evening grows, and the sun's returning arc bends -behind the dome of snow. The light falls between the two mountains, and -connects the Little Ararat in a common harmony with the richening tints -of the plain. There it stands on the further margin of the platform, -the clean, sharp outline of a pyramid, clothed in hues of a tender -yellow, seamed with violet veins. At its feet, where its train sweeps -the floor of the river valley in long and regular folds--far away in -the east, towards the mists of the Caspian--the sandy ground breaks -into a troubled surface, like angry waves set solid under a spell, -and from range to range stretch a chain of low white hummocks, like -islands across a sea. Just there, in the distance, beneath the Little -Ararat, you see a patch of shining white, so vivid that it presents -the appearance of a glacier, set in the burnt waste. It is probably -caused by some chemical efflorescence, resting on the dry bed of a -lake. All the landscape reveals the frenzy of volcanic forces, fixed -for ever in an imperishable mould; the imagination plays with the forms -of distant castles and fortresses of sand. Alone the slopes about you -wear the solid colours, and hold you to the real world--the massive -slopes of Great Ararat, raised high above the world. The wreath of -cloud which veils the summit till the last breath of warm air dies -has floated away in the calm heaven before the western lights have -paled. Behind the lofty piles of rocky causeways, concealing the -higher seams, rises the immediate roof of Ararat foreshortened in -the sky--the short side or gable of the dome, a faultless cone of snow. - -When we drew aside the curtain of our tent next morning, full daylight -was streaming over the open upland valley, and the vigorous air had -already lost its edge. [73] The sun had risen high above the Sevan -ranges, and swept the plain below us of the lingering vapours which -at morning cling like shining wool to the floor of the river valley, -or float in rosy feathers against the dawn. The long-backed Cossack -horses had been groomed and watered and picketed in line; the men -were sitting smoking in little groups or were strolling about the -camp in pairs (Fig. 32). A few Kurds, who had come down with milk -and provisions, stood listlessly looking on, the beak nose projecting -from the bony cheeks, the brown chest opening from the many-coloured -tatters draped about the shoulders and waist. - -The space of level ground between the two mountains cannot much exceed -three-quarters of a mile. On the east the graceful seams of Little -Ararat rise immediately from the slope upon our right, gathering just -beyond the covert of low birchwood, and converging in the form of a -pyramid towards a summit which has been broken across the point. The -platform of this valley is a base for Little Ararat--the rib on the -flank of the greater mountain from which the smaller proceeds. So -sharp are the lines of the Little Ararat, so clean the upward -slope, that the summit, when seen from this pass or saddle, seems -to rise as high in the heaven above us as the dome of Great Ararat -itself. The burnt grass struggles towards the little birch covert, -but scarcely touches the higher seams. The mountain side is broken -into a loose rubble; deep gullies sear it in perpendicular furrows, -which contribute to the impression of height. The prevailing colour -of the stones is a bleached yellow verging upon a delicate pink; but -these paler strata are divided by veins of bluish andesite pointing -upwards, like spear-heads, from the base (Fig. 33). - -Very different, on the side of Great Ararat, are the shapes which -meet the eye. We are facing the south-eastern slope of the mountain, -the slope which follows the direction of its axis, the short side or -gable of the dome. In the descending train of the giant volcano this -valley is but an incidental or lesser feature; yet it marks, and in -a sense determines, an important alteration in the disposition of the -surface forms. It is here that the streams of molten matter descending -the mountain side have been arrested and deflected from their original -direction, to fall over the massive base. The dam or obstacle which -has produced this deviation is the sharp, harmonious figure of the -lesser Ararat, emerging from the sea of piled-up boulders, and cleaving -the chaos of troughs and ridges like the lofty prow of a ship. The -course of these streams of lava is signalised by these causeways of -agglomerate rocks; you may follow from a point of vantage upon the -mountain the numerous branches into which they have divided to several -parent or larger streams. On this side of Ararat they have been turned -in an oblique direction, from south-east towards north-east; they skirt -the western margin of the little valley, curving outwards to the river -and the plain. It is just beneath the first of these walls of loose -boulders that our two little tents are pitched; beyond it you see -another, and yet another still higher, and above them the dome of snow. - -The distance from this valley of the summit of Great Ararat, if we -measure upon the survey of the Russian Government along a horizontal -line, is rather over 5 miles. The confused sea of boulders, of which -I have just described the nature, extends, according to my own -measurements, to a height of about 12,000 feet. Above that zone, -so arduous to traverse, lies the summit region of the mountain, -robed in perpetual snow. From whatever point you regard that summit -on this south-eastern side, the appearance of its height falls short -of reality in a most substantial degree. Not only does the curve of -the upward slope lend itself to a most deceitful foreshortening when -you follow it from below, but, indeed, the highest point or crown of -the dome is invisible from this the gable side. - -If you strike a direct course from the encampment towards the roof -of snow, and, crossing the grain of successive walls and depressions, -emerge upon some higher ridge, the numerous ramifications of the lava -system may be followed to their source, and are seen to issue from -larger causeways which rise in bold relief from the snows of the summit -region, and open fanwise down the higher slopes (Fig. 34). In shape -these causeways may be said to resemble the sharp side of a wedge; the -massive base from which the bank rises narrows to a pointed spine. As -the eye pursues the circle of the summit where it vanishes towards the -north, these ribs of rock which radiate down the mountain diminish in -volume and relief. Their sharp edges commence to cut the snowy canopy -about 3000 feet below the dome. It is rather on this south-eastern -side of Ararat, the side which follows the direction of the axis of -the fabric--the line upon which the forces have acted by which the -whole fabric has been reared--that a formation so characteristic of the -surface of the summit region at once attains its greatest development, -and is productive of a phenomenon which cannot fail to arrest the -eye. At a height of about 14,000 feet, a causeway of truly gigantic -proportions breaks abruptly from the snow. The head of the ridge is -bold and lofty, and towers high above the snow-slope with steep and -rocky sides. The ridge itself is in form a wedge or triangle, cut -deep down into the side of the mountain, and marked along the spine -by a canal-shaped depression which accentuates the descending curve -(see Fig. 34). The troughs and ridges, which you will now be crossing, -have their origin in this parent ridge; you see it bending outwards, -away from Little Ararat, and dividing into branches and systems -of branches as it reaches the lower slopes. Whether its want of -connection with the roof of Ararat, or the inherent characteristics of -its uppermost end, be sufficient evidence to justify the supposition of -Abich that this ridge at its head marks a separate eruptive centre on -the flank of Ararat, I am not competent adequately to discuss. I can -only observe that it is not difficult to find another explanation. It -is possible that the ridge where it narrows to the summit has been -fractured and swept away. This peak, or sharp end of the causeway, -to whatever causes its origin may be ascribed, is a distinguishing -feature on the slope of Ararat, seen far and wide like a tooth or -hump or shoulder on this the south-eastern side. [74] - -Although the most direct way to the summit region leads immediately -across the zone of boulders from the camp by the sirdar's pool, -yet it is not that which most travellers have followed, or which -the natives of the district recommend. This line of approach, which -I followed for some distance a few days after our ascent, is open -to the objection that it is no doubt more difficult to scale the -slope of snow upon this side. The tract of uncovered rocks which -breaks the snow-fields, offering ladders to the roof of the dome, -is situated further to the south-east of the mountain, above the -neck of the valley of the pool. Whether it would not be more easy to -reach these ladders by skirting slantwise from the higher slopes, -is a question which is not in itself unreasonable, and which only -actual experience will decide. It was in this manner, I believe, -that the English traveller, my friend the Rt. Hon. James Bryce, made -an ascent which, as a feat, is, I think, the most remarkable of any -of the recorded climbs. Starting from the pool at one o'clock in the -morning, he reached the summit, alone, at about two in the afternoon, -accomplishing within a space of about six hours the last 5000 feet, -and returning to the point from which he started before sunrise on -the following day. We ourselves were advised to follow up the valley, -keeping the causeways upon our right, and only then, when we should -have reached a point about south-east of the summit, to strike across -the belt of rock. - -At twenty minutes before two on the 18th of September our little party -left camp in marching order, all in the pride of health and spirits, -and eager for the attack. Thin wreaths of cloud wrapped the snows of -the summit--the jealous spell which baffles the bold lover even when he -already grasps his prize. We had taken leave of the Cossack officers -and their band of light-hearted men. Our friends were returning to -Akhury and Aralykh, the one body to hunt the Kurds of the frontier, -the other to languish in dull inactivity until their turn should -come round again. Four Cossacks were deputed to remain and guard -our camp; we ourselves had decided to dispense with any escort -and to trust to our Kurdish allies. Of these, ten sturdy fellows -accompanied us as porters to carry our effects, their rifles slung -over their many-coloured tatters beside the burden allotted to each -(Fig. 35). With my cousin and myself were the young Swiss, Rudolph -Taugwalder, a worthy example of his race and profession--the large -limbs, the rosy cheeks, the open mien without guile--and young Ernest -Wesson, fresh from the Polytechnic in London, burning to distinguish -himself. My Armenian dragoman followed as best he was able until -the camp at the snow was reached; his plump little figure was not -well adapted to toil over the giant rocks. Of our number was also -an Armenian from Akhury, who had tendered his services as guide; -he was able to indicate a place for our night's encampment, but he -did not venture upon the slope of snow. - -A little stream trickles down the valley, but sinks exhausted at this -season before reaching the sirdar's well. In the early summer it is -of the volume of a torrent, which winds past the encampment, like a -serpent of silver, uttering a dull, rumbling sound. [75] It is fed -by the water from the snow-fields, and there is said to be a spring -which contributes to support it at a height of nearly 11,000 feet. [76] -After half an hour's walk over the stony surface of the platform--the -ragged herbage burnt yellow by the sun--we entered the narrows of -the mountain saddle, and followed the dry bed of this rivulet at the -foot of rocky spurs. The tufts of sappy grass sparsely studded on the -margin of the water-course gave place, as we advanced, to a continuous -carpet of soft and verdant turf; here and there the eye rested on the -deep green of the juniper, or the graceful fretwork of a wild rose tree -quivered in the draught. The warm rays flashed in the thin atmosphere, -and tempered the searching breeze. The spurs on our right descend -from the shoulder of Great Ararat, from the causeway of which it forms -the head, and are seen to diverge into two systems as they enter the -narrow pass. The one group pushes forward to the Little Ararat and -is lost in confused detail; the other and, perhaps, the larger system -bends boldly along the side of the valley, sweeping outwards towards -the base. At three o'clock we reached a large pool of clouded water, -collected on a table surface of burnt grass; close by is an extensive -bed of nettles, and a circle of loose stones. This spot is, no doubt, -the site of a Kurdish encampment, and appeared to have been only -recently abandoned by the shepherds and their flocks. The further we -progressed, the more the prospect opened over the slopes of Ararat; -we were approaching the level of the tops of the ridges which skirt -the valley side. Passing, as we now were, between the two Ararats, -we again remarked that the greater seemed no higher than the lesser, -so completely is the eye deceived. In the hollows of the gully there -were small pools of water, but the stream itself was dry. - -By half-past three we had left the gentle water-course, and were -winding inwards, up the slope of Great Ararat, to cross the black and -barren region, the girdle of sharp crags and slippery boulders which -is drawn round the upper seams of the mountain, like a succession of -chevaux de frise. We thought it must have been on some other side -of Ararat that the animals descended from the Ark. For a space of -more than three hours we laboured on over a chaos of rocks, through a -labyrinth of troughs and ridges, picking a path and as often retracing -it, or scrambling up the polished sides of the larger blocks which -arrest the most crafty approach. The Kurds, although sorely taxed -by their burdens, were at an advantage compared to ourselves; they -could slip, like cats, from ledge to ledge in their laced slippers of -hide. In one place we passed a gigantic heap of boulders, towering -several hundred feet above our heads. The rock is throughout of the -same character and colour--an andesitic lava of a dark slaty hue. A -little later we threaded up a ravine or gully, and, after keeping for -awhile to the bottom of the depression, climbed slowly along the back -of the ridge. I noticed that the grain or direction of the formation -lay towards east-south-east. From the head of this ravine we turned -into a second, by a natural gap or pass; loose rocks were piled along -the sides of the hollow, which bristled with fantastic, but unreal, -shapes. Here a seated group of camels seemed to munch in silence -on the line of fading sky, or the knotty forms of lifeless willows -stretched a menace of uplifted arms. In the sheltered laps of this -higher region, as we approached our journey's end, the snow still -lay in ragged patches, which increased in volume and depth.... The -surface cleared, the view opened; we emerged from the troubled sea of -stone. Beyond a lake of snow and a stretch of rubble rose the ghostly -sheet of the summit region, holding the last glimmer of day. - -It was seven o'clock, and we had no sooner halted than the biting -frost numbed our limbs. [77] The ground about us was not uneven, but -an endless crop of pebbles filled the plainer spaces between little -capes of embedded rock. At length upon the margin of the snow-lake we -found a tiny tongue of turf-grown soil--just sufficient emplacement -to hold the flying tent which we had brought for the purpose of this -lofty bivouac near the line of continuous snow. We were five to share -the modest area which the sloping canvas enclosed; yet the temperature -in the tent sank below freezing before the night was done. Down the -slope beside us the snow water trickled beneath a thin covering of -ice. The sheep-skin coats which we had brought from Aralykh protected -us from chill, but the hardy Kurds slept in their seamy tatters upon -the naked rocks around. One among them sought protection as the cold -became intenser, and we wrapped him in a warm cape. It was the first -time I had passed the night at so great an elevation--12,194 feet above -the sea--and it is possible that the unwonted rarity of the atmosphere -contributed to keep us awake. But, whether it may have arisen from the -conditions which surrounded us, or from a nervous state of physical -excitement inspired by our enterprise, not one among us, excepting -the dragoman, succeeded in courting sleep. That plump little person -had struggled on bravely to this his furthest goal, and his heavy -breathing fell upon the silence of the calm, transparent night. - -The site of our camp below the snow-line marks a new stage, or -structural division, in the fabric of Ararat. Of these divisions, -which differ from one another not only in the characteristics presented -by each among them, but also in the gradient of slope, it is natural -to distinguish three. We are dealing in particular with that section -of the mountain which lies between Aralykh and the summit, and with -the features of the south-eastern side. First, there is the massive -base of the mountain, about 10 miles in depth, extending from the -floor of the river valley to a height of about 6000 feet. At that -point the higher seams commence to gather, and the belt of rock -begins. The arduous tracts which we had just traversed, where large, -loose blocks of hard, black lava are piled up like a beach, compose -the upper portion of this middle region, and may be said to touch the -lower margin of the continuous fields of snow. The line of contact -between the extremities of the one and the other stage partakes of the -nature of a transitional system, a neutral zone on the mountain side, -where the rocky layers of the middle slopes have not yet shelved away, -nor the immediate seams of the summit region settled to their long -climb. In this sense the fields of stone about our encampment, with -their patches of last year's snow, are invested with the attributes -of a natural threshold at the foot of the great dome. The stage which -is highest in the structure of Ararat, the stage which holds the dome, -has its origin in this threshold, or neutral district, at an altitude -which varies between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. - -Very different in character and in appearance from the region we were -leaving behind was the slope which faced our encampment, robed in -perpetual snow. You have pursued the ramifications of the lava system -to the side of their parent stems; and in place of blind troughs and -prospectless ledges a noble singleness of feature breaks upon the -extricated view. You command the whole summit structure of Ararat -on the short, or gable side; and the shape which rises from the open -ground about you is that of a massive cone. The regular seams which -mount to the summit stretch continuous to the crown of snow, and are -inclined at an angle which diverges very little from an average of -30°. The gradients from which these higher seams gather--the slopes -about our camp--cannot exceed half that inclination, or an angle of -15°. Such is the outline, so harmonious and simple, which a first -glance reveals.... A more intimate study of the summit region, as it -expands to a closer view, disclosed characteristics which were not -exactly similar to those with which we had already become familiar in -the neighbourhood of Sardar Bulakh. It was there the north-eastern -hemisphere of the mountain--if the term may be applied to the oval -figure which the summit region presents--displayed to the prospect upon -the segment between east and south-east. Our present position lay more -to the southward, between the two hemispheres; we were placed near the -axis of the figure, and the roof, as viewed from our encampment, bore -nearly due north-west. The gigantic causeway which at Sardar Bulakh -was seen descending on our left hand from the distant snows, now rose -on our right, like a rocky headland, confronting a gleaming sea of -ice. But, when the eye pursues the summit circle vanishing towards -the west, you miss the sister forms of lesser causeways, radiating -down the mountain side. It is true that the greater proximity of our -standpoint to the foot of these highest slopes curtailed the segment -of the circle which we are able to command. This circumstance is not -in itself sufficient to explain the change in the physiognomy of the -summit region, as we see it on this side. In place of those bold, -black ribs or ridges, spread fanwise down the incline, furrowing the -snows with their sharp edges, and lined along the troughs of their -contiguous bases with broad streaks of sheltered nevé, it seems as -if the fabric had fallen asunder, the surface slipped away--all the -flank of the mountain depressed and hollow, from our camp to the -roof of the dome. The canopy of snow which encircles the summit--a -broad, inviolate bank, unbroken by any rift or rock projection for -a depth of some 2000 feet--breaks sharply off on the verge of this -depression, and leaves the shallow cavity bare. From the base of the -giant causeway just above us to the gently-pursing outline of the -roof you follow the edge of the great snow-field, bordering a rough -and crumbling region which offers scanty foothold to the snow, where -the hollow slope bristles with pointed boulders, and the bold crags -pierce the ruin around them in upstanding combs or saw-shaped ridges, -holding slantwise to the mountain side. On the west side of this broad -and uncovered depression, near the western extremity of the cone, -a long strip of snow descends from the summit, caught by some trough, -or sheltering fissure, in the rough face of the cliff. Beyond it, just -upon the sky-line, the bare rocks reappear, and climb the slope, like -a natural ladder, to a point where the roof of the dome is lowest and -appears to offer the readiest access to the still invisible crown. [78] - -In the attenuated atmosphere surrounding the summit every foot that is -gained tells. An approach which promises to ease the gradient at the -time when it presses most seems to offer advantages which some future -traveller may be encouraged to essay. We ourselves were influenced -in the choice of a principle upon which to base our attack by the -confident counsels of the Armenian, which the local knowledge of -the Kurds confirmed. We were advised to keep to the eastern margin -of the depression, by the edge of the great snow-field. You see the -brown rocks still baffling the snow-drifts near the point where the -deceitful slope appears to end, where on the verge of the roof it -just dips a little, then stands up, like a low white wall, on the -luminous ground of blue. - -The troubled sea of boulders flowing towards the Little Ararat, from -which we had just emerged, still hemmed us in from any prospect over -the tracts which lay below. The flush of dawn broke between the two -mountains from a narrow vista of sky. The even surface of the snow -slope loomed white and cold above our heads, while the night still -lingered on the dark stone about us, shadowing the little laps of -ice. Before six o'clock we were afoot and ready; it wanted a few -minutes to the hour as we set out from our camp. To the Swiss was -entrusted the post of leader; behind him followed in varying order -my cousin and Wesson and myself. Slowly we passed from the shore of -the snow-lake to the gathering of the higher seams, harbouring our -strength for the steeper gradients as we made across the beach of -boulders, stepping firmly from block to block. - -The broad, white sheet of the summit circle descends to the snow-lakes -of the lower region in a tongue, or gulf of deep nevé; you may -follow on the margin of the great depression the western edge of this -gleaming surface unbroken down the side of the cone. On the east the -black wall of the giant causeway borders the shining slope, invading -the field of perpetual winter to a height of over 14,000 feet. The -width of the snow-field between these limits varies as it descends; -on a level with the shoulder, or head of the causeway, it appeared to -span an interval of nearly 200 yards. [79] The depth of the bed must -be considerable, and, while the surface holds the tread in places, -it as often gives and lets you through. No rock-projection, or gap, -or fissure breaks the slope of the white fairway; but the winds have -raised the crust about the centre into a ribbon of tiny waves. Our -plan was to cross the stony region about us, slanting a little east, -and to mount by the rocks on the western margin of the snow-field, -adhering as closely as might be possible to the side of the snow. It -was in the execution of this plan--so simple in its conception--that -the trained instinct of the Swiss availed. Of those who have attempted -the ascent of Ararat--and their number is not large--so many have -failed to reach the summit that, upon a mountain which makes few, -if any, demands upon the resources of the climber's craft, their -discomfiture must be attributed to other reasons: to the peculiar -nature of the ground traversed, no less than to the inordinate -duration of the effort; to the wearisome recurrence of the same kind -of obstacles, and to the rarity of the air. Now the disposition of -the rocks upon the surface of the depression is by no means the same -as that which we have studied in connection with the seams which lie -below. The path no longer struggles across a troubled sea of ridges, -or strays within the blind recesses of a succession of gigantic waves -of stone. On the other hand, the gradients are as a rule steeper; -and the clearings are covered with a loose rubble, which slips from -under the feet. The boulders are piled one upon another in heaps -as they happened to fall, and the sequence of forms is throughout -arbitrary and subject to no fixed law. In one place it is a tower of -this loose masonry which blocks all further approach; in another a -solid barrier of sharp crags, laced together, which it is necessary -to circumvent. When the limbs have been stiffened and the patience -exhausted by the long and devious escalade, the tax upon the lungs -is at its highest, and the strain upon the heart most severe. Many of -the difficulties which travellers have encountered upon this stage of -the climb may be avoided, or met at a greater advantage, by adhering -to the edge of the snow. But the fulfilment of this purpose is by no -means so easy as might at first sight appear. You are always winding -inwards to avoid the heaps of boulders, or emerging on the backs of -gigantic blocks of lava towards the margin of the shining slope. In -the choice of the most direct path, where many offered, the Swiss was -never at fault; he made up the cone without a moment's hesitation, -like a hound threading a close covert, and seldom if ever foiled. - -At twenty minutes to seven, when the summit of Little Ararat was -about on a level with the eye, we paused for awhile and turned -towards the prospect, now opening to a wider range. The day was -clear, and promised warmth; above us the snowy dome of Ararat shone -in a cloudless sky. The landscape on either side of the beautiful -pyramid lay outspread at our feet; from north-east, the hidden -shores of Lake Sevan, to where the invisible seas of Van and Urmi -diffused a soft veil of opaline vapour over the long succession of -lonely ranges in the south-east and south. The wild borderland of -Persia and Turkey here for the first time expands to view. The scene, -however much it may belie the conception at a first and hasty glance, -bears the familiar imprint of the characteristics peculiar to the -great tableland. The mountains reveal their essential nature and -disclose the familiar forms--the surface of the tableland broken -into long furrows, of which the ridges tend to hummock shapes. So -lofty is the stage, so aloof this mighty fabric from all surrounding -forms, the world lies dim and featureless about it like the setting -of a dream. In the foreground are the valleys on the south of Little -Ararat, circling round to the Araxes floor; and, on the north-east, -beside the thread of the looping river, is a little lake, dropped -like a turquoise on the sand where the mountain sweeps the plain. - -In the space of another hour we had reached an elevation about equal -to that of the head of the causeway on the opposite side of the snow, -a point which I think we should be justified in fixing at over 14,000 -feet. [80] We were now no longer threading along the shore of an inlet; -alone the vague horizon of the summit circle was the limit of the -broad, white sea. But on our left hand the snowless region of rock -and rubble still accompanied our course, and a group of red crags -stood up above our heads, just where the upward slope appeared to end. - -Yet another two hours of continuous climbing, and, at about half-past -nine, the loose boulders about us open, and we are approaching the -foot of these crags. The end seems near; but the slope is deceitful, -and when once we have reached the head of the formation the long -white way resumes. But the blue vault about us streams with sunlight; -the snow is melting in the crannies; a genial spirit lightens our toil. - -And now, without any sign or warning, the mysterious spell which holds -the mountain begins to throw a web about us, craftily, from below. The -spirits of the air come sailing through the azure with shining gossamer -wings, while the heavier vapours gather around us from dense banks -serried upon the slope beneath us, a thousand feet lower down. - -The rocks still climb the increasing gradient, but the snow is -closing in. At eleven we halt to copy an inscription, which has -been neatly written in Russian characters on the face of a boulder -stone. It records that on the third day of the eighth month of 1893 -the expedition led by the Russian traveller Postukhoff passed the -night in this place. At the foot of the stone lie several objects: -a bottle filled with fluid, an empty tin of biscuits, a tin containing -specimens of rock. - -At half-past eleven I take the angle of the snow slope, at this -point 35°. About this time the Swiss thinks it prudent to link us all -together with his rope. The surface of the rocks is still uncovered, -but their bases are embedded in deep snow. - -It is now, after six hours' arduous climbing, that the strain of the -effort tells. The lungs are working at the extreme of their capacity, -and the pressure upon the heart is severe. At noon I call a halt, and -release young Wesson from his place in the file of four. His pluck is -still strong, but his look and gait alarm me, and I persuade him to -desist. We leave him to rest in a sheltered place, and there await -our return. From this time on we all three suffer, even the Swiss -himself. My cousin is affected with mountain sickness; as for me, I -find it almost impossible to breathe and climb at the same time. We -make a few steps upwards and then pause breathless, and gasp again -and again. The white slope vanishing above us must end in the crown -of the dome; and the boulders strewn more sparsely before us promise -a fairer way. But the further we go, the goal seems little closer; -and the shallow snow, resting on a crumbling rubble, makes us lose -one step in every three. A strong smell of sulphur permeates the -atmosphere; it proceeds from the sliding surface upon which we are -treading, a detritus of pale sulphurous stones. - -At 1.25 we see a plate of white metal, affixed to a cranny in the -rocks. It bears an inscription in Russian character which dates from -1888. I neglect to copy out the unfamiliar letters; but there can be -little doubt that they record the successful ascent of Dr. Markoff, -an ascent which cost him dear. - -A few minutes later, at half-past one, the slope at last eases, -the ground flattens, the struggling rocks sink beneath the surface -of a continuous field of snow. At last we stand upon the summit of -Ararat--but the sun no longer pierces the white vapour; a fierce gale -drives across the forbidden region, and whips the eye straining to -distinguish the limits of snow and cloud. Vague forms hurry past on -the wings of the whirlwind; in place of the landscape of the land of -promise we search dense banks of fog. - -Disappointed perhaps, but relieved of the gradient, and elated with -the success of our climb, we run in the teeth of the wind across the -platform, our feet scarcely sinking in the storm-swept crust of the -surface, the gently undulating roof of the dome.... Along the edge of -a spacious snow-field which dips towards the centre, and is longest -from north-west to south-east, on the vaulted rim of the saucer which -the surface resembles, four separate elevations may conveniently be -distinguished as the highest points in the irregular oval figure which -the whole platform appears to present. The highest among these rounded -elevations bears north-west from the spot where we first touch the -summit or emerge upon the roof. That spot itself marks another of -these inequalities; the remaining two are situated respectively in -this manner--the one about midway between the two already mentioned, -but nearer to the first and on the north side; the other about south -of the north-western elevation, and this seems the lowest of all. The -difference in height between the north-western elevation and that upon -the south-east is about 200 feet; and the length of the figure between -these points--we paced only a certain portion of the distance--is -about 500 yards. The width of the platform, so far as we could gauge -it, may be some 300 yards. A single object testifies to the efforts -of our fore-runners and to the insatiable enterprise of man--a stout -stake embedded upon the north-western elevation in a little pyramid -of stones. It is here that we take our observations, and make our -longest halt. [81] Before us lies a valley or deep depression, and on -the further side rises the north-western summit, a symmetrical cone of -snow. This summit connects with the bold snow buttresses beyond it, -terraced upon the north-western slope. The distance down and up from -where we stand to that summit may be about 400 yards; but neither -the Swiss nor ourselves consider it higher, and we are prevented -from still further exploring the summit region by the increasing -violence of the gale and by the gathering gloom of cloud. The sides -and floor of the saddle between the two summits are completely covered -with snow, and we see no trace of the lateral fissure which Abich, -no doubt under different circumstances, was able to observe. - -We remain forty minutes upon the summit; but the dense veil never lifts -from the platform, nor does the blast cease to pierce us through. No -sooner does an opening in the driving vapours reveal a vista of the -world below than fresh levies fly to the unguarded interval, and -the wild onset resumes. Yet what if the spell had lost its power, -and the mountain and the world lain bare? had the tissue of the air -beamed clear as crystal, and the forms of earth and sea, embroidered -beneath us, shone like the tracery of a shield? - -We should have gained a balloon view over Nature. Should we catch her -voice so well?--the ancient voice heard at cool of day in the garden, -or the voice that spoke in accents of thunder to a world condemned -to die. "It repented the Lord that he had made man, and it grieved -him at his heart. The earth was filled with violence: God looked -upon the earth and behold it was corrupt. In the second month, the -seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of -the great deep broken up and the windows of heaven were opened. And -the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights." - -We are standing on the spot where the ark of gopher rested, where first -the patriarch alighted on the face of an earth renewed. Before him -lie the valleys of six hundred years of sorrow; the airiest pinnacle -supports him, a boundless hope fills his eyes. The pulse of life beats -strong and fresh around him; the busy swarms thrill with sweet freedom, -elect of all living things. In the settling exhalations stands the -bow of many colours, eternal token of God's covenant with man. - -The peaks which rise on the distant borderland where silence has -first faltered into speech are wrapped about with the wreaths of -fancy, a palpable world of cloud. Do we fix our foot upon these solid -landmarks to wish the vague away, to see the hard summits stark and -naked, and all the floating realm of mystery flown? The truth is firm, -and it is well to touch and feel it and know where the legend begins; -but the legend itself is truth transfigured, as the snow distils into -cloud. The reality of life speaks in every syllable of that solemn, -stately tale--divine hope bursting the bounds of matter to compromise -with despair. And the ancient mountain summons the spirits about him, -and veils a futile frown, as the rising sun illumines the valleys -of Asia and the life of man lies bare. The spectres walk in naked -daylight--Violence and Corruption and Decay. The traveller finds in -majestic Nature consolation for these sordid scenes; while a spirit -seems to whisper in his ears, "Turn from him!--turn from him, that -he may rest till he shall accomplish, as an hireling, his day." - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE HEART OF ARARAT - - -Retracing our steps down the side of the cone, we soon regained the -streaming sunlight. I called a halt, and we rested on some rocks, -embedded in snow. Our next task was to search for Wesson; but he had -left his sheltered cranny, and, as the day was warm, we concluded -that he had returned to camp. The Swiss and myself determined to -try a glissade down the snow slope; my cousin preferred to adhere -to the rocks. I was aware of the danger of the glissade down Ararat, -and we therefore planned our course with care. We broke the descent -at several points, made errors on the side of caution, and glided -safely into one of the inlets about the base of the cone. It was -still some distance to the encampment; we proceeded with the utmost -leisure across the boulder-strewn waste. At last we beheld the lake -of snow, and our tiny tent beside it, and the gaunt figures of the -Kurds. These also perceived us, and sent us a cry of greeting, which -vibrated in the still air. Wesson and the dragoman were there to meet -us; my cousin arrived almost at the same time. Our climb had been -accomplished without a single mishap, and all except the dragoman, -who pleaded that he had been half frozen in camp, were pleased with -the day's work. It was twenty minutes past six o'clock; yet I thought -it best to strike our tent and seek a less exposed and less elevated -spot. After a toilsome walk of about half an hour we found some grass -in a little valley, and there composed ourselves for the night. - -I had sent two Kurds to collect firewood while we were sleeping; it was -morning before they returned. We breakfasted beside a pleasant fire, -and decided to devote the earlier hours to rest. I was able to avail -myself of a convenient physical habit of being refreshed by violent -exercise. The summit was clear of cloud, and I sallied forth with -the camera to seek a standpoint in full view of the cone. At some -little distance from our camp I found such an eminence, whence all -the characteristics of the summit region were exposed (Fig. 36). The -peak of Great Ararat bore almost due north-west of this point, -that of Little Ararat a little south of east. [82] On the left of -the picture you see the hollow in the face of the cone and the rocks -struggling upwards to its top; on the right is the shoulder, or head -of the causeway, bordering the snow slope on the opposite side. In -the afternoon we regained our standing encampment in the valley of -Sardar Bulakh. - -Relieved of the tension of a fixed purpose, we were able to turn with -real enjoyment to the contemplation of the surroundings in which -we were placed. There can scarcely exist in the world another such -standpoint as the platform of the sirdar's well. You never tire of -the contrasting shapes of the massive dome and the graceful pyramid; -below you in the plains the silent operations of Nature proceed on -their daily course. Morning breaks, and the floor of the plain is -shrouded in white mist; the sun rises, and the opposite peaks of the -Sevan ranges are crowned with banks of billowing cloud. Stray films -wander out into the blue vault of heaven, and graze the sides of the -dome. As the day grows, the warm air mounts these sides and melts -the snows, which distil into a white vaporous mass. The ground of the -landscape increases in definition of feature--the rich campagna, the -looping river, the sites of the towns. It is the subtle quality no less -than the scale of the composition which distinguishes this prospect -from other views, similar in character, which are unfolded from the -summit of a pass. And if you turn from the immense expanse and rest -the eye on the forms about you, those forms respond to your emotions -and invest them with a deeply religious cast. This vast fabric, so -harmonious in design, in position so self-sufficient, touches chords -in the nature of man which sound through all the religions, and die -away only when they die. Yet how vulgar appear their dogmas in this -pure atmosphere of religion, in the courts of this great cathedral -of the natural world! You feel that this mountain has been the parent -of religions, whence they strayed into devious paths. To this parent -you would again collect the distracted; in this atmosphere you long -to bathe the populations of our great towns. Our morbid dramatists, -our nervous novelists need the inspiration of these surroundings--the -promptings of Nature in her loftiest manifestations, from which the -life of man can never with impunity be divorced. - -In a lighter sense, to the traveller who seeks rest and enjoyment, -I can confidently recommend a pilgrimage to this beautiful upland -valley, and a sojourn among the marvels of this site. For the -sportsman there are partridges in abundance; the botanist and the -man of taste will admire the brilliancy of the flowers which nestle -in the crannies of the rocks. Junipers clothe the ground, and a -plant with spiked foliage like the juniper, and with a lovely little -flower like a star. I have taken a specimen to Kew, and they call -it Acantholimon echinus--a peculiarly appropriate name. Tiny bushes -of wild rose flutter in the breezes; and, a little lower down, the -earth is yellow with immortelles (Helichrysum), which, as I write, -recall the southern sun. The journey to Erivan, by way of Tiflis, -can be performed in luxury; from Erivan you can drive in a victoria -to the foot of Ararat; on the mountain you have need of nothing but -a tent and a cook. The Kurds are well-behaved, and will provide you -with milk and mutton, of which it is a treat to taste. The old lawless -times are passing into legend, thanks to the vigorous rule of the -Tsars. The Russian officials abound in real kindness of disposition; -and, if you can only succeed in patching a peace with the system, -you feel that they really wish you well. We returned to Aralykh on -the 22nd of September after an absence of nearly six days. - - - -The cantonment of Aralykh faces the jaws of the great chasm which -extends from the snowy roof to the base of Ararat, and lays the heart -of the mountain bare (Fig. 37). We were anxious to penetrate within -these dark recesses, and, after a day's rest, carried our project -into effect. - -It is a melancholy reflection that nothing is lasting--that the -strength of the earth withers and the strength of the human body, -that faith dies and the closest friendships dissolve. In the world of -sense Time is all-powerful, and nothing escapes destruction at his -hands. [83] This painful lesson is written with terrible emphasis -on the fabric of Ararat, where it fronts the historic river and the -historic plains. Another earthquake, and the massive roof may tumble -headlong into the abyss which now yawns beneath its cornice of snow. I -have already observed that Herrmann Abich was able to remark a lateral -fissure between the two highest elevations in the surface of the crown -of the dome. He suggests that this fissure may have been caused by -the convulsion of 1840, to which the present configuration of the -chasm is due. [84] It would therefore appear that Time has already -taken a decisive step towards the overthrow of the uppermost portion -of the cone. The chasm itself and the subsidence of the flank of the -mountain date from an epoch beyond the range of history. Tournefort, -who visited Ararat in 1701, presents us with such a vivid picture of -the rent side of the giant, that one cannot doubt that the essential -features of the chasm existed in his day. [85] The little monastery -of St. Jacob, which, prior to the catastrophe of 1840, stood within -the recesses of the gulf, probably occupied the same site when it -was first erected in the early Christian times. The reader may not be -acquainted with the story of the catastrophe, and may like to learn -or to recall it in this place. - -Several travellers have presented us with a description of the -locality as it existed before those events. [86] Some 10 miles from -the banks of the Kara Su, on the base or pedestal of Ararat, at a -height of some 5600 feet above the sea, or 2900 feet above the plain, -[87] was situated the Armenian village of Akhury or Arguri--the only -village, we are informed by Dubois, which had hazarded a position on -the side of the mountain, [88] and a place which boasted a remote -antiquity. According to Armenian tradition, it was there that Noah -built the altar, and offered up the burnt sacrifice, after his -departure from the Ark and safe descent of the mountain, with his -family and the living creatures of every kind. It was at Akhury or -Arguri--a name which is said to signify in the Armenian language he -has planted the vine [89]--that, according to the same tradition, the -patriarch planted his vineyard and drank to excess of its wine. The -inhabitants would point to an ancient willow of stunted growth, -bent by the action of snow and ice; it stood in an isolated spot -above the village, a rare object on a mountain which is almost devoid -of trees. They believed that it drew its origin from a plank of the -Ark which had taken root; and they would not suffer any damage to be -done to the sacred object, or the least of its branches to be taken -away. The population amounted to about 1000 souls; [90] the houses -numbered some two hundred, and were built of stone with the usual flat -roofs. The settlement owed its prosperity, and even its existence, -to a stream which then, as now, issued from the jaws of the chasm, -fed by the melting ice and snow. It was placed at the open exit from -the gorge, where the trough flattens out into the base. The church and -the larger portion of the village were on the right bank of the stream; -on the left, opposite the church, stood a square-shaped fortress, built -of clay after the fashion of the country. A near eminence was crowned -by the walls of a spacious palace, which served as a summer residence -for the Persian sirdars of Erivan. It was indeed a delightful resort -during the heats of summer. A cool draught descended from the snows -of the summit region; and the little stream supported considerable -vineyards and orchards, so that the traveller, on approaching Akhury, -could take refuge from the glare of the plain in quite a little wood -of apricot trees. The church--said to have been called Araxilvank -(Arakelotz Vank?)--was reputed to have been built on the site of Noah's -altar. It dated from the eighth or ninth century; and to such a height -had the ground about it risen since its foundation, that the two side -doors had become embedded in soil up to the crossbeams. Just beyond -this pleasant oasis you entered the chasm, and, after proceeding -for nearly two miles up its boulder-strewn hollow, you reached the -little monastery of St. Jacob, which stood on the edge of a natural -terrace a few hundred feet above the bottom of the gulf, immediately -overlooking the right bank of the stream. The chasm had at this spot -a depth of some 600 to 800 feet, [91] and the elevation of the site -of the monastery above sea-level was 6394 feet. [92] Parrot, who -established his headquarters in this lonely cloister, has handed down -to us a charming illustration of the place, and a pleasant description -of the chapel, with its walled enclosure and garden and orchard, -the residence, at the time of his visit, of a single monk. Like the -church of Akhury, it commemorated a religious event in the story of -Ararat. A monk of the name of Jacob, afterwards bishop of Nisibis, -reputed to have been a contemporary and relative of St. Gregory, -was seized with the desire to convince the sceptics of the truth -of the Biblical narrative, and to assure himself of the presence of -the Ark on the summit of Ararat by the evidence of his own eyes. In -the pursuit of this purpose he made several attempts to scale the -mountain from the north-east side. On each occasion he fell asleep, -exhausted by the effort; as often as he awoke, he would find that he -had been miraculously transported to the point from which he had set -out. At length God looked with compassion upon his fruitless labours, -and sent an angel who appeared to him in his sleep. The Divine message -was to the effect that the summit was unattainable by mortal man; -but the angel deposited on his breast a fragment of the holy Ark, -as a reward for his faith and pains. [93] Beyond St. Jacob's, on the -same or eastern side of the chasm and on the edge of the precipice, -was situated a tiny shrine, built of hewn stone, at an altitude of -about 1000 feet above the monastery. [94] It stood by the side of -one of the rare springs which are found on Ararat--a well of which -the waters are still deemed to possess miraculous powers, and which -still attracts numerous pilgrims from the plains. As you followed -the gulf still further, the sides increased in steepness and the -abyss in depth, until, at a distance of about two and a half miles -from the cloister, [95] it ended in an almost perpendicular wall of -rock which towered up to the snowy cornice of the dome. Tournefort, -whose description is in other respects fantastic, has used language -to portray the aspect of the upper end of the chasm which would be -true at the present day. He speaks of the terrible appearance of the -ravine, one of those natural wonders which testify to the greatness -of the Saviour, as his Armenian companion observed. He could not help -trembling as he overlooked the precipices, and he asks his readers, -if they would form some conception of the character of the phenomenon, -to imagine one of the loftiest mountains in the world opening its -bosom to a vertical cleft. From the heights above, masses of rock -were continually falling into the abyss with a noise that inspired -fear. [96] - -On the evening of the 20th of June 1840 a terrific earthquake shook the -mountain, and not only the shrine and cloister, but the entire village -of Akhury with the sirdar's palace were destroyed and swept away. An -eye-witness, who was pasturing cattle on the grassy slopes above the -chasm on the side opposite to the shrine and the well, tells us that -he was thrown on to his knees by a sudden reeling of the ground, and -that, even in this position, he was unable to maintain himself, but -was overturned by the continuing shocks. Close by his side the earth -cracked; a terrific rolling sound filled his ears; when he dared look -up, he could see nothing but a mighty cloud of dust, which glimmered -with a reddish hue above the ravine. But the quaking and cracking -were renewed; he lay outstretched upon the ground, and thus awaited -death. At length the sounds became fainter, and he was able to look -towards the ravine. Through the dust he perceived a dark mass in the -hollow, but of what it was composed he could not see. The sun went -down; the great cloud passed away from the valley; as he descended -with his cattle in the failing light, he could see nothing within the -abyss except the dark mass. Another spectator has left us an account -of the various phases of the phenomenon, as they were experienced -from a standpoint below the village. He happened to be working in a -garden a few versts from Akhury, on the side of the plain. His wife -and daughter were with him; two of his sons appeared towards evening -and brought him a report about his cattle. Two riders, returning to -the village, exchanged a few words with the party, and rode on. The -sun was beginning to sink behind the mountains, and he and his people -were preparing to go home. In an instant the ground beneath their feet -oscillated violently, and all were thrown down. At the same time loud -reports and a rolling sound, as if of thunder, increased the panic into -which they fell. A hurricane of wind swept towards them from the chasm -and overturned every object that was not firm. In the same direction -there arose an immense cloud of dust, overtopped, towards the upper -portion of the ravine, by a darker cloud, as of black smoke. After -a momentary pause the same phenomena were repeated; only this time a -dark mass swept towards them from the direction of the village with -a rolling and a rushing sound. It reached the two riders; they were -engulfed and disappeared. Immediately afterwards the two sons were -overtaken by the same fate. The mass rolled onwards to the gardens, -and broke down the walled enclosures. Large stones came tumbling -about the unfortunate peasants; and a great crag swept down upon -the prostrate witness, and settling by his side, caught his mantle -fast. Extricating himself with difficulty, he succeeded in lifting -his unconscious wife and daughter from the earth, and in flying with -them over the quaking ground. After each shock they could hear the -sound of cracking in the chasm, accompanied by sharp reports. They -were joined by fugitives, escaping from the neighbouring gardens, -and they endeavoured to make their way to Aralykh. It was morning -before they reached their goal; during the night the sounds and -shocks continued, always fainter but at periodical intervals. This -catastrophe was followed on the 24th of June by a second and scarcely -less momentous collapse. On this occasion a mass of mud and water burst -from the chasm, as though some colossal dam had given way. Blocks of -rock and huge pieces of ice were precipitated over the base, and the -flood extended for a space of about thirteen miles. Not a trace was -left of the gardens and fields which it devastated, and the Kara Su -was temporarily dammed by the viscous stream. [97] - -It is to the credit of the times in which we live that no such event -could now occur in Russian territory without exhaustive and local -scientific investigation, while the results of the catastrophe were -still fresh. The task of reporting to the Government was entrusted to a -Major of Engineers, who was ordered to open an enquiry on the spot. His -account was to the effect that masses of rock were precipitated into -the chasm from the overhanging heights; that they were accompanied -in their descent by vast quantities of snow, unloosed by the sinking -foundations of the uppermost seams. A river of boulders and snow -and ice streamed with lightning rapidity down the gulf, buried the -cloister and the village with all its inhabitants, and choked up the -trough of the abyss. The earthquake was attended by the opening of -fissures in the ground, from which there issued water and sand, and -even flames. [98] The mention of this last phenomenon appears to have -aroused the curiosity of men of learning, and to have excited in them -a strong desire for further light. The site was visited in 1843 by a -German man of science, Dr. Wagner, and in 1844 by the great geologist -Herrmann Abich, whose researches are always careful and complete. [99] -These two authorities unfortunately arrived at opposite conclusions -as to the character of the convulsion. Wagner begins by discrediting -the account of the Russian Major, and suggests that he had never left -the walls of Erivan, having lost his travelling money at play. He -considers it absurd to suppose that the mass which destroyed Akhury -and the fragments of rocks which were projected far and wide can be -attributed to the operation of purely seismic forces, dislocating -the crown and sides of the abyss. They must have been due to eruptive -volcanic action, of which he thought he could see the traces at the -upper end of the chasm, the site, according to his view, of one of the -old craters of Ararat. They were impelled through the air by steam -and escaping gases from a fissure in the bottom of the ravine. We -must therefore form the conception of an eruption accompanied by an -earthquake, not of a landslip effected by seismic shocks. [100] - -That this theory is open to objection on the simple ground of -probability, it does not require scientific knowledge to perceive. In -the first place an eruption of Ararat is unknown within the historical -period; in the second, the destruction of Akhury was only one of many -catastrophes which were occasioned by earth movements on the same -day. On that same evening the valley of the Araxes was visited by a -violent earthquake, and thousands of houses were overthrown. [101] -It is true that Wagner supposes an eruption of steam rather than of -fire, and favours the hypothesis of vast reservoirs of water beneath -the mountain having burst in upon the molten mass below. But this -ingenious supposition is rendered unnecessary and improbable by the -minute researches of the next trained worker in the same field. Abich -asks how it would be possible for eruptive action to have broken -forth in a narrow valley--on such a scale that huge crags of 100 to -150 feet in circumference were propelled for a distance of over three -miles [102]--without leaving any trace of volcanic ejectamenta on the -adjoining heights and on the slopes beyond. A careful examination of -the disposition and character of the débris, as they were disclosed -within the trough of the chasm, as well as on the surface of the base -of the mountain, established in his mind the veracity in all essentials -of the official version of the Russian Major of Engineers. He observed -that the fragments of rock which are strewn over the basal slopes -before the entrance to the chasm is reached, become concentrated as -you proceed, and are collected into long ridges of boulders, which -issue from the mouth of the gulf. Yet not a single one among these -fragments was found to be identical in nature with the fragments on -the adjacent valley sides. How account for this striking circumstance -on the hypothesis of an eruption from fissures along the base of the -valley? When he came to investigate the origin of these piled-up -boulders, he discovered that they exactly corresponded with the -rock of the seams which are found along the upper end of the chasm, -overhanging the abyss. He was even able to ascribe approximately the -former position of the largest of the crags which recline upon the -base to a site on the left wall of the chasm, immediately beneath and -supporting the snows. From his writings we may extract the following -explanation of the phenomena to which the destruction of Akhury was -due. The upper structure of Ararat had been seriously weakened on the -north-eastern side by the slow but persistent action of snow and ice, -and by the corrosive tendencies of veins of sulphurate of iron. The -earthquake precipitated portions of the higher seams into the chasm, -together with masses of snow. A dense cloud of dust was induced by -the falling rocks, and the setting sun lent to this cloud a lurid -hue. Immense quantities of boulders were hurried down the trough -of the chasm, accompanied by a stream of mud and melting ice. The -course of this composite current was directed upon the village by the -configuration of the left wall of the chasm. As the sides of the valley -fell in, its upper portion became obstructed at the neck or narrow -which still exists about at the point where the little shrine used -to overlook the abyss. A mighty dam was formed by the fallen masses, -and the head of the valley became a huge morass. Further lapses of -rock and snow took place from the summit region, and the heats of -June dissolved the frozen elements in the morass. On the 24th the -dam yielded to the overpowering pressure, and the second act of the -catastrophe was fulfilled. - -As a result of this earthquake, the ridge enclosing the uppermost -end of the chasm was found to have acquired about double its former -extent. The height of the precipice had also increased considerably, -especially on the eastern side. The summit remained intact, but the -fabric of Ararat lay henceforth exposed to its innermost core. [103] - - - -We set out at a quarter-past eight in the morning, mounted on -little hacks. The Armenian Makar, who had accompanied us on the -previous expedition, was deputed to be our guide. It took us some -twenty minutes to cross the belt of sand and camelthorn at a pace -of about six miles an hour. Then the ground commenced to rise with -more perceptible acclivity, and we made our way across the massive -base. The still air, and the restfulness of the stately fabric before -us exercised upon us their now familiar spell. Grey clouds enveloped -the snows of the summit region, collected above a veil of tender mist. - -We were pointing towards the entrance to the chasm, and we noticed -that, in that direction, there exists a considerable concavity in -the surface of the base. One might almost form the conception of -a flaw in the mountain, extending to the pedestal upon which it is -reared. On either side of us, but more especially on our left hand, -the rounded contours of the basal slopes were curving inwards to a -wide depression, up the trough of which we rode. Is this feature the -result of landslip and of floods issuing from the chasm, or was the -pedestal always weaker upon this side? I am inclined to ascribe it in -part to an inherent defect in the structure, which has been enlarged -and accentuated in the process of centuries. It would appear that the -streams of lava which fed the base on the north-west and south-east -were not directed in equal volume to these north-eastern slopes. Such -a distribution of the molten matter which contributed to build up the -fabric would account, at least in some measure, for the subsequent -subsidence of Ararat on this its north-eastern flank. - -As we proceeded, this hollow formation became more pronounced; we -were approaching the mouth of the chasm. We observed how much more -copious was the flora which covers this portion of the base. In place -of the burnt herbage over which we had ridden on our journey to Sardar -Bulakh, we here admired an abundant growth of low and thorny bushes -of which the tiny and delicate pink and white flowers were showered -upon a ground of grey and green (Atraphaxis spinosa). Long streamers -of sansola (Kochia prostrata, Schrad.) bent towards us, and gigantic -yellow grasses rose like spears (Calamagrostis epigejos, Roth.). The -stream which issues from the chasm--exhausted at this season--feeds and -fertilises the sandy soil, and, perhaps, the layers of mud which were -left by the flood of 1840 have not been without effect on the nature of -the land. We were reminded of that catastrophe by the huge fragments -of conglomerate rock which are strewn over the hollow throughout a -considerable area. On our return I took a photograph of the largest -of these crags, where it lay, among bouquets of spangled atraphaxis, -outlined against the sky (Fig. 38). Abich informs us that the fragment -which lies immediately in front of it was incorporated with it at the -time of his first visit in 1844; the mass then measured at the base 285 -feet in circumference, with a height of 45 feet. [104] I have already -said that this careful investigator was able to trace its origin to a -site at the upper end of the chasm, overhanging the abyss. According -to his theory, it must have fallen in after the first act of the -catastrophe, and been transported in the course of the second act to -its present place. It was pushed down the trough of the ravine and -over the gentle incline of these basal slopes by the action of the -viscous stream, until that action lost its force when the stream was -freed from the compression of the gorge and radiated outwards over the -pedestal. [105] To us plain people the position of these crags was -a source of amazement, and the Greeks would have made the chasm the -residence of a Cyclops who hurled such missiles at adventuresome men. - -At half-past ten we halted at a small Kurdish village, situated at -the mouth of the chasm. These Kurds have erected hovels of loose -stones with roofs of mud, and they can boast or deplore, in the -person of a starshina, a direct official connection with the Russian -Government. It was amusing to see a Kurd in the dress of a Russian -dignitary stepping out to meet his European visitors. He wore a dark -blue coat; a large brass badge of office hung upon his breast. Ever -since the great convulsion the Kurds have haunted the site of Akhury, -rummaging for anything valuable in the buried ruins. Makar explained to -us that we were now standing where once stood the prosperous township, -with its ancient church and pleasant gardens. The woods of apricot, -the rich vineyards have disappeared entirely; it would be difficult -to discover a single tree. Just west of the miserable hamlet you -still remark the deep watercourse which is the principal vent for -the drainage of the ravine. The channel is dry at this season, and is -overhung by steep banks some 100 to 150 feet high. We observed that -these banks are composed of a sandy soil, inlaid with rocks. Yet -the valley, even in autumn, is not entirely devoid of water; here -and there we were refreshed by the sight of growing grass, and by the -sound of little runnels. The trough of the ravine has at this point an -elevation above sea-level of about 5570 feet, while its sides, which -are formed by the cleft in the base of outer sheath of the mountain, -are as yet scarcely more than 200 feet high. It extends almost in a -straight line, and in a south-westerly direction, to the very heart -of Ararat. The flanking cliffs rise and the valley narrows, until -the formation assumes the proportions of a gulf many thousands of -feet in depth, overhung by the snows of the summit region. Imagine -a gigantic cutting, with a length of several miles, at the uppermost -end of which an almost perpendicular precipice supports the snowy roof -of Ararat! Even from this standpoint we could perceive the vertical -seams at the head of the chasm, shadowed walls of grey rock with veins -of orange hue, the higher ledges sprinkled with the first snows of -autumn and half concealed by light, dissolving mist. - -We mounted to the top of the cliff on the right or eastern side -of the ravine, in order to obtain a view on either hand. Towards -the east stretched the contours of the upper portion of the base, -clothed with withered grass and strewn with stones. Abich tells us -that these fragments are different in origin and character from the -boulders and stones in the trough of the ravine; and, as we have seen, -he uses the fact as a powerful weapon against the eruptive theory -which Wagner propounds. Looking across the valley, our eyes rested on -a little settlement on its opposite or western flank. It occupies a -higher site than that of the Kurdish village, and may have been about -a mile distant from where we stood. It interested us as well by its -lonely and dangerous position as by an adjacent and isolated group -of trees. It is called New Akhury, and, according to the official -statistics, contains a population of some 400 Tartar inhabitants. It -is the seat of a Cossack station, and bids fair to increase in size -before the next earthquake shall sweep it away. - -Makar directed our attention to some fallen gravestones, not many yards -distant from where we stood. They are the remains of the cemetery -of the old Akhury, and among them we admired several crosses with -rich chasing in the old Armenian style. We found them overgrown with -a thick, orange-hued lichen, resembling the appearance of rust. He -told us that many of his relations had been buried in this graveyard, -and he pointed out in particular a group of seven stones. He said -that they marked the graves of seven brothers who had been killed in -the gardens of the vanished township by the attacks of a single snake. - -After regaling ourselves with delicious milk and eating an egg or two, -we started at noon on our excursion up the ravine. We made our way -along the eastern side of the chasm, sometimes picking our course -as we might among the boulders, at others following a beaten path on -higher ground. Not far beyond the hamlet we noticed a little spring, -of which the water was trickling over. The next object to excite our -interest was the peculiar formation of the floor of a side valley, -in which we found ourselves at half-past twelve. Throughout an area of -some 350 by 200 yards the ground was perfectly level, like a billiard -table, with a smooth surface of sand and little pebbles. The length -of this round ellipse followed the direction of the main ravine, which -lay at some considerable depth beneath it, and from which the basin of -this valley was separated by a low bulwark of rock and soil. We were -impressed by the sharp distinction between the bottom of this flat area -and the banks which, on the one side, were formed by this bulwark and, -on the other, by towering cliffs, overgrown with grass. The basin -has an entrance and an exit gully, through which the waters collect -and escape. Not a single pool lingered within it at this season, and -it was difficult to realise that this warm and sunny recess probably -owes its most distinctive features to the erosive action of ice. - -We mounted ever higher up the slopes which flank the ravine. In the -trough of the gulf we noticed another flat space, similar in character -but less pronounced than that which I have described. Bushes of wild -rose luxuriate on these cliff-sides, and from this foreground of rich -tints and red berries we looked across to the dark and perpendicular -precipices which encircle the head of the chasm. At every lift in the -restless vapours we feasted our eyes on the snows of the summit, and we -remarked the great length and horizontal profile of the summit-outline, -seen between the opening arms of the abyss. Muffled women's figures, -astride of their horses, came winding down the path. They were -Armenian ladies, returning from a pilgrimage to St. Jacob's Well; -foot-attendants held their bridles and picked their way. - -At two o'clock we arrived at the famous rose bush and the holy -well. The path has been worn by the feet of pilgrims, who journey -hither from the plains. The water issues from a recess in the side of -the mountain which has been levelled with a masonry of hewn stone. The -overflow nourishes the rose-tree, on the twigs of which are attached -countless little ribbons of rag, shreds from the garments of the -devout. Just beyond these sacred objects you are shown a level site, -overhanging the ravine. Rows of stones are interlaced upon its surface, -a sign for pious wayfarers. Here was placed the little shrine which -during the great earthquake must have tumbled headlong into the -chasm. The pilgrims insert tiny sticks into the ground with the same -little ribbons of rag. The holy water is a talisman against all kinds -of calamities, and it is supposed to attract the birds which destroy -the locusts when they desolate the country-side. - -It is a fine standpoint from which to command the upper end of the -chasm, which has here a width of some 500 yards. My illustration -(Fig. 39) was taken from a spot close to the well and the site of -the shrine, but perhaps a little lower down. The site itself has -an elevation above sea-level of about 7500 feet. [106] The camera -has belittled the natural features, and I must ask my reader to -interpret my picture with the help of the reflection that the snows -which overhang these perpendicular precipices are nearly 17,000 feet -high. We penetrated further up the romantic valley, along the bed -of a dry watercourse. Skirting the buttresses of the eastern wall, -we observed that they were composed of a compact grey andesite with -something of the appearance of slate. Seams of a rock similar in -character, but which have turned red in weathering, lend variety -to the surface of these bold bastions; while the dark face of the -wall which mounts to the summit region is scored by extensive veins -of that decomposed and orange-hued lava which spells destruction -wherever it appears. The bottom of the ravine is covered by a deep -beach of boulders, worn by the action of ice and water. Animal life -is represented by a flock of crows or jackdaws, which croak and circle -round you as you advance. - -Behind the lofty wall of rock which is seen on the left of my -illustration, in jagged outline against the snows, a glacier -descends from the summit region which is probably the only true -glacier on Ararat, and which I should judge to be gradually -decreasing in extent. According to Abich, the long ridges which -have the appearance of piles of boulders, and which are seen in -his illustration descending the trough of the chasm to a point some -distance below St. Jacob's Well, were composed in 1874 of compact and -dirty glacier ice, covered over with stones and débris. He informs us -that in 1844 there was a direct but deeply buried connection between -this ice and the ice in the circus at the lower end of the glacier; -and that in 1874 this connection had been severed, and the ice-hills -themselves had decreased about one-third in height. [107] On the top -of these ridges he discovered a series of marshes and little lakes, -of which the largest was several hundred paces in circumference. I -cannot testify myself to the present condition of these ice-hills; I -cannot even say that they exist. I did not see any ice in the trough -of the chasm, although it was evident that its present condition was -largely due to ice action, and although we admired a little lake of -glacier water, set like a turquoise in the waste of mud and stones. It -is computed that the actual glacier descends as low as a level of -about 8000 feet--a notable fact when we consider that the line of -perpetual snow on this side of Ararat is as high as 14,000 feet. - -We lingered for some little space in the ravine beyond St. Jacob's -Well, waiting for the clouds to lift. But they hung jealously about the -upper slopes of the precipices, whence a mist descended upon us like -rain. The mountain thundered; from time to time the mist was gently -parted, and gave passage to the sun. If we were disappointed of a -clear view of the higher regions, we were at least able to appreciate -to the full the vista down the weird chasm to the fair landscape of -the plain. The comparative straightness of the gulf renders such a -prospect possible, even from its uppermost end. No projecting spur or -interposed eminence obstructs the continuous stretch of the hollow -outlines to the distant campagna of the river-side. On the horizon -were the crinkled mountains in the direction of Lake Sevan, flushed -with tints of delicate yellow and amethyst, lightly shaded with opal -hues. Deep gloom lay upon the floor of the abyss, and only the pools -of blue glacier water caught the brilliance of day. On the open base -beyond these shadows the sinuous lines of dry watercourses led the eye -into the expanse of the plain; and we could still see the recumbent -blocks which once hung in pinnacles above the spot upon which we stood. - -Evening was drawing in when we again reached the entrance to the -chasm. We skirt the Kurdish village, we pass a pool of water and -a group of barefooted Kurdish girls. Away on our left are the mud -houses of the Tartar settlement, and the green clump of trees. To these -succeed the bouquets of pink and white atraphaxis, and the scattered -crags of conglomerate rock. A flora of great variety starts from the -sand and among the stone. While we are crossing this upper region -of the base, the sun disappears behind the still, grey clouds; the -blue zenith pales and fades. A full moon rises from the grey clouds, -wreathing the landscape with soft lights. Heavy quiet reigns over the -vast and lonely scene, and the only sound is the cicada's hum. The -low, dark outline of the trees of Aralykh is a mere shadow on the -plain. Nature touches the chords of that stately and solemn movement -which issues in and faintly accompanies the life of man. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE - -The identification of Mount Ararat with the mountain upon which the -Ark rested is at least as early as the adoption of Christianity by the -Armenians, and may have been originally made by Jewish prisoners of -war. But there does not appear to have existed in the neighbourhood of -Ararat an independent local tradition of the Flood; and the mountain -is still locally known not as Ararat, but as Masis to the Armenians, -and as Aghri Dagh to the Tartars. It is, however, called Ararat -in Armenian literature as early as Faustus of Byzantium, who uses -the name in relating the story of St. Jacob of Nisibis (Faustus, -iii. 10. The name appears to have been wrongly spelt Sararat by the -copyists). The Ararat of Scripture is the Assyrian Urardhu; and the -"mountains of Ararat" of Genesis viii. 4 must be sought within the -country of Urardhu. Dr. Belck has quite recently examined, in the light -of his remarkable researches into the lore of the Vannic texts, the -question of the original geographical application of the term Urardhu -(Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Berlin, 1899, pp. 113 seq.); it appears -to have spread from a district in Kurdistan, south-west of Lake Urmi, -to the country about Lake Van. It would, therefore, seem that the -tendency of the term has been to travel north; for the Urardhu or -Ararat of the historical period is the province about Mount Ararat, -one of the great divisions in the kingdom of the Arsakid monarchs -of Armenia, and well known under the name of Ararat to Agathangelus -and the earliest Armenian writers. Mount Ararat could scarcely have -been known to the peoples of the lowlands, among whom the Biblical -legend of the Flood originated. Various aspects of the subject -are well discussed by Suess (Das Antlitz der Erde, Leipzic, 1885, -vol. i. pp. 25-92; Die Sintfluth), Bryce (Transcaucasia and Ararat, -edition of 1896, pp. 211 seq.), and Sayce (Dictionary of the Bible, -London, 1898, sub voce Ararat). - -The fabric of Ararat composes an elliptical figure with an axis from -north-west to south-east. The base plan measures about 28 miles in -length, and about 23 miles in width. The fabric is built up by two -mountains: Great Ararat (16,916 feet above the sea) and Little Ararat -(12,840 feet). Their bases are contiguous at a level of 8800 feet, -and their summits are 7 miles apart. Both are due to eruptive volcanic -action; but no eruption of Ararat is known to have occurred during -the historical period, and the summit of the greater mountain presents -all the appearance of a very ancient and much worn-down volcano with a -central chimney or vent, long since filled in. I have already described -the summit region of Great Ararat. The estimates or measurements of -my predecessors are at variance with one another in detail; but one -may assert that it consists of two separate elevations, divided one -from the other by a depression some 100 to 150 feet in depth. The -more easterly is much the larger, having the character of a spacious -platform of saucer-like form. The more westerly presents the shape of -a symmetrical cone, when seen from the platform; and is in connection -with the snow-laden and almost horizontal bastions at the head of -the north-western slope. Both elevations have about the same height; -but, if anything, the more westerly is the higher. [108] The reader -will be able to distinguish them in my photograph (Fig. 37), as well -as to observe how they mingle together as mere crinkles in the crown -of the dome. Parrot was inclined to think that the Ark came to rest -in the depression between these two elevations. - -Yielding in height to the most lofty peaks of the Caucasus in the -north (Elburz, 18,525 feet), which are visible from the summit, -and to Demavend (over 18,000 feet) in the belt of mountains which -rise along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, Ararat is by far -the loftiest of the mountains of Armenia, and is over 1000 feet -more elevated than the highest peak in Europe, Mont Blanc (15,780 -feet). Moreover, Elburz and Kazbek, Mont Blanc, and even Demavend, all -rise among a sea of mountains, of which they are little more than the -highest crests. The isolation of Ararat is not its least interesting -feature--a feature which I would fain hope is already imprinted upon my -reader's mind. The plains which it overlooks belong to three empires; -the frontiers of Persia, Turkey, and Russia meet upon its slopes. - -It has been estimated that as late as the month of May the colossal -mountain is covered with snow to a level of 9000 feet below the summit; -and the appearance of this immense white sheet from the blooming -campagna of the valley of the Araxes is one of the fine sights in the -world. But by the month of September the snowy canopy will be confined -to the dome of Great Ararat; and the limit of perpetual snow on the -side facing the plain on the north is not less elevated than from -13,500 to 14,000 feet above the sea. The extensive depression through -which the Araxes flows collects the heats of summer; and the warm -air from this reservoir ascends the northern slopes of the mountain, -melting the snow to a height which is greater than might be expected -in this latitude. [109] - -The best season for an ascent is the latter half of September. During -October there is more chance of obtaining a view from the summit, -which is usually most free from clouds in that month. But the days -are, of course, shorter, and the fresh snow commences to lie. I -should recommend the traveller with time upon his hands who may be -anxious to extend our knowledge of the mountain to adopt the following -programme:--(1) Ascend Little Ararat from Sardar Bulakh. (Good accounts -are furnished by Parrot, op. cit. pp. 219 seq.; Stuart, Proceedings -R.G.S. 1877, vol. xxi. pp. 77-92; Kovaleffsky, Voyage au Mont Ararat, -Moscow, 1899 [in Russian]; Artsruni, Verhand. Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin, -vol. xxii. 1895, pp. 606 seq.; Ebeling, Verhand. Gesell. Erdkunde -Berlin, vol. xxv. 1898, pp. 130-132.) (2) Extend the journey to the -southern slopes of Great Ararat, and thoroughly explore that side of -the mountain. (3) Ascend Great Ararat, perhaps from a point a little -further south than that indicated in my account; and (4) investigate -the condition of the glacier in the chasm of Akhury. An interesting -excursion may also be made to the little crater lake known as Kip -Göl on the north-western slopes (see the accounts of Monsieur and of -Madame Chantre in their writings already cited). - -I append a list of the successful ascents of Great Ararat up to -and including our own, so far as I have been able to ascertain them -[110]:-- - - - 1. F. Parrot, 1829. Started from the monastery of St. Jacob - (chasm of Akhury) and made the ascent by the north-western - slope. - 2. K. Spasky-Avtonomoff, 1834. From Akhury. - 3. Herrmann Abich, 1845. From Sardar Bulakh. - 4. H. D. Seymour, 1845. (From New Akhury?). - 5. J. Khodzko, N. V. Khanikoff, and others, 1850. From Sardar - Bulakh. - 6. R. Stuart and others, 1856. From Bayazid. - 7. J. Bryce, 1876. From Sardar Bulakh. - 8. G. P. Baker, 1878. From Sardar Bulakh. - 9. Sivoloboff, 1882. - 10. E. Markoff, 1888. From Sardar Bulakh. - 11. Semenoff, 1888 (?). - 12. Raphalovich and others, 1889. From Sardar Bulakh. - 13. T. G. Allen and W. L. Sachtleben (1892?). From Bayazid. - 14. Postukhoff, 1893. From Sardar Bulakh. - 15. H. B. Lynch, H. F. B. Lynch, and Rudolph Taugwalder, 1893. - From Sardar Bulakh. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -RETURN TO ERIVAN - - -September 25.--We passed the morning upon the mound, in the little open -summer-house, face to face with the airy snowfields which we had scaled -to their topmost vaulting, with the cavernous recesses which we had -penetrated to their inmost core. Such is the silence of Nature at the -foot of this solemn mountain that the faintest sound reaches the ear. I -was therefore startled by a clamour of voices in the direction of the -cantonment, and I hurried down towards the noise. A booted figure in -drab uniform, covered with dust from head to foot, was gesticulating -under the influence of extreme excitement to a little group of Russian -military in their white tunics, accompanied by some languid Orientals -at a respectful interval. It was the officer of Cossacks who had joined -our party near Takjaltu, and who had left us at Sardar Bulakh. Suiting -his gestures to his words, he was narrating a thrilling story of a -night encounter with the Kurds. His little eyes were bloodshot and -distended with emotion; his legs were parted and his feet planted -firm. His detachment had fallen in with a band of marauders, who -had carried off some cattle from over beyond Akhury, and made away -towards the Turkish frontier. They had fired on the Kurds, who had -returned their fire; they had recovered the cattle and chased the -Kurds away. I enquired what bag he had made of these human vultures, -and he replied, with a sigh, that they had carried off their dead. - -On the further side of the Araxes, opposite Aralykh, is situated -the celebrated monastery of Khor Virap, which marks the spot where, -according to Armenian tradition, Saint Gregory, the founder of -Christianity in Armenia, was imprisoned for thirteen years in a deep -pit. The country about and behind the cloister is extremely rich -in historical and archćological interest, and I would recommend the -traveller to prolong his excursion up the romantic valley of the Garni, -whence he can return across the mountains to Erivan. He will examine -the sites of Artaxata and Dvin, and, proceeding up the river, will -reach the gorge with the basaltic columns, and the platform where -once stood the temple of King Tiridates--a beautiful Greek shrine -given to these solitudes, like the temple of Segesta to the lonely -Sicilian hills. Hard by this platform above the river are found the -relics of the city of Garni; and, near the sources of the stream, at a -distance of some five miles from Garni, the caves and monastery of Surb -Geghard, reputed to have been founded by St. Gregory, respond to the -spirit of a landscape which for grandeur and severity is unsurpassed -among these wilds. I was anxious to make the acquaintance of some at -least among these antiquities; we therefore despatched our luggage -with the Swiss and the cook to Erivan, and, availing ourselves of -the offer of a victoria as far as Khor Virap, resolved to trust to -fortune for the remainder of the way. [111] - -Had we been able to procure riding-horses, we might probably have -ridden from the ferry over the Araxes direct to the cloister across -the plain. In a carriage we were obliged to retrace our steps as far -as Kamarlu, where the road which runs parallel to the course of the -river crosses the road to Erivan. The stage which we had made after -nightfall between that village and Aralykh was now performed in the -light of day. The alluvial flats between the Araxes and the base -of Ararat are channelled by a network of irrigation runnels, which -diffuse the stream of the Kara Su. From the fields and marshes rise -luxuriant cotton and castor oil plants, the one with yellow single -blossoms, like a wild rose, and drooping fruit, resembling flakes of -snow; the other, higher than these, raising a tender, juicy stem to -shining, palm-shaped leaves. Here and there, where the water fails, -bushes of hardy camelthorn spring up, like weeds, upon the fallow -land. The oppressive climate of Aralykh, no less than the plague of -insects which infest it, are due to the sand upon the pedestal of -the mountain, and to these swamps with their effluvia and mosquito -swarms. Even at this season the sun beats fiercely upon the plain; -and, when we reached the ferry, a herd of buffaloes and bullocks, -awaiting transport, were rolling parched tongues and casting longing -eyes at the river from the bank of crumbling mud. - -A double pontoon, staged across with planks, received our carriage, -and was swiftly impelled along the hawser by the force of the -stream. From the opposite margin a dreary tract of baked alluvial -soil extends to the zone of gardens and orchards which commences at -Kamarlu. I have already alluded to the excellence of the road within -that zone; but by day you will be loth to hasten along it, such is -the charm and so great the interest of the scene. The traffic from -the lower Araxes, from Persia and distant Mesopotamia, finds its way -along this chaussée to Erivan. The district is inhabited by well-to-do -people, who can afford the richness of their national dress. Beneath -the foliage of the needle poplars, between the well-maintained mud -walls--over which you look to the vineyards and to the vegetable -gardens, where the tomato and the chili abound--a stream of wayfarers, -some on horseback, fill the pleasant avenue, chatting and smiling -under the expansive influence of ease and shade. At intervals you -pass a house or cluster of houses, where groups of Armenian women -in their holiday attire are gathered before the open doors. They are -clad in their gayest cottons, and wear their picturesque head-dress -and veils of white gauze. Some among them nurse their babes at the -open bosom, the little infant cleaving to the full breasts. Tartars, -with their black lambskin hats and dark blue or black garments, -compose an element which a cynic would be loth to dispense with in -such a scene of piping peace; yet it would be difficult to detect a -trace on their clean-shaven faces of passions which have, perhaps, -been blunted by time. Laden waggons pass, and numerous bullock-carts, -with their heavy, creaking wheels. We were amused by the appearance -of a curious pair of riders who, to judge from the deference which -was bestowed upon them, were evidently of exalted rank. The man wore -a flowing beard and was dressed in Oriental apparel; but he held in -his hand a parasol of European pattern, and his locks were surmounted -by an English billycock hat. His wife was by his side, astride of -her Arab; but the graceful animal was almost invisible beneath her, -his withers overtowered by the huge bulk of her stomach, and his -back enveloped in the folds of her robes. It was an Assyrian bishop, -journeying from Mosul. - -Kamarlu is perhaps a type of these villages of the campagna, in -which the population is composed of Armenians and Tartars, of lambs -and lions living side by side. It can boast a Russian schoolhouse, -a necessary institution in the case of the Tartars, to judge by -the barbarous and hideous frescos which enliven the façade of their -little mosque. The Armenians have their school, and there are two -Gregorian churches in which they satisfy their spiritual needs. The -houses are built of sun-baked bricks and mud; wooden stages rise to -some height above the flat roofs, and provide airy sleeping-places for -the inhabitants during the summer heats. After regaling ourselves with -the delicious white grapes of the district, we turned aside from the -road to Erivan. Crossing the outskirts of the village, we remarked the -huge clay wine jars which were strewn about in the courtyards. Beyond -a few fields, planted with cotton, we again entered the open desert, -and pursued our way over the crumbling mud. A rude and winding track -leads towards the river through patches of dusty desert shrubs. Ararat -fills the landscape, and is rarely seen to greater advantage than -from such tracts of naked land. On our left hand rose a buttress of -the Sevan mountains which had been a landmark from the slopes of -Ararat. It is composed of a sandy rock of various hues, which has -weathered into fanciful shapes. In the delicate evening lights it is -invested with the appearance of some castle in fairyland. - -From time to time we passed strings of three or four large waggons, -drawn by teams of oxen. Whole families of Armenians were gathered -within them, well dressed and well-to-do. They were returning to -their dwellings within the zone of gardens from a pilgrimage to Khor -Virap. The men were emptying their little glasses, which they would -replenish from wine-skins, and feasting on water melons. - -We arrived at the mound which rises from the flats about the -river and can be clearly seen from Ararat. According to Dubois, -[112] it consists of a mass of dolomite, isolated on the surface of -the plain. The church and cloister have been built on the side of -the eminence; the monastic dwellings screened the church from our -view. St. Gregory's dungeon is situated within the precincts; and it -would appear that the place was famous in the saint's lifetime for -a much-frequented temple of the fire-worshippers. - -We were scarcely beneath the walls when the figure of a horseman -springs forward from some recess into the road. Throwing his white Arab -on to his haunches at a few yards before our carriage, he challenges -and constrains us to pull up dead. This proceeding on his part, no -less than his forbidding countenance, throws me completely off my -guard. On Russian soil one is obliged to smother the irritation which -is always threatening to burst forth from a British breast. I shout to -him to move aside, or we will whip the horses and drive through him; -to this he answers by drawing his revolver and threatening to shoot. I -ask him by what right he dared to obstruct the roadway; he replies by -enquiring by what credentials we presume to pass. It flashes through -me that the game is in the hands of this ruffian--we had been spoilt by -the attentions of the high officials, and to such an extent that we had -forgotten to bring even our passports, which had gone in our despatch -box to Erivan. It was useless to urge that one could not be obliged -to show a passport in order to be allowed to visit a church. He paid -no heed to any of our arguments, and compelled us to return with him -to Kamarlu. He even added the insult of requiring us to suit our pace -to his, and to follow at a walk or amble by his side. This we flatly -refused to do, and, taking the reins from the trembling coachman, -proceeded at a brisk trot. Simon Ter-Harutiunoff--such was the name -of this ferocious person--is linked in our memory with the companion -picture of Ivan the Terrible, our stern custodian during the Akhaltsykh -days. Both are Armenians, and either might be taken as a model for the -embodiment of the fighting instincts in man. Tartars and Cossacks are -amenable creatures besides them; and of the two, we were inclined -to bestow the palm upon Simon. His face was black with exposure -to the sun; the eyes were yellow round the dark iris and shot with -red veins. His features were large and pronounced, but of singular -deformity; the massive head was placed upon broad shoulders above a -frame of great bulk and iron strength. He wore two medals, won during -the war with Turkey through personal bravery. His function in time of -peace was to police the Persian frontier in the district of Khor Virap. - -These particulars we learnt in the office of the Pristav, upon our -return under such escort to Kamarlu. We claimed and were permitted -to proceed to Erivan; but the chapars were instructed to prevent us -from diverging, and to hand us over to the Nachalnik at the provincial -capital. In this manner we were foiled in our antiquarian researches -among these ancient sites. At Khor Virap we saw nothing but some -slight convexities in the surface of the ground, which may be caused -by buried remains. Beyond the mound we observed a natural wall of rock, -rising like a gigantic ruin above the plain. - -Evening had approached as we left the village, and proceeded through -the gardens, and crossed to the barren zone beyond. From the rising -ground we looked back over the forest of poplars to the sun setting -behind the peaks of the Ararat chain. The satellite range wore the -same tints of deep, opaque opaline which fretted the horizon during -our outward journey. It was shadowed upon the same ground of orange -and amber; and the opal hues of the land forms extended round the -circle and included the huge, horizontal outline of Alagöz. But the -Sevan mountains, in the opposite segment, were touched with pink and -luminous yellows; the higher summits were white with fresh snow. In -the south-east the landscape was dim and vaporous; nor could the -eye distinguish among the gathering shadows the basal slopes of -Ararat. The snow-fields of the dome shone with a cold light in the -sky, above vague banks of cloud. It was after eight o'clock when we -reached the pleasant town garden, and discussed our adventures with -the Nachalnik over a cigar. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -AT ERIVAN - - -Oriental cities--and Erivan is still essentially Oriental--may -perhaps be said to be built upon two planes. There is the plane of -the street, and there is the plane of the flat roofs, all at about the -same level. Where the climate during summer renders the rooms of the -house untenantable after the walls have been heated through by the sun, -the daily life of the inhabitants undergoes a corresponding division -into the life of the street and the life of the roof. About an hour -before sunset the entire population mounts from the lower apartments, -or even from the cellars, to the open platforms, floored with mud and -sometimes protected by a low balustrade, which receive the freshness -of the evening breeze. It is there that the last and first meals of -the day are served, and the quilts spread upon which sleep is enjoyed -beneath the stars. A strange scene it is when the faint light of -morning has broken, and when the recumbent forms commence to stir. The -divisions made by the narrow streets are scarcely perceptible; your -own roof appears to join the roofs of your neighbours, and these to -compose a single and elevated stage above the landscape of dim earth -and flashing stream. Figures, erect from the waist, are revealed -in every posture; and it may happen that the cotton drapery has -dropped from a woman's shoulders as she stretches her arms in the -fancied seclusion of some partial screen. Such scenes are the daily -accompaniment of a summer sojourn in the towns upon the lowlands -through which the Euphrates and the Tigris flow. In Armenia, with -a mean level of several thousand feet above the sea, the practice of -sleeping in the open is confined to the depression of this plain of the -Araxes; and even here it is only partially indulged. The better-to-do -among the inhabitants take refuge in the adjacent mountains when their -dwellings have become little better than furnaces. The traveller is -advised to swelter within four walls rather than tempt fever from -the expanse of irrigated land by exposing himself to the night air. - -Yet the twofold division of the city into an upper and a lower region -is nowhere more productive of startling contrast than in this town of -gardens which is Erivan. In the streets, lined as they are with the -rude stone walls of the enclosures, surmounted by a crumbling ridge -of clay, the vistas are confined by inexorable foliage to the space -of a stone's throw. The central park, with its wide spaces, enjoys -no further landscape than that which is limited by the zones of the -adjacent buildings or by its own lofty forest trees. Where you are not -threading the narrow alleys of the more thickly inhabited quarters, -you will be winding by irregular ways, deep in white dust, by the side -of swirling water or within hearing of its murmur beyond the bulwark -which screens the orchard from the lane. But from the standpoint of -the roof the horizon expands to boundaries which are so remote that -they are scarcely conceivable by a European mind. The foliage or the -hollow of the site eliminates the middle distance; and the opposite -piles of Great Ararat in the south (Fig. 40) and of Alagöz in the -north (Fig. 41) rise immediately from the soft foreground of the -embowered houses. The landscape from the high ground on the north, -as you approach Erivan by the road from Tiflis, is difficult to forget -(Fig. 42). The whole fabric of Ararat is exposed from base to summits; -but so tall are the poplars and luxuriant the countless varieties of -fruit trees, that they almost conceal the domes of the mosques and -the cupolas of the churches, spread over the straggling township at -your feet. - -All this verdure is mainly due to the river Zanga, the Hrazdan of the -Armenians, which collects the drainage of a section of the southern -slopes of the border range, and which is fed by the waters of Lake -Sevan, called also Gökcheh, from its sky-blue colour, and by Armenian -writers the Lake of Gegham. This beautiful alpine sea is surrounded -by lofty mountains and has an area 2 1/2 times as large as that -of Geneva. It produces salmon trout of delicious flavour which are -seldom absent from the bill of fare in the provincial capital. It -finds an outlet through the Zanga into the Araxes at a difference in -the level of 3600 feet. The brawling Zanga, already weakened by the -canals which diffuse its waters, pursues a devious course at the foot -of high and rocky banks on the western outskirts of the town. Further -eastwards the irrigation is supplied by the Kirk Bulakh, a stream of -which the name signifies forty springs, and which has its sources -at no great distance from Erivan. Such abundance of running water -should secure to this growing city a large measure of prosperity -under settled government. As the centre of the most populous of the -Armenian provinces of the Russian Empire, to which it gives its name, -it is already a place of some pretensions. But the inhabitants do -not at present number more than 15,000, of whom half are Tartars and -half Armenians. This total also comprises about 300 Russians, whose -most conspicuous units are the drivers of the carriages on hire, -belonging, I believe, exclusively to the Molokan sect. [113] - -Erivan does not possess any monuments of first-rate merit or of great -antiquity. Her origin is obscure. Noah may quite well have lived here -before the Deluge, as one of the earliest of modern European visitors -was informed by his Armenian friends. [114] The popular derivation of -the name is from the Armenian verb erevel, and it is said to signify -appearing. The place would, indeed, be about the first locality in -the plain region to appear to the eyes of the patriarch of old. [115] -Hither may have been directed his steps and those of his family when -the waters had receded from a world renewed. This may be the site of -the original city of Noah, perhaps preserved beneath the soil upon -which is built the present town. The more learned are inclined to -a much later foundation, but do not yield in point of philological -plausibility to the champions of the identification with Noah's -city. They say that the name has been shortened from Erovantavan, which -they render the place where Erovant was defeated. Erovant or Ervand was -an Armenian monarch of the first century who was vanquished in this -region by the lawful heir to the throne of the Arsakids at the head -of a Persian army. The event and the survival of the name Erovantavan -are attested by Moses of Khorene. [116] The Mohammedan derivation -from Revan Kul, a prince of the reign of Shah Ismail (1502-1524), -[117] who is said to have fortified the place by his master's order, -cannot be reconciled with the fact that Erivan was already in existence -certainly in the eleventh and probably in the seventh century. [118] -But it played no prominent part whether in ancient or medićval history -until the advent of the Ottoman Empire. From the sixteenth century into -modern times it was continually disputed between the Sultans and their -powerful neighbours on the east, the Persian Shahs. The enumeration -of the sieges it sustained at the hands of Turks and Persians would be -a tax upon my reader's patience which I am not disposed to levy. When -the Russians appeared on the scene it was in Persian possession; and -an unsuccessful attempt on their part to capture the fortress in 1804 -supplied the ground for the firm belief in its impregnability which -was cherished by its Persian governors. This confidence was rudely -shattered by Paskevich in October 1827. His shells wrought fearful -havoc in the unsubstantial town, and one is said to have pierced the -dome of the mosque in the citadel, whither thousands of the wretched -inhabitants had fled for protection against the hail of the cannon. The -Russian army entered the place without encountering any serious -obstacle, and the Russian flag has waved there ever since. [119] - -One might expect to find some mosques of considerable age in a city -which flourished under its Mohammedan masters. One must, however, -recollect that the Ottoman Turks are Sunnis and the Persians Shiahs; -what the one may erect the other loves to destroy. We are expressly -told that when Shah Safi took the place in A.D. 1635 all the mosques -built by the Turks were razed to the ground. [120] About the same time -the position of the town, or perhaps only of the fortress, underwent -a change, being removed some eight hundred paces to its present site -on the rocky cliffs at the foot of which the Zanga flows. [121] The -Persians do not appear to have enriched it at that period with any -remarkable buildings; and it was recovered by the Turks in 1724. [122] -Some ten years later it again fell into the hands of the Persians as -one of the conquests of Nadir Shah. The principal mosque is said to -date from the reign of this monarch. The curious old tower which was -seen by Chardin as well as by Tournefort, and of which the lineaments -have been handed down to us by the former of these travellers, has -long since disappeared. - -Still the buildings which at present exist are well worth a visit; -and I propose to invite my reader to accompany me in a leisurely -ramble through the alleys of Erivan. The more populous quarters are -divided into a western and an eastern half, at first by the broad, -metalled road which comes from Tiflis, and, further south, by the -central park. Speaking generally, the eastern half is inhabited by -the Tartars and the western by the Armenians. In the one you will -discover the mosques, in the other the churches. But the churches -are either small and quite insignificant stone structures, or have -been restored beyond recognition in comparatively recent and tasteless -times. I counted no less than six, including the Russian church at the -southern extremity of the town. Of these the oldest foundation would -appear to be that of Surb Katholike, which stands in a pleasant walled -garden, adjoining the great road, in the upper or northern quarter. -An ancient elm dwarfs the humble oblong edifice, which is entered from -a portal on the south side, added in 1861. The interior, which is very -low, is disposed in a nave and aisles, an apse and two side apses or -chapels. Chardin attributes a church of this name to the latest kings -of Armenia, and the priests assured me that it was indeed the earliest -in date at Erivan. It was here that in Persian times the katholikos -would officiate, while residing in the provincial capital. - -A little lower down the road we pass Paulos Petros (Paul and Peter), -the largest and the least pleasing of the town churches. But once we -have left the wide avenue to become involved in the network of gardens -on the north and north-west, any mediocrity in the buildings we visit -is amply compensated by the charm of the enclosures in which they -stand. Such verdure of every shade and constant hum of flowing water! -To Surb Joannes we come first--four walls and a metal roof, to which -is attached a wooden belfry, painted green. You see the Zanga issuing -from a cleft in the barren hills, of which the hardness contrasts with -the foliage at their base. The little portal of Joannes is quite a -pretty feature, and I was informed that the church dates from the -latter part of the seventeenth century. A more ambitious structure -is Surb Zoravar, situated some little distance in an easterly -direction, but still within the zone of these high slopes on the -north. It is surrounded by old gardens and overshadowed by walnut -trees. The body of the church is quite plain, four walls and a roof -of low pitch; but an elaborate portal, surmounted by a belfry and -supported by four massive piers, extends the whole length of the west -front. Two piers in the centre are panelled and richly carved by the -most delicate of chisels. There is a very old doorway on the south -side with spiral mouldings, and the frescos over the principal -entrance--a rare feature--are well drawn and show good feeling for -colour. I understand that the present church has supplanted an older -building; but I will not vouch for the statement that the portal is -due to Moses Katholikos (A.D. 1629-1632), as I was informed by the -aged and ignorant priest. He came at last, after many peals from the -belfry, his tottering frame supported by a lay companion. The clergy -of Erivan are not more enlightened than the most backward of their -profession in remote districts of the Turkish provinces. - -On the other hand the greater material well-being of the laity is -made manifest by the air of comparative comfort presented by the -interiors of their places of worship. Of course one misses the pews -of our English churches, or the serried lines of chairs which furnish -the temples of the Continent. But the floors are well carpeted and the -bare walls kept in repair. From Surb Zoravar one may readily regain -the Tiflis road and pass in a southerly direction along the central -park. Thence it is no great distance to the principal mosque of the -city, the Gök Jami or mosque of heaven. This edifice is situated in -the western half of Erivan, and is surrounded by dwellings of Tartars -in considerable number, overlapping into the Armenian quarters. It is -approached from the narrow streets of a bazar consisting of booths, -and is entered by a handsome doorway at the side of an imposing -minaret, of which the surface is diversified by designs in polychrome -tiles (Fig. 43). You pass through a vaulted passage into the great -court (Fig. 44). It is a vast place, shady and serene. Lofty elms of -great age shadow the basin of overflowing water which bubbles in the -centre of the paved spaces. Upon its margin are gathered figures in -long robes and turbans, or attired in the Persian fashion and wearing -the Persian lambskin hat. These are busy with their ablutions; while -elsewhere, beneath the shade, mollahs are instructing groups of their -younger pupils, seated on mats spread upon the flags. Beds of single -dahlias refresh and please the eye. Of life and movement there is no -lack; people are coming and going; there in the distance a train of -shapeless forms in deep blue draperies makes its way to the women's -mosque. But the absence of the least suspicion of haste spreads an -atmosphere of delightful repose. It requires no small fortitude--they -would call it diseased curiosity--to pace from side to side and -ascertain that this quadrangle measures 87 paces by 58. The latter -is the dimension of the side on the south, upon which is built the -temple itself (Fig. 45). Beneath the spacious dome men and women are -gathered indiscriminately, the women veiled in Persian fashion. There -is nothing very remarkable in the architecture of the mosque; but the -floral paintings which adorn the ceiling of a companion and smaller -edifice on the north side of the court are of very high merit. The -remainder of the quadrangle is taken up by rows of low buildings, -containing chambers in which the older scholars pursue their studies. -One wonders what they may be learning. A mollah of importance informs -us that the Gök Jami was built in the time of Nadir Shah (A.D. 1736- -1747) by the sirdar, Hoseyn Ali Khan. - -With the exception of the mosque in the fortress, the religious -edifices of the Mohammedans are extremely well maintained. I counted -three mosques in the Tartar quarters. That of Haji Nusrallah Bey and -the Shehr Jami (town mosque) are almost exactly similar in design. -The former is evidently a replica of the latter, which displays a -Turkish inscription on the outer door with a date which we read as -1098 (A.D. 1687). But it must have been restored since that time. -Although much smaller than Gök Jami, it bears some resemblance to -that building; and the walled court with its fountain and beds of -long-stalked dahlias is as pleasant a refuge from dusty alleys as -man could desire. - -But perhaps the most interesting monument is the kiosque of the -sirdars, in the extreme southern angle of the town. We may approach -it from the west, and take Surb Sargis on the way. That church and -pleasant terrace on the high land above the Zanga commands an -extensive view over the southern quarters and across the plain to -Ararat. The deeply-bedded river is flowing on an easterly course -towards the fortress and the gardens of the sirdars outside its walls. -After skirting those parapets it will turn abruptly in the reverse -direction, and pursue a more tranquil career to the Araxes. The -fortress to which we proceed is still some distance off, and the -walls of mud and rubble which line the cliffs on the left bank of -the Zanga are rapidly falling into total ruin. While they are flanked -by the swirling stream they may once have possessed some power of -resistance; but after the river has deserted the site beyond the -abrupt bend, the town is exposed immediately to the plain. The -sirdar's palace composes the kernel of the fortified area, and its -windows overlook the river. But the extensive buildings of his well- -stocked harem, the magazines of his garrison and the abodes of his -courtiers have either disappeared altogether or are rapidly crumbling -away. From among a heap of ruins rises intact a single edifice, which -is kept in repair by the Russians. It is the pavilion in which the -sirdar was wont to beguile his leisure. From the window in the alcove -of this elaborate interior (Fig. 46) he would feast his eyes on the -landscape--the river at his feet, his own shady garden in the plain, -the dim spaces backed by the fabric of Ararat. Here he exercised his -skill as a marksman upon the donkeys of the unfortunate peasants, -sending a ball through them as they wound along the road on the right -bank of the Zanga towards the bridge with its two pointed arches. [123] -This bridge is placed just below the pavilion, and is still the only -avenue of communication between Erivan and the country beyond the -river. What consummation of Oriental felicity to sit on cushions in -this glittering apartment and watch the caravans which fill your -coffers defiling below! From time to time there may come an embassy -to your overlord of Persia, and there will be a report to dictate upon -the size and splendour of the cavalcade. The beauties of Georgia and -Circassia luxuriate in the adjoining halls, and water flows in -abundance everywhere. The governor of Erivan was quite a little king -in the country, and, when he travelled, the inhabitants of the -villages along his route would immolate an ox in his honour. [124] - -The incrustation which my reader may admire upon the vaulting of the -alcove is composed of pieces of mirror which shine like the facets -of a jewel. An encrusted cornice of the same material surmounts the -walls of the pavilion below a ceiling profusely adorned with floral -designs, conspicuous being the iris and the rose. Eight paintings -on canvas, applied to shallow recesses, are distributed around the -room. I believe they are copies, made since the Russian occupation, -of originals which had fallen into decay. The two which are comprised -by my illustration, one on either side of the alcove, represent on -the left hand the figure of Hoseyn Khan Sirdar, and, on the right, -the Persian hero Feramez. Of the remainder, three are portraits--Fath -Ali, Shah of Persia (1797-1834), his son Abbas Mirza and Hasan Khan, -brother to the Sirdar Hoseyn; while an equal number are indifferent -renderings of heroic personages--the warriors Sherab and Rustem, -and a Persian Amazon. One of my predecessors has recorded that at -the time of his visit in 1834 the panels in the alcove were adorned -with four pictures setting forth subjects which were well conceived -to amuse the fancy of an old debauchee. A Mussulman was receiving -wine from a fair Georgian in the presence of the monks of Edgmiatsin, -whose arguments had been less potent to effect his conversion than -the fleshly charms of the Christian girl. A Persian beauty in loose -trousers and diaphanous upper garment was making her obeisance to the -Shah. Here a prince of the blood royal in costume of the chase dallied -with a maiden while her aged father lay asleep; there the beautiful -features of Joseph spread havoc among the assembled ladies at the house -of the wife of Potiphar. [125] These various incitements to delight -no longer grace the forlorn kiosque, and perhaps their disappearance -is no great loss to the world of art. The original decoration, which -is quite intact, upon the walls and ceiling enables us to judge how -great had been the artistic decadence of Persia since her painters -displayed their skill upon the walls of the Chehel Situn, the noble -pavilion on the banks of the Zenda Rud. - -From this kiosque we may make our way to the adjoining mosque of -the fortress, which is now no longer frequented by the faithful. It -stands a little east of the old palace; the interior beneath the -spacious dome is decorated with much skill by means of little bricks -of many colours. The great court is already ruinous. An old henna- -stained attendant informed us that it was erected in the reign of -Fath Ali Shah and that it was known as the Abbas Mirza Jami. Walls -and palace and mosque are, I conclude, already doomed. Hard by their -crumbling remains are seen the barracks of the Russian garrison and -the metal roof of a Russian church. The last of the sirdars is -already long since dead, he whose portrait hangs on the wall of the -pavilion. He died in a miserable stable, bereft of everything but the -squalid garment which clothed his aged body. Yet his memory is -pleasantly associated with one of the favourite episodes of Persian -romance. It is related that a young Georgian travelled to this -fortress above the Zanga to catch a glimpse of his betrothed in the -sirdar's harem. The girl, espying her lover, precipitated herself -towards him from the window, and was saved from certain death by a -willow which broke her fall. The pair were captured; but the incident -touched the heart of her jealous owner, who pardoned them both and -let them go. His generous speech has been preserved: "Hearts so -closely united let no man endeavour to part." [126] - -Perhaps the best introduction to the population of a city consists in -a visit to the schools. Erivan is better supplied in respect both of -elementary and secondary education than any other town in the Armenian -provinces of the Russian Empire. But, before recording my personal -impressions of what I saw during a brief inspection, I should like to -review the conditions which govern the schools. When Russia became -mistress of a large portion of Armenia, her rulers found that their -Armenian subjects were already in possession of a school system of -which, with their customary tenacity, they were extremely jealous, -and which probably dated from the invention of the Armenian alphabet -as early as the fifth century. The Church has been for long ages the -pillar of Armenian nationality; and the schools were affiliated to -the Church. There were not therefore wanting all the elements of a -bitter quarrel; and if any question more than another has envenomed -the relations between the Armenians and their Russian rulers it is -this question of the schools. - -When the constitution of the Armenian Church and its relations to the -Government were embodied in a State document, a chapter was inserted -by virtue of which the Tsar of Russia formally recognised the Church -schools. [127] They were stated to have as their object the religious -and moral education of the children, and to be under the guidance -and supervision of the bishops. It was provided that their rules and -curricula should be submitted to the synod at Edgmiatsin, and that -this body should in turn transmit them for acceptance to the Minister -of the Interior. A rider was added to the effect that it was a matter -of importance that the clergy should become acquainted with the Russian -language, and with the history and geography of the Russian Empire. - -It is only fair to the Government to remark, by way of parenthesis, -that although a period of over half a century has elapsed since the -promulgation of this document, few teachers and still fewer pupils -have yet displayed even moderate proficiency in the speaking and -writing of Russian. With the growth of material prosperity, which -was the outcome of the Russian occupation, the Armenian schools -prospered and their standards rose. The teachers, who were laymen, -were taken from good families; and one may safely assert that -at the present day the Armenian youth are instructed by the best -educated and best informed among their countrymen. Many of them have -studied in Europe, principally in Germany, and are men of far higher -attainments in the field of knowledge than such as might be required -by the teaching which they are permitted to dispense. The first step -taken by Government to cut the wings of the national schools was the -limitation of the standard of instruction. The class is in Russia the -measure of this standard, the first class standing at the bottom of -the scale. Schools of five classes were frequently attached to the -churches; and the scholars who desired to pursue their studies still -further passed to the so-called seminary of the diocese in which they -lived. In this manner it was possible for a youth to receive all but -the highest university education in his native language and through -his native institutions. It is true that the Minister of the Interior -had a right of censorship; but in view of the gravity of the fancied -danger this safeguard was only partial. So the Government drew the pen -through the third, fourth, and fifth classes and left the Armenians -nothing more than the elementary course. Such action was thought to -be arbitrary in view of the fact that these schools are supported by -purely voluntary contributions. - -Empire! what insidious wickedness, surpassing the horrors of war, is -committed in the name of empire! Surely it is a right as elementary -as that of security for life and property to supervise the education -of your children. One might sympathise with the Russian Government had -they merely required that the standard of instruction should not fall -below the standard of schools in Russia. Nor should we be inclined to -withhold our sympathy if they had only renewed their insistence upon -the necessity of a knowledge of Russian. That was the wise as well as -the humane policy. The ukase of 1884 was conceived in a very different -spirit, and may be branded as an infamous document. It provided that -Church schools with more than two classes should be placed upon the -same basis as private schools in Russia, that is to say that the whole -of the instruction should be conducted in the Russian language. This -was tantamount to closing such schools. The supreme control of the -elementary schools was transferred from the Ministry of the Interior -to the Department of Education. The seminaries were suffered to exist -upon the basis of the decree of 1836, but their object was defined -to be the preparation of clergymen to meet the requirements of the -Armenian Church. - -The synod at Edgmiatsin, although already placed in leading strings -by Government, did not see their way to accept this decree. They -urged that, since it had been issued during a vacancy of the Chair, -its consideration should be postponed until the election of a new -katholikos. Government retaliated by closing the schools. Nor were they -again opened until in 1886 the pontiff Makar signified his consent -to the provisions of the ukase, subject to some small concession as -to the scope of the curricula in schools of two classes. The higher -classes remained closed. Such was the situation at the time of my -visit. It had, however, been further enacted that after the lapse -of a prescribed period every teacher in an Armenian school should -be required to possess a certificate from the Russian Department of -Education. In order to obtain this certificate the candidate must -pass an examination conducted in the Russian language. The term of -grace was coming to an end in a few months, and I gathered that few -teachers had acquired the necessary linguistic proficiency. [128] - -Education is not a department of human activity which can be properly -conducted upon military principles. The only discipline healthy for -the mind is that which is derived from the unfettered exercise of the -faculties with which it has been endowed. In Erivan I had occasion to -remark the contrast in intellectual atmosphere between the Russian -and the Armenian school. Here were offered two typical examples of -these diverse species, still existing side by side. As the capital of -a diocese, the Church has still the right to possess a seminary in the -town of Erivan. The seminary embraces the standards which we may call -secondary education, and has no less than six classes. It has contrived -to evade the restrictions which are in the spirit of the ukase of 1884 -in respect of the character of its pupils. It was quite obvious that -very few were destined to take orders, although perhaps the majority -of the 360 scholars were included in the elementary classes. There -was no trace of any clerical bias in the choice of treatises; and -the teachers in secular subjects were, I believe, all laymen. One -at least was a young man of exceptional ability, trained in Europe -at his own expense. It would be difficult to find among the staff -of our secondary schools a master better equipped for his task. The -pupils, whose age extended from ten to twenty years, did not appear -to acquire knowledge by rote. The Principal spoke the German language -fluently and was in touch with the thought of the West. Yet even this -privileged institution has been clipped of much of its usefulness -by being placed at an unfair advantage as compared to the Russian -school. It is interdicted the seventh and eighth classes, although -there can be no doubt in respect of the competency of its staff. It -is perhaps for this reason that it is not as a rule attended by sons -of the richest citizens. Its income of Ł1800 a year is principally -subscribed by Armenians of means. Only about a sixth of the sum comes -from the pupils. The majority receive their education free of charge. - -The subjects taught in the highest class are theology and psychology, -mathematics, physics, logic, modern history and modern languages. In -the latter category they are restricted by order to Russian and -French. The instruction is conducted in Armenian except in the case of -Russian language and literature, when the Russian tongue is used. Their -text-book in psychology was a Russian translation of Alexander Bain and -in logic of W. S. Jevons. Besides this seminary, which is attached to -the church of Surb Sargis, there is a school for girls with 200 pupils. - -The Russian school is mainly supported by the State out of revenues -derived from taxation. It has the rank and is known by the name of -a gymnasium in the German acceptation of that term. Its subvention -produces a yearly income of Ł4500, which is supplemented by the -fees paid by nine-tenths of the scholars, amounting to about Ł4 a -head. Out of 260 boys and youths some 26 were boarders and the rest day -pupils. The boarders sleep in a long dormitory, kept scrupulously clean -and neat. The majority pay for their maintenance Ł25 a year; the poorer -can only afford Ł15. The school is housed in a commodious building -in the centre of the town and exhibits every sign of prosperity. It -has large and well-furnished reception rooms for days of fęte. The -class rooms, with their rows of forms and large black-boards, inspire a -salutary awe. The library is well stocked and does the Russian Director -great credit, as does the general organisation of the institution. - -But the spirit of the place is that of the camp; the methods are -purely military, and one almost expects the sound of a bugle to -announce which lesson shall be rehearsed. Since human memory is of -brief span and the recollection of facts is of no great value, it is -not so much this faculty that requires cultivation as the habit of -study and the power to collate facts. The education dispensed by this -school will not produce scholars or thinkers; indeed the pen is here -the servant of the sword. But at least it serves to sharpen the wits, -and to induce a nimbleness of mind which can scarcely fail to be of -use to its Mohammedan members. - -All who can afford to buy a uniform appear in trousers and tunic of -blue cloth, enlivened with brass buttons. A dress of similar material -is worn by the ushers. The pupils are drilled and put through simple -military exercises; they may be seen marching with music at their -head. Yet this is a civil institution. It is the only gymnasium or High -School in the Russian provinces of the Armenian plateau. At the time -of my visit the school list contained the names of 159 Armenians, 67 -Russians, 9 Georgians, 7 Poles and 18 Tartars. Only the last belonged -to the Mohammedan religion. - -When it is remembered that the Tartars compose one-half of the -inhabitants and are numerous in the districts about Erivan, the poor -show which they make among the inmates of this important school is -a very significant fact. As a body, they shut themselves off from -Western education; and for this reason they appear destined to be -edged out by the Armenians, as a species unable to adapt itself to -the new environment. They are still in possession of some of the -richest land in the province, and many among them are wealthy men of -leisure. These khans occasionally send a son to the school. But the -Director informed me that youths of this class were rarely successful; -they were indolent and left at an early age. Those who belonged to -the middle class stayed longer and were much more hopeful. Although -I passed through every room while the students were pursuing their -tasks, I only counted six Tartars, all told. The method of procedure -was extremely entertaining. Accompanied by the amiable Director, -I was introduced to the presiding usher, who would descend from his -daďs and extend his hand. Some fifty to a hundred bright black eyes -were focussed upon us; all were standing, not a muscle moved and -not a sound was heard. Then some such little comedy as this would be -gone through:-- - -The Director (addressing myself in German). "This is the Latin -class. Permit me to present you to M. ----off". (In Russian) Pupils, -you may sit down (a single clap and shuffle--perfect silence). You, -Sir, will please address the Professor in the Latin tongue." - -Myself (after a long and embarrassed pause). "Gratias ago; -clementiam, benigne rector, reposco. Consuetudinem linguć Latinć -parum conservo. Verum versus video in nigra ista tabula inscriptos, -mihi valde familiares: 'O utinam tunc quum Lacedćmona classe petebat, -obrutus insanis esset adulter aquis.' Vellem interrogare discipulos -quisnam ille fuerit adulter." - -The Usher (a forlorn and crushed individual. At first listless; but he -encounters the flashing eyes of the little Director, and stammers). "Sv -... svit ... niet, niet ..." (and he proceeds in Russian). - -The Director. "My colleague desires me to state that he quite -understands what you said. You wished to express admiration of our -new blackboards. I thank you in his and my name. Is there any question -you would like to put?" - -Myself. "There appear to be about thirty boys in this class. I wonder -what proportion Tartars bear to Armenians among them." - -The Director. "Russians, stand up!" (some four or five fair-haired -and closely-cropped youths rise in their places. Their faces show -intelligence, and one likes them)--"Armenians, stand up!" (the -first batch sit down; practically the whole class springs to its -feet)--"Tartars, stand up!" (one little boy at the extreme end of -the class confronts his seated schoolmates). - -One feature of this institution seemed specially well conceived; -it was the manner in which the religious difficulty was solved. Two -different religions--the Mohammedan and the Christian--and three -distinct professions of the latter--the Gregorian Armenian, Roman -Catholic (Poles), and so-called Russian Orthodox--were represented -among the pupils and were expounded to their several votaries by -as many diverse types of the holders of sacerdotal office. Separate -rooms were set aside in which the mollah taught Islam, and the papa -or padre or vardapet explained the New Testament. In this manner -each youth received instruction in the faith of his fathers at the -hands of one of its official exponents; while the rub and wear of -continual intercourse in the secular classes accustomed Mohammedan -and Christian, Russian Orthodox and Gregorian Armenian to respect -their classmates and to tolerate each other's faith. The extension -of such a system over the whole of these provinces would be likely -to work incalculable good; and, side by side with glaring defects in -the methods of secular instruction, it is a real pleasure to be able -to congratulate the State schools upon such a salutary feature and -cordially to wish them success. - -The Tartars of Erivan are for the most part of Turkish descent, and -of kindred race to the bulk of the inhabitants of the neighbouring -Persian province of Azerbaijan. But some of the number included -under this name in the statistics may more properly be designated as -Persians. All profess the Shiah tenets. I had expected to find them -extremely fanatical, judging by my experience of their co-religionists -in Persia, and by an account given of them by a French traveller. [129] -But not only are Christians permitted to enter their mosques; they are -even received with cordiality by the groups assembled in the outer -courts. I do not know whether this altered demeanour may be due to -a policy of no nonsense pursued by the Russian Government. If such -be the case it is a significant fact. How often have I stood before -the door of a mosque in Persia, casting eager glances at the vista of -priceless treasures within! On each occasion I have in vain appealed -to the Governor, who would urge that he could not be responsible for -my safety, and beg me not to attempt to enter. At Erivan I was invited -to penetrate into every part, and to stand by the side of the faithful -while they prayed. I have already stated that the Tartar inhabitants -include many men of means, who live on the proceeds of their extensive -gardens. But a good proportion of the large shop-keepers belong to -this race, and are well-mannered and fairly well-educated men. I -fancy, however, that they would scarcely be able to compete with -the Armenians, were it not for the support of patrons of their own -blood. For the rest, the small hucksters and the sellers of fruit -are in a very large proportion Tartar. So, almost exclusively, are -the workers in mud after their various kinds: plasterers, embankers, -makers of ducts to water the gardens. The gardeners and drivers of -carts largely belong to this nation; but there is scarcely a carpenter -or a skilled mason who is not an Armenian. - -While the Tartars are reputed to hoard, the Armenians are excessively -lavish, and spend large sums in building themselves fine houses. Many -an ornate villa in Italian style may be seen emerging from the -foliage of the gardens. Here and there quite a little palace faces -the street. Yet, with all their comparative wealth, they have not -yet emerged from the material stage, and I searched in vain for a -bookseller. Indeed, in spite of many signs of progress and of her -favourable geographical position, Erivan can scarcely yet be said -to be connected with the pulse of the great world. Here is a city -not so far from Europe, and needing capital for her development; -yet scarcely any capital has found its way in. Teheran, although -much more distant, has a numerous European colony; and there is not -an enterprise, from banks to electric lighting and tramways, which a -number of candidates are not contending with each other to supply. You -will not meet a single foreign industrialist in Erivan, nor be able -to purchase any but Russian newspapers. Even the Armenians are not -encouraged to develop the resources of the country. The following -question which I addressed to a prominent Armenian capitalist may -exhibit, together with the answer, the magnitude of those resources -and the reasons assigned for the fact that they are not exploited. - -Q. "Can you explain to me why so little use is made of your natural -advantages--the immense extent of idle soil and the abundance of -water? In the north you have the vast reservoir of Lake Sevan; -in the south the Araxes, running in full stream to the Caspian -Sea. Cultivation might surely be increased to many times its present -area without any great expense." - -A. "The waste lands are for the most part in the hands of the -Russian Government, and they are not inclined to sell or lease them -to Armenians. They are believed to be keeping them for Russians, -but the Russians do not come. A successful piece of reclamation has -been made by General Cheremetieff in the neighbourhood of Ararat. We -have made repeated proposals to take lands and irrigate them, but we -have never been able to obtain permission." - -Perhaps, if these lines come to the eyes of M. Witte, he will give -the matter the attention which it deserves. - -The same exclusive economical policy, as manifested in protective -duties, has deflected commerce from the natural avenue of the valley -of the Araxes, and caused it to pursue more lengthy and less convenient -routes. There is scarcely any transit trade with Persia. The prosperity -of the place is therefore dependent on native industries, which -comprise the cultivation and export of cotton, wine and rice. Cotton -to the value of about Ł400,000 is annually despatched by waggon or -camel to the station of Akstafa on the Tiflis railway, and thence, viâ -Batum and the Black Sea or Baku and the Caspian, to the manufacturing -centres of Russia. Three large Russian firms are locally represented -by offices and factories, where the cotton is purchased and cleaned -and pressed. The presses, which are of English make, are driven by -horse power. While this industry is in the hands of Russians the trade -in wine is conducted by Armenians; and very excellent wine have they -succeeded in producing. The value of the yearly export, which goes -exclusively to Russia, is as yet only Ł20,000. But the enterprise of -M. Karapet Afrikean, who has closely studied his subject in Germany, -has already effected a marked improvement in the quality of the wine, -and is likely to lead to a great increase in the demand. Rice is also -exported and in considerable quantities to Erzerum and the Turkish -provinces. The fruits of Erivan are almost unrivalled in the world; -but I do not know that they are preserved and sent away. - -Such is the city which, with its vast and populous province, -absorbs all the time and all the energies of its Russian governor, -sitting at his green baize table overlooking the park. General Frese -has a real affection for that table, which he has shaped to fit his -figure. From early morning to late night his erect and military form -is condemned to that inactive but rigid posture. He never indulges in -the relaxation of an arm-chair. While you puff your cigarette among -his hospitable cushions, he will discourse upon the mighty rivers -and forests of Siberia from across the field of green baize. Dinner -is served in a room displaying all the skill of Persian artists, -and overlooking, through a window composed of tiny panes of glass, -a miniature garden disposed as for the stage of a theatre. I need -hardly say that this work of fancy was not created by the order -of the present occupant of Government House. Still the fare at his -table is worthy of the most refined palate; such excellent trout and -tender chickens and the pick of the native wine! Immediately after -the meal he resumes his seat in the adjoining room behind the green -baize. He attributes the backwardness of the country to excessive -centralisation at St. Petersburg, a process which has been tending -to assume increasing proportions now that the Caucasus is no longer -administered by a Grand Duke. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -EDGMIATSIN AND THE ARMENIAN CHURCH - - -At five o'clock in the afternoon of the 4th of October we set out for -Edgmiatsin. It is a drive of about thirteen miles across the plain. Our -luggage was consigned to a waggon of the post, and we ourselves enjoyed -the luxury of a light victoria, drawn by four horses abreast. They -covered the distance in an hour and forty minutes, although the road -is in many places a mere track. - -What a drive! It is so well within reach of Europe that it ought to -be included, like the journey to Italy, in the programme of a liberal -education. The railway will before long arrive at Erivan, and then the -pilgrimage will be still easier to undertake. Not all the tourists in -the world will disturb the harmony of this landscape; the screeching -trains, the loud hotels, the Babel of tongues will be lost, like -a flight of starlings, in this expanse. It is here that the spirit -of Asia is most intensely present--an inner sanctuary to those outer -courts through which the traveller may have wandered and never crossed -the threshold of this plain. And it is a spirit and an influence which -arouse deep chords within us and send them sounding through our lives. - -The landscape at once combines and accentuates the salient features of -the Asiatic highlands. There is the plain which was once the bed of an -inland sea. It stretches west and east without visible limits; and this -evening it has all the appearance of water. In the west it is mirage -which produces this effect. The long north-western slope of the Ararat -fabric assumes the character of a dark and narrow promontory rising -on an opposite shore. From the east, beyond the train of the Little -Ararat, a cold mist--may it be from the Caspian?--is slowly wafted over -the steppe, and the illusion is complete. Into those liquid spaces -sweep the basal vaultings of Alagöz--the boulder-strewn declivities -which we keep on our right hand, and which seem to embody on a typical -scale that quality of hopeless sterility which is characteristic of -vast portions of the continent. But the same vague distance receives -the Zanga, diffused into many channels, and lost beneath luxuriant -foliage. For over a quarter of an hour after leaving Erivan we pass -at a rapid trot between the walls of orchards; and in places the water -gushes from the conduits across the road. Once outside this intricate -zone the track wanders over the idle soil, skirting the stony slopes -in the north. In the opposite direction the plain blooms with fields -of cotton and rice, sustained by a small canal which pursues a westerly -course before it falls into the Araxes, if indeed it flow so far. - -And there are the mountains of Asia--the volcanoes with their vaulted -summits, as well as those long ridges with their serrated outline -which represent the operation of less impetuous forces through longer -spaces of time. To this second category belongs the fine chain on the -west of Ararat which gains in definition as we proceed. It stands -a little back and behind the fabric of Ararat, and volcanoes too -have built themselves up upon this wall. But its rugged and tumbled -appearance is the feature which predominates, in striking contrast -to the symmetry of the mountain of the Ark. That giant overpowers the -lesser Ararat and appropriates their common base. One stands in wonder -at the force which could have rent that massive pedestal and opened -the yawning chasm which fronts the plain. Night creeps into those -recesses, where the blaze of a Kurdish camp-fire calls attention to -the extraordinary transparence of the air. The snow-fields, bare and -cold above the amber of the sunset, are already free of their coronal -of cloud. One full-puffed vapour still floats behind the uppermost -pinnacle; another clings to the bastion on the north-west. While we -admire this stately scene, made more impressive by the heavy silence, -a grove of trees rises from the steppe on our point of course. Two -little conical shapes just emerge above their outline, and are -recognised as the domes of Edgmiatsin. - -We pass through the thin plantation, sustained by runnels derived from -Alagöz, and come to a halt before the doorway of a lofty mud wall with -round towers at intervals. It might belong to a Persian fortress; but -it is the outer wall which surrounds the cloister with the cathedral -of St. Gregory. The massive gate is closed, and we thump and thump for -some time in vain. The parapet with its crumbling surface betrays no -sign of the life within. But there is just sufficient light to reveal -the surroundings of the fortified enclosure--a straggling village of -above-ground houses, outlying churches, poplars, dust. [130] - -At last the hinges creak and the porter appears. We are ushered -into a court, like that of a college at Cambridge, adjoining the -great gate which is in the south wall. It is known as the pilgrims' -court (Fig. 47). Low buildings, rudely built, with a continuous -wooden verandah, compose the quadrangle. The windows are all lit up -behind a line of young trees of which the foliage rustles in the night -air. Several figures may be discerned on the steps of a basin of water -in the centre of the court. The place is all bustle and stir. Every -room, so we are told, in the whole monastery is occupied by as many -people as it will hold. Quarters have been reserved for us in the -principal court; but we are not expected until to-morrow. Sooner than -disturb the peace of evening we retire to a room in the village where -we erect our camp beds. It is quite a dormitory. My immediate neighbour -speaks English and is a correspondent of the Daily News. He is an -Armenian gentleman who has come all the way from Tabriz, partly in the -capacity of delegate of his countrymen in the Persian city, and partly -as the representative of the London newspaper. He talks incessantly; -his companions do the same. The great event of the coming days will -form an epoch in their lives, and every incident will be indelibly -imprinted upon their memories. A thrilling and detailed narrative -will be despatched to London, where it will filter through the brain -of the sub-editor and issue in the form of a paragraph in small type. - -But the newspaper will be to blame; for it is an event, this -consecration of the latest pontiff of the Armenian Church. It is -an event both by reason of the personality of the new katholikos and -because within recent years the fact has slowly dawned upon Europe that -the politics of Western Asia must react upon the Western peoples, -and that in those politics the Armenians are destined to play a -part. The Church is at the present day the only native institution -which has been preserved to that people. All their aspirations as -human beings desirous to live as human beings are focussed by that -single organisation. The broad democratic basis upon which reposes -the election of the patriarch invests him with a representative -character. Moreover he is not chosen by a section of his countrymen but -by the nation as a whole. The Armenians of Turkey and of Persia as well -as those within Russian territory contribute their suffrages. It is -therefore only natural that, in the absence of secular institutions, -the head of the Church should be much more than a merely spiritual -ruler, and should reflect and in no small measure be expected to -instruct the temporal hopes and fears of his flock. - -The Russian Government have not been slow in recognising this fact; -nor does the anxiety with which it is regarded in official circles -date from the contemporary prominence of the Armenian Question. In -the heyday of their relations with this Christian nation which hailed -them as liberators, and which was placed in the very centre of the -Mussulman peoples over which they were slowly establishing their sway, -the Russians lavished favours upon Edgmiatsin; [131] and rightly or -wrongly they are now accused by their Armenian allies, become their -subjects, of having excited hopes which, when they had served the ends -of Russian policy, were rudely and almost brutally suppressed. It -is certain that the Armenian inhabitants of the provinces which now -belong to Russia favoured the Russians in their campaigns against -Persia and Turkey at the risk of reprisals on the part of their -Mussulman masters. They smoothed the way for the extension of the -Russian Empire from the valley of the Kur to that of the Araxes. The -first great step in this direction was effected at the commencement of -the present century, when the kingdom of Georgia was organised into -a Russian province. The acquisition of Georgia afforded the Russians -a foothold upon the tableland, and brought them into direct contact -with the Persians and with the Turks. Their first battle against the -Persians was fought on the 20th of June 1804, and resulted in the -repulse of the Shah's forces, which were led by his son, the famous -Abbas Mirza. This action took place in the immediate neighbourhood of -Edgmiatsin, and on the same day upon which was celebrated the annual -festival of St. Ripsime, one of the saints who are the special glory -of the cloister. The Armenians did not disguise the direction of their -sympathies, and attributed, the Russian victory to the intervention -of their Saint. [132] Ten years later, when the monastery was visited -by Morier, the patriarch was wearing a high Russian order, of which -the star glittered on his purple robe. [133] - -In 1828 Edgmiatsin was annexed to Russia after the capture -of Erivan from the Persians and as a result of the Treaty of -Turkomanchai. Throughout the wars which ensued with Turkey the -Armenians espoused the Russian cause; and one cannot doubt that -their assistance was of considerable benefit both to Paskevich -during the campaigns of 1828-29, and to Loris Melikoff, himself of -Armenian origin, in that of 1877. [134] Little by little a certain -bitterness becomes appreciable in these honeymoon relations. The -origin or perhaps the reflection of this new feeling may be found -in the provisions of the important statute which defines the status -of the Armenian Church in Russia and regulates the constitution of -Edgmiatsin. This statute, which is generally known as the Polojenye, -is headed by the signature of the Tsar Nicholas and bears the date -of March 1836. It was translated for me by one of the monks. In -some respects it deals most liberally with the national Church. Her -congregations are accorded full liberty of worship, and her clergy -are relieved from all civil burdens. The principle of the election of -the katholikos by the whole Armenian people professing the national -religion is expressly recognised. The method of his election is -minutely prescribed. The national delegates assemble in the church -of St. Gregory, and submit two names to the Emperor, who makes the -appointment. [135] On the other hand, in true Russian fashion, what -is given with one hand is taken away with the other. The synod of -Edgmiatsin is an ancient institution which, according to Armenian -traditions, advises the katholikos, and may even resist him should he -desire to effect changes in matters intimately affecting the national -faith. [136] The Polojenye emphasises and develops the constitutional -importance of this body, and places it under the titular presidency -of the Emperor. The decrees of the synod are headed "By order of the -Emperor of Russia"; and they are submitted to a Russian procurator, -resident at Edgmiatsin, who examines into their validity. In matters -of a purely spiritual nature the katholikos takes counsel with the -synod, but need not necessarily accept its recommendations. But in -all the general business of the Church, as well as of the cloister, -it is the synod which has jurisdiction subject to the approval of -the Minister of the Interior. In the synod, which consists of eight -priests resident at Edgmiatsin, the katholikos has no more than a -casting vote. It is true that he might act by Bull. But such action, -were it contrary to the resolutions of the synod, would, as matters -now stand, be revolutionary. In this manner the katholikos is put -into leading strings, of which the ends are held by the officials on -the banks of the Neva, duly instructed by a professed and resident spy. - -Nor are the remaining provisions of this double-faced instrument -calculated to shed balm over the wounded dignity of the head of the -Church. It is the Emperor who appoints the members of the synod, -although the katholikos is entrusted with the important function of -submitting two names for the Imperial choice. It is not legal for -the pontiff to punish a member of the synod without the Imperial -consent. The same authority is necessary should he desire to suspend -a bishop. He may not leave the cloister for more than four months -except with the sanction of the Tsar. When a bishopric falls vacant he -submits names to the Emperor, with whom the appointment rests. Should -the bishop desire to go abroad for more than four months, application -must be made to the same high quarter. But perhaps the most serious -because the most insidious weapon against the independence of the -national Church is the provision which enacts that a year shall -elapse between the death of a katholikos and the election of his -successor. This clause was accepted with singular want of foresight -at a time when travelling was even slower than it is at the present -day, and when it was difficult to collect the delegates from Turkey -and Persia within a lesser period. In practice it is not easy for -the new katholikos to take up his duties until some time subsequent -to his election; and, should further delay be of advantage to the -Government, the Tsar can always defer confirming the choice of the -representatives. Thus a vacancy in the Chair is always accompanied by -a long interregnum, during which the Government plays off one party -against the other, and succeeds in obtaining whatever concessions -may have been resisted during the preceding pontificate. - -An English traveller who visited Edgmiatsin the year after the -conclusion of this enactment found the synod with its Russian -procurator in full swing. The katholikos was at once reduced to -a position of president of the synod, and the synod to one of -subservience to Russian policy. [137] Von Haxthausen speaks of the -procurator as a Russian and quite an autocrat; this was in 1843. [138] -At that time the pontiff Nerses was in occupation of the Chair, and -his conspicuous abilities were regarded with suspicion by the Russian -authorities. His schemes for the higher education of the Armenians had -come to nothing owing to Russian opposition. But the hardest blow was -reserved for the year 1885, when the Katholikos Makar was appointed by -the Emperor in defiance of the expressed sentiments of the delegates of -the nation. It was then realised that the independence of the Church -was at an end. The ukase of investiture confirmed this pessimist -view. Instead of the usual wording "upon the recommendation of the -Armenian people," the appointment was based "upon the recommendation -of the clergy." Instead of the pictures from Armenian history which -adorned the ukase of the pontiff George, Russian insignia and coats -of arms enlivened the scroll. The constitutional phrase has been -restored to the ukase confirming the present pontiff, but not the -patriotic pictures! [139] - -Still, in spite of the fetters which have been imposed upon the actions -of the katholikos, as much by the manner in which the Polojenye is -worked by the Russian bureaucracy as by the provisions which that -statute contains, the average Armenian and especially the lower -classes are immensely interested in the event of the coming days. At -Batum, at Kutais, at Alexandropol, at Erivan--wherever we have been -in the society of Armenians, talk has centred upon the triumphal -journey and the approaching consecration of His Holiness Mekertich -Khrimean. It is not only the ancient ceremony, and it is not merely -the assembling of delegates from all parts of the Armenian world -that appeals to the heart of the nation. It is the personality and -reputation of the man. The people forgets, but it does not change. The -imagination of the race still sees in the holder of the pontifical -office not alone or so much an archbishop or katholikos--the keystone -of the edifice of the Church--as a high priest in the old Biblical -sense. Khrimean is the ideal of a high priest. He is a figure which -steps straight out from the Old Testament with all the fire and all -the poetry. At the ceremony of his consecration it seemed as if at -the foot of Ararat the ancient spirit were still alive, and that -the holy oil which descended upon that venerable head from the beak -of the golden dove anointed a law-giver to the people who announced -the Divine Word. This impression was in part derived from the Semitic -cast of his features. The large brown eyes and aquiline nose above a -long and full beard, are characteristics which we associate with the -Jewish nation, but which are not uncommon among the Armenians. What -is more rare among this people is the spirituality and refinement -which is written in every line of this handsome face (Fig. 48). But -the whole character of the man would seem to have been moulded upon a -Biblical model rather than upon that of the Christian hierarchy. He -is the tried statesman to whom the people look for guidance in the -abeyance of the kingly office. With him religion and patriotism -are almost interchangeable terms; and the strong reality which he -has given to the old Armenian history may be illustrated by an act -which those who lack sympathy with such a character might almost -regard as childish. In the cloister of Varag near Van, over which -he has presided for many years, are buried the remains of Senekerim, -king of the Van country, who abdicated his kingdom in favour of the -Byzantine emperor, Basil II., and retired to the town of Sivas in Asia -Minor, which he received in exchange. Over his tomb a wooden canopy -had been erected and decorated in a manner befitting royal rank. But -such honours, paid to so unworthy a monarch, shocked the keen sense -of the patriot in Khrimean; he stripped the frame of its trappings -and ornaments, and the structure stands bare to this day. The simple -surroundings among which his life has been passed recall the setting -of a Bible story. At a later stage of our journey, when we arrived -in the town of Van, I was shown the house where he had resided and -which he has now devoted to a school for girls. As I alighted to visit -the school a man with the appearance and dress of a peasant stepped -forward to hold the reins of my horse. Yet this individual was none -other than the nephew of the Katholikos, and the brother of Khoren -Khrimean, who has accompanied his uncle to Edgmiatsin, and who does -the honours of the patriarchal household with so much dignity and -natural grace. During our stay in Van, his native province, we were -afforded an instance of the magnetic influence which through a long -life Mekertich Khrimean has exercised upon his countrymen, and which -takes the form of superstitious veneration among the humble and the -poor. As we were winding up the slopes of Mount Varag on our way to -the ancient monastery where he lived so long, teaching in the school -which he had founded within its walls, and often taking this very path -from the cloister to preach in the little church of Hankusner, on the -outskirts of the gardens of Van, our attention was called to a spot -where an assassin had lain in wait for him, deputed by his enemies to -kill him as he rode unaccompanied towards the town. The story is told -that when the man perceived him and raised his rifle to his shoulder, -a sudden fear seized his limbs, his arm shook like a wand; and he -fell upon his knees before his victim, whose look he had been unable -to bear. As a writer Khrimean has expressed through the vehicle of a -prose which is full of poetry and emotion conceptions of Scripture -and thoughts upon the troubles of his time which might have sprung -from the warm imagination of the early Christians in the East. He has -often suffered for the fire of his sermons, and he possesses both the -style of the consummate orator and the personal charm which keeps an -audience under a spell. He has for many years been in the forefront -of the Armenian movement; and it was he who pleaded the Armenian cause -at the Congress of Berlin. A people whose spirit has been crushed and -whose manhood has been degraded gather new life from such a teacher -and learn to become men. But perhaps the most striking quality in -a character which is at once complex and clear as the light of day -is the ever-welling kindness and open-armed sympathy with which he -shares the troubles of his fellow-men. As the throng press round him, -the holder of their highest office, and endeavour to kiss his hand or -gain a glimpse of his face, the mind travels back to that solemn scene -in which the Greek king receives his stricken and distracted people: -"O my poor children, known to me, not unknown is the subject of your -prayer; well am I aware that you are sore afflicted all; yet, though -you suffer, there is not one among you who suffers even as I. For -the grief you bear comes to each one alone--himself for himself he -suffers--and to none other else; but my soul mourns for the State -and for myself and you." [140] - -Side by side with personal relations of greater freedom than I had -anticipated towards this remarkable man, there grew up at Edgmiatsin -and during the course of subsequent travel a fairly intimate -acquaintance with the events of his life. He was born on the 5th of -April 1820; and it is therefore in his seventy-fourth year that he -ascends the throne of St. Thaddeus and of St. Gregory. His father and -uncle were well-to-do citizens of Van, who had come to be known under -the name of Khrimean because of a trade which they had conducted with -the Crimea. The young Mekertich had a single brother and no sisters; -and he appears to have been educated with some care by his uncle. His -youth and early manhood were devoted to secular pursuits. For five -or six years he acted in the capacity of an overseer in a weaving -business. But already in 1841 he had become a traveller and a -thinker; in that year he made a journey in the province of Ararat -and visited Edgmiatsin. At the age of twenty-five he married and in -due course became a father; but his wife died after giving birth to a -daughter who only lived to be six or seven years old. To a layman of -intellectual tastes among the Armenians of Turkey there is scarcely -any other profession open than the honourable but ill-paid calling -of a teacher. Shortly after his marriage Khrimean proceeded to the -capital and earned his living by private tuition. His first book -appeared in 1850, and consisted of a description in poetry of his -travels in Ararat. The period of his residence in Constantinople was -diversified by further journeys; to Jerusalem and the Holy Land, -of which he published an account; and to Cilicia, the seat of the -latest Armenian dynasty, where he remained some time as a teacher -in the convent of Sis. In 1854 he returned to his native city, and -in the following year took orders and became a vardapet or monastic -priest. It is at this date that the more conspicuous portion of his -life may be said to have commenced. The pulpit gave full scope to -his natural eloquence; while the qualities of the student and writer, -which he had carefully cultivated, were displayed in the columns of a -journal which he founded about 1856 and named the Eagle of Vaspurakan, -or of the province of Van. The proceeds of the sale of this periodical, -which was at first printed at Constantinople, whither he had returned -in 1855, enabled him to purchase an instrument of great rareness in -Turkey, which the Armenians prize with the same childish affection -and reverence as the Persian highlanders value a rifle or sporting -gun. Khrimean re-entered Van with the title of abbot of the famous -monastery which overlooks the landscape of the city and the rock -and the waters from the slopes of Mount Varag. He came the proud -possessor of a printing press, with which to conquer the sloth of -the faint-hearted among the laymen and edify the crass ignorance of -the priests. - -In the good old times in Turkey one might read or write what books one -liked, and the freedom which was enjoyed by the average individual -might have excited the envy of the citizens of some of the European -states. When the abbot of Varag cast his stone into the stagnant -waters, the report woke little echo beyond the borders of his native -province and the ranks of his countrymen. But the waves which he set -in motion have never yet subsided; and who can tell upon what shore of -promise or disappointment they are destined to break and disappear? If -ever there was a good cause, such was the cause which he championed, -and no advocate could be more pure-minded than himself. His avowed -object and real aim was the elevation of the Armenians and their -preparation for the new era which he foresaw. That era he conceived -as one of national activity in the rapid decline of the Mussulman -peoples and the approach of new influences from the West. If we tax -him with having resuscitated a realised and played-out ideal--that -national ideal which is still the bane of our modern Europe, but which, -except perhaps in the case of some paradoxical German Professors, -has lost its hold upon educated minds, he might reply that it is the -only talisman with which to touch the Armenians, the most obstinate -nationalists which the world has ever seen. He might further point -to the almost hopeless condition of the Ottoman Empire, and under -his breath he might suggest that the methods of Russian despotism -were not such as to excite the enthusiasm of a strongly individual -people capable of assimilating Western culture at first hand. Lastly, -he might dwell upon the fact that the Armenians have a long history, -and that their progress, to be solid and permanent, must be based on -a revival of consciousness in the dignity of their past. - -But the inculcation of such doctrines in the minds of his countrymen -was sure to produce a ferment among a people who have been regarded as -the inferiors and almost as the slaves of the Mussulmans for upwards -of eight hundred years. It was imputed to him that he was working to -revive the old Armenian kingdom--a consummation which a sensible Turk -should regard with equanimity, since the time necessary to attain -this end would far exceed all possible limits which he might assign -to his solicitude for posterity. But sensible people are a minority -of the inhabitants of this globe, and they are not numerous in the -governing circles of the Ottoman Empire. The great activity of the -Abbot of Varag, who trained his youths in the school of the cloister to -conduct unaided the redoubtable magazine, slowly aroused the suspicion -of the authorities. His own party in the Church supported him with much -zeal, and another monastery, still more famous, that of Surb Karapet -above Mush plain, was added to his spiritual administration. No -sooner was he installed than a second printing press was set up -and another school founded. The Armenians of the plain of Mush were -edified by a new local journal, the Little Eagle of Taron. In 1869 -he was elected Patriarch of Constantinople, a dignity which he only -held for four years. The Turkish Government had become alive to his -great and growing popularity, and it was found expedient that he -should resign. Then came the tribulations of the Russo-Turkish war, -during which the new movement among the Armenians cost them several -little massacres and untoward events. When the Congress met at Berlin -the ex-patriarch, who had been busy with literature, undertook, in -concert with an archiepiscopal colleague, a mission on behalf of his -nation to the German capital. This was his first visit to the West, -and he extended his journey to Italy, France and England. The result -of his efforts and of those of Nerses, Patriarch of Constantinople, -was the insertion of the well-known clause in the Treaty of Berlin -pledging Europe to supervise the execution of reforms in the Asiatic -provinces of Turkey inhabited by Armenians. Khrimean returned to his -native country the object of the resentment of the Ottoman authorities; -much of this portion of his life was spent in Van. But Armenian -discontent was spreading; the alarm of Government was increasing; -and in 1889 the eloquent preacher was sent to Jerusalem in honorary -exile. In the month of May 1892 he was elected to the primacy of the -Armenian Church. The Russian bureaucracy perhaps reflected that their -safeguards at Edgmiatsin were quite sufficient to bridle the vigour -of a septuagenarian. These shrewd diplomats therefore humoured the -Armenians in the matter, and the election was allowed to stand. The -Sultan raised difficulties about releasing the exiled prelate from -his Ottoman nationality and oath of allegiance. When this objection -had been overcome his consent was qualified by the condition that -the katholikos-elect should not pass through Constantinople. A year -elapsed in these parleyings. For two years the Armenian Church had been -without a head. During that period it had been ruled by the Russian -procurator. Now in the autumn the elect of the nation is at length -presented to the delegates who have assembled from all parts of the -Armenian world. And he comes from Russia, from the north, released -from exile in Turkey at the pressing instance of the Tsar. One must -admire the extraordinary cleverness of these Russian bureaucrats! - -The sun was already high when we sallied forth from our lodging, -having with great difficulty prepared our breakfast in the crowded -room. We passed down the long and dusty street of the village, which -is dignified by the historical name of Vagharshapat. Nothing remains -of the capital of King Tiridates, which was built upon this site or -in the immediate neighbourhood. You are shown the remains of an old -bridge which spanned the Kasagh, or river of Vagharshapat, some little -distance north-west of the present settlement. The river has changed -its course since it was erected. But the character of the masonry -is rather that which was prevalent in the Middle Ages--conglomerate -piles, faced with carefully hewn and jointed blocks of stone. Several -shops bestow a modern appearance upon the street, having windows and -being disposed as in Europe. A commonplace edifice with many windows -and standing in private grounds recalls an Institute in one of our -provincial towns. It is the Academy or Seminary. We entered the -cloister from a door on the north, through which we issued into an -open space on the west of the great court. A covered way conducted -us to the quadrangle, in the centre of which rises the cathedral -(Fig. 49, taken from south-west). - -Imagine the Old Court of Trinity College at Cambridge without the -gateway, the hall and chapel, and with a church of some size placed in -the centre where the fountain stands. All four sides of the figure are -defined by low buildings, resembling the dwellings which constitute -two sides of the Cambridge court. I had always understood that our -quadrangle at Trinity was the largest in the world; although I believe -some American university was building one a few inches bigger not -so very long ago. But the great court of Edgmiatsin perhaps already -makes the record; it has a length, from west to east, of 349 feet -6 inches, and a breadth of 335 feet 2 inches. These measurements I -took myself, much to the astonishment of the crowd which assembled; -they were at a loss to find a theory which might explain so strange -an act. The length will be very much increased in a short while, -when the condemned east side has disappeared. A fine row of stone -buildings is in course of erection, which will enlarge that dimension -by many yards. Our cousins across the Atlantic must bestir themselves. - -The western side of the court on the south of the covered way is -devoted to the residence of the Katholikos, while the block on the -north of the same passage is occupied by the bishops. There is no -style or pomp about the pontifical dwelling; and it would bear the -same relation to the Master's Lodge at Trinity as a four-roomed -cottage to a mansion. At the back is a little garden. The north -side consists of the rooms inhabited by the monks, and a terrace, -raised on pointed arches, extends from end to end. The building on -the east is in process of demolition, and, like its fellows on the two -sides which have already been described, is composed of comparatively -fragile material. I was given to understand that it had once housed -the seminary and printing press; a little bakery still occupies -the junction with the buildings on the south. These are constructed -of stone, and, although very plain, lend an air of solidity to the -entire quadrangle. Beginning on the west of this block we have first -a long refectory on the ground floor. Its dimensions are a length of -155 feet, and a breadth of 16 feet 6 inches. But it is a very humble -place when compared to the magnificent dining halls at Cambridge, -and it is not more than 14 feet in height. The ceiling is vaulted, -and like the walls is whitewashed over; the apartment is well lit -and is cool in summer. Two rows of narrow tables extend down it, -and on the west side is the throne and the canopy of the Katholikos, -both in carved wood. Should he join the monks at dinner, his table is -spread beneath the canopy. Parallel with this refectory and facing the -outhouses on the south is placed a similar chamber for the servants, -a part of the space upon the east being occupied by the kitchen. The -storey above the refectories is tenanted by the library, while the -eastern portion of the buildings is taken up by granaries and store -rooms both on the ground and upper floors. - -Except for the pilgrims' court, with adjacent structures, and -the garden of the Katholikos--the one on the southern, the other -on the south-western side--the space between the outer wall and -the great court is for the most part vacant ground. What edifices -there have been raised within it are of an unsubstantial character, -and may have been allowed to fall into ruin. The fine sites which -are thus forthcoming are being rapidly utilised, and I have already -referred to the row of buildings which will extend the great court -upon the east and which at the time of our visit were approaching -completion. In a line with this new block, in which red and grey -stones diversify the masonry, is situated further south the house -which lodges the printing press, a solid stone structure. The -transformation of Edgmiatsin from a residence of ignorant monks -into a seat of education, the home of cultured men, is proceeding -year by year; and it is even possible that the bricks and mortar, -or, to speak more correctly, the excellent masonry is in advance -of the needs which it is intended to supply. Wealthy Armenians are -fond of endowing the famous cloister, for which they do not need the -incitement of meetings at some Devonshire House. But the form of gift -dearest to them is the erection of a building, which stands there -so that all may see. This preference for the concrete and visible -is deeply ingrained in them, and they are able to gratify it owing -to the great skill of the Armenian masons. Plans were shown me which -provided a palace for the Katholikos and the rebuilding of the north -side of the quadrangle. These, I believe, have already been decided -upon, one of our party at the private table of the Katholikos having -provided the greater part of the funds. I was also invited to look at -some very elaborate drawings for the enlargement and adornment of the -church. No sooner had they been handed round than one of the guests -of His Holiness expressed his readiness to defray the cost. Speaking -as one who came fresh to Edgmiatsin, I did my best to dissuade the -acceptance of this last project. To enlarge the church would be to -dwarf the fine proportions of the court; indeed the contrary course -would be well-advised. One would not very much regret the abolition -of the portal, while the excrescence on the east, containing the -treasury and room of relics, should certainly be pulled down. His -Holiness favoured the idea of erecting a new church outside the walls, -to supplement the space available in the present building. - -We were assigned a room in the condemned block on the east of the -quadrangle, wherein we spread our rugs and erected our camp beds. It -was 26 feet square, with a lofty wooden ceiling, supported by two -pillars of the same material. The adjoining apartment was in process -of demolition, but, although without a roof, it served admirably as a -kitchen, while the flooring provided fuel for our fire. When all was -in order we should not have exchanged the results of our improvisation -even for the creations of the Cambridge upholsterer, mellowed in the -hands of the Cambridge bedmaker; while, as for living, was it not -preferable to possess the whole of our scapegrace cook than to share -the services of the most virtuous of gyps? Each day as we mounted our -staircase, which exactly recalled its sad Cambridge counterparts, I -was struck by the resemblance of my new surroundings to those among -which I had grown up in the Old Court of Trinity, with the sky and -the fountain and the adjacent cloister, where the glory of the foliage -and lawn and river is spread in mystery beyond the trellis screens. - -Even beneath this tropical sun the mind of man has surpassed his -difficulties; and just as the Cam has been converted from a melancholy -ditch into a brimming waterway, threading a landscape of lawn and -forest, so the Kasagh has been impressed into the service of an -artificial lake, bordered by shady avenues. Extremely pleasant is the -stroll round this spacious basin, which is due to the refinement of -Nerses V. (1761-1857). It is situated just outside and south of the -cloister; and while from one side the view discloses the dome and a -cupola of the cathedral (Fig. 50), on the other it is the vault of -Ararat and the pyramid of the Lesser Ararat that are outlined above -the soft foreground of water and trees (Fig. 51). It was a pleasure -to instance this work to General Frese and my Russian acquaintances -as bearing testimony to the sense of security inspired by Russian -rule. The cloister and even the bazar are surrounded by walls worthy -of a fortress, a relic from the old Persian times. The Russians -appear on the scene, and the imprisoned monks disport in the open, -which they make to bloom with luscious groves. - -On the morning following a restful day which introduced us to our -new environment I was invited to visit His Holiness. He had arrived -within the walls of the cloister during our sojourn on Ararat, and it -appeared that he had scarcely been able to leave his apartments owing -to the enthusiasm of the humbler among his admirers, who could not be -restrained from pressing round him whenever he walked abroad. This -enforced seclusion had developed a tendency to asthma; but with -this exception I found him in excellent health. Even the garden -had been invaded by the peasants, who would wait hour after hour to -catch a glimpse of their Hayrik--a term of endearment, signifying -little father, under which Khrimean is very generally known. Two -footmen in scarlet robes with blue sashes stood upon the flight of -steps or busied themselves with errands. I was ushered into a long -apartment, modestly furnished in European style, where I was received -by an Armenian gentleman, of the handsome aquiline type of face, -who addressed me in fluent English. He had been interpreter to the -delegates to the Berlin Congress, and more recently had been much in -the society of the Katholikos, residing at Jaffa (Jerusalem). Baron -Serapion Murad--the first name is the equivalent of Mr.--holds a -position of the first importance in the counsels of His Holiness -at this juncture in his career. He is the shrewd man of the world, -who weighs you in the balance with a single glance of his intelligent -eyes. I appear to have emerged on the right side of the scale; for his -formidable scrutiny rapidly relaxed into an amiable smile. We passed -from this outer room into a chamber with a daďs at the further side; -and presently the Katholikos entered and mounted the daďs, begging -us be seated on two chairs which were placed on the floor below, -but quite close to his own arm-chair. - -I do not remember having ever seen a more handsome and engaging face; -and I experienced a thrill of pleasure at the mere fact of sitting -beside him and seeing the smile, which was evidently habitual to -those features, play around the limpid brown eyes. The voice too is -one of great sweetness, and the manner a quiet dignity with strength -behind. The footmen and the daďs and the antechamber were soon -forgotten in this presence--forms necessary to little men and perhaps -useful to their superiors, though they are always kicking them off -when they are not stumbling among their folds. Happily the temperament -of His Holiness is averse to all baubles; the cross of diamonds was -absent from his conical cowl, and his black silk robe, upon which fell -a beard which was not yet white, was unrelieved by the star of his -Russian order. These ornaments are strangely out of place on such a -figure, and their formulas out of keeping with this character. I was -closely questioned upon all the incidents of our climb on Ararat; -nor was it doubted that we had reached the summit. In the old days -such a pretension would have been met with a smile. Then we passed -to his sojourn in England, and I asked his opinion of Mr. Gladstone, -with whom he had enjoyed some intercourse. He had been impressed, like -so many others, with the theological cast of that supple mind. The face -contracted when we came to speak of his life in the Turkish provinces; -and he laid stress upon the terrible reality of the sufferings of the -Armenian inhabitants. All the struggles and hopes and anguish of his -strenuous days and sleepless nights seemed to rise in the mind and -choke the voice. Then he sank back, with a sigh which seemed to regret -them. "I have come," he said, "to the land of Forgetfulness."