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diff --git a/old/51490-0.txt b/old/51490-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1834c2d..0000000 --- a/old/51490-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25043 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Church History, Volume 2 (of 3), by J. H. Kurtz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Church History, Volume 2 (of 3) - -Author: J. H. Kurtz - -Release Date: March 17, 2016 [EBook #51490] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH HISTORY, VOLUME 2 (OF 3) *** - - - - -Produced by Jon Ingram, Richard Hulse and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ - │ Transcriber’s Notes │ - │ │ - │ │ - │ Punctuation has been standardized. │ - │ │ - │ The Table of Contents has been updated to agree with the │ - │ headings and subheadings of the text. │ - │ │ - │ The † symbol next to a date was not defined in the text. It │ - │ appears to mean approximate year of death. │ - │ │ - │ Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps. │ - │ │ - │ Non-printable characteristics have been given the following │ - │ transliteration: │ - │ Italic text: --> _text_ │ - │ bold text: --> =text=. │ - │ │ - │ Italics have been dropped on leading alpha characters (a. b. │ - │ c.) to improved readability. │ - │ │ - │ This book was written in a period when many words had │ - │ not become standardized in their spelling. Words may have │ - │ multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in │ - │ the text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated │ - │ with a Transcriber’s Note. │ - │ │ - │ Many names appear with multiple spelling variations. The │ - │ most common form used has been added in brackets following │ - │ alternate forms to facilitate document searching. │ - │ │ - │ Latin words and quotations are regularly italicized in the │ - │ text. Italics have been added to words missed by the printer. │ - │ │ - │ Additions noted in the appendix of Volume 2 have been │ - │ incorporated into its main text. │ - │ │ - │ Footnotes are numbered consecutively through the 3 volumes │ - │ and are identified in the text with a number in brackets [2] │ - │ and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of │ - │ the text. │ - │ │ - │ Transcriber’s Notes are used when making corrections to the │ - │ text or to provide additional information for the modern │ - │ reader. These notes are not identified in the text, but have │ - │ been accumulated in a single section at the end of the book. │ - │ │ - └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ - - - - - CHURCH HISTORY. - - BY - PROFESSOR KURTZ. - - - _AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE_ - REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A. - - - IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. II. - - - _SECOND EDITION._ - - - London: - HODDER AND STOUGHTON, - 27, PATERNOSTER ROW. - - MDCCCXCII. - - - - - BUTLER & TANNER, - THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, - FROME, AND LONDON. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - SECOND DIVISION. - (Continued.) - - SECOND SECTION. - - HISTORY OF THE GERMANO-ROMANIC CHURCH, - FROM THE 10TH TO THE 13TH CENTURY. - A.D. 911-1294. - - - I. The Spread of Christianity. - - § 93. MISSIONARY ENTERPRISES. - (1) The Scandinavian Mission Field. - (2) Denmark. - (3) Sweden. - (4) The Norwegians. - (5) In the North-Western Group of Islands. - (6) The Slavo-Magyar Mission-field. - (7) The Poles. - (8) Hungary. - (9) The Wendish Races. - (10) Pomerania. - (11) Mission Work among the Finns and Lithuanians. - (12) Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland. - (13) The Prussians. - (14) Lithuania. - (15) The Mongolian Mission Field. - (16) The Mission Field of Islam. - - § 94. THE CRUSADES. - (1) The First Crusade, A.D. 1096. - (2) The Second Crusade, A.D. 1147. - (3) The Third Crusade, A.D. 1189. - (4) The Fourth Crusade, A.D. 1217. - (5) The Fifth Crusade, A.D. 1228. - (6) The Sixth, A.D. 1248, and Seventh, A.D. 1270, Crusades. - - § 95. ISLAM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. - (1) Islam in Sicily. - (2) Islam in Spain. - (3) The Jews in Europe. - - - II.--The Hierarchy, the Clergy, and the Monks. - - § 96. THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE GERMAN - NATIONALITIES. - (1) The Romish Pornocracy and the Emperor Otto I., - † A.D. 973. - (2) The Times of Otto II., III., A.D. 973-1002. - (3) Otto III.; Pope Sylvester II. - (4) From Henry II. to the Synod at Sutri, A.D. 1002-1046. - (5) Henry III. and his German Popes, A.D. 1046-1057. - (6) The Papacy under the Control of Hildebrand, - A.D. 1057-1078. - (7) Gregory VII., A.D. 1073-1085. - (8) Gregory’s Contention with Henry IV. - (9) The Central Idea in Gregory’s Policy. - (10) Victor III. and Urban II., A.D. 1086-1099. - (11) Paschalis II., Gelasius II., and Calixtus II., - A.D. 1099-1124. - (12) English Investiture Controversy. - (13) The Times of Lothair III. and Conrad III., - A.D. 1125-1152. - (14) The Times of Frederick I. and Henry VI., - A.D. 1152-1190. - (15) Alexander III., A.D. 1159-1181. - (16) The Times of King Henry II. and Cœlestine III., - A.D. 1154-1198. - (17) Innocent III., A.D. 1198-1216. - (18) ---- Fourth Lateran Council of A.D. 1215. - (19) The Times of Frederick II. and his Successors, - A.D. 1215-1268. - (20) Innocent IV. and his Successors, A.D. 1243-1268. - (21) The Times of the House of Anjou down to Boniface VIII., - A.D. 1288-1294. - (22) Nicholas III. to Cœlestine V., A.D. 1277-1294. - (23) Temporal Power of the Popes. - - § 97. THE CLERGY. - (1) The Roman College of Cardinals. - (2) The Political Importance of the Superior Clergy. - (3) The Bishops and the Cathedral Chapter. - (4) Endeavours to Reform the Clergy. - (5) The Pataria of Milan. - - § 98. MONASTIC ORDERS AND INSTITUTIONS. - (1) Offshoots of the Benedictines. - 1. The Brethren of Clugny. - 2. The Congregation of the Camaldolites. - 3. The Order of Vallombrosa. - 4. The Cistercians. - 5. The Congregation of Scottish Monasteries. - (2) New Monkish Orders. - 1. The Order of Grammont. - 2. The Order of St. Anthony. - 3. The Order of Fontevraux. - 4. The Order of the Gilbertines. - 5. The Carthusian Order. - 6. The Premonstratensian Order. - 7. The Trinitarian Order. - 8. The Cœlestine Order. - (3) The Beginnings of the Franciscan Order down to A.D. 1219. - (4) The Franciscans from A.D. 1219 to A.D. 1223. - (5) The Franciscans from A.D. 1223. - (6) Party Divisions within the Franciscan Order. - (7) The Dominican or Preaching Order. - (8) The Dominican Constitutional Rules. - (9) The Female Orders. - 1. Dominican Nuns. - 2. Nuns of St. Clara. - (10) The other Mendicant Orders. - (11) Penitential Brotherhoods and Tertiaries of the - Mendicant Orders. - (12) Working Guilds of a Monkish Order. - (13) The Spiritual Order of Knights. - 1. The Templars. - 2. The Knights of St. John. - 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights. - 4. The Knights of the Cross. - (14) Bridge-Brothers and Mercedarians. - - - III. Theological Science and its Controversies. - - § 99. SCHOLASTICISM IN GENERAL. - (1) Dialectic and Mysticism. - (2) The Philosophical Basis of Dialectic Scholasticism. - (3) The Nurseries of Scholasticism. - (4) The Epochs of Scholasticism. - (5) The Canon Law. - (6) Historical Literature. - - § 100. THE _SÆCULUM OBSCURUM_: THE 10TH CENTURY. - (1) Classical Studies--Germany; England. - (2) ---- Italy; France. - - § 101. THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. - (1) The Most Celebrated Schoolmen of this Century. - 1. Fulbert. - 2. Berengar of Tours. - 3. Lanfranc. - 4. Hildebert of Tours. - 5. Anselm of Canterbury. - 6. Anselm of Laon. - 7. William of Champeaux. - 8. Guibert of Nogent. - (2) Berengar’s Eucharist Controversy, A.D. 1050-1079. - (3) Anselm’s Controversies. - - § 102. THE TWELFTH CENTURY. - (1) The Contest on French Soil. - I. The Dialectic Side of the Gulf--Peter Abælard. - (2) ---- Abælard’s Teachings. - (3) II. The Mystic Side of the Gulf--St. Bernard - of Clairvaux. - (4) III. Bridging the Gulf from the Side of Mysticism. - (5) IV. Bridging the Gulf from the Side of Dialectics. - (6) The Controversy on German Soil. - (7) Theologians of a Pre-eminently Biblical and - Ecclesiastico-Practical Tendency. - 1. Alger of Liège. - 2. Rupert of Deutz. - 3. Hervæus. - (8) 4. John of Salisbury. - 5. Walter of St. Victor. - 6. Innocent III. - (9) Humanist Philosophers. - - § 103. THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. - (1) The Writings of Aristotle and his Arabic Interpreters. - (2) Theory of a twofold Truth. - (3) The Appearance of the Mendicant Orders. - (4) Distinguished Franciscan Schoolmen. - (5) Distinguished Dominican Schoolmen--Albert the Great. - (6) ---- Thomas Aquinas. - (7) Reformers of the Scholastic Method--Raimund Lull. - (8) ---- Roger Bacon. - (9) Theologians of a Biblical and Practical Tendency. - 1. Cæsarius of Heisterbach. - 2. William Peraldus. - 3. Hugo of St. Caro. - 4. Robert of Sorbon. - 5. Raimund Martini. - (10) Precursors of the German Speculative Mystics. - - - IV. The Church and the People. - - § 104. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND ART. - (1) The Liturgy and the Sermon. - (2) Definition and Number of the Sacraments. - (3) The Sacrament of the Altar. - (4) Penance. - (5) Extreme Unction. - (6) The Sacrament of Marriage. - (7) New Festivals. - (8) The Veneration of Saints. - (9) St. Ursula and her 11,000 Virgins. - (10) Hymnology. - (11) Church Music. - (12) Ecclesiastical Architecture. - (13) Free Mason Lodges. - (14) Statuary and Painting. - - § 105. NATIONAL CUSTOMS AND THE NATIONAL LITERATURE. - (1) Knighthood and the Peace of God. - (2) Popular Customs. - (3) Two Royal Saints. - (4) Evidences of Sainthood. - 1. Stigmatization. - 2. Bilocation. - (5) Religious Culture of the People. - (6) The National Literature. - - § 106. CHURCH DISCIPLINE, INDULGENCES, AND ASCETICISM. - (1) Ban and Interdict. - (2) Indulgences. - (3) The Church Doctrine of the Hereafter. - (4) Flagellation. - - § 107. FEMALE MYSTICS. - (1) Two Rhenish Prophetesses of the 12th Century. - (2) Three Thuringian Prophetesses of the 13th Century. - - - V. Heretical Opposition to Ecclesiastical Authority. - - § 108. THE PROTESTERS AGAINST THE CHURCH. - (1) The Cathari. - (2) ---- Their Theological Systems. - (3) The Pasagians. - (4) Pantheistic Heretics. - 1. Amalrich of Bena. - 2. David of Dinant. - 3. The Ortlibarians. - (5) Apocalyptic Heretics. - (6) Ghibelline Joachites. - (7) Revolutionary Reformers. - 1. The Petrobrusians. - 2. Arnold of Brescia. - (8) 3. The Pastorelles. - 4. The Apostolic Brothers. - (9) Reforming Enthusiasts. - 1. Tanchelm. - 2. Eon de Stella. - (10) The Waldensians. - 1. Their Origin. - (11) 2. Their Divisions. - (12) 3. Attempts at Catholicizing. - (13) 4. The French Societies. - (14) ---- An Alternate Origin. - (15) 5. The Lombard-German Branch. - (16) 6. Relations between the Waldensians and Older - and Contemporary Sects. - - § 109. THE CHURCH AGAINST THE PROTESTERS. - (1) The Albigensian Crusade, A.D. 1209-1229. - (2) The Inquisition. - (3) Conrad of Marburg and the Stedingers. - - - THIRD SECTION. - - HISTORY OF THE GERMANO-ROMANIC CHURCH IN THE - 14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES (A.D. 1294-1517). - - - I. The Hierarchy, Clergy, and Monks. - - § 110. THE PAPACY. - (1) Boniface VIII. and Benedict XI., A.D. 1294-1304. - (2) The Papacy during the Babylonian Exile, A.D. 1305-1377. - (3) John XXII., A.D. 1316-1334. - (4) Benedict XII., A.D. 1334-1342. - (5) Innocent VI. to Gregory XI., A.D. 1352-1378. - (6) The Papal Schism and the Council of Pisa, A.D. 1378-1410. - (7) The Council of Constance and Martin V., A.D. 1410-1431. - (8) Eugenius IV. and the Council of Basel, A.D. 1431-1449. - (9) Pragmatic Sanction, A.D. 1438. - (10) Nicholas V. to Pius II., A.D. 1447-1464. - (11) Paul II., Sixtus IV. and Innocent VII., A.D. 1464-1492. - (12) Alexander VI., A.D. 1492-1503. - (13) Julius II., A.D. 1503-1513. - (14) Leo X., A.D. 1513-1521. - (15) Papal Claims to Sovereignty. - (16) The Papal Curia. - - § 111. THE CLERGY. - (1) The Moral Condition of the Clergy. - (2) Commendator Abbots. - - § 112. MONASTIC ORDERS AND SOCIETIES. - (1) The Benedictine Orders. - (2) The Franciscans. - (3) The Observants and Conventuals. - (4) The Dominicans. - (5) The Augustinians. - (6) John von Staupitz. - (7) Overthrow of the Templars. - (8) New Orders. - 1. Hieronymites. - 2. Jesuates. - 3. Minimi. - 4. Nuns of St. Bridget. - 5. Annunciate Order. - (9) The Brothers of the Common Life. - - - II. Theological Science. - - § 113. SCHOLASTICISM AND ITS REFORMERS. - (1) John Duns Scotus. - (2) Thomists and Scotists. - (3) Nominalists and Realists. - (4) Casuistry. - (5) The Founder of Natural Theology--Raimund of Sabunde. - (6) Nicholas of Cusa. - (7) Biblical and Practical Theologians. - 1. Nicholas of Lyra. - 2. Antonine of Florence. - 3. John Trithemius. - - § 114. THE GERMAN MYSTICS. - (1) Meister Eckhart. - (2) Mystics of Upper Germany after Eckhart. - (3) The Friend of God in the Uplands. - (4) Nicholas of Basel. - (5) Henry Suso. - (6) Henry of Nördlingen. - (7) Mystics of the Netherlands. - 1. John of Ruysbroek. - 2. Hendrik Mande. - 3. Gerlach Peters. - 4. Thomas à Kempis. - - - III. The Church and the People. - - § 115A. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE. - (1) Fasts and Festivals. - (2) Preaching. - (3) The _Biblia Pauperum_. - (4) The Bible in the Vernacular. - (5) Catechisms and Prayer Books. - (6) The Dance of Death. - (7) Hymnology. - (8) Church Music. - (9) Legendary Relics. - - § 115B. NATIONAL LITERATURE AND ECCLESIASTICAL ART. - (10) The Italian National Literature. - (11) The German National Literature. - (12) The Sacred Drama. - (13) Architecture and Painting. - - § 116. POPULAR MOVEMENTS. - (1) Two National Saints. - (2) The Maid of Orleans, A.D. 1428-1431. - (3) Lollards, Flagellants, and Dancers. - (4) The Friends of God. - (5) Pantheistic Libertine Societies. - - § 117. CHURCH DISCIPLINE. - (1) Indulgences. - (2) The Inquisition. - (3) The Bull “_In Cœna Domini_.” - (4) Prosecution of Witches. - - - IV. Attempts at Reformation. - - § 118. ATTEMPTED REFORMS IN CHURCH POLITY. - (1) The Literary War between Imperialists and Curialists - in the 14th Century. - (2) ---- Continued. - (3) Reforming Councils of the 15th Century. - (4) Friends of Reform in France during the 15th Century. - 1. Peter d’Ailly. - 2. Jean Charlier (Gerson). - 3. Nicholas of Clemanges. - 4. Louis d’Aleman. - (5) Friends of Reform in Germany. - 1. Henry of Langenstein. - 2. Theodorich or Dietrich of Niem. - 3. Gregory of Heimburg. - 4. Jacob of Jüterboyk [Jüterbock]. - 5. Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa. - 6. Felix Hemmerlin. - 7. The Reformation of the Emperor Sigismund. - (6) An Italian Apostate from the Basel Liberal - Party--Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini. - (7) Reforms in Church Policy in Spain. - - § 119. EVANGELICAL EFFORTS AT REFORM. - (1) Wiclif and the Wiclifites. - (2) Precursors of the Hussite Movement. - 1. Conrad of Waldhausen. - 2. John Milicz of Cremsier. - 3. Matthias of Janow. - (3) John Huss of Hussinecz. - (4) ---- Rector of the University of Prague. - (5) ---- Council of Constance; Trial; Execution. - (6) ---- His Teachings. - (7) Calixtines and Taborites. - (8) The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. - (9) The Waldensians. - 1. Lombard-German Waldensians. - (9A) 2. French Waldensians. - (10) The Dutch Reformers. - 1. John Pupper of Goch. - 2. John Ruchrath of Wesel. - 3. John Wessel. - 4. Nicholas Russ. - (11) An Italian Reformer--Jerome Savonarola. - - § 120. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. - (1) Italian Humanists. - (2) German Humanism--University of Erfurt. - (3) ---- Other Schools. - (4) John Reuchlin. - (5) _Epistolæ obscurorum virorum._ - (6) Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. - (7) Humanism in England. - (8) Humanism in France and Spain. - (9) Humanism and the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. - - - - - THIRD DIVISION. - - History of the Development of the Church under - Modern European Forms of Civilization. - - § 121. CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. - - - FIRST SECTION. - - CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. - - - I. The Reformation. - - § 122. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. - (1) Luther’s Years of Preparation. - (2) Luther’s Theses of A.D. 1517. - (3) Prierias, Cajetan, and Miltitz, A.D. 1518, 1519. - (4) The Leipzig Disputation, A.D. 1519. - (5) Philip Melanchthon. - (6) George Spalatin. - - § 123. LUTHER’S PERIOD OF CONFLICT, A.D. 1520, 1521. - (1) Luther’s Three Chief Reformation Writings, A.D. 1520. - (2) The Papal Bull of Excommunication, A.D. 1520. - (3) Erasmus, A.D. 1520. - (4) Luther’s Controversy with Emser, A.D. 1519-1521. - (5) The Emperor Charles V. - (6) The Diet at Worms, A.D. 1521. - (7) Luther at Wittenberg after the Diet. - (8) The Wartburg Exile, A.D. 1521, 1522. - (9) The Attitude of Frederick the Wise to the Reformation. - - § 124. DETERIORATION AND PURIFICATION OF THE WITTENBERG - REFORMATION, A.D. 1522-1525. - (1) The Wittenberg Fanaticism, A.D. 1521, 1522. - (2) Franz von Sickingen, A.D. 1522, 1523. - (3) Andrew Bodenstein of Carlstadt, A.D. 1524, 1525. - (4) Thomas Münzer, A.D. 1523, 1524. - (5) The Peasant War, A.D. 1524, 1525. - - § 125. FRIENDS AND FOES OF LUTHER’S DOCTRINE, A.D. 1522-1526. - (1) Spread of Evangelical Views. - (2) “The Sum of Holy Scripture” and its Author. - (3) Henry VIII. and Erasmus. - (4) Thomas Murner. - (5) “_Onus ecclesiæ._” - - § 126. DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE, A.D. 1522-1526. - (1) The Diet at Nuremberg, A.D. 1522, 1523. - (2) The Diet at Nuremberg, A.D. 1524. - (3) The Convention at Regensburg, A.D. 1524. - (4) The Evangelical Nobles, A.D. 1524. - (5) The Torgau League, A.D. 1526. - (6) The Diet of Spires, A.D. 1526. - - § 127. ORGANIZATION OF THE EVANGELICAL PROVINCIAL CHURCHES, - A.D. 1526-1529. - (1) The Organization of the Church of the Saxon - Electorate, A.D. 1527-1529. - (2) The Organization of the Hessian Churches, - A.D. 1526-1528. - (3) Organization of other German Provincial Churches, - A.D. 1528-1530. - (4) The Reformation in the Cities of Northern Germany, - A.D. 1524-1531. - - § 128. MARTYRS FOR EVANGELICAL TRUTH, A.D. 1521-1529. - - § 129. LUTHER’S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIFE, A.D. 1523-1529. - (1) Luther’s Literary Works. - (2) Döllinger’s View of Luther. - - § 130. THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND, A.D. 1519-1531. - (1) Ulrich Zwingli. - (2) The Reformation in Zürich, A.D. 1519-1525. - (3) Reformation in Basel, A.D. 1520-1525. - (4) The Reformation in the other Cantons, A.D. 1520-1525. - (5) Anabaptist Outbreak, A.D. 1525. - (6) Disputation at Baden, A.D. 1526. - (7) Disputation at Bern, A.D. 1528. - (8) Complete Victory of the Reformation at Basel, - St. Gall, and Schaffhausen, A.D. 1529. - (9) The first Treaty of Cappel, A.D. 1529. - (10) The Second Treaty of Cappel, A.D. 1531. - - § 131. THE SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY, A.D. 1525-1529. - - § 132. THE PROTEST AND CONFESSION OF THE EVANGELICAL NOBLES, - A.D. 1527-1530. - (1) The Pack Incident, A.D. 1527, 1528. - (2) The Emperor’s Attitude, A.D. 1527-1529. - (3) The Diet at Spires, A.D. 1529. - (4) The Marburg Conference, A.D. 1529. - (5) The Convention of Schwabach and the Landgrave Philip. - (6) The Diet of Augsburg, A.D. 1530. - (7) The Augsburg Confession, 25th June, A.D. 1530. - (8) The Conclusions of the Diet of Augsburg. - - § 133. INCIDENTS OF THE YEARS A.D. 1531-1536. - (1) The Founding of the Schmalcald League, - A.D. 1530, 1531. - (2) The Peace of Nuremberg, A.D. 1532. - (3) The Evangelization of Württemberg, - A.D. 1534, 1535. - (4) The Reformation in Anhalt and Pomerania, - A.D. 1532-1534. - (5) The Reformation in Westphalia, A.D. 1532-1534. - (6) Disturbances at Münster, A.D. 1534, 1535. - (7) Extension of the Schmalcald league, A.D. 1536. - (8) The Wittenberg Concordat of A.D. 1536. - - § 134. INCIDENTS OF THE YEARS A.D. 1537-1539. - (1) The Schmalcald Articles, A.D. 1537. - (2) The League of Nuremberg, A.D. 1538. - (3) The Frankfort Interim, A.D. 1539. - (4) The Reformation in Albertine Saxony, A.D. 1539. - (5) The Reformation in Brandenburg and Neighbouring - States, A.D. 1539. - - § 135. UNION ATTEMPTS OF A.D. 1540-1546. - (1) The Double Marriage of the Landgrave, A.D. 1540. - (2) The Religious Conference at Worms, A.D. 1540. - (3) The Religious Conference at Regensburg, A.D. 1541. - (4) The Regensburg Declaration, A.D. 1541. - (5) The Naumburg Bishopric, A.D. 1541, 1542. - (6) The Reformation in Brunswick and the Palatinate, - A.D. 1542-1546. - (7) The Reformation in the Electorate of Cologne, - A.D. 1542-1544. - (8) The Emperor’s Difficulties, A.D. 1543, 1544. - (9) Diet at Spires, A.D. 1544. - (10) Differences between the Emperor and the Protestant - Nobles, A.D. 1545, 1546. - (11) Luther’s Death, A.D. 1546. - - § 136. THE SCHMALCALD WAR, THE INTERIM, AND THE COUNCIL, - A.D. 1546-1551. - (1) Preparations for the Schmalcald War, A.D. 1546. - (2) The Campaign on the Danube, A.D. 1546. - (3) The Campaign on the Elbe, A.D. 1547. - (4) The Council of Trent, A.D. 1545-1547. - (5) The Augsburg Interim, A.D. 1548. - (6) The Execution of the Interim. - (7) The Leipzig or Little Interim, A.D. 1549. - (8) The Council again at Trent, A.D. 1551. - - § 137A. MAURICE AND THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG A.D. 1550-1555. - (1) The State of Matters in A.D. 1550. - (2) The Elector Maurice, A.D. 1551. - (3) The Compact of Passau, A.D. 1552. - (4) Death of Maurice, A.D. 1553. - (5) The Religious Peace of Augsburg, A.D. 1555. - - § 137B. GERMANY AFTER THE RELIGIOUS PEACE. - (6) The Worms Consultation, A.D. 1557. - (7) Second Attempt at Reformation in the Electorate - of Cologne, A.D. 1582. - (8) The German Emperors, A.D. 1556-1612. - - § 138. THE REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERLAND. - (1) Calvin’s Predecessors, A.D. 1526-1535. - (2) Calvin before his Genevan Ministry. - (3) Calvin’s First Ministry in Geneva, A.D. 1536-1538. - (4) Calvin’s Second Ministry in Geneva, A.D. 1541-1564. - (5) Calvin’s Writings. - (6) Calvin’s Doctrine. - (7) The Victory of Calvinism over Zwinglianism. - (8) Calvin’s Successor in Geneva. - - § 139. THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS. - (1) Sweden. - (2) Denmark and Norway. - (3) Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia. - (4) England--Henry VIII. - (5) ---- Edward VI. - (6) ---- Elizabeth. - (7) Ireland. - (8) Scotland. - (9) ---- John Knox. - (10) ---- Queen Mary Stuart. - (11) ---- John Knox and Queen Mary Stuart. - (12) The Netherlands. - (13) France. - ---- Francis I. - ---- Henry II. - (14) ---- Huguenots. - ---- Francis II. - ---- Charles IX. - (15) ---- Persecution of the Huguenots. - (16) ---- The Bloody Marriage--Massacre of St. Bartholomew. - (17) ---- Henry III. - ---- Henry IV. - ---- Edict of Nantes. - (18) Poland. - (19) Bohemia and Moravia. - (20) Hungary and Transylvania. - (21) Spain. - (22) Italy. - (23) ---- Aonio Paleario. - (24) 1. Bernardino Ochino. - 2. Peter Martyr Vermilius. - 3. Peter Paul Vergerius. - 4. Cœlius Secundus Curio. - 5. Galeazzo Carraccioli. - 6. Fulvia Olympia Morata. - (25) The Protestantizing of the Waldensians. - (26) Attempt at Protestantizing the Eastern Church. - - - II. The Churches of the Reformation. - - § 140. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. - - § 141. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. - (1) The Antinomian Controversy, A.D. 1537-1541. - (2) The Osiander Controversy, A.D. 1549-1556. - (3) Æpinus Controversy; Kargian Controversy. - (4) The Philippists and their Opponents. - (5) The Adiaphorist Controversy, A.D. 1548-1555. - (6) The Majorist Controversy, A.D. 1551-1562. - (7) The Synergistic Controversy, A.D. 1555-1567. - (8) The Flacian Controversy about Original Sin, - A.D. 1560-1575. - (9) The Lutheran Doctrine of the Lord’s Supper. - (10) Cryptocalvinism in its First Stage, A.D. 1552-1574. - (11) The Frankfort Compact, A.D. 1558, and the Naumburg - Assembly of Princes, A.D. 1561. - (12) The Formula of Concord, A.D. 1577. - (13) Second Stage of Cryptocalvinism, A.D. 1586-1592. - (14) The Huber Controversy, A.D. 1588-1595. - (15) The Hofmann Controversy in Helmstadt, A.D. 1598. - - § 142. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, LIFE, AND SCIENCE IN THE - LUTHERAN CHURCH. - (1) The Ecclesiastical Constitution. - (2) Public Worship and Art. - (3) Church Song--Luther and early Authors. - (4) ---- Later Authors. - (5) Chorale Singing. - (6) Theological Science. - (7) German National Literature. - (8) Missions to the Heathen. - - § 143. THE INNER DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFORMED CHURCH. - (1) The Ecclesiastical Constitution. - (2) Public Worship. - (3) The English Puritans. - (4) ---- The Brownists. - (5) Theological Science. - (6) Philosophy. - (7) A Missionary Enterprise. - - § 144. CALVINIZING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN NATIONAL CHURCHES. - (1) The Palatinate, A.D. 1560. - (2) Bremen, A.D. 1562. - (3) Anhalt, A.D. 1597. - - - III. THE DEFORMATION. - - § 145. CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. - - § 146. MYSTICISM AND PANTHEISM. - (1) Schwenkfeld and his Followers. - (2) Agrippa, Paracelsus, and Weigel. - (3) Franck, Thamer, and Bruno. - (4) The Pantheistic Libertine Sects of the Spirituals. - (5) The Familists. - - § 147. ANABAPTISM. - (1) The Anabaptist Movement in General. - (2) Keller’s View of Anabaptist History. - (3) The Swiss Anabaptists. - (4) The South German Anabaptists. - (5) The Moravian Anabaptists. - (6) The Venetian Anabaptists. - (7) The older Apostles of Anabaptism in the North-West - of Germany. - 1. Melchior Hoffmann. - 2. Melchior Ring. - (8) Jan Matthys of Haarlem. - (9) The Münster Catastrophe, A.D. 1534, 1535. - (10) Menno Simons and the Mennonites. - - § 148. ANTITRINITARIANS AND UNITARIANS. - (1) Anabaptist Antitrinitarians in Germany. - (2) Michael Servetus. - (3) Italian and other Antitrinitarians before Socinus. - (4) The Two Socini and the Socinians. - - - IV. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. - - § 149. THE INTERNAL STRENGTHENING AND REVIVAL OF THE - CATHOLIC CHURCH. - (1) The Popes before the Council. - (2) The Popes of the Time of the Council. - (3) The Popes after the Council. - (4) Papal Infallibility. - (5) The Prophecy of St. Malachi. - (6) Reformation of Old Monkish Orders. - (7) New Orders for Home Missions. - (8) The Society of Jesus--Founding of the Order. - (9) ---- Constitution. - (10) ---- The Doctrinal and Moral System. - (11) Jesuit Influence upon Worship and Superstition. - (12) Educational Methods and Institutions of the Jesuits. - (13) Theological Controversies. - (14) Theological Literature. - (15) Art and Poetry. - (16) The Spanish Mystics. - (17) Practical Christian life. - - § 150. FOREIGN MISSIONS. - (1) Missions to the Heathen--East Indies and China. - (2) ---- Japan. - (3) ---- America. - (4) Schismatical Churches of the East. - - § 151. ATTEMPTED REGENERATION OF ROMAN CATHOLICISM. - (1) Attempts at Regeneration in Germany. - (2) Throughout Europe. - (3) Russia and the United Greeks. - - - - - NOTE BY TRANSLATOR. - - - While the translator was working from the ninth edition of 1885, -a tenth edition had appeared during 1887, to which unfortunately his -attention was not called until quite recently. The principal additions -and alterations affecting Vol. II. occur in §§ 98, 108, 119, and 147. -On the section dealing with Anabaptism, the important changes have been -made in the text, so that § 147 precisely corresponds to its latest -and most perfect form in the original. As the printing of the volume -was then far advanced, it was impossible thus to deal with the earlier -sections, but students will find references in the Table of Contents to -the full translation in the Appendix of those passages where material -alterations have been introduced. - - JOHN MACPHERSON. - - FINDHORN, _March, 1889_. - - - - - SECOND DIVISION. - (Continued.) - - - - - SECOND SECTION. - - HISTORY OF THE GERMANO-ROMANIC CHURCH, - FROM THE 10TH TO THE 13TH CENTURY. - A.D. 911-1294. - - - - - I. The Spread of Christianity. - - - § 93. MISSIONARY ENTERPRISES. - - During this period the Christianizing of Europe was well nigh -finished. Only Lapland and Lithuania were reserved for the following -period. The method used in conversion was still the same. Besides -missionaries, warriors also extended the faith. Monasteries and -castles were the centres of the newly founded Christianity. Political -considerations and Christian princesses converted pagan princes; -their subjects followed either under violent pressure or with quiet -resignation, carrying with them, however, under the cover of a -Christian profession, much of their old heathen superstition. It -was the policy of the German emperors to make every effort to unite -the converted races under the German metropolitans, and to establish -this union. Thus the metropolitanate of Hamburg-Bremen was founded for -the Scandinavians and those of the Baltic provinces, that of Magdeburg -for the Poles and the Northern Slavs, that of Mainz for the Bohemians, -that of Passau and Salzburg for the Hungarians. But it was Rome’s -desire to emancipate them from the German clergy and the German state, -and to set them up as independent metropolitanates of a great family -of Christian nationalities recognising the pope as their spiritual -father (§ 82, 9). The Western church did now indeed make a beginning -of missionary enterprise, which extended in its range beyond Europe -to the Mongols of Asia and the Saracens of Africa, but throughout -this period it remained without any, or at least without any important, -result. - - § 93.1. =The Scandinavian Mission Field.=--The work of Ansgar - and Rimbert (§ 80) had extended only to the frontier provinces - of Jutland and to the trading ports of Sweden, and even the - churches founded there had in the meantime become almost extinct. - A renewal of the mission could not be thought of, owing to the - robber raids of =Normans= or =Vikings=, who during the ninth - and tenth centuries had devastated all the coasts. But it was - just those Viking raids that in another way opened a door again - for the entrance of missionaries into those lands. Many of the - home-going Vikings, who had been resident for a while abroad, - had there been converted to the Christian faith, and carried - back the knowledge of it to their homes. In France the Norwegians - under Rollo founded Normandy in A.D. 912. In the tenth century - the entire northern half of England fell into the hands of the - Danes, and finally, in A.D. 1013, the Danish King Sweyn conquered - the whole country. Both in France and in England the incomers - adopted the profession of Christianity, and this, owing to the - close connection maintained with their earlier homes, led to the - conversion of Norway and Denmark. - - § 93.2. In =Denmark=, Gorm the Old, the founder of the regular - Danish monarchy, makes his appearance toward the end of the - ninth century as the bitter foe of Christianity. He destroyed - all Christian institutions, drove away all the priests, and - ravaged the neighbouring German coasts. Then, in A.D. 934, the - German king Henry I. undertook a war against Denmark, and obliged - Gorm to pay tribute and to grant toleration to the Christian - faith. Archbishop Unni of Bremen then immediately began again - the mission work. With a great part of his clergy he entered - Danish territory, restored the churches of Jutland, and died in - Sweden in A.D. 936. Gorm’s son, Harald Blaatand, being defeated - in battle by Otto I. in A.D. 965, submitted to baptism. But his - son Sweyn Gabelbart, although he too had been baptized, headed - the reactionary heathen party. Harald fell in battle against - him in A.D. 986, and Sweyn now began his career as a bitter - persecutor of the Christians. Eric of Sweden, however, formerly - a heathen and an enemy of Christianity, drove him out in A.D. 980, - and at the entreaty of a German embassage tolerated the Christian - religion. After Eric’s death in A.D. 998, Sweyn returned. In - exile his opinions had changed, and now he as actively befriended - the Christians as before he had persecuted them. In A.D. 1013 - he conquered all England, and died there in A.D. 1014. His son - Canute the Great, who died in A.D. 1036, united both kingdoms - under his sceptre, and made every effort to find in the profession - of a common Christian faith a bond of union between the two - countries over which he ruled. In place of the German mission - issuing from Bremen, he set on foot an English mission that had - great success. In A.D. 1026 by means of a pilgrimage to Rome, - prompted also by far-reaching political views, he joined the - Danish church in the closest bonds with the ecclesiastical centre - of Western Christendom. Denmark from this time onwards ranks as - a thoroughly Christianized land. - - § 93.3. In =Sweden=, too, Archbishop Unni of Bremen resumed - mission work and died there in A.D. 936. From this time the - German mission was prosecuted uninterruptedly. It was, however, - only in the beginning of the eleventh century, when English - missionaries came to Sweden from Norway with Sigurd at their - head, that real progress was made. By them the king Olaf - Skötkonung, who died in A.D. 1024, was baptized. Olaf and - his successor used every effort to further the interests of - the mission, which had made considerable progress in Gothland, - while in Swealand, with its national pagan sanctuary of Upsala, - heathenism still continued dominant. King Inge, when he refused - in A.D. 1080 to renounce Christianity, was pursued with stones - by a crowd of people at Upsala. His son-in-law Blot-Sweyn led - the pagan reaction, and sorely persecuted those who professed - the Christian faith. After reigning for three years, he was - slain, and Inge restored Christianity in all parts. It was, - however, only under St. Eric, who died in A.D. 1160, that the - Christian faith became dominant in Upper Sweden.