--And -from the quadrangle came the sound of a slowly-moving Russian anthem, -and the measured step of a detachment of Russian soldiers. - -His Holiness invited me to take my meals in his private dining-room, -and expressed his regret that he would not be present himself. It -happened to be a fast day, and nothing was offered but lentils and -peas. But on the day following quite a banquet was spread before -us--salmon trout from Lake Sevan, delicious dolmas of minced meat -and rice bound together by tender cabbage leaves, and the usual -not very tasty chickens. At the head of the table sat the vicar or -substitute of the Katholikos, with M. Pribil on a special mission -representing the Emperor on his right hand, and General Frese on his -left. One or two Armenian notables were of the party, which, however, -consisted for the most part of bishops resident at Edgmiatsin. All -wore their black silk cowls during the meal. As one looked down the -line of clerics the aquiline type of face predominated--fine human -animals they seemed, with their pronounced features and limpid eyes -and the long beards which keep their colour and speak of a mind at -ease. One of the monks present spoke French fluently; but he had been -imported from the Crimea by the present Katholikos. His name was Khoren -Stephaneh. Many a pleasant talk I had with him, but not during dinner; -they have too much respect in the East for their food and cook to -divert the tongue at such a time from its proper function. What little -ripples of conversation diversified the natural sounds of the meal -were due to that restless spirit of the West, which is always asking -questions and living several hours in advance of the actually present -time. I do not know that either of the high Russian functionaries -were much troubled by this particular product of Western culture; -but, if they were, they must have suffered from the inability of -their hosts to comprehend their language. The wine of the cloister -flowed freely, and was supplemented by European liqueurs. Then the -restless spirit broke bounds, attacking first the taciturnity of the -Governor of Erivan. The formula I had heard so often was the first to -take wing; and "How long are you staying here?" came across the table -in a somewhat loud voice. It was not the least unkindly meant. Next -the same little sprite perched upon M. Pribil, and extracted several -questions, which it let fly. When we rose from table he engaged me -in a discursive conversation which ranged freely over the Armenian -Question. He affirmed that the Armenians did not compose more than -one-fifth of the population of the Russian provinces south of Caucasus. - -The apartment was soon empty, every one retiring to their siesta; but -I strolled out and made my way to the humble monastic buildings which -adjoin the lonely church of Saint Gaiane. There I found a new friend -whom I had learnt to value, a young monk recently ordained. Mesrop -Ter-Mosesean belongs to the new school of clerics who will before -long remove that stigma of crass ignorance which still attaches to -the bulk of the Armenian priesthood. Men like Khrimean have long -perceived that in matters of education Germany occupies the first -position among the nations of the world. With greater insight than -the Turks, who send their young men to Paris--the very worst school -for the full-blooded Oriental--they encourage their promising scholars -to study in Germany, and find the necessary funds. The monk of Gaiane -had just returned from the German University, and he does credit to the -solid attainments which it supplies. He is a splendid physical example -of his race. Tall, with the bold features of the handsome type which -I have described, with a massive forehead and teeth white as snow, -he combines with these outward advantages a manner which is most -winning and a simple, straightforward character. Hours I spent in his -little sitting-room during my sojourn, and I was always sorry to come -away. He occupies the post of librarian at Edgmiatsin, and he is now -busy with the compilation of a new and comprehensive catalogue. [141] -On this occasion we walked across to the library, and found it full of -people. It is entered from the side of the Katholikos' garden. I was -shocked by the spectacle of valuable manuscripts lying open on a long -table, and being fingered by a promiscuous crowd. Such was the license -of this national festival. I noticed among them a New Testament of -the tenth century, bound in richly carved ivory sides. The type and -pose of the Christ in the centre of the one panel recalled that of a -Roman emperor. [142] Beautiful manuscripts of the thirteenth century -and a minutely illuminated missal of the seventeenth figured among -the treasures which any hand was allowed to soil. - -Evensong was at hand, and my companion and myself entered the -dimly-lit church. The Katholikos was already seated in the throne -with the canopy, attired in a rich white satin robe. The cross of -diamonds flashed from his cowl. Bishops and monks composed two rows, -extending to the daďs of the apse; they wore robes of yellow silk, -embroidered with coloured garlands of flowers. The congregation was -very numerous, but clustered in groups about the Katholikos; there -was no order or assignment of places, as with us. They sat or knelt -upon the floor. On either side of the lines of clerics were gathered -the choir, in gorgeous dresses, holding large and cumbrous books -of Armenian music. The priests conducting the service stood upon -the pavement of the church with their backs to the daďs. Above them -rose the shapes of crosses and gorgeous eikons, held aloft by their -attendants. Incense was scattered at intervals. I noticed that His -Holiness twice changed raiment, although I was at a loss to discover -when and where the transformation had taken place. The strongly nasal -chants hurt my unaccustomed ear, and I found it impossible to educate -my sympathy into communion with this show. - -An hour or two later symbols and eikons and tight little formulas -were all blissfully asleep; and the great court flooded over with -good, healthy human spirits, released from the restraints of the -day. Bonfires were lit within it, from which the leaping flames shot -into the shadows of the church of the Illuminator and revealed the -circles of the dancers. From many a brightly-lit room, given over -to the pilgrims, came the shrill sounds of the flute and the beats -of the small drum. Hai-this and Hai-that--the refrain and burden -of every song celebrated the glories of the sons of Hayk. In the -street of Vagharshapat our friends the musicians from Alexandropol -were reaping a golden harvest. Was there ever collected together a -more motley crowd? They must have come great distances. There were -ladies from Akhaltsykh, with the pretty fillets across the brow; -there were frock-coats and uniforms. The bright calicoes of peasant -women enlivened the scene; some of the men, the poorest class, wore -their rough sheepskin hats, while the better-to-do had donned low -caps with a peak, like that of a naval officer. Long before midnight -quiet had settled upon the great quadrangle, and nothing was heard -but the plash of the fountain. But sombre patches marked the spots -where whole families were encamped; while the steps all around the -church and every niche and doorway were black with the forms of -serried human beings in every attitude of slumber. - -Next morning, the 8th of October, popular excitement was at its -highest, the central event which they had come to celebrate being -imminent. From the earliest dawn throngs of sheepskins and peak hats -and coloured calicoes had been busy reconnoitring the most suitable -positions; and, when the hour approached, all the roofs which commanded -a view of the portal, and a good part of the quadrangle enjoying the -same advantage, were densely packed with spectators. Rows of Russian -soldiers kept clear the approaches to the western or principal entrance -of the church. They wore dark green uniforms with shoulder-straps -of a faded pink, and peaked caps of white canvas. Wesson and I -made our way with difficulty to the residence of the Katholikos, -where, in the private room of Baron Murad, we set up the camera -right in face of the scene of the approaching ceremony. It had been -decided to perform the rite of consecration upon a daďs in front -of the portal. This improvised wooden structure was covered with -carpets and costly embroideries. Over the doorway of the portal -were emblazoned large Armenian letters upon a ground of cloth or -canvas. The inscription reminded us that we were assembled upon the -actual site where Jesus Christ is believed to have descended from -heaven. The name of the cloister and cathedral is said to signify -"The Only-Begotten has descended"; and the text over the doorway -may be translated "The Only-Begotten has descended from the Father, -and the light of glorification with Him." Upon a higher plane, from -the tower of the belfry, was suspended a banner, embroidered with the -device of the Katholikos and with the eagle of Vaspurakan (Van). The -device consisted of a mitre, surmounting the figures of two angels, -one carrying a cross and the other a pastoral staff. These emblems -crossed one another, and at the intersection was placed an ornament -of diamond shape peculiar to the Katholikos. The eagle with the wings -outspread was purely personal to Khrimean, recalling the many links -which attach him to Van. The scroll was to the following effect:--"O -God, the knower of hearts, protect for long years our chief of -shepherds (Hovapet) Mekertich Hayrik." Left and right of the daďs, -in niches of the façade of the portal, were exhibited two eikons, -or religious pictures, richly framed, of which that on the left--a -Virgin and Child--was a painting of very high merit, said to be of -Byzantine origin. - -At a quarter to nine the procession is formed, and proceeds from -the pontifical residence down the avenue of soldiers to the church -door. The service which is held within the cathedral of the Illuminator -lasts for over an hour. The party assembled in our upper chamber spend -the time with conversation and in gazing down upon the multitude. It -consists of a nun from Tiflis, a frock-coated teacher in a school -of that city, and a pretty woman of the rich Armenian bourgeoisie of -Tiflis, attired in a dress of Parisian model. The nun is a charming -woman, and we make great friends. She informs me that she is almost -an unique specimen of her order; the convent at Tiflis is perhaps -a solecism. Nunneries are not popular with the Armenians. I think -my reader may appreciate the magnificent robes which belong to -her office, and of which, by her kindness, I am able to supply an -illustration (Fig. 52). I notice that among the women assembled in the -quadrangle the Armenian national dress is not often seen. The Georgian -head-dress--a band of black velvet, embroidered with beads or jewels, -across the temples, and a white silk kerchief over the head--appears -to predominate. This fact would show that the greater number of those -present have come from Tiflis and the northern districts. - -Just as we are getting a little bored with the finicking architecture -of the portal there is a movement and a rustle, and the procession -issues from the church. First to appear are the high Russian officials -in Court dress--M. Pribil, General Frese and the rest. They take -up position on the floor of the quadrangle in front of the crowd, -and face the still vacant daďs. Between them and this central -object room is left for the choir and deacons, who are presently -introduced. Hats are doffed in spite of the fierce sun. A brief, -intense pause, and the twelve bishops [143] in gorgeous attire mount -the daďs from behind. They escort the venerable form of the Katholikos, -over whose head two attendants support a canopy of crimson material, -embroidered with gold lace. For a short space the aged patriarch fronts -the multitude in a standing posture; then sinks on the carpet with his -feet beneath his body in Eastern fashion. Erect beside him, a bishop -reads from a heavy volume. From time to time you detect a movement of -the deeply-bowed head of the seated figure, as a particular passage -is recited. Next a bishop advances, bearing in his hands the image -of a dove, wrought in gold. It is the receptacle of the holy oil. In -the southern apse of the cathedral stands a chest containing a vase, -in which is preserved oil blessed by St. Gregory. It is nothing, they -say, but a mass of dry material. Of this substance they take a pinch -and mix it with consecrated oil, specially prepared and scented with -essence of flowers. Such is the liquid which is allowed to flow from -the beak of the dove upon the head of the father of the nation. The -bishops gather round, and each with his thumb spreads the oil over the -scalp, making the figure of a cross at the same time (Fig. 53). Then -a mass of wool is applied to the crown of the head, in the folds of a -muslin veil which is adjusted to fall over the face. The Katholikos -rises after a brief interval, places his feet in his embroidered -slippers and with the bishops re-enters the church. The ceremony has -occupied a quarter of an hour. - -Some little time elapses, and the same procession leaves the building, -accompanying the anointed pontiff to his residence. The choir sing -from their great books the old Armenian chants [144] with their loud -lamentations and long shakes. The band of the Russian regiment play a -slow and solemn music, of which the sweetness puts to shame the nasal -choristers. They are mostly Armenians in this band. These strains -bring the rite to a conclusion, and we all disperse to our various -amusements or occupations. - -The dinner "in hall" upon this festival of the consecration was a very -interesting incident. We were all to dine in the refectory. When -I entered, the long apartment was crammed. The scholars of the -Academy partook of the meal in the parallel chamber. The bishops, -the monks, the delegates composed a sombre assembly, stretching -in rows of long perspective down the tables. A single exception to -this dark apparel was furnished by a delegate from Karabagh, who was -seated next myself. He wore his national dress--a spare black tunic, -fastened at the neck, displaying the front and sleeves of a light blue -silken vest. His face was large and expressive of great resolution, -especially the chin, which, like the cheeks, was shaved. The bronze -complexion heightened the whiteness of the bold moustache. One was -reminded of the best type of peasant proprietors in Europe; and, -indeed, a view of the faces round one confirmed that favourable -impression which one receives from the society of Armenians in -their native country. There is depicted a striking union of force of -character with intelligence. In the midst of these reflections the -Katholikos enters the building, and we all rise from our seats. He -sits on his throne beneath the canopy, and a monk ministers to his -needs. On either side stands a scarlet footman with a blue sash; -the choir are drawn up behind. After the first course His Holiness -rises, wearing his cowl and the glittering cross, and proposes the -toast of the Emperor. It is a delight to hear him speak. He has all -the personal fascination of Mr. Gladstone. Dinner proceeds as the -catalogue of toasts is gone through, and between each toast European -melodies are sung by the choir, and songs by an Armenian tenor of -repute. The health of the Emperor is received with cries of Oura; -but the remaining toasts without exception with the Armenian cheer of -Ketsze! the equivalent of the French Vive! In proposing the health of -M. Pribil His Holiness recites the various occasions upon which that -functionary has come to Edgmiatsin to attend the consecration or the -funeral of a Katholikos. Turning to his guest with a winning smile, -he begs him to defer his next ceremonial visit until after the lapse -of a moderate interval. - -In the evening the whole quadrangle was illuminated with strings of -coloured glasses containing candles. They made a very pretty show. At -intervals huge firebrands threw a lurid light upon the buildings. The -numerous choir of the Academy was marshalled in the court, including -many ladies. The programme comprised several cantatas and some -concerted music, and the standard was fairly high. But it appears -difficult to eliminate the nasal pronunciation. The music-master -was a great swell with his inspired look and flowing hair. The -band discoursed the waltzes of the immortal Strauss. Before eleven -all sound was hushed save the plash of the fountain, and darkness -unrelieved had settled upon the scene. I made my way to the rooms -of His Holiness and ascertained that he would receive me in spite of -the lateness of the hour. - -I found him reclining on a wooden couch in a bare white-washed -apartment; a single rug was suspended upon the wall beside the -couch. Such is the bed and such the furniture natural to the object -of all this pomp, which I do not doubt is profoundly distasteful to -such a character. He took my hand in his, and we sat together for -some time, the office of interpreter being, I think, performed by -Dr. Arshak Ter Mikelean. Our talk ranged over many subjects; but -I should have preferred to sit still, look in those eyes and hear -that voice. I think we both felt that we were very near each other; -and religion is a subtler thing than can be defined in creeds and -dogmas or embodied in what the world calls "views." - -On the following days the state of tension was gradually relaxed; -the cloister settled down to ordinary life, and it was possible to -examine the churches at one's ease. These are actually four in number, -although in Mohammedan times the district was known under the name -of Uch Kilisa, or Three Churches. [145] Their origin is bound up -with a legend which plays such a considerable part in the history of -the Armenian Church that, before passing to a description of them, -it may not be inappropriate to instruct or amuse my readers with this -curious story. [146] - -Towards the close of the third century, while Tiridates was on -the throne of Armenia, the Emperor Diocletian (284-305), [147] -in search of a beauteous spouse, sent artists into all parts of -his empire to depict the charms of suitable candidates for the -imperial embrace. Now there happened to be in Rome a convent of -nuns of austere life, of which the superior was called Gaiane. Under -her charge was a virgin of surpassing beauty and of royal lineage, -whose name was Ripsime. The artists entered her retreat by force, -committed her lineaments to their tablets, and sent the portrait with -several others to their master. The emperor had no sooner gazed upon -the image of the high-born virgin than he fell violently in love. No -pains were spared to hurry forward the preparations for the marriage, -and the wretched bride was in despair. Her vow of chastity and the -hatred she felt for the persecutor of her sect encouraged her to -adopt the counsels of despair. She took to flight, attended by Gaiane -and a numerous company of the nuns; and after many wanderings the -band arrived upon the banks of the distant Araxes, in the outskirts -of the Armenian capital of Vagharshapat. There they discovered a -secluded retreat in a place which served as a store for vats, the -city possessing extensive vineyards. One of their number was versed -in the art of the manufacture of glass objects; she made glass pearls, -and their price defrayed the cost of their daily sustenance. - -Meanwhile the emperor had despatched messengers in every direction, -and a Roman ambassador arrived at the court of the Armenian king. He -was the bearer of a letter to that monarch from his master, who related -how the Empire was suffering from the misdeeds of the Christians, and -in particular how a beautiful virgin whom he himself had desired to -marry had been abstracted by her infatuated co-sectaries and taken into -the territory of his Armenian ally. The emperor begged his beloved -colleague to track the party out, and, with the exception of the -wondrous virgin, to put them all to death. As for the lovely fugitive, -it would only be necessary to send her back; but the missive added, -with an amiability truly worthy of an emperor, that the king might -keep her if overcome by her charms. - -As might be expected, no time was lost on the part of Tiridates to -institute and elaborate the search. The band was found; the beauty -of Ripsime needed no identification; and the fame of it attracted a -multitude of all ranks--princes and nobles, shoulder to shoulder with -the common people, closing round her under the sting of licentious -desire. The nuns raised their hands to heaven and drew their veils -about their faces; and perhaps this display of modesty averted their -ruin. Early on the following morning there arrived from the palace -magnificent litters and costly robes, the design of the king being -to take to wife the Christian maiden and make her queen of the -Armenians. But at this juncture a peal of thunder carried terror -into all hearts, and a voice was heard descending from the sky. It -was the voice of the Saviour, adjuring the nuns to take courage and -remain firm for the glorification of His name among the peoples -of the north. "Thou Ripsime," it proceeded, "hast been cast out -(exerriphthęs) with Gaiane and thy companions from the realm of death -into that of eternal life." Meanwhile the thunder had caused a panic -among the assembled people, and the king's officers hastened to the -royal presence, bringing a written report of all they had heard. But -the monarch hardened his heart, and, since she refused the pomp he -offered, gave orders that the maiden should be taken by force and -brought to the royal apartments. - -These directions were executed, but not without difficulty; the pious -virgin was of stalwart frame, and the soldiers were obliged to drag -her along the ground, or carry her struggling in their arms. When they -had placed her in the king's chamber, and it was announced that the -king had entered, the people outside the palace feasted and danced -and sang. But their rejoicings were premature; for the intrepid Roman -maiden was more than a match even for the powers of so redoubtable -an antagonist. Tiridates was widely famed for physical strength and -deeds of prowess; yet, although he persisted in his suit for not less -than seven hours, he was at last compelled through sheer exhaustion to -give in. The offices of Gaiane were invoked; she consented to speak, -but her counsels were addressed to confirming the courage of her -companion. Her Latin speech was understood by some among those present; -they took stones and tore her face and broke her teeth. After a brief -repose the king returned, and again endeavoured to overcome the girl's -obstinacy; but after a long struggle the inspired amazon was a second -time victorious; she threw the king (erripsen), destroyed his diadem, -and dismissed him from the chamber, fainting and gathering around -him his tattered robes. - -A tender respect for the honour of women is a virtue of Christian -origin, which the romance of Western chivalry converted into a cult of -the fair sex. But the king of Armenia was an Oriental, a heathen and -a barbarian; nor had he been instructed in the code which precludes -the sentiment of humiliation in the vanquished where the victor is -possessed of a female form. His passion as a lover was overcome by -his fury as a thwarted despot; the virgin had fled from the palace, -but his savage emissaries were soon on her track. The unfortunate -maiden directed her steps to the retreat where the vats were stored, -and gave the alarm to her companions. All those present, excepting one -who was stricken with illness, accompanied her flight. But when they -had reached some rising ground near the road which led to Artaxata, -they were overtaken, bound with cords and put to death with great -cruelty. With Ripsime there perished thirty-two of her attendants, -while the poor nun who had been left behind presently met the same -fate. The martyrdom of Gaiane and of two companions took place on the -following day and was attended with tortures which I should shudder -to commit to paper. - -Not many days after this tragedy its author was visited by the -vengeance of heaven; a demon entered his body, and, like his -prototype of Babylon, the king of Armenia was turned into an animal -eating grass. In the form of a wild boar he resisted all attempts to -confine him; and similar punishments overtook the royal family and -attendants. At length the sister of the king, by name Khosrovidukht, -beheld in the watches of night a vision. A man with a radiant face -appeared and addressed her, to the effect that the only remedy was -to send to the town of Artaxata and summon thence a prisoner named -Gregory. When she related the vision people shook their heads, -and attributed it to the incipient madness of the princess. For -Gregory, who was once an honoured servant of King Tiridates, had been -cast by the tyrant into a deep pit, on account of his profession -of Christianity, not less than fifteen years ago. Would even his -bones be forthcoming from such a place? But when several times the -vision had been repeated, and the princess renewed her insistence, -a great noble was despatched to the place where the pit was situated, -near the town of Artaxata. A rope was let down into the cavern; and, -to the astonishment of all, there emerged a human form, blackened to -the colour of coal. It was none other than St. Gregory. - -The saint was met by the king and nobles, foaming and devouring their -flesh, as he approached the city along the road from Artaxata. Sinking -on his knees, he obtained from heaven the restoration of their reason, -although not of their human forms. His next care was the burial of -the martyrs; he found their bodies, lying where they fell, and still -untouched by corruption after the lapse of nine days. No dog or beast -or bird had approached the remains. St. Gregory took them with him -to the place where the vats were stored; and for sixty-six days he -sojourned in that place, instructing the king and nobles. After the -lapse of that period he related to them a vision which he had beheld -during the middle watches of the night. The royal party had come at -sunrise to prostrate themselves before the holy man. - -During his vigil, while his mind was revolving the recent acts of -Divine grace, a violent peal of thunder, followed by a terrible -rumbling sound, had fallen upon his startled sense. The firmament -opened as a tent opens, and from the heaven descended the form of a -man, radiant with celestial light. The name of Gregory was pronounced; -the saint looked upon the face of the man, and fell trembling to the -ground. Enjoined to raise his eyes, he beheld the waters above the -firmament cloven and parcelled apart like hills and valleys, extending -beyond the range of sight. Streams of light poured down from on high -upon the earth, and, with the light, innumerable cohorts of shining -human figures with wings of living flame. At their head was One of -terrible face whom all followed as the supreme ruler of the host; -He bore in his hand a golden mallet, and, alighting on the ground in -the centre of the city, struck with His mallet the crust of the broad -earth. The report of the blow penetrated into the abysses below the -earth; far and near all inequalities of the surface were smoothed out, -and the land became a uniform plain. - -And the saint perceived in the middle of the city, near the palace -of the king, a circular pedestal made of gold and of the size of a -large plateau, upon which was reared an immensely lofty column of -fire with a cloud for capital, surmounted by a flaming cross. As he -gazed he became aware of three other pedestals. One rose from the spot -where the holy Gaiane suffered martyrdom; a second from the site of the -massacre of Ripsime and her companions; and the third from the position -occupied by the magazine of vats. These pedestals were of the colour -of blood; the columns were of cloud, and the capitals of fire. The -crosses resembled the cross of the Saviour, and might be likened to -pure light. The three columns were equal in height one with another, -but a little lower than that which rose near the royal palace. Upon -the summits of all four were suspended arcs of wondrous appearance; -and above the intersection of the arcs was displayed an edifice with -a dome, the substance being cloud. On the arcs stood the thirty-seven -martyrs, figures of ineffable beauty attired in white robes; while the -crown of the figure above the edifice was a throne of Divine fashioning -surmounted by the cross of Christ. The light of the throne mingled -with the light of the cross and descended to the bases of the columns. - -When Gregory had related this vision he bade all present gird up -their loins and lose no time in erecting chapels to the martyred -virgins, where their remains might be deposited. Thus the saints -might intercede for the afflicted king and people and assist them to -become healed. Forthwith the multitude set to work, collected stones -and bricks and cedar-wood; and, under the guidance of the saint, -constructed three chapels after a prescribed design. One was placed -towards the north and on the east of the city, on the spot where -Ripsime and her companions met their death. The site of the second -was further south, where the Superior Gaiane was massacred; while -that of the third was close to the magazine of vats. These they built -and adorned with lamps of gold and silver, with candelabra of which -the flames were never quenched. Coffins were made for the remains -of the martyrs; but no man was suffered to touch these relics, for -none had been baptized. The saint himself and in solitude consigned -the bodies to their receptacles. And when this was done he fell on -his knees and prayed for the healing of the king, that haply the -king might share in the work. The prayer was granted, and the horn -fell from the royal hands and feet. To the monarch was assigned the -task of digging tombs in the chapels to receive the coffins of the -martyrs; and his consort, the queen Ashkhen, together with his sister -Khosrovidukht, were associated with him in the work. The return of his -vigour was signalised on the part of the king by a labour worthy of -the patriarch Hayk. He made a journey to the summit of Ararat, which -the compiler rightly observes would occupy seven days. [148] When he -had completed this feat, he was seen bearing upon his shoulders eight -blocks of stone of gigantic size which he had taken from the crest -of the mountain. These he placed before the threshold of the chapel -of the martyred Ripsime in expiation of the unholy battle which he -had waged. [149] In this manner all was accomplished according to the -vision of St. Gregory; while, as for the locality where had stood the -column of fire on the golden pedestal, it was surrounded by the saint -with a high wall and heavy gates; the sign of the cross was erected -within it, that the pilgrims might there worship the all-powerful -God. Upon his return from Cćsarea, and after the baptism of king and -people, St. Gregory completed his task by building the cathedral upon -this site. - -Such is the legend which, with variations, has supplied the patent -of the famous monastery, and invested the pilgrimage to the church of -Christ descended and to the chapels of the martyrs with the character -at once of a religious and of a patriotic act. The first of these -edifices stands in the centre of the great quadrangle of the cloister, -and, as we have seen, is believed to have been originally raised by -St. Gregory the Illuminator, to whom the Armenians attribute their -conversion to Christianity. The spot where the Saviour alighted and -struck the broad earth with the mallet is situated about the middle -of the building; and in the old days was indicated by a slab of hewn -stone, 3 feet square and 5 feet in thickness. [150] This stone was -said to have been substituted for the original marble slab which -was reputed to have been due to St. Gregory himself and to have been -carried off by Shah Abbas. [151] In the first quarter of the eighteenth -century, during the pontificate of Astvatsadur, an elaborate altar -was placed upon this hallowed site, and still stands there beneath -the dome. It is surmounted by a canopy supported by four pillars of -Tabriz marble, and is well seen in my illustration of the interior -(Fig. 55). It appears to have replaced one of simpler design erected -by the Katholikos Eleazar. - - - I cannot invite my reader to admire the architecture of this - cathedral, although the interior, with its spacious body, - central dome and four apses, one at each point of the compass, - is sufficiently remarkable. Much the same design is seen in - the church of St. Ripsime; but in that building it underlies - important developments which probably argue a later date. The - original form of the exterior is rather difficult to unravel - owing to the excrescences, of which I may safely say that none - are improvements, that have been added at various times. But let - me briefly undertake the work of demolition, addressing myself - to the illustration, which was taken from the south-west (Fig. 49). - - The portal on the left of the picture is a work of the seventeenth - century; it was commenced by the Katholikos Philip and completed - by his successor Jacob in 1658. It is probably due to the mania - for portals prevalent in Armenia at that period and not to a - feature of the earlier plan. Just east of and adjoining the - balcony of this structure is seen a window with a richly carved - column in the centre, surmounted by a cross and supporting two - ornamental arches. This window and the upper portion of the - building to which it belongs are in subservience to the portal, - with which they are in architectural harmony, and which they link - with the main edifice. The lower part, including the frieze or - quasi-classical moulding, which runs right round the church, - is in a different style and of a different form of masonry, - being indeed an integral member of the body of the church. You - have only to remove the window and pointed roof, build up the - wall above the cornice and cover it with a flat roof, and you - obtain precisely the same projection which the picture shows on - the south side and which is necessitated by the south apse. - - We have now obtained the figure of a body with four projecting - members, each of which represents an apse. The roof would appear - to have been always built at a very low angle; it is, as usual, - of stone. But we have yet to disencumber the apse on the east, - which is completely hidden by the stupid building which contains - the treasury and room of relics--an annexe which from outside - lengthens and perverts the original edifice. We owe this feature - to the Katholikos George IV., who died in 1882. This apse had a - lesser projection than its fellows from the wall of the church, - owing to the incidence of the two indispensable side chapels, - which were small and merely entailed a slight advance of the - rectangular walls. Over each apse it has been customary to have - a belfry; when the portal was added this feature of the apse on - the west was transferred to that structure. The open cupolas - with belfries which are at present seen over the three apses - were built in the year 1682 by the Katholikos Eleazar. They are - of bright red stone, of which the hue contrasts in a displeasing - manner with the dull grey of the body of the church. - - The central dome, which is supported on piers in the interior, - consists of a polygonal drum with a window in each face surmounted - by a conical roof. A false arcade with slender columns and pointed - arches enriches, together with a carved cornice, the simplicity - of the design. This dome is believed to date from the seventh - century, and to be the work which the Katholikos Komitas (617-625) - erected in place of an earlier structure in wood. If this be the - case we have an example of this form of dome in Armenia a hundred - years before the time when it is supposed by Fergusson to have - been developed. [152] It is a pity that some vandal has daubed - it over with plaster and paint, which invests it with a grotesque - appearance. Above each window is a medallion containing the head - of a saint, and I saw traces of spiral carving on the columns. An - almost flat-roofed building with this dome in the centre, with - four projecting apses, one at each point of the compass and each - surmounted by a little belfry--such would appear to have been the - original exterior of the edifice which we see at the present day. - - An ingenious traveller, whose judgment was influenced by the - cornice of the building, and perhaps too by certain stone slabs - with Greek inscriptions which are inserted in the walls, has - conjectured that this exterior, with the exception of the dome and - belfries, dates at least in part from the reign of King Tiridates - (end of the third and commencement of the fourth century). [153] - He has gone so far as to present us with an illustration, - showing what he conceives to have been the original form. [154] - We know from Moses of Khorene that this monarch erected at Garni - in the district of Erivan a building of surpassing beauty to his - sister Khosrovidukht; and it is almost certain that the remains - of a purely classical building which have been seen by modern - travellers upon that site belong to this monument or to one of - the same period. [155] The presumption of Dubois is therefore - justified that a building of the reign of Tiridates would be likely - to display classical features and ornaments. But his conjecture - as regards this particular church must at present be considered - to belong to the realm of hypothesis. The presence of the slabs - with the Greek inscriptions would prove nothing; they may have - been taken from an earlier building, or they may quite well be - later in date than the invention and use of the Armenian alphabet - in the fifth century. Dubois indeed is inclined to ascribe them - to a period earlier than the conversion of Tiridates, and to see - in them memorials of a Christianity practised in Armenia prior to - the preaching of St. Gregory. This conjecture, which is adopted - with complacency by Ritter, is probably quite baseless. The - inscriptions have quite recently been subjected to the critical - scrutiny of a scholar in Byzantine lore. I may refer my reader to - his work. They are incised upon two slabs inserted in the wall, - rather high up and a little east of the northern apse. The slabs - are close together. I was unable to decipher the writing with the - aid of my glasses, as the stone has been much worn. The slab with - the figures of Paulos and Thekla is attributed by this scholar - to the fifth or the sixth century, and its companion to about - the same date. His opinion is based upon internal evidence. [156] - - It would take too long to pursue a study relying on this kind of - testimony into the approximate date of the cathedral. It must - suffice to have placed my reader in possession of the leading - facts. As regards the evidence of literature as to restorations - and additions it is summarised in the accompanying note. [157] - If the essential features of the present building be due to - the restoration of Vahan Mamikonean (A.D. 483), it will be a - work anterior to Justinian. At that time the Armenian architect - would not have enjoyed the advantage of studying the designs of - the several churches which, according to Procopius, that emperor - erected in Western Armenia. [158] It would appear preferable to - ascribe these features to the restoration under Komitas (618), if - we were obliged to choose between the two. But this and kindred - questions respecting the origin of the church and monastery are - wrapped in obscurity. At what date did Edgmiatsin become the - residence of the katholikos? This cardinal question still remains - without a certain answer. We know that he transferred his seat from - Vagharshapat to Dvin in the year 452, and that he did not return - until 1441. We also know that the seventh century was a period of - building activity; after Komitas we have the Katholikos Nerses - III. (640-661), surnamed the builder, who erected a magnificent - church in close vicinity to the churches of Edgmiatsin and buried - the relics of St. Gregory beneath its four colossal pillars. [159] - There is no reason to doubt that the four Byzantine capitals which - are preserved in the Academy belonged to this edifice. [160] - The independence of the national church, so jealously guarded - by the Armenians, was intimately bound up with the Edgmiatsin - legend; and the pontiffs appear to have spared no pains during - the earlier centuries to maintain the holy places and prevent - them sharing the fate of the temporal capital, Vagharshapat. - - The entrance from the portal to the church is through a rather - low doorway, conducting you into the apse-formed projection - on the west. The stone panels about and above this doorway are - richly carved and show traces of gilding (Fig. 54). In the south - wall of the building you are shown an old door, long walled up, - which is supposed to date from a hoar antiquity and is called - the door of Tiridates. Lastly you will probably be taken to the - belfry above the portal and be shown the famous Tibetan bell. It - bears the thrice repeated legend Ôm a hum, the mystic formula of - the Buddhists. [161] Before the portal are several tombstones, - commemorating deceased pontiffs, and among them that of the - enlightened Nerses V. One in marble is raised over the remains - of Sir John Macdonald, British envoy to the court of Persia. The - bald inscription contrasts with the eloquence of the situation - under the shadow of this St. Peter's of distant Armenia and among - the graves of the highest dignitaries of her national church. [162] - - Passing now to the interior (Fig. 55 and plan), it is the form - which is impressive--the quadruple apse with a canopy altar in - each of these recesses, except that on the west. In the centre, - beneath the dome, stands the altar which I have already described; - there are therefore four altars in this church. In front of the - apse on the east rises the parapet of the daďs, as usual; but - the higher level of the floor in those on the north and south is - approached by steps which extend from wall to wall. The lateral - chapels on the east, which are so constant a feature in Armenian - churches, are scarcely noticeable in this building, being, I think, - incorporated in the additions which were made by George IV. at - the back of the church. The space on the floor of the edifice - is railed off in two places from north to south. There is of - course no pulpit, and there are no pews. The light falls from - twelve little windows in the spacious dome upon a scene which is - rendered dim by the darkness of the mural paintings, and which - serves to enhance the flashing ornaments on the central altar. I - am told that there are in all no less than thirty-five windows; - but they are small and insignificant. Their distribution is not - subordinate to any plan. The paintings on the walls are of no - merit; they represent Biblical subjects, and while some are in - fresco, others are on canvas applied to the stone. They must have - been added at a comparatively recent date; for we are expressly - told by Chardin that in his time the interior was quite bare. The - dome has been pleasantly decorated in the Persian style with - coloured arabesques. These and the various frescos are attributed - to an Armenian artist who lived during the reign of Nadir Shah - (1736-47). [163] - - The church is large if compared to other ancient Armenian temples, - but small if judged by a Western standard. The area enclosed must - be rather less than in the case of the cathedral at Ani, although - the dimensions are about the same when the four projections are - included. The measurements of the interior, which I took myself, - give an extreme length of 108 feet 4 inches, and an extreme breadth - of just over 98 feet. Each apse has a depth of about 15 feet 3 - inches--a dimension which I have included in my totals. [164] - In the south apse stands the chest containing the vessel with - the holy oil, and beside it a little lamp which flickers night - and day. The recess of its opposite counterpart is adorned with - mural paintings representing eight full-length portraits of the - pillars of the Armenian Church. They are identified as St. Gregory, - with his sons Aristakes and Verthanes, and his grandson Grigor; - as Yusik, Nerses the First, Sahak and Mesrop. The ceremony of - ordination of bishops takes place in this northern apse. A cistern - has been sunk below the floor in front of the recess to serve in - time of siege. Two thrones are conspicuous in the body of the - church, both of which may be discerned in my illustration. The - first, which adjoins the central altar, is inscribed with the - name of Petros Katholikos (Peter II. 1748) and is said to have - been a present from the Pope. [165] The second, situated further - east, is that which was occupied by the Katholikos during the - service which I attended. It is the gift of Armenians during the - pontificate of Astvatsadur (1715-25). - - The treasury and room of relics contain many interesting - objects. To these chambers is allotted the building on the east of - the church. Both are entered from the interior and through doors - in the east wall, that on the north of the apse communicating - with the treasury, and that on the south with the apartment - containing the relics. Among the treasures are several objects - which deserve the attention of the student of art, examples of - medićval Armenian craft being, I imagine, none too frequent. I - observed a crystal cross, said to belong to the Bagratid period, - and some other crosses reputed to have come from Ani. A gold - crown, inlaid with jewels, is ascribed to King Tiridates, and, - whatever its origin, is a very interesting object. The same may - be said of a silver saucer with repoussé figures dating from - the pontificate of Nerses IV. (1166-73). There are a quantity - of jewelled mitres and embroidered stoles and ornaments for the - church. There are seals of the pontiffs and coins of the Rupenian - (Cilician) dynasty. Some store is set upon a head of Dionysus which - is believed to be of Egyptian origin. The monastery has become - possessed of a most curious object in the shape of a huge caldron, - standing on three legs, and having as handles four tigers in the - act of climbing. It was found not many years ago in a cloister - near Tiflis; buried within it was a bell. An inscription round the - rim gives the date of the Armenian era 781 or A.D. 1331. In the - chamber of relics are preserved a fine collection of episcopal - staves surmounted by a cross above a knot of hissing serpents' - heads (Fig. 56, Nos. 1 and 2). Many are of exquisite workmanship. - - The principal relics are the hand and arm of St. Gregory, preserved - in a silver gilt case; the head of the holy spear, reputed to - possess the power of staying epidemics; [166] a fragment of the - Ark, to which is attached a jewelled cross; the head and arm - of St. Thaddeus, the apostle; the hand and arm of St. Jacob of - Nisibis; a panel carved with a crucified Christ, said to be the - work of St. John the Apostle and to have been procured by Ashot - Patricius; finally a box containing relics of St. Ripsime. - - The chapels of the martyrs, which are churches rather than chapels, - are situated within short walks from the monastery. Thus St. Gaiane - is not more than about a quarter of a mile distant in a southerly - direction. St. Ripsime is a little further, say three-quarters - of a mile; it is placed to the east of Edgmiatsin and is the - first building which you see as you drive from Erivan, on the - very outskirts of the trees and greenery. Shoghakath is a near - neighbour of Ripsime on the side of the great cloister. - - Of these the largest and certainly the most interesting is that - which commemorates the brave deeds of the beautiful virgin from - Rome. In designing the church of the Holy Ripsime the architect has - been faithful to the essential features of that of Edgmiatsin--the - quadruple apse and the central dome. But the problem before him - was how to eliminate the unsightly projections of the apsidal arms, - and how to rear the whole fabric by successive stages to the crown - of the dome. His solution of the problem, if somewhat rudimentary - and fantastic, is certainly successful from the point of view of - looks (Fig. 57 and plan). My reader will of course eliminate the - portal and belfry in appreciating this piece of architecture. They - were added, the portal in 1653 by the Katholikos Philippos, and - the belfry in 1790. He will observe that the outer walls compose a - rectangular figure; and a moment's reflection will show him that - such a figure could only be presented by a stupendous thickening - of the wall on either side of each apse. This difficulty has - been in part surmounted by the introduction of niches, two for - each apsidal recess. These external niches are nearly six feet - deep on the north and south sides, a little shallower on the - west and east. The treatment of this feature is quite inchoate; - but we shall see it in perfection at Ani. At the same time it - is evident that provision had to be made for a side chapel on - either side of the apse on the east. These have been supplied - according to a design which I have not seen elsewhere, although - it appears to be repeated in the church of Sion in the valley of - the Tana, a tributary of the Kur, erected at the end of the tenth - century. [167] Between the four apsidal recesses of the interior - are inserted the narrow openings of four circular and much smaller - cavities, communicating by doors which are almost imperceptible - with rectangular chambers or chapels. Of these chambers the two - on the east provide the requirements of the church, while those - on the west were probably added for uniformity. [168] The effect - of the eight recesses, crowned by a dome of unusual diameter - for the size of the structure, [169] is extremely pleasing to - the eye; and St. Ripsime is the most impressive ecclesiastical - edifice which I have yet presented to my reader. The drum of the - dome has sixteen sides; besides the windows which it contains, - light is admitted through bold apertures in each of the apsidal - recesses. Standing beneath the dome, one admires the great height - of the building. The interior measurements are a length of 74 - feet 1 inch and a breadth of 58 feet 4 inches. - - The question of the date of Ripsime is again not free from - difficulty. We know that the Katholikos Komitas rebuilt the - church in A.D. 618; [170] nor, so far as I have been able to - ascertain, do we possess records of any subsequent change in the - plan. Students of architecture may be inclined to assign it to a - later period. The tomb of the martyr is placed in a grotto beneath - the apse on the east. [171] Just west of the portal there is a low - building, serving as a residence for monks, and, adjoining it, - an enclosure for cows. Church and cloister are surrounded by a - high mud wall, with round towers at the angles. - - St. Gaiane is an edifice of much humbler architectural pretensions, - which is said to date from the pontificate of Ezra (A.D. 628-640) - (Fig. 58 and plan). [172] The porch was added, as we learn from - an inscription, in the year 1687 by the Katholikos Eleazar. It - serves as a place of burial for the pontiffs and contains many - alabaster slabs. On the north side have been inserted in the - archway of a wide aperture two old Armenian crosses, framed within - an ornamental trophy. Entering the building from this portal we - are impressed with its simplicity; and this feeling is enhanced - by the absence of all decoration, the beautiful masonry being - left without any covering of lime. The architect has wisely - dispensed with the quadruple apse, and has contented himself - with one. But he has retained the rectangular form of the side - chapels, and he has separated them by a wall from the body of - the building. Four detached piers support a dome which is much - smaller than that of Ripsime, but resembles it in the sense of - great height which it lends to the interior. The length of the - building is 70 feet 2 inches, and the breadth 47 feet. The vault, - containing the grave of Gaiane, is approached from one of the side - chapels, and is covered by a simple stone with a little carpet, - upon which devotees offer coins. The adjacent cloister consists - of a humble building on the south-west. The church is surrounded - by tombs. Lying against the north wall are some interesting old - stones, one of which is exquisitely sculptured (Fig. 59). It - probably constituted a boundary-stone, and may have been brought - hither as an offering to the saint. The two figures which are seen - in my illustration of the building represent opposite types among - the inhabitants of Edgmiatsin. The white-headed abbot on the left - belongs to the old school, with habits and standards which are not - agreeable or exalted. That on the right is the figure of Dr. Arshak - Ter-Mikelean, fresh from the atmosphere of a German university. - - The third and smallest of the churches marks the site of the - wine-press, where the holy martyrs sojourned and where St. Gregory - resided after his release from the pit at Artaxata. It is situated - to the north-east of Edgmiatsin and to the west of St. Ripsime. It - bears the name of Shoghakath, or Effusion of Light. I was informed - that the attendants of Saints Ripsime and Gaiane were buried in - a vault on the south side of the apse. [173] In disposition the - building resembles St. Gaiane; but it is much longer (58 feet 2 - inches) in comparison with its breadth (24 feet 8 inches). We learn - from an inscription over the door of the church that the portal was - added by the Katholikos Nahapet in A.D. 1693. The belfry is due to - the same pontiff; [174] his grave is conspicuous within the portal - (Fig. 60 and plan). The dome rests on four massive piers attached - to the wall. The joints of the pink and grey stone are visible in - the interior, as in the case of the two buildings described; and so - admirably are they fitted that one would regret the introduction - of any internal decoration. A scrutiny of the exterior reveals - the fact that the church has been most carefully restored, stones - having been removed here and there and replaced. Brosset informs - us that mention is made in certain records of Armenian Councils - of the construction by Nerses III. (A.D. 640-649) in the town of - Vagharshapat of a church of Shoghakath; but he supposes--it would - appear upon inconclusive evidence--that this name is intended to - designate the cathedral, Edgmiatsin. [175] If it be taken to refer - to the wine-press chapel, then all three edifices will have been - rebuilt in the seventh century by the testimony of records. I - may add that according to an inscription in the monastery of - Uch Kilisa, near Diadin, that cloister was also restored in the - seventh century. [176] If the buildings as we now see them were - erected in that century, the framework at least of Edgmiatsin - must be attributed to an earlier date. - - -I return from this detailed description of the cathedral and the -chapels of the martyrs to the more general tenour of the contents of -this chapter. Edgmiatsin is rapidly developing into a home of the -higher education, and it enjoys the proud privilege of possessing -an institution which is unique in all Armenia for the comparatively -exalted standard of the course of study which it provides. The Academy -at once dispenses the usual curriculum of a seminary and supplies -a higher course, extending over three years. Such an excessive -disporting in the realms of dangerous knowledge was only sanctioned -by the Russian Government on the understanding that the privilege -should be confined to candidates for the priesthood. The nature of -their profession may have appeared a sufficient guarantee that the -learning imparted would be strictly subordinated to "views." Besides, -there was always the safeguard that the curriculum must be submitted -to the Russian bureaucracy, and approved in due course by these -aureoled arbiters, enthroned above the shifting mists and slippery -quagmires among which poor Knowledge often faints and sometimes -sinks. Her youngest and hardiest offspring, pertinacious Natural -Science, has been excluded from these intellectual preserves; and I -was assured that the mere mention of the name of this arch-enemy in a -prospectus would produce the same effect among the august censors as -a challenge from the prince of devils among the blessed. The course -is confined to theology, history and literature, foreign as well -as Armenian. To these subjects is added a study which the Germans -have developed under the name of Pädagogik. Within this formula, -I was given to understand, are included at Edgmiatsin, besides the -art of the teacher, a certain general knowledge of philosophy and -psychology. The students are obliged to pass a certain standard by -examination at the end of each year. - -The idea of founding such an institution was conceived by Nerses -V. (d. 1857), whose liberal mind sought to satisfy by this -project the needs of his countrymen both in secular and religious -education. [177] His proposal was rejected by the Russian Government, -and he was himself sent into honorary exile. Better fortune attended -the instances of George IV.; and the Academy was actually founded -during his pontificate in 1873 or 1874. An inscription over the door -records that the principal aim of the founder was the encouragement of -the study of Armenian theology and literature. It is interesting to -note that the bulk of the scholars do not in fact become enrolled in -the priesthood. As a rule there are about 150 to 200 students in the -various grades of the seminary and the academy; but I was informed that -during the last ten years only about 15 had taken orders. The rest have -become teachers in the Armenian schools, or migrated to universities -in Russia, or adopted professional or commercial pursuits. I enquired -as to the nature of the instruction in theology, and learnt that until -the year 1892 that pompous term had been applied to a simple course of -religious instruction. In that year a promising scholar who had been -sent to Germany for education appeared upon the scene. I have already -mentioned the name of Dr. Arshak Ter-Mikelean; he took his degree -in the University of Jena, and now presides over the theological -course. At the time of my visit two young Armenians were studying -theology at Leipzic at the expense of the Armenian Church. At the -same date the students in the academical course numbered about forty. - -My reader is aware that in Russian Armenia the word seminarist does -not necessarily apply exclusively to candidates for the priesthood. The -seminary is nothing more than the highest grade in the Armenian school -system, with the single exception of the more exalted course provided -by this Academy. The great majority of the pupils are maintained -out of the revenues of the cloister; but those who are able pay -what they can. A youth enters the seminary when about thirteen or -fourteen years old, and the academy at about nineteen or twenty. Both -institutions are housed in the same building. Each diocese is invited -to make a certain number of presentations; and boys and young men are -encouraged to come from the Turkish provinces. As a matter of fact -few are able to avail themselves of the offer. The scholars reside -within the building, one dormitory being allotted to the academy and -another to the seminary. These dormitories are kept scrupulously neat -and clean. There is a fine music room with a grand piano, and there -is also a nice library with casts of the immortal works of Greek -sculpture illuminating the shadows above the shelves. How strange -they seem in this distant land, where the study of the classics is -not included even in the higher education! - -The effect which is being produced upon the character of the monastic -priests by the wise solicitude for education which has characterised -the Armenian movement is almost incalculable. In old days the monks -were chosen by the bishops from among their attendants; and this custom -obtained even after the development of seminarial instruction within -the cloister. But in 1892 the synod issued a decree enjoining that, -except in very special circumstances, no person should be ordained monk -who had not passed through a seminary. He is nominated by the bishop, -but must be approved by the synod. It is a pity that hitherto no steps -have been taken to raise the standard of the ordinary clergy. But we -must admit that it would not be easy to effect such a reform from -above. For all practical purposes we may count three grades in the -hierarchy of the Armenian Church. In the first figure the bishops, the -second comprises the monks and parish priests, and the third includes -the deacons. Over all three is exalted the authority of the katholikos, -the keystone of the dome of the edifice. Celibacy is imposed upon -the bishops and monks, while marriage is rendered obligatory upon the -parish priests. Thus a sharp division exists between the two orders of -clergy, arising out of a complete difference in mode of life. Moreover -the ordinary clergy are elected by the laity--a custom to which the -people jealously cling. The inhabitants of a town or village select -their future pastor from among their own number. Of course the bishop -might refuse to ordain. But such a course would only be warranted in -very special circumstances; the same being predicated of the right -of the bishop to depose a priest. Thus the parish clergy occupy a -special and somewhat independent position. In the rural districts -the spread of education has not yet commenced to touch them; nor will -they emerge from their present deplorable debasement until a general -quickening of public opinion shall take place. - -The monks or celibate priests are, I believe, always connected with -convents; they are known under the style of vardapet, or doctor, which -is attached to their individual names. They are governed according -to the rule of St. Basil of Cćsarea, the contemporary and monitor of -the Armenian pontiff, Nerses the Great (A.D. 340-374). They do not -practise the tonsure, and they wear their beards. They are attired -in long black robes with conical cowls. Their numbers must have -considerably diminished since 1700, at which date we are informed this -convent alone contained over a hundred monks. [178] At present there -are in all not more than some fifty vardapets within the wide limits -of the Russian provinces. Of these about half reside at Edgmiatsin. As -members of the synod or as bursars, as overseers of the printing press -or as editors of the official journal, Ararat, their profession is no -sinecure. All monks in Russian territory are ordained at Edgmiatsin, -and it is the custom for all bishops, whether in Russian Armenia or -abroad, to be consecrated in the church of the Illuminator. - -The revenues dispensed by the katholikos are derived from several -sources. There is the property of the monastery, consisting of lands -and villages in the valley of the Araxes and elsewhere, to which, -in the absence of statutes of mortmain, additions are constantly -being made. The income from this source and from offerings and -contributions of various kinds amounts, I believe, to about Ł8000 a -year. The general property of the Church is also administered from -Edgmiatsin, the synod being specially invested with this important -function. Donations in lands or money are frequently forthcoming, and -are devoted to the support of the various institutions. The accounts -of the monasteries and bishoprics in Russia are audited and passed -by the synod. But the clergy are supported by their own flocks; and, -beyond submitting their accounts to the proper authority, the parishes -are practically autonomous. - -There can be little doubt that the overseeing by the katholikos and -synod of the administration of the funds of the Church in Russia has -already effected a salutary change. Should Russia become possessed of -the Turkish provinces, and should her counsels incline to the sounder -policy of encouraging the Armenians to work out their salvation in -their own way, this concentration is likely to promote a general reform -of the Armenian clergy. The authority of the katholikos at the present -day extends to practically all Armenians professing the national -religion. That authority suffered division during the troubled period -of long duration which followed the overthrow of the Bagratid dynasty -(A.D. 1045) and the gradual dispersal of the Armenian people. But the -Katholikos of Sis has quite recently professed his spiritual allegiance -to Edgmiatsin; [179] and the recluse of Akhtamar, that beauteous island -in the lake of Van, alone continues pretence to the title and station -of a supreme pontiff. His jurisdiction is confined to his rock and a -few villages on the mainland. The patriarchate of Constantinople is -an institution which is the result of political exigencies, and which -in no way derogates from the spiritual supremacy of the successor of -St. Gregory, enthroned in the cloister near the banks of the Araxes. - -My reader has perhaps divined from a perusal of the foregoing -paragraphs that an interesting feature of the Armenian Church is -the power enjoyed by the laity, which indeed may be described as -predominant. With them rests the choice of the ordinary clergy, and in -practice their voice prevails in the selection of a katholikos. That -Church is indeed a compromise, so far as her ministers are concerned, -between opposite principles in the organisation of Christianity. The -monastic priests represent the principle of elevating a hierarchy into -a position of lofty independence. From among their ranks are taken the -bishops. But the great body of the clergy are strictly the ministers -of the people, supported by their voluntary contributions. From these -conclusions, derived from a study of contemporary conditions, I pass -to a brief examination of the Edgmiatsin legend, and of the history -and character of that interesting ecclesiastical edifice which rises -in the background of all that I have written in the present chapter. - - - -The Armenians boast that the Gospel was preached to their ancestors -by the first apostles, and that they were the first people to adopt -Christianity as the religion of the State. They separate these two -events by a respectable interval, for they attribute the conversion -of king and people to a miracle performed by St. Gregory towards the -close of the third century. We have seen that the current version -of that miracle comprises a vision by which Jesus Christ becomes in -effect the Founder of their cathedral church. The inference is perhaps -legitimate that they hold their own Church, as an organisation, to -have been established by Christ Himself; and its independence of all -hierarchies, whether of the East or of the West, to be based upon the -same supreme sanction. [180] We are carried back by a discussion of -these claims to the very dawn of the Christian religion; and it will -be wise to keep them before us as prominent landmarks to control the -discursiveness of an enquiry which must also be brief. - -I. The apostles mentioned by Armenian writers as having carried the -Gospel into Armenia are St. Bartholomew, St. Thaddeus--the son or -brother of St. James--St. Simon and St. Jude. [181] Of these the two -first named are alone in general repute. But the fame of St. Thaddeus -reposes upon no less a title than that of having executed a commission -from Jesus Christ Himself to the court of an Arsakid king of Lower -Armenia or Mesopotamia, whom the Armenians claim as one of their own -royal line. King Abgar of Edessa is said to have corresponded with -the Saviour and to have begged Him to come to his capital and heal -him of a malady. The letter is preserved which purports to contain -the reply of Jesus, to the effect that after His ascension He would -despatch one of the disciples. With this epistle came a portrait -of the features of the Redeemer, which in subsequent times was the -peculiar pride of Edessa. In due course the disciple arrived in the -person of St. Thaddeus, and the king was restored to health. Monarch -and people embraced the Christian faith. After the death of Abgar, -which appears to have taken place at no long interval, his dominions -were divided between his son and nephew. The former returned at once -to the religion of his ancestors and reopened the temples of the -gods. The latter, who seems to have reigned over a portion of Armenia -proper, and who bore the name of Sanatruk, was visited by the apostle -and embraced the faith. But fear of the Armenian nobles compelled the -ruler to apostatise; the disciple was overwhelmed by the storm which he -had himself aroused, and perished in the border province of Armenia -on the side of Persia, in the country which receives the eastern -slopes of Ararat. [182] The legend of Abgar and his correspondence -has provoked the attack of modern criticism and has perished in the -unequal affray. [183] But the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thaddeus -at the hands of King Sanatruk are well known to one of the earliest -and most reliable of Armenian historians; and the same authority of -the fourth century speaks of the throne of the Armenian pontiffs -as the chair of St. Thaddeus. [184] In the absence of conclusive -evidence that this saint did not preach in Armenia I shall prefer to -suppose that he did. The name of St. Bartholomew is often mentioned in -connection with that of St. Thaddeus; he is said to have been active -in the mountainous region to the south of Lake Van, and to have been -flayed alive by the same monarch who put his colleague to death. [185] - -These stories were perhaps invented at a comparatively late period. We -are on surer ground when we surmise that Christianity was professed -in Armenia long anterior to the miraculous cure of King Tiridates and -his conversion by St. Gregory. Indeed it would be strange if such had -failed to be the case. The interposition of one vast desert between -the Holy Land and Armenia is a comparatively modern geographical -fact. It is due entirely to bad government. In the first century the -two countries were united by a long string of cities, the populous -capitals of the low-lying districts. From such centres as Edessa and -Nisibis the religion was carried into the border ranges, and over -the passes to the plains of the tableland. There the first regions -designated by Nature to receive the new culture were situated in the -fertile country about the shores of Lake Van, and further east around -the margin of Lake Urmi. As early as the middle of the third century -we hear of an Armenian bishop, whose name, that of Merujan, would -naturally connect him with the great Artsruni family, which possessed -extensive territories in the neighbourhood of Van and subsequently -furnished to that country a line of medićval kings. [186] It is also -probable that the Archelaus, in whose mouth is placed a disputation -with Mani towards the close of the same century (c. A.D. 275-277), -was bishop of a see not far removed from Van. [187] These early -ecclesiastics would almost certainly have made use of the Syriac -character, and it is more than likely that many among them were -Syrians. Their activity and the circle of their disciples may not have -extended to Northern Armenia; although there is presumptive evidence to -show that the Christianity of Albania (Eastern Caucasus or Daghestan) -and Siunik (country around Lake Gökcheh and part of Karabagh) dated -back to pre-Gregorian times. [188] It seems at first sight strange that -the earliest historians, such as Agathangelus and Faustus, maintain -silence upon this older Christianity of their native land; but the -edict of Tiridates against the enemies of paganism, preserved in the -earliest source of the first of these works, implies the existence of -Christians within the limits of his dominions whom the king persecutes -after the example of his colleagues at Rome; and the luminous argument -of one of the latest scholars in this field carries conviction that -the priestly compiler Agathangelus and the monk Faustus had good -reasons to ignore this pre-Gregorian Christianity, as being opposed -to the character of the later orthodoxy. [189] The big gap left by -Armenian writers between the preaching of the apostles and the advent -of St. Gregory in narrating the religious history of their country -is in itself a suspicious fact; Armenian vanity was satisfied by the -connection of their ancestors with the first disciples, and would not -be wounded by a temporary relapse; but the laborious methods of modern -research are year by year illuminating the interval, and removing -the shroud which is perhaps due to ecclesiastical prejudice or fraud. - -What was the nature of this early Christianity which made its way -in despite of persecution among a barbarous people, professing a -crude and perhaps unamiable form of paganism? It is difficult to -believe that the religion of the first Christians resembled even -remotely the later State religion of the Roman Empire, which under -the name of Christianity was spread over the world by the imperial -armies and has been bequeathed as a troublesome legacy to the modern -world. The origins of this great spiritual movement are veiled in -twilight; but from the shadows and uncertain glimmer shines forth a -Personality which no doubts and no disappointments can assail. Round -this Personality centred many and diverse spiritual conceptions, -old as time itself and young as time. They were quickened into new -life by the emotional quality of a great example; and they were kept -alive and made to focus upon the domain of morality by the daily and -intimate intercourse of the members of a brotherhood which should -embrace all the creatures of God. It is essential to the fruitfulness -of such a community that they should maintain, not internal discipline -nor even the agreement of the members upon matters of doctrine among -themselves, but the enthusiasm which prompted their first efforts, -a high sense of individual responsibility among the members, and the -habit of mutual tolerance, mutual help, mutual consolation, and, above -all, of mutual love. The simple ceremonies of the early Church were -calculated to promote this spirit. The candidate was admonished by -the rite of baptism of the serious nature of the resolve which he had -taken to break with the world of sense and appearance, and to become -initiated into the higher meaning and purpose by which it is supported -and inspired. The fast redressed the balance between the soul and the -unruly flesh; and the agapes or love-feasts induced a close communion -among the brothers, the necessary corollary to communion with God. - -It is scarcely open to doubt that the theoretical side of the religion -was not defined by any rigid formula. "Tell me," says Archelaus, -"over whom it was that the Holy Spirit descended like a dove. Who -is this one whom John baptizes? If He was already perfect, if He was -already the Son, if He was already Virtue, the Holy Spirit could not -have entered into Him; a kingdom cannot enter into a kingdom. Whose -was the voice which came from heaven and bore testimony to Him: 'This -is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'?" It is clear that the -theory of Archelaus was of an adoptionist nature, or, in other words, -that he believed Jesus to have been adopted as the Son of God by the -descent of the Holy Spirit at the baptism. It is also plain that he -was not arguing as an irresponsible disputant, but as giving voice -to a strong current of orthodox opinion in his Church, as opposed -to the docetic teaching of Mani, representing Jesus as a heavenly -spirit assuming the mask of man. Other currents there certainly were -in other dioceses than that of Archelaus, and perhaps even among -his own flock. But there seems strong reason for believing that the -adoptionist Christology was firmly established towards the close of -the third century in outlying portions of the Roman Empire and among -the Christian communities outside its pale. [190] In Antioch it had -been suppressed in the person of Bishop Paul of Samosata after the -overthrow of his patron, Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, by the Emperor -Aurelian in the year 272. The weight of the Empire was placed in the -scale of those tendencies which were to crystallise in the celebrated -formula of Nice (A.D. 325): Christ a very God, begotten of God, but -not a creature of God; Son of God, of one nature with the Father; Who -came down from heaven, and took flesh, and became man, and suffered -and ascended into heaven; Who was before He was begotten and Who has -always been. The same Council of Nice enjoined that the followers of -Bishop Paul, or Pauliani, should be re-baptized before admission to the -Church. The recalcitrant were driven out into the mountain fastnesses, -where after the lapse of several centuries and under the Armenian -terminology of Paulicians (Paulikean), the inheritors of their spirit -again emerge as a sharp thorn in the side of the orthodox Churches -both of Constantinople and of Armenia. The history of the wholesale -persecutions of this hardy people by the successors of the Cćsars -during the ninth century, and of the successful reprisals which they -made, is outside the scope of these remarks; they were driven into the -arms of the Mohammedan Power, and their decimation by the imperial -armies drove another nail into the coffin which was being prepared -for the cancerous body of the Roman Empire. - -The connection of the assailants of Armenian orthodoxy, who were known -as Paulicians, with their namesakes in the more westerly provinces of -the Empire, and of these with Paul of Samosata, has not yet, perhaps, -in spite of the luminous researches of the scholar I have quoted, been -sufficiently worked out. But we rise from a perusal of his work with -the conviction that this connection was at least of the nature of a -strong family resemblance dating back to apostolic times. The important -document which he has disinterred from the library at Edgmiatsin, -and of which the title suggests the hopes that were excited in the -breast of Socrates by the pretensions of a certain work of Anaxagoras, -affords us a full and detailed, if partially mutilated account of the -religious profession of the descendants of these Armenian heretics, -as copied from previous copies by a member of the sect in 1782. The -same voice which found expression in the disputation of Archelaus -rings out from the pages of the Key of Truth not less clearly than -of old. Jesus is human, though free from sin, until He is baptized -by John in the Jordan when He has reached His thirtieth year. Then -the Spirit of the Father, descending upon Him, fills Him with the -Godhead. After adoption the elect Christ is forthwith led up to the -mountain, where He enjoys the mystery of intercourse with the Father -for forty days. Baptism must therefore constitute a central event -in the life of the Christian, or imitator of Christ. He must come -to baptism after the full awakening of his individual conscience to -a knowledge of sin and to the nature of repentance. He must come -at mature age, when the heats of youth are passed and his natural -instincts have been brought under control. No remission of sins can -be effective until he shall have reached this age; nor is baptism -under other circumstances more than an empty form. Through baptism he -becomes a Christian; and the meal which follows baptism is the symbol -of that feast of divine converse with God of which the Son of God, -after His adoption, partook. The Holy Ghost enters the catechumen -immediately after baptism, and he in effect becomes filled with the -spirit of God. The note of aversion to hierarchical grades which is -struck in this treatise was no doubt accentuated by the opposition -of the sect to the methods of their natural enemies, the Orthodox -Church. But their polity--if the word may stand--could in this respect -be based on Scripture; and it encouraged that sense of individual -responsibility and that habit of self-reliance which are not less -effective qualities in the domain of evangelical enterprise than the -opposite methods of the Jesuits. The elect of God composed a body of -which each member was sublimely conscious of his resolve to pursue -a life of ideal justice by communion with the spirit which resided -in himself. The example which they set was not that of a selected -and exotic hierarchy, but was the example of simple peasants and -artisans. When we meet such people, whatever the proximate origin -of their particular tenets, we take farewell with a tear and perhaps -with a sigh. The Dukhobortsy, of whom I have spoken, would find much -in the manual of these Armenian adoptionists with which those resolute -children of the Reformation in Europe would cordially agree. - -Traces of adoptionism are to be found in the teaching of St. Gregory -himself and in the early institutions of the Armenian State -Church. We must regret that what is probably the earliest source for -our knowledge of that teaching has not yet been translated into one -of our Western tongues. [191] In one passage the saint instructs us -that the Spirit, coming down at the Baptism, gave to Jesus the glory -which became His. John the Baptist is represented as the depositary -of the Divine favours conferred of old upon Israel; and it was he -who conferred these favours--priesthood, prophecy and kingship--upon -our Lord Jesus Christ. [192] It is, I think, scarcely fair to argue -from such passages that the Christianity of Gregory was, as a whole, -of an adoptionist type. But it is interesting to remember in this -connection that the Armenians celebrate the birth and the baptism -of Christ upon one and the same day, the 6th of January. And we may -perhaps be surprised to read that in the canons of St. Sahak, one of -the pillars of the early State Church (390-439), the feast of the -birth of Christ is not included in the list of festivals which are -formulated in some detail. [193] We know that St. Gregory himself -brought to Armenia with great pomp certain relics of St. John the -Baptist; and the number of monasteries in Armenia which are dedicated -to the hermit on the Jordan testify to the peculiar veneration in which -he has been held. But the influence of orthodoxy in the West must early -have restrained these adoptionist tendencies; and it is not improbable -that they became identified with that stubborn heresy of their native -land which is often mentioned and deplored by Armenian writers. [194] -There are reasons for supposing that the Messalianism (meteslenuthium) -against which is directed a cruel canon of the Armenian Council of -Shahapivan, convened in about the middle of the fifth century, was in -effect a manifestation of this native heresy, and was identical with -the Paulicianism which was specifically stigmatised by a canon of the -Council held in Dvin (valley of the Araxes) in the year 719. The first -of these synods enacted that priests convicted of Messalianism should -be branded on the forehead with the figure of a fox. This particular -punishment was the same which was meted out to the Paulicians of -Armenia during the persecutions of the eleventh century. The Council -of Dvin forbade all intercourse with members of this sect under pain -of heavy punishments. The pontiff of the day, John the Philosopher, -composed a tract against them, in which he speaks of them as dregs of -the incestuous flock of the Paulicians, and informs us that they had -been placed under a ban by Nerses Katholikos, under which name he is -probably alluding to Nerses III. (640-661). [195] He represents them as -joining hands with certain refugees from the Albanian Church (Eastern -Caucasus) who were opposed to the use of images. There is at least -a family resemblance between these sectaries of the eighth century -and those who, under the name of Thonraki (Thonraketzi), suffered -persecution in the tenth and eleventh centuries at the hands of the -Armenian State Church. Their fiercest adversary, Gregory Magistros, -who in the middle of the eleventh century carried fire and sword -into their mountain retreats, alludes to them as having imbibed the -poison of Paul of Samosata, and adds the important statement that their -proximate founder was one Sembat, and that for 170 years they had been -continuously admonished and anathematised by successive patriarchs and -bishops of Armenia as well as of Albania. [196] Their seats in Armenia -were in the radial mountain mass of the Ala Dagh (Thonrak), in Sasun, -south of Mush, and in the neighbourhood of Khinis, whence were derived -the band who were the object of perhaps the latest persecution, that of -1837-45. It was on this occasion that the documentary proof of their -professions was wrested from them and taken to Edgmiatsin. It is the -book entitled the Key of Truth. The plain of Khinis contained members -of this sect into quite recent times; but they suffered severely -owing to the customary powers possessed by the heads of the Gregorian -community in Turkey to inflict corporal punishment upon members of -their own flock. The sectaries were not recognised by the Government -as an independent religion. Not many years ago the remnant came over -to the American missionaries and embraced the Protestant faith. - -II. What does my reader know about the ancient history of Armenia? At -least he remembers the wonderful march of Xenophon (401-400 B.C.), -who crossed the entire block of the Armenian tableland from the -plains of Mesopotamia to the Black Sea. At that time the country -was under the overlordship of the Achćmenian king of Persia--that -splendid dynasty which was at length destroyed by a great wave from -Europe, and of which the latest champion was murdered by a satrap of -Bactria after his decisive defeat in the belt of mountains south of -Lake Van by Alexander the Great (331 B.C.). The name of the Greek -hero is still alive in Southern Armenia, sharing the honours in -this respect with Solomon. Perhaps our next familiar memory will be -the visit of Hannibal to the court of Artaxias, one of the numerous -governors in the empire of the successors of Alexander, and a ruler -whose territory embraced the scene of these travels. [197] Nor are -we likely to have forgotten the recoil of the East upon the West -which took place under the leadership of the picturesque Mithradates, -that strangely composite embodiment of two diverse cultures. Behind -Mithradates looms the power of a great king of Armenia, whom, again, -we know as a scion of a new dynasty which had arisen in Asia--the -Arsakid or Parthian dynasty. With these Arsakid kings of Armenia we -are fairly familiar; the Parthian archers ride unrevenged through the -polished verse of Horace, and the Arsakids of Persia and Armenia supply -the pages of Tacitus with several lively interludes to his throbbing -narrative. Some acquaintance with these various events is part of the -equipment of most among us--a little less or a little more. We may -learn a great deal more of the subsequent history of Armenia; but -from what sources shall we collect material for a fuller knowledge -of the older period? The Armenian historians are all but worthless; -the West was little inquisitive; and even now we can scarcely answer -the leading questions: whence the Armenians came to the seats which -they have occupied throughout the historical period, and how they -fared in culture, in art, or in arms. Upon these subjects the Fool -is almost as well instructed as the Wise Man; we search the mists in -vain for any definite image; till from among them emerge the thrones -of these Arsakids--a Northern or Scythian dynasty, holding Persia as -well as Armenia, and crowning a polity which was of a strongly feudal -type. [198] - -The last of the kings of this dynasty who ruled over Persia was the -ally and kinsman of the father of King Tiridates, who was destined, -after much vicissitude of fortune, to embrace Christianity and to -adopt it as the religion of the State. Ardavan and Chosroes were -seated on the thrones of Persia and Armenia, when a prince of the -Persian province which is now known under the name of Fars (Shiraz, -Persepolis) overthrew the former of these monarchs by a decisive -battle, in which Ardavan himself was slain (A.D. 227). The victor, -Ardashir, became master of the great Persian monarchy in which the -king of Armenia held the second place. His dynasty, the Sasanian, -supplanted the Arsakids in Persia, and continued to rule until the -middle of the seventh century, when it succumbed to the Arabs and to -Islam. The Sasanians are familiar to all of us as the permanent enemies -of the Roman Empire; and the traveller may be said to be on terms -of intimacy with them, for they have left him several monuments of -great solidity and architectural merit which mock the squalor of their -surroundings at the present day. These, it is true, they erected with -the aid of architects and artisans taken captive in their wars with -the Empire. [199] Fars was in those days a centre of Zoroastrianism -or Mazdaism; and Ardashir was the champion of the fire-worshippers, -leaned on their support and closely identified them with his dynasty. - -When the news of the death of his kinsman and ally was brought -to the Arsakid king of Armenia, profound grief filled the soul of -Chosroes. For the moment he was powerless to arrest the triumph of -the usurper; but in the following year (A.D. 228) he had matured -extensive preparations, and, at the head of an army which comprised -Huns from beyond Caucasus as well as other nomads, marched to the -frontiers of Persia and laid waste her provinces to the gates of -Ctesiphon. Thirsting to avenge his race, he endeavoured to enlist the -Parthian satraps in the empire of Ardashir; but these temporising or -jealous princelets had thrown in their lot with the Sasanian monarch -and could not be induced to stir. He was, however, assisted by a -portion of the Medes and by the sons of Ardavan. [200] - -For a period of ten years the war was continued by the Armenian -potentate; his capital, Vagharshapat, [201] was filled with the booty -of successful raids; and, while the temples of the gods throughout -Armenia were adorned with costly offerings, their priests received -munificent largesses. His fortunes were assisted by an alliance with -the Empire; the reigning Cćsar, Alexander Severus, was alarmed by -the rise of the new dynasty, and may have been stung by impertinent -messages on the part of Ardashir. A Roman army attacked Persia -from the side of Armenia, while two more divisions, one under the -leadership of the emperor, assailed other portions of the dominions -of the king of kings. [202] If the result of the various engagements -may appear ambiguous (231-233), it at least ensured the quiescence of -the Persian during several years. Ardashir continued to be harassed -by the Armenian ally of the Romans, and resolved to rid himself by any -means of his inveterate foe. A Parthian of the blood royal volunteered -to execute his desire; he went over with his family as a refugee to -the court of Chosroes, who received him with the greatest warmth as -a valuable ally. After much pleasant intercourse, when spring came -on and the king was preparing to take the field, Anak--for such was -his name--bethought himself of the pledge which he had given and of -the reward promised by Ardashir. In company with his own brother he -succeeded in drawing the king aside, when the two villains despatched -him with their swords. The crime was committed at Vagharshapat; the -guilty pair fled down the valley, hoping to cross the Araxes at the -bridge of Artaxata. But they were cut off by the Armenian horsemen -and precipitated into the river. The king, before he expired, gave -orders that the family of Anak should forthwith be massacred. Only -two little children were rescued from the carnage; one was brought -up in Persia, and the other, Gregory, in Greece (A.D. 238). [203] - -This unnatural treachery on the part of a Parthian towards the Parthian -King of Armenia in the interests of a dynasty which had supplanted the -Parthians on the throne of Persia came near to costing the Armenians -the permanent loss of their independence. But Ardashir appears to have -contented himself with the enjoyment of his personal revenge and of -a few raids into Armenian territory. His death occurred a few years -after the date of the tragedy (in 241 or 242); and the government -of Armenia appears to have been conducted by the nobles, under the -nominal sovereignty of the son of Chosroes, by name Tiridates, a -child of tender years. It was not until the year 252 or 253 that the -successor of Ardashir was enabled to establish his sway over Armenia -with the assistance of the uncles of Tiridates, whose cruel treatment -compelled the youthful king to take refuge in the Empire. [204] -But the triumph of Shapur was not destined to be of long duration; -the young Tiridates grew up and prospered in the territory and under -the protection of the Romans; and, after distinguishing himself by -personal bravery in a campaign of the emperor against the Goths, was -restored to his native dominions with the support of a Roman army -and perhaps in consequence of the victory of Odaenathus, prince of -Palmyra, over the armies of the Persian king (264 or 265). [205] It -was in the first year of his restoration that occurred an event which -no Armenian can hear related without experiencing a thrill of emotion. - -When the son of Anak, the murderer, who was being educated in Roman -territory, at Cćsarea, the capital of Cappadocia, had come to years -of discretion, he was informed--perhaps after his marriage and -the birth of two children--by the faithful guardian or governess -under whose care he had grown up, of the crime committed by his -father. Forthwith the pious youth--for he had been brought up in the -Christian faith--sallied forth in search of the son of the murdered -monarch, and attached himself to the person of the exiled Tiridates, -whom he commenced to serve with the utmost zeal. Upon the subject of -his origin and parentage Gregory maintained a wise silence; but he -was unable or unwilling to conceal his religion, which at that time -happened to be not only unpopular, but subject to persecution. [206] -Tiridates in vain endeavoured to wean his servant from the Christian -faith; time after time he assailed his constancy with reproach and -even with imprisonment; but the decisive moment arrived when he -had recovered his long-lost dominions, and stood within the famous -temple of Anahid, hard by the present town of Erzinjan. At the feast -which followed the sacrifice he gave vent to his emotion in words -characteristic of a king. Addressing his trusty counsellor among the -assembled guests, he commanded him to make an offering of garlands -and leafy branches to the shrine of the great goddess; and, upon his -refusal, "How dare you," exclaimed the king, "adore a God whom I do not -adore?" The resources of persuasion and torture were without effect -upon the will of the Christian; and the monarch was meditating some -fresh inducement when one of the nobles approached and said: "Sire, -this Gregory is not deserving of life, and hence his unwillingness to -live and see the light. We knew not who he was, this long while that -he has sojourned among us--but now we know: he is son of that Anak -who killed thy royal father, and to whom Armenia owed her exhaustion -and captivity." When Tiridates heard these words, he gave orders to -bind the martyr and to conduct him to the castle of Artaxata. There -he was cast into a pit of great depth, where he was left to perish. - -For thirteen years Gregory languished in this noisome dungeon, -forgotten by the world but saved from death by the ministrations of a -widow who resided in the castle. The hatred or fear of the Christians, -so early manifest in the new reign, was emphasised by Tiridates -in a pompous edict, which admonished his subjects to beware of the -resentment of the gods--of Aramazd, who gave fertility; of Anahid, -the goddess defender; of Vahagn, the courageous god. The king had been -a witness--so it proceeded--during his sojourn in the Empire, of the -great solicitude of the Cćsars for the cult of the national divinities, -to the prosperity and glory of their people. Following the example -of his august instructors, he bade his subjects, nobles and peasants, -to lay hands on any offender against the gods. They should bind him, -hand and foot, and bring him to the gate of the palace. His lands -and possessions would be bestowed upon the denouncer. The religious -policy of a Decius and a Valerian was at least extended by Tiridates -to the holier sphere of legitimate homicide. At the head of the Roman -cavalry he rode down the Persian cohorts, and among his levies were -reckoned a contingent of Huns. Of lofty stature and broad shoulders, -his appearance was the signal of victory; and it became a proverb -that Tiridates would destroy the dams in his impatience, and in his -courage arrest the rivers in their course towards the sea. - -At the point where the historian I have been following was perhaps -about to change his theme, and to present the opposite picture -of a king and people overtaken by calamities which could only be -attributed to the wrath of heaven, the priestly compiler of the -Agathangelus treatise has gone to work with his scissors, and has -substituted for the more straightforward account of the authority he -was using one of those prolix and portentous legends, familiar to the -student of hagiographical literature, which were at once the outcome -of the diseased fancy of the cloister and the food with which it was -sustained. The tale of the advent of the Roman virgins, of the assault -upon the modesty of the fairest among them, of their martyrdom and of -the transformation of the royal violator into a wild boar, wallowing in -mud and eating grass, bears the imprint at every phase of a monkish -invention, which was probably stolen in its essential features -from the literature of Greek monasteries and adapted to the local -conditions at Vagharshapat. [207] But carelessness or want of skill -on the part of the compiler has happily preserved for us a fragment -of the original story, from which we learn that the Armenians were -afflicted by an extraordinary outbreak of diverse diseases: leprosy, -palsy, dropsy, madness. [208] We are given to infer that the king -himself was visited by some grave malady, and that he was cured in -a miraculous manner upon the appearance and at the hands of Gregory, -who had long been numbered among the dead. [209] We are told how, from -all parts of Armenia, the people flocked to the province of Ararat, to -Vagharshapat, the royal residence; how they were cured of their various -disorders; and how king and people embraced the faith in the service -of which the saintly doctor had effected their cure. The testimony -of the historian is supported by a Greek writer of the fifth century, -who attributes the conversion of King Tiridates to a miracle. [210] - -It is not unlikely that the mind of the monarch was influenced by some -occurrence of the nature deducible from the mangled narrative of the -original biographer. Tiridates was a full-blooded heathen, prone to -all forms of superstition, and free from any taint of rationalising -tendencies. Yet we may suspect that the number and power of the -Armenian Christians prior to his conversion loomed much larger in -the consciousness of himself and of his contemporaries than we are -led to suppose by Armenian histories. Was he desirous of finding a -counterpoise to the Mazdaism of his Persian enemy, which had been -elevated by the Sasanians into a strongly organised State religion -and identified with the throne? Was he impressed with the cohesion -of the Christians among themselves, and by the contrast thus offered -to the fissiparous tendencies of his feudal polity? Was the widow in -the castle of Artaxata a Christian, and was the old authority of the -prisoner in the king's counsels exploited by her co-religionists at -an opportune moment, when his wisdom should appear restored, as by a -miracle, to a necessitous land? If such questions be mere matters of -surmise, we at least know that at the date of the conversion the Roman -Empire was hesitating in a policy towards the Christians, and that the -repressive measures of a Valerian were no longer in repute. [211] The -Armenian king became a convert before their revival under Diocletian -(284-305); and Christianity was adopted as the religion of the State -in Armenia some thirty years prior to its triumph in the West by -the decisive action of the Milvian Bridge (312), and over a hundred -years before the edicts of Theodosius the First against the practice -of paganism. [212] - -The measures taken by Tiridates and his statesman and mentor, -Gregory, to supplant polytheism by Christianity were such as might -have excited the envy of a Cćsar, and which only an Eastern despot -could hope to enforce. From Vagharshapat the king proceeded down -the valley to Artaxata at the head of the troops which garrisoned -the capital. On the way he set fire to the temple of the god Dir, -from whom he is said to have derived his name (Dirtad or gift of -Dir). [213] In a graphic figure our historian likens the priests and -their followers to demons; and he relates how, some on horseback, -others on foot, and all fully armed, they hurried hither and thither, -gesticulating and screaming, until they were put to flight. But the -swarm took refuge in the temple of Anahid at Artaxata, where from the -roof they discharged arrows and precipitated a hail of stones upon -the advancing host. Gregory, making the sign of the Cross, ran to the -gate of the edifice, which dissolved into its foundations, wreathed -in flames. The dusky troop vanished like a puff of smoke from the -face of the land, to Caucasus and Chaldia [214] in the north. The -treasures of the temple were distributed among the needy; some of -the priests were selected or accepted for the service of the Church, -to which body was also allotted the confiscated land. - -King and minister travelled the country in all directions, preaching, -[215] overthrowing temples and endowing the Church with their rich -possessions. One after another the most famous sanctuaries succumbed -to the royal zeal: the fane of Aramazd, father of the gods, at Ani, -the modern Kemakh, the burial-place of the kings; that of Nanea, -daughter of Aramazd, at Til, beyond the Western Euphrates; the temple -of Mithra, son of Aramazd, at Pakharij in Terjan, and the temple -of Barshamin at Tortan. A more personal delight may have thrilled -the saint--if saints be capable of such emotions--as he shattered -the golden statue of the goddess Anahid at Erzinjan, and watched -the lofty walls of her numerous shrines sinking to the level of the -ground. They were the most magnificent of all the sacred edifices in -Armenia, and they were defended to the last by quite an army of dusky -foes. Within the vacant enclosures was erected the sign of the Cross. - -Months and perhaps years were occupied in the overthrow of these -strongholds of paganism; [216] but it was not until after the return -of Gregory from ordination at Cćsarea of Cappadocia, whither he was -escorted by sixteen of the great nobles and conducted in a car drawn by -white mules, [217] that king and people received at the hands of the -minister, no longer a layman, the crowning benefit of baptism. The -first act of Gregory upon his return to his native country was to -destroy the temples of Astishat in the province of Taron (Mush), -which lay upon his road and which were still frequented. These were -three in number and dedicated to three gods. The first was the shrine -of Vahagn, destroyer of serpents; the second belonged to Anahid, -the golden mother; while the third preserved the cult of the goddess -Astghik, the Aphrodite of the fair mythology of Greece. They were -situated on the summit of Mount Karke, close to the Euphrates, and in -full view of the chain of the Taurus mountains. The place was called -Astishat because of the frequent sacrifices which were offered up; -and it was there that the kings of Armenia had been wont to appease -the gods. The saint was carrying with him certain relics obtained in -Roman territory, namely a parcel of the bones of St. John the Baptist -and of those of the holy martyr Athenogenes. [218] When his numerous -party had arrived in front of the temples, and were not further from -the Euphrates than a space which a horseman would cover in two careers -of his steed, the white mules of the car with the relics came to a -standstill in the hollow of a valley, where there was a little water -and which still remained to be crossed. Efforts were being made in -vain to induce them to proceed, when an angel appeared to Gregory and -signified the Divine Will. The relics should be deposited upon the -spot where they were stationed. Forthwith the entire company busied -themselves with the erection of a chapel, where in due course the -bones of the saints were laid to rest. The next care of pontiff and -princes was to demolish the temples of the idols which stood above -the valley. In their place Gregory laid the foundations of a church, -and erected an altar to the glory of God. [219] It was here that he -first commenced to build churches, and to erect altars in the name -of Christ. For twenty days he sojourned on the spot; and having -prepared fonts for baptism, baptized first the great princes who -had journeyed with him, and next the people to the number of over a -hundred and ninety thousand. In the chapel of St. John and Athenogenes -he dispensed the holy sacrament; and it was ordained that an annual -festival should be celebrated in that place in honour of the saints -and in commemoration of the first foundation of Christian churches -and ordination of Christian priests. From Astishat the Illuminator -journeyed to Bagaran in the province of Ararat; but it was at the -foot of Mount Nepat and on the banks of the river Euphrates that the -son of Anak administered to king and assembled army the regenerating -rite. A church was erected upon the site and endowed with a remnant -of the relics; and a festival was appointed in honour of the saints -in place of that of Amanor, at the season of first fruits. [220] - -It would not be easy to find an account equally graphic and -circumstantial of the methods employed to substitute Christianity for -polytheism, which, although, no doubt, they were less violent and more -gradually operative in more civilised countries, were yet essentially -similar. We learn from the Armenian writer how the churches rose on -the sites of the temples, how the ancient festival in honour of the -god was converted into the festival of a martyr, and how, in fact, -while the myth was new and unfamiliar, much of the ritual and all the -surroundings remained the same. The sacred groves were taken by storm -amid scenes of carnage which our historian skilfully veils by the use -of metaphor. The lands and slaves of the heathen fanes were made over -to the Church; the number of the chapels exceeded that of the shrines -which had been demolished, and separate endowments were made to all by -royal decree. The children of the priests were distributed among the -newly founded seminaries, where they were instructed in the Greek and -Syriac languages and introduced to the literature of the Church. Their -loyalty to the new religion was stimulated by an annual salary; and the -most deserving among them were consecrated bishops. Such was the nature -of the revolution accomplished by St. Gregory with a thoroughness and -decision which we cannot but admire. The old cult was not extinguished, -but irremediably disabled; it lurked even in the highest places, -and we hear of a queen of Armenia who encouraged the polytheists to -assassinate Verthanes, the son and successor of St. Gregory. [221] Many -Armenians practised Christianity as a mere matter of form, regarding -it as an aberration of the human intelligence to which they had been -compelled to subscribe. [222] Those who had embraced the faith with -conviction were limited to the circles which spoke Greek or Syriac, -or were at least fairly familiar with those idioms. [223] Yet Gregory -preached to the Armenians in the Armenian language. [224] Under the -shadow of night the devotees of the old religion would adore their -divinities and chant the tempestuous epics of their native land. [225] -Years elapsed before they would abandon their lamentations for the -dead, a practice specially repugnant to the Christian spirit. [226] -Still, in spite of the constant undercurrent and frequent ebullitions -of paganism, the institutions of the Illuminator were never -jeopardised by a decisive relapse. The religion which he invested -with all the authority of the State became inextricably interwoven -with the self-consciousness of the Armenian nation, and derived from -their inveterate obstinacy or admirable heroism a stability which -hardened the more it was threatened from without. - -Then, as now, the keystone of the ecclesiastical edifice was the person -of the katholikos. I do not know that we can instance among Christian -organisations any counterpart of this high office. Beside it that of -the king seems mere fable and tinsel. The title itself was unimportant -and unpretentious, designating as it did among the Christians of the -East an archbishop with plenary powers (ad universalitatem causarum), -such as were necessary in countries removed by distance from the -hierarchical centres. It is applied by our earliest extant authority -to St. Gregory; [227] and, so moderate are the claims or pronounced -the hierarchical spirit of his successor, Faustus, that he coins -the cumbrous superlative, katholikos of katholikoi, to express the -superior dignity of the metropolitan of Cćsarea. [228] But, whatever -grade in the army of the Church may have been assigned to him by his -clerical colleagues, the position occupied in his native country by -the katholikos of Armenia was one of extraordinary glamour. The office -was hereditary in the family of the Illuminator; and that family had -been endowed with territories extending over fifteen provinces and -comprising several princely residences. [229] The pontifical palace was -at Astishat, in the neighbourhood of the mother-church of Armenia and -the chapels of St. John the Baptist and of St. Athenogenes. From the -spacious terrace expanded a landscape which aroused the envy of the -richest laymen and which was only commensurate with a fraction of the -pontifical possessions. When the scions of the family were unwilling -to sustain the burden of the office it was entrusted to prominent -clerics of the church at Astishat, while the unworthy heirs pursued -the vocation of arms or the attractions of pleasure, surrounded by a -court which polluted the sanctity of the pontifical residence. [230] -It was customary for the descendants of Gregory to marry into the -king's family, and they were accorded many of the honours due to -royalty alone. As often as the king aroused and probably deserved the -censure of the katholikos, that spiritual castigation was unflinchingly -enforced. In a vacancy of the Chair, owing to failure in the line -or renunciation on the part of the heirs, it was not the priesthood -who chose the successor but the king, the nobles and the army. [231] -In these several respects the office was identified with the existing -institutions of the country, and it was perhaps indeed modelled upon -that of the high priest among the polytheists and the Jews. [232] -But, however great was the prestige derived from such a splendid -establishment and from the fame of the first occupant of the Chair, the -hold of the pontificate upon the imagination of later generations was -derived from a less antique and more constantly operative source. Two -descendants of the Illuminator, one in the fourth, the other in the -fifth century, added new and peculiar lustre to the institution. Nerses -the First introduced the refinements of hierarchical government; Sahak -the Great gave to the people an alphabet of their own. The throne -of the successors of Tiridates crumbled away in the course of about -a century from the death of the first Christian monarch; that of the -successors of St. Gregory has weathered the storms of sixteen centuries -and remains a solid and impressive monument at the present day. - -Two events of high importance remain to be mentioned in this brief -survey of the momentous revolution carried through by the great -king and his great minister. The first is the journey to Europe. The -reciprocal advantage of the ancient alliance between Tiridates and -the Empire had been experienced in the campaigns which were waged by -the Cćsar Galerius against the Persians (A.D. 296 and 297); and the -memory of comradeship in arms may have preserved the first Christian -State from incurring the active displeasure of the colleague of -Diocletian during the subsequent onslaughts upon the Christian religion -(303-311). But the Cćsar Maximin was less patient or more oblivious, -and their new faith cost the Armenians a war (312). [233] The advent -of Constantine averted their ruin and set the seal of political wisdom -upon the spiritual policy of their monarch; and it was only natural -that the two exalted instruments of the Christian profession should -desire to profit in every sense by the Christian sympathies of so -great a prince. The journey of Gregory and Tiridates to the court of -Constantine has been regarded as unauthentic by a competent authority; -yet it probably took place. The meeting perhaps occurred in Serdica, a -residence of the emperor in Illyria, and it was attended by the friend -and relation of Constantine, Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. The highest -honours were paid to the aged visitors, and the emperor prostrated -himself at the feet of the saint. The pair were escorted with much -pomp to their native country, having still further strengthened the -link which attached them to their powerful neighbours, and perhaps -concluded a formal treaty. [234] - -The second event reposes upon less questionable evidence; it is the -participation of the Armenian Church in the deliberations of the -Council of Nice (325), and her formal subscription of its acts. The -great age of Gregory may well have deterred him from personal -attendance; his younger son Aristakes represented the Armenians in -the famous assembly. Upon his return he communicated the canons to -his father, who accepted them and contributed a few additions. The -formula of Nice with its uncompromising identification of Christ with -God was adopted as the dogmatic base of the State religion. [235] - -III. A general impression which one receives from the perusal of the -early histories is that the Armenians of the fourth century were not -far removed from barbarism. The king might here and there set up a copy -of a classical building; but I should doubt whether he could have left -us any monument which might approach the originality of the creations -of the Bagratid sovereigns in the Middle Ages. Very few among his -subjects had a knowledge of Greek and Syriac, still less of Latin, -the languages of the literature of their day. The Scriptures--that -mine of knowledge--were read in the Syriac or Greek versions to -congregations of which not even the most intelligent members could -profit by the service. [236] Identity of interests with the Empire on -the score of culture was a bond which, I suppose, scarcely existed -in that age; and, alas, when at length it became a reality, how -fragile it proved--how fragile such bonds have always proved! Still, -although we must be careful in thinking of the Armenians of the -fourth century as we might think of their descendants in the tenth, -the ties which should have united them to their powerful neighbours -on the west were of a nature which could appeal to all. There was -the tie of a common religion, which either nation had recently -adopted and subscribed at a joint conference. Both were threatened -by a common enemy--the fire-worshippers of Persia, enlisting all the -resources of the further East. From that Persian dynasty the Armenian -monarchs were separated by difference of origin and by a blood feud, -unmitigated by the lapse of time. They had been restored to their -possessions by the Roman power. A great king and a great statesman, -in whom they recognised a saint, had crowned their life work by the -conclusion of an alliance with Rome which in no previous age could -have reposed upon so stable a base. Shall we therefore be edified -by the spectacle of their successors following in their footsteps, -patiently waiving differences, insisting upon elements of union, -ranging themselves upon the side of Christianity and civilisation -and fighting their battles in such sacred causes as these? - -King Tiridates was followed on the throne by his son Chosroes the -Little, to whom is ascribed a reign of nine years. [237] If perhaps -his stature was small and his body feeble, he at least possessed the -merit of keeping well with the successor of Gregory, whom his queen -in vain endeavoured to remove from the world. His name is therefore -in favour with the priestly historian, who indeed narrates the events -of this period in a somewhat fabulous manner, but presents us with -a picture of contemporary society which is lifelike and full of -movement and colour. [238] That the early years of the reign were -not disturbed by a war with Persia was perhaps due to the youth of -the Persian monarch; but the storm burst before its close. After -sustaining with success the brunt of a Hunnish invasion--in which, -however, the capital, Vagharshapat, was temporarily lost--Chosroes -was called to the defence of his eastern frontiers by the approach -of a Persian army. The first encounter took place near the shores of -Lake Van, and resulted in a victory for the Armenians. The assistance -of imperial troops [239] may have nerved the king's resistance, which -continued until the close of his life. With Chosroes is contemporary -the pontificate of Verthanes, the eldest son of the Illuminator. That -saintly personage did not long survive the successor of Tiridates; -but he may have lived to confirm the reign of his son Tiran, and he -was perhaps instrumental in placing him upon the throne. [240] - -It is during the rule of Tiran that we observe for the first time -manifestations of that bitter rivalry between the head of the Church -and the head of the State which was destined, as much, perhaps, as -any other cause, to bring about the downfall of the dynasty. Such -an outcome of the ecclesiastical institutions of the first Christian -monarch might indeed have been foreseen. Had Armenia not been exposed -to a struggle for life and death with enemies from without, her -statesmen might well have solved the problem of this dangerous dualism -without endangering the safety of the nation. Enveloped as they were -in such a struggle, the only policy was to postpone the issue; King -Tiran chose the opposite course. He had given his daughter in marriage -to the son of Verthanes, Yusik; but after the experience of a single -night the youth deserted his bride, in apprehension, it is said, of -the terrible progeny which she was destined to give to the world. Such -conduct and such explanations could scarcely have satisfied her royal -parents; but the princess died after giving birth to twin sons. Upon -the death of Verthanes, Yusik was placed in the pontifical chair, -the ceremony of his installation being performed at Artaxata. The -king was a lukewarm Christian and, perhaps, an inveterate sinner; -the katholikos was at once pious and severe. A long feud and partial -estrangements resulted in an open rupture; and, when the sovereign -on a certain feast day was about to attend divine service, he was -publicly denounced by the enraged prelate and forbidden to enter the -church. Yusik was beaten to death under royal orders; and a similar -fate befell the saintly bishop of Astishat, who, although a Syrian -and not a member of the family of St. Gregory, was summoned by king -and nobles to fill the vacancy in the Chair. We are told that King -Tiran lived on friendly terms with Persia; however this may be, -he contrived to fall into the hands of these powerful neighbours, -who put out his eyes and led him to the feet of their master. - -A deputation of the great barons was forthwith despatched to -Constantinople in order to obtain succour from the emperor. Before -their return a Persian army was let loose upon Armenia, and those of -the inhabitants of every rank who were able to make good their escape -took refuge upon Greek territory. The arrival of imperial troops--it -is said with the emperor at their head--was shortly followed by a -decisive victory and the capture of the harem of the Persian king. That -potentate was summoned to restore Tiran to his native country; but, -upon the refusal of his blind prisoner to undertake the office, the -son of Tiran, Arshak, was placed upon the throne. Two occurrences -in the reign of this prince, as it is described by Faustus, may -be identified with known events. The one is his connection with -the great massacre of Christians in Persia which took place during -the reign of Shapur. [241] Our historian attributes the wrath of the -Persian monarch to the monstrous perfidy of the Christian sovereign of -Armenia. The other is the conclusion of a treaty between the Roman and -Persian empires, of which a provision was the engagement on the part -of the former power not to offer any assistance to Arshak. These terms -are familiar to us from other sources as having been wrung from the -commander of the luckless Roman army after the death of Julian. [242] - -The reign of Arshak is, indeed, contemporary with the great wars -which were waged by Shapur with the power which disputed his supremacy -over the East. However little credit we may attach to the narrative -of the Armenian historian, it is at least plain that a king who owed -his throne to the Cćsars was often their enemy and never their loyal -ally. We are told, indeed, that on one occasion his armies violated -the Roman territory and advanced as far as Angora; on another that -the king himself led his troops against those of the Empire, and fell -upon them as they were preparing to receive a Persian attack. When -the duel was being waged most fiercely he maintained an attitude of -expectant neutrality, waiting to see which of the antagonists would -offer him the best terms. The only palliation which we may discover -for such a course of outrageous conduct is derived from the obscure -notice of a religious persecution, directed against the Armenian -pontiff, Nerses, by one of the successors of Constantine. Yet that -prelate with true wisdom enjoined resistance to the Persians at a -moment when it might well have seemed a desperate course. The king, -left to his fate by the provision in the Roman treaty, maintained -for awhile a courageous front to the Persian onslaught. But he was -at length compelled to sue for peace and to place his person in the -power of his enemy under a guarantee of security. His former treachery -was requited, as it deserved, by the same treatment; and, while he -himself was taken to Persia and consigned to the castle of oblivion, -his queen, after a brief resistance, was brought to the presence of -Shapur and outraged before the eyes of his army until she expired. - -A series of massacres on a large scale and organised by Shapur in -person was the sequel of these events. The unfortunate Armenians -were collected into large bodies and trampled down under the feet -of elephants. The number of the victims is said to have amounted -to thousands and tens of thousands of either sex and every age. The -great cities, including Artaxata and Vagharshapat, were ruthlessly -destroyed. Whole populations, among which were conspicuous the numerous -Jewish colonies, were driven off into captivity. From this calamity, -which must have occurred after the year 363 and before 379, the -Arsakid dynasty does not appear to have recovered. The son of Arshak, -by name Pap, was indeed placed upon the throne by the emperor, and -reigned for several years. But, like his father, he turned his arms -against his protectors the moment they had cleared his frontiers of -the inveterate foe. Like his father he coquetted with the Persian -power, forgetting the unspeakable insults to which his family had -been subjected. He even possessed the effrontery to despatch to the -emperor an insulting message, summoning him to restore Edessa and -Cćsarea and ten other cities which he averred had belonged to his -ancestors. Pap was put to death by imperial order, and another member -of the Arsakid family sent to reign in his place. But that prince was -expelled by the most valiant of the Armenian chieftains, who proceeded -to administer the country in the interests of the sons of Pap. When -these had come of age the royal authority was divided between them, -while the numerous Persian party among the Armenians selected a rival -Arsakid and enlisted in his favour Persian support. Armenian politics -were becoming a farce when the rulers of the two great powers arrived -at a solution to which both had been provoked. The buffer state was -divided between them, the Persians taking the greater portion, and -the smaller, including the valley of the Western Euphrates, falling -to the Roman Empire (A.D. 387). Phantom kings of Arsakid descent were -set up by either power, until in the course of time Persian governors -and Greek prefects administered the government in either sphere. - -I have anticipated in this brief summary upon the sequel of the -ecclesiastical policy pursued by King Tiran. After the murder of -the bishop of Taron, whose diocese included Astishat, a priest of -the church in this religious centre was elevated to the pontifical -dignity and duly consecrated at Cćsarea. He was succeeded by a -scion of the House of Albianus--a House of which the founder is -mentioned first in the list of bishops chosen by St. Gregory from -the ranks of the children of the heathen priests. [243] Meanwhile -the sons of Yusik--the terrible progeny given to the world by his -bride of a single night--had reached an age which permitted the full -indulgence of their wicked appetites in every kind of vice. They are -said to have met their death in the pontifical palace, where their -wassail was cut short by the angel of God. One of the twins, by name -Athenogenes, had already produced an heir; and it was this child who, -when he had reached the estate of manhood, was acclaimed katholikos -by army and nation during the reign of King Arshak. Nerses--such -was his name--had been brought up at Cćsarea, the native city of his -contemporary, St. Basil the Great. After an early marriage he adopted -the military profession and became chamberlain and counsellor to his -king. He is delineated as the ideal of a perfect cavalier--tall and -supple of figure, with a face of great beauty, which enlisted the -sympathy of both sexes and all classes. Yet the youth wore the flower -of a blameless private life; and his high capacities were from the -first bestowed upon the intimate care of the poor or afflicted, and -the protection of the oppressed. His function at court was to stand -behind the person of the king, attired in a rich and elegant robe, -and bearing in his hand the royal sword of tried steel with its golden -scabbard and belt inlaid with precious stones. Such was the station -which he was fulfilling when the nobles and assembled troops approached -the steps of the throne. They had come to demand his acceptance of the -high office, hereditary in his family; but the embarrassed chamberlain -waved them aside. His profession of personal unworthiness was received -with laughter; his indignant protests by the clash of shields. Upon -his persistence King Arshak gave orders that he should be bound -in his presence, and shorn of his long and abundant hair. Many of -the bystanders shed tears when the ruthless scissors severed those -silky and floating locks. Stripped of his gay apparel, he was made -to assume the garb of a priest; and it was difficult to recognise in -the face of the deacon, who was being ordained by a venerable bishop, -the brave soldier and princely courtier of a few minutes ago. [244] - -The national character of the Armenian Church is mainly derived from -the institutions of St. Gregory; but it was this Nerses, his direct -descendant, who brought it into line with the Church of the Empire in -the important sphere of internal development and discipline. The family -likeness which it still presents to the neighbouring Greek Church is -largely due to this prelate. The monastery is still the pivot of the -ecclesiastical organisation; and it was this contemporary, perhaps this -disciple of St. Basil of Cćsarea, who spread broadcast cloisters and -convents over the land. A single rule was established for the several -orders of monks; and the laity were bidden to observe certain wholesome -regulations, among which was included abstention from animal food. The -poor and the sick were lodged in hospices, and were not allowed to beg; -a humane enactment provided that their neighbours should bring them -food to their public or private dwellings. In each district was founded -a school for the instruction of the people in the Greek and Syriac -languages. Every action of the great katholikos bears the imprint -of a high purpose, and overwelling zeal. That purpose was to conquer -the lusts of a full-blooded and intemperate people by subduing their -unruly bodies and fanning into life the spark of the soul. But just -in the execution of this lofty project he was brought into conflict -with the king, and the fate of his grandfather stared him in the -face. The son of Tiran was indeed the son of that obstinate sinner, -nor was Nerses less inflexible than Yusik. Perhaps the monarch acted -with design, and wished to divide his people into separate communities -of the black and the white sheep. The saints might be handed over to -the sway of their prince-prelate; over the sinners his own prerogative -would remain supreme. He proclaimed an edict which enacted that every -debtor or accused person, those who had shed the blood or taken the -property of their neighbours, should assemble in an appointed place, -where no law would be allowed to touch them and each man might lead -his life after his own guise. [245] To that haven beyond their dreams -flocked the company of the unrighteous--women with the husbands -of other women, and men with the wives of other men. The brigands -and the assassins and the unjust judges and the perjured witnesses, -all collected at the given tryst. The place was at first a village; -but it soon prospered, and became a town, which again extended until -it filled an entire valley. Then the king built a palace in the -midst of his congenial subjects and called the city by his own name -(Arshakavan). Upon the return of the katholikos--he is said to have -been exiled by a Roman emperor; but his vicar during his absence had -not betrayed his trust--this truly original and royal solution of the -problem of joint government was vigorously arraigned. The pontiff taxed -the monarch with having founded a second Sodom; but, relenting to a -mood of greater amiability, he suggested that the sovereign might -continue to reside in his city if he would entrust its management -into the hands of the katholikos. The rejection of this kind proposal -was shortly followed by the outbreak of a malady, which decimated -the inhabitants. The king was constrained to sue for pardon from the -saint and to disband his colony. The quarrel broke out anew when the -inveterate profligate shed the blood of a subject and espoused his -beautiful wife. Nerses left the court and did not return. Arshak, in -open defiance, appointed a katholikos in his stead--a certain Chunak, -who was nothing better than one of his minions. He could not hope -that his action might be endorsed at Cćsarea; so he summoned all -the bishops of his own country and bade them consecrate the object -of his choice. Only two could be persuaded to perform the ceremony; -and these were perhaps pensioners of the king. [246] - -The full activity of the lawful pontiff was not resumed until after -the calamity which resulted in the bondage of his old enemy and -the seclusion of Arshak in the castle of oblivion. The accession of -Pap was attended by the presentation of a solemn petition, in which -sovereign and nation craved the assistance of their true pastor. Nerses -devoted his energies to the restoration of the churches which had been -destroyed by Shapur. But the son of Arshak was quite as licentious, -although less capable than his father; and he is said to have added to -the sum of the delinquencies of his predecessor the habitual practice -of unspeakable vice. The monster was forbidden entry even into the -porch of the church; and he retaliated by poisoning the katholikos with -a cup of peace which, in token of repentance, he tendered with his own -hand. The death of Nerses, which occurred not later than the year 374, -[247] marks an epoch in the history of the Church. - -On the one hand its emoluments were considerably curtailed; on the -other--and this is a fact with the most far-reaching consequences--it -was dissevered for good and all from the Church of the Empire. It -is quite evident that Nerses failed to gauge correctly the temper -of his countrymen; and it was the defect of his undoubted virtues -that he at once endeavoured to go too far and to accomplish too -much. The reaction from his severe ordinances enabled the king to -proceed unhindered in the work of overthrowing the structure which -his victim had reared. The hospices were abolished, the convents were -destroyed and their inmates given over to prostitution. Moreover the -greater portion of the lands bestowed upon the Church by Tiridates -were appropriated by the State. Of each seven domains belonging to -the former institution the revenues of five were allotted to the -Treasury. Nor can we doubt that popular support was forthcoming for -the revolution which the monarch initiated in the relations with the -Greek Church. The Armenians have at all periods approved a national -policy, and preferred to perish than unite with their neighbours. A -bishop of the House of Albianus, always obsequious to the throne, -was invested with the vacant primacy. The consent of Cćsarea was not -even applied for, nor was the bishop despatched to the capital of the -province of Cappadocia for consecration in accordance with the usual -custom. With the possible exception of the two sons of St. Gregory -and, of course, of the pseudo-katholikos, Chunak, each successive -holder of the pontifical office, including the Illuminator, had been -in the habit of proceeding with great pomp through the territory of -the Empire to the steps of the episcopal throne in the Greek city. It -was there that the chosen of the Armenians bowed his head before -a prelate who loomed in the eyes of his countrymen as the living -embodiment of the authority of the Church of Christ. The defiance -offered him by the king was accepted by Basil in a similar spirit. He -called together all the members of the provincial synod of Cćsarea, -without inviting the nominee of King Pap. A violent despatch was -addressed to the Armenian bishops and a similar one to the king. The -right of consecrating bishops was taken away from the katholikos, and -he was left the single prerogative of blessing bread at the court of -the king. The result of this hot temper upon either side was a bitter -conflict in the Armenian Church itself. The clergy were divided into -followers of the king and the House of Albianus, and those who held to -the necessity of consecration in Cćsarea and to allegiance to the House -of Gregory. [248] The subsequent lapse of the greater part of Armenia -under Persian influence promoted the policy initiated by Pap; and when, -towards the close of the century, the chair was again occupied by a -descendant of St. Gregory, the link with Cćsarea was not restored. - -There can, I think, be no doubt that the story of the foundation of -the Armenian Church by a direct mandate of Christ Himself was invented -not earlier than the period at which we have now arrived. The mandate -is said to have taken the form of an injunction to St. Gregory to -build the church of Vagharshapat. Neither the author of the Life of -the Illuminator, as we can trace that source through the Agathangelus -treatise, nor the historian who continues his narrative, displays any -cognisance with such a momentous event. The former tells us that it -was at Astishat in the south of Armenia, the country of the Murad, -that Gregory built the first Christian church. The cult of martyrs -which he first introduced was not the cult of the Ripsimians but that -of St. John the Baptist and Athenogenes. We learn from the latter -that after the death of the saint, and at least down to the murder of -Nerses, the mother-church of Armenia was situated at Astishat and not -at Edgmiatsin. Faustus, indeed, expresses himself not once alone or -in a doubtful manner upon this important point. Astishat contains the -"first and great mother of Armenian churches," "the first and greatest -of all the churches of Armenia, the principal and most honoured seat -of the Christian religion." It was at Astishat that was situated -the palace of the katholikos. The great synod which was convoked by -Nerses of all Armenian bishops was held at Astishat. When that prelate -wished to chide the chief of the king's eunuchs for casting covetous -glances upon the wide domains which surrounded the church, he quoted -the scriptural injunction against such ignoble conduct, and added that -such was the will of Jesus Christ, "Whose choice had first fallen upon -the church at Astishat for the glorification of His Name." [249] On -the other hand, I cannot help detecting in these passages indications -that their author was aware of the growing rivalry of the church at -Edgmiatsin. Faustus wrote after the severance from Cćsarea and after -the partition of Armenia (A.D. 387). He displays acquaintance with the -Ripsimian legend. But there is no trace in his pages of a knowledge of -the vision of St. Gregory upon which Edgmiatsin has founded her claim. - -As time went on, several causes, which perhaps we may distinguish, -contributed to widen further the breach with the Church of the -Empire. The Persian occupation and the ultimate removal of the Arsakid -dynasty, whose hereditary blood feud with the House of Sasan had -long embittered the antagonism of the peoples, were no small factors -in an estrangement from Greek influences which the policy of Persia -lost no occasion of promoting. The invention by Mesrop of an Armenian -alphabet, [250] and the institution of a school of translators during -the pontificate of the son of Nerses, Isaac the Great (c. 390-439), -constitute elements which, while they worked for the attachment -of the Armenians to Greek culture and for the wider propagation of -Christianity, were yet calculated to foster the strong proclivities -of this people towards complete religious independence. Lastly--if -indeed there be an end to such a catalogue, in which each item is as -much an effect as a cause--the peculiar genius of the Armenian nation -imprinted a stamp upon the dogma of their Church which was not the -stamp sanctioned by that of the Empire. - -The Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) addressed itself to the solution of -the problems which were the natural outcome of the dogma adopted at the -Council of Nice. What was the true view of the mystery expressed by the -words of the formula: Son of God, of one nature with the Father, Who -came down from heaven and took flesh and became man? How explain the -character of the union of God with man in the person of Christ? Over -the answer which should be returned to this question conflicts arose -which destroyed thousands of innocent people, and which prepared the -way for the disappearance of the Roman Empire from the map of Asia, -and for the triumph of Islam. The compromise adopted at Chalcedon -is difficult to place in a short sentence; but perhaps no essential -feature is omitted in the following phrase: Christ according to His -Godhead is of one nature with the Father, according to His humanity is, -apart from sin, of one nature with us. This one and the same Christ is -recognised in two natures indissolubly united but yet distinct. The -Armenians were not represented at this Council; [251] and, indeed, -it is contemporary with the fierce religious persecutions directed -against them by Yezdegerd II. But, when once the unfortunate nation, -or what remained after the orgy of the fire-worshippers, had settled -down to a more peaceful routine, they proceeded to hold a synod of -their own, which assembled at Vagharshapat (A.D. 491), and which -with all solemnity cursed the Council of Chalcedon. This procedure -was repeated at several subsequent synods; nor has the bitterness -which was consequent upon this open breach with the Church of the -West subsided at the present day. At Edgmiatsin, the seat of this -synod, held fourteen centuries ago, I was informed that the Armenian -Church expressly rejects Chalcedon; and the emphasis of language was -underlined by the tone of the voice. The Armenians therefore differ -both with the Greek and with the Roman Church in their expression of -the mystery of Christology. They will not hear of two natures. They -hold that in Christ there is one person and one nature, one will and -one energy; and their liturgy presents this dogma in an impressive -manner in the Trisagion, which runs: "O God, holy God, mighty God, -everlasting God, who wast crucified for us." [252] At the same time -they deny and denounce the teaching of Eutyches, protagonist against -the Nestorians. Eutyches held that the body of Christ is not to be -regarded as of one nature with ours; the Armenians maintain that God -became man in the fullest sense. [253] - -One might argue this question to all eternity; but one feels that the -Greeks were the subtler disputants. The Armenians, like the Persian -Mohammedans, would appear to be averse to abstractions; they go, -perhaps, to extremes in the concreteness of their conception of God--a -God-man in the crudest sense. This Christology has probably embodied -the sentiments of the people; but it had the effect of estranging -them not only with the Church of the Empire, but also with the great -body of their fellow-Christians of different nationality within the -Persian dominions. At the synod of Beth Lapat (A.D. 483 or 484) the -old Christian Church of Persia welcomed into its bosom the flying -forces of Nestorianism, and adopted the Nestorian confession. The -Georgians, it is true, followed the lead of the Armenians, with whom -their Church was directly connected. But these allies broke away -before the close of the sixth century, and went over to the teaching -of Chalcedon. As the centuries rolled by, these various breaches -became wider, and they are still marked features in the Christianity -of the East. Martyrdom and political slavery were alternatives which -were gladly accepted rather than compromise dogmatic and doctrinal -differences. When Heraclius visited Armenia after replacing the Cross -in the churches of Jerusalem, the Armenians refused to camp with his -troops. In the Middle Ages, when the Sasanians were already forgotten, -when the caliphs, their successors, were approaching their doom, the -stubborn hierarchy insisted upon baptizing babes a second time if the -ceremony had been performed by a Greek priest. All attempts to effect a -union--and they have been many and serious--have invariably failed. The -more attractive the offers of the Greeks, the greater grew the hatred -of them; nor have the popes met with better success. They have added -costly objects to the treasury at Edgmiatsin; the result remains a -blank. When we reflect that this obstinate people are as intelligent -as any in the world in the various pursuits of civilised life, our -anger at such conduct, which gave away the cause of civilisation, may -be tempered by a different feeling. The Armenians have fought at all -hazards to preserve their individuality, and the bulk of the nation -have perished in the attempt. The remnant may be destined, like the -son of Anak, to redress the wrongs inflicted by their ancestors upon -the common Christian weal. On the other hand, the lesson which is -taught by history is that no nation and no Christianity will succeed -with the Armenians which endeavours to deflect them from their own -opinions and to preclude them from working out their own salvation -in their own way. [254] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -TO ANI AND TO KARS - - -October 14.--We left the cloister at half-past eight, our little -party of five persons including the Armenian cook. We had hired -in the district ten miserable ponies, of which five carried our -effects. The most direct way to Ani crosses the basal slopes of -Alagöz, from the southern to the most westerly extremities of the -shield-shaped mass. You proceed from Edgmiatsin in a north-westerly -direction, the ground rising at every step of your advance. On the -point of course, beyond oases of verdure in the foreground, lie the -stony and arid declivities of the mountain--contours of immense length -and low vaulting, joining the plain to the horizontal outline in the -sky. The belt of verdure consists of fields of the cotton and the -castor-oil plants, of patches of orchard and vineyard, and sparse -groves of poplar, rising from the dusty and boulder-strewn waste. It -is sustained by runnels which exhaust the waters of the Kasagh or -Abaran Su, the stream which collects the scanty drainage of the -volcano upon its eastern flank. The boulders are worn by water and -have been dispersed by the swollen river, during the season of spring -floods. Where we crossed the Kasagh itself, or principal channel, -it was a languid and soil-charged body of water, threading these -stony tracts. We passed several villages within the irrigated area, -some inhabited by Armenians, others by Tartars, and a few by both -races alike. Hiznavuz, or Kiznaus, an Armenian settlement, containing -the State-school of the district, was the last of these hamlets of -the fertile zone. We stayed a few minutes before the open windows of -the schoolhouse, listening to a lesson given in Russian to Armenian -boys. Behind the village, a sterile eminence leads over into the -barren highlands which compose the pedestal of Alagöz. - -The moderate elevation of these highlands above the plain of the Araxes -and their long extension from east to west are conditions favourable -to the full appreciation of the landscape, and of each new feature in -the slowly-changing scene. Their free position contributes to invest -them with the character of a natural gallery, which commands unbroken -prospects over some of the grandest works of Nature in her most -inspired moods. The European, whose conception of mountain scenery is -founded upon the arbitrary peaks and scattered valleys characteristic -of his Alps, who has looked with emotion upon the doubtful features -of his lowlands from the summit of some famous pass, can scarcely -fail to be deeply impressed by the attributes of a panorama in which -reliefs and depressions of stupendous scale are disposed as members -of a great design, and are seen in the pure atmosphere of an Eastern -climate with all the clearness of a model in clay. At his feet lies -a plain which is level as water, which in no very remote geological -period was covered by an inland sea. It is a distance of some thirty -miles to its opposite confines; yet the towns and the plantations -are pencilled upon its surface as though they had been traced by -a draughtsman's pen. The plain is bordered by the volcanic range -which we have come to know as the Ararat system--a chain of which -the jagged and fantastic outline is already familiar from many a -rich sunset effect. The summits rise to nearly 8000 feet above the -campagna; but how humble they appear behind the train of the fabric -of Ararat, gathering immediately from the floor of the plain! The -bold snow bastions of the north-western slope are seen in face from -these highlands; and it is difficult to realise that the pronounced -lineaments which compose that airy figure are removed by a space of -nearly forty miles. We had not yet lost sight of the line of poplars -which screens the cloister when the distinctive features of this -magnificent landscape were unfolded to our view. The several ranges -and mountain masses were disposed in the form of an amphitheatre, of -which we seemed to occupy one of the middle tiers. In the east, along -the Araxes, the crinkled buttresses of the northern border were still -visible, projecting in a southerly direction beyond the cock-combed -hill of Karniarch. In the west, at an interval of sixty miles from -those eminences, the level ground extended to a double-peaked mountain -which juts out into the valley from the Ararat system, and is known -under the name of Takjaltu. Face to face with one another stood Alagöz -and Ararat. In the plain we could discern an isolated hummock, north of -the Araxes and bearing about south-west. It marks the site of Armavir. - -That this scene--in itself a world, and a world which fills the mind -with wonder--has of necessity been the theatre of momentous events in -the life of humanity, the traveller realises at a single glance. His -pious predecessors were surely justified in accepting the ancient -belief of the Armenians, that our first father and mother loved and -suffered in this plain. [255] If we are to seek the site of Paradise -within the limits of Armenia, neither the Euphrates nor the Tigris -crosses a country equally appropriate to have been the earliest and -fairest home of man. It looks the land of hope which Noah tilled and -planted with vineyards, the second nursery of the human race. The -Armenians, whose mythical history connects them closely with Babylonia -and Assyria, who from the earliest times have been accustomed to -receive Jewish immigrants and to see Jewish colonies established in -their midst, must at a remote date have localised the events of the -Biblical narrative in this the most favoured of all their valleys -and at the foot of the loftiest of their mountains. [256] If the -Jewish writings which they inherited were believed to have reference -to their native surroundings, it was only natural that they should -identify with the same districts the primeval setting of the later -creations of the Jewish mind; the whole countryside became hallowed -by religious tradition; nor need we feel surprise when we read that -a tree in the neighbourhood of Karakala on the Araxes was believed -to have sheltered Job and his three friends. [257] When the horizon -narrows and embraces the particular history of the Armenians, we -find that some of the first beginnings of their history are placed -within this fertile and spacious plain; it was the chosen seat of -Armenak, the son or grandson of their progenitor, Hayk, to which he -descended from the mountains about the head waters of the Euphrates, -accompanied by his whole race. Here were situated their most ancient -cities, of some of which the relics still stand above ground and -invite discussion of which city they denote the site. Armavir, the -contemporary of Nineveh, with the grove of plane trees which worked the -magic of the oaks of Dodona, has been identified with the ruins that -are found on the little hillock which we distinguish from the detail -of the landscape at our feet. [258] Further west, on the southern bank -of the river, where it is enclosed by rocky cliffs of basaltic lava, -due to the passage of a lava stream, modern travellers have discovered -considerable remains of ancient masonry, which have been utilised -to build the castle of Karakala, and which are still, I believe, in -want of their older name. [259] Traces of the fortress of Ervandakert, -and of Ervandashat, its companion city, which were built in the first -century of our era by an Armenian monarch of Arsakid descent, have -been remarked on either bank of the Arpa river, the ancient Akhurean, -where it issues from the elevated country on the north of the Araxes -and effects its confluence at the head of this plain. [260] In the days -when those cities flourished, the haughty Araxes was spanned by bridges -of which, here and there, a pier or a buttress still survives. [261] -Below the lofty rock of Takjaltu lie the famous salt mines of Kulpi, -which have been exploited from immemorial times. - -After leaving the Armenian village we continued in the same direction -over the barren highlands, in possession of the landscape which I -have endeavoured to describe. We were riding at walking pace; our -immediate surroundings were indifferent to us; nor for the space of -three hours did we meet a single settlement, except here and there a -group of Kurdish tents. When at midday the clouds cleared above the -summit of Alagöz, we remarked that the fangs of its rocky core were -invisible behind the bulging contours of the outer sheath. Above us, -upon those slopes, we could discern some small green patches, which -mark the site of hamlets, peopled by Tartars and Armenians who eke -out a scanty subsistence on the mountain side. When we had reached -a point some thirteen miles in direct distance from Edgmiatsin, -we crossed a close succession of deep ravines. The first of these -was the most considerable of the three, and contained the broad -bed of a dry watercourse, which descends from the central mountain -mass. On the further side of the last among them we came upon the -remains of a large church, of great simplicity but of much beauty of -form. It was built of hewn stone, in the style of the best Armenian -architecture; and the ancient frescos still stained the walls of the -apse. But the lofty dome had fallen in, leaving nothing but a yawning -circle, with fragments of cloud crossing the blue above our heads. An -inscription in the interior bears the date 876 (Armenian era), which -corresponds to the year A.D. 1426. Just beyond this ruin is situated -the little Armenian village of Talysh, on the southern confines of -which we visited the remains of some towers which are probably of -the same period as the church, and which overlook the ravine upon the -west. Both the starshina and the priest of Talysh were absent from the -settlement; the inhabitants professed complete ignorance of the history -of their antiquities, which, since they could neither read nor write, -was perhaps not feigned. The afternoon was well advanced when we left -this pleasant site; a mist arose, and developed into rain. In less than -two hours we were glad to find shelter in the Tartar village of Akhja -Kala, a refreshing oasis of green willows on these sterile slopes. - -The essential majesty of the Armenian landscapes derives enhanced -value from the presence at all seasons of clouds. In this respect -Armenia is more favoured than Persia, where month after month you -long for a cloud to temper the glare. To the radiance of her pellucid -atmosphere is added the charm of effects of vapour; but the vapour has -already been tamed in the passage of the border ranges, and floats -in quiet masses over the central regions of the tableland. We awoke -on the following morning to a scene which is characteristic of the -season and of this plain. The whole valley of the Araxes was covered -by a sheet of white mist, and had the appearance of a vast sea. From -invisible limits in the west to the foot of the Ararat fabric the -deceptive substance followed the base of the mountains, as though we -had suddenly been introduced to that geological period when the waters -washed these rocky shores. In the east several islands rose above the -shining surface, eminences of the plain. The high ground upon which we -stood was bathed in pure sunlight, and all Nature was intensely still. - -As the morning advanced the vapours lifted or were dissolved; films of -white cloud were wafted across the blue. We continued our march over -highlands of the same stony character as those which we had traversed -during the preceding day. But beyond the village the land had been -cleared in places, and wheat planted, which was showing green above the -ground. It is protected by the snows which cover these slopes during -winter, and it is reaped in spring or early summer. The rocky heart of -Alagöz was still concealed behind the declivities which swept towards -us, on our right hand. In the great plain, which still lay beneath us, -we missed the stretches of pleasant verdure which in that direction -had become familiar to our eyes; desert tracts, seared by gullies, -had taken the place of the gardens; while further west the valley was -broken into hummock waves. A ground of ochre, washed in places with -rose madder--such were the colours which clothed this naked expanse; -the delicate tints were continued up the sides of the mountains which -border the plain upon the south. These lower slopes of the Ararat -system receive the light at sunrise; and, being composed of a marly -substance, which is modelled into soft convexities, display a variety -of tender hues. Bold peaks, of which the summits had been strewn with -snow during the night, rise along the spine of the range; but they -are dwarfed, even at this distance, by the fabric of Ararat. We could -discern on the west of the mountain the pass which leads to Bayazid, -and we had not yet lost sight of the mound of Armavir. But it was -evident that the even ground in the valley of the Araxes was coming -to an end. The western limits of the level plain may be placed in the -neighbourhood of Karakala; and, according to Dubois, the last canal -which derives from the Araxes waters the fields on the west of the -village of Shagriar. [262] - -Villages became less rare as we rounded the mass of the mountain and -opened a view over the country in the direction of the Arpa Chai. An -hour from Akhja Kala our attention was attracted by a still distant -eminence, rising above the shelving land upon that side. It was the -crag of Bugutu, which is probably due to a later eruption on the flank -of Alagöz. We passed two Tartar settlements, and crossed a couple of -ravines, the first of which must have had a depth of nearly a hundred -feet. It contained a pleasant growth of lofty poplars and other trees, -and it was threaded by a babbling brook. When the prospect extended to -the upper slopes of the mountain, we observed that they were sprinkled -with fresh snow. A stage of two and a half hours brought us to the -village of Talin, a prosperous and picturesque little township at -the foot of Bugutu (Fig. 61). - -Both the Pristav and the priest were quickly forthcoming; we were -by them conducted to a house which contained two storeys, and which -was the residence of the priest. While food was being prepared, -we were accompanied by our hosts in a walk round the place. We were -informed that it contained some thousand inhabitants, all of whom were -Armenians. It possesses a church, but is still without a school. The -old prejudices survive, and it was impossible to persuade the young -women to submit to the camera. But Talin is distinguished by the close -proximity of a piece of architecture which appears to date from the -golden period of the Bagratid dynasty and which ranks among the most -charming examples of the Armenian style. It is a church--they call -it cloister (vank), and it perhaps belonged to a monastery--which, -although in ruins, is fairly well preserved. The roof has fallen -in; the walls display wide breaches; but the masonry is still sharp -and fresh, as when first put together, and the traceries might just -have undergone the finishing touch. With its bold windows--no mere -apertures--and bands of elegant sculpture, I thought it the most -beautiful building I had yet seen in Armenia. I reproduce some of -these chiselled mouldings of the exterior. The first, a vine pattern -(Fig. 62), belongs to the southern transept; and the second (Fig. 63), -representing a pear or apple, is taken from that upon the north. On -the south side of the ruin we observed a sun-dial, carved in stone; -and we were shown a square block, which had been found among the -débris, and upon which was sculptured a relief, representing the -Virgin and Child, attended by two angels. A graveyard surrounds the -building; some of the old crosses have been built into the walls of -the village church. A little on the east we noticed the remains of -a small chapel. The ground was strewn with fallen stones, some red, -others grey--the two colours which are so skilfully blended or placed -in contrast by Armenian architects upon the broad, undecorated spaces -of their walls. We enquired the history of the ruin, and were referred -to a partially defaced inscription on one of the piers which once -supported the dome. It mentions the name of King Sembat, a member of -the Bagratid dynasty, which reigned from the ninth to the eleventh -century. [263] The grandfather of the priest informed us that both -the monastery and the church had been maintained up to a comparatively -recent period. He said that the priests had fled during the campaign -of Paskevich, since which date the buildings had been allowed to fall -into decay. - -Ker Porter, who crossed the district on his way from Ani to Edgmiatsin, -mentions the existence in this neighbourhood of extensive ruins--the -deserted relics of two churches, of walls and houses, which he saw -at a distance, but did not stay to examine. He calls the place Talys, -and Ritter hazards the conjecture that these may have been the remains -of Bagaran. [264] That city, which was founded by the same monarch -who gave his name to Ervandakert and Ervandashat, became a royal -residence of the Bagratid dynasty, and at the end of the fourteenth -century of our era still continued to exist. We did not hear of further -antiquities in the vicinity of Talin; but the correspondence of name -suggests that Ker Porter's account may have been called forth by the -former condition of the site which we visited. It was evident that -these highlands had been the seat of a flourishing civilisation, -later in date than that which produced the vanished cities of the -plain. First at Talysh and next at Talin we discovered traces of this -medićval culture, of which the evidence was lavished upon us when we -had reached the banks of the Arpa, at Ani and at Khosha Vank. - -The upper chamber of the priest's house and the company therein -assembled recalled the simplicity of the early Christian times. Our -host was still a young man, and his natural capacities had not been -blunted by indigence and ill-treatment. His villagers were well off, -and appeared to live on terms of friendship with their neighbours of -Tartar race. A Tartar khan, a grandee of the district, happened to -be visiting the place on business (Fig. 64); and we were glad to see -that his intercourse with the principal people was marked by tokens of -mutual respect. His grave face and dignified figure contrasted with -the vivacity of the Armenians; his presence added to the interest -of the group which I photographed, and which included the Pristav -(Fig. 65) and the priest (Fig. 66). Neither the official head of -the village nor our clerical acquaintance possessed any education, -except what had been provided by an Armenian primary school. But -both, and especially the former, were men of great intelligence, -and did honour to the peasant class from which they had sprung. - -We were in want of another pony, which we were able to hire at -Talin; his owner, a Tartar belonging to Akhja Kala, accompanied or -followed us on foot (Fig. 67). Measured on the map, it is a distance -of sixteen miles from the village to the point at which we struck -the Arpa Chai. We owed it to the nature of the ground and to the -sorry condition of our horses that we were four and a half hours in -performing the stage. It seemed an interminable ride; the landscape was -monotonous; and we soon lost any glimpse of the valley of the Araxes, -as we continued our north-westerly course. We crossed the neck of the -ridge which culminates at its western extremity in the crag of Bugutu; -and, on its further side, descended into the little Tartar settlement -of Birmalek, where a stream trickles down from Alagöz. A dam had been -constructed which, aided by the nature of the ground, had forced the -waters to collect into a small lake. Beyond Birmalek a second ridge -was placed athwart our way, and constrained us to deviate towards -the west. In the hollow we passed a small settlement of Kurds, called -Sapunji, of which the inhabitants were the wildest people we had yet -met. It speaks well for the Russian officials that they did not dare -to lay hands upon us, travelling, as we were, alone and unarmed. This -second ridge was succeeded by another, similar in character, which -was followed by several more. They are the outworks or spurs of the -central mass of the mountain, from which they radiate outwards in -a westerly direction towards the trough of the Arpa Chai. Although -their relative elevation above the valleys is not considerable, our -guide preferred to turn them than to take them in face. Their sides -were clothed with burnt grass, or were sterile and strewn with stones, -like the depressions which they confined. For more than two hours we -continued among such dreary surroundings, crossing the western basal -slopes of Alagöz. These decline, by an almost imperceptible transition, -into a tract of open and undulating ground. We were refreshed by the -sight of a village, which stood alone and without neighbours on the -bare surface of the more even land. - -It belonged to a colony of Armenians from the plain of -Alexandropol. Let us hope that they will be followed by further -migrations of their countrymen into the valley of the Arpa Chai. That -classical river of their ancestors crosses a region which was long -famous for its salubrious climate and productive soil. It has not -yet recovered from the state of abject desolation to which it was -reduced when it formed the borderland between the Turkish and Persian -empires. During a ride of nearly two hours from this settlement to -the bank of the river, we were not aware of any sign of the presence -of man. - -Yet the features of this more level zone reminded us of the plain of -Alexandropol, of which in some sense it forms an outlying part. We -stood in face of the western declivities of Alagöz, with the rocky -core of the volcano again disclosed. The contours of the mountain were -composed of a number of ridges, which in perspective appeared to belong -to two principal groups. One group declined away into invisible limits -on our left hand; the other into an uncertain distance on our right. We -were placed in the fork between these two diverging branches. It was -evident that the last group separated us from the valley of the Araxes; -nor could we doubt that the principal and humble ridge in the reverse -direction was the only barrier between us and the plains on the north -(Fig. 68). - -In the west, to the far horizon stretched the loamy tracts about us, -bare of surface, like the sea. Above the outline of this high land -rose the peaks of the Ararat system, fretting the sky from south-west -to a bold mountain in the south, which we recognised as the familiar -Takjaltu. We knew that we were overlooking the trough of the Arpa; but -the river was hidden from sight. The light was failing as we entered -the Armenian village of Khosha Vank, on the left bank of the stream. - -It is a picturesque little settlement of some 120 tenements, grouped -around a stately church. I have referred to it under the name which -I received from the priest and the Pristav, but which more properly -belongs to the neighbouring monastery. It is called Kizilkilisa (red -church) on the Russian maps. It was our intention to sleep in Ani, -after fording the river at this village; and we were surprised to learn -that the ruins were four hours distant, and that it would be almost -impossible to reach them that night. Since the baggage was behind us, -we listened to the counsel of our informants, who conducted us to a -stone house, containing a single room--the only decent building in -the whole place. Although without a school, the inhabitants are no -dullards; they seemed extremely ready to make a little money, and -pleased to be able to exchange ideas. In fact we discovered on the -following day that they had deceived us about Ani, with the express -purpose of retaining us for the night. We waited some time in vain -for the luggage to overtake us, and then composed ourselves to sleep. - -When morning came our effects had not yet arrived; we reflected that -we had given the rendezvous at Ani, and, although we felt sure that -the laggards would cross the river at our village, decided to push -on. The Arpa flows between high banks, a deeply eroded and sinuous bed, -hidden by precipitous cliffs of black rock. You form the conception of -a trough or fissure in the surface of the tableland, which undulates -away into the distance on every side. After fording the stream, we -proceeded along the right bank, and, at no great distance, opened -out a romantic valley on our left hand, similar in character to that -which adjoins the site of the Armenian village. In both places the -river describes a complete S, and is lost in the gloom of overhanging -walls. The disposition of these rocky sides assumes the appearance of -a glen, in which are situated the remains of an extensive monastery, -bearing the name of Khosha Vank. Just beyond this standpoint we -gained the high land above the river; and there before us, on the -plain, lay the ruins which we had been seeking, at the distance of -an hour's canter from the cloister, or of a couple of hours' ride -from Kizilkilisa. - -Descrying horses in the direction of Ani, we galloped forward and -overtook them; they proved to be our missing cavalcade. They had passed -the river at a place lower down than where we had crossed it, and were -pursuing their way in a most leisurely manner. After opening one of -the cases in order to replenish the slides of the camera, we returned -to the glen, and again forded the stream. We spent a considerable time -at the cloister and in its neighbourhood; it was certainly the most -remarkable building which we had yet seen. Reserving a description -of its ancient church and halls of audience, I shall only refer to -a couple of illustrations in this place. The one (Fig. 93, p. 386) -shows the ensemble of the monastery; but, having been taken from the -east, where the ground is open and the landscape tame, misses the -peculiar characteristics of the site. The other (Fig. 94, p. 387) -may convey some conception of the appearance of the glen, when seen -from the river-bed below the cloister. From the flat and water-worn -bottom rises a little tongue of higher land, upon which stand the -remains of two little chapels. On the cliff above the ravine you see -the pier of a ruined gateway, outlined against the sky. The track to -Ani leads up the cliffside and passes that ruin, which stands on the -plain in which the still-distant city lies. - -It was late afternoon when we reached the walls of the ancient capital -(Fig. 70, p. 369), and passed within the great gateway. No massive -doors creaked upon their hinges; we rode through empty archways into -a deserted town. From among the débris of the public and private -buildings rose the well-preserved remains of a number of handsome -edifices--here an elegant church, there a polygonal chapel. An old -priest with a few attendants were the sole inhabitants--they and the -owls. We had only to follow the track to be brought to the humble -tenement in which the priest lived. He stepped forth to meet us, -a grey head, a feeble figure; he walked with difficulty, and with -the demeanour of a man who is awaiting death. He told us that he -had dwelt here since 1880, the only custodian of these priceless -architectural treasures, and the only exponent of the topography of -the site. He had been attacked in his house by a band of Kurds in -1886; they had inflicted knife wounds, and stripped him of everything -he possessed. We remained two whole days within the walls of Ani, -examining the creations of a vanished civilisation, and collecting -material with which I propose to deal in a separate chapter. At nine -o'clock on the morning of the 19th of October we took leave of our -aged host; and, leaving the city by the same gate through which we -had entered it, pursued a track which leads in the direction of Kars. - -Clouds were clinging to the hill slopes upon our point of course -and concealing the shield-shaped mass of Alagöz. Lost fragments -of opaline vapour lay on the surface of the grassy plain. Here and -there we perceived the ruins of little chapels and other buildings, -or the scattered débris of masonry. From these suburbs we looked back -upon the bold line of the city walls, with their double girdle and -towers at regular intervals. It seemed as though the stream of life -had wandered off into other channels, leaving behind this eloquent -evidence of its former course. We could not descry the form of man -or of animal in the landscape; even the sky was without a wing. We -rode in silence and at ease along a beaten path, where the burnt -herbage had been worn away from the rich brown soil. West of Ani, -at a distance which leaves the site of the city open, rises a hill of -irregular shape and moderate elevation, known as the Alaja Dagh. It -is due to volcanic action, and covers a respectable area; its sides -and summits are overgrown with grass. It is placed across the direct -line between Kars and the ancient capital, and compels you to deviate -a little to the north. As we rose along the north-eastern slopes of -the mass, we were lifted at a convenient altitude above the plains. - -Outspread before us lay a vast extent of undulating ground, on -the south, on the east, towards the north. After we had passed the -small Armenian village of Jala, we could just discern in the lap of -the expanse the city of Alexandropol, at a distance of over twenty -miles. We had again opened out the northern slopes of Alagöz; and we -could even see the meridional range which intersects it upon the east, -and the gap through which we had journeyed to Erivan. When one reflects -upon the significance of this panorama, it must be recognised that our -standpoint on the skirts of the Alaja deserves a high rank among those -apposite and commanding positions which Armenia appears to lavish upon -her admirers, and which imprint her features indelibly upon the mind. - -We might be said to have been standing on the dividing line between -two landscapes and even of two climates. On the north lay the immense -plains around Kars and Alexandropol, vague and grey in spite of -the clear atmosphere, and with their distant limits shrouded in -haze. These pass over, along the course of the deeply-bedded Arpa, -into the ever-widening valley of the Araxes, bathed at all seasons in -sun. Had it not been for the projecting spurs of the hill which we were -skirting, the prospect would have embraced the peaks of the Ararat -system, bounding the expanse upon the south. Snow had fallen upon -the upper slopes of the mountains--Alagöz, no longer a shield but a -towering parapet; the Chaldir system, the border range in the far east. - -As we proceeded towards the west, the instructive lesson was -developed--no ridge to cross, but continuous tracts of level land. The -plain rises with gentle gradation from the right bank of the Arpa to -the labyrinth of hills on the west of Kars. Its surface is slightly -vaulted, and the configuration of the ground is such that you lose -the outlook towards the east. We passed through Subotan, a prosperous -village of Turks and Greeks. The gay dresses of the Greek girls -formed a brilliant patch of colour, and their trinkets sparkled in -the sun, which was already high (Fig. 69). Education is provided -in a little schoolhouse, built and maintained at the charges of the -Christian inhabitants, but supplied with a teacher by the State. A -little further on we entered a second and smaller settlement, and -again found ourselves among Greeks. I am under the impression that -these scattered colonies date from the campaigns of Paskevich, when -Christians in considerable numbers accompanied his armies across the -frontier after their evacuation of Turkish territory. - -On and on we rode over the spacious plain, beating the brown and idle -soil, with nothing to divert us from the simple pleasure of cantering -along. Vague tracks came converging towards us from the distance, -the arteries along which the supplies of the fortress flow. It was -evident that there was a pronounced slope of the ground upwards; and, -at length, on the western horizon we opened out a long, low ridge, -against which we could just discern without the aid of glasses the -yellow masonry of the castle of Kars (Fig. 98, p. 406). As we neared -the site, we were impressed by its strange and romantic character. From -the hills upon the west a mass of gloomy basalt projects towards -the east into the level and loamy land. Concave towards the plain, -to which it presents a line of cliffs, it forms an extensive bay -and terminates on the east in a commanding promontory, called the -Karadagh. The answering horn of this sinuous line is composed or -accentuated by the cluster of modern buildings which the Russians -have erected, and which jut out from the ancient city on the side of -the cliff into the even ground. Their white faces and iron roofing, -coloured a quiet red or green, present a contrast to the black masonry -which mounts the slope behind them--groups of houses, a few minarets, -a large church. Above these towers the well-preserved pile of the -old castle--an object which is rendered the more conspicuous by the -yellow stone of which it is composed. Further eastwards along the -summit of the ridge you see the ruins of the old Armenian fortress, -with the remains of a wall rising towards it from the foot of the -cliff. In the bay itself you will always find a confused medley of -sheep and cattle, of bullock-carts threading the piles of hay and -stores. We were met and challenged by a gendarme upon our arrival, -but were allowed to proceed to a modest inn. - -I am conscious of having hazarded to tire my reader with the continuous -narrative of a journey of four days' duration and of more than the -usual variety of interest. Anxious to avoid diverting his attention -from the features of the country, I have not suffered him to rest, -as we rested, at Ani; but have taken him without a break from the -sunny depressions at the foot of Ararat to the wintry highlands -about Kars. He has almost traversed from east to west one of the -central regions of Armenia; and I would ask him to reflect that he -has not crossed a single mountain barrier, but has throughout been -riding upon the margin or over the surface of immense plains. In so -far as it may be possible to parcel out this level surface, a triple -division is suggested to the mind. In the north the basin-like area -of the plain of Alexandropol (5000 feet) declines along the banks of -the Arpa Chai; on the western side of the river the ground again rises -and develops into the spacious plain of Kars (5700 feet). In the south -lies the sheltered valley of the Araxes, commencing on the west with -an elevation, in the neighbourhood of the confluence of the Arpa, -which is rather less than 3000 feet above the sea. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -ANI, AND THE ARMENIAN KINGDOM OF THE MIDDLE AGES - - -In Europe we may find examples of medićval towns from which the tide -of life has long since receded, and which have been preserved almost -intact to the present day. Less fortune attends the footsteps of the -traveller in Armenia, until he arrives before the walls and towers of -the city on the Arpa Chai. It is perhaps to the complete desolation -of the neighbourhood that is due this welcome surprise. No settlement -has arisen in the immediate vicinity to despoil these architectural -remains. Favoured by the dryness of the Armenian climate, the pink -volcanic stone displays all the freshness of the day when it was -fashioned by the mason's tool. Even lichen has failed to effect -much hold upon its surface, while our persistent ivies and sweet, -irresistible wallflowers have not adventured into these sunny and -treeless plains. We admire these buildings in much the same state -and condition as when they delighted the eyes of Armenian monarchs -nine centuries ago. Such a site would in Western lands be at least -occupied by a small town or village; the solitude of Ani is not shared -by any such presence; and the mood engendered by the spectacle of her -many noble monuments is not disturbed by the contrast of commonplace -successors or of miserable tenements, clinging to the creations of -a culture that has disappeared. - -The impression of the ancient city which is perhaps likely to prove -most permanent is due to the aspect from without of that long row of -double walls with their even masonry and graceful towers at intervals -(Fig. 70, p. 369). How well they are seen from the floor of this plain -without limits; how strange they look among surroundings which scarcely -display a trace of man! When we reflect that we are face to face with -the capital of a kingdom, towards which the roads converged from every -direction, and which was situated in the midst of a fertile province, -famous for the production of corn, we are the more affected by the -bareness and the loneliness of the countryside, which is only traversed -here and there by a few vague tracks. Years upon years have elapsed -since district and city throbbed with the pulse of human life. Yet -if the Present be quite voiceless, the Past is doubly eloquent; -and by reason not only of these many memorials, with their countless -inscriptions, but also happily because of the comparative richness of -the material which has been preserved in literature. In the case of -many an old Armenian city, of which we shall visit the scanty remains, -we have to deplore the broken skein of History. Ani has been better -treated both by Time and by written records; and the dynasty which -produced her splendour still lives in the lifelike narrative of the -most attractive of the Armenian writers of that age. [265] - -In the ninth century of our era the plains and mountains of Armenia -were divided between the two great contemporary Powers which held -sway in the East. The western portion of the country formed a part -of the Roman Empire; while that on the east, comprising by far -the largest and most populous area, was subject to the caliphs at -Baghdad. The span of this single century is sufficient to include -the full splendour and the decay and incipient disruption of the -caliphate. At its commencement Harun-al-Rashid (786-809) was real -master of vast dominions--a personality round which the romance of -the age collected to adorn the literature of all times. Before its -close many of these possessions had become parcelled out among petty -dynasties, whose titular overlord--a Mutaz (866-869), a Muhtadi -(869-870), a Mutamid (870-892)--was scarcely better than a puppet -in the hands of his Turkish bodyguard. Such was the period and such -the political environment in which the Armenian dynasty of the Middle -Ages rose by successive steps to the position of Kings of Armenia--a -rank which was recognised by their co-religionists, the Greek Cćsars, -but which was conferred or confirmed by the Commander of the Faithful, -within whose realm their dominions lay. [266] - -The native institutions of the Armenian people were not unfavourable to -such a development. At the present day they cannot be said to possess -a class of nobles, and they are devoid of natural leaders. But in the -ninth century their councils were governed by a strong territorial -nobility, a relic of the period when they possessed their own -independent kings of Arsakid descent. The Arsakid dynasty had struggled -on into the fifth century, when it succumbed to the Sasanian monarchy -of Persia and Mesopotamia, and a Persian governor was sent to rule -over the land (A.D. 428). But the great nobles maintained and perhaps -increased their ascendency; they were supported by the obstinate -patriotism of the people; and the interval between the overthrow of -the ancient and the rise of the medićval kingdom is filled by the -almost incessant clash of arms. From the east the pertinacity of -the Armenian race is challenged at first by the Persians, eager to -convert them to the religion of the Magi, and next by the Arabs, who, -after supplanting the Sasanian dynasty, seek to impose upon them the -precepts of Islam. Their neighbours upon the west are scarcely less -obtrusive; and we may discover beneath the religious controversies -with their fellow-Christians of the Roman Empire the same fervid -self-assertion which has enabled this strange people to preserve, -in the face of odds which appear to us to have been overwhelming, -the inflexible individuality of their race. While their clergy are -resisting the menaces or the blandishments of the Church of the -Empire, their nobles are combating the worship of the Persians or of -the Mohammedans at the head of the native levies. It thus happened -that, when the bonds relaxed which bound the subject states to the -Arab caliphate, the Armenians possessed, in their class of nobles as -well as in their patriarchate, institutions which had been tested in -the furnace of adversity during a period of over 400 years. - -Two Armenian families of princely rank were conspicuous at that -time. The Artsruni had extended their possessions during the -domination of the Arabs, until they comprised a vast territory and -some of the richest districts in the neighbourhood of the ancient -city of Van. They claimed descent from one of the kings of Assyria, -whose two sons were reputed to have escaped to Armenia after having -perpetrated parricide. They drew their name from the lofty office -which had been bestowed upon their ancestor, that of bearing before -the Arsakid king the emblem of the golden eagle--an emblem which -is cherished by the Armenian inhabitants of Van at the present day -as the distinctive ensign of their city and province. The family of -the Bagratuni or Bagratids had attained a position in the centre and -north of Armenia which rivalled and perhaps surpassed that of the -Artsruni in the south. Of Jewish origin, they were already powerful -in the earliest Arsakid times, when they had been invested with the -hereditary privilege of crowning the king. Their ancient seats appear -to have been placed in the Chorokh country, in the vicinity of the -town of Ispir. But this nucleus became lost in the territory which -they subsequently acquired, whether by marriage or by conquest. The -province of Shirak, by which is designated the extensive grain-growing -district on the right bank of the Arpa Chai, was perhaps the richest -appanage of their House; but they were masters of the Armenian -districts on the side of Georgia, while towards the west and south -their possessions at one time extended into the plain of Pasin and -the fertile districts about the present town of Mush. A branch of -this same family established themselves in Georgia--the salubrious -uplands and rich plains at the southern foot of Caucasus, which are -separated from the highlands of Armenia by the belt of mountains on -the right bank of the river Kur. The Georgians, like the Armenians, -professed the Christian religion, and at the period with which we are -dealing were being harassed by the Arab caliphs. During the decline -of the caliphate, when native impulses were revived in Georgia as -well as in Armenia, the movement centred in a dynasty of Bagratid -descent. This dynasty outlived that of their kinsmen in Armenia by -many centuries. The Georgian sovereigns weathered the storm of Seljuk -invasion in the eleventh century, which swept before it the feeble -thrones of the Armenian monarchs. Perhaps they owed their escape in -part to the geographical position of their country, removed as it was -by a zone of intricate mountains from the highway of the Armenian -plains. Yet their capital, Tiflis, fell a prey to the same sultan -who captured Ani, the famous Alp Arslan. During the first half of -the twelfth century they were successful in expelling the invaders, -and a little later their kingdom was increased to the limits of an -extensive empire during the reign of the great queen Thamar. The -Georgian Bagratids maintained their throne until the end of the -eighteenth century, when the last king renounced his crown in favour -of the Russian Tsars. [267] - -About the middle of the ninth century, to which I return from this -brief digression, the reigning caliph, Mutawakil, despatched an army -into Armenia with instructions to punish the inhabitants and to bring -them over to the Mohammedan faith. His severity had been invited by the -behaviour of his subjects, who had fallen upon and killed their Arab -governor. The Arab commander, by name Bugha, acquitted himself of his -congenial mission in a manner which accords with the best traditions -of Eastern statecraft. He crossed the Taurus, descended into the -plains about the Murad, and took prisoners all the Armenian chiefs of -the districts through which his route lay. The Bagratid family had -become involved in the preceding troubles; one of their members was -already in the hands of the caliph; and his two sons were now added -to the train of the avenging general, who directed his march from the -territory of Taron (Mush) to that of Vaspurakan (Van). The Artsruni -were not more fortunate in their resistance; their prince was captured, -loaded with chains, and sent to the caliph. Bugha pursued a leisurely -course through the Armenian country, giving over to the sword the less -prominent among the people, selecting some for their birth or personal -qualities as worthy of conversion to Islam. When he arrived at the -capital of central Armenia, the city of Dvin, in the neighbourhood -of the present town of Erivan, which had been conquered by the Arabs -in A.D. 642, [268] he was met by a native prince who bore the title -of commander-in-chief [269] and the name of Sembat. This notable -was the great-grandson of a distinguished Bagratid chief, Ashot, who -had been entrusted with the government of Armenia by the last of the -Ommiad caliphs, and who had been deprived of sight by his countrymen, -incensed at his Arab proclivities. According to the Armenians, this -Ashot was the progenitor alike of the Georgian sovereigns and of the -Armenian dynasty of the Middle Ages. His descendant endeavoured to -propitiate the tyrant, who appeared to listen to his fair words. But -Sembat was conveyed to Baghdad with the rest of the prisoners, and -accompanied the triumphal return of the caliph's legate. Arrived -at court, the Armenian princes were offered the choice of Islam and -freedom or a painful and violent death. Sembat was one of those who -refused to abjure his religion and who perished as a martyr to the -Christian faith (A.D. 856 [C.]). [270] - -The pompous title of the deceased chieftain, together with his -influence, descended to his son Ashot. This prince had contrived -to escape the meshes of the Moslem net; and in the period which -immediately followed the departure of the Arab general he proved -himself worthy to sustain the burden of his high position. In the -flower of his age, he enjoyed the union of imposing physical qualities -with habits of mind which gave peculiar weight to his counsels, and -with a natural suavity of disposition and expression. An agreeable -face--in which, however, the eyes, with their heavy black eyebrows, -were shot with blood, like a speck of red upon a pearl--was set around -with a magnificent beard, and sprang from broad shoulders in keeping -with his fine stature. Whatever defects might belong to such an -exterior were compensated by the habitual purity of his life. The -prince was missed at the sumptuous banquets of the rich, but his -presence was felt by the poor in every action of their daily life. -He once said, "The service of humanity is a life-long service"; and -his precept was illustrated by the example of his own long life. How -far the qualities of the son of Sembat were instrumental in obtaining -a reversal of the policy of the caliphate, or whether the complete -change which ensued in the treatment of the Armenians may have been -due to causes of a different order, our historian has omitted to -relate. Five years after the martyrdom of his father and of the -leading nobles of his country, Ashot is invested by the new Arab -governor with the title of prince of princes, and becomes the -recipient of almost royal distinctions (A.D. 861 [D.]). [271] Those -of the nobles who had become apostates during the recent persecution -openly return to their old faith. For twenty-five years he continues -to exercise his authority, which reposes not only upon the goodwill -of the Arab governor, but also upon the loyalty of his fellow-nobles, -who consent that his family shall be assigned a special and quasi- -royal rank, and be permanently elevated above all other princely -families. At the end of this period the Armenian nobility unanimously -petition the caliph in favour of the elevation of their prince to the -rank of king. Their desire is conveyed to their suzerain by his -representative in the country, a governor by name Isa. It is accorded -with the greatest readiness. A royal crown is despatched, and placed -by Isa himself upon the head of Ashot. Armenian royalty is revived in -this branch of the Bagratid family after an interval of over 450 years -(A.D. 885 [D.]). The reigning Cćsar, Basil I., confirms this -investiture, and accompanies the friendly sentiments of an attached -ally and a spiritual father with the gift of a crown, the second to -be worn by the new monarch. [272] - -For five years Ashot continued in the exercise of his kingly -prerogative, supported by the Armenian nobles, the most powerful -of whom he attached by marriage, and enjoying the favour both of -the Caliph and of the Emperor. His capital was the city of Bagaran, -on the banks of the Akhurean, the modern Arpa Chai, situated to the -south of the later capital at Ani. [273] He died in advanced age -(A.D. 889 [C.] or 890 [D.]) [274] and with unimpaired reputation at a -date when the empire of the caliphs was in process of dismemberment, -and when a number of petty Mussulman dynasties, such as the Tahirids -and the Saffarids, had arisen in the adjacent lands. [275] We can -scarcely doubt that his elevation was occasioned by the decline of the -central authority; and he and his descendants were glad to purchase -by the promise of an assured tribute the greater independence of the -Armenian people and their own ascendency. - -At the time of the death of Ashot I. his son and successor Sembat was -absent on an expedition of conquest in the country of the Upper Kur. -He received the homage of his subjects upon his arrival at Erazgavors, -a town in Shirak, which was his own particular residence. Thither -repaired the prince of Georgia, Aternerseh, himself a Bagratid, -proffering his sympathy and his aid (A.D. 890 [C.]). The succession -was hotly disputed by Abas, brother of the deceased monarch, a vain -and ambitious prince. His animosity appears to have been directed in -the principal degree against the prince of Georgia; he broke the peace -which he was induced to make at the instance of the patriarch with -that potentate, and at length he turned his arms against the province -of Shirak. The approach of Sembat at the head of a numerous army -compelled him to take refuge in a strong place, and his condition was -desperate when he obtained from the clemency of his royal nephew a -pardon which he had not deserved. Sembat was already in possession of -supreme power when he received from the Arab governor of Azerbaijan -[276] on behalf of the caliph a royal crown such as had been bestowed -upon his father. At the same time he confirmed the friendly relations -which had subsisted between Ashot and the Byzantine Empire. The -reigning emperor, Leo VI., received his ambassadors with great -distinction, and dismissed them charged with valuable presents. -In the missives between them the king of Armenia was addressed as -a beloved son, and the Cćsar with the reverence due to a father. Nor -was this intercourse confined to a single and a splendid occasion; it -appears to have been renewed every year. It naturally excited the -jealousy of the Arab governor of Azerbaijan, the powerful neighbour -of the new state upon the east. - -This individual, by name Afshin, is depicted by the priestly historian -with all the resources of the vocabulary of hate. He is a wild beast; -he is armed with the poignard of perfidy, and his death is described -as the outcome of a loathsome malady which destroyed the body before -the soul descended to hell. Throughout the reign we see him harassing -the dominions of the Armenian monarch; but his first expedition -appears to have been met by a vigorous and successful resistance, -which no doubt helped the remonstrances of Sembat. At the head of -his troops the king reasoned with his Mohammedan adversary, and -represented that his friendship with the emperor of the Greeks was -to the advantage of the master of Afshin. "You yourselves," he said, -"may at any moment have need of the support of the Greeks, and your -merchants require openings in Greek territory, whence they will draw -riches which will swell the treasury at Baghdad." These advances were -met on the part of the Arab governor by the offer of a peace, which was -duly ratified. Afshin returned to Azerbaijan, and the king retraced -his steps up the Araxes and appeared before the walls of Dvin. This -city, which was at this period the acknowledged capital of Armenia, -was reduced to an obedience from which it had lapsed. Its situation -in the neighbourhood of the present town of Erivan was calculated -to invest it with the character of a strong place on the side of the -Arab possessions in Persia. Its subjection to Sembat does not appear -to have been of long duration; during the subsequent portion of his -reign we find it in the hands of the Mohammedans, serving, it would -seem, as an advanced base to the troops of Afshin and of his successor. - -The diplomacy no less than the prowess of Sembat was successful in -other directions nearer home. If his kingdom remained essentially -feudal in character, its limits were at least extended over the -adjacent lands. On the west his sovereignty was acknowledged as far as -the city of Karin, the modern Erzerum; while on the north-east and east -it embraced the foot of Caucasus and the shore of the Caspian Sea. The -Armenian princes who ruled in the country on the southern side of the -barrier of mountains which culminate in Ararat were attached to him by -feudal or family ties; his name must at least have been respected among -his countrymen beyond the limits of the lake of Van. His ascendency -was for a second time challenged by Afshin, who advanced to Nakhichevan -and Dvin; but he led his troops in person against the Mussulmans, and -inflicted upon them a signal defeat. The subsequent defection to his -enemy of his nephew, the prince of Vaspurakan (Van), who was joined -for a time by the prince of Siunik, a province bordering that of Van -upon the north, does not appear to have materially shaken his power; we -find him directing his attention to the outer limits of his territory, -and endeavouring to establish his dominion not only over the country -of Taron (Mush), but also as far south as the Mesopotamian plains. - -This advance brought him into collision with an Arab emir, named Ahmed, -who, in the decay of the caliphate, cherished pretensions to these -districts. The Armenian prince of Taron was unable to withstand his -Mussulman adversary, and Sembat was obliged to take the field in person -(A.D. 896 [C.]). At the head of a numerous army he marched towards -Taron, west of which his enemy was encamped. The reverse of his arms -was due to the treachery of a countryman, a prince belonging to the -province of Vaspurakan; and, indeed, the jealousy of the chiefs of -the Van country seems to have paved the way for the successes of his -Mussulman neighbours. His old enemy Afshin was not slow to profit by -this turn of fortune. After attempting in vain to seduce the loyalty -of the northern feudatories of Sembat, he entered the province of Kars -and laid siege to that fortress. Thither had taken refuge the Armenian -queen, a daughter of the king of Kolchis, and several of the wives of -the principal nobles. The capitulation of Kars and the capture of the -queen came as a melancholy pendant to the disaster of the king's arms -in the south. He was obliged to purchase peace on humiliating terms, -and to give his niece in marriage to the Mohammedan potentate. But -it was not long before hostilities were again resumed in the same -quarter. Afshin directed his march towards the city of Tiflis, swept -like a whirlwind through the Georgian country, and advanced upon -Shirak. Sembat and his army were obliged to take refuge in the strong -places of his ally Aternerseh, upon whom he had previously bestowed -a royal crown; while his adversary, after having endeavoured in vain -to sap the loyalty of the Georgian prince, retraced his steps along -the Araxes to Azerbaijan. Afshin was meditating a fresh attack when -he fell a victim to a malignant malady, which appears also to have -made ravages among his troops (901 [St.-M.], 898-99 [D.]). - -The tyrant was succeeded by his brother Yusuf in the government -of Azerbaijan. Upon the accession of this potentate the Armenian -monarch despatched an embassy to the caliph at Baghdad with the -view of contracting a stable alliance with the nominal sovereign -of Persia and of that portion of Armenia which lay within the Arab -sphere. His advances were well received by the successor of the -Prophet, who confirmed him in his royal dignity. [277] Although Yusuf -continued to pursue the hostile policy of his predecessor, he appears -to have been thwarted by the greater readiness of Sembat. Armenia -enjoyed a short respite from the inroads of the Mussulmans. "At this -period," says our historian, who is fond of allegory, "our Saviour -visited the country of the Armenians, and protected their lives -and property. Lands were bestowed, vines were planted and groves of -olive-trees; the most ancient fruit-trees yielded their fruits. The -harvests produced corn in excessive abundance; the cellars were filled -with wine when the vintage had been gathered in. The mountains were -in great joy, and so were the herdsmen and the shepherds, because of -the quantity of pasturage and the increase in the flocks. The chiefs -and notables of our country lived in perfect security and were not -afraid of depredations; they were free to bestow their leisure and -zeal upon the construction of churches in solid stone, with which -they graced the towns, the open country, and the desert places." The -king enjoyed the favour of his Byzantine ally, and the gifts of Heaven -were supplemented by the imperial presents. The ambition of the king -of Kolchis, who was striving to extend his dominions eastwards at the -expense of his relative, the Armenian monarch, was restrained by a -conjunction of the Armenian forces with those of the king of Georgia; -the unhappy kinglet was taken prisoner and lodged in a fortress, from -which he was released by the clemency of his captor and restored to -his possessions. This mild treatment of a rival excited the jealousy -of Aternerseh; the attached ally became converted into a perfidious -enemy; and the incident, while it seems to mark the culmination of this -brighter era, was the prelude of the domestic and foreign calamities -in which the reign of Sembat was brought to a tragic close. - -A curious incident now occurs, which is characteristic of the -times (A.D. 905 [St.