[263] - - § 93.4. =The Norwegians= had, at a very early period, by means - of the adventurous raids of their seafaring youth, by means of - Christian prisoners, and also by means of intercourse with the - Norse colonies in England and Normandy, gained some knowledge - of Christianity. The first Christian king of Norway was Haco - the Good (A.D. 934-961), who had received a Christian education - at the English court. Only after he had won the fervent love - of his people by his able government, did he venture to ask for - the legal establishment of the Christian religion. The people, - however, compelled him to take part in heathen sacrifices; - and when he made the sign of the cross over the sacrificial - cup before he drank of it, they were appeased only by his - associating the action with Thor’s hammer. Haco could never - forgive himself this weakness and died broken-hearted, regarding - himself as unworthy even of Christian burial. Olaf Trygvesen - (A.D. 995-1000), at first the ideal of a Norse Viking, then - of a Norse king, was baptized during his last visit to England, - and used all the powerful influences at his command, the charm - and fascination of his personality, flattery, favour, craft, - intimidation and cruelty, to secure the forcible introduction - of Christianity. No foreigner was ever allowed to quit Norway - without being persuaded or compelled by him to receive baptism. - Those who refused, whether natives or foreigners, suffered - severe imprisonment and in many cases were put to death. He fell - in battle with the Danes. Olaf Haraldson the Fat, subsequently - known as St. Olaf (A.D. 1014-1030), followed in Trygvesen’s steps. - Without his predecessor’s fascinating manners and magnanimity, - but prosecuting his ecclesiastical and political ends with - greater recklessness, severity, and cruelty, he soon forfeited - the love of his subjects. The alienated chiefs conspired with - the Danish Canute; the whole country rose against him; he himself - fell in battle, and Norway became a Danish province. The crushing - yoke of the Danes, however, caused a sudden rebound of public - feeling in regard to Olaf. The king, who was before universally - hated, was now looked on as the martyr of national liberty and - independence. Innumerable miracles were wrought by his bones, - and even so early as A.D. 1031 the country unanimously proclaimed - him a national saint. The enthusiasm over the veneration of the - new saint increased from day to day, and with it the enthusiasm - for the emancipation of their native country. Borne along by - the mighty agitation, Olaf’s son, Magnus the Good, drove out the - Danes in A.D. 1035. Olaf’s canonization, though originating in - purely political schemes, had put the final stamp of Christianity - upon the land. The German national privileges, however, were - insisted upon in Norway over against the canon law down to the - 13th century.[264] - - § 93.5. =In the North-Western Group of Islands=, the Hebrides, - the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faröe Isles, the sparse Celtic - population professing Christianity was, during the ninth century, - expelled by the pagan Norse Vikings, and among these Christianity - was first introduced by the two Norwegian Olafs. The first - missionary attempt in =Iceland= was made in A.D. 981 by the - Icelander Thorwald, who having been baptized in Saxony by a - Bishop (?) Frederick, persuaded this ecclesiastic to accompany - him to Iceland, that they might there work together for the - conversion of his heathen fellow countrymen. During a five years’ - ministry several individuals were won, but by a decision of the - National Council the missionaries were forced to leave the island - in A.D. 958. Olaf Trygvesen did not readily allow an Icelander - visiting Norway to return without having been baptized, and twice - he sent formal expeditions for the conversion of Iceland. The - first, sent out in A.D. 996, with Stefnin, a native of Iceland, - at its head, had little success. The second, A.D. 997-999, was - led by Olaf’s court chaplain Dankbrand, a Saxon. This man, at - once warrior and priest, who when his sermons failed shrank not - from buckling on the sword, converted many of the most powerful - chiefs. In A.D. 1000 the Icelandic State was saved at the - last hour from a civil war between pagans and Christians which - threatened its very existence, by the adoption of a compromise, - according to which all Icelanders were baptized and only - Christian worship was publicly recognised, but idol worship - in the homes, exposure of children, and eating of horses’ flesh - was tolerated. But in A.D. 1016, as the result of an embassage - of the Norwegian king Olaf Haraldson, even these last vestiges - of paganism were wiped out.--=Greenland=, too, which had been - discovered by a distinguished Icelander, Eric the Red, and had - then been colonized in A.D. 985, owed its Christianity to Olaf - Trygvesen, who in A.D. 1000 sent the son of the discoverer, - Leif the Fortunate, with an expedition for its conversion. The - inhabitants accepted baptism without resistance. The church - continued to flourish there uninterruptedly for 400 years, and - the coast districts became rich through agriculture and trade. - But when in A.D. 1408 the newly elected bishop Andrew wished - to take possession of his see, he found the country surrounded - by enormous masses of ice, and could not effect a landing. - This catastrophe, and the subsequent incursions of the Eskimos, - seem to have led to the overthrow of the colony.--Continuation, - § 167, 9.--Leif discovered on his expeditions a rich fertile - land in the West, which on account of the vines growing wild - there he called =Vineland=, and this region was subsequently - colonized from Iceland. In the twelfth century, in order to - confirm the colonists in the faith, a Greenland bishop Eric - undertook a journey to that country. It lay on the east coast - of North America, and is probably to be identified with the - present Massachusetts and Rhode Island. - - § 93.6. =The Slavo-Magyar Mission-field.=--Even in the previous - period a beginning had been made of the Christianizing of - =Bohemia= (§ 79, 3). After Wratislaw’s death his heathen widow - Drahomira administered the government in the name of her younger - son Boleslaw. Ludmilla, with the help of the clergy and the - Germans, wished to promote St. Wenzeslaw, the elder son, educated - by her, but she was strangled by order of Drahomira in A.D. 927. - Wenzeslaw, too, fell by the hand of his brother. Boleslaw now - thought completely to root out Christianity, but was obliged, - in consequence of the victory of Otho [Otto] I. in A.D. 950, - to agree to the restoration of the church. His son Boleslas - [Boleslaw] II., A.D. 967-999, contributed to its establishment - by founding the bishopric of Prague. The pope seized the - opportunity on the occasion of this founding of the bishopric - to introduce the Roman ritual (A.D. 973).[265] - - § 93.7. From Bohemia the Christian faith was carried to the - =Poles=. In A.D. 966 the Duke Micislas was persuaded by his - wife Dubrawka, a Bohemian princess, daughter of Boleslaw I., - to receive baptism. His subjects were induced to follow his - example, and the bishopric of Posen was founded. The church - obtained a firm footing under his son, the powerful Boleslaw - Chrobry, A.D. 992-1025, who with the consent of Otto III. freed - the Polish church from the metropolitanate of Magdeburg, and - gave it an archiepiscopal see of its own at Gnesen (A.D. 1000). - He also separated the Poles from German imperial federation and - had himself crowned king shortly before his death in A.D. 1025. - A state of anarchy, which lasted for a year and threatened the - overthrow of Christianity in the land, was put an end to by his - grandson Casimir in A.D. 1039. Casimir’s grandson Boleslaw II. - gave to the Poles a national saint by the murder in A.D. 1079 - of Bishop Stanislas [Stanislaus] of Cracow, which led to his - excommunication and exile. - - § 93.8. Christianity was introduced into =Hungary= from - Constantinople. A Hungarian prince Gylas received baptism - there about A.D. 950, and returned home with a monk Hierotheus, - consecrated bishop of the Hungarians. Connection with the Eastern - church, however, was soon broken off, and an alliance formed - with the Western church. After Henry I. in A.D. 933 defeated the - Hungarians at Keuschberg, and still more decidedly after Otto I. - in A.D. 955 had completely humbled them by the terrible slaughter - at Lechfelde, German influence won the upper hand. The missionary - labours of Bishop Piligrim of Passau, as well as the introduction - of Christian foreigners, especially Germans, soon gave to - Christianity a preponderance throughout the country over paganism. - The mission was directly favoured by the Duke Geysa, A.D. 972-997, - and his vigorous wife Sarolta, a daughter of the above-named - Gylas. The Christianizing of Hungary was completed by Geysa’s - son St. Stephen, A.D. 997-1038, who upon his marriage with - Gisela, the sister of the Emperor Henry II., was baptized, - a pagan reaction was put down, a constitution and laws were - given to the country, an archbishopric was founded at Gran - with ten suffragan bishops, the crown was put upon his head - in A.D. 1000 by Pope Sylvester II., and Hungary was enrolled - as an important member of the federation of European Christian - States. Under his successors indeed paganism once more rose in - a formidable revolt, but was finally stamped out. St. Ladislaw - [Ladislaus], A.D. 1077-1095, rooted out its last vestiges. - - § 93.9. Among the numerous =Wendish Races= in Northern and - North-Eastern Germany the chief tribes were the Obotrites in - what is now Holstein and Mecklenburg, the Lutitians or Wilzians, - between the Elbe and the Oder, the Pomeranians, from the Oder to - the Vistula, and the Sorbi, farther south in Saxony and Lusatia. - Henry I., A.D. 919-936, and his son Otto I., A.D. 936-973, in - several campaigns subjected them to the German yoke, and the - latter founded among them in A.D. 968 the archbishopric of - Magdeburg besides several bishoprics. The passion for national - freedom, as well as the proud contempt, illtreatment, and - oppression of the German margraves, rendered Christianity - peculiarly hateful to the Wends, and it was only after their - freedom and nationality had been completely destroyed and the - Slavic population had been outnumbered by German or Germanized - colonists, that the Church obtained a firm footing in their - land. A revolt of the =Obotrites= under Mistewoi in A.D. 983, - who with the German yoke abjured also the Christian faith, led - to the destruction of all Christian institutions. His grandson - Gottschalk, educated as a Christian in a German monastery, but - roused to fury by the murder of his father Udo, escaped from - the monastery in A.D. 1032, renounced Christianity, and set on - foot a terrible persecution of Christians and Germans. But he - soon bitterly repented this outburst of senseless rage. Taken - prisoner by the Germans, he escaped and took refuge in Denmark, - but subsequently he returned and founded in A.D. 1045 a great - Wendish empire which extended from the North Sea to the Oder. He - now enthusiastically applied all his energy to the establishment - of the church in his land upon a national basis, for which - purpose Adalbert of Bremen sent him missionaries. He was himself - frequently their interpreter and expositor. He was eminently - successful, but the national party hated him as the friend of - the Saxons and the church. He fell by the sword of the assassin - in A.D. 1066, and thereupon began a terrible persecution of the - Christians. His son Henry having been set aside, the powerful - Ranian chief Cruco from the island of Rügen, a fanatical enemy - of Christianity, was chosen ruler. At the instigation of Henry - he was murdered in his own house in A.D. 1115. Henry died in - A.D. 1127. A Danish prince Canute bought the Wendish crown from - Lothair duke of Saxony, but was murdered in A.D. 1131. This - brought the Wendish empire to an end. The Obotrite chief Niklot, - who died in A.D. 1161, held his ground only in the territory of - the Obotrites. His son Pribizlaw, the ancestor of the present - ruling family of Mecklenburg, by adopting Christianity in - A.D. 1164, saved to himself a part of the inheritance of his - fathers as a vassal under the Saxon princes. All the rest - of the land was divided by Henry the Lion among his German - warriors, and the depopulated districts were peopled with - German colonists.--In A.D. 1157 Albert the Bear, the founder - of the Margravate of Brandenburg, overthrew the dominion of - the =Lutitians= after protracted struggles and endless revolts. - He, too, drafted numerous German colonists into the devastated - regions.--The Christianizing of the =Sorbi= was an easier task. - After their first defeat by Henry I. in A.D. 922 and 927, they - were never again able to regain their old freedom. Alongside - of the mission of the sword among the Wends there was always - carried on, more or less vigorously, the mission of the Cross. - Among the Sorbi bishop Benno of Meissen, who died in A.D. 1107, - wrought with special vigour, and among the Obotrites the greatest - zeal was displayed by St. Vicelinus. He died bishop of Oldenburg - in A.D. 1154. - - § 93.10. =Pomerania= submitted in A.D. 1121 to the duke of - Poland, Boleslaw III., and he compelled them solemnly to promise - that they would adopt the Christian faith. The work of conversion, - however, appeared to be so unpromising that Boleslaw found none - among all his clergy willing to undertake the task. At last - in A.D. 1122, a Spanish monk Bernard offered himself. But the - Pomeranians drove him away as a beggar who looked only to his - own gain, for they thought, if the Christians’ God be really the - Lord of heaven and earth He would have sent them a servant in - keeping with His glorious majesty. Boleslaw was then convinced - that only a man who had strong faith and a martyr’s spirit, - united with an imposing figure, rank, and wealth, was fit for - the work, and these qualifications he found in bishop Otto - of Bamberg. Otto accepted the call, and during two missionary - journeys in A.D. 1124-1128 founded the Pomeranian church. - Following Bernard’s advice, he went through Pomerania on both - occasions with all the pomp of episcopal dignity, with a great - retinue and abundant stores of provisions, money, ecclesiastical - ornaments, and presents of all kinds. He had unparalleled success, - yet he was repeatedly well nigh obtaining the crown of martyrdom - which he longed for. The whole Middle Ages furnishes scarcely - an equally noble, pure, and successful example of missionary - enterprise. None of all the missionaries of that age presents so - harmonious a picture of firmness without obstinacy, earnestness - without harshness, gentleness without weakness, enthusiasm - without fanaticism. And never have the German and Slavic - nationalities so nobly, successfully, and faithfully practised - mutual forbearance as did the Pomeranians and their apostle.--The - last stronghold of Wendish paganism was the island of =Rügen=. - It fell when in A.D. 1168 the Danish king Waldemar I. with the - Christian Pomeranian and Obotrite chiefs conquered the island - and destroyed its heathen sanctuaries. - - § 93.11. =Mission Work among the Finns and Lithuanians.=--St. Eric - of Sweden in A.D. 1157 introduced Christianity into Finland by - conquest and compulsion. Bishop Henry of Upsala, the apostle of - the Finns, who accompanied him, suffered a martyr’s death in the - following year. The Finns detested Christianity as heartily as - they did the rule of the conquering Swedes, who introduced it, - and it was only after the third campaign which Thorkel Canutson - undertook in A.D. 1293 against Finland, that the Swedish rule - and the Christian faith were established, and under a vigorous - yet moderate and wise government the Finns were reconciled to - both.--=Lapland= came under the rule of Sweden in A.D. 1279, and - thereafter Christianity gradually found entrance. In A.D. 1335 - bishop Hemming of Upsala consecrated the first church at Tornea. - - § 93.12. =Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland= were inhabited by - peoples belonging to the Finnic stem. Yet even in early times - people from the south and east belonging to the Lithuanian stem - had settled in Livonia and Courland, Letts and Lettgalls in - Livonia, and Semgalls and Wends in Courland. The first attempts - to introduce Christianity into these regions were made by Swedes - and Danes, and even under the Danish king Sweyn III., Eric’s son, - about A.D. 1048 a church was erected in Courland by Christian - merchants, and in Esthonia the Danes not long after built the - fortress of Lindanissa. The elevation of the bishopric of Lund - into a metropolitanate in A.D. 1098 was projected with a regard - to these lands. In A.D. 1171 Pope Alexander III. sent a monk, - Fulco, to Lund to convert the heathen and to be bishop of Finland - and Esthonia, but he seems never to have entered on his duties or - his dignity. Abiding results were first won by German preaching - and the German sword. In the middle of the 12th century merchants - of Bremen and Lübeck carried on traffic with towns on the banks - of the Dwina. A pious priest from the monastery of Segeberg in - Holstein, called Meinhart, undertook in their company under the - auspices of the archbishop of Bremen, Hartwig II., a missionary - journey to those regions in A.D. 1184. He built a church at - Üxküll on the Dwina, was recognised as bishop of the place - in A.D. 1186, but died in A.D. 1196. His assistant Dietrich - carried on the work of the mission in the district from Freiden - down to Esthonia. Meinhart’s successor in the bishopric was the - Cistercian abbot, Berthold of Loccum in Hanover. Having been - driven away soon after his arrival, he returned with an army - of German crusaders, and was killed in battle in A.D. 1198. - His successor was a canon of Bremen, Albert of Buxhöwden. He - transferred the bishop’s seat to Riga, which was built by him - in A.D. 1201, founded in A.D. 1202, for the protection of the - mission, the Order of the Brethren of the Sword (§ 98, 13), - amid constant battles with Russians, Esthonians, Courlanders - and Lithuanians erected new bishoprics in Esthonia (Dorpat), - Oesel, and Semgallen, and effected the Christianization of - nearly all these lands. He died in A.D. 1229. After A.D. 1219 - the Danes, whom Albert had called in to his aid, vied with him - in the conquest and conversion of the Esthonians. Waldemar II. - founded Revel in A.D. 1219, made it an episcopal see, and did - all in his power to restrict the advances of the Germans. In - this he did not succeed. The Danes, indeed, were obliged to - quit Esthonia in A.D. 1257. After Albert’s death, however, the - difficulties of the situation became so great that Volquin, the - Master of the Order of the Sword, could see no hope of success - save in the union of his order with that of the Teutonic Knights, - shortly before established in Prussia. The union, retarded - by Danish intrigues, was not effected until A.D. 1237, when - a fearful slaughter of Germans by the Lithuanians had endangered - not only the existence of the Order of the Sword but even the - church of Livonia. Then, too, for the first time was Courland - finally subdued and converted. It had, indeed, nominally adopted - Christianity in A.D. 1230, but had soon after relapsed into - paganism. Finally in A.D. 1255 Riga was raised to the rank of - a metropolitanate, and Suerbeer, formerly archbishop of Armagh - in Ireland, was appointed by Innocent IV. archbishop of Prussia, - Livonia, and Esthonia, with his residence at Riga. - - § 93.13. The Old Prussians and Lithuanians also belonged to - the Lettish stem. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, first brought the - message of salvation to the =Prussians= between the Vistula and - Memel, but on the very first entrance into Sameland [Samland] - in A.D. 997 he won the martyr’s crown. This, too, was the fate - twelve years later of the zealous Saxon monk Bruno and eighteen - companions on the Lithuanian coast. Two hundred years passed - before another missionary was seen in Prussia. The first was - the Abbot Gothfried from the Polish monastery of Lukina; but in - his case also an end was soon put to his hopefully begun work, as - well as to that of his companion Philip, both suffering martyrdom - in A.D. 1207. More successful and enduring was the mission work - three years later of the Cistercian monk Christian from the - Pomeranian monastery of Oliva, in A.D. 1209, the real apostle of - the Prussians. He was raised to the rank of bishop in A.D. 1215, - and died in A.D. 1245. On the model of the Livonian Order of - the Brethren of the Sword he founded in A.D. 1225 the Order of - the Knights of Dobrin (_Milites Christi_). In the very first - year of their existence, however, they were reduced to the number - of five men. In union with Conrad, Duke of Moravia, whose land - had suffered fearfully from the inroads of the pagan Prussians, - Christian then called in the aid of the Teutonic Knights, whose - order had won great renown in Germany. A branch of this order - had settled in A.D. 1228 in Culm, and so laid the foundation of - the establishment of the order in Prussia. With the appearance - of this order began a sixty years’ bloody conflict directed to - the overthrow of Prussian paganism, which can be said to have - been effected only in A.D. 1283, when the greater part of the - Prussians had been slain after innumerable conflicts with the - order and with crusaders from Germany, Poland, Bohemia, etc. - Among the crowds of preachers of the gospel, mostly Dominicans, - besides Bishop Christian and the noble papal legate William, - bishop of Modena, the Polish Dominican Hyacinth, who died - in A.D. 1257, a vigorous preacher of faith and repentance, - deserves special mention. So early as A.D. 1243, William of - Modena had sketched an ecclesiastical organization for the - country, which divided Prussia into four dioceses, which were - placed in A.D. 1255 under the metropolitanate of Riga. - - § 93.14. The introduction of Christianity into =Lithuania= was - longest delayed. After Ringold had founded in A.D. 1230 a Grand - Duchy of Lithuania, his son Mindowe endeavoured to enlarge his - dominions by conquest. The army of the Prussian-Livonian Order, - however, so humbled him that he sued for peace and was compelled - to receive baptism in A.D. 1252. But no sooner had he in some - measure regained strength than he threw off the hypocritical - mask, and in A.D. 1260 appeared as the foe of his Christian - neighbours. His son Wolstinik, who had remained true to the - Christian faith, dying in A.D. 1266, reigned too short a time - to secure an influence over his people. With him every trace - of Christianity disappeared from Lithuania. Christians were - again tolerated in his territories by the Grand Duke Gedimin - (A.D. 1315-1340). Romish Dominicans and Russian priests vied - with one another under his successor Olgerd in endeavours to - convert the inhabitants. Olgerd himself was baptized according - to the Greek rite, but apostatised. His son Jagello, born - of a Christian mother, and married to the young Polish queen - Hedwig, whose hand and crown seemed not too dearly purchased by - submitting to baptism and undertaking to introduce Christianity - among his people, made at last an end to heathenism in Lithuania - in A.D. 1386. His subjects, each of whom received a woollen coat - as a christening gift, flocked in crowds to receive baptism. The - bishop’s residence was fixed at Wilna. - - § 93.15. =The Mongolian Mission Field.=--From the time of - Genghis Khan, who died in A.D. 1227, the princes of the =Mongols=, - in consistency with their principles as deists with little trace - of religion, showed themselves equally tolerant and favourable - to Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The Nestorians were very - numerous in this empire, but also very much deteriorated. In - A.D. 1240-1241 the Mongols, pressing westward with irresistible - force, threatened to overflow and devastate all Europe. Russia - and Poland, Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary had been already - dreadfully wasted by them, when suddenly and unexpectedly - the savage hordes withdrew. Innocent IV. sent an embassage of - Dominicans under Nicolas Ascelinus to the Commander Batschu - in Persia, and an embassage of Franciscans under John of - Piano-Carpini to the Grand Khan Oktaï, Genghis Khan’s successor, - to his capital Karakorum, with a view to their conversion and - to dissuade them from repeating their inroads. Both missions - were unsuccessful. Certain adventurers pretending to be bearers - of a message from Mongolia, told Louis IX. of France fabulous - stories of the readiness of the Grand Khan Gajuk and his princes - to receive Christianity, and their intention to conquer the Holy - Land for the Christians. He accordingly sent out two missions to - the Mongols. The first, in A.D. 1249 was utterly unsuccessful, - for the Mongols regarded the presents given as a regular tribute - and as a symbol of voluntary submission. The second mission in - A.D. 1253, to the Grand Khan Mangu, although under a brave and - accomplished leader, William of Ruysbroek, yielded no fruit; - for Mangu, instead of allowing free entrance into the land for - the preaching of the gospel, at the close of a disputation with - Mohammedans and Buddhists sent the missionaries back to Louis - with the threatening demand to tender his submission. After - Mangu’s death in A.D. 1257, the Mongolian empire was divided - into Eastern and Western, corresponding to China and Persia. - The former was governed by Kublai Khan, the latter by Hulagu - Khan.--Kublai Khan, the Emperor of =China=, a genuine type of - the religious mongrelism of the Mongolians, showed himself very - favourable to Christians, but also patronised the Mohammedans, - and in A.D. 1260 gave a hierarchical constitution and consolidated - form to Buddhism by the establishment of the first Dalai Lama. The - travels of two Venetians of the family of Polo led to the founding - of a Latin Christian mission in China. They returned from their - Mongolian travels in A.D. 1269. Gregory X. in A.D. 1272 sent - two Dominicans to Mongolia along with the two brothers, and the - son of one of them, Marco Polo, then seventeen years old. The - latter won the unreserved confidence of the Grand Khan, and was - entrusted by him with an honourable post in the government. On - his return in A.D. 1295 he published an account of his travels, - which made an enormous sensation, and afforded for the first time - to Western Europe a proper conception of the condition of Eastern - Asia.[266] A regular Christian missionary enterprise, however, - was first undertaken by the Franciscan Joh. de Monte-Corvino, - A.D. 1291-1328, one of the noblest, most intelligent, and most - faithful of the missionaries of the Middle Ages. After he had - succeeded in overcoming the intrigues of the numerous Nestorians, - he won the high esteem of the Grand Khan. In the royal city of - Cembalu or Pekin he built two churches, baptized about 6,000 - Mongols, and translated the Psalter and the New Testament - into Mongolian. He wrought absolutely alone till A.D. 1303. - Afterwards, however, other brethren of his order came repeatedly - to his aid. Clement V. appointed him archbishop of Cembalu in - A.D. 1307. Every year saw new churches established. But internal - disturbances, under Kublai’s successor, weakened the power of - the Mongolian dynasty, so that in A.D. 1370 it was overthrown - by the national Ming dynasty. By the new rulers the Christian - missionaries were driven out along with the Mongols, and thus - all that they had done was utterly destroyed.--The ruler of - =Persia=, Hulagu Khan, son of a Christian mother and married - to a Christian wife, put an end in A.D. 1258 to the khalifate - of Bagdad, but was so pressed by the sultan of Egypt, that - he entered on a long series of negotiations with the popes - and the kings of France and England, who gave him the most - encouraging promises of joining their forces with his against - the Saracens. His successors, of whom several even formally - embraced Christianity, continued these negotiations, but obtained - nothing more than empty promises and protestations of friendship. - The time of the crusades was over, and the popes, even the most - powerful of them, were not able to reawaken the crusading spirit. - The Persian khans, vacillating between Christianity and Islam, - became more and more powerless, until at last, in A.D. 1387, - Tamerlane (Timur) undertook to found on the ruins of the old - government a new universal Mongolian empire under the standard - of the Crescent. But with his death in A.D. 1405 the dominion - of the Mongols in Persia was overthrown, and fell into the hands - of the Turkomans. Henceforth amid all changes of dynasties Islam - continued the dominant religion. - - § 93.16. =The Mission Field of Islam.=--The crusader princes - and soldiers wished only to wrest the Holy Land from the infidels, - but, with the exception perhaps of Louis IX., had no idea of - bringing to them the blessings of the gospel. And most of the - crusaders, by their licentiousness, covetousness, cruelty, - faithlessness, and dissensions among themselves, did much to - cause the Saracens to scorn the Christian faith as represented - by their lives and example. It was not until the 13th century - that the two newly founded mendicant orders of Franciscans - and Dominicans began an energetic but fruitless mission among - the Moslems of Africa, Sicily, and Spain. St. Francis himself - started this work in A.D. 1219, when during the siege of Damietta - by the crusaders he entered the camp of the Sultan Camel and - bade him kindle a fire and cause that he himself with one of - the Moslem priests should be cast into it. When the imam present - shrank away at these words, Francis offered to go alone into - the fire if the sultan would promise to accept Christianity - along with his people should he pass out of the fire uninjured. - The sultan refused to promise and sent the saint away unhurt - with presents, which, however, he returned. Afterwards several - Franciscan missions were sent to the Moslems, but resulted - only in giving a crowd of martyrs to the order. The Dominicans, - too, at a very early period took part in the mission to the - Mohammedans, but were also unsuccessful. The Dominican general - Raimund de Pennaforti [Pennaforte], who died in A.D. 1273, - devoted himself with special zeal to this task. For the training - of the brethren of his order in the oriental languages he founded - institutions at Tunis and Murcia. The most important of all these - missionary enterprises was that of the talented Raimund Lullus - of Majorca, who after his own conversion from a worldly life and - after careful study of the language, made three voyages to North - Africa and sought in disputations with the Saracen scholars to - convince them of the truth of Christianity. But his _Ars Magna_ - (§ 103, 7), which with great ingenuity and enormous labour he had - wrought out mainly for this purpose, had no effect. Imprisonment - and ill-treatment were on all occasions his only reward. He died - in A.D. 1315 in consequence of the ill-usage which he had been - subjected. - - - § 94. THE CRUSADES.[267] - - The Arabian rulers had for their own interest protected the Christian -pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre. But even under the rule of the Fatimide -dynasty, early in the 10th century, the oppression of pilgrims began. -Khalif Hakim, in order that he might blot out the disgrace of being -born of a Christian mother, committed ruthless cruelties upon resident -Christians as well as upon the pilgrims, and prohibited under severe -penalties all meetings for Christian worship. Under the barbarous -Seljuk dynasty, which held sway in Palestine from about A.D. 1070, -the oppression reached its height. The West became all the more -concerned about this, since during the 10th century the idea that -the end of the world was approaching had given a new impulse to -pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Pope Sylvester II. had in A.D. 999 -_ex persona devastatæ Hierosolymæ_ summoned Christendom to help in -this emergency. Gregory VII. seized anew upon the idea of wresting -the Holy Land from the infidels. He had even resolved himself to -lead a Christian army, but the outbreak of contentions with Henry IV. -hindered the execution of this plan. Meanwhile complaints by returning -pilgrims of intolerable ill-usage increased. An urgent appeal from -the Byzantine Emperor Alexius Comnenus gave the spark that lit the -combustible material that had been gathered throughout the West. The -imperial ambassadors accompanied Pope Urban II. to the Council of -Clermont in A.D. 1095, where the pope himself, in a spirited speech, -called for a holy war under the standard of the cross. The shout -was raised as from one mouth, “It is God’s will.” On that very day -thousands enlisted, with Adhemar, bishop of Puy, papal legate, at -their head, and had the red cross marked on their right shoulders. -The bishops returning home preached the crusade as they went, and in -a few weeks a glowing enthusiasm had spread throughout France down -to the provinces of the Rhine. Then began a movement which, soon -extending over all the West, like a second migration of nations, -lasted for two centuries. The crusades cost Europe between five and -six millions of men, and yet in the end that which had been striven -after was not attained. Its consequences, however, to Europe itself -were all the more important. In all departments of life, ecclesiastical -and political, moral and intellectual, civil and industrial, new -views, needs, developments, and tendencies were introduced. Mediæval -culture now reached the highest point of its attainment, and its -failure to transcend the past opened the way for the conditions -of modern society. And while on the other hand they afforded new -and extravagantly abundant nourishment for clerical and popular -superstition, in all directions, but specially in giving opportunity -to roguish traffic in relics (§ 104, 8; 115, 9), on the other hand -they had no small share in producing religious indifference and -frivolous free-thinking (§ 96, 19), as well as the terribly dangerous -growth of mediæval sects, which threatened the overthrow of church -and State, religion and morality (§ 108, 1, 4; 116, 5). The former -was chiefly the result of the sad conclusion of an undertaking of -unexampled magnitude, entered upon with the most glowing enthusiasm -for Christianity and the church; the latter was in great measure -occasioned by intercourse with sectaries of a like kind in the East -(§ 71). - - § 94.1. =The First Crusade, A.D. 1096.=--In the spring of - A.D. 1096 vast crowds of people gathered together, impatient - of the delays of the princes, and put themselves under the - leadership of Walter the Penniless. They were soon followed by - Peter of Amiens with 40,000 men. A legend, unworthy of belief, - credits him with the origin of the whole movement. According - to this story, the hermit returning from a pilgrimage described - to the holy father in vivid colours the sufferings of their - Christian brethren, and related how that Christ Himself had - appeared to him in a dream, giving him the command for the - pope to summon all Christendom to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. - The legend proceeds to say that, by order of the pope, Peter - the Hermit then went through all Italy and France, arousing - the enthusiasm of the people. The hordes led by him, however, - after committing deeds of horrid violence on every side, while - no farther than Bulgaria, were reduced to about one half, - and the remnant, after Peter had already left them because of - their insubordination, was annihilated by the Turks at Nicæa. - Successive new crusades, the last of them an undisciplined mob - of 200,000 men, were cut down in Hungary or on the Hungarian - frontier. In August a regular crusading army, 80,000 strong, - under the leadership of Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, - passing through Germany and Hungary, reached Constantinople. - There several French and Norman princes joined the army, till its - strength was increased to 600,000. After considerable squabbling - with the Byzantine government, they passed over into Asia. With - great labour and heavy loss Nicæa, Edessa, and Antioch were - taken. At last, on 15th July, 1099, amid shouts of, It is God’s - will, they stormed the walls of Jerusalem; lighted by torches - and wading in blood, they entered with singing of psalms into - the Church of the Resurrection. Godfrey was elected king. With - pious humility he declined to wear a king’s crown where Christ - had worn a crown of thorns. He died a year after, and his brother - Baldwin was crowned at Bethlehem. By numerous impropriations - crowds of greater and lesser vassals were gathered about the - throne. In Jerusalem itself a Latin patriarchate was erected, - and under it were placed four archbishoprics, with a corresponding - number of bishoprics. The story of these proceedings enkindled - new enthusiasm in the West. In A.D. 1101 three new crusades - of 260,000 men were fitted out in Germany, under Welf, duke - of Bavaria, and in Italy and in France. They marched against - Bagdad, in order to strike terror into the hearts of Moslems by - the terrible onslaught; the undisciplined horde, however, did - not reach its destination, but found a grave in Asia Minor. - - § 94.2. =The Second Crusade, A.D. 1147.