-M.]). Yusuf prepares in secret to sever his -allegiance to the caliph, and goes so far as to issue orders in his -own name. Apprised of his proceedings, the sovereign at Baghdad sends -messengers throughout his dominions to effect a rising against his -rebellious servant. One of the highest in rank of these envoys arrives -at the court of the Armenian monarch, and delivers a personal letter -requiring the prince to assemble his forces and to march against -the emir of Azerbaijan. As an inducement, the vassal is remitted -the payment of a year's tribute. This request or command was at once -difficult to comply with and impossible to elude or reject. Sembat -was bound to Yusuf by the terms of a treaty, and still more forcibly -deterred from offending his neighbour by motives of interest. It -was only natural that he should have recourse to perfidy, the usual -expedient in such circumstances among Eastern princes. But his -double-dealing was of transitory advantage: and it may, perhaps, -be excused by the reflection that his own weight would have been -insufficient to turn the scale to the advantage of either side. Yusuf -affected submission to his spiritual and temporal superior; the -Armenians were confronted by a coalition of the contending influences; -and the unhappy king was besieged by emissaries from both the Mussulman -princes, demanding the arrears of tribute in imperious terms. On four -occasions he had succeeded in acquitting his obligations by making -the prescribed payment in kind; but this time he was compelled to -discharge the debt in money, and to impose taxes which strained the -structure of his feudal rule. - -A combination of some of the nobles with Aternerseh of Georgia was -the outcome of these events. Ani, which was then a fortress, was -handed over to Aternerseh, together with the treasures of the royal -palace at Erazgavors. Sembat at the head of his forces hurried back -to Shirak, whereupon the conspirators evacuated the province, laden -with spoils. The Armenian monarch carried the war into the territory -of Aternerseh, who was constrained to sue for peace. Many of the -revolted nobles fell into the hands of their sovereign, who, after -putting out their eyes, dispatched some to the Byzantine emperor -for custody and others to the king of Kolchis. This rising had no -sooner been quelled than the reigning prince of Vaspurakan separated -himself from the king. The cause of quarrel was a dispute about the -town of Nakhichevan in the valley of the Araxes, which Sembat had -conferred on another noble, but to which this prince had a hereditary -claim. Gagik--such was his name--had recourse to the common enemy, -Yusuf, who was eager to profit by such dissension among his Christian -neighbours. The emir bestowed upon him a royal crown in order to -perpetuate his rivalry with Sembat. It was all in vain that our -historian, who was at that time patriarch, endeavoured to avert the -rising storm. He even journeyed to the court of the emir in Azerbaijan, -taking with him magnificent presents, among which were included some -of the sacred vessels belonging to the churches. He was treated with -distinction by his Mussulman host so long as his gifts held out. When -these were exhausted he was thrown into prison, where he lingered for -a considerable time. The hardships of his condition were aggravated -by the mortification which he must have experienced at the complete -failure of his good offices. He was strictly refused an audience -of his countryman, King Gagik, who shortly afterwards arrived at -the court of Yusuf in order to concert an invasion of the territory -of Sembat. At the approach of spring the emir set out for Armenia, -taking with him the unhappy patriarch, loaded with chains. In the -neighbourhood of Nakhichevan were received the messengers of Gagik, -who announced the approach of their master with his troops (A.D. 909 -[St. M.]). Sembat endeavoured to pacify his enemy by a payment of -money, which the emir swallowed without arresting his advance. The -king was quite unable to cope with the forces arrayed against him; -he fled to the fortresses of Georgia, whither he was pursued by his -implacable adversary. - -It is unnecessary to follow in detail the developments of a situation, -of which the historical interest consists in the light which it -throws upon the Armenian monarchy of the Middle Ages, and upon the -relations of that monarchy to the neighbouring states. We see the -Artsrunian prince of the extensive province of Vaspurakan turning -his arms against his own countrymen and their Bagratid king, and -in active alliance with the enemies of his religion and race. The -Mussulman horsemen overran the fertile plains of Armenia, and the -tardy repentance of Gagik came too late. Sembat appealed in vain to -the suzerain at Baghdad, who was too much occupied by domestic troubles -to intervene. Better success attended his entreaties at the Byzantine -court, and his old friend, Leo, collected troops and marched in person -to his assistance. The death of the emperor at the inception of the -enterprise, and the internal troubles of the new reign, removed all -hope of succour from the side of the Roman provinces. The Christian -state in the heart of Asia seemed doomed to destruction, and the king -and queen were taken prisoners. Sembat was conducted to Dvin, where -he was barbarously tortured in the presence of the populace. Every -indignity was inflicted upon him, and each refinement of Oriental -cruelty; after he had expired, his body was nailed to a wooden stake -and exhibited to the townspeople (A.D. 914 [C.]). - -A desperate effort was made by his son Ashot to retrieve the fortunes -of the Armenian arms. He expelled the Mohammedans from many of the -fortified places which they had occupied, and allied himself closely -with the king of Georgia, who placed the crown of Armenia upon his -head. Yusuf was not slow to revenge the reverses of his adherents, -and the whole country was given over to war. The wretched inhabitants -fled to the mountains and the deserts; the remnant wandered about in -a state of nakedness, and experienced all the tortures of famine. When -winter came thousands perished in the snow. If they fell into the -hands of the enemy they were either massacred or subjected to every -description of torture. In many cases they were offered liberty and -even affluence if they would abjure the Christian religion; but these -advances were almost always without effect. Our historian relates with -pride the tragic incidents of this period of martyrdom; and the -profession of faith which he puts in the mouth of one of the victims -is worthy of the highest conceptions of religious minds. "We are -Christians," exclaimed a young noble in the presence of Yusuf; "we -believe in God, Who is Truth and Who dwells in the midst of Light -without limits." These afflictions might have excited the compassion -of their Christian neighbours. But perhaps these neighbours were -conscious of their own helplessness; they preferred to ride on the -wave of the Mussulman invasion, and to share in the spoils of the -Armenian provinces. Whole towns were destroyed and whole countrysides -depopulated; while the nobles, instead of combining, were involved in -civil war. This state of affairs continued for no less than seven -years, exhausting the country and denuding it of cultivation. "We sow, -but we do not reap; we plant, but gather not the fruit; the fig-tree -bears not, and the vine and olive-tree are barren. We collect a little -and abandon the rest." Page after page our author unfolds the tale of -all the miseries which were endured by himself and his countrymen. He -himself was a refugee at the court of the king of Georgia, where he -was in correspondence with the patriarch of Constantinople. It was the -aim of Byzantine policy to unite the Christian nations of Transcaucasia -with the Armenians; and the historian, as the spiritual head of the -latter people, used his best endeavours towards this end. Issuing from -his retreat, he made his way to the province of Taron (Mush), whence he -addressed a long missive to the Byzantine Cćsar (A.D. 920 [C.]). In -touching terms he entreated him to become the avenger of the Armenian -Christians, whom he represented as the spiritual sons and servants of -Constantine. At his instance the Byzantine court despatched an imperial -legate to the son of Sembat, with the view of renewing the relations -which had subsisted between his father and the deceased ruler of the -Eastern Empire. Our writer met this envoy in the territory of Taron, -and accompanied him to the presence of Ashot. The prince returned with -the legate to Constantinople (A.D. 921 [C.]), where he was received in -a manner becoming his royal rank. He was addressed as the son of a -martyr and the spiritual son of the Cćsar, was arrayed in purple and -invested with the insignia of royalty. Meanwhile the historian was -sojourning in the province of Terjan, a district which has retained -its name to the present day. He naďvely exhibits the difficulties of -his position, endeavouring, as he was, to avoid complying with the -pressing invitations to the imperial city which were lavished upon -him by his spiritual brothers of the Greek Church. He was deterred by -the fear that he would be pressed to conform to the doctrine which -had been laid down at the Council of Chalcedon. His peregrinations -brought him to the scenes where St. Gregory the Illuminator passed -his later years in the seclusion of an anchorite. He describes the -cavern where the saint lived, and where his remains were deposited, -to be removed by an angel to a grave in the vicinity. His account -of this lonely place, so difficult of access, agrees in a striking -manner with that of a modern traveller, which it invests with an -impressive reality. [278] The patriarch found the district inhabited -by anchorites, who maintained an altar in the holy cave. - -In the meantime Yusuf had become embroiled with his old ally -of Vaspurakan, and the war was being carried into the southern -province. A vigorous resistance was offered by King Gagik, who -owed his title to his enemy. Hostilities appear to have lingered -on without decisive result. Such was the state of affairs when King -Ashot II. returned to his dominions, accompanied by several generals -of the Roman Empire, together with a considerable detachment of the -imperial troops. This material support, as well as a subsidy in money, -enabled him to recover his position among his feudatories; and we -may conclude that the relations between himself and King Gagik had -become improved by the change in the attitude of the latter towards -the Mussulman emir. But that crafty statesman knew too well the weak -spots in the political organisation of the Armenians. If two kings -did not suffice to divide his opponents, it could do no harm and -might bring him fortune to create a third. His choice fell upon a -cousin of King Ashot, who had previously been invested by that monarch -with the title of general-in-chief. His name, which was also Ashot, -introduces further confusion into the turbid narrative of the priestly -historian. The stage becomes filled with a crowd of nobles, contending -with each other and combining to mutual destruction round the persons -of the two Ashots. Behind these figures emerge those of the king of -Kolchis and the king of Georgia, while in the background we perceive -the light cavalry of the Mohammedans and the gorgeous functionaries -of the Byzantine Empire. It is scarcely possible during this troubled -period to follow the threads of the emir's policy. No sooner has he -placed a crown upon the forehead of the one Ashot, than he invests -the other with similar insignia of royalty. [279] Nor does the king -of the Van country yield in splendour to his colleagues; the caliph -himself sends him a crown and magnificent robes. This act excites -the fury of the emir of Azerbaijan, who presently revolts from his -sovereign at Baghdad. His capture and imprisonment removed for awhile -the sword suspended over the head of Gagik, and were the occasion of -a general although transitory improvement in the condition of the -Armenian provinces. The caliph sent one of the highest in rank of -the officers about his person to take over the administration of the -province of his rebellious emir. This official not only concluded a -treaty of peace and alliance with Ashot II. (son of King Sembat), but -also conferred upon him the title of Shahanshah, or king of kings. In -this manner the Bagratid dynasty of Shirak recovered their titular -sovereignty over Armenia; and the fact illustrates a marked divergence -between the policy of the caliphate, which appears to have desired a -strong Armenia, and that of the semi-independent emirs of Azerbaijan, -who strove incessantly to prepare the country for their own yoke. On -the other hand, while the caliphs were anxious to secure a counterpoise -to their turbulent governors, the Byzantine Cćsars were well pleased -by any accretion of strength to a buffer state which was attached to -themselves by community of faith. - -Our historian was not spared to witness the splendour of this dynasty, -as it is manifested in the noble buildings of their capital, Ani, -which had not yet become a royal residence. His closing years were -spent under a recrudescence of the old troubles--disunion from within -and new inroads of the Mussulmans from without. The release of Yusuf -restored this malefactor to the scene of his iniquities; [280] he -crossed the Kurdish mountains, and descended into the territory of -Vaspurakan. King Gagik was in arrears with several instalments of the -annual tribute, and was obliged to collect all the available riches of -his country and deliver them up to his implacable foe. Yusuf continued -his journey to Persia, and, upon his arrival, sent one of his officers -to assert his authority over the Armenian provinces. There ensued an -era of constant activity on the part of the Mussulmans. The patriarch -became a fugitive, taking refuge in the little island of Lake Sevan, -and proceeding thence to a small castle in his own possession. But the -enemy surrounded the place and took him prisoner, together with the -companions of his flight. Escaping from their clutches, he made his way -to the court of Ashot, who was residing in the royal palace of Bagaran; -and the curtain falls upon his narrative while he is on a visit to King -Gagik, with whom he appears to have maintained relations which were -perhaps prompted by motives of interest, since the patriarchal palace -and domains were situated within his dominions. [281] Panic had taken -hold of the feudal levies, and his countrymen were being massacred (924 -[C.]). In one of the closing sentences in which he describes that Reign -of Terror he, in fact, resumes the larger history of his race: "Who -can foretell our future? Spare me the attempt. We are like a harvest -reaped by bad husbandmen amidst encircling gloom and cloud." [282] - -We close these graphic pages with the feeling that we have been -privileged to gain some insight into the state of the country during -the reigns of the Bagratid sovereigns, as well as to estimate the -nature of their rule. If I have eliminated by this brief abstract -whole chapters of our author, I may perhaps have saved my reader -from becoming wearied by his declamations, and from losing the main -thread of his thrilling narrative among the side issues in which he -allows it to become involved. The sovereignty of the Bagratids was -essentially feudal in character; and the loose ties of such a political -organisation were ill adapted to withstand the strain to which they -were subjected at the hands of their Mussulman neighbours. Indeed, -the fact that such a dynasty could ever have arisen in the heart of -Asia, among a people which could not have numbered more than a few -millions of souls, can only be explained by the comparative weakness -of their contemporaries professing the Mohammedan faith. The Armenian -historians are fond of railing upon their countrymen on account of -the internal divisions which precipitated their political fall. They -are not less inclined to attribute the miseries of their nation to -their desertion in critical moments by the Greek Empire. But they -do not appear to have reflected that the frequent instances of -treachery among the Armenian nobles need not have been due to any -inherent defects in the character of the Armenian people. Similar -examples abound in the annals of our European nations while they -were still in the feudal stage of development. Again, the Greeks, -while they were no doubt prejudiced by dogmatic differences, might, -one cannot doubt, have established a good case for their abstention -from more strenuous succour of the young state. Their subsidies were -spent, and their troops were marched across Asia with little further -result than the aggrandisement of one princelet at the expense of a -competing claimant of the same race. The lesson which may be derived -from a perusal of this contemporary record explains to us many points -which would otherwise be obscure in the much more meagre annals of the -subsequent period which witnessed the frail blossoming and premature -destruction of the Armenian kingdom of the Middle Ages. When the hordes -of Turks descended from the valleys of the Tien-shan and swept across -the settled territories of Persia towards the richest portions of the -Old World, they found upon the high road of the Armenian tableland a -state which was as little adapted to provide a bulwark against their -invasions as any other of the fissiparous fragments of the caliphs' -empire. - -The narrative of John the Patriarch brings us down to the closing years -of Ashot, second king of that name. The picture which he has presented -of the troubled reigns of these Bagratid sovereigns may enable us to -dispense with the repetition of similar struggles during the reigns of -their successors. Even were I permitted by the scope of this work and -by the material at my disposal to assign to that later period the same -proportion of space which has been devoted to the actions of the first -three kings, I should run the risk of inflicting upon my reader the -same fatigue which I have myself experienced by the perusal of a Samuel -of Ani [283] and a Matthew of Edessa, [284] to say nothing of the -industrious compilers of our own times. The storm-clouds, beneath which -the work of the priestly annalist closes, appear to have lifted over -the setting of Ashot's career; and a mild light envelops the reign of -his brother Abas, who succeeded him on the throne. This tranquil era -seems to have been induced by the weakness or somnolence of the -neighbours of Abas. The activity of the Sajid family in Azerbaijan, -which had been manifest in the exploits of Afshin and of Yusuf, came -to an end at the commencement of his reign. The caliphate was becoming -more and more the shadow of a reality; and the death of Radi (A.D. 940) -removed the last of the successors of the Prophet who sustained a -measure of personal power and prestige. In the West the Armenian -monarch might observe without anxiety the enforced seclusion of the -Cćsar, Constantine the Seventh, as well as the later application of -his benignant mind to the affairs of state. Such a wholesome respite -was employed by king and nobles in adorning Armenia with churches and -monasteries. In the city of Kars, where Abas appears to have placed -the seat of government, a cathedral of unusual grandeur rose into -being. [285] The pugnacity of the race was exercised in fierce -religious dissensions with the Church of the Empire. The western -provinces, subject to the Cćsars and administered by them, were -convulsed by the rival battle-cries of Greeks and Armenians, each -imputing to the other heretical opinions upon the unfathomable subject -of the divinity of Christ. Many Armenians took refuge within the -dominions of the Bagratid king; and if their babes had been baptized -according to the Greek ritual, the ceremony was performed a second -time by the jealous clergy of the Armenian Church (944 [C.]). - -But it was under the next two reigns that the brilliancy of the dynasty -attained the culminating point. Upon the death of Abas his son Ashot -assumed the government; and it was perhaps due to a combination of -domestic dissensions and war with his neighbours that for ten years he -remained an uncrowned king. On the part of the Mussulmans, an Arab -emir, whom the historians name Hamdun, and who may perhaps be -identified with the powerful adversary of the Cćsars in Mesopotamia, -Seif-ed-Daula of the Hamdanid family, made incursions into the -southerly provinces of Armenia, and even threatened the dominions of -Ashot. The signal victory of the Armenian monarch (A.D. 960) [286] -appears to have gratified the caliph and his masters the Buwayhids, -a petty dynasty which had arisen in Persia, and into whose hands had -fallen Baghdad (945). The same event may have been instrumental in -consolidating the power of Ashot at home. In the year 961 he was -anointed king at Ani, in the presence and with the consent of the -great nobles. The rulers of the neighbouring states, Mussulman and -Christian, signified their goodwill by sending valuable presents. -His suzerain at Baghdad bestowed upon him a royal crown, addressing -him as Shah-i-Armen or Armenian shah. But we must impute to this -sovereign a new division of authority, and a consequent reduction of -the resisting powers of the Armenian nation in face of foreign -aggression. By investing his brother Mushegh with royal prerogatives -at Kars, he added yet another to the number of kinglets whose mutual -jealousies prepared the way for the passage of the Seljuk Turks towards -the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. His successor continued and even -developed this baneful policy, adding to the kings of Kars the kings -of Lori, in the mountains which border Armenia upon the north. This -latter Bagratid dynasty struggled on into the thirteenth century; -but the kings of Kars made over their realm to the Cćsar Constantine -the Tenth after the capture of Ani by the Seljuks under Alp Arslan. - -The reign of Ashot the Third is contemporary with the campaigns of -Nikephorus Phokas and of John Zimiskes against the Saracens. Throughout -this period the Arab emirs of Syria and Mesopotamia are actively -engaged in harassing the outposts of the great Christian empire, -and are not less actively repulsed. The conceptions of the Crusaders -are anticipated by these generals over a century before the arrival -of the Western chivalry. Both successively ascended the throne of -the Cćsars; and it was in the capacity of emperor of the Romans -that Zimiskes, himself of Armenian descent, summoned the Armenian -monarch to attach to his army a contingent of troops. His expedition -appears to have excited the alarm of the Armenians; and the native -levies had been marshalled to the proportions of a large army under -the command of the three Armenian kinglets, Ashot, his colleague of -Kars, and his colleague of Van. Zimiskes advanced into the territory -of Mush; but an alliance was secured by the despatch of a body of -10,000 Armenian warriors to share in the victories which were about -to secure the triumph of the imperial arms over the followers of the -Prophet. These brilliant feats are narrated for the benefit of King -Ashot in a despatch which was addressed to him by the emperor, and -which has been preserved by Matthew of Edessa. The Armenian monarch -is styled Shahinshah of Great Armenia, the spiritual son of the Cćsar -(A.D. 974). [287] - -The reign of this prince has a special interest for the traveller -to Ani; for it is at this period that the city on the Arpa emerges -from the condition of a mere fortress into the splendour of a royal -residence and capital of a kingdom. Ashot the Third is known to -have added both to the defences and to the public buildings of -a town which had witnessed the ceremony of his coronation. [288] -It was considerably enlarged by his son and successor, Sembat the -Second, who built the outer wall in face of which I have brought my -reader at the commencement of this chapter. [289] Sembat also laid -the foundations of the cathedral, but died before it was completed. -[290] The title which is assigned to this king by the Armenian -historians dissembles with truly Oriental ingenuity the inherent -weakness of the structure which supported his throne. He is styled -the king of Armenian kings, Shahinshah-Armen. Sembat was succeeded -by his brother Gagik the First, a prince who is described as at once -victorious in the field and strenuous in the works of peace. His -military qualities may have been displayed in a campaign against -the Mussulmans under the emir of Azerbaijan, Mamlun. But the credit -of the victory over this successor of the Afshins and the Yusufs -belongs in the principal degree to an Armenian prince of the country -of Akhaltsykh, David, who endeavoured, at the head of forces composed -of Georgians and Armenians, to wrest from the Moslem yoke the -fortresses in the south of Armenia, Melazkert, Akhlat, Arjish. [291] -It is rather in the sphere of a patron of art that we may be able to -remember Gagik. It was during his reign that the noble cathedral at -Ani was brought to completion, largely at the expense and by the -initiative of his queen. [292] He built another of the great churches -which adorned his capital, that of the Illuminator on the side of the -Valley of Flowers. [293] The monastery of Marmashen, near Alexandropol, -was constructed at this period by one of the Armenian princes, Vahram. -[294] Lastly, the seat of the patriarchate was removed to Ani from the -neighbouring town of Arghina. [295] - -Upon the death of King Gagik the eldest of his three sons ascended the -ancestral throne. Rare natural intelligence belonged to John Sembat-- -the monarch is known under either name; but these mental qualities were -perhaps clouded by an excessive corpulency. On the other hand, his -brother Ashot displayed the union of physical symmetry to ardent -courage and passion for war. The man of action chafed under the -supremacy of the peaceable civilian; and no sooner was the natural -heir in possession of his heritage than his ambitious brother broke -into open revolt. A peace was at length concluded upon the terms that -John should reign in Shirak, with the capital Ani, and Ashot over the -remainder of his father's dominions. [296] This compact was observed -at least so far that Ashot the Fourth was never permitted by his -jealous colleague to enter the capital. [297] But the civil war -loosened the bonds which attached the feudatories to their king, and -the neighbouring states to a dynasty in its strength. The one partner -was obliged to have recourse to the Cćsar Basil; and it was not -without the assistance of a contingent of imperial troops that -Ashot IV. imposed his rule upon his allotted territories. The other -was defeated at the commencement of his reign by the Bagratid king -of Abkhasia and Georgia, whose troops entered and pillaged Ani. [298] -These events appear to have been followed by a period of comparative -tranquillity, during which either monarch was enabled to recover -breath. But the Mussulman emirs were encroaching; the Seljuk Turks -were harrying the frontiers; and the Armenian nation, the natural -bulwark against their invasions, was distracted by the separate -counsels of the king with Ani and the king without Ani, of the king -of Lori and the king of Kars. The king of Van, upon whom the brunt of -the Mussulman and Turkish incursions had fallen, was preparing or had -already accomplished the cession of his kingdom to the Cćsar, in -despair of withstanding these unceasing assaults. - -The tribes composing the wave of the great Turkish invasion appear -upon the stage of Armenian history as early as the commencement of the -eleventh century. [299] The aspect and dress of these savages were -as unfamiliar to the Armenians as their mode of conducting war. The -Christian warriors, armed with the sword, encountered swarms of -archers whose long hair floated behind them like that of women. [300] -The signal defeat of his son David by these nomads about the year -1018 caused the reigning king of the Van country to lose heart. The -news was brought to him while he was residing in the delicious town -of Vostan, upon the wooded spurs of the Kurdish mountains overlooking -the lake of Van. His despondency was confirmed by the recollection of -a prophecy in which St. Nerses, the fifth successor of St. Gregory, -had foretold the advent of great calamities at the hands of a barbarous -people a thousand years after the divine mission of Christ. Senekerim -despatched his son to the court of Constantinople, where he was -received with the greatest kindness by the Emperor Basil II. The Cćsar -accepted the gift of his extensive and populous realm, and gave in -exchange a secure retreat within the borders of the Empire, the city -and territory of Sivas (A.D. 1021). An imperial governor was sent to -take over the ceded dominions, in which were included no less than 72 -fortresses, 4000 villages, and 8 towns. [301] Some display of force -was necessary in order to fasten upon the southern province the rule -of the Byzantine monarchs; and it is probable that the measures taken -to assert their authority still further enfeebled the rampart they had -come to defend. The progress of the shepherds may be traced through the -pages of the Armenian historians during the ensuing years. In A.D. 1021 -they advanced from Azerbaijan upon the town of Nakhichevan under the -conduct of their prince, the famous Toghrul Bey. This incursion was -directed up the valley of the Araxes into the country about Ararat. It -was resisted by a force of Georgians, who retired without coming to an -engagement, and, a little later, by a small detachment of the Armenian -army under Vasak, the commander-in-chief. But no concerted action -was taken against the invaders, the Armenians contenting themselves -with deeds of personal prowess, and the Turkomans swarming over the -settled country, plundering, destroying, and putting the inhabitants -to the sword. [302] In the year 1042 they were encountered by the -king of Armenia, Gagik, the successor of John Sembat and Ashot. At -the head of his troops he inflicted upon them a signal defeat on the -banks of the Zanga, the river of Erivan. The Turks retired into the -Van country, which they devastated anew. [303] Three years later -they appeared again in the same province; but this time they were -fugitives from Mesopotamia, where they had been repulsed by the -emir of Mosul. Their prayer for a safe passage home into Persia was -refused by the imperial governor residing at Arjish, on the lake of -Van. But the forces at his disposal were routed by the tribesmen, who -took him prisoner and put him to death. [304] The Turks returned in -greater numbers during the following years, laying waste the southern -province, flooding northwards into Pasin and into the valley of -the Chorokh. To this period belong the sack of Arzen (near Erzerum) -in 1049, and the pillage of Kars and massacre of its inhabitants in -1050. Neither the imperial generals nor their Georgian and Armenian -dependents were successful in making headway against the storm. [305] -The year 1054 was made memorable in the native annals by the siege -of Melazkert. Toghrul had arrived at the head of an immense army in -the districts bordering the lake of Van on the side of Azerbaijan. The -town of Berkri was taken by assault, that of Arjish purchased immunity; -and the conqueror led his host across the level country at the foot -of Sipan to the walls of the fortress on the Murad. Melazkert was at -that time in the possession of the Empire, and was stoutly defended -by its governor. After a close investiture, during which the garrison -displayed great resource and bravery, the Seljuk king was constrained -to retire. But he had already despatched detachments of his army in -all directions; the Turks penetrated as far north as the slopes of -Caucasus and the Pontic forests, and as far south as the mountains -bordering the southern shore of Lake Van. [306] The area of their raids -was still further extended during the subsequent decade. The territory -of Mush was overrun in 1058; and the lonely cloister of Surb Karapet, -which overlooks that extensive plain, witnessed the prowess of the -Armenian chiefs, who directed their gaze towards it before falling -upon their savage foes. [307] These bands had perhaps returned from -the sack of Malatia beyond and on the west of the Euphrates. [308] In -the following year the advancing tide reached the city of Sivas, that -peaceful haven in the interior of Asia Minor which had been allotted -to King Senekerim, and which was now in possession of his sons. These -princes fled for their life, and the Turks were for a moment arrested -by the spectacle of the multitude of white domes, belonging to the -churches, which they mistook for the tents of their enemy. But both the -city and the plain of Sivas were given over to pillage and massacre; -streets and countryside were deluged with blood. [309] North, south, -and west spread the relentless inundation; at one time the current -sets towards the territory of Karin (Erzerum), at another it eddies -around the mountains in the south between Diarbekr and Palu. [310] - -Armenian patriots of the present day brand the memory of King -Senekerim, the Artsrunian, and insult his tomb in the cloister of -Varag, overlooking Van. No more lenient judgment is meted out to the -Bagratid king of Ani, who, as early as the year 1022, willed away -his dominions to the same Cćsar who had supplanted the sovereign of -the southern province. But these events are but the outward signs of a -general retreat of the Armenians before the advance of Turks and Kurds, -battering in the gates of the caliphate and pressing forward into -the settled countries. [311] A fairer view might impute it to these -Christian kinglets that they failed to stand their ground upon the -bulwarks of Eastern Christendom, drawing support from their powerful -neighbours of the same faith, who were welded together in a single -and magnificent empire. But that empire, so justly respected by the -Mussulmans as the realm of the Romans, was an object of particular -aversion to the Armenians as the home or the prey of the hated and -unorthodox Greeks. On every page of Armenian history is written -large the mutual suspicion which envenomed the relations of the -two races. Where co-operation might have seemed impossible we may -perhaps excuse the abdication of the weaker party, and even justify -the usurpation of the stronger. And the judicial historian, who may -sift the facts with greater care than the inquisitive traveller, will -perhaps conclude that the blame must be laid on wider shoulders--upon -the Pan-Greek policy of the Byzantine Cćsars and their masterful -hierarchy, and upon the perversity of two cultured and Christian -peoples, who, rather than compose or postpone their quarrels, threw -this culture and this religion into the maw of savages. - -At the time when the Bagratid kingdom of Armenia was suffering from -a fresh division of the regal authority under John Sembat and Ashot, -the neighbouring Empire was administered by a worthy successor of -Nikephorus and of Zimiskes. The Emperor Basil the Second stands out -in the Byzantine annals as a monarch who did not disgrace the title of -the Roman Cćsars. His personal intervention in the affairs of Armenia -dates from the reign of Gagik the First, and was occasioned by the -death of the prince of the Akhaltsykh country, David, who had during -his lifetime been a fast ally of the emperor, and who had named him -heir to his principality. Basil hurried to Armenia to take over his -new possessions; he was greeted by the kings of Kars and of Van; -but King Gagik excited his displeasure and provoked his resentment -by somewhat pointedly remaining away. The Cćsar appears to have -made a peregrination of the Armenian country, visiting Shirak, and -perhaps occupying some of the fortresses in the south, such as Akhlat, -Melazkert, and Arjish. [312] Years later he was again summoned to the -scene of his former successes; but on this occasion it was his duty -to combat the folly of two Christian princes who had taken up arms -against that Empire which alone could save them from their doom. King -George the First of Georgia, in concert with King John Sembat of Ani, -had been raiding in the imperial dominions. Basil established his -camp in the plain of Erzerum, and summoned the Georgian monarch to -submit. Upon the failure of his embassies he made his way by the -plain of Pasin to the territory of Kars. The armies came together -in the neighbourhood of Lake Chaldir; and if the issue of a furious -engagement may have seemed uncertain, the result was established by -the retirement of the Georgians into their strong places, and by the -devastation of their country by the imperial forces, which included -contingents of barbarous peoples such as Russians and Bulgarians. The -emperor spent the winter in the neighbourhood of Trebizond, where -he received an envoy from the king of Ani, no less a person than the -patriarch, accompanied by twelve bishops, seventy monks, two scholars, -and three hundred knights. The presence no less than the gifts of -this distinguished embassy might have appeased the just wrath of the -most Christian emperor; but his expectations were perhaps exceeded -by the production of a testament in which John Sembat named him the -heir to his dominions. This voluntary cession (A.D. 1022) secured the -immunity of the kingdom of Ani; and Basil was free to exact his terms -from the Georgian. Measures were taken to ensure the future safety of -the domains of Akhaltsykh, and the imperial army was paraded upon the -extremities of the Armenian country, carrying fear into the hearts of -the inhabitants of Azerbaijan. Basil returned to his distant capital, -having smoothed the way for the extension of the Empire across the -natural bridge of the Asiatic highlands. The masters of Akhaltsykh -in the north and of Van in the south could afford to wait for the -death of a feeble and childless king. [313] - -But the Emperor Basil died in the year 1025, and was followed upon the -throne by no less than six sovereigns within the space of seventeen -years. His bold policy was committed to feeble hands and incapable -brains; and perhaps the testament of King John was forgotten by -the Emperor Romanus when he bestowed his niece in marriage upon its -author. [314] The bridegroom did not profit by this opportunity of -producing an heir who might have rivalled the claims of the heir of -Basil. Upon the death of John, which occurred some years after this -event, the reigning emperor, Michael, took steps to enforce those -claims. One of the most powerful of the Armenian nobles, by name -Sargis, supported the cession of the kingdom in accordance with the -imperial demand. His proposal was resisted by his compeers, and the -imperial forces were despatched into Shirak. Arrived under the walls -of Ani, they were surprised by a sally of the garrison, who were led -by the chiefs of the faction opposed to Sargis, under the supreme -command of the intrepid Vahram (A.D. 1041). The Greek army was routed -after incurring heavy losses, and the river of Ani was reddened by the -blood of the Greeks. Gagik, the son of King Ashot, who was then a mere -youth, was raised to his uncle's throne; and the hateful Sargis was -taken prisoner by the successful party, but restored to liberty by -the clemency of the young king. The imperial anger continued to harass -an inexperienced prince who was regarded by the Byzantine court as an -usurper; but the death of Michael in the same year suspended the -delivery of a decisive blow. His nephew, another Michael, ruled or -tyrannised for a few months; the disorders of his reign were followed -by those consequent upon his expulsion; and a short period was perhaps -necessary for his successor, Constantine Monomachus, to establish -himself upon the throne. The revenge which he inherited against the -kingdom of Ani was stimulated by the intrigues of Sargis, who -suggested that the youthful Gagik should be enticed to Constantinople, -in order to smooth the way for the surrender of the city. The promises -of the emperor, and the oaths of the nobles that they would conserve -his capital during his absence, were successful in drawing the monarch -away; but a considerable display of force was rendered necessary -before the garrison could be induced to surrender Ani. After a first -reverse, measures were taken by the absent emperor to secure the -triumph of his arms. A Kurdish emir, who was powerful in Karabagh and -the valley of the Araxes, was induced to join his forces to those of -the Empire; and matters had become hopeless when the city was -delivered over to the emissary of the Cćsar by the notables in -concert with the patriarch (A.D. 1045). King Gagik was allotted a -territory in Cappadocia and a palace at Constantinople. A Greek -governor was despatched to take over Ani and the new possessions, -which placed the crown upon the extension of the Roman Empire along -the valley of the Araxes and round the shores of Lake Van. [315] - -In this manner and by these several stages the protagonists in a world -struggle were brought face to face. The Seljuks reinforced the failing -energies of Islam, but infused into the body to which they lent new -vigour an intractable strain of barbarism which it has retained to -the present day. On the high-road of their depredations they were now -confronted by a redoubtable adversary, the champion of Christianity -and of whatever culture the age possessed. But that religion, become -debased, had already sapped the foundations of culture; the winged -mind of the Greeks had been imprisoned by a rigorous dogmatism; and -their bodies were either crushed by the discipline of the monastery -or exhausted by the refinements of the life of sensual pleasure. The -greatness of their inheritance and the extent of the resources -which they administered had been equal to producing a Nikephorus, -a Zimiskes and a Basil; but this grain of Roman genius was allowed -to wither by the succeeding princes; and we feel the force of the -comparison which is drawn by the Armenian historian between the quiet -strength and benignant policy of Basil and the dissolute habits and -feeble half-measures of Monomachus. [316] The safety of the provinces -was made subordinate to the interests of the Greek hierarchy; the -Armenians were irritated by renewed attempts to bring them over to -Byzantine orthodoxy; and their resistance was punished by the removal -of the strongest characters from the native seats in the defence -of which they would have given their lives. The new territories -were handed over to Greek eunuchs, to whom was entrusted their -administration and defence. [317] In the year 1055 the inhabitants -were massacred outside the walls of Ani by an enemy which perhaps -consisted of a detachment of Seljuks in concert with the forces of -the emir of Karabagh. [318] The final blow was delivered nine years -later by the successor of Toghrul, the famous Alp Arslan. After a -successful campaign in the Georgian country he arrived before Ani -in the summer of 1064. The appearance of the city at that date is -described in eloquent terms, if with some exaggeration, by Matthew -of Edessa. Such was the number of the population assembled within -its ramparts that the Turks believed them to comprise the greater -part of the Armenian nation. Mass was celebrated in a thousand and -one churches. Precipitous cliffs protected the site for almost the -whole circuit, and it was embraced by the sinuous course of the Arpa -Chai. On one side only was there level or slightly shelving ground for -a distance about equal to the flight of an arrow. It was upon the walls -which defended this vulnerable side that the Seljuk sultan directed -his attack. After a siege of twenty-five days the Turks penetrated -into the city. Each man carried a knife in either hand and a third -between his teeth. The garrison had retired into the inner citadel, -and the defenceless inhabitants were mown down like grass. One of -the barbarians mounted upon the roof of the cathedral, and hurled to -the ground the great cross which rose from the dome. A little door -gave him access to the interior of the dome, whence he precipitated -a crystal lamp, perhaps of Indian origin, which had been presented -by King Sembat the Second. The capture of Ani prepared the way for -the investiture of Kars; but the king of Kars appeased the victor -by attiring himself in black robes, which he affected to be wearing -out of respect for the death of Toghrul. From these successes the -Seljuks were carried forward into the bosom of the Empire; and the -signal defeat near Melazkert of the Cćsar Romanus in 1071 finally -decided the long struggle in favour of the Mohammedan world. [319] - -From these momentous issues, with which the fortunes of Ani were -so closely connected, it is an abrupt descent to the plane of her -subsequent history. I have already had occasion to mention the two -chief actors in this minor drama, the Bagratid dynasty of Georgia -and the Kurdish dynasty of Karabagh. [320] The Georgian Bagratids -weathered the storm of the Seljuk invasions; and they attained during -the course of the twelfth and the commencement of the thirteenth -century a wide dominion over the adjacent lands. A lesser station must -be assigned to the Mussulman family of the Beni-Cheddad, who in the -decline of the caliphate had established themselves in the valleys of -the Kur and the Araxes, and whose kinsmen probably wandered over the -mountains of Karabagh, which at the present day still harbour Kurdish -tribes. The particular clan to which they belonged is said to have -been named Rewadi; but they became possessed of the important town -of Gandzak in the valley of the Kur (the modern Elizabetpol), and of -Dvin, the ancient Armenian metropolis, in that of the Araxes. I have -twice spoken of their prince, a figure of some importance during the -reigns of John Sembat and Gagik the Second, at first the ally and -then the determined adversary of the Empire and the coadjutor of Alp -Arslan. Abulsevar--the Chawir of the Arabs, the Aplesphares of the -Greeks--is well known to the Byzantine annalists, and is styled by -them, no less than by the Armenian writers, the prince of Dvin. [321] -His son and successor, Fathlun, purchased Ani from the Seljuk sultan, -and gave it over to his brother Manuchar (A.D. 1072). This ruler -appears to have governed with moderation; and he was confirmed in -his dignity by the successor of Alp Arslan, the humane Malek Shah, -who extended the Seljuk empire to the Mediterranean. After the death -of Manuchar in A.D. 1110 [322] the inhabitants were much harassed by -their Mussulman and Georgian neighbours during the government of his -son and successor, another Abulsevar. They appealed for help to the -Bagratid king of Georgia, David the Second, and opened their gates to -that monarch (A.D. 1124). Abulsevar and his sons were carried off to -Tiflis, and the unhappy prince, with two of his children, perished -in an unhealthy prison. [323] This revolution restored the city to -a Christian administration, after a Mussulman occupation of sixty -years. The cathedral, which had served as a mosque, was restored to -Christian worship and consecrated anew with great pomp. But David -the Second died in the following year; and his son and successor -Dimitri was confronted with an investiture of Ani by Fathlun, the -eldest son of the deceased ruler, who had been absent at the time of -the Georgian conquest and who was thirsting to avenge his father. The -issue of a lengthy siege was a happy compromise, by which the Kurdish -emir assumed the government under a pledge to reserve the cathedral -to the exclusive use of his Armenian subjects (A.D. 1125-26). [324] -Fathlun was killed in battle in the year 1132, and was succeeded by -his brother Mahmud. [325] The Kurdish dynasty continued to drag on a -precarious existence as lords of Ani until towards the close of the -twelfth century; but they lost Gandzak to the Seljuks in 1088, and -Dvin to the Georgians in 1162. [326] The conqueror of Dvin, George the -Third, was twice the conqueror of Ani. His first expedition belongs -to the year 1161, when he made himself master of the place after a -single day's siege. [327] But his success exasperated his Mussulman -neighbours, and he was confronted in the same year by the emir of -Akhlat at the head of an army numbering 80,000 men. The pompous title -of this prince, that of Shah of Armenia, serves to accentuate his -signal defeat by the Georgian king. But the Mussulmans renewed their -attacks under the guidance or at the prompting of Ildigiz, the Atabeg -governor of Azerbaijan. About the year 1165 George was constrained -to restore Ani to them, and it again came into the possession of -the Beni-Cheddad. From these it passed for the third time into the -hands of the Georgians in 1173-74. [328] During the reign of Thamar -the luckless inhabitants were surprised and massacred by the emir of -Ardabil in eastern Azerbaijan. Even at that period, the commencement -of the thirteenth century, the city was still rich and populous. [329] -But the advent of the Tartars in A.D. 1239 was the occasion of a new -catastrophe, the place being sacked by the savage bands of Jenghiz -Khan. In 1319 Ani was visited by a severe earthquake, to which Armenian -writers ascribe her final abandonment. But there exists evidence to -show that this consummation was deferred to a later and uncertain date. - -I feel that I owe an apology to my reader for this long excursion into -Armenian history. But my endeavour has been to encompass a double -purpose, that of presenting in a sufficient narrative the capital -events in the annals of Ani, and that of sketching in from various -and scattered sources the larger history of the Armenian kingdom of -the Middle Ages. The attention of the traveller, no less than that of -the statesman and the man of culture, is frequently directed to that -neglected but fascinating subject, which indeed explains the present -condition of the Armenians and which conducts us to the threshold of -our own era. We cannot learn much from the long intervening spaces -of time during which Tartars and Turkomans, and Ottoman Turks and -Persians ruled in a country which was forgotten by the West. A deep -sleep settles on the land, given over to shepherds, from which it -scarcely awakes at the distant calling of the modern epoch. The -natural development of the Armenian people was suddenly arrested by -the Seljuk conquest, and the abler among them were forced to seek new -homes. Some stout spirits established themselves in the mountains of -Cilicia, where they founded a petty kingdom which endured for nearly -three hundred years (A.D. 1080-1375). The obstinacy of their race was -made manifest by the long resistance of this colony to the spiritual -guidance of the popes of Rome. The friends of the Crusaders, they were -at length overwhelmed by the Turks, who suppressed the dynasty. Their -descendants still maintain themselves about their adopted seats, -secure in their mountain fastnesses. But perhaps the most remarkable -outcome of this dispersal was the emigration of the inhabitants of Ani -to Poland, Moldavia and Galicia, to Astrakhan on the northern shore -of the Caspian, and thence to the Crimea. Many of these colonies have -endured to the present day. Some among them were permitted to retain -their own laws; and the jurisprudence of the Armenian kings figures -in the code of the colony of Lemberg, which was administered by the -Armenian notables with the express sanction of the Polish kings and -which has been preserved to the curiosity of our own age. [330] - - - -My reader is now in possession of an outline of the history of -the deserted city before the walls of which he stands. He is also -familiar with the large surroundings which overpower this elegant -architecture--in the distance the pile of Alagöz and the dome of -Ararat; far and near the undulating upland plain, deeply cańoned by -the sinuous course of the Arpa Chai. But the site of Ani calls for -some particular description. [331] It has been built within the fork -described by the meeting of two ravines which have been eroded by -the action of water to a considerable depth below the level of the -plain. In the more westerly of these ravines flows a small stream -coming down from the Alaja Dagh (p. 330), which was known to the old -priest by its older name of Tsaghkotz, [332] but which some travellers -have called the Alaja Chai. The more easterly is occupied by the Arpa -Chai, the ancient Akhurean. Near the confluence, the two streams are -only separated by a narrow spit, and their waters hiss at the base of -crags composed of lava. But the greater portion of the site consists -of a spacious platform, flanked on two sides by the ravines. At a -distance of about a mile above the junction of the waters two small -side valleys descend into the principal depressions from within the -area which they enclose. The one is directed towards the west and -joins the trough of the Alaja; the other pursues a south-easterly -course to the chasm of the Arpa Chai. The heads of these two side -valleys are separated from one another by a considerable stretch of -unbroken ground. It is on that side only and along that space that -the site is weak. And it is there that the double line of walls have -been erected, fronted in ancient times by a moat (Fig. 70). [333] - - - The character of this double wall and the appearance of the towers - are exhibited in my illustration, which was taken from outside, - in front of the principal gateway. The long line of fortifications - is seen extending towards the east. Such walls are composed at - Ani of an inner core of solid conglomerate, faced on either side - with rectangular blocks of hewn stone. One admires the exquisite - art with which the masonry is disposed and the minute fitting - at the joints. We enter the enclosure between the two parapets, - and walk for a short distance in an easterly direction. Above us, - upon the face of the inner wall, is placed a fine bas-relief - of a lion (Fig. 71); and almost immediately we arrive at the - inner gateway, just west of the great tower. A somewhat effaced - inscription is seen above the arch. It has been copied, but the - interpretation and date are obscure. [334] We know that these walls - were originally built by King Sembat the Second (A.D. 977-989); - [335] but they must have been restored and towers added at later - dates. The earliest inscription which has been discovered was - found on a round tower not far from this entrance. It is in Cufic - character, and records that the tower was erected by Manuchar the - son of Chawir, or Abulsevar. We have already seen that Manuchar was - the first ruler in Ani of the Kurdish family of the Beni-Cheddad - (A.D. 1072). Other inscriptions belong to the latter half of the - twelfth century and the commencement of the thirteenth. They are - in Armenian and establish the fact that some of the towers were - constructed by private persons as memorials to themselves. [336] - - Once within the archway through the inner wall, the interior of - the city is displayed in a long perspective to our gaze. But we - might have to mount upon one of the parapets, in order to survey - the irregularities of the large triangular space as far as the - citadel at its further and narrow end. This north-easterly or - broader portion of the site is covered with the débris of the - private dwellings, not one of which has remained erect. They - must have been packed together in a most uncomfortable manner, - and they were probably built for the greater part of inferior - material. [337] It is as though a Persian runner had swished them - away with his long cane to open the view to the noble monuments - which still stand. Behind us, as we proceed, the long barrier of - the fortifications opens out on either side. The inner walls of - many of the towers have fallen in, and their vaulted interiors - are laid bare. They suggest the appearance of a series of apses - as they soar up into the sky. - - Directing our steps towards the cathedral, the largest of the - buildings, we pass the scattered fragments of an octagonal - tower (No. 11 on the plan), which must have succumbed at a - comparatively recent date. It has been seen while still perfect by - my predecessors, who have described it as a minaret. It may have - also served as a watch-tower. One huge block of masonry which has - held together still displays the large proportions and the form - of the structure. The remains of a spiral staircase engage the - eye, and one is impressed with the excellence of the masonry. Two - inscriptions have been found upon this pile. One in Persian bears - the date Heg. 595 or A.D. 1198-99, and is to the effect that - one Kei-Sultan of the Beni-Cheddad family "forbids the sale of - sheep and camels in front of this mosque of Abu-l-Mamran." The - other is in Armenian and without date or personal sanction, - being a mere exhortation to obey the order. One must suppose, - in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that the minaret - belonged to a mosque which has disappeared. [338] - - The cathedral will surprise the traveller, even if he have come - from Edgmiatsin. Although of small proportions, if judged by a - European standard, it is nevertheless a stately building. [339] - It bears the imprint of that undefinable quality, beauty, and can - scarcely fail to arouse a thrill of delight in the spectator. It - is seen to great advantage, adjacent edifices having disappeared - (Fig. 72). The extreme simplicity of the design--an oblong figure - of four almost unbroken walls--at once appeals to the eye. The - skill with which these plain spaces have been treated is the - feature which is admired in the next place. The apse is only - indicated by two niches which recess back from the face of the - wall on the east (Figs. 72 and 73). Two similar niches are seen - on the south, and, I think, also on the north side; but their - purpose is ornamental and to secure uniformity of design. The - remainder of the space is diversified by the lightest of false - arcades, which rises almost to the roof, embraces the niches and - extends to all four walls. My illustration (Fig. 72) displays - the southern and eastern fronts; that on the north resembles - its counterpart, but is less ornate. The façade is practically - the same as the eastern front, but without the niches and with - a low doorway. Similar doorways are conspicuous on the northern - and southern sides. One remarks the tall and slender pillars of - the false arcades, the cushion form of the capitals with their - richly chiselled faces, the low spring of the rounded arches which - curve inwards at the base, but scarcely suggest, so slight is the - curve, the horse-shoe shape. The row of these arched mouldings is - pleasantly broken at the doorway, which is surmounted by a narrow - window with a rectangular frame of chiselled stone. And the bold - arched moulding of pointed form, which envelops door and window, - takes the eye above the tops of the neighbouring arches and leads - it upwards to the loftier roof of the transept. - - The architecture of the roof is less single of - feature. Multiplicity of outlines and contrast of shapes are the - characteristics which are here displayed. At one level you have - the aisles, at another the nave and transept, at yet another - the supreme crown of the dome. Here it is a group of gables; - there the large circle of the drum of the dome; there again the - cone formed by the roof of the dome. This uppermost member of the - series has unhappily fallen in; but enough remains of the drum - to enable the eye to complete the picture, and to reconstruct - the delicate mouldings of a false arcade. We have in fact a roof - scene essentially Byzantine in character, but which is quite free - of that suggestion of a series of box-like elevations which is - engendered by the appearance of some specimens of the style. On - the contrary, we receive the impression of a stately simplicity - underlying the diversity of outline and form. - - The interior is quite remarkable from the standpoint of the history - of architecture; it is also calculated to deserve the admiration - of the lover of art. It has many of the characteristics of the - Gothic style, of which it establishes the Oriental origin. [340] - The dome is supported by four massive piers of coupled pillars with - plain capitals. Four similar piers are placed at either extremity - of the building, a pair at the entrance and one on each side of - the apse. A feature of the edifice is the extreme narrowness - of the aisles and the corresponding constriction of the side - chapels at their eastern extremity. The relative proportions of - the apse and of these minor apses may be discovered by a glance - at the illustration of the eastern front, where the extent of - the latter is indicated by the two arches with little windows, - one on either side of the niches. The Gothic appearance of - the interior is still further accentuated by the bold pointed - arches which spring from the piers. Our curiosity is aroused by - these characteristics; but our emotions awake as we contemplate - the magnificent apse (Fig. 74). [341] That element of grandeur - which we miss in Armenian churches is here made manifest in a - high degree. It is imparted by the apse to the whole interior; - and the apse becomes, by a happy inspiration of the architect, - indeed the head and soul of the church. - - Vestiges of paintings upon the ceilings have been observed by my - predecessors; but I do not know that the building suffers from - their destruction. The plaster has fallen, and the perfection - of the masonry is exposed. The roofs as well as the walls are - composed of stone, and, as usual in Armenian churches, no wood or - metal has been used. Even at the present day the Armenian masons - are possessed of exceptional skill; and their natural gifts have - been here directed by the conceptions of genius. Although the - interior is almost free of ornament, the art of the sculptor has - been employed upon the enrichment of the outside niches, of the - doorways and windows, and of the mouldings of the false arcade. In - no case do we discover any trace of barbarism; the designs are - sober and full of grace, the execution is beyond praise. [342] - The impression which we take away from our survey of these various - features is that we have been introduced to a monument of the - highest artistic merit, denoting a standard of culture which was - far in advance of the contemporary standards in the West. - - Several inscriptions in Armenian are visible upon the walls - and have been copied and translated. [343] The earliest in date - is found upon the south wall and is of some length. It records - that in the year 1010 (Arm. era 459), during the reign of Gagik, - king of the kings of Armenia and Georgia, the cathedral, which - had been founded by King Sembat, was completed by Katranideh, - queen of Armenia and daughter of the king of Siunik, at the - bidding of her husband, King Gagik. The queen adds that she had - also embellished the church with precious ornaments, an offering - to Christ on behalf of herself and of her sons Sembat, Abas, - and Ashot. [344] Two inscriptions belonging to the period of the - occupation of Ani by the Byzantines figure upon the façade. Both - appear to be without dates, but both refer to known personages. The - one mentions the Empress Zoe (1042), and is a memorial to her - general, Aron-Magistros, who was entrusted with the government - of the city. [345] The other is an edict of Bagrat-Magistros, - governor-general of the eastern provinces, abolishing by order - of Constantine Dukas (A.D. 1059-67) certain taxes which pressed - upon the inhabitants. Other inscriptions detail offerings on the - part of private individuals; and the date of one, if it has been - copied correctly, is as late as 1486. [346] - - An edifice of much smaller scale than the cathedral, [347] but - closely resembling it in plan and style, is the church which is - dedicated to St. Gregory the Illuminator, and which occupies - a secluded site at the eastern extremity of the town upon the - side of the cliff which breaks away to the bed of the Arpa by a - series of black crags (No. 4). It is indeed a romantic spot. The - side valley already mentioned joins the valley of the Arpa at - this point, and is flanked by walls which descend to the river - with bold bastions. The stream hisses in a gloomy ravine of grey - and lichened rock. Subterraneous passages lead inwards into the - town. In presenting my photograph of the building I must ask my - reader to imagine for a moment that the ruinous porch has been - removed (Fig. 76). He will then seize the characteristics with - which he is already familiar: the oblong figure of unbroken walls; - the elegant false arcades; the roof scene of nave, and transept - and aisles, surmounted by a polygonal dome with a conical roof. The - niches in the exterior of this church are perhaps less pronounced - than in the case of the cathedral; but they are discovered upon - all four walls. The stone is uniform of hue. Tall double shafts - support the arches of the false arcade which extends round the - building. The face of these arches has been richly sculptured with - the most elegant traceries, while the spaces above the capitals, - between the arms of the arches, display the forms of birds - and flowers in moderate relief (Fig. 77, from north side). The - architect has wisely discarded the use of the pointed arch in any - part of this gem-like structure. But the slender pillars suggest - the Gothic. The Byzantine feature of a narthex is wanting both - to this building and to the cathedral. The porch has been added - at a later date and is purely Saracenic in character. It displays - several traceries and designs of high merit, among which I would - call attention to the zigzag moulding which is so common in Norman - architecture (Fig. 78). - - Entering the building we are at once impressed by its almost - perfect preservation; the plaster adheres to the walls and - ceilings, and the frescos with which they were adorned are still - intelligible. Yet here we have a monument erected nearly 800 - years ago, and which has not yet been touched by a restorer's - hand. The disposition of the interior resembles that of the - cathedral; the dome rests on four piers, the apse is flanked by - side chapels, which are of diminutive size. The frescos, which - are also found upon the façade, represent Biblical subjects. They - must have appreciably faded since they were seen and described - by my predecessors. [348] The legends which accompany them are - all in Georgian or in Greek characters. This fact has led to - the supposition that the church was designed for the Greek form - of worship. But we know that it was built by an Armenian, as the - church of an Armenian convent dedicated to an Armenian saint. One - can scarcely fail to remark the dim lighting of the interior, a - characteristic or defect which also belongs to the cathedral. Both - might easily have been flooded with light from the dome. - - The commemorative inscriptions are found upon the exterior and - are in Armenian character. Within each of the three most easterly - arches upon the south wall there is an inscription of twenty-five - lines. It would appear that the lines are carried across, and - that they constitute a single text. We are informed that in - the year 1215 (Arm. era 664), during the government of Zakarea, - chief of the mandatories, and of his son Shahanshah, one Tigran, - of the family of Honentz, built a monastery upon this site in the - hope that his good work would bring long life to his House and - to the son of Zakarea. At the time when he bought it the place - was covered with rocks and brushwood; but there was a building - upon it known as Our Lady of the chapel. Tigran surrounded it - with a wall, constructed dwellings for the monks, erected this - church of St. Gregory, and enriched the church with ornaments - and precious vessels. He also bestowed a permanent endowment - upon the monastery. [349] The edifice is therefore a work of - the period of Georgian occupation. An inscription upon the east - wall belongs to a later epoch, the date being given as 759 of - the Armenian era, or A.D. 1310. [350] But the city was still - governed by a member of the family of Zakarea. It records that - one Matheh, chief secretary of the ruler Shahanshah, restored - some conduits which brought water to the monastery, but which - had been destroyed during certain foreign or civil troubles. It - supplies us with the names of two other personages--Khvandzeh, - the wife of this Shahanshah, and Zakarea, their son. - - In the immediate neighbourhood of this church, but upon a - higher level, we observe two ruins which are of interest. The - one consists of the remains of a massive wall and a chamber which - stand in an isolated position (No. 22). They are of the character - which is usually known as Cyclopean. The other ruin is that of - a small and almost subterraneous bath. Recent excavations have - disclosed subsidiary chambers and passages; but the bath itself, - which is divided into four small vaulted chambers, could scarcely - have accommodated more than four bathers at a time (No. 13). [351] - - Not far from St. Gregory, as you follow down the stream of the - Arpa, are met remains of a walled enclosure of the usual finished - masonry and in fair preservation. The walls descend the cliff-side - to a projecting mass of rock which rises from the bed of the - river with almost vertical sides. On the edge of this promontory, - overlooking the stream, is placed a little chapel which, although - ruinous, still retains many of the elements of its former beauty - (No. 9, Fig. 79). It is distinguished from the walls about it by - the pink stone of which it is built. The form of the roof is a - pleasant variation from the prevailing type, as is also the plan of - the interior. Six semicircular recesses are crowned by the circle - of the dome. Contiguous to this elegant monument is a chamber or - chapel of different form. At the upper end of the enclosure are - seen the ruins of the long vaulted staircase which was taken across - the enclosure and through the wall on the west, in order to debouch - upon the ravine on the western side of the promontory, and so to - lead down to the water's edge. About 300 yards still further down - the current you observe the piers of a bridge of which the single - arch has fallen in. It was on the cliff-side above this bridge that - the remains of a gateway were seen by my predecessors, bearing an - inscription of the year 1320. It commemorates the allocation of - a tax on cattle to the monastery of St. Gregory by one Sargis, - chief of the Custom-House. The gift is made for the repose of - the soul of the master of Sargis, Shahanshah, and for the long - life of Zakarea and the other sons of Shahanshah. Fragments of - inscriptions found within the neighbouring enclosure yield the - dates of 705 and 759 Arm. era (A.D. 1256 and 1310). [352] I am - inclined to think it possible that the enclosure and chapel may - have formed part of the same monastery of St. Gregory of which - I have already described the church. - - One of the most conspicuous buildings is the mosque with the - polygonal minaret (No. 10, Fig. 80). It rises from the cliff on - the right bank of the Arpa and overlooks the ruinous bridge. An - Arabic inscription, done in brick and inlaid in the masonry - of the minaret not far from the summit of that lofty column, - displays to the city in colossal characters the name of Allah. The - mosque is the work of the first Mussulman prince of Ani, Manuchar, - the son of Abulsevar. This fact appears to be established by a - Cufic inscription which may be perceived in my illustration upon - the north-west wall, the wall adjoining the minaret. [353] Just - above it is seen a long Persian inscription which must be over - two hundred years later in date. It is in fact an edict of the - Mongol king of Persia, Abu-Said, one of the successors of Jenghiz - Khan. Abu-Said is styled Bahadur, or the brave. The edict is - therefore posterior to the year 718 of the Hegira (A.D. 1318-19), - when that sultan acquired this personal title. The contents of - this text are to the effect that the inhabitants of the city and - neighbouring provinces had been suffering from illegal exactions - on the part of their rulers. They had been emigrating and selling - their goods and houses. The obnoxious imposts are specified and - their abolition decreed. [354] Of the trilingual inscription which - was found by Khanikoff I saw no traces; it was a mere fragment - at the time of his visit. It mentions the name of Zakarea, to - which is attached the title of Atabeg; and it may belong to the - year 1237 and to the reign of Zakarea III. [355] - - The architecture of the mosque resembles nothing that has yet - been mentioned. Five massive and isolated pillars, of which - originally there were six, [356] are seen rising from the floor - of the chamber and supporting the vaultings of the roof. The - circumference of these pillars is 9 feet 2 inches. The dimensions - of the chamber itself are insignificant, being only 47 feet - by 41 feet. Beneath it and below the level of the ground on - the north-west, but overlooking the river upon the south-east, - are four square apartments with narrow windows. My illustration, - which was taken from the south, does not embrace this feature; - nor does it quite reproduce the peculiar effect of the masonry, - in which pink and black stones have been variously employed. - - During the summer preceding our visit excavations had been made - in Ani by the Russian archćologist Mr. N. Marr. [357] Not the - least interesting result of his labours, as they were manifest - upon the site, is the discovery of a line of walls with bastions, - crossing the neck or narrowest portion of the platform from the - ravine of the Arpa to that of the Tsaghkotz. The one extremity - of this fortification starts from the former of these valleys - in the immediate neighbourhood of the mosque. South-west of this - neck, with its transverse rampart, the platform again opens out; - and at the same time it attains its greatest elevation, gathering - together and composing a hill with a flat top. The summit and sides - of this hill display the substructures of walls and buildings; - and at least two edifices in a fair state of preservation rise - against the background of sky. One can scarcely doubt that this - strong position was the site of the old fortress of Ani before - it became a city and the residence of the king. It is flanked by - the two ravines with the two rivers, which presently unite. It is - only accessible from the level ground on the north-east. But on - that side, as we have seen, it has the form of a narrow isthmus, - easily defensible by a line of walls. This fortress must have - composed the nucleus of the more recent city--that inner fortress - of which we read. Upon the summit of the hill, some four hundred - feet above the rivers, was built the citadel. And there is ground - for supposing that the citadel was also the palace, as in the - case of Trebizond and perhaps also of Melazkert. - - Unfortunately nothing remains of the actual walls of the - palace; and the buildings which I have mentioned are two small - churches. One stands upon the north side of the fortified eminence, - and the other upon the south. The former is not noteworthy, except - for the fact that its northern wall rises from lower levels and - composes part of the wall of the citadel. But the edifice on the - south is of considerable interest. It consists of two vaulted - chambers placed side by side, and having the inner wall in common - (No. 28, Fig. 81, taken from the north). The more southerly is - the largest; and the round arches which support the roof rest upon - four pilasters of curious design. I photographed one of the best - preserved among them, which is adorned with the figures of two - birds in low relief (Fig. 82). They are represented in the act - of pouncing upon animals. The pilasters are composed of blocks - of black stone; while for the capitals and the upper portion of - the building only pink stone has been used. The façade and the - apse have fallen away. The dimensions are small: a length of - 30 feet 9 inches and a breadth of 17 feet 4 inches. One of my - predecessors discovered in the contiguous building a bas-relief - upon which was portrayed two figures on horseback, one of which is - St. George with the dragon at his feet. But this piece, as well - as another, in which a mounted and aureoled archer is displayed, - surrounded by the forms of birds and wild animals, is no longer - to be seen. I showed the reproductions in Brosset's Atlas to the - aged priest; he recognised the latter of these sculptures and - informed us that it had been stolen. Quite probably both are now - lost in some museum. [358] Elements derived from Assyrian art may - be recognised in these bas-reliefs as well as the ornament of the - pilaster. But in the absence of inscriptions one is thrown back - upon internal evidence in assigning a date to the south chapel. - - Such is the site of the ancient fortress of Ani, which must have - enjoyed a fine view over the city. I observed that this view - comprises the south and west sides of the cathedral, while the - north side is turned towards the town. The fact that the south - wall of that edifice has been more profusely decorated than its - counterpart which faces north confirms the supposition that the - palace was situated within the citadel, and that it was for the - royal windows that the decorative resources of the architect were - principally displayed. - - If we descend the hill of the citadel in a southerly direction, - as it falls away to the crags which separate the two ravines about - the confluence of the rivers, we cross the remains of an inner - wall and pass the ruin of a little chapel, of which the four piers - as well as the cupola still stand. I photographed the charming - detail of the doorway on the south, overlooking the Arpa Chai - (No. 29, Fig. 83). [359] What a contrast between these classical - mouldings and the somewhat barbarous architecture of the chapel - in the citadel, between the sobriety of the designs in these - bands of sculptured stone and the wild spirit of the ornament on - those pilasters! Ani is indeed a museum of architectural styles--a - characteristic in keeping with her geographical position and with - the inquisitive and impressionable culture of her inhabitants. Just - west of this building is seen a piece of masonry which is in - the last stage of decay (No. 30, Fig. 84). It may represent the - apse of another chapel. From here the view ranges over the crags - below the citadel, of which the most southerly is crowned by the - walls of a third chapel. The Arpa is seen emerging from the deep - ravine on the left of the ruin; it is joined by its affluent in - the neighbourhood of the rock with the chapel. [360] - - Just below the standpoint of this picture are situated the - remains of the outer wall which encircled the peninsula. At - the extremity of the figure stands a tower, which is concealed - by the lie of the ground. But portions of the wall are visible - in the illustration; and it appears to have extended along the - valley of the Alaja in a northerly direction, and to have been - joined to the outer fortifications of the city on the side of - the plain. Where I examined the masonry of this wall I found it - faced on both sides, and 3 feet 4 inches in thickness. Issuing - from the citadel or inner fortress, we examined the substructures - of a curious building which had been recently brought to light - by Mr. Marr. But the length of this notice warns me that I must - confine it to a description of the monuments which are still erect. - - Let us therefore retrace our steps in the direction of the town, - keeping as close as we may to the ravine of the Alaja, the ancient - Tsaghkotzadzor or Vale of Flowers. On the summit of the cliff, in - full view of the city, rises a circular building with a drum-shaped - dome and a conical roof. Of this edifice, the chapel of St. Gregory - (No. 5), I am able to present three photographs, one of the east - side (Fig. 85), another of the entrance on the west (Fig. 86), - and a third of the interior (Fig. 87). It is a charming little - monument, which, like the cathedral, blends elements of Byzantine - and Gothic art. But the niche is here again a prominent feature, - a feature dear to the architecture of the East. The body of the - edifice is polygonal rather than circular, having no less than - twelve sides. Of these six are recessed, the niches facing the town - being framed by ornamental arches with classical cornices. The six - niches correspond with the same number of cavities in the design of - the interior. Although the inside diameter is not more than about - 30 feet, including these cavities, [361] yet the impression as you - enter the chapel is one of space and height. Especially remarkable - is the great depth of the dome. Traces of paintings may be observed - upon the walls. Two small vaulted chambers have been built into the - wall on the east side, and are now in a ruinous condition. They - are seen in the illustration on either side of the window. They - may have served the purpose of sepulchral chambers, of which - there are also vestiges outside the building upon the north side. - - We learn from the inscriptions that the chapel was dedicated - to St. Gregory; and it is a work of the period of the Armenian - kings. It seems to have been used as a place of burial by the - Pahlavuni or Pahlavid family, which furnished some of the most - illustrious names in Armenian history. The great noble who led the - faction which was opposed to the cession of Ani to the Byzantines - was a Pahlavid, Vahram. He met his death in battle against the - Beni-Cheddad of Dvin in A.D. 1047. Embodying as he did the policy - of resistance ŕ outrance both to Mussulmans and Greeks, he has - been the idol of Armenian patriotism. The name of this hero figures - in the inscription over the door, which, although without a date, - is probably assignable to him. He bestows the revenue of certain - shops upon the church of St. Gregory to defray the cost of masses - for the soul of his son Apughamir. In the same place have been - found inscriptions of the mother of Vahram, the lady Shushan, - making over certain revenues to the same church and recording - the number of the masses obtained in return. She is styled the - wife of the prince Grigor. But a date is happily forthcoming to - elucidate the identity of these personages. It is furnished by a - long inscription of no less than fourteen lines upon the north - wall. Record is made that in the year of the Armenian era 489 - (A.D. 1040) Aplgharib, prince of Armenia, erected a sepulchre - in this place [362] for his father Grigor, of whom he describes - himself as the youngest son, for his brother Hamzeh, and for his - maternal uncle Seda. Masses are to be said for his mother Shushan, - for his father Grigor, for his maternal uncle Seda, and for his - brother Hamzeh. I cannot help thinking that the sepulchre referred - to is represented by the remains which I observed upon the north - side of this building. And the vaulted chambers in the east wall - may be the tombs of Grigor and his wife Shushan, an inscription - over the highly decorated window on that side being a prayer to - Christ for mercy upon Grigor. [363] - - A question of great interest with reference to this building is - whether it may be regarded as the same church which is mentioned by - the historians as a work of King Gagik I. We are informed by Samuel - of Ani that in the year 447 (A.D. 998) a church of St. Gregory was - completed by this monarch in the Tsaghkotzadzor. The same event - is recorded in the pages of Kirakos, who gives the same date, - and describes the situation as overlooking the Valley of the - Tsaghkotz. [364] Asoghik tells us that it was built on the model - of a large church at Vagharshapat, dedicated to the same saint, - which had fallen into ruin. He adds that the edifice of King Gagik - was built on a high platform on the side of the Tsaghkotz, and - in possession of an admirable view. He speaks of three doorways - and of the marvellous dome, reproducing the appearance of the - sky. [365] I did not observe more than one door to this edifice, - and perhaps the church which is referred to by these authorities - was some larger building in the immediate neighbourhood which - has disappeared. - - The chapel of St. Gregory invites comparison with another monument - of the same order in the opposite quarter of the town (No. 6, - Fig. 88). [366] My illustration was taken from the north. The - design is less elaborate and the dimensions are rather larger, - the dome especially having a much greater span. But the effect - produced by the interior lacks the magic of the companion - building, while the symmetry is marred by the recess for the - altar on the east side. This building will not endure for many - years longer, unless steps be taken to save it from falling - in. The lower portions are in a state of advanced decay. The - ornament on the exterior closely resembles that employed upon - the cathedral. Inscriptions bristle upon the panels of the false - arcades. One records that in the year 483 (A.D. 1034) the prince - Aplgharib, having journeyed to Constantinople by order of Sembat - Shahanshah, obtained with great difficulty and at considerable - expense a piece of the Holy Cross. Upon his return he built this - church, and directed that nightly services should be held within - it until the coming of Christ. The name of Surb-Phrkich, or church - of the Redeemer, is given in this and the following inscription, - and may be applied either to this chapel or to some neighbouring - church with which it was in connection. A second inscription - belongs to the Armenian year 490 (A.D. 1041), and mentions the - contemporary reign of Sembat, son of Gagik Shahanshah. [367] The - chapel of the Redeemer is therefore the work of the same Pahlavid, - Aplgharib, who built the sepulchres to the chapel of St. Gregory, - and it belongs to the period of the kings. [368] - - Continuing our walk along the cliff above the valley of the - Alaja, we pass a lofty mound, surmounted by the ruin of a wall - (No. 31). The old priest was of opinion that it denotes the site - of the priestly synod house, where endowments were received and - other business of the Church transacted. A little further, and - west of this mound we stay to examine a small chapel which has - been hollowed out of a solid mass of rock. But our attention is - distracted from this fantastic object by the walls and yawning - apartments of the castle (No. 12, Fig. 89). It is situated in - the extreme north-western angle of the town, where the ravine of - the Alaja is joined by the side-ravine already mentioned in the - description of the site. My photograph displays the southern side - of this extensive edifice and the junction of the valleys. The - entrance is on the east and faces the town (Fig. 90). You admire - the exquisite masonry of the walls and the elaborate decoration - of the doorway. That doorway is one of the most conspicuous - objects in Ani; and inasmuch as this building has been sought - to be identified with the royal palace, it has been despoiled - of many of its mosaics by patriotic Armenians, who strip them - off and carry them away as souvenirs. My reader will observe - the recurrence of the form of a Greek cross in the ornament on - the face of the gate. This ornament consists of inlays or, as - one might say, mosaics composed of a light red and of a black - stone. The effect is original and pleasant to the eye. In the - absence of any inscriptions--we searched in vain for any trace - of writing both on the outside of the edifice and within its - walls--I am inclined to consider that this so-called palace was - nothing more than a magazine and barrack, in close connection - with the outer defences of the city on the vulnerable side, the - side of the plain. The only ornament in the interior was found - over a doorway, and consisted of a chain moulding and inlays of - red and black stone. On the other hand, the uses of the place - appear to be denoted by the vaulted passages and by the spacious - underground chambers. Two of these chambers, smaller in size, - have evidently served as dungeons. [369] - - Two edifices of considerable interest remain to be mentioned. Both - are situated in quarters of the town which must have been densely - built over, and both are in an advanced state of decay. The more - westerly is perhaps the most curious of all the monuments of Ani, - and I do not pretend to have quite unravelled the complexities - of its compound plan (No. 2). The eye is engrossed by the ruin - of a spacious portal, longest from west to east. The western - and southern walls have fallen away; but the east front and the - whole of the vaulting of the most easterly portion have been - spared by the ravages of time. Entering this portal from the west - (Fig. 91), we are able to reconstruct in fancy the features of the - design. There appear to have been three distinct domes to the roof, - supported by arches resting on pillars. Of the three divisions - which were thus introduced into the interior, the largest was that - in the centre. That on the east alone remains; and we may gauge - the dimensions of the whole figure when we consider that this - division measures within the pillars a square of 19 feet. The - architecture is pure Arab or Saracenic, recalling that of the - mosque. It is certainly later than the period of the kings. As - in the mosque, the effect is heightened by the mixture of black - with reddish blocks of stone. A large stone, sculptured with a - cross, is inlaid in the south-east wall, and may be the same as - the one which has been described by my predecessors as containing - the figure of a double-headed eagle. [370] The walls are covered - with inscriptions. The outer face of this portal or east front - is extremely elaborate (Fig. 92). The doorway on that side forms - the centre of a Saracenic façade in which honeycomb vaultings, - false niches, and a mosaic of black and pink stones have all been - made to play a part. Four inscriptions in Armenian are observed - upon this front. - - This portal must have served as an entrance to two or more - chapels. Of these one alone remains. It is entered by a doorway - with rich mouldings in the north wall of the most easterly - division. The interior is of grey stone, and it is disposed - in four semicircles. [371] But the dimensions are small as - compared to those of the portal, and the portal is much longer - than the chapel. The ruinous masonry upon the west of the latter - building indicates the site of a second and contiguous chamber - or chapel. That of a third is denoted by similar evidence upon - the east wall. This structure projected beyond the east front of - the portal, to which it was placed at right angles. Traces of it - may be seen in my illustration. It bears an Armenian inscription. - - The inscriptions, which unhappily I had not leisure to identify, - have been already published and translated. [372] The earliest in - date appears to have been found upon the doorway of the chapel, - and identifies it as a work of the period of the kings. It records - that in the year 480 (A.D. 1031) Apughamir, son of Vahram, prince - of princes, bestowed an endowment upon this church of the Apostles - for the health and long life of his brother Grigor. My reader - is already familiar with these names of members of the Pahlavid - family. The inscriptions upon the portal are of much later dates, - ranging over the period of Georgian occupation when the city was - governed by the Mkhargrdzels. Some are in the name of the Mongol - overlord. Most are of the nature of public proclamations; and - from the one latest in date we learn that in A.D. 1348 members - of this Georgian family were still personages at Ani, and that - the city had not yet been abandoned by her inhabitants. - - The second of the monuments is also the last which I need mention; - it is situated between the cathedral and the chapel of the - Redeemer (No. 3). It is of small dimensions and, as usual, of - great elegance; but the roof and the whole of the upper portion - have unhappily fallen away. In fact, the only portions which - are still erect are the north wall, the apse, and part of the - south wall. A vaulted chamber extends around the edifice. Two - bas-reliefs are seen in two of the panels of the arcade upon the - north wall. The one on the left evidently represents the subject - of the Annunciation; while that on the right probably portrays - the figures of two saints. I could not discover any trace of an - inscription. But the old priest bases his opinion that the ruin - is that of a church dedicated to St. Stephen upon an inscription - which has disappeared. [373] - - My illustration of the castle (Fig. 89) will have revealed - a characteristic of the ancient city which is of historical - interest. The ravine of the Alaja, as well as both the side - valleys, which open respectively to this ravine and to that of - the Arpa, present the appearance of having been riddled into - quite a network of cavities; such is the number of the troglodyte - dwellings which they contain. Legend peoples this underground city - with the souls of those citizens of Ani who, sooner than emigrate - into distant lands, preferred to die in her defence. A stir and - hum, as of a teeming and busy populace, may be heard by night - above the rustling of the Arpa Chai. [374] The tuff composing - the cliffs must at all times have invited such burrowings; and - we know that, when Ani was surprised during the reign of Thamar - by the emir of Ardabil, the inhabitants, who were still numerous, - took refuge in these caves. [375] - - Our conception of the city of the kings would be wanting in an - essential feature were we to pass over the neighbouring convent - of Khosha Vank (Fig. 93). It was there, we can scarcely doubt, - that the monarch was often wont to deliberate; and it was under - the shadow of those walls that his bones were laid to rest by - the side of his ancestors. The triumphal archway through which - he would pass on his way from the capital may still be seen - on the summit of the cliff on the right bank of the Arpa Chai - (Fig. 94). The cloister is situated, as we have seen, upon the - opposite or left bank, [376] and is bordered on two sides by a - loop of the river. The bridge has disappeared. A small village has - grouped itself between the monastery and the bed of the stream, - where repose beneath the gloom of lofty cliffs of lava the two - chapels and the tomb of King Ashot. - - The monastic buildings occupy a considerable area upon the high - ground within the bend of the river. They are surrounded by a - lofty wall. Entering from the west, we cross a court to an opposite - doorway which opens into a vast and gloomy chamber (Fig. 95). On - the further or eastern side of this chamber we perceive the door - of the church. The architecture of this outer hall or pronaos - is quite remarkable. In some respects it resembles that of the - mosque at Ani. The ceilings are vaulted, and there are no less - than four rows of pillars. The space is divided into the form - of a nave and two aisles. The circumference of the pillars is - 9 1/2 feet. The central vaulting of the nave is surmounted by a - dome, different in shape from any of the domes which have been - described. Viewed from the outside, it becomes merged in a tall - belfry, which is seen on the left of my illustration (Fig. 96), - taken from the south-west. To the interior it displays a drum of - eight panels; and the only light which it transmits comes from - above. The panels are of stone and covered with sculpture in low - relief. Here it is an architectural figure, there a beautiful - vine pattern which is the subject of the ornament. One space - displays the form of the Virgin Mary, set in a rich frame. The two - extremities of the frame are supported by the shapes of animals, - a bull and a lion. On the back of the lion is seated an eagle, - and a child on that of the bull. Two angels keep watch, one on - either side of the Mother of Christ. The gloom of the building - is due to the design of this dome, as well as to the smallness - of the round windows, resembling the port-holes of a ship, of - which there are three in the north and two in the south wall. - - The interior of this edifice is covered with inscriptions in - Armenian, which none of my party were able to read. Perhaps they - include some of those which were brought by Abich from this - cloister and which have been translated by Brosset. [377] One - of these inscriptions records a donation in the Armenian year - 650 (A.D. 1201) under the government of Zakarea. Another is to - the effect that the monastery was restored in 1102 (A.D. 1652) - by one Daniel, a monk from Tigranocerta. We are told that the - buildings had previously fallen into ruin, and had become polluted - by accumulations of dust and filth. The cloister is styled Horomosi - Vank, and is described as having been constructed by the kings. I - will not venture to express an opinion upon the age of the pronaos; - but I would suggest that the belfry is perhaps of later date. The - sculptures in the dome appear to belong to a hoary antiquity. The - edifice may have served as a model for a rock chamber which is - described by a modern traveller as belonging to the cloister of - Surb Geghard. [378] - - You enter the church through the door in the east wall of - the pronaos, passing a slab engraved with a pastoral staff, - which marks the place of burial of some spiritual dignitary. A - spacious dome rests upon four piers, and there is a single apse - with the usual daďs. The walls are covered with a coating of - whitewash. The interior measures roughly 53 feet by 33 feet, - the former dimension including the apse. The attendant priest - showed us an old but undated manuscript, which proved to be an - illustrated New Testament. It would appear from an inscription - that the church was dedicated to St. Gregory, [379] and it may - perhaps be ascribed to the period of the kings. - - The monastic buildings are placed upon the south of the church - and pronaos, and are approached from the southern side of the - entrance court. They are just outside the area embraced by my - illustration of the south walls of the edifices just named. Two - large apartments, communicating with one another, serve as - antechambers to a great hall with pillars and vaulted ceilings, - which is entered from the second of the two chambers, and in plan - extends along the most easterly of its walls. The whole suite are - impressive examples of the art of the mason and stone-sculptor, - effect being gained by the regularity and perfect fitting of - the blocks, while the stone takes an admirable surface. Friezes - with stalactite patterns are employed in one room as a cornice - for the ceiling. In the second and smaller room there is a - square aperture in the centre of the roof with a stalactite - ornament. The same feature belongs to the hall of the synod - (Fig. 97), and is clearly seen in my photograph. At the further - end of the two rows of pillars may be discerned a niche with a - daďs, the recess being richly sculptured. It was there that was - placed the throne. But I think these buildings are all later than - the time of the kings, although they may have been used by the - Georgian princes who governed Ani. We learn from an inscription, - which was probably copied in the larger of the antechambers, that - at least one of these apartments was constructed in A.D. 1229 to - serve as a receptacle for the holy relics. [380] - - On the north side of the church buildings there is nothing but - a narrow and vacant space separating them from the wall of the - cloister. But at the east end of this part of the enclosure, and in - line with the east front of the church, are situated the roofless - remains of a little chapel, crowning a ruinous substructure which - is overgrown by rank weeds, and of which the sculptured stones - litter the ground. The pendant of this building on the south side - of the church is seen in my illustration (Fig. 96). It is much - better preserved than the companion edifice, and the chamber in - the lower storey is still intact. This chamber is oblong in shape, - with a vaulted ceiling and an altar with sculptured stones. The - chapel is of triple design, with three apses, the whole surmounted - by a dome. It is possible that both these buildings, which so - closely correspond, were designed to receive the remains of some - high personages. - - But the actual tomb of one of the kings has been spared by a happy - chance, and may be found quite close to the second and larger of - the chapels which repose in the bed of the Arpa Chai (Fig. 94). It - is placed near the south-eastern angle of the building. With what - a thrill of delight did we discover this eloquent relic--a rounded - slab resting on two stone steps! In spite of the lichen and the - wear of the stone, the words "Ashot Thagavor" (Ashot, the king) - were distinctly legible. The chapels are placed in a line from west - to east, and were originally three in number. Of these the most - westerly is falling into ruin, a state which has already overtaken - that on the east. The central member of the group is at once the - largest and the best preserved. It contains an inscription over - the south door to the effect that it was built in 460 (A.D. 1011) - by one George, son of the patriarch Martiros. But I have not - been able to identify this patriarch; and it is possible there - may be some error in the translation made by my dragoman, who, - although well educated, was not a scholar in old Armenian. The - king whose name appears on the tomb is probably Ashot the Third. - - The inscriptions establish the fact that the monastery was - known by the name of Horomosi Vank, which probably signifies - the convent of the Greek. [381] History supplements and explains - this information. We learn from Asoghik that it was founded in - the tenth century under the reign of Abas by Armenian priests - who had emigrated from Greek territory. It was burnt by the - Mussulmans in A.D. 982. [382] An inscription of King John Sembat, - dated 487 (A.D. 1038), appears to have been found within its - walls; and it has been inferred that the cloister was restored - by that prince. [383] We know that he was buried by the side of - his predecessors who ruled at Ani; and we have an inscription - of John Sembat by which he bestows the revenue of a village in - support of the royal cemetery at this monastery of Horomos. [384] - - -For the benefit of such of my readers whose leisure may be unequal to -a perusal of this long description, I would single out for particular -study the cathedral (Figs. 72 and 74), the church of St. Gregory -(Figs. 76, 77, and 78), and the two polygonal chapels (Figs. 85 and -88). These monuments are examples of the Armenian style at its very -best, before it was brought under the direct influence of Mussulman -art and adopted with slight variations Mussulman models. Except in -the case of the church of St. Gregory, we have authentic evidence -that they are works of the kingly period. The merits of the style -are the diversity of its resources, the elegance of the ornament in -low relief, the perfect execution of every part. It combines many of -the characteristics of Byzantine art and of the style which we term -Gothic, and which at that date was still unborn. The conical roofs of -the domes are a distinctive feature, as also are the purely Oriental -niches. Texier is of opinion that the former of these features was -carried into Central Europe by the colonies of emigrants from the -city on the Arpa Chai. [385] - -In the portals of St. Gregory and of the church of the Apostles -(Figs. 78 and 92) we have elaborate examples of the later period -when the influence of Mussulman art was supreme. And the pronaos of -Khosha Vank, with its massive pillars and groined ceilings, with the -finely sculptured panels in the dome, seems to blend some of the -characteristics of the architecture of the kings with the plainer -style which belongs to the mosque. - -But a lesson of wider import, transcending the sphere of the history -of architecture, may be derived from a visit to the capital of the -Bagratid dynasty, and from the study of the living evidence of a -vanished civilisation which is lavished upon the traveller within -her walls. Her monuments throw a strong light upon the character -of the Armenian people, and they bring into pronouncement important -features of Armenian history. They leave no doubt that this people may -be included in the small number of races who have shown themselves -susceptible of the highest culture. They exhibit the Armenians as -able and sympathetic intermediaries between the civilisation of the -Byzantine Empire, with its legacies from that of Rome, and the nations -of the East. They testify to the tragic suddenness with which the -development of the race was arrested at a time when they had attained a -measure of political freedom, and when their capacities, thus favoured, -were commencing to bear fruit. The Armenian architects thenceforward -subserve the taste of their Mussulman masters; and during the long -centuries which have elapsed since the Seljuk conquest, the genius of -their countrymen has been exploited by the semi-barbarous peoples of -Asia, while their abilities and character have progressively declined -and become debased. - -For all these reasons a special duty devolves upon the traveller to -address a pressing appeal both to the Armenians and to the Russian -Government for the preservation of these monuments. I have already -mentioned the abstraction of two important bas-reliefs, and the -petty thefts which are taking place with increasing frequency. Of -the buildings observed by my predecessors within comparatively recent -years, the octagonal minaret has already succumbed. A like fate will -presently overtake the chapel of the Redeemer, unless measures be -promptly taken to maintain that edifice. The monastery of Horomos -is falling into ruin. Rich Armenians spend vast sums upon the -embellishment of Edgmiatsin; can none be found to conserve for the -instruction of posterity the noblest examples of the genius of their -race? The co-operation of the Russian Government should be secured -in this laudable enterprise; nor need we despair that it will be -forthcoming in such a cause. Much as that Government is inclined to -discourage Armenian patriotism, it rarely omits to perform a service in -the interests of culture when the appeal is general and the interests -are clear. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -KARS - - -While Ani, the deserted stronghold and capital on the banks of the -Arpa, appeals to the patriotism of Armenians, her neighbour Kars, -that fortress at once of ancient and modern repute, awakens a feeling -of national pride in the bosom of the English visitor. Few, indeed, -of my countrymen have been privileged to gaze upon a site and scene -which is associated in their memory with a most brilliant achievement -of British officers. Of the sieges which Kars has sustained during -the course of the present century only one has been conducted with -any skill and spirit on the part of the defence. On that occasion a -garrison of about fifteen thousand Turks resisted, under the strategy -of an English general, a force of from thirty to forty thousand -Russians for a period of over five months. The exploits of Williams -and his companions in 1855 are still familiar to the townspeople. It -is they who first traced the design of the fortifications, such as -we see them at the present day. The old school of Russian officers -still view with alarm or suspicion the approach of an Englishman to -the neighbourhood of their prize. Kars is rigorously excluded from the -jurisdiction of our consuls, and our travellers have rarely penetrated -within her walls. On the other hand, the new school are of quite a -different temper, and give free rein to the hospitable and amiable -qualities which are natural to their race. They received me with open -arms, overwhelmed me with attentions, and took pains to let me feel -that, side by side with the Russian laurels, one in honour of their -British opponents had not been allowed to fade. - -I have already endeavoured to describe the characteristics of the -site of Kars as you approach the fortress from the east across the -plain. The plan which I now offer will at once assist that description -and supplement it with a view of the surrounding features. The volcanic -mass which is pierced by the river where it projects into the level -expanse is due to a local outbreak of basaltic lava, which is in -orographical and, probably, in genetical connection with the volcanic -water-parting between the Araxes and the Kur. The real boundary of -these plains on the west and south-west is formed by the breaking -away to the Pontic region of the uplands of the Soghanlu Dagh; and -the low water-parting between the two great rivers extends from the -northern extremity of the Soghanlu to the Kisir Dagh which confines -Lake Chaldir on the west. Upon that line of intermediary elevation the -principal points of eruption have been the Kabak Tepe or Kizilkaya -(10,010 feet), and, further north, the Buga Tepe (8995 feet). Minor -emissions of volcanic matter have issued from radial fissures, -which may be traced back to these parent stems. In this manner we -may connect the Ainalu Dagh, on the west of Kars, with Kabak Tepe; -and, perhaps too, the local eruptions which have produced the rock -of Kars with the system of the Ainalu. [386] - -It is with a feeling of astonishment, which will not be diminished -by better acquaintance, that the traveller surveys the site of the -fortress. That impression will be derived not so much from the course -of the river--although one would expect to see it flowing towards -rather than from the south, the direction of the Araxes to which it is -tributary--but rather from the phenomenon which attends its approach -to the cliffs on the northern margin of the plain. It is seen for some -distance following at the base of a low ridge which culminates further -eastwards in the towering parapet behind the town. All of a sudden, -when the obstacle becomes most pronounced, instead of indulging in -an easy and not very lengthy bend and taking the rampart in flank, -the wayward stream throws its waters at the face of the cliff and -disappears in an almost invisible gorge. For a distance of about -four miles, measured along its banks in the trough of the chasm, it -cleaves the mass of gloomy rock; then issues into the plainer land -on the north of the rampart, which it has isolated from the heights -on the west. An insular mass of mountain, rendered impregnable on one -side by the precipices which overhang the river, and easily defended -on other sides--such a site must have been fortified from the earliest -times, commanding as it does a wide area of fertile plains. - -At the commencement of our era the district but not the town is -described by Strabo under the name of Chorzene. [387] It is possible -that the Chorsa or the Kolsa of Ptolemy occupied the position of -the present Kars. [388] But it is not before the Middle Ages that we -become apprised of its certain existence, when it is mentioned under -its present name by the imperial author Constantine, and under that -of Karutz by Armenian writers. [389] From both sources we learn that -it was a capital of the Bagratid dynasty before the rise of Ani to -the dignity of a royal residence. It was conferred by Ashot the Third -(A.D. 951-977), the founder of the fortunes of Ani, upon his younger -brother Mushegh together with the prerogatives of local kingship. The -kinglets of Kars were submerged by the wave of Seljuk invasion; but -the reigning prince contrived to appease the wrath of the conqueror -of Ani, and to gain time for the cession of the principality to -the Cćsars, which was effected in the year 1064 in exchange for a -retreat in Asia Minor. [390] The Byzantines did not remain long in -the possession of their prize, and it became incorporated in the -empire of the Seljuks. Nor, so far as I am aware, was it recovered -from the Mussulmans until its capture by the Russians under Marshal -Paskevich in 1828. The Armenians, the Seljuks, and the Ottomans have -all successively imprinted their stamp upon the town, such as it has -come down to our times. The only noteworthy building is a church of -the period of the Armenian kings; and the citadel and walls are in -part due to the Armenians and in part to the Seljuks and the Ottomans. - -The names Kars and Karutz are believed to be derived from the Georgian, -in which language Kari signifies a gate. The fortress would be known -in that tongue as Karis-Kholakhi, or the gate-town. It would seem -to have been originally a stronghold of the Iberians, the ancestors -of the Georgians of the present day. [391] If this derivation be -correct, we must suppose that the Kars near Marash in Asia Minor, -which is mentioned by a writer of the seventeenth century, was -named after the city in northern Armenia. [392] During the Bagratid -period the province of Kars was called Vanand, [393] and the river -Akhurean. This last name was also applied to the present Arpa Chai -from the confluence with the river of Kars to its junction with the -Araxes. These appellations have disappeared during the long spell of -Mussulman rule, nor have they been revived by the Russians. I must -not weary my reader with an attempt to follow the fortunes of Kars -from the eleventh to the nineteenth century. But it may interest -him to know that among its conquerors figure two great names, that -of Timur in the fourteenth century and that of Shah Abbas in the -seventeenth. Nadir Shah attempted in vain to effect its capture in -1744, although he brought up no less than sixteen large cannons and -spared no pains to reduce the Ottoman garrison. [394] The memory of -this failure and of that of the Russian general Nesvateff in 1807 had -confirmed the Turks in the conviction that the place was impregnable -when the army of Paskevich appeared beneath the walls. [395] - -The appearance of the fortified town upon that historic occasion must -have been much more imposing than at the present day. Mounting the -hillside from the plain on the south, the walls and houses of black -stone rose then as now to the very summit of the ridge. But instead -of ruinous parapets, interrupted by wide breaches, a double wall with -an interval of about 16 feet frowned out upon the advancing host. The -inner rampart was defended by towers, the outer by bastions; and the -whole circumference of the figure which enclosed the western portion -of the insular rock measured 2555 yards. The height of the walls -ranged between 14 and 28 feet, and they were from 3 to 5 feet thick. - -At the north-west angle of the enclosure, and immediately overlooking -the river, which winds at the foot of vertical cliffs, was placed the -inner fortress or citadel--Narin Kala--consisting of not less than -three fortified spaces of which the most westerly or innermost was -the keep. It was built throughout of solid stone. For a considerable -space on the side of the plain the outer wall of the city was flanked -by a moat, communicating with a marsh. In the plain itself the suburb -on the south, which has now been transfigured by the Russians and -composes the modern town, was surrounded by walls and defended by -towers. A fort had been erected on the horn of the Karadagh, beyond -the smaller suburb of Bairam Pasha. On the left bank of the river the -only work of importance appears to have been a quadrangular fort with -towers at the angles, called Temir Pasha, and protecting the outlying -houses on the margin of the stream. [396] - -The Russian army approached from the side of Gümri, the present -Alexandropol, and passed within sight of the walls to the banks of -the river where they encamped near the village of Küchik Keui. Their -number amounted to about seven thousand men, while the besieged -counted about eleven thousand under arms. But Paskevich was allowed -to occupy the high land on the left bank, and to direct his attack -from the south-west as well as from the south. The fortified suburb, -Orta Kapi, was stormed on one flank and the Karadagh on the other. The -citadel capitulated on the same day, the fifth after the commencement -of operations. Kars was restored to the Turks after the termination -of this war, and was again besieged by the Russians in 1855. Four -British officers were despatched by our own Government to direct the -defence, and the garrison numbered some fourteen thousand infantry, -fifteen hundred artillery, and a small body of cavalry. The enemy, -under Muravieff, were more than double this strength; the advance -was again made from the side of Gümri, and the Russian headquarters -were established in the vicinity of the river, on the south-west of -the town. But on this occasion the Russian general discovered that -all the approaches had been protected by works, which covered a large -area. Under the conditions of modern warfare Kars is most assailable -from the heights on the west, which rise from no great elevation along -the left bank of the river, until they reach imposing proportions -just north of the site, on the further side of the chasm. There -they form a plateau which must be higher than the rock of Kars, -and which overlooks the ridge of that insular mass, the town itself -being turned towards the plain. Once gain possession of this line -of heights and the old town is at your mercy. Realising this fact, -General Williams and his subordinates had erected a line of forts -to bar the approach on this side. The principal work on the west -was situated some two miles from the town, at the extremity of -the higher levels in that direction. It was called Fort Takhmas or -Tahmasp. Inside of that position, immediately covering the heights on -the north, a string of fortifications was constructed on the plateau, -commencing on the south-west with Fort Lake, the strongest of all, -and terminating on the north-east in Fort Teesdale near the edge of -the cliff, where the river has almost effected its passage through -the gorge. While such was the disposition of the defences on the left -bank, the protected area on the right bank, the side of the plain, -was considerably extended. A line of breastworks, enclosing a wide -rectangular space, was taken from the foot of the Karadagh on the -east to the margin of the river on the west. At the angles of this -enclosure stood the Karadagh fort on the north, and the forts of -Hafiz Pasha and Kanly on the south. The point of junction with the -river was defended by Fort Suwari, and breastworks and redoubts, -placed upon commanding positions, joined these works of the plain to -those upon the heights already described. [397] - -With certain changes in name my reader can follow this disposition of -the defences upon the plan at the commencement of the present chapter, -which is founded upon plans made during the last Russo-Turkish war -in 1877. The Russians have since added to the strength of the works -and have vastly improved the communications between them. But they -do not appear, so far as I was enabled to judge, to have materially -altered their arrangement. The greater range of modern guns has perhaps -already necessitated a further extension of outlying forts. The old -citadel has sunk into insignificance; and the defence of the future -will have to deal with a very large area, and will require many times -as many men as in the past. How Williams with such a small force could -have held out for five months against an organised army of twice his -own strength is a question which I cannot answer with satisfaction -to myself. His ultimate surrender was occasioned by starvation; but -he had already repulsed, with enormous losses to the enemy, the main -attack, which was directed against Fort Takhmas. [398] For the second -time the victors were compelled at the peace to disgorge their prize, -which they justly regarded as the outer bulwark of Erzerum and Asia -Minor. Its permanent conquest was reserved for the war of 1877, when -the Turks were left by England to their own resources, and when they -practically gave it away to Loris Melikoff after the defeat at the -Alaja Dagh. [399] - -My hopes of being able to investigate this historical site reposed upon -the high authority of the letters which I carried with me and upon the -doubtful factor of the personality of the governor. To measure this -uncertain quantity was my first object, and I set out to accomplish -it in fitting style. An open landau, driven by a Russian coachman of -the Molokan sect, conveyed me from the modern town in the plain along -the right bank of the river and for some distance into the gorge. A -metalled road follows that bank under the shadow of the precipice for -the space of about half a mile. It ends at a little respite of even -ground between the cliff and the water's edge. In former days there -had been planted here a grove and a flower garden, which was known as -the paradise of Kars. But, since the present governor appropriated -the place to himself, and built upon it his private residence, it -goes by the name of paradise lost. General Fadéeff is not exactly a -popular personage--if, indeed, he may still be numbered among mortal -men. His abode is far removed from their habitations, and I came to -the conclusion that it concealed a mystery. I rang in vain several -times at the door. At last I contrived to summon a very pretty young -woman with a very sulky countenance. As she spoke both French and -German, I contrived to win her to my side, and she promised she would -enquire after the General. She returned with a set expression which I -felt I could not assail. I did, however, succeed in making her smile, -and that was something pleasant in itself. His Excellency was absent; -it was not known where, nor by what time he would return. I enquired -whether he made a practice of sleeping out. At last she relented into -suggesting I might call in the evening; she would do what she could, -but she was only a subordinate member of the household. She did -not come to the door when I repeated my visit, and I received the -same unsatisfactory answers. The vice-governor, General Petander, -examined my papers at the seat of government, but pleaded that his -authority was extremely limited. He could not say when the Governor -would return to his house. I was glad to escape from him to the -hospitable home of Colonel Rzewuski, in command of the Uman regiment -of Cossacks of Kuban. I had accepted an invitation to dine with him -and Madame Rzewuski; and the party consisted of a group of as amiable -and charming people as it would be possible to meet. All had travelled -and knew the world. The conversation was free, and ranged at ease over -every topic, including the mysterious Governor. They were immensely -entertained by my own experiences in that quarter, and they repaid me -by narrating the gallant deeds of Fadéeff, who appears to have been -instrumental in the conquest of Kars in 1877. But they left me in -doubt whether he still existed in the flesh. I thought I detected a -certain legendary phraseology in their remarks about him, from which -a master of the higher criticism would easily be able to establish -that they were not contemporary with the personage of whom they spoke. - -My host was determined that I should not be blindfolded, and that -I should see what might be seen without endangering the safety of -Kars. His own aide-de-camp had recently returned from a visit to -England, where he had been accorded facilities of a similar nature, -and whence he brought back the most agreeable recollections. The -deficiencies in our insular manners are in such cases outweighed in -the mind of the visitor by the freedom of our life, the absence of -suspicion against foreign designs, and, above all, by the world-wide -bond of sport. Never in the height of the hunting season at home -have I listened to a more animated discussion of the relative merits -of our countries and packs of foxhounds than after dinner in the -company of these officers in this remote corner of Russian Asia. From -hounds we passed to horses, and to an interesting experiment which -had recently been made by the Colonel. It is well known that the -Cossack horses are of great endurance; but they have little pace, -and their shoulders are of the worst. My host had crossed one of -his mares with the English thoroughbred, and had produced a colt of -much promise which had only just been broken. If I did not object I -should ride him on the morrow, when he would take me to have a peep -at the fortifications on the heights. In spite of the twinkle in his -eye when he spoke of the vivacity of the youngster, I felt that the -opportunity was cheap at this price, and merely stipulated that I -should be allowed my English saddle. - -Very early on the following morning I sallied forth to the Colonel's -residence, and was surprised to find a whole squadron of Cossack -cavalry drawn up in the road. His aide-de-camp was conspicuous in a -magnificent uniform, which set off his tall and graceful figure. The -band of the regiment was mustered at its full strength; but these -troops were only a portion of the effective, which numbered some -eight or nine hundred horsemen. The remainder were distributed over -the extensive tract of country between Akhaltsykh and the Turkish -frontier at Sarikamish. An iron-grey charger, over 15 hands in -height, was being paced to and fro before the door. He excited the -admiration and the curiosity of the onlookers, having a long and -elastic walk, and arching his neck to the hand of the groom instead of -stolidly following where he was led. That was a horse, they were all -saying--those of the country were ponies beside him, and, as for the -mounts of the Cossacks, they looked mere dross by his side. My small -and plain-flap saddle, which I recognised upon his back, brought out -the points of his sloping shoulder and strong loins. A word from the -aide-de-camp, and the squadron was brought to attention with the band -at their head. When the Colonel emerged from the doorway a salute -was exchanged, and when he had mounted, the march commenced and the -band prepared to strike up. None too soon had I adjusted my stirrup -leathers on the iron-grey, for at the first sound he bounded high -into the air. But he had plenty of room at the head of the regiment, -where the Colonel beckoned me to ride by his side. - -This was the second time I had ridden at the head of Cossacks; I -mention the fact merely to justify the assertion that there can be -few more inspiriting positions. One feels the peculiar quality of the -material behind one; it is in the air and makes the pulse beat. There -is no champing of bits and impatient curvetting; nor do the riders -sit up in their saddles and look smart. They may be seen in every -posture, lolling about in their shabby drab uniforms, and holding -their reins long. But they communicate the impression that each man -is a born soldier, and that one might march with them from one end of -Asia to another without troubling much about the commissariat or the -length of the particular stage. They are just the troops with which -to traverse these vast plains. The long-backed horses are hardened to -every kind of privation, and so are their owners, for every Cossack -owns his mount. Where would you march? Say the word, and we go now. - -On this occasion the proceedings were quite of a gala order. We -passed through the main streets of the modern town upon the plain; -and all the Karslis were there assembled to hear the inspiriting music -and to pass remarks upon the foreigner on the grey horse. We wound -along the side of the river, at the foot of the precipice crowned -by the citadel, where a window in the walls of that airy edifice -marks the spot whence the Turks were wont to precipitate spies. We -crossed to the left bank by the lower of the two bridges, and followed -along the chaussée upon that side. It is now the principal avenue of -communication with Alexandropol; but it is destined to be replaced by -a road which will pass to the south of the town, leaving this chaussée -with its secrets for purely military use. The further we proceeded -the loftier loomed the walls of the chasm, especially that upon our -left hand. It rises almost vertically from the margin of the road to -the edge of the plateau, some five hundred feet above the stream. - -The heights on the left bank are here called by the name of Mukhliss, -and such is their elevation that the buildings upon them--the military -hospital and the redoubts--may be seen from the plain on the south of -Kars, showing up behind the insular ridge against which the ancient -town is built. Opposite the old citadel they are known as Vali Pasha, -and, further west, as Takhmas. On the right bank the mass of rock -which falls abruptly to the river is styled Kars and Karadagh. We had -arrived at a point whence the solitary house of the Governor could -be clearly seen beyond the winding channel on that side. The choice -was offered between two roads. The one we had been following pursued -its course through the chasm; the other took advantage of some milder -acclivities in the cliff to mount to the plateau above our heads. The -forts upon the plateau are the interesting feature of modern Kars; -the word was given to take the upper road. The Colonel and myself -were still riding in front of the band, and could look back upon the -long train of one of the finest of Cossack regiments defiling in half -column up the incline. When we had reached a considerable elevation, -all of a sudden a human figure springs into the road. It is a little -gendarme, and he stands immovable in the centre of the road. The -regiment is at once brought to a halt. The figure enquires whether -there be a foreigner riding with them, and receives an affirmative -reply. Then he points to an adjacent bifurcation of the road, one -branch leading to the heights, and the other rejoining the chaussée -at a point some distance down the stream. He directs us to take the -latter way. The Colonel bites his lip, turns pale and obeys. We have -come up all this distance, and now we are to go down. The ghost of -General Fadéeff must be chuckling--if ghosts can chuckle--behind -those windows in the speck of a house on the opposite bank! - -It had been the plan of my kind host to cross the block of heights -containing the forts, and thence to descend into the plain upon the -north. A little Molokan village, called Blagodarnoe, is situated -in the more level country on that side. A troop of his Cossacks was -billeted within it, and it had been thought convenient to pay them a -visit. The return journey would be made by way of the chaussée. There -was now nothing for it but to proceed and to come home by the same -route, since the little gendarme had given orders to this effect. We -continued our passage through the chasm. I was impressed with the -admirable communications which the Russians have established at great -cost between the heights on either bank. Soon after regaining the main -road we passed two opposite flights of steps, of which the one scaled -the steep side of the plateau on the left, and the other that of the -insular rock of Kars. Both were broad and perfectly maintained. The -latter conducted from the water's edge to the Karadagh fort, now -called Fort Fadéeff, invisible on the further side of the ridge. And -from the base of these steps a military road was carried slantwise -towards the citadel. During the last siege the garrison suffered -from the want of ready access to the outlying positions. This want -has now been supplied. Troops can be moved with rapidity between the -town and these positions as well as between the positions themselves. - -The cliffs on either hand retain their elevation until you have reached -the fourth military verst stone (over two and a half miles). Then -they decline and become less rocky and steep. The formation on the -right bank is continued into the distance in a low outline; that -on the left already opens to plainer land at about the sixth stone -(four miles). We now left the chaussée, and cantered over the plain, -across which it was a pleasure to extend the iron-grey. He had all -the makings of a very valuable horse. - -Luncheon was served in one of the neat little houses of the Molokan -village, and many a glass of white liqueur was consumed before the -meal. On the way home there was a display of Cossack exercises, a -succession of riders galloping past us in single file, and vaulting to -the ground with one foot in the stirrup in full career. Or they placed -their bodies parallel with the flanks of their horses, avoiding the -arrows of their ancestors or the bullets of their contemporaries. Like -Kurds and Circassians they raised wild shouts; but, unlike these, -they never got out of hand. Last of all there was a race, conducted -on strict principles, in which I cantered in, an easy winner, on the -grey. The squadron then re-formed, and we retraced our steps through -the chasm to the inspiriting music of the band. It soon ceased playing; -and with the last strain, at first low, then gradually louder, a sad -and mysterious chant broke from the ranks. It was carried like sobs -into the recesses of the gorge, rising and falling like the sighing -of the wind. What did they sing in that expression of bottomless -misery? Their homes had been laid waste, their parents were no more, -nor their horses any longer at tether or stall. Then the theme would -change abruptly, and a note of triumph would be heard. Nowhere except -in Hungary have I heard such moving music, giving utterance through the -canons of Western harmony to the tempestuous motives of Eastern songs. - -It remains to say a few words about the town of Kars, as you see -it at the present day. It is a mere shadow of its former self. The -old fortress city on the side of the insular rock is scarcely better -than a heap of ruins. The suburb on the plain--Orta Kapi of Mussulman -times--is rapidly pushing it out of existence. This suburb contains -the residences of the high officials and officers, and can boast -of a new Russian church, at its southern extremity, and of a number -of single-storeyed but spacious and well-supplied shops. The church -displays the masonry of the grey stone found at Kars; but the bulk -of the buildings have their walls painted white, and their roofing -of sheet metal, coloured pink or a soft green. The aspect of this -modern quarter, jutting out from the hill into the plain opposite -the answering horn of the Karadagh on the east, presents a striking -contrast to the uniform grey of the old city, overlooking the bay -of the plain. The stone of the walls and of the old Armenian church -have weathered almost black. But the majority of the ancient houses -have disappeared, and the walled area is for the most part covered -with rubble and ruin, or with straggling hovels, resembling those of -a village. The citadel was blown up by the Russians prior to their -evacuation at the close of the Crimean War, [400] and has been rebuilt -in a softer and yellow stone (Fig. 98). It now forms a most admirable -target for artillery, being the only patch of brighter colour on a -ground of the sombrest hue. The population of city and suburbs is -censused at not more than 4000, of course excluding the garrison. Of -these 2500 are Armenians and only some 850 are Turks. The Russians, -including Molokans, number 250, and the Greeks over 300 souls. It is -true that the total might perhaps be doubled if there were included -in it those families who are allowed to reside here on sufferance, -prior to being settled elsewhere. Kars is constantly receiving refugees -from the Turkish provinces, flying before the excesses of the Kurds. - -Still the number of the inhabitants has grown smaller and smaller, -if we even confine ourselves to the present century. Prior to the -campaign of Paskevich, we are informed by a credible authority that -Kars with its suburbs contained some 10,000 families, or from 50,000 -to 60,000 souls. [401] After it was evacuated by the Russian army upon -the close of that war, the bulk of the Armenian population deserted -their homes and followed the Russian retreat. [402] The figure then -drops to a pretty uniform estimate of 2000 houses or families, giving -a result of some 10,000 to 12,000 souls, of whom the vast majority -were Mussulmans. [403] It must now be further reduced by more than -one-half. Perhaps the projected railway will increase the prosperity -of Kars if the military regulations be relaxed. But it will be a long -time before it can recover its former splendour, when the fortress city -contained no less than 3000 houses, 47 mosques and 18 schools. [404] - -I was prevented by the number and ubiquity of the gendarmes from making -use of my camera. The only illustration which I am able to offer is -a view of the citadel, reproduced from a photograph which has been -placed at my disposal by my friend Mr. F. C. Conybeare (Fig. 98). I -should have liked to reproduce the interesting features of the Armenian -church, now converted into a temple of the Russian Orthodox profession -and serving as the principal resort of the garrison. In Mussulman times -it was used as a mosque. There can, I think, be little doubt that -this is the same building which was erected by the Armenian monarch -of the Bagratid dynasty, Abas, in A.D. 930. [405] The teachers in -the Armenian school ascribed it to this prince, but were not certain -about the date. I have remarked upon the blackness of its walls from -without. The interior has been covered with a yellow buff paint, and -its proportions are spoilt by an elaborate altar. It wears an air of -comfort and even of luxury, all the ornaments being out of keeping -with the austerity of the ancient pile. The form of this church is one -I have not seen elsewhere, presenting on plan four semicircular arms -with a rectangular projection between each arm. The vaulting of the -ceilings above the projections composes with that of the ceilings of -the apsidal recesses a group of eight arches. Another monument of the -same period is said to be the ruinous castle at the upper end of the -wall on the east. The wall on the south has well-nigh disappeared, -and what remains is almost lost among the houses. The gate on this -side contains an Arabic inscription, and several Armenian crosses -are inserted into the adjacent rampart. From the citadel a wall still -descends the side of the precipice, and is taken by an archway over -the road to the margin of the river. I cannot help thinking that the -plan of the place and its essential features have not changed much -since the time of the Armenian kings. Sultan Murad III. (1574-1595) -is credited with extensive works, but it may be questioned whether -they were much more than restorations. A renewal is ascribed to Sultan -Selim, but it appears doubtful to which monarch of that name. [406] -The days of the fortified town, with its medićval castle and ramparts, -are perhaps already numbered. The Russians will build in the open, -where there will be room for their favourite boulevards, although trees -are rare at present in Kars. The fortifications will year by year be -extended over a larger area, the neighbourhood being sown with volcanic -eminences admirably adapted both for the attack and for the defence. - -The Armenian inhabitants have a single elementary school, or, rather, -one for boys and one for girls. It is housed in the buildings adjacent -to the little church of St. Mary, under the citadel at the western -extremity of the rock. The teachers simply cowered with fear during -my visit. The Russian school dispenses a somewhat higher standard -of education, and profits by the disabilities imposed upon its -rival. I was shown specimens of the Easter cards which each child -had received this year from inmates of schools in France. The little -French boy sends some poetry translated into Russian to his Russian -contemporary. The girls here received similar presents from French -girls. It would appear as if no Russian school within the limits -of the Empire had been passed over by the organisers of an act of -demonstrative patriotism which, let us hope, is not spontaneous with -the young. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -ACROSS THE SPINE OF ARMENIA - - -The long and lofty barrier of the Ararat system affords a natural -partition of the surface of the Armenian highlands, and, corresponding -with the frontier between the Russian and the Turkish empires, divides -Armenia into two. The fairest districts of either territory are -found on their southern confines; and what the valley of the Araxes -is to the Russian provinces, that is to those under Turkish rule the -country of Van. Van, with her famous lake and immemorial antiquity, -became the next, and not the least alluring objective of the journey -which we had planned. A new world lay on the further side of the -mountains towards which we now directed our course. - -October 22.--During our stay in Kars we had experienced the first spell -of cold, bleak weather that the coming winter held in store. On the day -of departure the district was visited by a storm of rain which delayed -us until afternoon. At a few minutes after one o'clock we were crossing -the bridge which spans the river, and taking a last view of the castle -and the gorge. Above the entrance to the cleft the stream flows between -humbler slopes; but they are still of rock, and the metalled road, -which follows the western shore at no great distance, is without a -prospect on either side. A few versts are covered among such cheerless -surroundings; then the river comes towards you through a nice tract of -flat pasture land which opens out upon the right bank. The meadows, -brown of hue after the heats of summer, were seen to extend to the -cultivated skirts of a hill range, some six miles distant, at the -foot of which we were shown the village of Azat. A second settlement, -Little Tikma, was nearer to us, in the same direction; and on our -side of the water a group of low stone houses were aligned upon the -road. We were surprised to hear the German tongue and the mournful -sounds of a concertina; the dress, the hymn reminded us that the day -was Sunday; and the simple people were delighted to converse with a -son of Protestant England in the language of their fatherland. They -told me that it was two years since they had left the colony at -Tiflis, and migrated to these distant wilds. The soil was rich, and -it only needed a small expense of capital to diffuse the river over -the adjacent plain. But whence could they draw the money for works -of this nature? They harvested their corn in the month of August, -but the crops suffered from want of water. Although they possessed -no school, they were not without the rudiments of learning; their -frank, intelligent faces were a pleasure to see. Petrovka is the name -of their settlement, which contains some forty houses. A few versts -further we entered the Russian colony of Vladikars. We were crossing -an open country which stretched away on either hand to the outlines -of low hills. Several of these Russian villages were visible in the -landscape, and the brown loam had been exposed by the plough. - -Vladikars bears a strong resemblance to Gorelovka--the same white -faces and little windows of the neat stone houses, ranged at intervals -on either side of the road. The inhabitants, too, display a family -likeness to the dwellers in the northern watershed--the men with their -lank figures and dull but honest faces, the women with their broad -shoulders and massive hips. The feminine members of the colony were -especially conspicuous--strapping wenches, as one might call them, -attired in the gayest of printed cottons and exhibiting a plainness -which was almost repulsive. I entered the oblong and single-storeyed -building in which they conduct their services of prayer. A wooden -bench along the walls, a few wooden chairs were its only furniture; -you saw no pulpit or altar or religious picture; God resided in the -living objects of His love. This village as well as its neighbours -are peopled by Molokans, a sect of which the doctrine, like that of -the Dukhobortsy, represents an extreme and a logical form of the -Protestant faith. An old man to whom I turned, and whose striking -features I was able to record (Fig. 99), spoke to me with much -charm of voice and manner concerning their religious beliefs. They -reverence Moses and the prophets and the Holy Gospel, but they practise -their religion in their own way. Singing psalms appears to be their -principal method of spiritual expression. Infants are not baptized, -but are brought to this building; a passage from the New Testament -is read in the child's presence and his name is publicly declared. A -similar ceremony consecrates the marriage tie. - -A little beyond this village--in which is placed the eleventh verst -stone--the road bifurcates. The well-metalled and well-maintained -chaussée, which we had been following, pursues its course to the -confines of the Turkish frontier at the station of Sarikamish. The -other branch--which is in places a road, but more often a simple -track--stretches off towards the south. Taking the latter direction, -we drove for some distance over even ground, where here and there -the rich, brown soil had been exposed by the plough. On our left hand -rose a grassy and hummock-shaped eminence, scarcely a mile away. Hill -ranges of similar appearance circled around us, their summits capped -with lowering clouds and strewn with fresh snow. In such surroundings -the gay houses of Novo-Michaelovka were a pleasing diversion for the -eye. The elaborate fretwork of wooden gables and shutters, the lavish -display of vermilion and cobalt, lent an air of festivity to the -place (Fig. 100). It was evident that the inhabitants were extremely -well-to-do; yet, like all these sectaries, they neither possessed nor -appeared to desire a school in which to educate their young. Near -this village we had again approached the banks of the river, which -had a width of some 20 yards. We now crossed to the right bank. - -On our point of course, a little to our left, we held a bold and -lofty hill, of which the outline assumes the appearance of two -humps. It bears the name of Akh Deve or the white camel; and one can -understand how appropriate would be this appellation during the winter -months. Snow had not yet rested upon its grassy convexities, which -still wore the ochreous hues of autumn, and were flushed in places by -a detritus of red, volcanic stone. After losing all prospect for the -space of some twenty minutes, during which we crossed a bleak side -valley of the sluggish river, and a stream which winds along the base -of rocky slopes, we again opened this landmark on the further rim of -the amphitheatre, close by the village and station of Chermaly. The -post house stands at a little distance from this Armenian village; -our tired horses were replaced by a fresh team of four, having covered -a stage of 23 versts or 15 miles. - -It was half-past four o'clock; we made our way over lofty uplands, of -which the moist loam held our carriage-wheels. Or we jolted upon large -boulders, embedded in the track. Away on our right rose the slopes -of the Akh Deve. Magnificent eagles, with their square shoulders and -long plumage, circled round us or observed us from adjacent rocks. We -were not long in discovering the bait of this assemblage--the mangled -remains of a horse. In three-quarters of an hour we had reached -the skirts of the hill mass, whence we commanded an unbroken view -towards the north. Vast tracts of idle soil extended to the horizon, -except where, here and there, the yellow herbage was interrupted by -little carpets of ploughed land. Hills, which appeared little better -than hummocks, were set at random in the expanse. Their summits -were streaked with snow; from the white linings of their satellite -clouds vague lights descended upon the plain. We were standing upon -the elevated but imperceptible water-parting between the Araxes and -the river of Kars. A gradual descent of some 500 feet brought us to -the considerable village of Kemurly, where we passed the night in the -posting house. It was the first settlement which we had seen during -a stage of 20 versts, or a little over 13 miles. - -The latter portion of the drive from the Akh Deve to the village had -been performed under the shadow of night. It was only on the following -morning--which broke serene and radiant--that we were able to realise -the great significance of our position in a geographical sense. The -even ground over which we had travelled from the banks of the Arpa to -Kars, from Kars to the southward-flowing streams, does not descend, -as one might expect, to the valley of the Araxes through a series of -gradual inclines. The transition is effected by an exactly opposite -process; the plain continues to rise until it has almost reached the -latitude of the river, then suddenly breaks away, and overhangs the -valley in a long line of gigantic cliffs. These cliffs extend for miles -along the left bank of the Araxes; and it has been ascertained that -for a space of over 30 miles they maintain about the same elevation, -namely, a height of 6400 feet above the sea, and of 2000 to 2500 -feet above the river. [407] They may in fact be regarded as forming -the rim of an extensive plateau, which commences at the confluence -of the Arpa with the Araxes, and stretches westwards, unbroken by -any considerable mountain barrier, along the narrows above Kagyzman, -and along the broad depression of Pasin to the very threshold of the -plain of Erzerum. Their peculiar boldness in the neighbourhood of -Kagyzman may in part be attributed to the lavas which have issued in -considerable volume from centres of emission along their edge. These -eruptive centres, long since dormant, are seen in the shape of low -convexities, stretching inwards from the brink of the cliff. - -There is seldom wanting to such formations a natural pass or opening, -through which the communications with the lower levels flow. Our -road availed itself of a deep and gulf-like inlet in the rim of the -plateau. The descent along this avenue was comparatively long and -gradual, commencing indeed above the village--which has an elevation -of some 6500 feet [408]--and ending in the neighbourhood of the Lower -Kemurly. Measured on the map from point to point, the distance between -the two settlements is about 6 1/2 miles. The road was carried along -the slopes through an infinitude of windings, which measured 18 versts -or 12 miles. - -It was not yet eight o'clock when we proceeded in our carriage down the -easy gradients of this descent. Beyond a foreground which was choked -by a succession of shelving convexities rose the crags and peaks of -the Ararat system--that long range to which in a collective sense this -name may not be inapplicable, and which, like Ararat, is known to the -inhabitants of these districts under the name of Aghri Dagh. Aghri -Dagh! These words, with their roughness on the palate, are just as -appropriate to express the ruggedness of the barrier which we were -fronting, as they are unsuited to reflect the harmony of the giant in -the east. The eye, already accustomed to the vaulted eminences of the -tableland, is impressed by the contrast of these sharp, precipitous -shapes. It seems some invasion of the border ranges into the area of -the great plateaux. The sun was touching the summits of the chain, -which were softened by a covering of fresh snow. But the underlying -rock still asserted its essential character, moulding the snow into an -infinite number of facets, which sparkled in the light (Fig. 101). The -northern wall of the valley--the heights we were leaving behind us--is -composed by the lofty cliffs already described. Their even outline -was drawn across the sky into invisible limits, as we made our way -over the broken ground to which they decline (Fig. 102). - -Marls and sandstone had taken the place of the layers of volcanic -matter; far and wide, the slopes about us were broken into hummock -shapes, tinged with delicate yellows and pinks. The only vestige of -wood were some low trees and bush, seen on the lower tiers of the -opposite mountains in the far west. Again we opened out the distant -outline of Ararat, beyond the dark peak of Takjaltu. The Araxes was -long invisible; when at length we overlooked the narrow floor of -the valley, the river resembled a slender white thread. Kagyzman was -distinguished on the first of the slopes which faced us--an oasis of -verdure and some faint blue smoke. We felt the power of a southern sun; -and, as we neared the end of the descent, bouquets of atraphaxis, -with succulent flowers and blaze of madder, clothed the waste and -sandy soil. At twenty minutes before ten we were at the Lower Kemurly; -and, a little later, our wheels were cleaving the shallow waters of -the Araxes, spread in a wide bed of silt and shingle, over which a -rapid current flows (Fig. 103). The ground rises from the opposite -margin of the river up the beautiful side valley of Kagyzman. The -town is situated at an elevation of some 700 feet above the ford, -which crosses a hollow of nearly 4000 feet above the sea. [409] - -The houses nestle among lofty trees, on the left or western bank of -a broad depression, which harbours in its deep and wooded recesses a -scanty affluent of the Araxes. The soft tracery and mellow tints of -the luxuriant foliage are backed by the rugged sides of the Ararat -system; while, in the north, the eye follows the horizontal edge -of the tableland, with the low volcanic eminences protruding above -that outline, and robed, this morning, in fresh snow (Fig. 104). The -inhabitants of this little paradise are Armenians and Mohammedans, -the latter of whom belong to the Sunni persuasion and are classed in -the Russian census as Turks. [410] A strong detachment of Cossacks -was quartered in the place--a significant outpost of the northern -empire. I was anxious to cross the mountains on the following morning; -and it was painful to realise that we were at the mercy of the civil -authorities--of a sour-faced Nachalnik who had no doubt received his -instructions, but in what sense remained to be seen. Had Fadéeff -hardened his heart? Had the order come to arrest us? The question -remained for some time in suspense. The route which we were taking -excited suspicion; with what object were we pursuing this unbeaten -track? There were not wanting practical difficulties which might excuse -the authorities, should they decide to detain us at Kagyzman. We -were in need of transport; to purchase suitable animals was next -to impossible; and, as for hiring, the owners were not accustomed -to cross the frontier, and might reasonably apprehend detention on -the other side. Indeed we failed in all our efforts to induce them -to make a contract; and we were brought to recognise that it would -be necessary to abandon our intention, unless the Nachalnik would -intervene. By dint of much persistence and some cajolery we were able -to bring him round. He of course protested that Oriental methods were -out of place in Russia; we approved the sentiment, and expressed the -hope that something would be devised to take their place. The owners -were given their orders to appear before dawn on the following day. I -rose at four, certain that they would not obey. But there was still -a hope that we might create the necessary quantity of initiative by -rousing the Nachalnik from his sleep. This plan, based, as the reader -knows, upon former experiences, was productive of instant success. - -By half-past seven our tiny caravan was in motion, pointing along -the base of the mountains a little south of west. We sank by a steep -incline to a long valley which follows the Araxes in the relation, as -it appeared to us, of a parallel trough. It was filled with hummocks -of a red, sandy substance; the slopes on either side screened off -the view. Those on our left hand were the more stony, and were tinged -in places a greenish hue. In about an hour after starting we opened -out the river, flowing at some little distance from the heights upon -which we stood. A lateral depression afforded access to the principal -valley, which we followed, keeping to the high ground. The Araxes -was threading the narrow bottom of a fork, of which the arms rose -to thousands of feet above its bed. Close up now, on our left hand, -towered the escarpments of the range, fronting the opposite cliffs -of the tableland. At a little before nine we turned our backs to the -river and rose, on a southerly course, up the mountain side. - -We had reached an elevation of some 5500 feet, when a little village, -with a few willows and the ruins of an ancient monastery, broke -upon our view (Fig. 105). It is inhabited by Armenians, and bears -the name of Kara Vank (the black cloister). The even masonry of hewn -stone which composed the crumbling edifice recalled the culture of a -forgotten age. What a contrast it presented to the rude and featureless -walls of the modern village church! We passed through this little -settlement, which contains some thirty houses, and mounted the slopes -on the further side. In a valley on our left hand we noticed some -sparse brushwood, and bushes of wild rose here and there relieved the -rock. We were nearing the level of the opposite edge of the tableland, -of which the cliffs were seen descending to the narrow river valley -with shelving sides of richly modelled marls. At a quarter before -ten we made halt on the neck of a spur, whence we obtained a wide -prospect over the more distant scene. - -We overlooked the surface of the tableland. Towards the east, the mass -of Alagöz could be distinguished from banks of cloud, which clung -to the recent snows upon its slopes. Kagyzman was still visible in -the trough of the landscape; the two low cones on the cliffs beyond -the town were especially prominent, enveloped in a sheet of unbroken -snow. Our people identified them with the great and the small Jagluya, -and said they were famous for their rich pasture-land. From east -to west, in a wide half-circle, land and cloud were woven together, -the horizontal outlines always felt and sometimes seen. But in the -west these nebulous shapes met the profile of the savage ridges which -were seen descending from the range about us, almost at right angles, -into the narrows through which the river flows. - -From this point we continued during a considerable space of time to -skirt these upper slopes. The keen air was full of sun; the prospect -was inspiring; we loitered for an hour over our lunch. I focussed the -camera upon one of the long meridional parapets which cleave the soft -landscape of the west (Fig. 106). I would ask my reader to observe the -deep incision of its flanking valley; these valleys extend to the very -spine of the mountain system, and, in some places, appear to break it -through. We were obliged to descend to the bottom of this particular -ravine; a slender stream was rustling over the boulders in the hollow, -which had an elevation of some 5800 feet. The rocky escarpments of -the opposite parapet were seen to consist of a compound diabase, -veined in places with beautiful marbles. Of wood there was little, -even within these recesses--a brushwood of beech and willow and -fir. The rose bushes were still with us, and the yellow immortelles, -which we had not seen since our sojourn on Ararat. - -Beyond this valley we rose towards the summits of the chain and made -our way through this winter's snow. We were on the pass at four o'clock -(Fig. 107); a grass-grown eminence on our right hand was identified -as the Akh Bulakh Dagh. The range was highest on our left; the saddle -by which we crossed it has an elevation of some 8600 feet. Half an -hour later we had passed into the opposite watershed, and planted -our feet upon Turkish soil. - -Vast plains lay below us--dim tracts of even soil, broken in places -by hummock shapes. The outline of an opposite chain was drawn across -the horizon, loftier in the east, where it was crowned with snow, -declining in the west to a range of blue-grey hills upon our right. It -was the system of the Ala Dagh. Beyond this barrier, the harmonious -shape of a single mountain formed a beautiful white presence in -the sky. We could not doubt that it was Sipan, nearly seventy miles -distant, the goal to which we were directing our steps. A thread of -water on the plains reflected the blue heaven, and was recognised as -the Murad. We had crossed the spine of Armenia, and were descending -to the banks of the Euphrates, to the sources of the streams which -issue into the Persian Gulf. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -GEOGRAPHICAL - - -In the present chapter I shall invite my reader to make good his -advantage over the traveller, and to realise, before proceeding -further with the journey, the true meaning and wider connection of -those natural features which have composed the landscape day by day. At -the same time I shall endeavour to trace the limits of north-eastern or -Russian Armenia, extending our view for awhile to comprise the whole of -Armenia, and again narrowing it to the area of the Russian provinces. - -But at the outset we are prompted to examine the conception so vaguely -expressed by the metaphors of tableland and frame of mountain ranges -which, with slight variations in the figure, have in the foregoing -pages so often been employed. The pursuit of this analysis carries us -beyond the sphere of our particular survey, compelling us to consider -the structure of Asia as a whole. - -From the Mediterranean to the Pacific the Asiatic continent is -traversed by a zone of elevated country, which, flanked on the north -and south by great chains of mountains, breaks off on the west to the -Ćgean Sea and to the lowlands of China on the east. Extensive areas -of land with considerably lesser altitude are outspread on either -side of this gigantic system: in the north the plains of Russia -and Siberia, in the south the peninsulas of Arabia and India. The -mountain chains which confine the zone of elevated country have been -reared during different geological periods; yet they are subject to -common laws. They are disposed in extensive arcs, of greater or lesser -curvature, which are festooned across the continent on either side -of the plateau region with a general direction from east to west. The -plateau region is in general synclinal or, in other words, of slightly -hollow surface, and, in comparison with the flanking ranges, is flat. - -If we enquire of the geologist the origin of these phenomena, -we receive an answer which, while it leaves many points obscure -and doubtful, still enables us to trace the operation of fixed -principles in the mighty work unfolded before our eyes. Our globe -sails through the wan expanse of ćther, diffusing the heat with which -it is charged. The cooling crust shrinks and gathers inwards towards -the centre; but the material of which it consists is inelastic and is -thrown into gigantic wrinkles or folds. Radial contraction induces -tangential stresses at the surface, colossal forces which bend over -and invert the folds, and even thrust the strata one beneath another, -causing them to be disposed like the tiles upon a roof. This lateral -tension finds most relief where the crust is weakest; and it is at -such points, or along such zones, that the process of mountain-making -has been developed on the largest scale. It is the tendency of such -folded ranges to form arcs of large curvature, which are drawn inwards, -where the lateral pressure meets with most resistance, and expand -outwards, where it is withstood in a lesser degree. - -In Asia the operation of this process of mountain-making has been -accompanied by, or has produced, the elevation in mass of large -portions of the earth's crust. The intensely folded regions, or, in -other words, the great chains of mountains, are found along the inner -and the outer margins of the elevated mass. Between these zones the -stratified rocks have no doubt been subjected to the folding process; -yet they have escaped the immense contortions that have taken place -on either side. - -Throughout the continent the lateral force which has been most -operative in mountain-making has proceeded from the north. The fact -may perhaps be explained by supposing that this force is the result -of the active pressure exerted by the hard, unyielding material of -which the steppes of Siberia and the basin of the Arctic Ocean are -composed. The great arcs which are described by the mountain ranges -are in general convex to the south. Thus in western Asia the chains -on the inner and outer margins of the elevated area are disposed in -two roughly parallel series of arcs bulging towards the south. Of -these series the inner arcs have less curvature than the outer, -to which they are roughly parallel. - -The inner series may be traced with greatest singleness of feature on -the west of Hindu Kush--that natural centre of the mountain systems -of Asia which at once supplies the most convenient standpoint for a -general survey of the structure of the continent, and is placed at -the junction of the two great divisions, western and eastern, into -which geographers have partitioned this vast area. The Hindu Kush -inclines over into the Paropamisus; and the southern portion of the -latter range is continued, on the north of Persia, by the mountains -of Khorasan. A sharp bend in the belt, just east of the Caspian, -turns southwards into the Elburz range, and the beautiful curve -of the chain along the margin of the shore may be admired from the -waters of that inland sea. The line of Elburz is protracted across -the depression of the Araxes valley into the peaks of Karabagh; while -the Karabagh system unites with the bold and lofty ridges which in -full face of their gigantic neighbour, the Caucasus, overtower the -right bank of the Kur. These ridges again connect with the chain we -have ourselves crossed between Kutais and Akhaltsykh--a chain which -joins the mountains on the southern shore of the Black Sea. The Pontic -range forms a bow of wide span and gentle curvature, ending in the -hump of Anatolia, where it meets the arc of the Bithynian border hills. - -The parallel series on the outer margin of the elevated area commences -with the outer arc of the Hindu Kush system, the severely bent and -S-shaped Salt Range. Thence it proceeds into the mountains which flank -Persia upon the east and belong to the outer Iranian arc. [411] The -bold sweep of this arc into the chain of Zagros may be recognised -by a glance at the map. We remark the greater protraction of the -north-western arm of the bow, a feature which may be traced in the -configuration of most of the great Asiatic chains. We admire the clean -and uniform outline of the curve, broken only by a slight indent -at the straits of Ormuz, which may be answered by the bend in the -inner system which we have already noticed on the east of the Caspian -Sea. The outer Iranian arc effects a junction with the Tauric ranges -along two parallel but fairly distinct orographical lines. Of these -the inner line crosses over from the Zagros to the Ararat system, -and assumes commanding orographical importance in the western arm of -that system, known as the Aghri or Shatin Dagh. It is in the Shatin -Dagh that the bend to the west-south-west is effected, which may be -followed through a series of volcanoes into the Anti-Taurus and the -Mediterranean range. The outer line is formed by the grand half-circle -of the Kurdish mountains; from the parched plains about Diarbekr you -see them, as from the well of an amphitheatre, covered or capped with -gleaming snow. This principal chain of Taurus extends to the coast -of Syria, and emerges from the sea in the island of Cyprus and in -many a headland and island of the Anatolian coast. - -It can scarcely fail to impress the most casual of observers that -this double series of arcs, from Hindu Kush to Mediterranean, meet -or almost meet at three distinctly traceable and widely separated -points. Such approximations occur in Hindu Kush, in Armenia, and in the -mountainous districts which border the Ionian seaboard. We can scarcely -doubt that they are due to the incidence of a strong opposing force, -moving from the south and causing the arcs to be constricted, the -ranges to be piled up one behind another, and mountain development to -assume its grandest forms. It is probable that the resisting pressure -has been furnished in the first two cases by the Indian and Arabian -peninsulas. Another feature, less obvious but not less noteworthy, -is furnished by the fact that in Armenia and Asia Minor the arcs have -been fractured in the process of bending over at or near the points -where the approximations between the two series have taken place. The -closer the constriction, the sharper, of course, becomes the curve, -and the greater the tendency to split. In Asia Minor the union of -the series has resulted in complete fracture; the folded area sinks -beneath the waters of the Ćgean to be represented by the islands -which stud the Archipelago, and, further west, by the mountains of -the Dalmatian coast. - -On the east of Hindu Kush we are as yet in want of sufficient material -for so convincing an analysis as the researches of geologists have -rendered possible on the west. We know that in eastern Asia a vast -area of elevated land is bounded both along the inner and the outer -margins by mountain systems of wide extension and great height. Such -are the systems of Altai and Tian-shan upon the north, and the mighty -bow of the Himalayas on the south. Probably the Kuenlun range carries -over the inner series of western Asia, extending eastwards from the -Pamirs and serving as a buttress to the immensely elevated plateau -of Tibet. If this view be correct, then the Tian-shan and Altai -systems may perhaps be regarded as minor earth-waves, following close -upon the heels of the Kuenlun, and supporting the highlands of the -Tarim basin and the desert of Gobi, the Han-hai or Dry Sea of the -Chinese. The plain reader may be content to observe the echelon of -mountain ranges which extends from Hindu Kush towards Behring Sea; -to note the constant curvature of the arcs towards the south, until, -in the Altai group, the eastern arms of the bows are protracted ever -further towards the north; to contrast the low-lying plains along -the western ends of the echelon with the lofty highlands of Mongolia -on the east. The necks of the valleys issue upon the depression of -Siberia and the low country through which the Oxus and Jaxartes flow. - -In western Asia the elevated area with its flanking ranges is -bordered on the north by the northern Paropamisus and further west -by the Caucasus chain. The Paropamisus may perhaps be regarded as -the most southerly of the many branches which belong to the system of -Tian-shan. [412] Geologists invite us to connect the Paropamisus with -the Caucasus, and trace the links of the broken chain to the mountains -of Krasnovodsk on the Caspian, whence a submarine ridge carries the -line into the mountains of Caucasus, to be protracted far to the west, -through the Crimea, and emerge from the waters of the Black Sea in -the Balkans, Carpathians and Alps. In this manner we see described on -the north of the Asiatic highlands, with their series of inner arcs, -a further arc of immense span and wide curvature, which is represented -on the east by the northern Paropamisus and by the Caucasus on the -west. Both these ranges may best be viewed as independent of the -inner series; but Paropamisus is closely adpressed to the inner arc -of Persia, and Caucasus is joined at a single point to the series, -namely by the Meschic linking chain. Lines of elevation, similar -to that which we have traced from Paropamisus, may be discovered, -although with less orographical distinction, proceeding westwards -and struggling over towards Europe from the more northerly branches -of Tian-shan; they are almost lost in the great depression of the -Turanian lowlands, but they follow arcs of increasing width of span. - -This interesting study of the structure of Asia, which is due to the -researches of recent years, not only serves to explain the pronounced -features of Asiatic landscapes, as integral members of a vast design, -but also enables us to understand many of the movements of history and -many of the phenomena of the human world. [413] India is enclosed on -all sides by the sea or by the outer mountains, and appears reserved -by natural causes for herself. China, with her teeming millions, -is separated from western Asia by the whole bulk of the broadest -and least hospitable portion of the system of lofty plateaux with -peripheral ranges. The echelon of chains, which seam the continent -in a north-easterly direction, are the nurseries of the hardiest -tribes. The valleys which space these ranges are the arteries -of human movement, and they lead from west to east, from east to -west. Thus during the period of armed migrations which is represented -by the Tartar conquests, one division of the Tartar armies might be -fighting in China on the Yellow River while another was laying waste -Khorasan. The bend of the arcs towards the south places the framework -of Nature in harmony with the migrations of man. The tablelands of -Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor are members of a continuous system -of elevated plains at a temperate altitude, which extend like some -great causeway along the breadth of Asia, giving access from east to -west, from west to east. This causeway forms the natural avenue of -commerce and of conquest, by which the tide of war or of commercial -intercourse ebbs and flows between the remote recesses of Central Asia -and the Ionian shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Only on the east is -the causeway blocked by Nature to human traffic, by the constriction -of the arcs on the north of India, leading over by a gigantic knot of -mountains into the impassable plateau of Tibet. The stream is therefore -diverted from the highlands to the lowlands; great cities arise on -the lowlands, at the mouths of the Tian-shan valleys, Merv, Bokhara, -Samarkand. And when we contemplate and contrast the structure of Asia -and of Europe--the vast forces which have produced the stately body -of eastern Asia dying out towards the west in the insignificant but -widely ramified elevations of the European mountain chains--we may -readily understand how different has been the influence exercised by -structural features upon the peoples of either continent. In Asia such -features are a factor of the first importance, determining climate, -controlling migrations, setting barriers to intercourse or relentlessly -fixing the highways which it must pursue. In Europe, on the other -hand, they have done little more than diversify the scenery, and for -purposes of peaceful or hostile movements among the nations may with -some exceptions be almost left out of account. What are our European -mountains but arbitrary wrinkles on the face of the continent? One -valley leads over into another of much the same height above sea-level -by a pass which is not more lofty than the neighbouring ridges. One -plain is succeeded by a companion expanse of similar character, and -only some small diversity in the forms of the spires of the churches -tells the tale of national distinctions. Differentiation rather than -the presence of marked ethnological types is characteristic of the -peoples of Europe. But once the narrow strait is passed we may no -longer dally with our geography; and the further we proceed towards -the east and the inner sanctuaries of Nature the greater grows the -necessity of comprehending phenomena which must always exercise a -dominant influence upon human affairs. It will not suffice in Asia -to observe the latitude of a great plain in order to know beforehand -the degree of heat which it will support in summer, the rigour or -the suavity of the climate during winter. You will be freezing -in Erzerum while Erivan is relaxed in sunshine; yet both cities -are placed on the margins of level expanses, and the advantage of -latitude is in favour of the temperateness of that first named. Not -even the convenient distinction of highlands and lowlands will -carry us very far. We must enquire into the nature of the highlands; -are the mountains their prevailing feature, or are those mountains, -as we see them from the floor of the lowlands, a mere buttress to -a sequence of elevated plains? Penetrate the chain, and you rise by -successive steps from valley to valley, while each ridge is higher -than the last. Follow its extension upon the map and you will see it -rising from the Mediterranean and terminating in the knot of mountains -north of India. Mark the characteristics of the people who inhabit it, -be they Kurds or Lurs or Lazes, they will not offer much divergence -from a common standard. Yet what a gulf of human nature between these -and the inhabitants of the lowlands--a gulf which is scarcely spanned -by the equalising tendencies of a long spell of misgovernment! When -at length these alps expand, and you overlook a more level country, -everything--climate, the aspect of the sky as well as of the land, -people, language, cities, villages are new. And yet our diplomatists -who dwell on the Bosphorus, and ruminate Asiatic problems with the -aid of indifferent maps which they would not pretend to understand, -group the highlands and the lowlands, the shepherds of the mountains -and the cultivators of the plains, all together--a strange collection -of birds and beasts and fishes--in a single scheme of administrative -reforms. The Turk is little wiser; but we may perhaps view with a -large indifference his passive resistance to such reforms. - -But to return to our plains and mountains--the country which we -may still call Armenia takes its place as an integral member of the -system of tablelands, buttressed by mountain ranges, which extends -from the Hindu Kush to the Mediterranean Sea. It is not separated -by any important natural frontier from Persia on the east or from -Asia Minor on the west. Moreover most of the characteristics which -are found in either of these neighbours are prevalent in Armenia -to a greater or a lesser degree. The stratified rocks include the -later Palćozoic, the Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene series; and -these extend across the whole system. The salt deposits of Miocene -age which are spread so widely over Persia are not among the least -remarkable of the surface features of Armenia; although they have -not produced that widespread devastation which attends the extension -of the great salt deserts over the Persian plateau. [414] In Armenia -they are friendly to man, providing him with one of his necessaries; -and the various salt works, known in Turkey under the name of tuzla -or salt pans, have been exploited from immemorial times. Considerable -depressions of the surface of the highlands are phenomena common to -all three countries; and the same may be said of the volcanoes which -are dominant in Armenian landscapes, but are not wholly absent from -the contiguous territories on either side. All participate in the -benefits of a southern climate, and are exempted by their elevation -above sea-level from the excesses of a southern sun. Slowly-flowing -rivers threading vast plains, mountains which determine districts -rather than states; a natural penury of vegetation, enhanced by the -depredations of countless goats, but perhaps balanced in the eyes of -the traveller by the beauty of the land-forms--such are some among -the many impressions which may be derived in various degrees from a -visit to any of the individual members of the group. - -But, if Armenia be closely linked with her neighbours on the west and -east, she is divided by some of the most effective of natural barriers -and natural distinctions from the countries which lie to the north -and south. The zones of mountains which on the one side separate -her from the coast of the Black Sea and the Georgian depression, -and on the other from the lowlands of Mesopotamia, possess in an -equal degree the rugged character due to intense folding and are -both of considerable width. Sharp ridges with serrated outlines -rising one behind another, narrow valleys in which the shadows lie, -hissing rivers and bush-grown rocks, grassy uplands or stretches of -forest determine the scenery both of the northern and of the southern -zone. The alpine region has a breadth of some fifty miles more or -less in the direction of the Black Sea, while the corresponding zone, -facing the lowlands about Diarbekr, extends, on the whole, over a -smaller span. Both zones are practically unlimited in length. They have -been factors of paramount influence in the history of the peoples, -not only screening the territories they confine from those which lie -outside, but also investing them with distinct climatic conditions. For -these parallel belts of peripheral mountains do in fact perform the -function of supports or buttresses to a series of elevated plains; -the valleys in the alpine region are but the succession of terraces -which rise to the margin of a lofty platform. A difference in level -of several thousands of feet is productive of marked features in the -habits and character of the inhabitants; while the alps themselves must -necessarily determine the mode of life of the dwellers within them, -constraining them to follow the vocation of shepherds rather than that -of agriculturists. Thus along the section between Diarbekr and the -Armenian highlands three strongly-contrasted types of people will be -met. The nomad Arabs or Arabic-speaking cultivators of the lowlands -are succeeded by the pastoral Kurds with their tribal organisation, -and these again by the Armenian tillers of the soil. - -I have already indicated the intimate connection of these peripheral -mountains with the structural system of the Asiatic continent. The -northerly belt belongs to the inner series of arcs, and that on -the south to the outer series. The compression of these arcs--a -phenomenon which has engaged our attention--has been effected in -the greatest degree within the section of country between Diarbekr -and Trebizond. You see the two opposite arcs, one bent to the south -and the other to the north, endeavouring to meet under the stress of -contending pressures; while on either side of the section the curves -diminish in intensity and the spines of the ranges have been allowed -to expand like the spokes of a wheel. The northern boundary of Armenia -is constituted by the mountains of the northern peripheral region, -which enter the country on the west in the Gumbet Dagh. The line may -be followed on the map on the north of Shabin Karahisar through the -Giaour Dagh and the Kuseh Dagh to the pass over the Vavuk Dagh, lying -to the north-west of the town of Baiburt. From the Vavuk pass the spine -of the chain confines the valley of the Chorokh by a well-defined and -regular parapet; until just east of the town of Ispir it commences -to lose this singleness of feature, and to favour a tendency towards -bifurcation and branching out. The ridges stretch across the valley in -an east-north-easterly direction, the direction which the spine has so -long pursued; and their course may be traced through the mountainous -country on the north of Olti until they become buried beneath the -volcanic accumulations of the plateau country in the districts of -Göleh and Ardahan. It is most interesting to trace their probable -emergence from this canopy on the further side of the tableland, and -to recognise in the elevations of Shishtapa (north of Alexandropol) -and of Madatapa ridges that have survived the splitting and fracture -of the Pontic chain. But this is a feature of greater interest to the -geologist than to the geographer; and the latter will follow the Black -Sea range through the heights of the Khachkar and Parkhal mountains -to the Kukurt Dagh on the west of Artvin. The ridge which stretches -thence in a north-north-easterly direction towards the seaboard, -giving passage to the Chorokh and determining the Russian frontier, -has been deflected by the mass of the Karchkhal mountains, the radial -system to the north-east of Artvin. It crosses the river close to the -coast behind Batum, and may be traced through the peaks of Taginaura, -Gotimeria and Nepiszkaro along the plains of Imeritia to the passage -of the Kur through the gorge of Borjom. These last-named peaks belong -to the Akhaltsykh-Imeritian border range, which my reader has crossed -with me by the pass of Zikar, and of which the direction is almost -due east and west. - -It is impossible to delimit the northern frontier of Armenia by a -slavish insistence upon the boundary of the Black Sea range. That -system is the natural boundary for a distance of very many miles, -as it extends along the course first of the Kelkid Su, the ancient -Lycus, and then along that of the Chorokh. But the fracture of the arc -which has taken place in the country watered by the uppermost branches -of the Kur and Arpa Chai, and the eating back of the more easterly -affluents of the Chorokh, which have carved out the intricate country -in the neighbourhood of Olti, have resulted in the interruption of the -normal sequence until it is again resumed in the Akhaltsykh-Imeritian -range. It is consonant with the natural conditions to take the -frontier across the valley of the Chorokh in the vicinity of Ispir, -and to lead it by the heights which contain the sources of the Chorokh -and the Serchemeh Chai to the Dümlü Dagh, the parent mountain of the -Western Euphrates. It will then follow, first in an easterly and then -in a north-easterly direction, the elevated water-parting between -the basins of the Araxes and the Black Sea; and, after effecting -a union through the Chamar Dagh with the volcanoes of the Soghanlu -Dagh, will be protracted along the meridional and volcanic elevation -which confines the highlands of Göleh and Ardahan on the west. The -junction of these vaulted heights with the Akhaltsykh-Imeritian range -may be traced through the ridge of the Sakulaperdi Dagh to the peak -of Gotimeria. All the rivers on the northern slopes of this section -of the Armenian frontier drain into the Black Sea. - -The passes across this zone are of considerable elevation, though -a good number are open all the year round. I have been unable -to ascertain the height of the pass over the Gumbet Dagh between -Karahisar and Kerasun. But the valleys of the Upper Kelkid and the -Upper Chorokh may be reached from Trebizond without encountering a -greater altitude than something less than 7000 feet. To this figure -must be added another 600 to 1000 feet before the traveller will -have crossed the block of elevated tableland interposed between those -valleys and the great Armenian cities, Erzinjan and Erzerum. East of -Baiburt the spine of the Pontic range becomes more lofty: and the track -which leads from Rizeh to Ispir in the Chorokh valley surmounts it at -a height which has been estimated at 9000 feet above the sea. Where -the frontier has become coterminous with the northern border heights -of Erzerum and Pasin the roads are taken by passes of over 7000 feet -(Erzerum-Bar-Olti) and 8500 feet (Hasan Kala-Olti) into the basin -of the Black Sea; while during its protraction northwards through -the Soghanlu Dagh to the Sakulaperdi Dagh it may be traversed by -well-beaten paths or tolerable roads at elevations which range between -6085 feet (Eshak-Meidan Pass) and about 7000 feet. The principal -avenues of communication across the mountainous region are those of -Erzinjan-Gümüshkhaneh, Baiburt-Gümüshkhaneh, Erzerum-Olti, Kars-Olti, -Ardahan-Olti and Ardahan-Ardanuch. A road has been constructed from -Kutais to Abastuman, and is gaining traffic every year. - -Copious rainfall and abundant vegetation are characteristic of the -northern peripheral mountains. In some of the valleys the clouds -settle for several months in the year, seldom lifting to disclose a -view of the sun. It may often happen that during several weeks or even -months crests and depressions alike will be shrouded in mist. In summer -there is produced the likeness of a succession of forcing houses, the -slopes and hollows being covered with a bewildering tangle of trees -and creepers and scarcely passable undergrowth. From the branches -are festooned the lichens, grey-white streamers like human hair; -the crimson stools of a fungus shine out from the gloomy brakes, -and the pointed pink petals of the Kolchian crocus clothe each -respite of open ground. Such conditions are most prevalent in the -narrow valleys near the Pontic coast, while the slopes which face -the Rion and the opposite Caucasus are distinguished by magnificent -forests. Several peoples, distributed over fairly distinct zones, -inhabit these fastnesses. On the west we have the Greeks, inclined -to commerce and close to a seaboard; they may be found struggling -upwards to the spine of the range and even in a sporadic manner upon -its southern slopes. Further east dwell the Lazis, a wild people; and -their neighbours, the Ajars, in the mountains behind Batum. These are -succeeded by a population of Georgian shepherds and small cultivators, -whose picturesque chalets are surrounded with Indian corn. - -It remains to follow the extension of the mountains of the northern -border during their progress eastwards from the Borjom gorge. The -comparative narrowness of the belt in the neighbourhood of that great -cleft is explained by the fracture of the arc to the south of this -region and the covering up of its more southerly members by volcanic -emissions. But this decrease in width is to some extent balanced -by the propinquity of the Caucasus. It is in this neighbourhood -that the single link connecting the belt with Caucasus stretches -across the Georgian depression, dividing the Rion from the Kur; -it may be known as the Meschic linking chain. East of this barrier -the vegetation diminishes in luxuriance. The Akhaltsykh-Imeritian -range is continued beyond the gorge by the latitudinal Trialethian -chain--a system of which the backbone is formed by the Arjevan ridge, -and which is bounded on three sides by the course of the Kur. A branch -of this system is seen to continue the direction of the Pontic range, -inclining off at a sharp angle from the principal elevation to form -the valley of the Gujaretis. It culminates in the peaks of the Sanislo -group at an extreme height of 9350 feet, and sinks beneath the lavas -of the plateau region. The Trialethian mountains have undergone a -process of uptilt, which has caused them to fall away abruptly towards -the north and to form terraces of plateau-like character on the south. - -Just as on the west we were constrained to draw the natural frontier -inwards from the spine of the Pontic range, so on the east the next -successors of the Trialethian ridges lie outside the proper boundary of -the Armenian plains. A glance at the map will show that a dislocation -of the natural features has taken place in this region. The inner arc, -so clearly defined on the one side by the Pontic chain and on the -other by the Shah Dagh, overlooking Lake Gökcheh, has snapped during -the process of bending over; and the survivors of the catastrophe, -the ridges which obstruct the Khram and the Somketian mountains, -are constrained to play a subordinate part. The water-parting and -principal elevation is composed of volcanoes, reared in a meridional -direction. What an impressive analogy to the phenomena on the side -of the Black Sea! These volcanoes pursue two lines, one line close -behind the other, and the outer or more easterly far the longer of the -two. It is the outer series, known as the Gori Mokri, or wet mountains, -that constitute the border of the Armenian highlands on this side. The -traveller who journeys westwards from the plateau of Zalka (5000 feet) -up the elevated valley of the river Kzia to the little upland plain -of the same name (7000 feet) [415] will be treading on the dividing -line between the folded mountains of the Trialethian system and the -meridional volcanic series. On his left hand he will admire the shapely -cone of Tawkoteli (9211 feet), which constitutes the most northerly -of these volcanic elevations. The barrier is continued southwards -through the Samsar Dagh (10,770 feet) to the Daly Dagh; and thence -along the eastern shore of the lonely lake of Toporovan (6875 feet) -to the dual crown of Agrikar (9765 feet) and to the conical summit -of the Emlekli Dagh (10,016 feet). The sequence ends in the heights -of Karakach (over 10,000 feet), of which the southerly extension is -interrupted by the latitudinal ridges of Aglagan and Shishtapa. But -the border is protracted along the parting of the waters into the -westerly extremities of the Pambak chain. - -We may, perhaps, regard this chain as the most southerly -of the latitudinal ridges which begin on the north with the -Akhaltsykh-Imeritian and Trialethian systems. It extends the area -of the highlands for some distance towards the east, when, after -commencing to incline in an east-south-easterly direction, it effects a -junction with the Shah Dagh. This last-named ridge takes the frontier -along the eastern shore of Lake Gökcheh to the confines of Karabagh; -and the elevation may be traced through the spine of the northern -Karabagh mountains across the Kur to the range which faces the Caspian -Sea. But Karabagh may be regarded as a separate geographical unit, -combining in miniature many of the characteristics of the Armenian -highlands--an inner plateau region flanked by peripheral ranges. The -immemorial home of Armenian inhabitants, the seat of Tartar immigrants -and the happy hunting-ground of nomad Kurds, it constitutes a solid -outer buttress to Armenia on the side of the Caspian. [416] The true -boundary must be taken southwards from the Ginal Dagh (over 11,000 -feet) to the Kety Dagh, where it forms a loop towards the west; and, -after almost encircling an upland sheet of water, called the Ala Göl, -is protracted through the heights of Sir-er-syrchaly (11,298 feet) -and Salvarty (10,422 feet) to the valley of the Araxes at Migry just -east of Ordubad. The Karadagh mountains on the southern bank of the -river continue the ridges of Karabagh; and the natural frontier is -pushed westwards up the course of the Araxes as far as the village -of Julfa. From this point you have the choice of two methods of -demarcation, both of which repose on geographical facts. The line may -be taken south-eastwards along the marginal ridge of the Karadagh to -the water-parting between the basin of the Araxes on the one side and -that of Lake Urmi on the other. This parting is of little orographical -relief, but it would conduct the frontier almost in a straight line -to the serried ridges of the southern peripheral zone on the south -of Lake Van. [417] Or the more pronounced bulwark between the Lake -Van and Lower Araxes basins may seem to constitute the true boundary -of the Armenian country. In this case an arbitrary line must be drawn -from behind Bayazid, leading from the crest of these mountains, which -at present constitute the Turko-Persian frontier to our original -starting-point, Julfa. My reader will observe that we have left the -barrier of the northern peripheral mountains, to explore the less -certain limits on the side of Persia. - -We have now pursued the northern border of the Armenian highlands -from the coast of the Black Sea to that of the Caspian, where the -belt passes over into the mountains framing Persia upon the north to -be protracted into the Hindu Kush. The corresponding southern zone -is much more simple of feature; but it lies outside the province of -the present chapter, being included, throughout its entire extension -along these highlands, within Turkish territory. Between the northern -and southern zones of peripheral mountains several distinct but minor -members of the orographical system we have been examining furrow the -surface of the tableland. These will receive their proper attention -in the companion chapter of the second volume, situated as they are -for the most part beyond the limits of our present survey. But one -of them may be traced to the commanding elevation which determines -the valley of the Araxes during its passage through Chaldiran to the -confluence of the Arpa Chai; and it is this range--for it deserves -to be described as a range--that not only constitutes the present -frontier between the Russian and Turkish Empires, but in fact divides -the area of Armenia into two parts. You must either cross the spine of -this chain, which describes a symmetrical curve, or follow along the -plains at its northern or southern flanks, should you desire to pass -from the plateau region on the north and east to the corresponding -districts on the south and west. In the preceding chapter we have -become familiar with some of its interesting features; and we have -been introduced to it under the general name of the Ararat system -or Aghri Dagh. Shatin Dagh is another name under which its westerly -portion is designated by some writers, and which is scarcely less well -qualified to express its ruggedness. This range carries the natural -frontier between the two divisions from the Kuseh Dagh (11,262 feet) -in the west to Little Ararat (12,840 feet) in the east. - -It will thus be seen that the present area of Russian Armenia -corresponds in a remarkable manner with the limits assigned by Nature -to the more north-easterly of the two extensive regions into which she -has parcelled Armenian soil. The Russian frontier is drawn from the -coast of the Black Sea along the water-parting of the tributaries to -the western bank of the Lower Chorokh through the peripheral region, -and west of the town of Olti, to the Armenian border at the Chakhar -Dagh. Thence it is taken across the Araxes to the spine of the Aghri -or Shatin Dagh just north-west of the dome of Kuseh Dagh. It follows -the spine of the range to the neighbourhood of Great Ararat, whose -hallowed summit it embraces within the dominions of the Tsar. From the -crest of the Little Ararat, whose south-eastern slopes are left to -Persia, it reaches across the plain to the right bank of the Araxes -a little below the famous monastery of Khor Virap. The Araxes forms -the boundary between the Russian and Persian Empires from this point -to near its confluence with the Kur. - -It is a misleading, nay, a false conception of natural features -to distribute the surface of the plateau region into a number of -distinct geographical units. That is a method which is favoured by -Russian sciolists with political connections in their endeavour -to confuse the essential unity of a country which Russia has not -yet fully absorbed. Enter this region where you will and with the -eyes of any qualified traveller, the same or similar impressive -characteristics will at once appeal to the mind. The German scientist -Koch has well described these idiosyncrasies as they may be observed -from the marginal districts on the west. After a long and laborious -climb from the valley of Ardanuch (1800 feet) to the summit of the -pass which leads to Ardahan (at least 7000 feet), he was astonished -to observe that instead of a rounded ridge, descending with more or -less abruptness to lower levels on the further side, the elevation -upon which he stood was continued towards the east by the gentle -slope of a lofty plateau. "Here was the commencement," he says, -"of the plateau which slopes away from the pass, and which is -usually called the Armenian plateau." The same traveller journeyed -back into the Chorokh region from the highlands of Göleh on the -south of Ardahan. On this occasion he crossed the water-parting -at the Kanly Dagh between Ardahan and Olti. He tells us that it -consists of a narrow ridge with red, porphyritic rocks. He describes -the double prospect from the summit, with its contrast of forms and -impressions. On the one side, towards the Kur, a scarcely perceptible -incline, forming upland valleys after a descent of only some 1500 -feet, and leading over to vague and vaulted heights. On the other, -in the direction of Olti, rent mountains, gaping