=--The fall of Edessa in - A.D. 1146, as the frontier fortress of the kingdom, summoned the - West to a new effort. Pope Eugenius III. called the nations to - arms. Bernard of Clairvaux, the prophet of the age, preached - the crusade, and prophesied victory. =Louis VII. of France= took - the sign of the cross, in order to atone for the crime of having - burnt a church filled with men; and =Conrad III. of Germany=, - moved by the preaching of Bernard, with some hesitation followed - his example. But their stately army fell before the sword of the - Saracens, the malice of the Greeks, and internal disorders caused - by famine, disease, and hardships. Damascus remained unconquered, - and the princes returned humbled with the miserable remnant of - their army. - - § 94.3. =The Third Crusade, A.D. 1189.=--The kingdom of - Jerusalem before a century had past was in utter decay. Greeks - or Syrians and Latins had a deadly hatred for one another: - the vassals intrigued against each other and against the crown. - Licentiousness, luxury, and recklessness prevailed among the - people; the clergy and the nobles of the kingdom, but especially - the so called Pulleni,[268] descendants of the crusaders born in - the Holy Land itself, were a miserable, cowardly and treacherous - race. The pretenders to the crown also continued their intrigues - and cabals. Such being the corrupt condition of affairs, it was - an easy thing for the Sultan Saladin, the Moslem knight “without - fear and without reproach,” who had overthrown the Fatimide - dynasty in Egypt, to bring down upon the Christian rule in - Syria, after the bloody battle of Tiberias, the same fate. - Jerusalem fell into his hands in October, A.D. 1187. When this - terrible piece of news reached the West, the Christian powers - were summoned by Gregory VIII. to combine their forces in order - to make one more vigorous effort, Philip Augustus of France and - Henry II. of England forgot for a moment their mutual jealousies, - and took the cross from the hands of Archbishop William of Tyre, - the historian of the crusade. Next the =Emperor Frederick I.= - joined them, with all the heroic valour of youth, though in - years and experience an old man. He entered on the undertaking - with an energy, considerateness, and circumspection which - seemed to deserve glorious success. After piloting his way - through Byzantine intrigues and the indescribable fatigues of - a waterless desert, he led his soldiers against the well-equipped - army of the sultan at Iconium, which he utterly routed, and took - the city. But in A.D. 1190 the heroic warrior was drowned in an - attempt to ford the river Calycadnus. A great part of his army - was now scattered, and the remnant was led by his son Frederick - of Swabia against Ptolemais. At that point soon after landed - =Philip Augustus= and =Richard Cœur de Lion= of England, who - after his father’s death put himself at the head of an English - crusading army and had conquered Cyprus on the way. Ptolemais - (Acre) was taken in A.D. 1191. But the jealousies of the princes - interfered with their success. Frederick had already fallen, and - Philip Augustus under pretence of sickness returned to France; - Richard gained a brilliant victory over Saladin, took Joppa and - Ascalon, and was on the eve of marching against Jerusalem when - news reached him that his brother John had assumed the throne of - England, and that Philip Augustus also was entertaining schemes - of conquest. Once again Richard won a great victory before Joppa, - and Saladin, admiring his unexampled bravery, concluded with him - now, in A.D. 1192, a three years’ truce, giving most favourable - terms to the pilgrims. The strip along the coast from Joppa - to Acre continued under the rule of Richard’s nephew, Henry - of Champagne. But Richard was seized on his return journey and - cast into prison by Leopold of Austria, whose standard he had - grossly insulted before Ptolemais, and for two years he remained - a prisoner. After his release he was prevented from thinking of - a renewal of the crusade by a war with France, in which he met - his death in A.D. 1199.[269] - - § 94.4. =The Fourth Crusade, A.D. 1217.=--Innocent III. summoned - Christendom anew to a holy war. The kings, engaged in their own - affairs, gave no heed to the call. But the violent penitential - preacher, Fulco of Neuilly, prevailed upon the French nobles to - collect a considerable crusading army, which, however, instead - of proceeding against the Saracens, was used by the Venetian - Doge, Dandolo, in payment of transport, for conquering Zaras - in Dalmatia, and then by a Byzantine prince for a campaign - against Constantinople, where Baldwin of Flanders founded - a =Latin Empire=, A.D. 1204-1261. The pope put the doge and - the crusaders under excommunication on account of the taking - of Zaras, and the campaign against Constantinople was most - decidedly disapproved. Their unexpected success, however, turned - away his anger. He boasted that at last Israel, after destroying - the golden calves at Dan and Bethel, was again united to Judah, - and in Rome bestowed the pallium upon the first Latin patriarch - of Constantinople.--The =Children’s Crusade=, which in A.D. 1212 - snatched from their parents in France and Germany 30,000 boys - and girls, had a most tragic end. Many died before passing - from Europe of famine and fatigue; the rest fell into the hands - of unprincipled men, who sold them as slaves in Egypt.--King - =Andrew II. of Hungary=, urged by Honorius III., led a new - crusading army to the Holy Land in A.D. 1217, and won some - successes; but finding himself betrayed and deserted by the - Palestinian barons, he returned home in the following year. But - the Germans under Leopold VII. of Austria, who had accompanied - him remained, and, supported by a Cologne and Dutch fleet, - undertook in A.D. 1218, along with the titular king John of - Jerusalem, a crusade =against Egypt=. Damietta was taken, but - the overflow of the Nile reservoirs placed them in such peril - that they owed their escape in A.D. 1221 only to the generosity - of the Sultan Camel. - - § 94.5. =The Fifth Crusade, A.D. 1228.=--The Emperor Frederick II. - had promised to undertake a crusade, but continued to make so many - excuses for delay that Gregory IX. (§ 96, 19) at last thundered - against him the long threatened excommunication. Frederick now - brought out a comparatively small crusading force. The Sultan - Camel of Egypt, engaged in war with his nephew, and fearing that - Frederick might attach himself to the enemy, freely granted him - a large tract of the Holy Land. At the Holy Sepulchre Frederick - placed the crown of Jerusalem, the inheritance of his new wife - Iolanthe, with his own hands on his head, since no bishop would - perform the coronation nor even a priest read the mass service - for the excommunicated king. He then returned home in A.D. 1229 - to arrange his differences with the pope. The crusading armies - which Theobald, king of Navarre, in A.D. 1239, and Richard - Earl of Cornwall, in A.D. 1240, led against Palestine, owing - to disunion among themselves and quarrels among the Syrian - Christians, could accomplish nothing. - - § 94.6. =The Sixth, A.D. 1248, and Seventh, A.D. 1270, - Crusades.=--The zeal for crusading had by this time considerably - cooled. =St. Louis of France=, however, the ninth of that name, - had during a serious illness in A.D. 1244, taken the cross. At - this time Jerusalem had been conquered and subjected to the most - dreadful horrors at the hands of the Chowaresmians, driven from - their home by the Mongols, and now in the pay of Egyptian sultan - Ayoub. Down to A.D. 1247 the rule of the Christians in the Holy - Land was again restricted to Acre and some coast towns. Louis - could no longer think of delay. He started in A.D. 1248 with a - considerable force, wintered in Cyprus, and landed in Egypt in - A.D. 1249. He soon conquered Damietta, but, after his army had - been in great part destroyed by famine, disease and slaughter, - was taken prisoner at Cairo by the sultan. After the murder of - the sultan by the Mamelukes, who overthrew Saladin’s dynasty, - he fell into their hands. The king was obliged to deliver over - Damietta and to purchase his own release by payment of 800,000 - byzantines. He sailed with the remnant of his army to Acre - in A.D. 1250, whence his mother’s death called him home in - A.D. 1254. But as his vow had not yet been fully paid, he sailed - in A.D. 1270 with a new crusading force to Tunis in order to - carry on operations from that centre. But the half of his army - was cut off by a pestilence, and he himself was carried away - in that same year. All subsequent endeavours of the popes to - reawaken an interest in the crusades were unavailing. Acre or - Ptolemais, the last stronghold of the Christians in the Holy - Land, fell in A.D. 1291. - - - § 95. ISLAM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. - - The Saracens (§ 81, 2) were overthrown in the 11th century by -the Normans. The reign of Islam in Spain too (§ 81, 1) came to an -end. The frequent change of dynasties, as well as the splitting up -of the empire into small principalities, weakened the power of the -Moors; the growth of luxurious habits in the rich and fertile districts -robbed them of martial energy and prowess. The Christian power also -was indeed considerably split up and disturbed by many internal feuds, -but the national and religious enthusiasm with which it was every -day being more and more inspired, made it invincible. Rodrigo Diaz, -the Castilian hero, called by the Moors the Cid, _i.e._ Lord, by the -Christians Campeador, _i.e._ champion, who died in A.D. 1099, was the -most perfect representative of Spanish Christian knighthood, although -he dealt with the infidels in a manner neither Christian nor knightly. -Also the Almoravides of Morocco, whose aid was called in in A.D. 1086, -and the Almohades, who had driven out these from Barbary in A.D. 1146, -were not able to stop the progress of the Christian arms. On the -other hand, neither the unceasing persecutions of the civil power, -nor innumerable atrocities committed on Jews by infuriated mobs, nor -even Christian theologians’ zeal for the instruction and conversion -of the Israelites, succeeded in destroying Judaism in Europe. - - § 95.1. =Islam in Sicily.=--The robber raids upon Italy - perpetrated by the Sicilian Saracens were put an end to by the - Normans who settled there in A.D. 1017. Robert Guiscard destroyed - the remnant of Greek rule in southern Italy, conquered the small - Longobard duchies there, and founded a Norman duchy of Apulia and - Calabria in A.D. 1059. His brother Roger, who died in A.D. 1101, - after a thirty years’ struggle drove the Saracens completely - out of Sicily, and ruled over it as a vassal of his brother - under the title of Count of Sicily. His son Roger II., who - died in A.D. 1154, united the government of Sicily and of - Apulia and Calabria, had himself crowned in A.D. 1130 king - of Sicily and Italy, and finally in A.D. 1139 conquered also - Naples. In consequence of the marriage of his daughter Constance - with Henry VI. the whole kingdom passed over in A.D. 1194 to - the Hohenstaufens, from whom it passed in A.D. 1266 to Charles - of Anjou; and from him finally, in consequence of the Sicilian - Vespers in A.D. 1282, the island of Sicily passed to Peter - of Arragon, the son-in-law of Manfred, the last king of the - Hohenstaufen line. The Normans and the Hohenstaufens granted - to the subject Saracens for the most part full religious liberty, - the Emperor Frederick recruiting from among them his bodyguard, - and they supplied the bravest soldiers for the Italian Ghibelline - war. For this purpose he was constantly drafting new detachments - from the African coast, as Manfred also had done. The endeavours - made by monks of the mendicant orders for the conversion of the - Saracens proved quite fruitless. It was only under the Spanish - rule that conversions were made by force, or persecution and - annihilation followed persistent refusal. - - § 95.2. =Islam in Spain.=--The times of Abderrhaman III., - A.D. 912-961, and Hacem II., A.D. 961-976, were the most - brilliant and fortunate of the =Ommaiadean= khalifate. After - the death of the latter the chamberlain Almansor, who died in - A.D. 1002, reigned in the name of Khalif Hescham II., who was - little more than a puppet of the seraglio, and his rule was - glorious, powerful and wise. But interminable civil contentions - were the result of this disarrangement of government, and in - A.D. 1031, in consequence of a popular tumult, Abderrhaman IV., - the last of the Ommaiades, took to flight, and voluntarily - resigned the crown. The khalifate was now broken up into as many - little principalities or emirships as there had been governors - before. Amid such confusions the Christian princes continued to - develop and increase their resources. Sancho the Great, king of - Navarre, A.D. 970-1035, by marriage and conquest united almost - all Christian Spain under his rule, but this was split up again - by being partitioned among his sons. Of these Ferdinand I., who - died in A.D. 1065, inherited Castile, and in A.D. 1037 added to - it Leon by conquest. With him begins the heroic age of Spanish - knighthood. His son Alfonso IV., who died in A.D. 1109, succeeded - in A.D. 1085 in taking from the Moors Toledo and a great part of - Andalusia. The powerful leader of the =Almoravides=, Jussuf from - Morocco, was now called to their aid by the Moors. On the plain - of Salacca the Christians were beaten in A.D. 1086, but soon - the victor turned his arms against his allies, and within - six years all Moslem Spain was under his government. His son - Ali, in a fearfully bloody battle at Ucles in A.D. 1107, cut - down the flower of the Castilian nobility; this marked the - summit of power reached by the Almoravides, and now their star - began slowly to pale. Alfonso I. of Arragon, A.D. 1105-1134, - conquered Saragossa in A.D. 1118, and other cities. Alfonso VII. - of Castile, A.D. 1126-1157, whose power rose so high that most - of the Christian princes in Spain acknowledged him as sovereign, - and that he had himself formally crowned emperor of Spain in - A.D. 1135, conducted a successful campaign against Andalusia, and - in A.D. 1144 forced his way down to the south coast of Granada. - Alfonso I. of Portugal, drove the Moors out of Lisbon; Raimard, - count of Barcelona, conquered Tortosa, etc. At the same time too - the government of the Almoravides was being undermined in Africa. - In A.D. 1146 Morocco fell, and with it North-western Africa, - into the hands of the =Almohades= under Abdelmoumen, while his - lieutenant Abu Amram at the same time conquered Moslem Spain and - Andalusia. Abdelmoumen’s son Jussuf himself crossed over into - Spain with an enormous force in order to extinguish the Christian - rule there, but fell in a battle at Santarem against Alfonso I. - of Portugal. His son Jacob avenged the disaster by the bloody - battle of Alarcos in A.D. 1195, where 30,000 Castilians were - left upon the field. When, notwithstanding the overthrow, the - Christians a few years later endeavoured to retrieve their loss, - Jacob’s successor Mohammed descended upon Spain with half a - million fanatical followers. The critical hour for Spain had - now arrived. The Christians had won time to come to agreement - among themselves. They fought with unexampled heroism on the - plain of Tolosa in A.D. 1212 under Alfonso VIII. of Castile. - The battlefield was strewn with more than 200,000 bodies of - the African fanatics. It was the death-knell of the rule of the - Almohad in Spain. Notwithstanding the dissensions and hostilities - that immediately broke out among the Christian princes, they - conquered within twenty-five years the whole of Andalusia. The - work of conquest was carried out mostly by Ferdinand III., the - saint of Castile, A.D. 1217-1254, and Jacob I., the conqueror - of Arragon, A.D. 1213-1276. Only in the southernmost district - of Spain a remnant of the Moslem rule survived in the kingdom - of Granada, founded in A.D. 1238 by the emir Mohammed Aben Alamar. - Here for a time the glories of Arabic culture were revived in - such a way as seemed like a magical restoration of the day of - the Ommaiades. In consequence of the marriage in A.D. 1469 of - Ferdinand of Arragon, who died in A.D. 1516, with Isabella of - Castile, these two most important Christian empires were united. - Soon afterwards the empire of Granada came to an end. On 2nd - January, A.D. 1492, after an ignominious capitulation, the - last khalif, Abu Abdilehi Boabdil, was driven out of the fair - (Granada), and a few moments later the Castilian banner waved - from the highest tower of the proud Alhambra. The pope bestowed - upon the royal pair the title of Catholic monarchs. The Moors who - refused to submit to baptism were expelled, but even the baptized, - the so-called Moriscoes, proved so dangerous an element in the - state that Philip III., in A.D. 1609, ordered them to be all - banished from his realm. They sought refuge mostly in Africa, - and there went over openly again to Mohammedanism, which they - had never at heart rejected.[270] - - § 95.3. =The Jews in Europe.=--By trade, money lending and - usury the Jews succeeded in obtaining almost sole possession - of ready money, which brought them often great influence with - the needy princes and nobles, but was also often the occasion - of sore oppression and robbery, as well as the cause of popular - hatred and violence. Whenever a country was desolated by a plague - the notion of well-poisoning by the Jews was renewed. It was told - of them that they had stolen the consecrated sacramental bread in - order to stick it through with needles, and Christian children, - that they might slaughter them at their passover festival. From - time to time this popular rage exploded, and then thousands of - Jews were ruthlessly murdered. The crusaders too often began - their feats of valour on Christian soil by the slaughter of Jews. - From the 13th century in almost all lands they were compelled - to wear an insulting badge, the so called Jews’ hat, a yellow, - funnel-shaped covering of the head, and a ring of red cloth on - the breast, etc. They were also compelled to herd together in - the cities in the so called Jewish quarter (Italian=Ghetto), - which was often surrounded by a special wall. St. Bernard and - several popes, Gregory VII., Alexander III., Innocent III., - etc., interested themselves in them, refused to allow them to - be violently persecuted, and pointed to their position as an - incontrovertible proof of the truth of the gospel to all times. - The German emperors also took the Jews under their special - protection, for they classed them, after the example of Vespasian - and Titus, among the special servants of the imperial chamber, - (_Servi camera nostræ speciales_).[271] In England and France - they were treated as the _mancipium_ of the crown. In Spain - under the Moorish rule they had vastly increased in numbers, - culture and wealth; also under the Christian kings they enjoyed - for a long time special privileges, their own tribunals, freedom - in the possession of land, etc., and obtained great influence as - ministers of finance and administration, and also as astrologers, - physicians, apothecaries, etc.; but by their usury and merciless - greed drew forth more and more the bitter hatred of the people. - Hence in the 14th century in Spain also there arose times of sore - oppression and persecution, and attempts at conversion by force. - And finally, in A.D. 1492, Ferdinand the Catholic drove more - than 400,000 Jews out of Spain, and in the following year 100,000 - out of Sicily. But even the baptized Jews, the so-called “New - Christians,” who were prohibited from removing, fell under the - suspicion of secret attachment to the old religion, and many - thousands of them became victims of the Inquisition.--Many - apologetic and polemical treatises were composed for the purpose - of discussion with the Jews and for their instruction, but - like so many other formal disputations they did not succeed in - securing any good result, for the Jewish teachers were superior - in learning, acuteness, and acquaintance with the exposition - of Old Testament Scriptures, upon which in this discussion - everything turned. But an interesting example of a Jew earnestly - striving after a knowledge of the truth and working himself up to - a full conviction of the divinity of Christianity and the church - doctrine of that age, somewhere about A.D. 1150, is presented by - the story told by himself of the conversion of Hermann afterwards - a Premonstratensian monk in the monastery of Kappenberg in - Westphalia.[272] But on the other hand there are also isolated - examples of a passing over to Judaism as the result, it would - seem, of genuine conviction. The first known example of this - kind appears in A.D. 839, in the case of a deacon Boso, who after - being circumcised received the name Eleazar, married a Jewess, - and settled in Saracen Spain, where he manifested extraordinary - zeal in making converts to his new religion. A second case of - this sort is met with in the times of the Emperor Henry II., - in the perversion of a priest Wecelinus. The narrator of this - story gives expression to his horror in the words, _Totus - contremisco et horrentibus pilis capitis terrore concutior_. - Also the Judaising sects of the Pasagians in Lombardy during - the 11th century (§ 108, 3) and the Russian Jewish sects of the - 15th century (§ 73, 5) were probably composed for the most part - of proselytes to Judaism.[273] - - - - - II.--The Hierarchy, the Clergy, and the Monks. - - - § 96. THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE - IN THE GERMAN NATIONALITIES.[274] - - The history of the papacy during this period represents it in -its deepest shame and degradation. But after this state of matters -was put an end to by the founding of the Holy Roman Empire of German -nationalities, it sprang up again from its deep debasement, and reached -the highest point of power and influence. With the German empire, -to which it owed its salvation, it now carried on a life and death -conflict; for it seemed that it was possible to escape enslavement -under the temporal power of the emperor only by putting the emperor -under its spiritual power. In the conflict with the Hohenstaufens the -struggle reached its climax. The papacy won a complete victory, but -soon found that it could as little dispense with as endure the presence -of a powerful empire. For as the destruction of the Carolingian empire -had left it at the mercy of the factions of Italian nobles at the time -when this period opens, so its victory over the German empire brought -the papacy under the still more degrading bondage of French politics, -as is seen in the beginning of the next period. It had during this -transition time its most powerful props and advisers in the orders -of Clugny and Camaldoli (§ 98, 1). It had a standing army in the -mendicant orders, and the crusaders, besides the enthusiasm, which -greatly strengthened the papal institution, did the further service -of occupying and engrossing the attention of the princes. - - § 96.1. =The Romish Pornocracy and the Emperor Otto I., - † A.D. 973.=--Among the wild struggles of the Italian nobles - which broke out after the Emperor Arnulf’s departure (§ 82, 8), - the party of the Margrave Adalbert of Tuscany gained the - upperhand. His mistress Theodora, a well born and beautiful, - ambitious and voluptuous Roman, wife of a Roman senator, as - well as her like-minded daughters Marozia and Theodora, filled - for half a century the chair of St. Peter with their paramours, - sons and grandsons. These constituted the base and corrupt line - of popes known as the pornocracy. =Sergius III.=, A.D. 904-911, - Marozia’s paramour, starts this disgraceful series. After the - short pontificates of the two immediately following popes, - Theodora, because Ravenna was inconveniently distant for - the gratification of her lust, called John, the archbishop - of that place, to the papal chair under the title of =John X.=, - A.D. 914-928. By means of a successful crusade which he led in - person, he destroyed the remnant of Saracen robbers in Garigliano - (§ 81, 2), and crowned the Lombard king Bernard I., A.D. 916-924, - as emperor. But when he attempted to break off his disgraceful - relations with the woman who had advanced him, Marozia had him - cast into prison and smothered with a pillow. The two following - popes on whom she bestowed the tiara enjoyed it only a short time, - for in A.D. 931 she raised her own son to the papal throne in - the twentieth year of his age. His father was Pope Sergius, and - he assumed the name of =John XI.= But her other son Alberich, - who inherited the temporal kingdom from A.D. 932, restricted - this pope’s jurisdiction and that of his four successors to - the ecclesiastical domain. After Alberich’s death his son - Octavianus, an arch-profligate and blasphemer, though only in - his sixteenth year, united the papacy and the temporal power, - and called himself by the name of =John XII.= A.D. 955-963--the - first instance of a change of name on assuming the papal chair. - He would sell anything for money. He made a boy of ten years - a bishop; he consecrated a deacon in a stable; in hunting and - dice playing he would invoke the favour of Jupiter and Venus; - in his orgies he would drink the devil’s health, etc. Meantime - things had reached a terrible pass in Germany. After the death of - Louis the Child, the last of the German Carolingians, in A.D. 911, - the Frankish duke =Conrad I.=, A.D. 911-918, was elected king - of the Germans. Although vigorously supported by the superior - clergy, the Synod of Hohenaltheim in A.D. 915 threatening the - rebels with all the pains of hell, the struggle with the other - dukes prevented the founding of a united German empire. His - successor, the Saxon =Henry I.=, A.D. 919-936, was the first - to free himself from the faction of the clergy, and to grant to - the dukes independent administration of internal affairs within - their own domains. His greater son, =Otto I.=, A.D. 936-973, - by limiting the power of the dukes, by fighting and converting - heathen Danes, Wends, Bohemians and Hungarians, by decided action - in the French troubles, by gathering around him a virtuous German - clergy, who proved true to him and the empire, secured after long - continued civil wars a power and reputation such as no ruler in - the West since Charlemagne had enjoyed. Called to the help of the - Lombard nobles and the pope John XII. against the oppression and - tyranny of Berengarius [Berengar] II., he conquered the kingdom - of Italy, and was at Candlemas A.D. 962 crowned emperor by - the pope in St. Peter’s, after having really held this rank - for thirty years. Thus was the =Holy Roman Empire of German - Nationalities= founded, which continued for centuries to be - the centre around which the history of the church and the world - revolved. The new emperor confirmed to the pope all donations - of previous emperors with the addition of certain cities, without - detriment, however, to the imperial suzerainty over the patrimony - of St. Peter, and without lessening in any degree the imperial - privileges maintained by Charlemagne. The _Privilegium Ottonis_, - still preserved in the papal archives, and claiming to be an - authentic document, was till quite recently kept secret from - all impartial and capable investigators, so that the suspicion - of its spuriousness had come to be regarded as almost a - certainty. Under Leo XIII., however, permission was given to - a capable Protestant scholar, Prof. Sickel of Vienna, to make - a photographic facsimile of the document, the result of which - was that he became convinced that the document was not the - original but a contemporary official duplicate, a literally - faithful transcript on purple parchment with letters of gold - for solemn deposition in the grave of St. Peter. Its first - part describes the donations of the emperor, the second the - obligations of the pope in accordance with the _Constitutio - Romana_, § 82, 4.--But scarcely had Otto left Rome than the - pope, breaking his oath, conspired with his enemies, endeavoured - to rouse the Byzantines and heathen Hungarians against him, - and opened the gates of Rome to Adalbert the son of Berengarius - [Berengar]. Otto hastened back, deposed the pope at the synod - of Rome in A.D. 963, on charges of incest, perjury, murder, - blasphemy, etc., and made the Romans swear by the bones of - Peter never again to elect and consecrate a pope, without - having the emperor’s permission and confirmation. Soon after the - emperor’s departure, however, the newly elected pope =Leo VIII.=, - A.D. 963-965, had to betake himself to flight. John XII. returned - again to Rome, excommunicated his rival pope, and took cruel - vengeance upon the partisans of the emperor. On his death soon - afterwards, in A.D. 964, the Romans elected Benedict V. as - his successor; but he, when the emperor conquered Rome after a - stubborn resistance, was obliged to submit to humiliating terms. - Leo VIII. had in =John XIII.=, A.D. 965-972, a virtuous and - worthy successor. A new revolt of the Romans led soon after - his election to his imprisonment; but he succeeded in making - his escape in A.D. 966. Otto now for the third time crossed - the Alps, passed relentlessly severe sentences upon the guilty, - and had his son, now thirteen years of age, crowned in Rome as - Otto II., A.D. 967. - - § 96.2. =The Times of Otto II., III., A.D. 973-1002.=--After the - death of Otto I., since Otto II., A.D. 973-983, was restrained - from a Roman campaign in consequence of Cisalpine troubles, - the nobles’ faction under Crescentius, son of Pope John X. - and the younger Theodora, again won the upperhand. This party - had in A.D. 974 overthrown Pope =Benedict VI.=, A.D. 972-974, - appointed by Otto I., and cast him into prison. But their own - anti-pope Boniface VII. could not maintain his position, and - fled with the treasures of St. Peter to Constantinople. By means - of a compromise of parties =Benedict VII.=, A.D. 974-983, was - now raised to the papal chair and held possession in spite of - manifold opposition, till the arrival of the young emperor in - Italy in A.D. 980 obtained for him greater security. Otto II. - again restored the imperial prestige in Rome in A.D. 981, but - in A.D. 982 he suffered a complete defeat at the hand of the - Saracens. He died in the following year at Rome, after he had - in =John XIV.=, A.D. 983-984, secured the appointment of a pope - faithful to the empire. His son Otto III., three years old, - was at the council of state, held at Verona, by the princes - of Germany and Italy, there gathered together, elected king of - both kingdoms. During the German civil wars under the regency - of the Queen-mother Theophania, a Byzantine princess, and the - able Archbishop Willigis, of Mainz, who, through his firmness - and penetration saved the crown for the royal child Otto III., - A.D. 983-1002, and maintained the existence and integrity of - the German empire, Rome and the papacy fell again under the - domination of the nobles, at whose head now stood the younger - Crescentius, a son of the above mentioned chief of the same - name. In A.D. 984 the anti-pope =Boniface VII.=, who had fled - to Constantinople, made his appearance in Rome, won a following - by Greek gold, got possession of John XIV. and had him cast - into prison, but was himself soon afterwards murdered. The new - pope =John XV.=, A.D. 985-996, who was thoroughly venal, was an - obedient tool of the tyranny of Crescentius, which, however, soon - became so intolerable to him, that he yearned for the restoration - of imperial rule under Otto III. At this same time great danger - threatened the imperial authority from France. Hugh Capet had, - after the death of the last Carolingian, Louis V., in A.D. 987, - taken possession for himself of the French crown. He insisted - upon John XV. deposing the archbishop Arnulf of Rheims, who had - opened the gates of Rheims to his uncle Charles of Lorraine, the - brother of Louis V.’s father. The pope, who was then dependent - upon German power, hesitated. Hugh then had Arnulf deposed at - a synod at Rheims in A.D. 921, and put in his place Gerbert, - the greatest scholar (§ 100, 2) and statesman of that age. The - council quite openly declared the whole French church to be free - from Rome, whose bishops for a hundred years had been steeped - in the most profound moral corruption, and had fallen into the - most disgraceful servitude, and Gerbert issued a confession of - faith in which celibacy and fasting were repudiated, and only - the first four œcumenical councils were acknowledged. But the - plan was shattered, not so much through the apparently fruitless - opposition of the pope as through the reaction of the high church - party of Clugny and the popular esteem in which that party was - held. Gerbert could not maintain his position, and was heartily - glad when he could shake the dust of Rheims off his feet by - accepting an honourable call of the young emperor, Otto III., - who in A.D. 997 opened new paths for his ambition by inviting - the celebrated scholar to be with him as his classical tutor. - Hugh’s successor Robert reinstated Arnulf in the see of Rheims. - John XV. called in Otto III. to his help against the intolerable - oppression of the younger Crescentius, but died before his - arrival in A.D. 996. Otto directed the choice of his cousin - Bruno, twenty-four years of age, the first German pope, who - assumed the name of =Gregory V.=, A.D. 996-999, and by him he - was crowned emperor in Rome. Gregory was a man of an energetic, - almost obstinate character, thoroughly in sympathy with the views - of the monks of Clugny. The emperor having soon returned home, - Crescentius violated his oath and made himself again master of - Rome. Gregory fled to Pavia, where he held a synod in A.D. 997, - which thundered an anathema against the disturber of the Roman - church. Meanwhile Crescentius raised to the papal throne the - archbishop John of Piacenza, formerly Greek tutor to Otto III., - under the title of John XVI. It was not till late in autumn - of that year that the emperor could hasten to the help of his - injured cousin. He then executed a fearfully severe sentence - upon the tyrant and his pope. The former was beheaded, and - his corpse dragged by the feet through the streets and then - hung upon a gallows; the latter, whom the soldiers had cruelly - deprived of his ears, tongue, and nose, was led through the - streets seated backward on an ass, with the tail tied in his - hands for reins.