ravines--nowhere a -gentle, convex shape. Where he was placed the climate was raw, even -in early September, and scarcely tempered by a southern sun. Deep -down, and far away, they could see the river of Olti, winding like -a snake through a maze of sheltered valleys. [418] The language in -which Herrmann Abich describes his impressions, coming from the side -of Georgia up the valley of the Akstafa, and reaching the pass (7355 -feet) over the eastern marginal heights between the village of Bekant -and the town of Alexandropol, is not dissimilar to that of Koch. He -speaks of the strong contrast between the physical characteristics of -the plateau region before him and those of the peripheral mountains he -was leaving behind. He describes the prevailing horizontality of the -land-forms which he overlooked, extending to the limits of sight. In -another place he alludes to the lofty, rim-like elevation with which -"the Armenian plateau breaks away to the valleys of Ajara." [419] -I might multiply the instances in which the most competent observers -have at the same time recognised the unity of the plateau region and -its sharp distinction from the peripheral mountains. - -My reader has journeyed with me from the Zikar Pass to Akhaltsykh and -Akhalkalaki; from the cańon of the Toporovan river and the basin of -the Kur to the streams which constitute the most northerly sources of -the Araxes. We have crossed the country from Alexandropol to Erivan, -from Erivan to Kars, from Kars to Kagyzman. What an impressive unity -underlies the pleasing diversity of the landscapes, which melt into one -another as you pass! The partings of the waters are formed by slopes -which you perceive with difficulty, so gradual has been the rise and -the decline. The territories of Akhaltsykh, Akhalkalaki, Alexandropol, -Kars and Ardahan are all bound up together in the distribution of the -space, and share features in common to a much greater extent than they -are distinguished by local idiosyncrasies. The mountains, of which -the outlines are never absent from the landscape--soft, long-drawn, -convex shapes--stand on the floor of the tableland, like pieces upon -a chessboard, which one may move from square to square. Such are -the radial mass of Dochus Punar near Akhaltsykh (over 9500 feet), -the two considerable elevations which enclose Lake Chaldir (Akhbaba -Dagh, 9973 feet; Kisir Dagh, 10,472 feet), and even the colossal -Alagöz (13,436 feet). All are due to volcanic action, quite recent -in geological time; and a similar origin belongs to the minor shapes -which stud the country like bubbles upon a cooling body. Mountains -of this character perform the function of boundary columns between -the various districts, great and small. They determine but do not -separate. How different in form and function from the folded ridges -of the peripheral region, among which a single example of such recent -volcanic fabrics could seldom be observed. - -If we desire for convenience to partition the plateau region which -is Russian Armenia, it falls most naturally into two spheres. The -one will comprise a rectangular area, of which the limits on the -west and east are the meridional volcanic water-partings from the -Soghanlu Dagh to the heights of Sakulaperdi on one side and from -the Karakach Dagh to Tawkoteli on the other. The southern boundary -of this area will be the cańon of the Araxes from its entrance into -Russian territory to below the confluence of the Arpa Chai. Towards the -north it includes the districts as far as the Sanislo extension of the -Trialethian mountains and the Akhaltsykh-Imeritian border chain. The -vast circumference of Alagöz is placed on its south-eastern confines, -sending out long feelers towards the left bank of the Arpa Chai, -pushing back the mountains of the eastern border and, as it were, -propping up the highlands on the north-west. This volcano may be said -to lead over to the second sphere, which is for a great part an area -of considerable depression, and, as compared with the longitudinal -axis and symmetrical shape of its companion, is of irregular form with -the greatest length from north-west to south-east. These two spheres -are distinguished by features which are sufficiently contrasted to -suggest a double image to the mind. - -I. I have invited attention to the characteristics which Armenia -shares in common with her neighbours in the series of the Asiatic -tablelands, Persia on the east and Asia Minor on the west. In the -brief survey to which I proceed of the plateau region within the -Russian frontier it is necessary at the outset to remark upon some -of the idiosyncrasies which distinguish Armenia as a whole from the -other members of the series. There is in the first place the far -greater elevation, investing her territory with the attributes of a -roof to the adjacent countries, from which the waters gather to be -precipitated in different directions, and to find their way not only -to the Black Sea and the Caspian but also by almost endless stages to -the Persian Gulf. The prominent part which has been played by recent -volcanic action is another and not less impressive phenomenon. Which -of her neighbours could compete with her in this respect? Where could -one meet with an Ararat, a Sipan and a Nimrud, to say nothing of an -Alagöz and a Bingöl? Both these manifestations are exemplified in a -striking manner by the surface features of the rectangular area of -the more northerly sphere. - -The higher levels of this region are situated at an altitude of some -7000 feet above the sea. I am speaking not of the mountains but of -the plains. The uplands which give rise to the Kur in the district of -Göleh must come very near to this level. The parting of the waters of -the Kur and Araxes near the village of Shishtapa, in an open landscape -which may be compared to rolling downs, lies at about 7000 feet. Lake -Chaldir has an elevation of 6522 feet; while of the smaller sheets of -water Lake Toporovan, with 6876 feet, and the Arpa Göl, with 6706 feet, -slightly better this already considerable figure. Where the plateau -falls away to the abysmal cańon of the Araxes its edge is nearly 6500 -feet high. The town of Ardahan stands at a level of 5840 feet and Kars -of 5700 feet. Alexandropol, the principal city, occupies the hollow of -a vast basin-like plain; yet it is over 5000 feet above the sea. These -elevations are much greater than the average even in Persia, though -they are to a certain extent maintained in the frontier province of -Azerbaijan and along the edge of the southern peripheral mountains -(Tabriz, 4650 feet; but Tehran, 3800 feet; Ispahan, 5070 feet). - -The process of gradual uplift of the region by earth movements has been -attended by eruptive action, flooding the country with volcanic matter, -levelling inequalities of the ground and adding to the height. It has -been estimated that the volcanic deposits laid bare in the ravines of -the streams which descend from the radial Dochus Punar attain a depth -of hundreds of yards. [420] A similar phenomenon is made manifest -in the cańon of the Araxes--a cleft which in the neighbourhood of -the village of Armutli, west of Kagyzman, has a depth of about 2000 -feet and a width on top of at least a mile. [421] There the Miocene -sedimentary deposits are overlaid with tuffs and lavas in a belt over -300 yards deep. [422] The points of emission of volcanic matter are -in some cases true volcanoes, in others mere pustules or fissures -of varying extent. One or other of these features is never absent -from the landscape. But the fires are extinct; the viscous seas have -long been solid; not a breath of smoke rises from the stark summits -which erewhile were wreathed with vapours reflecting the glow of the -flames beneath. - -The distribution of such shapes due to volcanic agency may often appear -arbitrary to an unpractised traveller. Here a group of stately forms -resembling the giants of a forest, there a number of insignificant -eminences representing the small fry. All will be found to be subject -to definite and ascertainable principles, the nature of which becomes -clearer at each step forward of scientific research. Perhaps the -most interesting principle which we see operative in this region is -the outcrop of volcanoes along meridional lines. Such groups pursue -a course at right angles to the strike of the rocks within the area -of the peripheral mountains. In this connection we may recall the -fact that the plateau region with which we are dealing occupies the -apex of the bend over of the inner arc. Lines of fracture have been -thrown out at right angles to the folding, and eruptive agency has -fastened upon these weakened zones of the earth's crust. Not only may -these lines be traced on the west and east of the plateau, of which, -indeed, they have largely determined the shape, but also well inside -of the marginal districts. In the west we have the Soghanlu group -stretching north to Allah Akbar (10,218 feet), whence the direction -is continued through the Ueurli Dagh (9055 feet) and the Arzian Dagh -to the Chibukh-Naryn-Bashi Dagh. There the volcanic water-parting -effects a junction with the Akhaltsykh-Imeritian chain in the ridge of -the Sakulaperdi Dagh. In the east we have already followed the row of -marginal volcanoes from Tawkoteli to Karakach. Inside these series we -recognise this same north-south direction in the Abul-Samsar system, -in the mountains on either side of Lake Chaldir, and, lastly, in the -connection which we can scarcely err in assuming between the Kisir -Dagh, overlooking the westerly shore of this lake, and its neighbour -on the north, the Dochus Punar. - -Compared with Alagöz and Ararat even the absolute height of these -mountains may be termed insignificant. The lofty level of the -plains from which their slopes gather robs them of several thousand -feet. Great Abul, with an altitude of nearly 11,000 feet, rises from a -plain which itself lies at an elevation of 5500 feet. The dome-shaped -vaultings of the Soghanlu Dagh near some of the sources of the Kars -river are almost entirely shorn of their considerable stature by -the height of the adjacent downs. In such surroundings the mountains -appear to the eye as little more than hills. - -The rivers as a rule flow in deep cańons which they have eroded in the -volcanic soil. Their head waters meander over grassy downs. Temperately -they thread their way over the uplands or in the cańons, except where -blocks of lava may have tumbled into the trough, causing the stream -to wreathe and hiss. You pass from district to district either along -such natural avenues, with the towering cliffs, for the most part -bare, on either hand; or, emerging from the weird scene within the -hollow, over the surface of almost limitless plains. Not a tree in the -landscape, and only patches of fallow and stubble, without a boundary, -with rarely a village discernible from afar. - -From time to time you may obtain a glimpse of the peripheral -mountains--serrated summits, bush-grown slopes. These contrast to -the soft convexities of the forms about you and the vaultings of -the volcanic eminences. The surface of the friable soil is devoid of -wood and almost of vegetation; and the volcanic matter of which it is -composed produces tints of pink and ochre upon which the shadows lie -transparent and thin. The rarefied atmosphere of these high regions -braces the faculties and sharpens the senses; and whatever clouds may -have climbed the barrier of the peripheral ranges are suspended high -in the heaven, seldom obscuring the brilliant sun. During winter the -land is covered with snow. - -It is a country admirably adapted to grow cereals. The plains -through which the Arpa Chai (grain river) eats its way to the -Araxes constituted one of the granaries of Armenia in historical -times. [423] At the present day they have not recovered from the -devastations of the Mussulman peoples, and the Russians are jealous -of allowing the Armenians a free hand. Extraordinary fertility is -induced by the intermixture of the lavas with alluvial or lacustrine -deposits. The black earth of the plains about Akhalkalaki is famous -[424]; and the soil in the neighbourhood of Alexandropol derives its -richness from the incidence of a peculiar kind of lava side by side -with the sediment of a former lake. The southerly extension of these -vanished waters is marked by the belt of high ground extending from -Alagöz across the plains to the Arpa Chai. The river has forced its -way through this elevation between Ani and Magaspert. [425] - -Other effects of the violent disturbance to which the region has been -subjected are manifest on a large scale. Thus all the way from the -Soghanlu Dagh on the south to the neighbourhood of the mountains of -the Ajars on the north the ground has fallen away to the labyrinth -of valleys which feed the Chorokh by what geologists would call an -extensive fault. The edge of the plateau region stands up boldly upon -that side from the levels adjacent on the west. A still more recent -earth movement may be represented by the uptilt towards the north-east -of a considerable block of country lying between Kars and the junction -of the Arpa with the Araxes. This phenomenon, which recalls a similar -occurrence in the Trialethian district, has occasioned the curious -course of the stream of Kars, which, rising in close vicinity to the -flood of the same river to which ultimately it becomes tributary, -pursues a course almost at right angles to that of the Araxes for -a distance of thirty miles. To the same cause is in part due the -extraordinary elevation of the levels along the left bank of the -Araxes between Armutli and the confluence of the Arpa Chai. - -Besides the last-named stream this lofty stage of the Armenian -tableland gives birth to one of the great rivers of western Asia. The -Kur rises from the highlands on the south of Ardahan, between the wall -of mountain which overlooks Lake Chaldir on the west and the rim of the -plateau region. In Turkish times this district constituted a separate -fief, and was governed by a hereditary prince of Georgian origin who -resided at Urut. The name of the district, Göleh, still figures on -the Russian maps. It is subject to a rigorous climate, the snow lying -during eight months in some years. Only the hardiest of the cereals -come to maturity; yet the olive and the pomegranate flourish in the -valley of Artvin, but thirty miles distant, and even at this altitude -and during winter the rays of a southern sun temper the cold. One of -the principal arms of the river comes from the south-west, and is named -the river of Ardahan; it is joined by four considerable tributaries, -of which the most easterly is said by Koch to have been known to the -inhabitants under the name of Kyürr. [426] Even at the present day the -Kur is called the river of Ardahan until its entry into the passage of -Borjom. The basin from within which these various branches gather has -a length which may be computed at eight hours' journey on horseback -and a breadth equivalent to about six hours. It abounds in springs, -and marshes cover its floor. Below Ardahan, where it skirts the base -of the Dochus Punar system, the Kur threads a narrow valley, deeply -buried in the volcanic soil. So it flows past the grottoes of Vardzia -and the Devil's City at Zeda Tmogvi, augmented by small affluents of -which the largest is the Karri Chai. At Khertvis it is joined by the -Toporovan river, bringing the drainage of the districts on the east, -and swirling into the channel with foam-shot waves. The united volume -dwells for a short space in wider landscapes, until it pierces the -extreme base of the Sanislo branch of the Trialethian mountains, -and is again confined in a narrow valley. Thence it issues upon the -plains about Akhaltsykh, receives assembled tributaries from the -northern border range, and disappears into the gorge of Borjom. - -II. A traveller coming from Alexandropol down the stream of the Arpa -or along the valley of the Abaran, further east, can scarcely fail to -become sensible of an appreciable change in climate and scenery by the -time he shall have rounded the colossal pile of Alagöz. It is not, -indeed, a new country or a new clime. The shapes which rise on the -skyline are due to the same volcanic agency which has imprinted its -character upon the northern landscapes. The shelving away of the ground -to the basin-like depression which receives the Araxes recalls similar -surface features in the northern districts. The rays of the sun fall -from a heaven which remains blue. Clouds are still floating upon the -azure, or are suspended upon the higher outlines. What has changed is -the scale and intensity of the phenomena. The hills have given place -to great mountains, the down-like expanses to one vast area of sloping -ground. Into those dreamy spaces sweep the forms of the landscape, -circled round them for a visible distance of some sixty miles. - -The valley of the Araxes from the neighbourhood of Sardarabad to that -of Julfa--a space of over a hundred miles--composes nearly one-half -of the more southerly sphere of north-eastern Armenia. We are already -so familiar with its overpowering individuality that it would be -turning finished ground to describe it anew. For many a mile it is -only confined at an immense interval by the fabric of Ararat and the -pile of Alagöz. But, even when the river--a ribbon in the expanse--has -already distanced the Little Ararat, the folds of the landscape are -ample into which it descends. Volcanoes on such a huge scale as these -two Armenian giants could scarcely be expected to rise save on the -margins of a great depression, whether subsidence may have been the -cause or the effect. To the 7000 feet of the plateau region on the -north this basin-like plain opposes a maximum elevation of 3000 feet -and a minimum of something over 2000 feet. - -The vine flourishes and is cultivated in these plains of the Araxes, -and fields of castor-oil plant grace the ground. Such oases with -thriving villages soften the lap of the landscape, and diversify the -wide stretches of rich but idle soil which the network of trenches -with their fertilising waters have not yet reached. Irrigation rather -than rainfall is here the productive agency; and, indeed, this valley, -with a yearly rainfall of only about six inches, is probably the driest -throughout Russian Transcaucasia. The storms of the Pontic region -spend themselves before reaching this haven; but they beat against -the volcanoes of the meridional water-parting on the easterly margin -of the more northerly sphere. Even at Alexandropol the yearly rainfall -is almost three times as great as in the neighbourhood of Ararat. And -while the climate of the city on the Arpa may compare with St. Lawrence -in North America, that of Erivan resembles Palermo or Barcelona. [427] - -On the north of this most extensive depression of the surface of -Armenia lies the plateau region supporting Lake Gökcheh. The axis or -greatest length of that expanse of sweet water lies about parallel -to the course of the Araxes, to which it sends a tributary varying -in volume with the season of the year through a trench-like passage -at its south-westerly extremity. [428] On the north the lake is -confined by a long ridge of the peripheral mountains, and its lofty -level (6340 feet) is held up by the volcanic plateau of Akhmangan, -acting as a dam on the side of the low-lying plains. The Akhmangan -region consists of a gently vaulted platform, interrupted by a series -of volcanic eminences extending over a distance of nearly thirty -miles. Several of their cone-shaped summits attain a height of nearly -11,000 feet, and one, the Akh Dagh, of close upon 12,000 feet above -sea-level. An absence of springs, due to the nature of the volcanic -rock, is characteristic not only of this region but also of that part -of the neighbouring Karabagh country which lies within the embrace of -the two mountainous zones. [429] In this respect it contrasts to the -well-watered and wooded retreats of the district of Darachichak to -the west of the lake. The wealthier citizens of Erivan take refuge -in those pleasant upland valleys when the plain of the Araxes has -become a furnace under the rays of a midsummer sun. - -The area of the country comprised within the two spheres of which I -have been speaking is about 20,587 square miles. With the exception -of a narrow strip on the right bank of the Araxes, measuring 1518 -square miles, the entire territory--more than commensurate with that -of Servia--lies within the dominions of the Tsar. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -STATISTICAL AND POLITICAL - - -The solid block of territory over which Russia now rules on the -tableland of Armenia is neither a new acquisition nor the fruit of a -single conquest. At the commencement of the last century she gained a -foothold upon it by the voluntary accession of the Georgian kingdom -and its constitution into a Russian province in 1802. This event, -the outcome of the folly of the Mussulman powers, who had driven -the Christians to despair, was followed by the rapid expansion of -the northern empire in these countries as the result of successful -war. Karabagh was taken from Persia in 1813, and the important khanate -of Erivan in 1828; from Turkey, the district of Akhaltsykh in 1829, and -the fortress and province of Kars in 1878. Appearing as a deliverer of -the Christian peoples and profiting by their aid, Russia has succeeded -in advancing her border beyond the Araxes and to the threshold of -Erzerum, and in establishing herself behind a well-rounded frontier -which comprises the venerated mountain of Armenia as well as the seat -of the supreme spiritual government to which the Armenians bow. - -The Armenian provinces constitute a part of the great administrative -system of the Caucasus, which is presided over by a single -Governor-General. Formerly it was usual to appoint a Grand Duke to this -important post, who exercised, not without advantage to the country, -a very large measure of personal initiative. At the present day -it is occupied by a nobleman of high rank; but his administration -has become much more intimately connected with the bureaucratic -machine which is worked from St. Petersburg. He remains, however, -the principal civil and military authority in the Caucasus, which -consists of no less then twelve Governments, and is divided into -North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. North Caucasus is composed of the -Governments of Kuban, Terek and Stavropol; while the Governments of -Chernomorsk (a narrow strip of coast at the foot of the Caucasus range -between Novorossiysk on the Black Sea and a point a little north of -Pitsunda), Kutais, Tiflis, Zakataly, Daghestan, Baku, Elizabetpol, -Erivan and Kars are embraced under the title of Transcaucasia. Five of -the Governments, namely Kuban, Terek, Daghestan, Zakataly and Kars, -are still in the military stage of administration. The territories -of North Caucasus lie quite outside the scope of the present work; -and the Government of Daghestan ought more properly to be classed -with the Northern Governments, lying as it does to the north of the -main ridge of the Caucasus range. To the same category belong certain -districts of the Government of Baku; but for statistical purposes it -is advisable to retain them under Transcaucasia, in order to preserve -the unity of the Government. On the other hand, the little Government -of Chernomorsk may either be left out of account, or be included under -North Caucasus. Transcaucasia will thus consist of seven Governments, -of which the names and population, according to the two last censuses -of 1886 and of 1897, are exhibited in the following table. I must -explain that the figures of 1897 have not yet been split up into the -different racial elements of which the populations of the various -Governments are composed. - - -TABLE I.--Population of Russian Transcaucasia (including Russian -Armenia) - -+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ -|Government | Pop. 1886.| Armenian | Pop. 1897.|Square | Pop. per | Pop. per| -| | | Pop. 1886.| |Mileage. | sq. mile | sq. mile| -| | | | | | 1886. | 1897. | -+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ -|Tiflis[430]| 875,429 | 211,743 | 958,775 |15,305.4 | 57.2 | 62.643 | -|Erivan | 670,405 | 375,700 | 804,757 |10,074.75| 66.54 | 79.878 | -|Kars[431] | 200,868 | 44,280 | 292,498 | 7,307.29| 27.489 | 40.028 | -|Kutais | 923,306 | 16,399 |1,075,861 |13,967.5 | 66.1 | 77.026 | -|Elizabetpol| 728,943 | 258,324 | 871,557 |16,720.5 | 43.6 | 52.125 | -|Baku | 712,703 | 55,459 | 789,659 |15,094.59| 47.216 | 52.314 | -|Zakatal | 74,449 | 521 | 82,168 | 1,542.04| 48.28 | 53.285 | -|-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ -|Total | 4,186,103 | 962,426 |4,875,275 |80,012.07| 52.318 | 60.931 | -+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ - - -The admirable volume of statistics for Transcaucasia which we owe -to the labours of M. de Seidlitz, and which was published at Tiflis -by order of the civil government in 1893, supplies us with the most -detailed information concerning these Russian provinces--the numbers -of the different races and of the votaries of the various religious -sects, and how the inhabitants may be classed and labelled as nobles -or clergy, as tradesmen or as tillers of the soil. The figures are -derived from the census of 1886, and we are thus presented with a -fascinating statistical picture of the country towards the close -of the nineteenth century. I do not propose to spoil the effect of -his ingenious combinations by transferring them to my own pages in a -mangled form; or to forestall the pleasure which the perusal of his -serried columns is sure to bring to every well-regulated mind. But -their aid will be useful, and indeed indispensable, in fixing upon a -surer foundation those more general conceptions and conclusions which -are suggested by the experience of travel. The country immediately -on the north of the Armenian tableland--the plain of the Rion on the -north-west, and the wide trough of the Kur on the north--is inhabited -by various branches of the Georgian family and by settlers of Tartar -race; while the Caucasus itself, the northern boundary of the whole -geographical system, contains within its countless recesses an Homeric -catalogue of nations whose names it is difficult to pronounce and whose -languages are as mysterious as their names. Of a total population -in Transcaucasia of 4,186,000, the Armenians numbered upwards of -962,000 souls in 1886, or a proportion of nearly one quarter. But -the importance of the Armenian element must be measured not so much -by its numerical strength as by the solidarity of the Armenian people -when compared to the peoples among whom they live. The Armenians are -little divided by religious differences; the Roman Catholics are a -mere handful among the solid ranks of the Gregorians; and the Gregorian -Church is not only the symbol of national existence, but the stronghold -of national hopes. Two other races in Transcaucasia slightly exceed the -Armenians in number; the Tartars with 1,139,000, including Daghestan, -and the different divisions of the Georgian family who number over a -million souls. But the bitter religious antipathies of Sunni and Shiah -divide the Tartars, and the Georgians are in a period of transition -from their old feudal system to a new and more settled social order, -while the union of their Church with the Orthodox Church of Russia -has deprived them of the natural rallying point for that community of -sentiment which is based on a consciousness of race pride. Should the -Russians become possessed of the Armenian provinces of the Turkish -Empire, the most numerous as well as the most solid of the elements -of population in Transcaucasia will be furnished by the Armenian race. - -The distribution of the Armenians within the present limits of Russian -Transcaucasia, but outside the area of the Armenian tableland, may -be presented in a concise manner as follows:--In the Government of -Elizabetpol, which includes Karabagh, they number 258,000; but only -in the Governmental divisions of Shusha and Zangezur, that is to -say in the tract of country between the Araxes on the east and the -south-eastern shore of Lake Sevan on the west, do they constitute the -numerically preponderating race; while in the other divisions and in -the whole Government they are largely outnumbered by the Tartars. The -Government of Tiflis contains nearly 212,000 Armenians, of whom I shall -include 99,000 in my estimate for the tableland itself; the remainder -are distributed over the other divisions of the Government, and in the -town of Tiflis, where they attain the imposing number of 55,000 among a -total population for the nineties of 145,000 souls. In the Government -of Baku, out of a total Armenian population of 55,000 there are over -24,000 in the town of Baku itself, where they are engaged in commerce -and in the oil works; they are also numerous in the town and district -of Shemakha, which lies to the west of Baku. In the Government of -Kutais they only number 16,000, and most of these reside in the towns. - -The Armenians, being a commercial and industrial as well as an -agricultural people, have spread themselves outside the natural limits -of their country, attracted to the growing centres of industry upon -its confines. They contribute a valuable and increasing element to the -urban populations. But it is only when we have crossed the mountains -which separate their highlands from the rest of Transcaucasia that -we become conscious of treading upon Armenian soil. Throughout its -extension from Akhalkalaki and Alexandropol on the north-east to Egin -and Kharput on the south-west, that elevated stage of the Asiatic -tablelands which we may still call Armenia bears the imprint of the -individuality of the Armenian people to a greater degree than of any -other race. In the immense expanse of these Armenian landscapes--where -blue lakes lie lapped in treeless plains, swelling with ochreous -surface from hummock to hill, from hill to some long descending -mountain outline that sweeps from the summit of a snow-crowned -cone--the note which is uttered by man is lost. Yet there is scarcely -a remote valley or lonely island which does not attract a band of -pilgrims to worship in the beautiful monasteries which date from the -times of the kings of Armenia and keep alive the story of the past. The -fertile ground is for the most part tilled by an Armenian peasantry, -whose burrows, resembling large ant-hills, are scarcely perceptible -in the scene. All the machinery of whatever civilisation the land may -possess is furnished by Armenians. The language which you most often -hear is the somewhat harsh Armenian tongue; the legends and historical -memories which attach to the great works of Nature have for the most -part an Armenian origin. Over the area of the Armenian tableland, -as it is delimited in the present work, these people are found in -nearly double the numbers of any other race. In the preceding chapter -I have established the natural frontiers of the country within Russian -territory; and in the companion chapter of the second volume I shall -hope to perform the same task in respect of the Turkish area. Our -present concern is with the population of the Russian provinces of -the tableland, which I have endeavoured to exhibit according to its -various racial elements in the following tabular statement. - -The little map, with which I accompany this table, will make plain -to my reader the statistical area with which we are dealing. He will -observe that it agrees in a general manner with the area enclosed -by the natural frontier. It would not be possible to adapt exactly -the statistical information at our disposal, based as it is upon -Governmental units, to the geographical boundaries represented by -the natural frontier; but those boundaries are so strongly marked -that they correspond pretty closely with those of the administrative -divisions. Only in two cases does the statistical area, as shown in -the map within Russian territory, diverge in a marked degree from the -geographical; and in both these cases it would have been easy to have -made them approximately coincide. The one occurs about south of Tiflis, -where I have preferred to include the ouezde of Borchali within the -statistical area. It comprises a transitional region between the -natural frontier and the valley of the Kur, presenting many of the -characteristics of the tableland, and inhabited in considerable numbers -by Armenians. The other is furnished by the administrative division of -Olti, belonging to the Government of Kars. My reason for retaining it -is principally because it corresponds on the east to the eastern limits -of the Turkish vilayet of Erzerum on the west. Both these Governments, -of Kars and of Erzerum, overlap into the Chorokh region; and in the -case of Erzerum I have not been able to determine the exact boundaries -of the overlapping administrative units. With these exceptions the -natural area of the Armenian provinces in Russia corresponds fairly -closely with the area comprised by the Governments of Erivan and Kars -together with the ouezdes of Akhaltsykh, Akhalkalaki and Borchali, -belonging to the Government of Tiflis. Karabagh I have excluded both -from the geographical and from the statistical area, representing as -it does an Armenia in miniature on the side of the Caspian Sea. - - -TABLE II.--Population of the Armenian Tableland in Russia - -(Census of 1886 and figures of 1891 for Kars) - -+-------------+------------------+-----------+----------+----------------+ -| | Govt. of Tiflis; | | | | -| Nationality.| ouezdes of | Govt. of | Govt. of | Totals. | -| | Akhalkalaki, | Erivan. | Kars. | | -| | Akhaltsykh and | | | | -| | Borchali. | | | | -+-------------+------------------+-----------+----------+----------------+ -| | | | | | -| Armenians | 99,258 | 375,700 | 44,280 | 519,238 | -| Tartars | 55,253 | 251,057 | ... | 306,310 | -| Kurds | 2,127 | 36,478 | 30,259 | 68,864 | -| Greeks | 19,170 | 1,026 | 27,567 | 47,763 | -| Turks | 31 | ... | 46,954 | 46,985 | -| Georgians | 31,069 | 33 | ... | 31,102 | -| Russians | 12,879 | 4,152 | 11,813 | 28,844 | -| Karapapakhs | ... | ... | 27,247 | 27,247 | -| Turkomans | ... | ... | 10,174 | 10,174 | -| Others | 4,650 | 1,959 | 2,574 | 9,183[432] | -+ +------------------+-----------+----------+----------------+ -| Total | 224,437 | 670,405 | 200,868 | 1,095,710[433] | -| | | | | | -+-------------+------------------+-----------+----------+----------------+ -| Sq. Miles. | 4,585.85 | 10,074.75 | 7,307.29 | 21,967.89[434] | -| | | | | | -+-------------+------------------+-----------+----------+----------------+ -| Pop. per | 49.877 | -| Sq. Mile. | | -+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------+ - - -Further analysis of the figures which have just been presented would -show that the stronghold of the Armenians, the locality in which -they are most numerous, is the rich country through which the Arpa -Chai flows on its way to join the middle course of the Araxes. There -is situated the fortress and modern town of Alexandropol, which is -inhabited almost exclusively by Armenians; and there are placed, -a little further south, the remains of the ancient city of Ani, of -which the deserted site still testifies to the state and splendour -of their kings. The upland plains about Akhalkalaki on the north are -dotted with Armenian villages; while the valley of the Araxes on the -south, from Kagyzman to Erivan, and especially in the district of -Edgmiatsin, contains a considerable Armenian population. The town -and district of Novo-Bayazet, on the western shore of Lake Sevan, -is for the greater part Armenian. On the other hand, the eastern -portion of the Araxes valley, commencing from the town of Ordubad, -is held in large numbers by the Tartars, who run the Armenians -close in the extensive and important area which is covered by the -Government of Erivan. It must be remembered, in reference to the -Armenian population of the Russian provinces, that their numbers have -been considerably augmented by emigration from Turkey and Persia. It -is computed that not less than 10,000 families from the district of -Erzerum followed the Russian army out of Turkey in 1829; and numbers -of their countrymen--it is said not less than 40,000--had already -accompanied the same force from the frontier districts of Persia when -it retired from Tabriz at the Peace of Turkomanchai. - -Next to the Armenians, the most numerous element in the population are -the Tartars, who extend from the Persian frontier up the valley of -the Araxes, and cover with their settlements the eastern districts -of the plateau region and the whole of Karabagh. The Tartars of -Transcaucasia represent a section of those warriors of Turkish race -who, from the time of the appearance of the Seljuks down to the end -of the eighteenth century, were driven to this country by political -conditions from the northern provinces of Persia--that is, from -Azerbaijan, and from the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea. Their -language is still the lingua franca of the districts between Caucasus -and the Armenian plateau. Within the area with which we are now dealing -they belong almost entirely to the Shiah sect, and, besides sharing -the religion of Persia, contain an admixture of Persian blood. It is -not so long ago that their seats in Armenia formed a Persian khanate, -and were administered by Persian sirdars; and the wealthy families -who flourished during that period are still the owners of extensive -gardens, and live on the proceeds of their land. In the humbler walks -of life they are distinguished by their skill in all those methods -of working mud which are practised in the East; they are plasterers, -wall-makers, skilled men in the construction of works of irrigation; -while most of the little tradesmen, the hucksters and fruit-sellers -are Tartars, and many of the gardeners and drivers of carts. In the -country they have passed from the nomadic stage, and are prosperous -settlers upon the land. In the town of Erivan, where their numbers -equal those of the Armenians, many of the largest gardens are owned -by Tartar families, and many of the most prosperous houses of business -are in Tartar hands. The degree of religious tolerance which they have -achieved in that town was a matter of extreme astonishment to me, when -I remembered how often I had in vain resented the bigotry of the Shiahs -while travelling within the dominions of the Shah. The Persians are -unable to enforce reciprocity in their country, and to repay us for -the pleasure and the profit which they may derive in inspecting the -great religious buildings of Europe by suppressing and impounding the -vicious fanatics who drive us from the doors of their mosques. It is a -pleasure to offer a well-deserved tribute to that sense of respect for -themselves and for their religion of which the Shiahs of Erivan give -so striking a proof by admitting the stranger, whatever his creed, -into the innermost courts of their spacious and beautiful mosque; -and it is not imprudent to hope and to expect that the narrow path -which they are still treading may widen as the years increase. On -the other hand, it is not without disappointment that we may note the -small progress they have hitherto made in availing themselves of the -opportunities of education which the Russian Government have placed -within their reach. I have drawn attention to this circumstance in -my notice of the schools of Erivan; and it is safe to prophesy that, -unless a radical change be soon effected, the Tartars will be edged -out by the Armenians and will diminish in numbers year by year. - -The remaining peoples native to the country upon whom it is necessary -to bestow a passing glance are the Kurds, the Greeks, the Turks, the -Georgians and the Karapapakhs. The Kurds within Russian territory have -not yet abandoned their nomadic habits; they are found as far north -as the country about Batum, but their principal pasture-grounds -are on the Turkish frontier and in Karabagh. The Kurds in the -neighbourhood of Ararat pursue two main directions during their -summer wanderings; one body proceeds towards the north, through the -districts of Edgmiatsin and Alexandropol, and stations itself upon -the highlands about Akhaltsykh and Akhalkalaki; the other takes an -easterly course and enters the Government of Elizabetpol. The total -number of Kurds in Transcaucasia is given as 100,000, of whom the -larger part inhabit within the area with which we are concerned; -the rest are found in greatest number in Karabagh. The Greeks have -several villages, principally in the Government of Kars; those which -I saw were prosperous, and the gay dresses and trinkets of the women -betokened a somewhat higher stage of comfort than that which is usual -in the country as a whole. These Greeks speak Turkish and are learning -Russian; their versatile genius enables them to change nationality as -we take a change of air. They are excellent miners and road engineers; -the fine chaussée which has recently been completed up the valley -of the Toporovan river to Akhalkalaki was constructed by the skilled -labour of Greek workmen. The small number of Georgians who are included -in our area are found, as would be expected, in the valley of the -Kur. In many places the race has received such a large admixture of -Turkish blood that the inhabitants, although classed as Georgians, -would call themselves Turks, and are in religion Mussulman. In such -villages I found much discontent with the existing order, and the -evident outward signs of breaking up and decay. The Turks are found -almost exclusively in the Government of Kars, which is also the seat -of a hybrid tribe called Karapapakhs, or "Black Caps," from the black -lambskin caps which they wear. The origin of the German and of the -Russian settlers has already been described in the course of this -work (see Ch. VII.); the latter belong almost exclusively to the -Dukhobortsy and Molokan sects, expelled by the Russian Church-State -from the home provinces of the Russian Empire. The Dukhobortsy must -have diminished in numbers to an appreciable extent since the date -of these statistics, owing to the recent emigration of large numbers -into the bosom of the British Empire (p. 116). - -When one reflects upon the social condition of the country, no -circumstance is perhaps more striking than the complete separation -of one race from another. Although living side by side, there -is an entire absence of natural fusion of the different elements -upon a common plane. Cases exist both in the Russian and in the -Turkish provinces of Armenia where, from a sense of advantage or -by compulsion, the people of a particular district have adopted -the Mussulman religion during periods of Mussulman persecution, and -have become, by intermarriage and closer intercourse, absorbed into -the dominant race. I may instance in Russian Armenia the Georgian -inhabitants of the valley of the Upper Kur, and across the Turkish -frontier the Armenians of the Tortum district and the Greeks of many -of the valleys of the peripheral region. But such examples have only -aggravated the differences to which separation is due. They have -converted the existing prejudices into animosities, and have retarded -rather than advanced any tendency towards fusion. When Russia appeared -on the scene, it might have been expected that at least in the case -of Christians of various professions and nationalities a disposition -to draw together might have made itself felt. As a matter of fact the -reverse has been the case. To the old religious breaches has been added -a new barrier--the hungry Russian Orthodox Church. Certainly in the -case of a marriage between a Russian sectary and an Armenian--and I -believe also in that of the other professions, should, for instance, -an Armenian of the Gregorian persuasion wed a Protestant of the same -nation--the children of such a mixed union are required by Russian law -to be brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith. It makes no difference -that neither of the parents professes that faith. The result has, -therefore, been that the old heterogeneous collection have been -increased by two more species of the Christian happy family--the -Molokans and Dukhobortsy. And upon both is riveted isolation from -their neighbours--or in the alternative the necessity of educating -their children in a creed and religious system which they abhor. - -In such circumstances very little has been effected by the Russian -settlers towards raising the standards already prevailing in their -adopted country. Inasmuch as these sectaries belong to the flower of -the peasantry in Russia, one should, perhaps, regret the presence of -any artificial barriers. It is true that they do not stand as high in -the scale of peoples as their Armenian neighbours with their ancient -but deeply corroded culture and their natural aptitudes--these, -happily, unimpaired. But in moral force the Russians are easily -superior; and their methods of agriculture, if they were generally -followed in the country, would produce an economical revolution. Up -to the present time their example has been thrown away. Their neat -stone houses, spacious carts, ploughs and field implements have -not inspired the Armenians to forsake their ancestral habits--to -improve the means of cultivation, and to emerge from their unhealthy -burrows into the light and comfort of glass windows and solid walls -of stone. This barrenness of result is, no doubt, in part due to the -manner in which the Russian immigration took place. Expelled from their -native country, the peasants came in whole villages, with their women -and their children and their household goods. Their new settlements -were grouped together and rendered self-sufficient; and neither the -necessities nor the inducements of social intercourse drew them away -from their own circles. To the traveller as well as to the native they -are a piece of Russia laid down in Armenia; the curious stare and -pass on. As an outpost of the northern empire they can be of little -value owing to the religious opinions which they profess. It is well -known in the country that the Government are reserving vast tracts -of land in the hope that some day Russian colonists, these, it is -expected, of the Orthodox faith, may be attracted to these salubrious -uplands. The climate would suit them well. Should the Germans realise -their scheme of colonising Asia Minor, an ethnical redistribution -would be accomplished on a large scale. But the population of the -country is at present so scanty and its resources so vast, that the -Armenians have little to fear from such a development. - -Let us now proceed to the political side of our subject, and endeavour -to measure the system of government under which these various peoples -live. It will be interesting to keep in view both their dispositions -towards it and the results, material and moral, which it may be -considered to have brought about. - -The administration by Russia of the north-eastern half of Armenia has -been occupied with races whose more recent political history consists -in their passage from one domination to another; and the presence -of discontent in certain quarters may be regarded as the inevitable -outcome of the change. The Mussulman adherents of the old Turkish -dominion share with their neighbours of Turkish origin the humiliation -of a fallen state; and their Turkish sympathies and connections, -while they excite the suspicions of the Russian Government, dispose -them to yield to the lightest pressure, and to cross the border into -Turkish soil. [435] The Armenians, who have been a mainstay to Russia -both in her Persian and in her Turkish wars, whose lands were swept -by the tide of battle, and who can recall the memory of conflicts -which extended even to the walls of their sanctuary, the cloister -of Edgmiatsin, are inclined to temper their sentiments of gratitude -with the consciousness of the services which they rendered--services -which many among them may be disposed to consider have only resulted -in the imposition of a fresh and more burdensome yoke. North of the -tableland the Georgian races, whose kingdom, harassed by Mohammedan -peoples, was driven to seek assistance outside, have not yet forgotten -the disappointment of the hope which many among them had cherished, -that Russian intervention might assume the form of a protectorate -rather than of a complete absorption of the Georgian element into -the Russian State. But such regrets and disillusionments are but -the familiar sequel to the constitution of empire upon a new soil; -and human nature under such circumstances is more prone to count the -loss than to recognise the gain. Over twenty years have now elapsed -since Russia completed her subjugation of the Caucasus, whose peoples, -untamed for so long a period, menaced the base of her advance; order -and peace have been given to the country, and life and property are -safe. Georgian children are no longer sold into slavery, and a middle -class is forming amongst that people, whose traditional relation to -one another was that of noble and serf. An experienced traveller, -who visited the Armenian provinces in 1868, and passed through the -more fertile regions of the country between Kars and Kagyzman, has -left on record a striking picture of the misery of those Mussulman -times. He was crossing the district of Shuragel, the ancient Shirak -of the Armenians; and he speaks of deserted towns and villages, of -Armenian peasants who clung to their ruined homes with a pertinacity -of affection which neither poverty nor oppression could subdue, of -the dispossession of the Christians by the Turkish Beys, and of the -exactions and forays of the Kurds, which had curtailed agriculture -and stifled industry, and had reduced both to the extreme limit on -which human life is able to subsist. [436] If, at the present time, -the Armenian peasant gathers for himself the crops which he has sown, -and the restless Kurd consults his safety by a sober respect for the -law, it is to Russia that the people owe this deliverance from the -license and anarchy of former years. - -Had the Russian Government confined its energies to the amiable and -disinterested task of establishing and maintaining public order as -the guardian of a distracted country and the knight-errant who clears -the land of thieves, it would have received the ungrudging gratitude -of the Armenians, until in the maturity of time they had learnt to -walk unaided and to cope alone with those lawless elements which -might still resist the yoke of law. When that happy state had been -accomplished it might only be natural to suppose that the progressive -tendencies of the Armenian would lead him to take counsel with his -neighbours and friends, to thank his protectors for past benefits, -and to submit that the continuance of foreign tutelage was no longer -necessary or desirable in the interests of a country to whose welfare -they had contributed so much. To the Russians such a possible, -but I think improbable, outcome of all their efforts was scarcely -calculated to present so rosy an appearance as their ingenuous -wards might have expected or hoped, and, if the advantages offered -by the Russian Empire were not sufficiently apparent by themselves, -it was necessary to reform and to educate a perversity which sooner -or later would yield. The Russians are not a commercial people, and -would be content to see the Armenians conduct the commerce of their -native country and develop its vast resources, could they but collect -the means; but only on one condition were they prepared to encourage -such activity: that their subjects should become Russians, and that -the province should be joined to the Russian Empire not only by the -slender thread of annexation, but by the abiding tie of a common -patriotism founded on a community of sentiment with themselves. But -just at this point the real difficulties of empire arise. Races who -stand on a low scale in Nature have become absorbed into the Russian -system by the exertion of little further energy than was required to -ingrain in them that wholesome respect for their northern conqueror -which the first sharp conflict had inspired; and the broad, expansive -Russian character has been able to assimilate them to itself. It is -different when, whatever the degree of degradation to which they may -have been reduced by Mussulman oppression, a people is conscious of -elements of vitality impelling them to higher ideals and standards -than those which guide the powerful protectors under whom they have -commenced to breathe. An empire which is confronted with such a -situation has few alternatives among which to choose. If it cannot -attract the subject people towards it--if it cannot accomplish that -task of self-change which is more difficult than any problem which -the exercise of empire may present--it will sooner or later be driven -to adopt the expedients of coercion and repression, and to lower the -plane of civilised life by arresting the race for progress in which -it was itself unfitted to compete. - -Such a political situation can best be gauged and appreciated if we -approach it from several different points of view--the nature of the -Russian system, the attitude of Armenians in particular towards it, -the true significance of such struggles in the larger issues of the -outside world.... The kindness and hospitality of the Russian people, -the amiable disposition which, in spite of official exigencies, -makes them wish the traveller well, the real desire which a large and -increasing number among them cherish for social progress at home--are -features in the Russian character which the shortest acquaintance -will recognise with respect, and which make for the true advance of -Russia as a civilised nation among her peers. But the moment that the -elements of progress in Russia have asserted their right to rule, -the Russian system, as we know it, will die and disappear, and the -laws which govern its existence will be subject to new conditions, -which may make for closer national concentration rather than for -expansion abroad. Such reflections, although not new, are pertinent -in this place. The element of finality, always relative, may justly -appear in the eyes of many Armenians to be wanting to the political -system and to the Government under which they live; and the abhorrence -which that system inspires tempts them to convert the thought into a -wish. The ultimate outcome of any revolution in the affairs of Russia -is too uncertain, and the present evils of her Government are too -substantial and apparent to induce them willingly to cast in their -lot with the Russian people, and to abandon their hope of fulfilling -their destiny in their own manner and, if possible, by themselves. - -A people whose commercial activity has brought them into contact with -the most progressive races of Europe, and whose natural instinct -renders them eager to assimilate Western thought, can scarcely be -blamed if they chafe under a system which assumes to establish the -opinions they shall hold and to select the books which they shall read, -and which subjects every action of their daily life to an inquisitorial -control. Such methods are only the manifestations of a settled and -uniform plan. The Armenian must sink his individuality and resign his -initiative into Russian hands. He must imbue himself with the ideas -which his rulers have prepared for him, and which may be opposed to -the tendencies and the capacities with which he has been endowed. In -such a prospect he recognises nothing to admire and much to fear. He -sees the more capable races either driven from the Russian Empire -or made the object of a constant jealousy and antipathy rather than -of increasing respect. He feels the grip of an organisation which is -founded on European methods, and commands all the resources which those -methods provide; but he distrusts the hands which wield these weapons, -and he is indifferent to the objects to which they are turned. Even -the material results of such a system leave him little to hope beyond -what he has attained. The resources of the country still lie dormant, -and the Government seems to lack the means or else the will to turn -them to account. He sees the rich forests of the peripheral region, -which might yield a considerable revenue in return for an outlay which -would be comparatively small, left unexploited and neglected, while -shiploads of wood are entering the ports to supply the requirements -of the oil industry. That industry itself he sees promoted by foreign -capital in Russian guise, while the jealousy of all foreign capital -has closed the door to its beneficent action in the provinces of -his home. Only a single military railway traverses the tableland, -and there is scarcely a road upon it except such as are rendered -necessary by the exigencies of the military arm. A few examples of the -economical condition of these provinces may emphasise and explain such -statements of a general kind. The two principal towns are Alexandropol -and Erivan; yet the road which joins them makes the colossal circuit -by the northern shore of Lake Sevan, where it meets the main avenue -of traffic between Tiflis and Erivan. From a point further west on -this roundabout line of communication a road has been cut with the -laudable object of shortening the distance; but the same contempt -for the smaller and more irksome duties of life to which we become -accustomed in purely Eastern countries has allowed it to fall into ruin -by neglect, and we are met by the sight, so familiar to the traveller -in the East, of yawning culverts and broken bridges and parallel tracks -which have diverged and avoided the perilous surface of the metalled -way. In Erivan itself, the chief town of a district where capital might -be turned to the greatest advantage, it is impossible or difficult to -find a foreign newspaper, while the industrial skill of the advanced -races of Europe is not represented by a single foreign enterprise, or, -so far as I know, by a single foreign man of business or industrial -employee. Persons who know the country well have told me that from -the point of view of irrigation, so important a requirement in a land -which suffers from want of rain, it has gone back since the times of -the Persians, who are experts in such arts. As a consequence of this -economical stagnation, the spectacle is often presented in a country -which enjoys security and repose of miserable villages, pinched by the -scantiest resources and in appearance not more prosperous than those on -Turkish soil. I cannot help thinking that many of these evils are due -to excessive centralisation in the Russian capital. When the Governor -of the Transcaucasian provinces was a Grand Duke residing at Tiflis, -he was able to gratify his personal interest in their welfare by the -exercise of a large measure of independent initiative and control; at -the present day the smallest projects are referred to St. Petersburg, -and are made subservient to the general economic policy which governs -the Empire as a whole. But such an explanation serves only to display -and emphasise the character of the Russian system itself: how small -are the prospects which it offers in return for the leaden yoke which -it brings. - -Little by little, as all danger on the side of the Mussulman states -has gradually disappeared, the Russian Government have considered -it opportune to apply more drastic methods, and to impose upon the -newest of their adopted children a fuller measure of the disciplinary -régime. With what instruments they have worked, and how first the -Church and next the schools have been the objects of their relentless -embrace, has been already told in the foregoing chapters, notably -those on Erivan and Edgmiatsin. On their side the Armenians have -shown no disposition to adopt Russian ways of thought. The greater -has grown the pressure, the more they have writhed and twisted; at the -present moment they are lying still with broken wings. The situation -is cruel in the extreme. From the Turkish provinces they are beaten -up towards the Russian frontier by bands of long-beaked, predatory -Kurds. Should they reach their asylum, they are caught in the meshes -of a quite impervious network; they are sorted and sifted about by -a swarm of active little officials--the police of the districts, the -police of the towns, the political police. Camps are instituted where -the great majority will be detained at pleasure, to be returned on -the first opportunity to their rifled homes. The repetition of this -process is causing the decimation of the Armenian people in a surer -and much more efficacious manner than any massacres. It is true that -the amelioration if not the removal of such conditions lies to some -extent in their own hands. "Accept our system, follow the Georgians, -and seek spiritual and political salvation within the bosom of the -Russian Church-State." One cannot doubt that in that event the whole -weight of the great Russian Empire would be thrown into the scale -for the Armenians. What a tempting prospect for a people so sorely -tried! Will they not before very long subscribe this obvious solution, -for which there is so much to be said? I have put the question to all -the Armenians with whom I have enjoyed opportunities of intercourse, -and I have put it to those one or two European Consuls who have been in -Armenia and know the Armenians well. The answer has invariably been in -a negative sense. Many Armenians go so far as to openly profess their -preference for the Turkish Government. They state the matter neatly -in the form of an antithesis. It is a choice between two Oppressions, -one physical and spasmodic, the other moral and systematic. It is not -the first time in history that they have been offered the alternative -of slavery in body or slavery in mind. A remnant may be absorbed; -but the majority will follow their destiny, will wander out, and, -perhaps, disappear. - -Such is the conclusion, so full of pathos, with such a vein of -unconscious satire, throwing curious side lights upon the gilded -figures of Christianity and Empire marching down purple steps with -arms entwined.... My reader who may know the Armenians from his -sad experience of an Armenian dragoman picked up in the Levant, -will not, perhaps, be disposed to view the ruin of that people with -feelings of keen regret. For myself, coming to the subject free -from any prepossessions, but with the lessons of extensive travel -in the countries west of India fresh imprinted on my mind, I must -freely confess to exactly contrary sentiments. We are living in a -time of startling changes in Asia; we are witnesses of one of those -great waves from Europe upon Asia of which the tide-marks have all -but vanished from the sands of the Present after many centuries of -repose and stagnation. Some diversion of the current, it is true, has -taken place towards Africa; but the reservoirs of Europe are being -filled in a much greater measure than they are depleted by issues -in that direction. A new and, to all appearances, a permanent factor -of immense potentiality in its reflex influence upon the economy and -diplomacy of Europe has arisen in the shape of the United States of -America. American competition is already obliging the industrial -states of Europe to compose those ancient quarrels which have so -often exhausted their great resources, and which have been so long -exploited with success by Oriental rulers. Day by day new inventions -are annihilating the old-world obstacles of distance and of time. Asia -is brought to our doors; and, when we lift the veil in which she has -so long slumbered, there is nothing beneath but her fair frame and -the flimsiest web of human littleness, yielding to the first and most -clumsy attempt to brush it aside. - -Nepioi!--We are surely simpletons if through motives of adventure -and cupidity we fondly cherish the vision of this long-lost continent -parcelled out like virgin ground among ourselves. The Asiatic, with -all his debility, is not the African; he is our father, from whose -lips we received our first lessons, and his old age, become almost -child-like, contains the germs of rejuvenescence, like the gods of -ancient Greece. Tenderly and with affection should we approach these -old races whom Providence has conducted to our threshold. They will -repay us for our forbearance and solicitude. They worship strength; -but the display of power in a brutal and ruthless spirit betrays in -their eyes, who have seen the passage of so many despotisms, underlying -elements of present weakness and certain failure. In some condition, -one cannot help feeling, they are likely to survive us, the richer -or the poorer for the example and imprint which we may have bestowed. - -In the Armenians we have a people who are peculiarly adapted to be the -intermediaries of the new dispensation. They profess our religion, -are familiar with some of our best ideals, and assimilate each new -product of European culture with an avidity and thoroughness which no -other race between India and the Mediterranean has given any evidence -of being able to rival. These capacities they have made manifest under -the greatest of disadvantages--as a subject race ministering to the -needs of Mussulman masters. They know well that with every advance -of true civilisation they are sure to rise, as they will certainly -fall at each relapse. - -For nearly a thousand years they have been held in subjection; and -it would be folly to expect that they should not have suffered in -character by the menial pursuits which they have been constrained -to follow. They have been rayas, exploited by races most often their -inferiors in intellect; and I need not enlarge upon the results which -have followed from such a condition. One should rather wonder that -their defects are not more pronounced. - -On the other hand, they are possessed of virtues with which they are -seldom credited. The fact that in Turkey they are rigorously precluded -from bearing arms has disposed superficial observers to regard them -as cowards. A different judgment might be meted out were they placed -on an equality in this respect with their enemies the Kurds. At all -events, when given the chance, they have not been slow to display -martial qualities both in the domain of the highest strategy and in -that of personal prowess. The victorious commander-in-chief for Russia -in her Asiatic campaign of 1877 was an Armenian from the district of -Lori--Loris Melikoff. In the same campaign the most brilliant general -of division in the Russian army was an Armenian--Tergukasoff. [437] -The gallant young staff-officer, Tarnaieff, who planned and led the -hair-brained attack on the Azizi fort in front of Erzerum, was an -Armenian, and paid for his daring with his life. At the present day -the frontier police, engaged in controlling the Kurds of the border, -are recruited from among Armenians. These examples may be sufficient -to nail to the counter an inveterate lie, from which the Armenians -have suffered, at least in British estimation, more, perhaps, than -from any other supposed defect. - -If I were asked what characteristics distinguish the Armenians from -other Orientals, I should be disposed to lay most stress on a quality -known in popular speech as grit. It is this quality to which they owe -their preservation as a people, and they are not surpassed in this -respect by any European nation. Their intellectual capacities are -supported by a solid foundation of character, and, unlike the Greeks, -but like the Germans, their nature is averse to superficial methods; -they become absorbed in their tasks and plumb them deep. There is -no race in the Nearer East more quick of learning than the Persians; -yet should you be visited by a Persian gentleman accompanied by his -Armenian man of business, take a book down from your shelves, better -one with illustrations, and, the conversation turning upon some subject -treated by its author, hand it to them after a passing reference. The -Persian will look at the pictures, which he may praise. The Armenian -will devour the book, and at each pause in the conversation you -will see him poring over it with knitted brows. These tendencies -are naturally accompanied by forethought and balance; and they have -given the Armenian his pre-eminence in commercial affairs. He is -not less clever than the Greek; but he sees further, and, although -ingrained with the petty vices of all Oriental traders, the Armenian -merchant is quick to appreciate the advantages of fair dealing -when they are suggested by the conditions under which his vocation -is pursued. A friend with a large experience of the Balkans, with -their heterogeneous urban populations, has told me, as an interesting -fact, that in the statistics of bankruptcy for those countries the -proportion of Armenians implicated is comparatively low. Inasmuch as -such bankruptcies are usually more or less of a fraudulent nature, -the fact indicates not, perhaps, so much the greater integrity of -Armenians, as their power to resist an immediate temptation and their -promptitude in recognising the monetary value of commercial stability. - -But in order to estimate this people at anything like their true -worth, one should study them not in the Levant, with its widespread -corruption, but in the Russian provinces of Armenia. Here they have -most successfully utilised the interval between the period when the -sword of Russia was the sword of the deliverer and that present-day -period when the principles which inspire her rulers are those of -Pan-orthodoxy and Panslavism. I was so much surprised by the results -achieved, and by the contrast which was offered between the sterling -progress of this newly-emancipated population and the stagnation and -progressive relapse of their neighbours of different nationality, -spread over the whole wide area of the Nearer Asia, that, without -any certain previous purpose, I resolved to pursue the study further -and to protract the journey into Turkish territory. For what was -it that I saw? In every trade and in every profession, in business -and in the Government services the Armenian was without a rival -and in full possession of the field. He equips the postal service -by which you travel, and if you are so fortunate as to find an inn -the landlord will be an Armenian. Most of the villages in which you -sojourn are inhabited by a brawny Armenian peasantry. In the towns, -if the local governor attaches to your service the head of the local -police, it will be a stalwart Armenian in Russian uniform who will -find you either a lodging or a shady garden in which to erect your -tents. If you remark on the way some well-built edifice which aspires -to architectural design, it will be the work of an Armenian builder -from Alexandropol. In that city itself, where the Armenians are most -numerous, the love of building, which was so marked a characteristic -of their forefathers, has blossomed again among kinder circumstances; -a spacious cathedral and several large churches stand among new -stone houses fronted with ambitious façades. In Erivan each richer -merchant has lodged himself in an agreeable villa, of which the -Italian architecture rises from the shade of poplars and willows and -fruit trees laden with fruit. The excellent wine which is found in -Erivan is made according to the newest methods by an Armenian who -has studied for two years in Germany the most modern appliances of -the industry in Europe. The monetary transactions of the country are -in the hands of Armenian bankers. The skilled workmen--jewellers, -watchmakers, carpenters--are Armenians. Even the ill-miened officer -of mounted frontier police, whose long association with the wilder -elements--Kurds and robbers of small and large degree--has lent him -the appearance of a chief of brigands, will bear, not much to its -honour, an Armenian name. The large majority of the people do not -speak Russian, or speak it very imperfectly. Indeed, were it not -for the fact that the governors and chief police officials of large -districts are Russians, and that Cossacks and Russian regular soldiers -may here and there be seen, the traveller would not suspect that he -was in a Russian province, and would go the way he listed with the -most serene composure until he was rudely awakened by some abrupt -collision with the Russian system and brought to his proper mind. As -it is, the Armenian has edged out the Russian, and, if Peace were -allowed her conquests unhindered, he would ultimately rule in the land. - -Such a situation is suggestive; nor can we feel surprise if the -Armenian has exercised his Oriental imagination upon it in a manner -less prudent than may be calculated to appeal to the slower veined -races of the West. The idea of a modern Armenian kingdom has set the -spark to that national enthusiasm which the perusal of his historical -records has fed. The example of Eastern Europe has seemed to justify -his speculations. When I come to deal with the Turkish provinces, -I shall endeavour to show the falseness of such premisses; but I do -not believe that any such details have influenced his somewhat more -general conceptions, and they are not pertinent here. The vision of an -independent Armenian state, could it be realised in a remote future, -will not appeal to all minds alike. Many will see a real danger to -human progress in the creation of these small states. The national -sentiment they would place among those realised ideals upon which, as -our civilisation widens, it is necessary to build anew. The magnitude -of the conflict, should any of the greater nations enter the arena of -war, acts as a wholesome preventive to ambitions which the small state -is prone to indulge on the least pretence. The gratification of such -ambitions causes bad administration and ends in bankruptcy, while few -of the advantages which are offered by a great empire can the people of -a little country enjoy. Such considerations have great weight, and it -would probably be well if, whenever it were practicable, our political -actions were founded upon them; yet they scarcely indicate a solution -in the present case. The Armenian, who is a convert to such views, -might justly ask in what quarter he should look. The Turkish Empire -will not even protect him, and massacres its Armenian subjects; while, -should he turn his eyes to Russia, he sees no prospects of material -advantage which would enable him to rise above the economic stage to -which he has already attained, and surrender to Russian ideals could -only be effected in his opinion at the price of moral and intellectual -annihilation. Confronted with such an outlook, he seeks refuge within -himself; and, should he consult his more sober perceptions, he will -labour in silence and without ostentation to supply the requirements -which his race still needs; to raise the peasant from his present -degradation, to purify the Church, to promote the interest of his -richer neighbours in work for the common good. These are the more -legitimate ambitions which, however tedious, are certain of success, -and which will establish, whatever be the revolution of politics, -his right to influence the history of his country as one of the only -stable native elements of progress in the Nearer East. - -If, before concluding these reflections, we turn to the broader issues -upon which such questions bear, and, having examined the comparative -failure of Russia in Armenia, consider its significance to the larger -world, we may find that the very strength of the Russian system as -a powerful factor in international life derives from the self-same -character which has denied her victory here. Had Russia through -a natural process of attraction been able to draw towards her the -higher races who stood on her path, she would have been a greater -nation, but perhaps a less formidable force. Round her she groups -the less cultivated peoples--the nomads of Asia, the wanderers of -the steppe--and arms them with the might of a European organisation -which the intellect of Europe, impressed into her service, perfects -as a weapon for her use. The dangers which such results threaten -can only imperil the improvident and those whose nervous powers are -unstrung; but the world has not yet advanced sufficiently to render -those dangers unreal. The indolence of mind which shrinks from facing -difficulties and leaves them to solve themselves is not the least -element of weakness in her European neighbours by which Russia profits -and through which she grows; but the victory will now as always be -given to those states which unite with a higher civilisation a spirit -of enterprise still healthy and powers still unimpaired. - - - - END OF VOL. I - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] J. P. Fallmerayer, born in 1790, the son of humble parents, -whose flocks he tended on the mountain-sides as a boy. Died in 1861; -a great scholar, a great writer, whose work has not yet received all -the recognition which it deserves. - -[2] Finlay, Medićval Greece and the Empire of Trebizond, Oxford, -1877, p. 340. - -[3] The dimensions of the interior are: length to head of apse, -33 feet; breadth, 21 feet 7 inches. - -[4] The ornament is as follows: [Illustration]. - -The inscription is: [Illustration]. - -I notice that M. Gabriel Millet identifies this figure as a Saint -Michael (op. infra cit. p. 436). - -[5] Bejeshkean (op. infra cit.) publishes the inscription of -Justinian on the face of the old gateway of Tabakhaneh, which has -now disappeared. It records the restoration of the public edifices -of the city by that emperor. See also Hamilton, op. infra cit. - -[6] The population of Trebizond at the present day is estimated at -45,000 souls. - -[7] Since writing this chapter two articles in the Bulletin -de Correspondance Hellénique (Paris) for 1895 have come to my -notice. They are: G. Millet, Les monastčres et les églises de -Trébizonde, pp. 419-459; and J. Strzygowski, Les chapiteaux de Sainte -Sophie de Trébizonde, pp. 517-522. - -[8] A railway, connecting the capital of Georgia, Tiflis, with -Alexandropol and Kars, has been completed since the date of this -journey. It winds its way up the valley of the Borchala. - -[9] At 11.15 A.M. 83° F. - -[10] Temperature 86° F. - -[11] Temperature at 10 P.M. 72° F.; 6.30 A.M. 66° F. - -[12] Radde (Reisen in Hoch Armenien, Petermann's Mitth., Gotha, -1875, p. 59) says: "It appears that at least in this district potato -culture is making considerable progress in recent times among the -Armenians." He attributes this to the example of the Molokans and -Dukhobortsy. - -[13] By the road the distance, according to our coachman, would be -15 versts or 10 miles; by the track which we followed 10 versts or -6 1/2 miles. - -[14] Dubois de Montpéreux, Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris 1839-43, -vol. ii. - -[15] Brosset, Voyage archéologique en Transcaucasie, St. Petersburg, -1849, 1re livraison, 2me rapport, pp. 119 seq., and atlas, plates -v. and vi.; Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 292 seq. - -[16] Brosset, op. cit. p. 143. - -[17] Population of Akhaltsykh:-- - -(1) According to nationality: Armenians, 10,417; Georgians, - 2730; Jews, 2545; others (including 145 Russians and 110 Poles), - 424--Total, 16,116. -(2) According to religion: Gregorian Armenians, 9678; Catholic - Armenians, 739; Roman Catholics, 2311; Jews, 2545; others - (including 777 Russian Orthodox, 9 Lutherans, and 57 Sunni - Mohammedans), 843. (Statistics concerning the populations of - Transcaucasia derived from the family lists of 1886. Published - by Government, Tiflis, 1893.) - -[18] They were: Akhaltsykh, Atzkur, Aspinja, Khertvis, Akhalkalaki, -Ardahan (Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 284-85). - -[19] The slave trade was carried on through Circassians, who kidnapped -the inhabitants of Georgia proper and fled with them across the -Turkish border to Akhaltsykh (Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 261-62; -Haxthausen, Transcaucasia, London, 1854, p. 100). - -[20] Adrien Dupré in Gamba, Voyage dans la Russie méridionale, Paris, -1826, vol. i. p. 403. - -[21] For the interesting siege and capture of Akhaltsykh by Paskevich -I may refer the reader to Monteith, Kars and Erzerum, London, 1856, -ch. vi. pp. 182 seq.; Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 258 seq., and -a note to Haxthausen, op. cit. p. 100. Eli Smith, who travelled in -the country in 1830-31, informs us that the siege of Akhaltsykh was -one of the two occasions upon which the Turks gave the Russians a -fair trial of their bravery. The other was at Baiburt (Missionary -Researches in Armenia, London, 1834, p. 82). - -[22] Dubois saw it still standing in 1833. I cannot find when it -was cut down. Brosset (op. cit. p. 149) mentions the conversion of -the mosque. - -[23] Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 263. - -[24] Eli Smith informs us that at the time of his journey (1830-31) -Akhaltsykh was the only place, coming within the range of his enquiry -in Turkish Armenia, that contained any Jews (Missionary Researches, -p. 100). - -[25] Brosset, op. cit. p. 149. - -[26] Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 267. - -[27] Brosset, op. cit. pp. 139, 149. - -[28] Brosset speaks of the church and tower of Akhashen as being -remarkable both as an example of composite architecture and for -possessing a fine sculptured cross on the door and a figure of -St. Theodore on horseback (Voyage archéologique en Transcaucasie, -St. Petersburg, 1849, 1re livraison, 2me rapport, p. 150). - -[29] Neither Dubois (Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris 1839-43, -vol. ii. p. 330) nor Brosset (Voy. arch. 2me rapport, p. 176) has -more than passing notices of Aspinja. But Dubois tells us that in his -time all the inhabitants spoke Georgian except the mollah, who had -recently arrived from Asia Minor. He adds that they were formerly -Georgian Christians, and their ancient church still existed in a -ruinous condition. - -[30] I have not verified their statement, which was repeated in other -places, that according to a decree of 1890 they would be liable to -military service in ten years after the date of the decree. - -[31] 229 houses, with 1360 inhabitants (Family lists of 1886). - -[32] He gives a population of 800 souls (op. cit. vol. ii. p. 304). - -[33] Dubois (op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 298, 299) informs us that the -Mussulmans of these districts are the old Georgian inhabitants -whom Safar Pasha compelled to embrace Islam in 1625. He adds that -the Armenians escaped this persecution, having been accorded by the -reigning Sultan liberty of conscience, like the Jews in France under -similar conditions. - -The river Kur is essentially a Georgian river, even where it traverses -districts which belong geographically to the Armenian tableland. For -the history and character of the country about its upper course one -may usefully consult the works of Dubois and Brosset already cited -in this chapter, and Koch's Reise im pontischen Gebirge, Weimar, 1846. - -[34] Dubois (op. cit. vol. ii. p. 314) calls the Kur a torrent above -Khertvis, and says it only becomes a river after the junction with -the Toporovan river. - -[35] I must refer the reader to Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 302 seq., -and Brosset, Voy. arch. p. 152. - -[36] So Abich explains the phenomena (Geologische Forschungen in den -kaukasischen Ländern, part iii. p. 31). - -[37] Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. pp. 308 seq.; Brosset, Voy. arch. 2me -rapport, p. 165, who gives an account of the adjacent church of Tsunda; -and Abich, op. cit. part iii. p. 34. I would refer my reader to the -last of these writers for an account of the geology of the gorge of -Zeda Tmogvi (part iii. pp. 35, 36). - -[38] Brosset is not quite sure about it (Voy. arch. 2me rapport, -p. 165). The governor of Akhalkalaki had no doubt about the correctness -of the identification. - -[39] Dubois, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 319; and see also Brosset, Atlas -(plate xii.) to the Voyage archéologique and text, pp. 163 seq. I -shall not attempt to reconcile the text of Brosset with his plan of -the church, his plan with that of Dubois, or the measurements of either -with my own. My own measurements at Vardzia and throughout the journey -were made by myself with a long tape-measure which I always carried -with me. The height of the church is given by Dubois as 40 feet. - -[40] In taking leave of Vardzia may I refer the reader to the -excellent description of Dubois. He mentions the existence of a -third and smaller church, which he says is adorned with ancient -frescos, with inscriptions which are all in the Greek language. The -frescos are in the Byzantine style, and cannot be much later than the -middle of the eleventh century. Brosset, who also saw this chapel, -maintains, on the other hand, that all the inscriptions are in the -Georgian ecclesiastical character; he adds that there is a Greek -inscription disposed about the emblems of a Calvary in an adjoining -niche (Voy. arch. 2me rapport, p. 106). - -[41] The published total of 59,496 is made up as follows:--Armenians, -42,301; Georgians, 9771; Russians, 6617; Kurds, 689; others, 118 -(official statistics based on the lists of 1886, Tiflis 1893). It -is noticeable that the Governor's list places the Russians at 6300, -a diminution since 1886. - -[42] The plain has a gulf-like extension or arm on the side of Lake -Tabizkhuro. Coming from the lake, Radde estimated that the plain -proper commences at the village of Kestano, which I take to be the -Bejano of the Russian map, and that this village lay some 1000 feet -lower than the level of the lake. The plain would therefore have an -altitude of 5650 feet at its north-eastern extremity. From Bejano to -the south-western shore of Lake Khozapin is a direct distance on the -map of thirty-six miles. - -[43] Radde in Petermann's Mitth. 1876, p. 143. - -[44] Radde is almost certainly in error in making the pass of Karakaya, -which is the shortest route, over 9500 feet high (Petermann's Mitth., -1876, p. 141). - -[45] Monteith (Kars and Erzeroum, pp. 85, 168, 173 seq.). Haxthausen -informs us that "not one Turk accepted his life--every man remained -dead upon the spot" (Transcaucasia, p. 100). He had received the -story in this truly Oriental form. - -[46] Abich calls it "das am weitesten umfassende des armenischen -Hochlandes" with the exception of the view from Ararat (Geologische -Forschungen in den kaukasischen Ländern, Vienna, 1887, part -iii. p. 39). But few have been or probably ever will be privileged -to reach the summit of the mother of the world under conditions -entirely favourable to such a panorama. And from such a height the -world appears very insignificant. - -[47] According to Eli Smith (Missionary Researches in Armenia, London -1834, pp. 195 seq.), upon whom I have based this account, the whole -number of these German colonists was in 1830 about 2000 souls. Their -present number may be estimated from the published statistics of -1886. The following are the figures for the various colonies:-- - - Government of Tiflis: Town of Tiflis, 1117. Administrative - division (ouezde) of Tiflis: Alexandersdorf, 384; Marienfeld, 396; - Petersdorf, 195; Friedenthal, 83; Elizabeththal, 1148. Ouezde - of Borchali: Ekaterinenfeld, 1209; Alexandershilf, 366. Other - localities, 60. Total for Government of Tiflis, 4958. - - Government of Elizabetpol: Helenendorf, 1457; Anenfeld, 437. Total, - 1894. - - Grand total, 6852 souls. - -[48] Eli Smith, speaking of the Roman Catholic missions, is not ashamed -to make use of the following language:--"Unfortunately a missionary can -hardly set his foot upon any spot in that field (the Mediterranean) -without encountering some sentinel of the 'Mother of Harlots,' ready -to challenge him and shout the alarm" (op. cit. p. 210). In the course -of my reading I have incidentally collected parallel passages from -the works of other writers belonging to the cloth, and it is with pain -that I note that for foul thoughts, expressed through a foul mouth, it -would be difficult to find their equal in the writings of lay authors. - -[49] The Armenian Lutherans of Baku were numbered at 350 souls in 1886 -(Official Statistics, etc.). According to Sembat, there are also -communities at Shemakha, Erivan and its neighbourhood, Karakala, -near Kars, and Tiflis. - -[50] Müller-Simonis, Du Caucase au Golfe Persique, Paris, 1892, p. 3. - -[51] Letter of the Rev. Athelstan Riley to Daily Chronicle of London, -August 1897. - -[52] Maksimoff, Transcaucasia, quoted by Radde in Petermann's Mitth., -1896, p. 145. - -[53] See Count Tolstoy in the Times, October 23, 1895. I would also -refer my reader to a book published since this chapter was written, -entitled Christian Martyrdom in Russia, edited by Vladimir Tchertkoff, -with a chapter and letter by Leo Tolstoy, London, 1897. - -[54] Tolstoy (the Times, loc. cit.) puts their present number at -20,000, I know not upon what authority. The official figures based -on the lists of 1886 are:--Government of Tiflis (Akhalkalaki and -Borchali), 7263; Government of Elizabetpol, 2404; Government of Kars, -2766; Government of Erivan, 15. Total, 12,448. - -[55] According to the statistics of 1886 it would contain 93 houses -and 839 inhabitants. - -[56] Koch speaks of the surprise with which he saw rye being harvested -in the country north of Erzerum at an altitude of at least 7500 feet -(Reise im pontischen Gebirge, Weimar, 1846, p. 267). Telfer (Crimea -and Transcaucasia, London, 1876, vol. i. p. 278) quotes from reports -issued by the Tiflis Observatory which establish the following limits -for the Southern Caucasus:--Barley, 8100 feet; corn, 7906 feet; wheat, -7400 feet; vine, 3500 feet. Radde estimates that on the northern slopes -of Alagöz corn ripens at 8300 feet (Petermann's Mitth., 1876, p. 147). - -[57] Lukeria Vasilievna Kalmakoff was given to me as her full name. - -[58] Count Tolstoy's informant says: "To Christ, as to an historical -personage, the Dukhobortsy do not ascribe much importance" (The Times, -loc. cit.). He goes on to tell how, when the Quakers visited them in -1818 and heard their opinion about Jesus Christ (that he was a man), -these pious people exclaimed, "Darkness!" I cannot reconcile this -account with what I learnt at Gorelovka, except by the reflection -that the Christian world itself holds many opinions upon this subject. - -[59] As a sequel to these events, the Dukhobortsy have emigrated in -large numbers from their seats beyond Caucasus. Once the flower of -the peasantry in Russia, and afterwards the special pride of Russian -Governors in their seats of exile, they have now lost their hardiest -spirits in a fresh exodus. And it is the British Empire which receives -them! Their choice was at first bestowed upon the island of Cyprus; -but the warm climate was unpropitious, and they lost some 100 souls in -about eight months. The bulk of the emigrants appear to have taken -ship from Cyprus for Canada and British North America during the -spring of 1899. - -[60] The official statistics, based on the census of 1886, give -Alexandropol a population of 24,230 souls, of whom 22,920 are -Armenians. Only 200 of these are Armenian Catholic. - -[61] Ritter (Erdkunde, vol. x. pp. 438-39) identifies the modern name -Shuragel with the country designated in Armenian literature as Shirak. - -[62] Ker Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, etc., London, -1821, vol. i. p. 168. - -[63] Wilbraham, Travels in the Transcaucasian Provinces, London, -1839, p. 277. - -[64] For the explanation of this term see the chapter on Erivan. - -[65] Fragments of the walls of this building alone survive. - -[66] So the inscription on the south wall, as rendered by Brosset -(Voyage archéologique, 3me rapport, p. 86; and Ruines d'Ani, p. 64). - -[67] Brosset, loc. cit. - -[68] Radde in Petermann's Mitth., 1876, p. 147. - -[69] "...contemplate the company of the stars by night, and them that -bring winter and summer to mortals, the radiant potentates conspicuous -in the heaven" (Ćschylus, Agamemnon, ls. 4-7). - -[70] Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, 4th and revised edition, London, -1896, p. 312. - -[71] At Aralykh the thermometer ranged between 60° and 70° Fahrenheit -between the hours of 6 A.M. and 9 A.M. on the several mornings. At -mid-day it rose to about 80°. - -[72] The temperature at 6.30 P.M. was 50° Fahrenheit, but it sank -rapidly in the cold wind. - -[73] Temperature 10.15 A.M., 72° Fahrenheit. - -[74] It is alluded to by some travellers under the name of Tash Kilisa. - -[75] Madame B. Chantre, Ŕ travers l'Arménie Russe, Paris, 1893, p. 219. - -[76] Markoff, Ascension du Grand Ararat, in Bulletin de la -Soc. Roy. Belge de Géographie, Brussels, 1888, p. 579. - -[77] Temperature at 8 P.M., 18° F., and next morning at 5.45 A.M., -28° F. - -[78] See the photograph of the summit region (Fig. 36, p. 180), -which clearly shows these various features. - -[79] Yet it looks a mere streak in the illustration (Fig. 36). The -lower end of the snow slope was not well seen from the standpoint of -that photograph. Actually it resembles a magnificent river. - -[80] Abich (Geologische Forschungen in den kaukasischen Ländern, -Vienna, 1882, part ii. p. 455) ascribes to it an elevation of 14,600 -feet. - -[81] The temperature of the air a few feet below the summit out of -the gale was 20° F. The height of the north-western elevation of -the south-eastern summit of Ararat is given by my Hicks mountain -aneroid as 17,493 feet. The reading is no doubt too high by several -hundred feet. The Carey aneroid gives a still higher figure, and the -Boylean-Mariotti mercurial barometer entirely refused to work. - -[82] The readings on the prismatic compass were 310° and 105° -respectively. - -[83] Sophocles, OEdipus at Colonus, l. 610 seq. - -[84] Abich, Besteigung des Ararat, in Baer and Helmersen's -Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches, St. Petersburg, -1849, vol. xiii. p. 63. He supports this suggestion by the fact that -neither Parrot nor Spasky Avtonomoff mentions the existence of such -a fissure. But whether you may be able to see any trace of it or not -must depend upon the state of the snow. - -[85] Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, Paris, 1717, vol. ii. pp. 357 -seq. See also Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. x. p. 507. - -[86] I refer my reader to the works of Tournefort (already cited), -Parrot (Reise zum Ararat, Berlin, 1834), and Dubois de Montpéreux -(Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris, 1839-45, vol. iii.). - -[87] The measurements are my own. Dubois speaks of Akhury as being -five leagues distant from the Kara Su. - -[88] Parrot says the same thing, op. cit. p. 108. - -[89] For a discussion of the name see Parrot, op. cit. p. 110. Ritter -(Erdkunde, x. 508) also refers to Brosset (Bulletin de l'Acad. de -Sc. de St. Pétersbourg, 1841, vol. viii. p. 43), but is in error -when he says that Brosset spells it Aghuri. He actually spells it -Acorhi, and throws doubt upon the popular derivation of the name. It -would appear that the old Armenian name for the place was Akuri or -Agguri, and that later Armenian writers turned the word into Ark-uri -in order to extract the signification which I have given in the -text. I have adopted the spelling of the Russian official map, which -practically reproduces the old word. Dr. Belck has made the ingenious -suggestion that the Adduri of the Assyrian inscription of Shalmaneser -II. (859-824 B.C.)