--From Pavia Gregory had issued a command to - Robert, the French king, to put away his queen Bertha, who was - related to him in the fourth degree, on pain of excommunication. - But he died a suspiciously sudden death before he could bring - down the pride of this king, which, however, his successor - accomplished. - - § 96.3. =Otto III.= now raised to the papal chair his teacher - Gerbert, whom he had previously made Archbishop of Ravenna, under - the title of =Sylvester II.=, A.D. 999-1003. Already in Ravenna - had Gerbert’s ecclesiastical policy been changed for the high - church views of his former opponents, and as pope he developed - an activity which marks him out as the worthy follower of his - predecessor and the precursor of a yet greater Gregory (VII.). - He energetically contended against simony, that special - canker of the church, and by sending the ring and staff to - his former opponent, Arnulf, made the first effort to assert - the papal claim to the exclusive investiture of bishops. But - he had previously, as tutor of Otto, by flattering his vanity, - inspired the imaginative, high-spirited youth with the ideal - of a restoration of the ancient glory of Rome and its emperors - exercising universal sway. And just with this view had Otto - raised him to the papal chair in order that he might have his - help. The pope did not venture openly to withdraw from this - understanding, for in the condition of Italy at that time in - a struggle with the emperor, the victory would be his in the - first instance, and that would be the destruction of the papal - chair. So there was nothing for it but by clever tacking in - spite of contrary winds of imperial policy, to make the ship of - the church hold on as far as possible in the high church course - and surround the emperor by a network of craft. The phantom - of a _Renovatio imperii Romani_ with the mummified form of the - Byzantine court ceremonial and the vain parade of a title was - called into being. On a pilgrimage to the grave of his saintly - friend Adalbert in Gnesen (§ 93, 13) the emperor emancipated - the Polish church from the German metropolitanate by raising - its see into an archbishopric. He also, in A.D. 1000, released - the Polish duke Boleslaw Chrobry (§ 93, 7), the most dangerous - enemy of Germany, who schemed the formation of a great Slavic - empire, from his fealty as a vassal of the German empire, - enlisting him instead as a “friend and confederate of the Roman - people” in his new fantastic universal empire. In the same - year, however, Sylvester, in the exercise of papal sovereignty, - conferred the royal crown on Stephen the saint of Hungary - (§ 93, 8), appointed the payment by him of a yearly tribute to - the papal vicar with ecclesiastical authority over his country, - and made that land ecclesiastically independent of Passau - and Salzburg by founding a separate metropolitanate at Gran. - Though Otto let himself be led in the hierarchical leading - strings by his papal friend, he yet made it abundantly evident - by bestowing upon his favourite pope eight counties of the States - of the Church, that he regarded these as merely a free gift of - imperial favour. He also lashed violently the extravagances as - well as the greed of the popes, and declared that the donation - of Constantine was a pure fabrication (§ 87, 4). The emperor, - however, had meanwhile thoroughly estranged his German subjects - and the German clergy by his un-German temperament. The German - princes denounced him as a traitor to the German empire. Soon - all Italy, even the much fondled Rome, rose in open revolt. Only - an early death A.D. 1002 saved the unhappy youth of twenty-two - years of age from the most terrible humiliation. With him, too, - the star of the pope’s fortunes went down. He died not long after - in A.D. 1003, and left in the popular mind the reputation of a - dealer in the black art, who owed his learning and the success - of his hierarchical career to a compact with the devil. - - § 96.4. =From Henry II. to the Synod at Sutri, - A.D. 1002-1046.=--After the death of Otto III., =Henry II.=, - A.D. 1002-1024, previously duke of Bavaria, a great-grandson of - Henry I. and as such the last scion of the Saxon line, obtained - the German crown--a ruler who proved one of the ablest that ever - occupied that throne. A bigoted pietist and under the power of - the priests, although pious-hearted according to the spirit of - the times and strongly attached to the church, and seeking in - the bishops supports of the empire against the relaxing influence - of the temporal princes, yet no other German emperor ruled over - the church to the same extent that he did, and no one ventured - so far as he did to impress strongly upon the church, by the most - extensive appropriation of ecclesiastical property, especially - of rich monasteries, that this was the shortest and surest way - of bringing about a much needed reformation. Meanwhile in Rome, - after the death of Otto III., Joannes Crescentius, the son of - Crescentius II., who was beheaded by order of Otto, assumed the - government, and set upon the chair of Peter creatures of his - own, John XVII., XVIII., and Sergius IV. But as he and his last - elected pope died soon after one another in A.D. 1012, the long - subjected faction of the Tusculan counts, successors of Alberich, - came to the front again, and chose as pope a scion of one - of their own families, =Benedict VIII.=, A.D. 1012-1024. The - anti-pope Gregory, chosen by the Crescentians, was obliged to - retire from the field. He sought protection from Henry II. But - this monarch came to an understanding with the incomparably - nobler and abler Benedict, received from him for himself and - his Queen Cunigunda, subsequently canonized by Innocent III., - the imperial crown, in A.D. 1014, and continued ever after to - maintain excellent relations with him. These two, the emperor - and the pope, were on friendly terms with the monks of Clugny. - They both acknowledged the need of a thorough reformation of - the church, and both carried it out so far as this could be - done by the influence and example of their own personal conduct, - disposition, and character. But the pope had so much to do - fighting the Crescentians, then the Greeks and Saracens in - Italy, and the emperor in quelling internal troubles in his - empire and repelling foreign invasions, that it was only toward - the close of their lives that they could take any very decided - action. The pope made the first move, for at the Synod of Pavia - in A.D. 1018, he excommunicated all married priests and those - living in concubinage, and sentenced their children to slavery. - The emperor entertained a yet more ambitious scheme. He wished - to summon a Western œcumenical council at Pavia, and there to - engage upon the reformation of the whole church of the West. - But the death of the pope in A.D. 1024, which was followed in - a few months by the death of the emperor, prevented the carrying - out of this plan. After the death of the childless Henry II., - =Conrad II.=, A.D. 1024-1039, the founder of the Franconian or - Salic dynasty, ascended the German throne. To him the empire - was indebted for great internal reforms and a great extension - of power, but he gave no attention to the carrying out of his - predecessor’s plans of ecclesiastical reformation. Still less, - however, was anything of the kind to be looked for from the - popes of that period. Benedict VIII. was succeeded by his brother - Romanus, under the name of =John XIX.=, A.D. 1024-1033, as void - of character and noble sentiments (§ 67, 2) as his predecessor - had been distinguished. When he died, Count Alberich of Tusculum - was able by means of presents and promises to get the Romans to - elect his son Theophylact, who, though only twelve years old, - was already practised in the basest vice. He took the name of - =Benedict IX.=, A.D. 1033-1048, and disgraced the papal chair - with the most shameless profligacy. The state of matters became - better under Conrad’s son, =Henry III.=, A.D. 1039-1056, who - strove after the founding of a universal monarchy in the sense - of Charlemagne, and by a powerful and able government he came - nearer reaching this end than any of the German emperors. He - was at the same time inspired with a zeal for the reformation - of the church such as none of his predecessors or successors, - with the exception of Henry II., ever showed. Benedict IX. was, - in A.D. 1044, for the second time driven out by the Romans. They - now sold the tiara to Sylvester III., who three months after - was driven out by Benedict. This pope now fell in love with his - beautiful cousin, daughter of a Tusculan count, and formed the - bold resolve to marry her. But the father of the lady refused - his consent so long as he was pope. Benedict now sold the papal - chair for a thousand pounds of silver to the archdeacon Joannes - Gratian. This man, a pious simple individual, in order to save - the chair of St. Peter from utter overthrow, took upon himself - the disgrace of simony at the bidding of his friends of Clugny, - among whom a young Roman monk called Hildebrand, son of poor - parents of Soana, in Tuscany, was already most conspicuous. The - new pope assumed the name of =Gregory VI.=, A.D. 1044-1046. He - wanted the talents necessary for the hard task he had undertaken. - Benedict having failed in carrying out his matrimonial plans, - again claimed to be pope, as did also Sylvester. Thus Rome - had at one and the same time, three popes, and all three were - publicly known to be simonists. The Clugny party cast off their - protégé Gregory, and called in the German emperor as saviour of - the church. Henry came and had all the the three popes deposed - at the =Synod at Sutri=, A.D. 1046. The Romans gave to him the - right of making a new appointment. It fell upon Suidger, bishop - of Bamberg, who took the name of =Clement II.=, and crowned - the king emperor on Christmas, A.D. 1046. The Romans were so - delighted at having order restored in the city, that they gave - over to the emperor with the rank of patrician the government - of Rome and the right of papal election for all time, and swore - never to consecrate a pope without the emperor’s concurrence. - Henry took the ex-pope Gregory along with him, back to Germany, - where he died in exile, at Cologne. Hildebrand, his chaplain, - had accompanied him thither, and after his death retired into - the monastery of Clugny. - - § 96.5. =Henry III. and his German Popes, A.D. 1046-1057.=--With - =Clement III.=, 1046-1047, begins a whole series of able German - popes, who, elected by Henry III., wrought under his protection - powerfully and successfully for the reform of the church. All - interested in the reformation, the brethren of Clugny, as well - as the disciples of Romuald and the settlers in Vallombrosa - (§ 98, 1), agreed that at the root of all the corruption of the - church of that age were _simony_, or obtaining spiritual offices - by purchase or bribery (Acts viii. 19), and _Nicolaitanism_ - (§ 27, 8), under which name were included all fleshly lusts - of the clergy, marriage as well as concubinage and unnatural - vices. These two were, especially in Italy, so widely spread, - that scarcely a priest was to be found who had not been guilty - of both. Clement II., in the emperor’s presence, at a synod - in Rome in A.D. 1047, began the battle against simony. But - he died before the end of the year, probably by poison. While - Roman envoys presented themselves at the German court about - the election of a new pope, Benedict IX., supported by the - Tusculan party, again laid claim to the papal chair, and the - emperor had to utter the severest threats before the man of - his choice, Poppo, bishop of Brixen, was allowed to occupy - the papal chair as =Damasus II.= Twenty-three days afterwards, - however, he was a corpse. This cooled the ardour of German - bishops for election to so dangerous a position, and only after - long persuasion Bishop Bruno of Toul, the emperor’s cousin - and a zealous friend of Clugny, accepted the appointment, on - the condition that it should have the approval of the people - and clergy of Rome, which, as was to be expected, was given - with acclamation. He ascended the papal throne as Leo IX., - A.D. 1049-1054. According to a later story conceived in the - interests of Hildebrandism, Bruno is said not only to have made - his definite acceptance of the imperial call dependent upon the - supplementary free election of people and clergy of Rome, but - also to have been prevailed upon by Hildebrand, who by his own - request accompanied him, to lay aside his papal ornaments, to - continue his journey in pilgrim garb, and to make his entrance - into the eternal city barefoot, so that the necessary sanction - of a formal canonical election might be given to the imperial - nomination. Leo found the papal treasures emptied to the last - coin and robbed of all its territorial revenues by the nobles. - But Hildebrand was his minister of finance, and soon improved - the condition of his exchequer. Leo now displayed an unexampled - activity in church reform and the purifying of the papacy. No - pope travelled about so much as he, none held as many synods - in the most distant places and various lands. The uprooting of - simony was in all cases the main point in their decrees. By bonds - of gratitude and relationship, but above all of common interests, - he was attached to the German emperor. He could not therefore - think of emancipating the papacy from the imperial suzerainty. - Practically Leo succeeded in clearing the Augean stable of the - Roman clergy, and filled vacancies with virtuous men brought - from far and near. In order to chastise the Normans, put by him - under ban because of their rapacity, he himself took the field - in A.D. 1053, when the emperor refused to do so, but was taken - prisoner after his army had been annihilated, and only succeeded, - after he had removed the excommunication, in getting them to kiss - his feet with the most profound devotion. He demanded from the - Greek emperor full restitution of the donation of Constantine, - so far as this was still in the possession of the Byzantines, - and his envoys at Constantinople rendered the split between the - Eastern and Western churches irreparable (§ 67, 3). Leo died in - A.D. 1054, the only pope for centuries whom the church honours as - a saint. A Roman embassy called upon the emperor to nominate a - new pope. He fixed upon Gebhardt, bishop of Eichstädt [Eichstadt], - who now ascended the papal throne as =Victor II.=, A.D. 1055-1057. - Here again monkish tales have transformed a single matter of fact - into a romance in the interests of their own party. The Romans - wished Hildebrand himself for their pope, but he was unwilling - yet to assume such a responsibility. He put himself, however, - at the head of an embassy which convinced the emperor of the - sinfulness of his former interferences in the papal elections, - and persuaded him to set aside the tyrannical power of his - patrician’s rank and to resign to the clergy and people their - old electoral rights. As candidate for this election, Hildebrand - himself chose bishop Gebhardt, the most trusted counsellor of - the emperor. After long opposition Henry’s consent was won to - this candidature, he even urged the bishop to accept it, who at - last submitted with the words: “Now so do I surrender myself to - St. Peter, soul and body, but only on the condition that you also - yield to him what belongs to him.” The latter, however, seems - not mere beating of the air, for the emperor restored to the - newly elected pope the patrimony of Peter in the widest extent, - and bestowed on him besides the governorship of all Italy.--Henry - died in A.D. 1056, after he had appointed his queen Agnes to the - regency, and had recommended her to the counsel and good offices - of the pope. But the pope’s days were already numbered. He died - in A.D. 1057. Hildebrand could not boast of having dominated him, - but the position of the powerful monk of Clugny under him had - become one of great importance. - - § 96.6. =The Papacy under the Control of Hildebrand, - A.D. 1057-1078.=--After Victor’s death the cardinals without - paying any regard to the imperial right, immediately elected - Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, at that time abbot of Monte - Cassino, and Hildebrand travelled to Germany in order to - obtain the _post factum_ approval of the empress. =Stephen IX.