--a name which is applied to the mountains whither -Arame, king of Urardhu or Ararat, fled before the armies of the -Assyrian monarch--may be represented by the Armenian Akuri or Agguri -(Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 1893, -p. 71). That the ancient name of a district often survives in that -of a town in these countries is proved by the analogy of the town -of Van, which bears the name of the kingdom of which it was formerly -the capital, the Biaina of the Vannic texts. - -[90] Wagner (op. infra cit. p. 166) says that at the time of the -catastrophe the Armenian inhabitants numbered nearly 1600 souls, -besides Kurdish labourers. - -[91] Von Behagel (apud Parrot, op. cit. 2nd part, p. 183) says 1000 -feet. I quote Parrot p. 147. - -[92] Parrot, op. cit. p. 147. Von Behagel (loc. cit.) says that it was -3258 Paris feet, or 3472 English feet, above the plain of the Araxes. - -[93] Parrot, op. cit. p. 135; Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. p. 471. Most -travellers tell this story with amplifications and variations. It -is to be found in its earliest form in Faustus of Byzantium (book -iii. chap. x.). - -[94] Parrot, op. cit. p. 205. - -[95] Von Behagel, apud Parrot, loc. cit. - -[96] Tournefort, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 368 seq. - -[97] The testimony of these witnesses is given by Abich, Geognostiche -Reise zum Ararat, with two drawings of the chasm, in Monatsberichte der -Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, series 2, vol. iv. 1846-47. The -account is reproduced in his Geologische Forschungen in den -kaukasischen Ländern, Vienna, 1882, part ii. pp. 395 seq., and -illustrated by a fine geological view of the chasm in the Atlas, -plate vi. It can best be understood in the reprint. See also Wagner, -op. inf. cit., and Ritter, Erdkunde, x. pp. 507 seq. - -[98] See the summary of this report in Ritter, Erdkunde, x. pp. 509 -seq. - -[99] See Moriz Wagner (Reise nach dem Ararat und dem Hochland -Armenien, Stuttgart, 1848, contained in Widermann and Hauff, Reisen -und Landesbeschreibungen, Lieferung 35), and Abich in op. cit. - -[100] Consult the argument in Wagner, op. cit. pp. 176 seq. - -[101] See Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 510; and for former earthquakes -see Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. p. 474; Abich, Geolog. Forsch. part -ii. pp. 390 seq. with map. - -[102] "5 versts in a direct line" are Abich's words, op. cit. p. 413. - -[103] Ritter, Erdkunde, x. pp. 512, 513. - -[104] Abich, Geolog. Forsch. part ii. p. 412. - -[105] Abich, op. cit. pp. 413, 414. It is evident that he had Wagner's -objections in his mind. - -[106] This was the reading of my Hicks mountain aneroid, which was -working well, and it agrees with Parrot who says that the shrine -stood about 1000 feet above the cloister, i.e. at about 7400 English -feet. I fear, therefore, that Madame Chantre is in error in ascribing -to the site of the cloister, much lower down, an elevation of 2250 -metres or 7382 feet (L'Arménie Russe, p. 238). Monsieur Chantre, in -his monograph on Ararat, confuses the site of the shrine with that -of the cloister, an error which was also made by my Armenian guide -(Annales de Géographie, Paris, 1893-94, vol. iii. pp. 81-94). - -[107] Abich, Geolog. Forsch. part ii. p. 412, and see for the glacier, -etc. pp. 397, 399, 400. The illustration is contained on Table VI. of -his atlas. Parrot appears to be silent on the subject of this glacier; -but Von Behagel, his companion, offers some remarks upon it (Parrot, -2nd part, p. 184). I may also refer my reader to Dr. Markoff's article -in the Bulletin de la société royale Belge de géographie, 1888, p. 589. - -[108] Feodoroff, the companion of Parrot, measuring from the valley of -the Araxes, estimated the difference at 7 feet; Khodzko at 120 feet; -Bryce at "some 50 feet or so," all in favour of the more westerly -elevation. My reader will notice that in the photograph (Fig. 37) the -more easterly, viz. on the left hand, appears to be slightly higher; -but this circumstance is due to the fact that it stands out a little -in advance of its neighbour, when seen from the side of the country -between Erivan and Aralykh. - -[109] In estimating the level of the zone of perpetual snow on Ararat -I am leaving out of account those smaller or greater collections of -snow which owe their subsistence all through the summer to special -circumstances, such as shelter from the sun. - -Mr. D. W. Freshfield (Exploration of the Caucasus, London, 1896, -vol. i. p. 55) gives 10,000 feet as a fair figure for the snow-level -in the central chain of Caucasus. - -[110] The account of an ascent in 1897 has quite recently come -into my hands. It is written by Herr A. Oswald, whose attempt -was crowned with complete success (Eine Besteigung des Ararat in -Jahrb. schweiz. Alpenclub, Berne, 1899-1900, vol. xxxv. pp. 157-183). - -[111] For Artaxata, Dvin, Khor Virap, etc., see Ker Porter's Travels -(vol. ii. pp. 619 seq.); Morier (Second Journey, p. 316 and pp. 339 -seq.); Dubois (op. cit. vol. iii. pp. 382 seq.); Smith and Dwight -(op. cit. pp. 273 seq.). Dubois mentions, but was unable to visit, the -grottoes of Okhtchapert on the direct road between Erivan and Garni, -p. 402. They are mentioned by Telfer (Crimea and Transcaucasia, -vol. i. p. 210), who passed by them on his way to Garni from -Erivan. Telfer's book should be consulted by English readers for an -account of these various antiquities. I would also recommend to the -archćologist who is desirous of investigating the question of the -site of Artaxata a reference to Dubois (vol. iii. p. 449). - -[112] Op. cit. vol. iii. p. 480. - -[113] According to the Jesuit, Pčre Monier, who wrote an account of -the mission at Erivan in the eighteenth century, there were only 4000 -inhabitants of the town proper in his day. Of these only one-fourth -were Armenians (Lettres Édifiantes, Mémoires du Levant, Paris, 1780, -vol. iii. p. 25). In the thirties of last century the usual estimate -seems to have been 2500 families or at least 10,000 souls, of whom -some 700 to 1000 families were Armenian (Smith and Dwight, Missionary -Researches, p. 279; Sijalski, Aufenthalt in Erivan, Das Ausland, -Augsburg, 1839). The Armenians are rapidly turning the tables upon -the Tartars. - -[114] Chardin, edit. Paris, 1811, vol. ii. p. 169. - -[115] "Erivân, apparens, quia regio ista prima apparuit Noe cum -descenderet ex monte Ararat" (Villotte, Dict. Arm. p. 273, quoted by -Langlčs ap. Chardin, loc. cit.). - -[116] Moses of Khorene, vol. ii. p. 46. - -[117] Lane Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties, London, 1894, p. 259. - -[118] For the Mohammedan tradition see Travels of Evliya, translated by -Von Hammer, London, 1850, vol. ii. p. 150. "In the year 810 (A.D. 1407) -Khoja Khan Lejchani, a rich merchant of Timur's suite, settled here -(at Erivan) with all his family and servants, cultivating plantations -of rice, by which means a great Kent was soon formed. Five years later -Shah Ismail gave to Revan Kul, one of his khans, an order to build -a castle here, which, being finished in seven years, was named after -him Revan or Erivan." The five years of Evliya are incomprehensible -to me. Erivan is mentioned by John Katholikos, who wrote in the -eleventh century, as having been a considerable place in the seventh -(Saint-Martin's translation, Paris, 1841, p. 80). - -[119] Dubois de Montpéreux, Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris, 1839, -vol. iii. pp. 346 seq. When Morier, secretary to the British Embassy -to Persia, visited the sirdar or governor of Erivan in 1814, he was -told by his host with great gravity that "if three or four of the -kings of Fireng (Europe) were to unite to take this castle, they -might just take the trouble of going back again, for their labours -would be in vain" (Morier, Second Journey, London, 1818, p. 319). The -sirdar's view was not held by British officers, one of whom, in giving -an account of his visit in 1837, says, "I had expected to find the -castle almost impregnable from the honours which were heaped upon the -Marshal Paskevich for its capture, and was quite surprised to find -a mere Turkish fort, strong indeed by nature on one side, but on the -other three defended merely by a mud wall, and commanded from all the -adjoining hills" (Wilbraham, Travels in the Transcaucasian Provinces, -etc., London, 1839). - -[120] "In dieser abermahligen Veränderung seynd auch alle Türkische -Moscheen der Stadt übern Hauffen geworffen ... also das etliche -dergleichen Tempel bis zum Fundament erniedriget und übel ärger von -Persianen verwüstet als jemahl die Kirchen der Christen von Türcken -zugerichtet worden seynd. So züchtiget Gott die Mahumetaner mit -Mahumetanern" (Schillinger, Persianische und Ost-Indianische Reise -vom Jahr 1699 bis 1702, Nürnberg, 1707). - -[121] Tavernier, edit. of Paris, 1679, vol. i. p. 37; Pčre Monier, -op. cit. vol. iii. p. 24. - -[122] Von Hammer, Geschichte des Osm. Reiches, vol. vii. p. 321. - -[123] Morier, Second Journey, p. 320. - -[124] Dubois de Montpéreux, op. cit. vol. iii p. 452. - -[125] Dubois, ibid. pp. 339 seq. and Atlas. - -[126] Dubois, ibid. p. 346, and Morier, Hajji Baba. - -[127] Chapter viii. of the Polojenye of 1836. - -[128] I was informed by a competent authority that, including Tiflis -and the whole of Russian Transcaucasia, there were not less than 400 -Armenian schools in existence at the time of my visit. About one-third -of the number would be schools for girls. - -[129] Müller-Simonis (Du Caucase au Golfe Persique, Paris, 1892, -p. 62), speaking of the celebration of the ceremonies in honour of -Ali and Hoseyn at Erivan, says: "Le soir les fanatiques qui devront -représenter les martyres ŕ la grande procession, font une promenade -aux flambeaux, armés de sabres et de gourdins. Ils agitent en mesure -leurs flambeaux et leurs armes, criant en męme temps ŕ tue-tęte: -'Hussein, Ali, Hussein, Ali.' Les reflets rouges des torches, ici -découpant les blanches silhouettes des maisons, lŕ plongeant en -lueurs étranges sous la verdure des arbres, puis éclairant en plein -les figures hideuses de ces dévots, forment un spectacle sauvage et -fantastique." The picture is true to life. I have little doubt that -such a procession may still be witnessed at Erivan. - -[130] According to Dubois de Montpéreux the fortifications of -Edgmiatsin were restored by the Katholikos Simeon between 1763 and 1780 -(Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris, 1839-43, vol. iii. p. 360). - -[131] The true inwardness of this policy did not escape the -notice of the French traveller Boré, who, writing in 1838, says: -"En s'avançant vers l'Asie Centrale la Russie cherchait ŕ réaliser -une pensée politique habilement conçue, qui lui promet pour l'avenir -des résultats avantageux. Comme puissance chrétienne, elle se déclare -la protectrice de tous les chrétiens assujétis ŕ la double puissance -Mahométane qu'elle combattait.... Voilŕ pourquoi l'on tenait beaucoup -encore ŕ enclaver dans l'empire le monastčre d'Echemiazin; attendu -qu'étant le sičge du chef principal de la communion arménienne, on -devait tenir dans les liens de son pouvoir spirituel la majeure partie -des Arméniens répandus dans les royaumes limitrophes" (Correspondance -et Mémoires, Paris, 1840, vol. ii. pp. 36, 37). - -[132] Monteith, Kars and Erzerum, London, 1856, p. 38. During -the campaigns against Persia the convent of Edgmiatsin obtained -declarations from both belligerents that their territory should be -considered neutral ground. The Russians, however, appear to have made -use of it as a base (ibid. p. 133). While at Edgmiatsin I was told -that in 1804 the Persians erected a battery upon the roof, which -naturally suffered, although I am not aware that the Russians came -to any harm from the battery. - -[133] Morier's Second Journey, London, 1818, pp. 323 seq. According -to Von Haxthausen Russian influence had already become preponderant -in the election of a katholikos as early as 1768, when the Katholikos -Lukas sought and obtained the sanction of Russia upon his elevation -(Transcaucasia, English edition, London, 1854, p. 307). We learn -from another source that the Katholikos Ephraim (1809-31) was -accorded the special protection of the Tsar, and that he did not -assume his functions before receiving the imperial assurance at -St. Petersburg that the pontificate of Armenia would ever receive -such protection. This same Tsar, Alexander I., loaded the bishops and -priests who accompanied Ephraim with honours and presents (Avdall's -continuation of Chamchean's History, Calcutta, 1827, pp. 519-20). - -[134] Melikoff is said to have had under his command a body of -2000 Armenian volunteers as well as some 400 officers of the same -nationality. See the Reminiscences of a Delegate to the Congress of -Berlin in the newspaper L'Arménie for 15th August 1892 (published -in London). - -[135] Nine articles of the Polojenye deal with the election of a -katholikos. Upon a vacancy of the Chair it is the duty of the synod -to issue invitations to all Armenian dioceses, whether in Russia or -elsewhere, calling upon them each to name two deputies, one clerical -and one lay, who shall repair to Edgmiatsin after the lapse of a -year. These deputies, should they be unable to attend in person, -may signify their vote by letter. In addition to the deputies the -members of the synod and seven of the oldest bishops of Edgmiatsin -have votes ex officio. The election takes place in the church of the -Illuminator. Four candidates are chosen by vote in the first place. A -second ballot narrows the selection to two. The assembly then appoints -three delegates who repair to the Governor-General of the Caucasus -and officially communicate the result. The Governor-General transmits -the two names to the Emperor through the Minister of the Interior. The -Emperor confirms the katholikos and gives him the ukase. After he has -taken the oath of allegiance to the Russian throne he is consecrated -according to the rite of the Armenian Church. - -In Russia there are at present only six dioceses of the Armenian -Church; they are specified in the Polojenye. They are:--1. New -Nakhichevan and Bessarabia; 2. Astrakhan; 3. Erivan; 4. Tiflis; -5. Karabagh; 6. Shirvan. Kars is at present a vicarate, dependent -upon Erivan. In Turkey there are, I am informed, usually no less -than fifty-two dioceses; but there are not always bishops to every -diocese. In Persia there are two, namely New Julfa and Tabriz. It -will thus be seen that the Armenians of Turkey have the preponderant -vote, and that the clergy have a small majority over the lay members, -to the extent of the synod and seven of the bishops of Edgmiatsin. - -At the last election, which took place on the 17th of May 1892, there -were present in the church of St. Gregory 72 electors, including -the synod and the 7 bishops. The number might have been about -135. But several dioceses appointed the same delegate. The vote for -Mgr. Khrimean was unanimous, the second candidate being only nominal. - -Other articles of the Polojenye to which I should like to call -attention are to the following effect:--The usual Russian provision -forbidding proselytising is inserted. The katholikos alone is permitted -to make the holy oil. The synod is to consist of four bishops and -four archimandrites, all resident at Edgmiatsin. It is to assemble -at least twice a week. The katholikos is ex officio a member of -synod and presides when he is present. It is not said whether the -procurator has a right to be present at the deliberations; but the -minutes and decisions must all be submitted to him. All monasteries -are to be regulated according to the rule of St. Basil, and to become -a monk it is necessary to obtain the sanction of the synod upon the -recommendation of a bishop. A married man may become a monk if he have -no children under age and if his wife agree to enter a convent. The -Church schools are recognised; but their rules and curricula must be -submitted to the synod. The synod must in turn submit them to the -Minister of the Interior. Finally it is stated that the Armenian -clergy are supported by the gifts of the Armenian people, and the -nature of these gifts is specified. - -[136] According to Von Haxthausen (journey in 1843) the synod took the -place of the general council of the Church, which it was impossible -to assemble. He adds that in 1783 the Patriarch Lukas decreed that -it should not consist of fewer than seven members; in 1802 there were -nine members (Transcaucasia, English edition, p. 305). - -[137] Captain Richard Wilbraham, Travels, etc., London, 1839, p. 98. At -the time of his visit in 1837 the procurator was actually an Armenian, -but quite Russianised. - -[138] Transcaucasia, German edition, Leipzig, 1856, vol. i. pp. 256 -seq.; English edition, pp. 284 seq. Von Haxthausen speaks of the -"Grobheit des Procurators." It is only just to add that the katholikos -was absent during his visit. - -[139] I was shown the documents in the library. The method of the -election of the Katholikos Makar affords great sport to the Jesuit -Vernier. He hails with delight the constitution of Edgmiatsin into -a state prison "oů l'élu de la nation demeure sous la garde d'un -gęolier Moscovite. Cet élu a fini par déplaire au despote couronné de -St. Pétersbourg; le czar vient de rejeter avec mépris l'oecuménique -qui avait réuni la majorité des suffrages, et de lui substituer -arbitrairement un Russe qui n'a d'Arménien que le nom. Dans quelques -années de par le knout, ce nom męme disparaîtra, et quelque pape -cosaque remplacera l'Arménien russifié et occupera ŕ Edgmiatsin le -trône de saint Grégoire. Terrible et juste vengeance de Dieu...." The -italics are mine (Histoire du Patriarcat Arménien Catholique, Paris, -1891, p. 285). - -[140] Sophocles, OEdipus Tyrannus, 1. 58. - -[141] The new catalogue, which has not yet been printed [September -1900], will contain some 3500 titles. So far as I have been able to -ascertain, there already exist two catalogues--(1) that published -by the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1840, and (2) that by -Caréniantz, Tiflis, 1863, 4o [in Armenian]. - -[142] For a description of this book and its ivory panels see -Strgygowski, Das Etschmiadzin-Evangeliar, Vienna, 1891. - -[143] The institution of the twelve bishops, who reside in the palace -of the katholikos and fulfil various offices about his person, dates -from the commencement of the Armenian State Church. See Faustus of -Byzantium, vi. 5, and Gelzer (Die Anfänge der Armenischen Kirche, -in Berichte der K. S. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzic, -Phil.-Hist. Classe, 1895). - -[144] I was informed that the notes are those of the fifth century; -but there appears to be no sufficient historical evidence for this -belief. The historians, however, speak of this or that vartapet as -having been a musician (erajisht). The Katholikos George IV. (d. 1882) -transcribed the original notes from the Armenian manuscripts, but -brought them into consonance with European methods. - -[145] So it is known to all the early travellers. Cp. Poser, 1621; -Evliya, 1647, "the Three Churches, a great convent built by the Greek -emperors"; Rhodes, 1648-49; Tavernier, 1655; Chardin, 1673; Jesuit -Missionaries, seventeenth century, Letter of Pčre Monier; Schillinger, -c. 1699; Tournefort, 1701, who notices the inappropriateness of -the name. - -[146] It is given at length by Agathangelus, and may be found in -that portion of the treatise to which I shall hereafter allude as -"the Acts" (see note on p. 291, infra). There can be little doubt that -the legend of the Ripsimians took the place of an old heathen legend, -associated with the site at Vagharshapat. There seems to have been -a local tradition that the cathedral and the chapels of Ripsime and -Gaiane stand upon three rocks, whence in pagan times voices would -be heard coming from underlying cavities and returning answers to -questions addressed to them. - -[147] This is probably an anachronism. - -[148] I interpret him in the sense of there and back. - -[149] It appears to have been the custom among the Armenians down to -comparatively recent times for pious people to place large blocks of -stone in front of the entrance to a church by way of offering. Dubois -de Montpéreux saw a number of such stones, 6 or 7 feet high, covered -with crosses and arabesques, in front of the portal of the cathedral -at Edgmiatsin. I do not know what has become of them. - -[150] Chardin (ed. Langlčs, Paris, 1811, 8vo, vol. ii. p. 175). See -also Tavernier (book i. ch. iii.). The Jesuit missionaries, however, -later on in the seventeenth century, speak of a structure resembling -a mausoleum and having four stone columns and an altar in the -centre. There can be little doubt that this is an allusion to the -erection of Eleazar. - -[151] Chardin, ibid. - -[152] History of Architecture, book i. ch. iv. Neo-Byzantine style. His -remarks have reference to the shape of the dome and not to the pointed -arches of the false arcade, which perhaps argue a much later date. - -[153] Dubois de Montpéreux, Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris, 1839-43, -vol. iii. pp. 372 seq. - -[154] Ibid. Atlas, series iii. plate 7. - -[155] See Telfer, The Crimea and Transcaucasia, London, 1876, -vol. i. p. 222, and Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. pp. 382 seq. - -[156] Strgygowski, Das Etschmiadzin-Evangeliar, Vienna, 1891. I read -the large inscription thus:--Ięsou boęthei pantas tous euchomenous en -tę ekklęsia Zibithain (?)--kyrie eleęson ton doulon sou Archian--kai -kyrie Eleęson Elpidin (for Elpida or Elpidian, the variation of the -accusative of Elpis into -pidin being not unusual)--Danięl, Tirer, -Garikinis. The word Zibithain is taken as a proper name by Brosset -(Voyage Archéologique, St. Petersburg, 1849-51, 3me rapp., p. 16), -and by Strgygowski, who supposes it to be the same as Zuithai, found in -Armenian writers, e.g. in Faustus of Byzantium, who speaks of a Zuithai -as priest of the town of Artaxata during the persecution of Shapur -(Faustus, iv. 56). Zuithai would be the priest in whose church the -memorial had been placed. As for the three proper names at the end, -that of Tirer has been found in an inscription of the thirteenth -century. Garikinis denotes the proper name Garegin. - -[157] It is a matter of surmise that Nerses I. restored the sacred -buildings of Vagharshapat after the destruction of that city by the -Persian armies in the fourth century (see Faustus, v. 1); but the first -restoration of the cathedral of which I can find any certain mention -is that of the great Armenian chief Vahan Mamikonean in or about the -year 483 (Lazar Pharpetzi in Langlois' Collection des historiens de -l'Arménie, Paris, 1867-69, vol. ii. p. 352. And see Saint-Martin, -Mémoires sur l'Arménie, Paris, 1818, vol. i. p. 328). Armenia was at -this time struggling to rid herself of the Persian (Sasanian) yoke, -having lost her Arsakid dynasty. The katholikos no longer resided at -Edgmiatsin, the pontifical seat having been transferred to Dvin in -A.D. 452 (Saint-Martin, ibid. vol. i. p. 437); nor does he return until -A.D. 1441. In 618 it was again restored by the Katholikos Komitas -(Saint-Martin, i. 116, quoting John Katholikos; and cp. Sebeos, -Hist. of Heraclius, iii. 25 (in Armenian)), who substituted a dome -in stone in place of the earlier wooden one. Certain repairs are -attributed to the Katholikos Nerses III., surnamed the builder, -A.D. 640-661, I know not upon what authority. After this there -ensues a long period, for which we appear to have no records. The -katholikos often changes his residence. After the destruction of the -Cilician kingdom and in the year 1438 the right arm of St. Gregory, -a relic which had become the palladium of the pontifical office, -was transferred from Sis, the capital of that kingdom, to Edgmiatsin -(Gelzer, article Armenien in Realencyklopädie für protestantische -Theologie, Leipzic, 1896). Saint-Martin places the transfer thither of -the seat of the pontificate in the year 1441. In 1442 the Katholikos -Kirakos undertook the necessary repairs (Thomas Metsobatzi). We now -leap to the reign of Shah Abbas of Persia, who, as is well known, -transported a whole colony of Armenians from the valley of the Araxes -to the outskirts of his capital, Ispahan. In 1614 this monarch carried -off a number of the venerated stones of the church to New Julfa to form -the nucleus of a new Edgmiatsin (Arakel of Tauris, ch. xxiv.). The -famous monastery fell into woeful neglect. The Katholikos Moses -(1629-33) restored it, but added no new feature. His successor -Philip renewed the roof (inscriptions, records, etc.). I think I -have mentioned subsequent additions. The steps which run round the -church were added or extensively restored by the Katholikos Lukas -(in 1784). But they have been modified by Makar I. Repairs are -ascribed to the pontiffs Astvatsadur, Simeon and Ephraim, the last -of whom repaired in 1816 the damages which the Persians had done to -the roof by placing a battery upon it. For more detailed information -I may refer my reader to a work entitled: Description of the Mother -Church of the Armenians, by Vahan Vardapet Bastamean, Edgmiatsin, -1877 (in Armenian and Russian). - -[158] See the translation of the De Edificiis by Stewart, annotated -by Sir Charles Wilson, London, 1896, pp. 73 seq. (Palestine Pilgrims -Text Society). - -[159] John Katholikos, c. xii. And see Sebeos, Hist. of Heraclius, -iii. 33. - -[160] They bear the monograms of Nerses Katholikos and are reproduced -by Strgygowski (op. cit.), to whom I refer my reader. I only saw one -of them during my stay. - -[161] Brosset (Bull. Scient. de l'Acad. de Sc. de St. Pétersbourg, -vol. ii. 1837) has transcribed the letters and published a valuable -little notice on the subject. - -[162] The circumstance appealed to Brosset as a rare example of -religious tolerance (Voyage Arch., rapp. 3, p. 19). - -[163] Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase, vol. iii. p. 371. But see -Haxthausen, Transcaucasia, p. 287. - -[164] I was unable to measure each apse; but I was assured that they -were all of the same or nearly the same size. The portal is of course -not included in the above measurements. - -[165] Telfer (Crimea and Transcaucasia, London, 1876, vol. i. p. 231) -seems to refer to this throne, which he ascribes to Pope Innocent XI., -a gift to James IV. (1655-80). - -[166] See Morier, Second Journey, pp. 323 seq. - -[167] See Dubois de Montpéreux, op. cit. vol. iii. p. 213, and -Neale's Holy Eastern Church, vol. i. p. 296. The former of these -writers informs us that our church of St. Ripsime "a servi de type -ŕ une foule d'autres églises," and the latter has improved upon -this statement by asserting that it is "the norm of all Armenian -ecclesiastical buildings" (Dubois, vol. iii. p. 380, and Neale, -vol. i. p. 293). Leaving Georgia out of account, both these statements -are incorrect. - -[168] Unless we accept Neale's hypothesis that they served as a -narthex. But the narthex is not a feature of the churches of Great -Armenia. - -[169] According to Brosset (Voyage Arch., rapp. 3, p. 82) the diameter -of the dome is not less than about 35 feet. The height is given by -Neale, op. cit. p. 296, as 104 1/2 feet to the top of the cross. - -[170] Sebeos, History of Heraklius (in Armenian), part iii. ch. xxv. - -[171] For the theft and recovery of these relics see Smith and Dwight -(Missionary Researches, London, 1834, p. 280), and Brosset (Voyage -Arch., rapp. 3, p. 83). - -[172] Brosset, ibid. p. 82. The date reposes upon the authority of -the historian, John Katholikos. - -[173] According to Agathangelus the third chapel was built upon the -site of the wine-press. Further on we are told that it was situated -north of the town, and that in it was buried the unfortunate nun who -was left behind owing to sickness. - -[174] Brosset (Bull. Scientifique Acad. Sc. St. Pétersbourg, 1840, -pp. 46 seq.) quotes a letter from Nahabet to this effect. - -[175] Brosset, ibid. - -[176] Belck, in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Berlin, 1893, Heft -ii. p. 77. - -[177] Haxthausen, Transcaucasia, p. 295. - -[178] Schillinger, Persianische und Ost-Indianische Reise, Nürnberg, -1707. I do not credit the statement of Evliya, who visited Edgmiatsin -in A.D. 1647, to the effect that at that time the monastery was -inhabited by about 500 monks. - -[179] Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, note to 4th edition, London, -1896, p. 314. - -[180] It is interesting to place together the two following passages, -the first taken from a modern and representative Armenian source, -the second from the work of a German scholar. I translate both -from the German. Dr. Arshak Ter-Mikelean, professor of theology in -the Academy at Edgmiatsin, writes (Die Armenische Kirche in ihren -Beziehungen zur byzantinischen, Leipzic, 1892, p. 9): "The mother -church of Gregory was not founded by him nor even by the apostles, -who are only mortal men; but the everlasting Founder, the only Head of -the Church, Himself descends in glory from Heaven and commands him to -build a church after His plan and His directions on a prescribed site -in the royal city, Vagharshapat. Christ Himself appears to Gregory -in a vision and instructs him what he shall do ..."; and Professor -Gelzer draws the inference (Die Anfänge der armenischen Kirche, in -Berichte über die Verhandlungen der K. S. Gesell. der Wissenschaften -zu Leipzic, Phil.-Hist. Classe, 1895, p. 127): "The ancient capital -Vagharshapat ... bears at the present day the name Edgmiatsin, 'the -Only Begotten descended from Heaven,' in everlasting remembrance that -Christ Himself founded the Armenian Church and thereby established -her as autokephalous and completely independent of every patriarchate, -whether of the East or of the West." - -[181] Moses of Khorene mentions St. Bartholomew and St. Simon (ii. 34, -in Langlois, Collection des hist. de l'Arménie, Paris, 1867-69, -vol. ii. p. 98), and says that the former suffered martyrdom in -the town of Arevban, while the other was reputed to have met the -same fate in Veriospora. According to Gelzer (article Armenien in -Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie, Leipzic, 1896) the -martyrdom of St. Bartholomew in Urbanopolis, a town of Great Armenia, -was known to Greek writers as early as the fifth century. Urbanopolis, -Albanopolis, or Korbanopolis (Armenian, Arevbanos or Arebonos-Kaghak) -may perhaps be identified with Arabion castellum, where in fact Vardan -(c. 1270) tells us that the saint was murdered. Arabion castellum was -a fort on the Stranga, or Great Zab, which Mr. F. C. Conybeare (Key of -Truth, Oxford, 1898, p. cii.) connects with the modern Deir, where at -the present day the monastery and church of St. Bartholomew stand. I -surmise that nothing is known of the site of Veriospora. Moses, -following the Edessene tradition, speaks of St. Thaddeus as one of -the seventy disciples, relates at length his mission to King Abgar of -Edessa (Urfa in Mesopotamia), and speaks of his conversion of King -Sanatruk, successor of Abgar, and of his martyrdom in the canton -of Chavarchan, called in his day Ardaz, as well-known facts. For -St. Jude I rely on Issaverdens (Armenia and the Armenians, Venice, -1878, vol. ii. p. 21), who relates that he was put to death and buried -in the city of Urmi in Azerbaijan. - -[182] Moses of Khorene, ii. 30-36, in Langlois, op. cit. vol. ii. -pp. 95 seq.; and Saint-Martin, Mémoires, etc. vol. i. p. 127. - -[183] Professor Carričre (La Légende d'Abgar dans l'histoire de Moďse -de Khorčne, Paris, 1895) shows that Moses used an Armenian version -of the legend of Abgar which commenced to form about the middle of -the third century but was subsequently remodelled. The same writer in -this work relegates the unfortunate Moses of Khorene, or rather the -writer who assumes the mask of this name, to a position inter deos -minores and to a period not earlier than the eighth century. He had -previously been made to step down several places, and was shivering -somewhere in the seventh century. See Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, -Leipzic 1892, iii. p. 335. - -[184] Faustus of Byzantium, iii. 1, and iv. 3, in Langlois, -op. cit. vol. i. pp. 210, 237. - -[185] Issaverdens, ii. 20, and Saint-Martin, i. p. 131. - -[186] Eusebius (Hist. eccl. vi. 46, 2), speaking of Dionysius of -Alexandria (A.D. 248-265), says, "And in the same manner he writes -to those in Armenia over whom Merujan was bishop on the subject of -repentance." For the probable connection of this bishop with the Van -country see Gelzer (Die Anfänge, etc. pp. 171 seq.). - -[187] Mr. F. C. Conybeare (Key of Truth, Oxford, 1898, -pp. ci. seq.) discusses the locality of the see of Archelaus. He is -called in the Acts of Archelaus bishop of Karkhar (episkopos Karcharôn -or Kascharôn), which again is called a city of Mesopotamia, three days' -hard riding from castellum Arabion, a fort on the river Stranga, the -modern Great Zab. Karkhar was included in the Roman dominions. May -it not have been somewhere in the neighbourhood of Sert? - -[188] Conybeare, ibid. pp. lviii. and ciii. - -[189] Conybeare, ibid. p. cx. - -[190] Conybeare, ibid. p. xcvi. - -[191] I refer to the long account contained in the Agathangelus -treatise (see note infra). - -[192] Conybeare, op. cit. pp. cxi. cxii. - -[193] Ibid. pp. clx. clxi. - -[194] Letter of Lazar Pharpetzi ap. Conybeare, op. cit. p. cviii.; -Nerses of Lampron, ibid. p. lxxxv.; Isaac Katholikos, ibid. Appendix -vii. p. 171, and pp. lxxvi. lxxvii. - -[195] Conybeare (op. cit.) gives the gist of the canon of the Council -of Shahapivan (pp. cvii. cviii.) and a translation of the canon of -John Katholikos at the Council of Dvin and of portions of his tract -(pp. 152 seq. in Appendix iv.). - -[196] Conybeare (ibid. Appendices i. to iv. inclusive) details these -various persecutions from the original sources; his discussion of the -identity of Sembat is a most interesting contribution to the history -of Armenia in the Middle Ages (pp. lxi. seq.). - -[197] The visit is almost certainly a fable. - -[198] For some enquiry into the ethnical affinities and earliest -history of the Armenians see Vol. II. of the present work, pp. 67 seq. - -[199] Note especially the interesting incident mentioned by Faustus -of Byzantium (v. 4). An ally of the Sasanian king of Persia and a -sincere imitator of his example thus addresses his army: "When you get -to close quarters with the imperial troops I bid you try your best to -make prisoners and avoid bloodshed; we must endeavour to carry them off -with us as trophies, and we will make them work for us when we get home -as artisans and masons for the construction of our cities and palaces." - -[200] Dion Cassius (lxxx. 3) adds this last statement. The preceding -are based on Agathangelus (ch. i.). The chronology is that of A. von -Gutschmid. See his article Persia in Ency. Brit. and Kleine Schriften, -iii. pp. 402 seq. - -[201] Mommsen (Provinces of the Roman Empire, vol. ii. p. 75) tells -us, on the authority of Dion Cassius ap. Suidas, that it was the -Roman general Priscus who, after destroying Artaxata in A.D. 163, -laid out the city which was called kainę tolis, or, in Armenian, -Nor-Kaghak. This latter name is used by Armenian writers of the fifth -century alongside of that of Vagharshapat (Edgmiatsin). - -[202] Herodian (vi. 5, 6) gives us an account of the war waged by -Severus, which is not even noticed by the Armenian historian. - -[203] Agathangelus, ch. ii. Life of St. Gregory. A. von Gutschmid, -who throws doubt upon the statement in the Life that St. Gregory -was a son of Anak who was taken to Greece, views with a suspicion, -which is quite natural, the words of the historian, "one was taken -to Persia, the other to Greece." The territory of the Empire would -have been hostile to such protégés of the Persian king. But even if -this view be plausible it is surely not necessary to take the words -too literally (Kleine Schriften, iii. 380). - -[204] Elisoeus Vardapet (ap. Langlois, Collection des hists. de -l'Arménie, vol. ii. p. 206) gives the text of a petition despatched by -the Armenian nobles to Theodosius II., in which occurs the following -passage:-- ... "our king Tiridates, while yet a child, was taken to -Greek territory and educated there in order to escape from his cruel -and parricidal uncles...." On the other hand, Agathangelus leads us -to infer that Ardashir took possession of Armenia after the murder -of Chosroes and that it was then that the child Tiridates was taken -to Greece. In this statement he comes into conflict with Zonaras, -who tells us (xii. 21) that it was only in the time of Gallus (252 or -253) that the Persians were able to possess themselves of Armenia, -after the flight of the king, Tiridates. It does not seem open to -doubt that it was not Ardashir but his successor Shapur I. who became -master of Armenia; and these various sources may perhaps be partially -reconciled in the manner suggested by Von Gutschmid (Kleine Schriften, -iii. 405) and adopted in my text. Von Gutschmid interprets parricidal -in the sense of the uncles having murdered, or helped to murder, -not their own father but the father of Tiridates. - -[205] The campaign of Odaenathus against Shapur is placed in 265 -by Robertson Smith (article Palmyra in Ency. Brit.) and in 264 by -Mommsen (Provinces of Roman Empire, ii. 104). We learn from Vopiscus -(Aurel. 27) that an Armenian contingent was enrolled under the banner -of Zenobia against the Emperor Aurelian in 271. What was the attitude -of Tiridates during the war? - -[206] Tiridates was no doubt influenced by the persecutions of -the emperors Decius (249-251) and Valerian (253-260). The latter -persecution took place during the last three and a half years of the -reign of Valerian. - -[207] Agathangelus is our earliest authority for the reign of -Tiridates and for the events connected with the conversion of the -Armenians as a nation to Christianity. But the scholars who examined -this precious treatise were impressed with the scale and frequency -of the interpolations to which the original text appeared to have -been subjected; and partly for this reason, partly owing to the -former ascendency of Moses of Khorene, full use was not made of the -work. In 1877 there appeared in the pages of a German periodical one -of those masterpieces of the higher criticism of which German writers -now appear to have a monopoly. It is entitled Agathangelos, by Alfred -von Gutschmid, and it has been incorporated in the collected edition -of Von Gutschmid's minor works (Kleine Schriften von A. von Gutschmid, -Leipzic, 1892, vol. iii. pp. 339 seq.). The author laboured under the -disadvantage of not being an Armenian scholar; but he has nevertheless -succeeded in discriminating between the various sources from which -the treatise, as it has come down to us, has been built up. They -are--1. An earliest source which we may call the Life of St. Gregory, -and which also contains an account, running parallel, of the reigns -of Chosroes and Tiridates down to the conversion of the latter. Von -Gutschmid thinks that this writing was composed in Armenian during -the pontificate of Sahak, or Isaac, the Great (A.D. 391-442). It -seems more probable, however, that it was originally written in -Greek or Syriac and subsequently translated into Armenian. 2. A -later piece which we may distinguish as the Acts of St. Gregory and of -St. Ripsime and her Companions. It is a hagiograph, which Von Gutschmid -supposes to have been written about the year 450. It seems to me, -however, that a certain passage in Faustus of Byzantium (iii. 13, -in Langlois' translation, "jusqu'ŕ changer męme l'image de l'homme -en une figure de bęte") points to that author having been acquainted -with the Acts; at all events he is familiar with the legend of the -Ripsimians. Faustus appears to have written 395-416. To the Acts -portion of the Agathangelus treatise belongs a long and possibly -independent piece which contains the teaching of St. Gregory; but -neither the Greek version nor the extant translations include it, and -I am not aware that any consecutive account of its contents has yet -appeared. In the Armenian text this last piece takes up over one-half -of the treatise as a whole. And finally--3. The Vision or Apocalypse of -St. Gregory, in which the saint receives the Divine mandate to build -the church at Edgmiatsin. This piece, together with the prologue -and epilogue to the whole work, was probably added by a priest of -Vagharshapat (Edgmiatsin), who edited the treatise and gave it its -present form, publishing it under the pseudonym of Agathangelus. Von -Gutschmid thinks that the work as a whole may be assigned to the -period of Persian persecution (A.D. 452-456). The fact that Lazar -Pharpetzi displays an intimate acquaintance with it under the name -of Agathangelus shows that it cannot be placed later than about the -close of the fifth century. I do not know, however, that Lazar shows -a knowledge of the Apocalypse, or that the statement contained in a -Paris MS. can be conclusively disproved, that the Armenian text which -has come down to us is a translation made in the seventh century, at -the time of the discovery under Komitas of the relics of St. Ripsime, -from a Greek original. Von Gutschmid, however, argues against this view -(pp. 354 seq.). Ter-Mikelean (Die armenische Kirche, p. 5) supports the -view that the work was translated at the close of the fourth century -by Koriun from a Greek original (see Langlois, vol. ii. Introduction -to Koriun, p. 4); but Von Gutschmid has shown that certain passages -have been borrowed from Koriun, and until the Armenian text has -been subjected to a searching philological criticism we are not safe -in saying more than this. The student will find the various pieces -enumerated above distinguished one from another, passage by passage, -in the table given by Von Gutschmid (pp. 375 seq.). The latest edition -of our present Greek text, which is a translation from the Armenian, -is that of De Lagarde (Göttingen, 1887), but the references given in -my notes are to that of Langlois. The best translation is that of -the Mekhitarists in Italian (Venice, 1843). The French translation -in Langlois omits some of the most important passages. As regards -the historical importance of the pieces, Von Gutschmid concludes that -the Life may be regarded as a source of absolute reliability for the -conversion of the king and for the events in Armenia which succeeded -the conversion. As regards what took place before that event, it is -in the main reliable, although interwoven with legend. The Acts, -on the other hand, and the Apocalypse are as good as useless as -historical material. - -The scholarly study of Von Gutschmid rendered possible Professor -Gelzer's profound and brilliant essay, Die Anfänge der armenischen -Kirche, to which I have already alluded (p. 277, note 1) and in which -he reviews the work of the Armenian writer known to us under the name -of Faustus of Byzantium. - -[208] See p. 145 of the Italian translation of Agathangelus. Von -Gutschmid (Kleine Schriften, iii. 358) is careful to point out the -discrepancy in the two sources. While the Acts speak of possession -by devils as the malady with which the people of Vagharshapat were -afflicted and which caused them to be transformed into animals, -the Life only mentions "possession" as one of the diseases which -are enumerated. - -[209] See the Italian translation, p. 153. - -[210] Sozomen, ii. 8. He places the conversion before Constantine, -but does not give the exact date. - -[211] "With Gallienus (260) there begins for the Christians a long -period of peace, lasting about forty years" (Moeller, History of the -Christian Church, A.D. 1-600, London, 1892, p. 196). - -[212] It seems impossible to precise the date of the conversion of -Tiridates. The author of the Life in Agathangelus allows thirteen -years for the captivity of Gregory, who was imprisoned in the first -year of the restoration. But I am not aware that we are able to fix -this latter date. The conversion probably occurred about the year 280. - -[213] Emin, Recherches sur le paganisme arménien, p. 20, note 1. - -[214] The Pontic regions. - -[215] The king himself preached (Agathangelus, Life of St. Gregory, -in p. 253 of the Italian translation). - -[216] I insert the word "years" in deference to Professor Gelzer, -who argues (Die Anfänge, etc., p. 166) that if the conversion took -place about the year 280, the journey to Cćsarea could scarcely -have been undertaken before 285-290. He is wishing to show that -the statements contained in a portion of the Agathangelus treatise -ascribed by Von Gutschmid to the less reliable source, viz. the Acts, -to the effect that St. Gregory was ordained by Leontius, archbishop -of Cćsarea, may quite well be true. We know that Leontius subscribed -the Council of Nice (325); and his pontificate must have covered a -period of forty-five years if St. Gregory was ordained by him in or -about the year 280. The Life mentions the visit of Gregory to Cćsarea -but not the name of Leontius; and Von Gutschmid, while he regards the -visit as historical, views with suspicion the connection with that -particular prelate (Kleine Schriften, iii. pp. 415 and 418). That -seems to me the sensible view. We learn from an independent source -(Gelas. Cyzic. ii. 36, ap. Mansi, ii. p. 929) that in the year 325 and -during the lifetime of Saint Gregory and Leontius, Great Armenia was in -ecclesiastical subordination to Cćsarea; and the link with the capital -of Cappadocia was maintained until the death of the Katholikos Nerses -I. about the year 374 (cp. Faustus, v. 29). The later story, to the -effect that Tiridates received Christianity from the bishop of Rome -(so in the petition of the Armenians in the year 450 to Theodosius, -ap. Elisoeus in Langlois, ii. 206), is plainly a story with a purpose -and must therefore be viewed with suspicion. - -[217] The car with the white mules is mentioned in the Life, and the -escort of sixteen princes in the Acts. - -[218] A bishop of Sivas with this name was martyred under Diocletian; -but this saint will not suit our chronology. Certain features in -connection with the cult of the saint--a hind is offered up to him -on his name day--have suggested to Von Gutschmid (Kleine Schriften, -iii. 414) that Athenogenes was a heathen god of the chase, converted -in comparatively remote times into a Christian martyr. A local cult of -this nature seems to have attached to Herakles in certain countries; -therefore it might quite well have been natural for Gregory to supplant -the worship of his Armenian counterpart, Vahagn, at Astishat with that -of Athenogenes, the saint corresponding to the god of the chase. This -is ingenious but not convincing. The hunting features in the cult of -Athenogenes may surely have been derived from his worship at Astishat -in place of Vahagn (Herakles). - -[219] I adopt the Greek version of Agathangelus in this passage in -preference to the Armenian text, which has "he laid the foundations -of the church and erected an altar to the glory of Christ. It was -here that he first commenced to build churches, and erected an altar -in the name of the Holy Trinity and added a baptistery." See Gelzer -(Die Anfänge, etc., p. 129). - -[220] After a second perusal of the passages in Agathangelus and -Faustus (in Langlois: Agathangelus, cxiv. and cxv.; Faustus, iii. and -iv. 14), I do not hesitate to identify the site of the temples of -Astishat--Mount Karke, in face of the great range, Taurus--with the -immediate surroundings of the present cloister of Surb Karapet (see -Vol. II. p. 177). The view which I shall offer from the terrace of -that famous monastery (Fig. 157) will be the view which excited the -cupidity of the eunuch Hair; the ash trees in the foreground may be the -descendants of the hatzeatz-drakht or garden of ash trees; finally, -the confluence of rivers, overgrown with thick forest, to which the -eunuch descended and where he met his death, may be represented by -the still wooded banks of the Murad in the valley of Charbahur. The -identification of the scene of the events narrated in the text with -the present monastery of Surb Karapet may be found in the geography -attributed to Vardan in Saint Martin (Mémoires, etc., vol. ii. p. 431). - -The baptism of Tiridates probably took place on the banks of the Upper -Murad upon the site of another existing cloister of Surb Karapet, -also called Uch Kilisa, near Diadin (see Smith and Dwight, Missionary -Researches, p. 417). - -[221] Faustus, iii. 3. - -[222] Faustus, iii. 13. - -[223] Ibid. - -[224] Agathangelus, Life of St Gregory, sec. 158. - -[225] Faustus, iii. 13. - -[226] Faustus, v. 31. "The obsequies of the dead were conducted -amid loud lamentations, accompanied by trumpets, guitars and -harps. Monstrous dances took place, men and women, with bangles on -their arms and painted faces, giving themselves up to every kind of -abomination." The picture is coloured by malice, but is vivid. - -[227] Agathangelus, Life of St. Gregory, sec. 169. - -[228] Faustus, iv. 4. - -[229] Faustus, iv. 14. It seems plain from this chapter that these -domains had been bestowed upon the family of Gregory by Tiridates -and his successors. - -[230] Faustus, iii. 15 and 19. The profane delinquents were named Pap -and Athenogenes, and the makeshift office-bearers Daniel the Syrian, -Pharen and Shahak. The two last-named were formally invested with -the office and sent to Cćsarea to be consecrated. - -[231] Note especially the election of Nerses I., a descendant of -St. Gregory who was loth to accept the office. "The numerous troops -of all Armenia demanded and proclaimed Nerses as katholikos ... the -entire assembly commenced to cry with a loud voice, 'It is Nerses who -must be our pastor.' Nerses refused to accept the mandate, of which -he professed himself unworthy. Nevertheless the assembly persisted -in their resolution and continued to cry before the king, 'No one -except Nerses shall be our pastor; nobody but he shall occupy the holy -chair!'" The whole chapter (Faustus, iv. 3) is well worth reading, -and contains some very vivid portraiture. Nerses was a layman and was -raised to the pontificate in one day. He was then sent to Cćsarea to -be formally consecrated. - -[232] Professor Gelzer pertinently observes (Die Anfänge, etc., -p. 148) that the Armenian kings in pagan times had been in the -practice of placing their own near relatives in priestly offices, -and quotes Strabo to the effect that in the neighbouring provinces -of Cappadocia and Pontus the high priest was deuteros kata timęn -meta basilea, or second in rank after the king. On the other hand, -traces of Jewish custom are to be found in the existence of a second -priestly House in Armenia during the early period of Christianity, -who in a sense were rivals of the House of the Illuminator. I allude -to the House of Albianus. It must not be forgotten that there were -extensive settlements of Jews in Armenia at this period, brought -thither by the Armenian king Tigranes (Faustus, iv. 55). - -[233] Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. ix. 8. For the date see Von Gutschmid -(Kleine Schriften, iii. p. 412). - -[234] The doubts of Von Gutschmid would perhaps have been removed by -the more correct translation given by Professor Gelzer of the passage -relating to the journey in Agathangelus and by his editing of the -context. The passage should read, "By land and sea they proceeded with -haste until they reached the State of the Italians and the land of the -Dalmatians and arrived in the imperial city of the Romans." Dalmatia -is the prćfectura per Illyricum. The name of the bishop is given -in the text of Langlois as Sylvester, and as Eusebius in the Greek -translation. The best Armenian MS. also has Eusebius. The name -of Sylvester appears to have been substituted much later, when the -"imperial city of the Romans" was very naturally identified with Rome -and the prelate with the bishop of Rome. - -My friend Mr. F. C. Conybeare calls my attention to the interesting -circumstance that the Armenian equivalent for Latin is Dalmatian. Thus -in their Gospels it is said that the title King of the Jews was -inscribed on the cross in Hebrew, Greek, and in Dalmatian. - -[235] And yet the homoousion was not incorporated into the Armenian -Creed! But it does not appear that this omission was intentional. The -creed already in use was allowed to stand. I confess to a feeling of -astonishment, having regard to the unequivocal language in which -the author of the Life attests the acceptance of the Council; -but the canons could not have been much appreciated in Armenia at -the time if we are to credit Koriun's statement that he himself, -with Ghevond and Eznik, brought authentic copies of them to Armenia -in the fifth century (Biography of Mesrop in Langlois' Collection, -vol. ii. p. 12). Mr. F. C. Conybeare informs me that the Creed of Nice -was only communicated to the Armenian diaspora in Persia and Southern -Mesopotamia by the Katholikos Papken after the Council of Dvin, c. 490 -A.D. It was rejected by that diaspora as in contradiction with their -already established Ebionite or Adoptionist tenets (see Letter-book of -the Patriarchs, MS. of the Armenian Father, St. Anthony, in Stambul). - -Dr. Arshak Ter-Mikelean prints the Armenian and Nicene creeds -side by side and accompanies them with some interesting remarks -(Die armenische Kirche in ihren Beziehungen zur byzantinischen, -Leipzig, 1892, p. 22 seq.). The statement of Agathangelus (Life of -St. Gregory), that King Tiridates acted in concert with St. Gregory in -making certain additions to the canons must be received with caution, -although such additions do appear to have been actually made (see the -note of the Mekhitarists to the Italian translation of Agathangelus, -p. 196). His son, Chosroes II., appears to have come to the throne in -314. As neither Agathangelus nor Faustus gives us dates, and as the -most monstrous anachronisms occur in both treatises, one may do pretty -well what one likes with the chronology. I should even mistrust them -when they assign a given number of years for a particular period. In -the East at the present day ten years means more than one and less -than twenty years; and I see no reason to credit the old historians -with much greater precision of statement. That the Armenians took part -in the Council of Nice is attested by Agathangelus, Faustus, Moses -of Khorene, etc., and also by the list of signatures of participants -in the Council:--Armenić majoris Aristarces, Threnius Diosponti (Von -Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, iii. 415). But we may reasonably doubt -that either Tiridates or St. Gregory was alive at the time. - -[236] Lazar Pharpetzi, chs. x. and xi.; Moses of Khorene, iii. 36. - -[237] Moses of Khorene, iii. 10. The following chronology (which is -not that of Moses) is taken from Saint Martin (apud Lebeau, Hist. du -Bas-Empire). I attach to it a parallel list of the contemporary Greek -Emperors and a similar column for the Sasanian monarchs, which is -proudly filled by a single name. The date of Sapor II. rests on the -authority of Th. Nöldeke. - - - Armenian Arsakid Kings. - - Chosroes II. (the Little) 314-322 - Tiran 322-337 - Arshak 338-367 - Pap 369-374 - - - Roman Emperors. - - Death of Constantine 337 - Constantius 337-361 - Julian 361-363 - Valens 364-378 - Theodosius (the Great) 379-395 - - - Persian Sasanian Kings. - - Shapur II. (succeeds as an infant) 310-379 - - -[238] Faustus wrote c. A.D. 395-416. - -[239] Moses of Khorene (iii. 10) places the king at the head of a -Greek army. The patriotism of Faustus was stronger than his veracity, -and he maintains a discreet silence upon this circumstance. - -[240] The first statement in this sentence is all that we learn from -Faustus; the two last rest on the authority of Moses of Khorene, who -assigns the death of Verthanes to the third year of Tiran. Aristakes, -the younger son of St. Gregory, and his successor in the functions -of the pontifical office during the closing years of the life of -the saint, was assassinated, apparently by a Roman prefect, at an -uncertain date. - -[241] In A.D. 339-340, according to Th. Nöldeke (article Persia: -Sasanians, in Ency. Brit.). - -[242] The peace of A.D. 363. - -[243] Agathangelus, Life of St. Gregory, sec. 154. - -[244] Faustus, iv. 3. - -[245] Mr. F. C. Conybeare has kindly communicated to me the following -interesting note to this passage:--"These communities were really -cities of refuge, imitated from the old Jewish legislation; and the -Armenian monarch's aim was a wise one, namely, to set limits to the -blood-feuds and vendettas of his subjects." - -[246] I adopt the ingenious suggestion of Professor Gelzer (Die -Anfänge, etc., p. 155) that the dioceses of Korduk and Aghdznik were -included in the provinces ceded to Persia under Jovian's treaty in -363. Their bishops would have taken refuge in the dominions of the -king and be receiving his support. The sequence of events in Faustus -is against this hypothesis; but that is not of much account. - -[247] We know from Ammianus Marcellinus (xxx. 1) that King Pap himself -died in 374. - -[248] Professor Gelzer, whose admirable essay I have freely used in the -composition of this paragraph, adduces evidence from the correspondence -of Basil to show that the advisers of King Pap proceeded cautiously -along the path which they had chosen. - -[249] Such is the translation given by Professor Gelzer of the passage -in Faustus iv. 14. - -[250] I am indebted to Mr. F. C. Conybeare for the following -note to this passage:--The Armenian alphabet was imposed on Sahak -(Isaac the Great) by the Persian Government as a political device to -estrange the Armenians both from Greeks and from Syrians. The only -historical account is that of Anania of Shirak (unedited chronicle in -an uncial MS. at Mush), who relates that the twenty-nine consonants -were "arranged in order" by Daniel, a Syrian philosopher, and sent -(during the reign of Theodosius the Less) to the Armenian Satrap -Vakortsh by Viram Shapu the king by hand of the Elder Abel. The seven -vowels were still wanted, and Mesrop received these from Hayek, a -noble of Taron. Stephanus, a scribe of Samosata, incorporated these -seven vowels among the consonants. - -[251] Nor at the Councils of Constantinople and of Ephesus. - -[252] It appears that this formula was added to the Trisagion by the -Synod of Vagharshapat (Ter-Mikelean, Die armenische Kirche, etc., -p. 47). - -[253] The subject is fully discussed by Ter-Mikelean (op. cit. pp. 52 -seq., and cp. pp. 70 and 89). - -[254] My reader may consider that I have been dealing too largely -in ancient history. My excuse is that the position remains much the -same at the present day. The differences between the Armenian and the -Greek Churches are well summarised in a note by the Mekhitarists to the -famous address delivered by Nerses of Lambron in the twelfth century -to the council assembled at Romkla (Orazione sinodale di S. Nierses -Lampronense, Venice, 1812, p. 188). The Greek Church demanded that -the Armenian Church should:--1. Anathematise all those who assert that -Christ has one nature. 2. Confess Jesus Christ in two natures. 3. Not -address the Trisagion to the Second Person of the Trinity. 4. Celebrate -the Dominical feasts in conformity with the Greek Church. 5. Prepare -the Chrism or Holy Oil with oil alone. 6. Celebrate the Holy Communion -with leavened bread and with water in the wine. 8. Receive the -fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh OEcumenical Councils. 9. Receive -the nomination of the Armenian patriarch from the Greek Emperor. The -attitude of the two Churches towards one another is regretfully but -most pithily summed up by the same Nerses of Lambron. The Greeks -thanked God that they were not like the Armenians; and the Armenians -thanked God that they were not like the Greeks. - -It has been generally supposed that the Armenians subscribed the -Councils of Constantinople and Ephesus; but I must repeat that this -does not appear to have actually been the case (see Ter-Mikelean, -op. cit.). - -Apart from dogma and ritual, the traveller notices a conspicuous -difference between the Greek and the Armenian Church at the present -day. You will not find eikons in Armenian houses, while no Russian -house is without them. As regards the Church of Rome, the dogmatic -breach is even wider than with the Greek Church; in common with the -latter the Armenian Church rejects the Filioque. And of course it -denies the infallibility of the Pope. - -[255] See especially Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, Paris, 1717, -vol. ii. p. 335; Parrot, Reise zum Ararat, p. 83, and passim. - -The ingenious botanist, Tournefort, was tickled by the -question--suggested by the tobacco fields through which he -passed--whether the fragrant weed was included among the plants of -the terrestrial paradise. Owing to the absence of olive trees in this -region, he is puzzled by the story of the dove and the olive branch. - -[256] For the intercourse of the Armenians with the Jews I would -refer my reader to Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. x. pp. 586 seq. - -[257] Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase, vol. iii. p. 448. - -[258] Ibid. p. 419; and compare the account of this city given by -Moses of Khorene. - -[259] See Ouseley's Travels, vol. iii. p. 450; Ker Porter's Travels, -vol. ii. p. 640; Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. p. 446. Ouseley and Ker -Porter thought that they were the remains of Armavir. Dubois probably -goes astray in assigning them to Tigranocerta. - -[260] Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. p. 435 seq. On a hill at the -confluence of the Arpa Chai with the Araxes, and on the western side of -the former river, this traveller found relics of the ancient fortress -of Ervandakert. It communicated with the Araxes by a subterranean -passage. Ervandashat was situated on the eastern bank, a little higher -up the stream. - -[261] At Ervandakert and at Karakala, according to the testimony of -Dubois. See also Ker Porter (loc. cit.) for the relics of the bridge -at the latter place. - -[262] Dubois, op. cit. vol. iii. pp. 421 and 449. Compare also Von -Behagel's account (apud Parrot, op. cit.). - -[263] Probably Sembat II. (A.D. 977-89), the monarch who laid the -foundations of the cathedral at Ani. - -[264] Ker Porter, op. cit. vol. i. p. 178; Ritter, Erdkunde, -vol. x. p. 449. - -[265] John Katholikos. He has been translated by Saint-Martin (Paris, -1841, a posthumous work). His History, which for a large part is -a history of his own times, does not quite bring us down to the -constitution of Ani into a royal residence. - -[266] The vanity of the Byzantine court denied them the actual -title of king; and the imperial author, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, -translates the Persian distinction which they afterwards acquired, -that of Shahanshah, by the term archôn archontôn. - -[267] For the Artsruni and the Bagratuni I will refer my reader to -Saint-Martin (Mémoires sur l'Arménie, Paris, 1818, vol. i. pp. 418 -seq.); for the Georgian Bagratuni to Brosset (Histoire de la Géorgie, -Histoire ancienne, St. Petersburg, 1849, Addition IX.). - -[268] Dulaurier (Recherches sur la Chronologie Arménienne, Paris, -1859, pp. 227 seq.). - -[269] Sparapet. This and the other Armenian titles of the age had -come down from Arsakid times, having survived the destruction of -monarchy. A family retained its title even when the functions which -it designated were no longer capable of fulfilment (Saint-Martin, -Mémoires, vol. i. p. 420). - -[270] The dates which I have taken from Chamchean's History of Armenia -I have labelled C. Some are taken from the original work in Armenian; -others from the abridged edition translated into English and entitled -History of Armenia by Father Michael Chamich, translated by J. Avdall, -Calcutta, 1827, 2 vols. 8vo. Those marked D. have been fixed by -Dulaurier (op. cit.). Saint-Martin is my authority for some dates. - -[271] Thomas Artsruni specifies the length of the various stages in -the career of Ashot. See Dulaurier (op. cit. pp. 266 seq.). The date -861 corresponds with the last year of the caliph Mutawakil and the -first of the reign of Muntasir. Lane Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties, -London, 1894. - -[272] Kirakos, quoted by Dulaurier (op. cit.). - -[273] For discussions of the site of Bagaran (Pakaran) see Ritter -(Erdkunde, vol. x. p. 449), and also Abich (Aus kaukasischen Ländern, -Vienna, 1896, p. 203). - -[274] Chamchean and Saint-Martin place the death of Ashot in -A.D. 889. But see Dulaurier (op. cit. p. 365). - -[275] The Tahirids became practically independent in Khorasan -A.D. 820-872; they were dispossessed by the Saffarids of Fars and -Seistan, A.D. 867-903. - -[276] Azerbaijan is, of course, the frontier province of Persia on -the side of Armenia, having for capital the city of Tabriz. - -[277] Saint-Martin, following Chamchean, attributes another motive -to this embassy. Sembat was desirous of severing his connection -with the governor of Azerbaijan and of dealing directly with the -caliph. Saint-Martin adds that the Caliph Muktafi, who had just -succeeded (A.D. 902), granted the request. - -[278] Eugčne Boré (Correspondance et Mémoires, Paris, 1840, -vol. ii. p. 28). The place is situated in the neighbourhood of the -town of Erzinjan, and the historian mentions the adjacent village -of Tortan, which still appears to exist and to be known under that -name. I have not been able to trace it upon any map; but the monastery -of Surb Lusavorich and Mount Sepuh, the modern Kohanam Dagh, will be -found indicated upon my map, accompanying this work. - -[279] Chamchean accounts for this change of policy towards the -legitimate king by supposing that Yusuf wished to conciliate him -prior to revolting from the caliph. - -[280] I adopt the colouring of John Katholikos. Among the many -opprobrious terms under which he alludes to Yusuf are the following: -second Pharaoh, prince of wild beasts, man-eater, astute serpent, -Satan, foul-breathed basilisk. Such is the language of clerical -writers in every age. - -[281] John Katholikos, ch. clxxxv. - -[282] Ibid. ch. clxxxvii. - -[283] Samuel of Ani, in Migne, Patrologić cursus completus, series -Grćca, vol. xix. p. 718. - -[284] Matthew of Edessa, translated by Dulaurier (Paris, 1858). - -[285] Samuel of Ani ap. Migne, op. cit. vol. xix. p. 718. - -[286] Matthew of Edessa (op. cit. iii. p. 2) gives the date as -A.D. 959-960. He makes the event contemporary with the expedition -of the imperial forces against Crete, which started in 960 and was -continued during 961. Saint-Martin (op. cit. vol. i. p. 364) assigns -the Armenian victory to the latter year, and Chamchean to the year 962. - -[287] Matthew of Edessa, op. cit. pp. 14 seq. - -[288] Vardan. See Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, St. Petersburg, 1860, p. 102. - -[289] Samuel of Ani ap. Migne, op. cit. p. 721. - -[290] Ibid. - -[291] Matthew of Edessa, chs. xxii. and xxiii.; and Asoghik, iii. 38, -quoted by Dulaurier. - -[292] Samuel of Ani ap. Migne, op. cit. p. 723. - -[293] Samuel of Ani (ibid.) and Asoghik. - -[294] Samuel of Ani (ibid.). - -[295] Samuel of Ani (ibid. p. 720) and Chamchean. According to Samuel -of Ani, it was in A.D. 971 that the patriarch established the seat -of his spiritual government at Arghina. - -[296] Aristakes of Lastivert (op. cit. ii. pp. 358 seq.) and Matthew -of Edessa (op. cit. viii. p. 6). - -[297] Matthew of Edessa, op. cit. x. p. 8. - -[298] Matthew of Edessa and Aristakes of Lastivert. - -[299] When Senekerim of Van ceded his kingdom in A.D. 1021 it had been -harried for twenty-two years. Such is the statement of Samuel of Ani -(op. cit. p. 723). It is true he attributes these incursions to the -"Saracens"; but he must mean the Turks, unless we are to discredit -altogether the detailed statement of Matthew of Edessa (ch. xxxviii.), -that it was a horde of Turks that defeated the forces of Senekerim. I -shall not attempt to reconcile the Armenian accounts with the -information which we have received from other sources concerning the -early incursions of the Seljuks. The Byzantine writers do not appear -to mention the invasions of 1021 and preceding years, or the invasion -of 1042 (Brosset ap. Lebeau, Hist. du Bas Empire, vol. xiv. p. 353). - -[300] Matthew of Edessa and Aristakes of Lastivert. - -[301] Samuel of Ani, Thomas Artsruni (quoted by Dulaurier, Recherches -sur la Chronologie Arménienne, pp. 282 seq.), and Chamchean. I -prefer to translate oppida by villages and urbes by towns in the -Latin version of Samuel of Ani, feeling sure that these terms, as -understood in modern times, will be more in accordance with the facts. - -[302] Vardan (quoted by Dulaurier, notes to Matthew of Edessa, -op. cit. p. 378), and Matthew of Edessa, ch. xi. If Toghrul Bey was -over seventy years old when he died in A.H. 455, he would be in the -flower of his age at the time of this expedition. - -[303] Matthew of Edessa, ch. lx. p. 71; and Chamchean, vol. ii. pp. 127 -seq. - -[304] Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxix. p. 80. See also Lebeau, -op. cit. vol. xiv. p. 351. - -[305] The campaigns of this period are narrated by Matthew of Edessa -(ch. lxxiii. pp. 83 seq.) and Aristakes (op. cit. pp. 268-82 and -p. 285), as well as by the Greek and Arab historians. The subject is -discussed by Saint-Martin (Mémoires, vol. ii. pp. 201 seq.). - -[306] Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxxviii. pp. 98 seq., and Aristakes, -op. cit. 1863, ch. xvi. p. 289. Melazkert owed its deliverance largely -to the intrepidity of a Frankish adventurer. It did not fall to the -Turks until A.D. 1069, when it was taken after a siege of a single -day by Alp Arslan (Matthew of Edessa, ch. cii.). - -[307] Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxxxi. p. 109. - -[308] Ibid. pp. 107, 108, and Aristakes, op. cit. 1864, ch. xxi. - -[309] Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxxxiv. pp. 111 seq. - -[310] See Aristakes, ch. xviii., and Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxxxvi. - -[311] We are informed in the History of Thomas Artsruni that Senekerim -and the Artsrunian princes were accompanied in their emigration by a -population of 14,000 males, besides women and children. See Dulaurier, -Recherches, etc., p. 284. Chamchean (vol. ii. p. 113) increases this -estimate to 400,000 souls, I know not upon what authority. - -[312] Chamchean, vol. ii. p. 104; Saint-Martin, Mémoires, -vol. i. p. 366; Brosset ap. Lebeau, vol. xiv. pp. 184 seq. Chamchean -and Saint-Martin place this expedition in A.D. 999, Lebeau in 991, -while Aristakes assigns it to the year 1001. The latter attributes -the capture of Arjish to Nikephorus, the Greek governor of Vaspurakan -appointed by Basil. - -[313] Aristakes in op. cit. ch. ii., together with the authorities -collected in the accompanying notes by M. Prudhomme. Chamchean -attributes the cession of the kingdom of Ani to the terror which -had been inspired by the Seljuk invasions. Basil's policy of taking -over the hereditary possessions of the Armenian and Georgian princes -and giving them seats in other parts of the Empire was continued -by his brother Constantine. See Aristakes, op. cit., third series, -vol. xvi. pp. 51 seq. - -[314] Samuel of Ani, op. cit. p. 723; and Lebeau, -vol. xiv. p. 249. Aristakes is our authority for a curious story -respecting the adventures of this testament (ch. x.). - -[315] Samuel of Ani; Matthew of Edessa; Aristakes; Kedrenus. The -Byzantine historians omit the campaign of 1041, and maintain silence -upon the disagreeable topic of the deception practised upon King Gagik. - -[316] Aristakes, ch. xvii. - -[317] Matthew of Edessa, chs. lxxxiv. and lxxxv. - -[318] Aristakes, ch. xvii. - -[319] Matthew of Edessa; Samuel of Ani; Aristakes. The king of Kars -gave over his realm to the Empire shortly after the fall of Ani, -taking in exchange the fortress of Tsamentav near Amasia in Asia Minor -(Matthew of Edessa, ch. lxxxviii.). - -[320] Pp. 337 and 362. - -[321] Kedrenus calls him ruler of Tibion (= Tivin or Dvin) and parts -of Persarmenia about the river Araxes (edit. Bekker, vol. ii. pp. 556 -seq.). See Matthew of Edessa (ch. x. with Dulaurier's note, and -ch. cii. p. 165) and Aristakes (ch. x.). For the Beni-Cheddad see -Saint-Martin (Mémoires, vol. i. p. 433; ii. p. 235) and Brosset (Ruines -d'Ani, pp. 114 and 126, and Hist. de la Géorgie, Hist. ancienne, -p. 343). Abulsevar marched with Alp Arslan in 1069 against the Empire -(Matthew of Edessa, ch. cii.). His activity therefore ranges over a -considerable period. - -[322] Samuel of Ani. - -[323] Samuel of Ani; Matthew of Edessa; the Georgian annalist, quoted -by Brosset (Hist. de la Géorgie, p. 369). - -[324] Samuel of Ani and Matthew of Edessa. - -[325] Samuel of Ani. - -[326] Samuel of Ani and Matthew of Edessa. - -[327] Samuel of Ani; the continuation of Matthew of Edessa; the -Georgian annalist in Brosset (Hist. de la Géorgie). - -[328] Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, p. 131, and Voyage Archéologique, -livraison 1, rapport 1, p. 94. - -[329] The Georgian annalist, ap. Brosset, Hist. de la Géorgie. - -[330] The various emigrations of the inhabitants of Ani are -exhibited by Minas Bejeshkean (Travels in Lehastan (Poland) and other -Countries inhabited by Armenian Emigrants from Ani, Venice, 1830 (in -Armenian)). His account is summarised by Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, pp. 138 -seq.) and by Ritter (Erdkunde, vol. x. pp. 597 seq.). For the code of -the Armenians of Lemberg see Sitzungsberichte der phil.-hist. Klasse -der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften, Vienna, 1862, pp. 255 seq. - -[331] Let me catalogue in this place the works of previous travellers -having reference to Ani which I have collected. I shall annex the date -of visit whenever I have been able to ascertain it. I have purposely -omitted works written in Russian or in Armenian. The full titles will -be found in the bibliography attached to Vol. II. - -(1) 1621, Poser (Reyse, etc., Jena, 1675, 4o). His account is confined -to a few sentences. He mentions the existence of 200 churches in Ani -and the immediate neighbourhood. (2) Tavernier (edit. Paris, 1679, -Livre Premier, p. 24). A few misleading sentences. (3) 1817, Ker Porter -(Travels in Georgia, etc., London, 1821-22, vol. i. pp. 169 seq.). A -fantastic description. (4) 1836, Hamilton (Researches in Asia Minor, -etc., London, 1842, vol. i. pp. 197 seq.). The best of these older -notices. (5) 1837, Wilbraham (Travels, etc., London, 1839, pp. 287 -seq.). The hasty but vivid impressions of a tourist, from which -the following is an extract: "The shapeless mounds of Babylon are -like the skeleton; but the deserted, yet still standing city (Ani) -resembles the corpse whose breath has fled, but which still retains -the semblance of life." (6) 1837, Abbott (Notes of a Tour, Journal -R.G.S., 1842, vol. xii. pp. 215 seq.). Not important. (7) 1838, -Eugčne Boré (Corr. et Mém., Paris, 1840, vol. ii. p. 2) mentions a -mémoire in which he was about to resume the results of his seven days' -sojourn in Ani, during which he copied inscriptions. The mémoire has -been lost. (8) 1839, Texier (Description de l'Arménie, etc., Paris, -1842, folio, pp. 93-116), with a plan, which is not oriented, and ten -fine plates. Texier's account is both defective and unsatisfactory; -but it is the first detailed description. I must warn my reader -against accepting his history; he seems to confuse Timur with Alp -Arslan in some places. (9) 1844, Herrmann Abich (Bull. hist.-phil. de -l'Acad. de Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 1845, vol. ii. pp. 369-76, -with notice by Brosset; Aus kaukasischen Ländern, Reisebriefe, -Vienna, 1896, pp. 176-200). The distinguished geologist devoted four -days to the study of the ruins and drew out a plan of the site. His -full account, for which consult the latter of the two references, -had not been published, so far as I could ascertain, at the time -of my own journey. But Brosset had already published the plan, -the substantial accuracy of which I was able to test upon the spot -(Voyage Archéologique, St. Petersburg, 1849-51, Atlas), and the -inscriptions copied by Abich (in the same work, livr. 1, rapp. 3, -pp. 86-111). (10) 1846, Muravieff, quoted by Khanikoff ap. Brosset -(Voy. Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, pp. 121-52). (11) 1847, Nerses Sargisean -of the Society of the Mekhitarists of Venice copied a number of -the inscriptions. See Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, St. Petersburg, 1860, -p. 5), and especially Brosset's article in the Bull. Acad. Sciences -St. P., 1862, vol. iv. pp. 255-67. (12) 1848, Khanikoff copied the -Mussulman inscriptions. See Brosset (Voy. Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, -pp. 121-52). (13) 1850, Kästner (Lieut. Julius) was commissioned by -Prince Vorontsoff, Governor of the Caucasus, to explore Ani, and spent -forty-four days within its walls. He collected fifty inscriptions -and made numerous drawings, which have been made use of by Brosset -(Ruines d'Ani, pp. 4 seq.). (14) 18--, Ussher (Journey from London -to Persepolis, London, 1865, pp. 243-45). A sketchy description. - -The whole subject has been fully treated, but unfortunately at second -hand, by Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, St. Pet. 1860, and Bull. Acad. Sciences -St. P., 1862, vol. iv. pp. 255-67). The traveller is deeply indebted -to Brosset for these two valuable treatises. Fergusson has devoted a -few pages to Ani in the first volume of his History of Architecture -(see pp. 473-75). - -I ought not to close this list without referring to two works in -Armenian which are of special value: Sargis Dgalaleantz (Journey in -Great Armenia, Tiflis, 1842 and 1858, 8vo), and Alishan (Description of -Great Armenia, Venice, 1855). Both these works contain accounts of Ani. - -[332] This ravine is the Armenian Tsaghkotzadzor or Valley of the -Flower-garden. - -[333] The moat may have united the waters of the Alaja and the Arpa -Chai. See Ruines d'Ani, p. 60. - -[334] See Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, pp. 18 and 144. It may belong to -the Tartar period (Mongol) and have reference to the restoration -of Ani after the earthquake of A.D. 1319. Texier (op. cit. p. 94) -commits himself to the statement that it is in Arabic characters; -but see Khanikoff, op. cit. p. 135. - -[335] On the authority of Samuel of Ani. See supra, p. 354. - -[336] See Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, pp. 16, 17, 58, 59; and Voyage Arch., -livr. 1, rapp. 3, p. 143. One of these inscriptions indicates that -the name of the reigning prince of the Beni-Cheddad in A.D. 1160, -just before the Georgian conquest, was Phatl (Fathlun). Several -belong to the reign of Thamar, and exhibit the name of the Georgian -ruler, Zakare-Shahanshah, who is styled "chief of the mandatories" -and son of Sarkis Shahanshah. See Brosset (Voyage Arch., livr. 1, -rapp. 1, pp. 92-94, and Ruines d'Ani, p. 18) for an explanation of -this title. Two of these inscriptions of Zakare belong to the years -1206 and 1215 respectively. - -[337] Ani is said to have contained not less than 100,000 inhabitants -in the eleventh century. Yet the circumference of the city has been -estimated at not more than 3 1/2 miles. I am inclined to think that -a large proportion of the population lived without the walls. - -[338] The conjecture which Brosset throws out that the mosque referred -to may be the cathedral is not, I think, a happy one. For this minaret -see especially Khanikoff (op. cit. pp. 135-36), Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, -p. 31), and Abich (Aus kauk. Länd. vol. i. p. 191). The inscription -describes Kei-Sultan as "son of Mahmud, son of Chawir, son of Manuchar, -Cheddadi." Kei-Sultan is not otherwise known. We must conclude that -the Beni-Cheddad were still powerful in Ani as late as the end of -the twelfth century. - -[339] The dimensions of the interior are as follows, according to -my measurements:--Length, 105 feet 6 in. (viz. 76 feet 6 in. to the -daďs of the apse, and 29 feet from the daďs to the extremity of the -recess); breadth, 65 feet 6 in.; breadth of apse, 29 feet 7 in. - -[340] Texier reminds us that at the time when this cathedral was built -(early eleventh century) the Romanesque style was universal in Europe -(op. cit. p. 112). Yet in this building we have the characteristics -of a style which might be found in Southern Europe in the thirteenth -century--the pointed arch, the coupled piers. See also Fergusson, -op. cit. p. 473. - -[341] I must caution my reader against the drawing of this apse in -plate ix. of Brosset's Atlas to the Ruines d'Ani. - -[342] The cathedral has been recently constituted into quite a little -museum, all fragments of sculptured stone found at Ani being preserved -there. I photographed one of the most remarkable, which displays the -familiar subject of the eagle and the hare (Fig. 75). Another contains -a bas-relief of three saints and was probably placed above a doorway. - -[343] Brosset, Voyage Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, pp. 93-95, and Ruines -d'Ani, pp. 22-28. - -[344] Siunik was one of the large provinces into which Armenia was -divided. Samuel of Ani places the completion of the cathedral in -Arm. era 457 = A.D. 1008. But he may refer to a stage which was not -quite the ultimate one. - -[345] Brosset identifies this Aron with the Aron-Vestes of the -Byzantines, who was sent to these countries about the year 1042, -was commander of the imperial forces, became governor of Vaspurakan, -Ani being attached to his jurisdiction, and was still in possession -of his office in 1048 (Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 93). - -[346] I am not aware that any inscription mentions the name of -the architect. Sic vos non vobis! But Asoghik tells us that it was -Tirdat or Tiridates, an Armenian architect who is reputed to have -restored St. Sophia at Constantinople after its partial destruction -by an earthquake. - -[347] My measurements of the interior are:--Length, 41 feet (of -which 15 feet is occupied by the apse measured from the daďs to -the extremity of the recess); breadth, 26 feet. Texier mentions an -adjacent baptistery (?). - -[348] See especially Texier, Muravieff, and Abich's Aus -kauk. Länd. vol. i. pp. 198-99. - -[349] The inscription has been translated by Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, -pp. 145-48). - -[350] Brosset (ibid. p. 15). I was able to verify the date, about -which Brosset expresses some doubt (ibid. p. 148). - -[351] For these two ruins see also Abich, op. cit. vol. i. pp. 196-97. - -[352] For these inscriptions see Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, pp. 11-13. He -reminds us of the importance of the date 1320 (Arm. era. 769) as being -the year after the great earthquake. I must take this opportunity -to caution my reader against accepting the tradition mentioned by -Muravieff (ap. Brosset, Voyage Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, p. 127) that -the little chapel was built in A.D. 1000 by King Gagik I. I may also -mention that we could discover no traces of the guardhouse adjacent -to the bridge (Ruines d'Ani, p. 10). - -[353] Khanikoff ap. Brosset, Voyage Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, p. 138. - -[354] Ibid. p. 138, and Ruines d'Ani, p. 30. - -[355] Ibid. p. 140, and Ruines d'Ani, p. 31. - -[356] Muravieff ap. Brosset, Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 129. - -[357] Mr. Marr has published an account of his discoveries of new -epigraphical material in Armenia in the Zapiski of the Eastern Section -of the Imp. Russian Arch. Society, vol. viii., 1893, pp. 69-103. He -contributes four new inscriptions from Ani. I have not been able to -find any account of his excavations. - -[358] The interior of the building which forms the subject of my -illustration is given by Brosset in plate xiv. of the Atlas to -the Ruines d'Ani. The detail and ornament there portrayed do not -correspond with reality. The devils are more or less imaginary, and -there appears to be only one of them in the actual design, viz. on -the south wall, the first pilaster as you enter from the west--in low -relief. Brosset styles this interior "a hall in the citadel"; but the -following considerations are against this view:--1. It is oriented -east; 2. It obviously had an apse; 3. Above the apse you see the form -of a cross sculptured on the face of the arch which still remains. - -The bas-reliefs are given by Brosset, plates xxxv. and xxxvii. The -former (representing the archer) was found in the valley of the -Tsaghkotz with an inscription in Armenian, "Christ have pity on the -lady Shushan, thy servant." This personage may be identified with the -wife of the Pahlavid Grigor, mother of Vahram. - -[359] This building must be the subject of plate xiii. in Brosset's -Atlas to the Ruines. - -[360] The rock with the chapel is described by Abich -(op. cit. vol. i. p. 192). It was strongly fortified. - -[361] It is not exactly symmetrical, the measurement from west to -east being nearly 31 feet. - -[362] Brosset translates, "J'ai construit ce lieu de repos." But it -surely cannot refer to the chapel itself, which, as we have seen, -has inscriptions of the mother of Aplgharib, and must therefore have -been in existence before 1040. Brosset therefore supposes that the -restoration of the church is alluded to (Ruines d'Ani, pp. 37 and -106). For a more probable version of the inscription see Alishan, -Shirak, p. 53. - -[363] For the inscriptions see Brosset (Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 91, -and Ruines d'Ani, pp. 36 seq.). Aplgharib was brother to Vahram. I -could find no trace of the curious figure found upon one of the -windows which Brosset refers to (pp. 38 seq.). On the other hand, -I was able to identify the two inscriptions last mentioned. - -[364] Kirakos ap. Dulaurier, Recherches sur la Chron. Arm. p. 280. - -[365] Asoghik ap. Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, p. 106. - -[366] Abich confuses the sites of these two monuments in his -Reisebriefe (op. cit.). - -[367] Such is the translation of this inscription given by the editor -of Aristakes of Lastivert. Brosset appears to have made a palpable -error (Ruines d'Ani, p. 21, inscription of Christaphor). - -[368] Probably the inscription of this same Aplgharib given by Brosset -(Ruines d'Ani, p. 28) belongs to this chapel. It runs thus:--"Under -the pontificate of Ter Petros and the reign of Sembat son of Gagik -Shahanshah in the year 485 (A.D. 1036) I, the Marzpan Aplgharib, son -of the prince Grigor, grandson of Apughamir and brother of Vahram -and Vasak, constructed at great expense this Surb-Phrkich in the -metropolis of Ani." This inscription would establish as a fact that -the chapel itself was dedicated to the Redeemer. - -[369] A perfect labyrinth of confusion has been brought into -existence by the attribution of the east front of the portal of the -church of the Apostles to this castle or palace (see plate xix. of -Brosset's Atlas). Happily I am able to correct the error. It has been -instrumental in leading Brosset to assign all the inscriptions found -in that church to this castle. The name "palace of the Pahlavids" -is purely imaginary. - -[370] Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, p. 51, and plate xxxvi. No. 3 of the -Atlas. It has been wrongly attributed to the castle. - -[371] Abich describes this chapel as "a magnificent church in the form -of a Greek cross with a central rotunda and four large semicircular -niches at the sides" (op. cit. vol. i. p. 190). - -[372] See Brosset (Voyage Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, pp. 86, 100, 101, -106, 109; and Ruines d'Ani, pp. 48-52). - -[373] This is the chapel which Abich names "Kirche der Maria -Verkündigung" (op. cit. vol. i. p. 193). - -[374] Abich, op. cit. vol. i. p. 199. - -[375] See the Georgian annalist translated by Brosset (Hist. de -la Géorgie). - -[376] I should be sorry to have to swear to this statement. - -[377] Voyage Arch. livr. 1, rapp. 3, pp. 96, 107, 109-10. - -[378] Telfer, Crimea and Transcaucasia, vol. i. p. 216. The chamber -at Geghard is known as the Rusukna sanctuary, and was completed in -A.D. 1288 (Arm. era 737) (ibid.). - -[379] An inscription of A.D. 1215, much mutilated, seems to infer this -(Brosset, Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 97). - -[380] Brosset, Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 98. The dimensions of these -various apartments are:--No. 1, length, 29 feet 4 inches; breadth, 29 -feet; No. 2, 27 feet by 27 feet 2 inches; No. 3, hall of the synod, -18 1/2 paces by 18 paces. The reader will note that the architects -avoided exact squares. In this they were governed by a right instinct. - -[381] Brosset, Voyage Arch. loc. cit. p. 99. Another derivation is -from the Greek word for a priest, iereus (see M. Prudhomme, note to -Aristakes, ch. ii.). - -[382] Asoghik ap. Brosset (Ruines d'Ani, p. 137). - -[383] Ruines d'Ani, p. 137. - -[384] Ibid. p. 61. - -[385] Texier (op. cit. p. 112):--"La façade de cette église (the -cathedral) construite avec une simplicité remarquable ... peut ętre -regardée comme le type de l'architecture allemande du moyen âge. Il -est facile d'expliquer comment, dans toute cette contrée, on retrouve -le dôme ŕ toit conique particulier ŕ l'architecture arménienne. En -effet, aprčs la prise d'Ani par les Mussulmans, un grand nombre de -citoyens abandonnaient la ville...." - -[386] Abich, Geologische Forschungen in den kaukasischen Ländern, -Vienna, 1882, part ii. pp. 47 seq. Das Plateau von Kars. - -[387] Strabo, xi. c. 528. - -[388] Ptolemy, v. 13, pages 135 and 136 of the folio edition. The -identification with one of these towns is generally assumed; but in -view of the statement of Evliya, noted below, that in his time there -existed three towns of this name, it cannot be regarded as certain. - -[389] to kastron to Kars, Const. Porphyr. De adm. imp. cap. 44. - -[390] See Chapter XVIII. p. 353 and p. 364; and Saint-Martin, Mémoires -sur l'Arménie, vol. i. p. iii. Tsamentav was the name of the appanage -received in exchange. It was situated in the Cilician Taurus. - -[391] Koch, Reise im pontischen Gebirge, Weimar, 1846, p. 462. - -[392] Travels of Evliya, translated by Von Hammer, vol. ii. p. 181. The -passage runs: "Eight hours further to the east we reach the frontier -fortress of the Ottomans, the castle of Karss. There are three towns of -that name; one is in Silefka, the Karss of Karatashlik; the second the -Karss of Mera'ash, and the last that of Dúdemán, which is the present -one." I am ignorant of the locality assigned to the first mentioned. - -[393] The name Vanand is said by Moses of Khorene (ii. 6) to be -derived from that of the chieftain of a horde of Bulgarians who settled -there. Now that Moses has been assigned to the eighth century of our -era the statement need not surprise us. - -[394] Von Hammer, Geschichte des osm. Reiches, vol. viii. p. 58. - -[395] Uschakoff, Geschichte der Feldzüge, 1828, 1829, Leipzig, 1838, -part i. p. 194. - -[396] Uschakoff, op. cit. i. pp. 191 seq. - -[397] Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars, London, 1856; Lake, -Kars and Our Captivity in Russia, London, 1856. - -[398] According to Sandwith (op. cit. p. 286) no less than 6300 -Russians were buried by the besieged after the grand assault on -Takhmas. Loris Melikoff informed the Daily News Correspondent in -1877 that during the operations of 1855, at which he himself had been -present, the Russians lost more than 8000 men, killed or disabled. - -[399] Loris Melikoff contented himself with making a strong -demonstration against the forts on the left bank, and directed his -main attack against the Karadagh and the forts in the plain. It was -completely successful, having been undertaken at night. The Turks had -concentrated their forces on the heights overlooking the left bank -and might probably have gone on holding them after the capture of the -town. But the Commander lost heart; the cunning Armenian who organised -the victory left him an open door, and he took to his heels. I think -one must regard these heights as practically impregnable, if held by -a force well supplied with artillery, provisions, and water. - -In 1877 the garrison was 26,000 strong, augmented to an even higher -figure by the townsmen. The attacking force seems to have been about -equal in number. Kars fell on the night of the 17th of November. See -Daily News Correspondence, London, 1878; Norman, Armenia and the -Campaign of 1877, London, n.d.; Étude critique des opérations en -Turquie d'Asie pendant la guerre en 1877-78 d'aprčs des documents -officiels, par un officier supérieur Turc (Constantinople and Leipzic, -1896). - -[400] Ussher, Journey from London to Persepolis, London, 1865, p. 238. - -[401] Ker Porter (1819), Travels, etc., vol. ii. p. 648. - -[402] Wilbraham, Travels, etc., London, 1839, pp. 294, 314; Koch, -Reise im pontischen Gebirge, Weimar, 1846, p. 460. - -[403] I may cite Brant (1835), Hamilton (1836), Abbott (1837), Consul -Taylor (1868)--the last being an unpublished report. Taylor estimates -2000 houses, of which 200 are Christian and the rest Moslem. - -[404] Travels of Evliya, translated by Von Hammer, London, 1850, -vol. ii. p. 182. - -[405] Samuel of Ani, in Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, series -Grćca, vol. xix. p. 718. "Abasus, Sembati filius, mirae magnificentiae -templum excitat cathedrale in urbe Carsa." - -[406] Brosset, Ruines d'Ani, p. 8. - -[407] Abich, Geologische Forschungen in kaukasischen Ländern, Vienna, -1882, vol. ii. p. 145, and Map I. He measures from the western -foot of the Ala Dagh below the village of Kalabashi in an easterly -direction. See also his various measurements (ibid. pp. 376, 377). - -[408] By my own instruments. - -[409] The bed of the river at the ford has an elevation of 3900 feet -according to my barometers. Abich's readings are as follows:--Bank of -the river below the village of Changly, above Kagyzman, 3932 feet; -below the village of Kers, below Kagyzman, 3671 feet. The elevation -of Kagyzman is 4621 feet. Evliya, who travelled in the middle of the -seventeenth century, furnishes the following account of the place:-- - -"The castle of Kaghzemán being situated on the Kiblah side of the -Aras is reckoned to be on the frontier of Azerbeiján, but belongs -to the Ottoman government of Karss. It is named after its builder, -one of the daughters of Núshirván. It was taken out of the hands of -Uzún Hassan by Sháh Ismail, and then submitted to Sultán Súleimán. It -is the seat of a Sanjak Beg whose khass amounts to 200,000 aspers, -9 ziámets, 178 timárs: 900 feudal militia, a judge appointed with 150 -aspers, and a garrison of 300 men, who are paid by the impost on salt; -the salt mines, and a quarry of mill-stones, are on the west side of -the castle. The mill-stones of Persia and Rúm come from Kaghzemán; -the borax of the goldsmiths, barbers' whetting-stones, and the common -whetting-stones are extracted from the mines of Kaghzemán; in two -places gold and silver are found, but as the product was exceeded by -the expenses they were abandoned; there are altogether 11 mines. The -castle is a square strong building standing on a hill on the bank -of the Aras; there are 700 small houses; it is not a commercial town -(Bender), but a frontier town (Serhadd). Mount Aghrí, which appears to -the west, is one of the most praiseworthy mountains in the world; it is -near the town, and is the summer abode (Yaila) of Turcomans. The air -is temperate and allows of the cultivation of gardens on some spots; -the inhabitants are mild and some of them fair. The Levend troops -(irregular levies) sing Persian songs with harmonious voices. As soon -as I entered the town the Diván assembled, and notwithstanding the -repeated oaths of the members of it, that they had not molested the -Persian caravan, but only taken their custom duties, I took seven Aghás -of them with me to prove the truth of what they said, by their presence -at Erzerúm, whereunto I returned" (The Travels of Evliya, translated -from the Turkish by Von Hammer, London, 1850, vol. i. p. 183). - -[410] According to the official statistics the population amounts to -3435 souls, of whom the Armenians number 1709 and the Turks 1578. - -[411] Suess makes the outer Iranian arc commence at Tank, near -Dereh Ismail Khan on the Indus (Das Antlitz der Erde, Leipzic, 1885, -vol. ii. p. 552). - -[412] Such is the view of Suess. - -[413] Besides the great work of Suess already cited, I may refer -my reader to Dr. Edmund Naumann's admirable study: Die Grundlinien -Anatoliens und Centralasiens, in Heltner's Geographische Zeitschrift, -ii. Jahrgang, 1896, pp. 7-25, with two maps. Also to a paper by the -same author in the Report of the Sixth Int. Geog. Congress, London, -1895, pp. (661)-(670). - -[414] For a comprehensive account of the salt deserts of Persia, -extending over 500 miles of country, I may refer my reader to Lord -Curzon's Persia, London, 1892, vol. ii. pp. 246 seq. - -[415] This must be a most interesting approach to Armenia from the side -of Tiflis, and is worth suggesting to the lover of unbeaten tracks. - -[416] Karabagh is portrayed to us from various points of view by Smith -and Dwight, Missionary Researches in Armenia, London, 1834, letters -ix.-xiii.; Radde, G., Karabagh in Petermann's Mitt., Ergänzungsheft -No. 100, Gotha, 1890; Abich, H., op. infra cit., part iii. p. 4; Madame -B. Chantre, Ŕ travers l'Arménie Russe, Paris, 1893, chs. iv.-viii. - -[417] This demarcation has been adopted by Herrmann Abich, who, -however, would include the Karadagh. He speaks of the elevation which -may be traced from the neighbourhood of Ardabil in Persia through the -volcano of Savalan all the way to the mountains south of Lake Van as -the "natural physical frontier between Armenia and Azerbaijan" and -as the "southern border chain of Great Armenia." But he is pressing -the word chain a little unduly. See Geologische Forschungen in den -kauk. Ländern, Vienna, 1882, part ii., introduction, pp. 10 and 11. - -[418] Karl Koch, Reise im pontischen Gebirge und türkischen Armenien, -Weimar, 1846, pp. 203-4. - -[419] Herrmann Abich, Geologische Forschungen in den kauk. Ländern, -Vienna, 1882 and 1887, part ii. pp. 20-21, part iii. p. 81. - -[420] Abich, op. cit. part iii. p. 18. - -[421] Ibid. part ii. p. 138. - -[422] Ibid. part ii. p. 139. - -[423] The old Armenian province of Shirak. - -[424] An analysis of this earth is given by Abich (op. cit. part -iii. p. 49). - -[425] Abich, op. cit. part ii. pp. 35-46. - -[426] Karl Koch, op. cit. pp. 223 seq. He regards the south-western -branch as the most considerable. - -[427] Abich, op. cit. part ii. p. 23. - -[428] See Vol. II. of the present work, Ch. IV. p. 44. - -[429] Abich, op. cit. part ii. pp. 9 and 38. - -[430] The Statistics of 1886 underestimate the population of Tiflis -town. I have corrected them on the assumption that the population -of the city in 1886 was 145,731. See the Caucasus Calendar for 1893, -p. 20. - -[431] I have substituted the figures of 1891 for those of 1886. The -former are given in the Caucasus Calendar for 1893, p. 43. - -[432] Including 2743 Jews, 2150 Assyrians, and 1665 Germans and Swedes. - -[433] 8 per cent must be added to these figures if it be assumed that -the number of females is at least equal to that of the males. - -[434] This is the official figure. I make approximately the same area -measure about 23,000 square miles, allowing for curvature of the earth. - -[435] See especially Ch. III. p. 68 and Ch. IV. pp. 75, 77. - -[436] Consul Taylor, an unpublished Report. - -[437] "The manner in which he (Tergukasoff) handled his men at Taghir -on the 16th of June, when, with eight battalions, he thoroughly -defeated the twelve which Mahomed Pasha opposed to him; the stubborn -resistance with which he checked Mukhtar Pasha's onslaught on the -21st at Eshek Khaliass; the gallant retreat which his half division -effected in front of Ahmed Pasha's twenty-three battalions; and, -finally, his dashing flank march from Igdyr to Bayazid, and the relief -of that place in front of two Turkish corps, both superior to him in -numbers, stamp him a general of division of the first class. Had the -Czar many more like him, this war would have been completed a month -ago." C. B. Norman (Times war correspondent), Armenia and the Campaign -of 1877, London, n.d. p. 247. In most cases when Armenians enter the -Russian service they Russianise their names by turning the Armenian -termination -ean into the Russian -off, as Melikean into Melikoff. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenia, Travels and Studies (Volume 1 -of 2), by H. F. B. 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