=, - A.D. 1057-1058, for so Frederick styled himself, died before - Hildebrand’s return. The Tusculan party took advantage of - his absence to put forward as pope a partisan of their own, - Benedict X., A.D. 1058. But an embassy of Hildebrand’s to the - empress secured the succession to bishop Gerhard of Florence. - Benedict was obliged to withdraw, and Gerhard ascended the papal - throne as Nicholas II., A.D. 1058-1061. With him begins the - full development of Hildebrand’s greatness, and from this time, - A.D. 1059, when he became archdeacon of Rome, till he himself - mounted the papal chair, he was the moving spirit of the Romish - hierarchy. By his powerful genius in spite of all hindrances he - raised the papacy and the church to a height of power and glory - never attained unto before. He thus wrought on, systematically, - firmly, and irresistibly advancing toward a complete reformation - in ecclesiastical polity. Absolute freedom of the church from - the power and influence of the state, and in order to attain - this and make it sure, the dominion of the church over the - state, papal elections independent of any sort of temporal - influence, the complete uprooting of all simoniacal practices, - unrelenting strictness in dealing with the immorality of the - clergy, invariable enforcement of the law of celibacy, as the - most powerful means of emancipating the clergy from the world - and the state, filling the sacred offices with the most virtuous - and capable men, were some of the noble aims and achievements - of this reformation. Hildebrand sought the necessary secular - protection and aid for the carrying out of his plans among - the Normans. Nicholas II., on the basis of the donation of - Constantine, gave as a fief to their leader, Robert Guiscard - (§ 95, 1), the lordship of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, out of - which the Saracens had yet to be expelled, and exacted from him - the oath of a vassal, by which he bound himself to pay a yearly - tribute, to protect the papal chair against all encroachments - of its privileges, and above all to maintain the right of papal - elections by the “_meliores cardinales_.” Yet again, Nicholas, - when, at a later period, by the help of the Normans, he had - broken the power of the Tusculan nobles, issued a decree at - a Lateran synod at Rome, in A.D. 1059, by which papal elections - (§ 82, 4) were regulated anew. Of the two extant recensions - of this decree, which are distinguished as the papal and the - imperial, the former is now universally acknowledged to be - the more authentic form. According to it the election lies - exclusively with the Roman cardinal priests (§ 97, 1); to - the rest of the clergy as to the people there is left only - the right of acclamation, that brought no advantage, and to - the emperor, according to Boichorst, the right of concurrence - after the election and investiture, according to Granert, the - right of veto before the election. This decree, and not less - the league with the Normans, were open slights to the imperial - claims upon Italy and the papal chair. The empress therefore - convened about Easter, A.D. 1061, a council of German bishops, at - which Nicholas was deposed, and all his decisions were annulled. - Soon after the pope died. The Tusculan party, now joined with - the Germans under the Lombard chancellor Wibert, asked a new - pope from the empress. At the Council of Basel in A.D. 1061, - bishop Cadalus of Parma was appointed. He assumed the name - of Honorius II., A.D. 1061-1072. But Hildebrand had already - five weeks earlier in concert with the Margravine Beatrice - of Canossa, wholly on his own responsibility, chosen bishop - Anselm of Lucca, and had him consecrated as =Alexander II.= - A.D. 1061-1073. Honorius advanced to Rome, accompanied by - Wibert, and frequently in bloody conflicts conquered the - party of his opponent. Duke Godfrey the Bearded of Lorraine, - the husband of Beatrice, now appeared as mediator. He made - both popes retire to their dioceses and gave to the empress - the decision of the controversy. But meanwhile a catastrophe - occurred in Germany that led to the most important results. - Archbishop Anno of Cologne, standing at the head of a rising - of the princes, decoyed the young king of twelve years of age - on board a ship at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, and took him - to Cologne. The regency and the conduct of government were - now transferred to the German bishops collectively, but lay - practically in the hands of Anno, who meanwhile, however, - since A.D. 1063, found himself obliged to share the power with - Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen. At a council held at Augsburg - in A.D. 1062, Alexander was acknowledged as the true pope, but - Honorius by no means resigned his claims. With a small army - he advanced upon Rome in A.D. 1064, seized fort Leo, which - had been built and fortified by Leo IV. for defence against - the Saracens, entrenched himself in the castle of St. Angelo, - and repeatedly routed his opponent’s forces. But Hildebrand - reminded the Normans of their oath of fealty. At a council - held at Mantua in A.D. 1064 (or 1067?) Alexander was once - again acknowledged, and Honorius, whose party the council - sought in vain to break up by force of arms, was again deposed. - The proud, ambitious and self-seeking priest of Cologne had - meanwhile been obliged to transfer to his northern colleague, - Adalbert of Bremen, the further education and training of - the young king, who, though only fifteen years old was now - proclaimed of age in A.D. 1065, as =Henry IV.=, A.D. 1056-1106. - If the bishop of Cologne injured the disposition of the royal - youth by his excessive harshness and severity, the bishop of - Bremen did him irreparable damage by allowing him unrestrained - indulgence in his evil passions. - - § 96.7. =Gregory VII., A.D. 1073-1085.=--Hildebrand had at last - brought the papacy to such a height of power that he was able - now to put the finishing stroke to his own work in his own name, - and so now he mounted the chair of the chief of the apostles, - as Gregory VII., elected and enthroned by a disorderly mob. The - Lombard and German bishops appealed to the emperor to have the - election declared invalid. But he being on all sides threatened - with wars and revolution, thought it advisable to forego the - assertion of his rights and to win the favour of the pope by a - letter full of devotion and humility. At the Roman Fast Synod of - A.D. 1074, Gregory renewed the old law of celibacy and rendered - it more strict, deposed all married priests or those who got - office through simony, and pronounced their priestly acts - invalid. The lower clergy, who were generally married, violently - opposed the measure, but Gregory’s stronger will prevailed. Papal - legates visited all lands, and, supported by the people, insisted - upon the strict observance of the papal decree. At the next - fast synod in A.D. 1075, the pope began the contest against the - usual investiture of the higher clergy by the temporal princes, - with ring and staff as symbols of episcopal office. Whoever - should accept ecclesiastical office from the hand of a layman - was to be deposed, and any potentate who should give investiture - should be put under the ban of the church. Here too he thundered - his anathema against the counsellors of Henry who should meanwhile - prove guilty of the sale of ecclesiastical offices. Henry, whose - hands were fully occupied with the rebellious Saxons, at first - dismissed his counsellors, but after the close of the wars he - reinstated them, and quite ignored the papal prohibition of - investiture. Gregory had for a while quite enough to do in Italy. - Cencius, the head of the nobles opposed to reform, fell upon - him on Christmas, A.D. 1075, during Divine service, and made - him prisoner, but the Romans rescued him, and Cencius had to - take to flight. On New Year’s Day, A.D. 1076, there appeared at - the royal residence at Goslar a papal embassy which threatened - the king with excommunication and deposition should he not - immediately break off all relations with the counsellors under - the ban, and reform his own infamous life. The king burst out - in furious rage. He heaped insults upon the legates, and at - the Synod of Worms, on 24th January, had the pope formally - deposed as a perjured usurper of the papal chair, a tyrant, - an adulterer and a sorcerer. The Lombard bishops, too, gave - their consent to this decree (§ 97, 5). At the next Roman Fast - Synod on 22nd February, the pope placed all bishops who had - taken part in these proceedings under ban, and at the same time - solemnly excommunicated and deposed the king, and released all - his subjects from the obligation of their oaths of allegiance. - Moreover he had the king’s ambassadors, whose life he had - preserved from the fury of those present at the meeting of - synod by his personal interference, cast into prison, and - then in the most contemptuous manner led through the streets. - The papal ban made a deep impression upon the German people - and princes. One bishop after another gave in, the Saxons - raised a new revolt, and at the princes’ conference at Tribur, - in October, A.D. 1076, the pope was invited to come personally - to Augsburg on 2nd February, to meet and confer with the princes - about the affairs of the king. It was resolved that if Henry - did not succeed by 22nd February, the first anniversary of the - ban, to get it removed, he should for ever forfeit the crown, - but that meanwhile he should reside at Spires and continue in - the exercise of all royal prerogatives. - - § 96.8. It was for the pope’s advantage to have the business - settled upon German soil with the greatest possible publicity. - Therefore he scornfully refused the humble petition of the king - to send him absolution from Rome, and hastened his preparations - for travelling to Augsburg. But Henry went forth to meet him on - the way. Shortly before Christmas he escaped from Spires with - his wife and child, and in spite of a severe winter crossed Mount - Cenis. The Lombards protected him in defying the pretensions - of the pope. But Henry’s whole attention was now directed to - overturning the machinations of the hostile German princes. - So he suddenly appeared at Canossa, where Gregory was staying - with the Margravine Matilda, daughter of Beatrice, a princess - enthusiastically attached to him and his ideal. This meeting - was unexpected and undesired by the pope. There during the cold - winter days, from 25th to 27th January, A.D. 1077, stood the son - of Henry III. barefoot in the courtyard of the castle of Canossa, - wearing a sackcloth shirt, fasting all day and supplicating - access to the proud monk. With inflexible severity the pope - refused, until at last the tears, entreaties, and reproaches - of the margravine overcame his obduracy. Henry promised to - submit himself to the future judgment of the pope in regard - to his reconciliation with the German princes, and was absolved. - Nevertheless the princes at the Assembly at Forcheim in March, - with the concurrence of the papal legate, elected a new king in - the person of Rudolph of Swabia, Henry’s brother-in-law. Roused - to fury, Henry now hastened back to Germany, where soon he - gathered round him a great army. Notwithstanding all pressure - brought to bear upon him, Gregory maintained for three years a - position of neutrality, but at last, in A.D. 1080, at the Roman - Fast Synod, where the envoys of the contending kings presented - their complaints, he renewed the excommunication and deposition - of Henry. Then the bishops of Henry’s party immediately met - at Brixen, and hurled the anathema and pronounced sentence of - deposition against Gregory, and elected as anti-pope Wibert, - formerly chancellor, then archbishop of Ravenna, who assumed - the title of Clement III., A.D. 1080-1100. After the death of - Rudolph in battle, at Merseburg, in A.D. 1080, Henry marched - across the Alps and appeared at Pentecost before the gates - of Rome, which were opened to him after a three years’ siege. - Clement III. then at Easter, A.D. 1084, set upon him and his - queen the imperial crown. Gregory had withdrawn to the Castle - of St. Angelo. Henry, however, was compelled by the appearance - of a new rival for the crown, Henry, Count of Luxemburg, to - return to Germany, and Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, hastened - from the south to deliver the pope, which he accomplished only - after Rome had been fearfully devastated. Gregory died in the - following year, A.D. 1085, at Salerno. Gregory VII. also took - the field against the dissolute and prodigal king of France, - Philip I., and threatened him, because of simony, with interdict - and deposition. His success here, however, was comparatively - small. Philip avowedly submitted to the papal decree, but did - not in the least alter his conduct, and Gregory felt that it was - not prudent to push matters to an extremity. He showed himself - more indulgent toward the powerful William the Conqueror of - England, although this prince ruled the church of his dominions - with an iron hand, pronounced all church property to be freehold, - and was scarcely less guilty of simony than the kings of Germany - and France. Yet the pope himself, who hoped to secure the aid - of his arms against Henry IV., and sought therefore to dazzle - him with the prospect of the imperial throne, winked at his - delinquencies, and loaded him with expressions of his good-will. - The primate of England, too, the powerful Conqueror’s right-hand - supporter, Lanfranc of Canterbury, who bore a grudge against - Gregory because of his patronage of the heretic Berengarius - [Berengar] (§ 101, 2), showed no special zeal for the reforms - advocated by the pope. At a synod held at Winchester in A.D. 1076, - the law of celibacy was enforced, with this limitation, however, - that those of the secular clergy who were already married should - not be required to put away their wives, but no further marriages - among them were to be permitted.[275] - - § 96.9. =The Central Idea in Gregory’s Policy= was the - establishment of a universal theocracy, with the pope as - its one visible head, the representative of Christ upon earth, - who as such stands over the powers of the world. Alongside of - it, indeed, the royal authority was to stand independently as - one ordained of God, but it was to confine itself strictly to - temporal affairs, and to be directed by the pope in regard to - whatever might be partly within and partly without these lines. - All states bearing the Christian name were to be bound together - as members of one body in the great papal theocracy which had - superior to it only God and His law. The princes must receive - consecration and Divine sanction from the spiritual power; - they are “by the grace of God,” not immediately, however, but - only mediately, the church as the middle term stands between - them and God. The pope is their arbiter and highest liege lord, - whose decisions they are under obligation unconditionally to - obey. Royalty stands related to the papacy as the moon to the - sun, from which she receives her light and warmth. The church, - which lends to the power of the world her Divine authority, can - also withdraw it again when it is being misused. When this is - done, the obligation of subjects to obey also ceases. Gregory - began this gigantic work, not so much to raise himself personally - to the utmost pinnacle of power, but rather to save the church - from destruction. He certainly was not free from ambition - and the lust of ruling, but with him higher than all personal - interests was the idea of the high vocation of the church, - and to the realizing of it he enthusiastically devoted all - the energies of his life. On the other hand, he cannot escape - the reproach of having striven with carnal weapons for what he - called a spiritual victory, of having meted out unequal measures, - where his interests demanded it, in the exercise of his assumed - function as judge of kings and princes, and of having occupied - himself more with political schemes and intrigues than with the - ministry of the church of Christ. His whole career shows him to - have been a man of great self reliance, yet, on the other hand, - he was able to preserve the consciousness of the poor sinner who - seeks and finds salvation only in the mercy of Christ. The strict - morality of his life has been admitted even by his bitterest - foes. Not infrequently too did he show himself in advance of - his time in humanity and liberality of sentiment, as _e.g._ - in the Berengarian controversy (§ 101, 2), and in his decided - disapproval of the prosecution of witches and sorcerers.[276] - - § 96.10. =Victor III. and Urban II., A.D. 1086-1099.=--Gregory VII. - was succeeded by the talented abbot of Monte Cassino, Desiderius, - under the title of =Victor III.=, A.D. 1086-1087. Only after - great pressure was brought to bear upon him did he consent to - leave the cloister, which under his rule had flourished in a - remarkable manner; but now aged and sickly, he only enjoyed - the pontificate for sixteen months. His successor was bishop - Odo, of Ostia, a Frenchman by birth, and a member of the Clugny - brotherhood, who took the name of =Urban II.=, A.D. 1088-1099. - For a long time he was obliged to give up Rome to the party of - the imperial anti-pope. But the enthusiasm with which the idea - of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre was taken up, which he proposed - to Western Christendom at the Council of Clermont, in A.D. 1095 - (§ 94), secured for him the highest position in his time, and - made him strong enough to withstand the opposition of Philip I., - king of France, whom he had put under ban at Clermont, on - account of his adulterous connection with Bertrada. Returning - to Italy from his victorious campaign through France, he was - able to celebrate Christmas once again in the Lateran at Rome - in A.D. 1096. His main supporters in the conflict against the - emperor were the powerful Margravine Matilda, and the emperor’s - most dangerous opponent in Germany, duke Welf of Bavaria, whose - son of the same name, then in his seventeenth year, was married - by the pope to the widowed Matilda, who was now forty years of - age, whence arose the first of the anti-imperial and strongly - papistical Welf or Guelph party in Germany and Italy. On the - other side the margravine succeeded in stirring up Conrad, - the son of Henry IV., to rebel against his father, and had him - crowned king in A.D. 1087. At Cremona this prince held the pope’s - stirrup, and took the oath of obedience to him. The emperor had - him deposed in A.D. 1098, and had his second son elected and - crowned as Henry V. Urban, who received on his death-bed the - news of the destruction of Jerusalem, died in A.D. 1099, and - his anti-pope Clement III., who had withdrawn to Ravenna, died - in the following year. - - § 96.11. =Paschalis II., Gelasius II., and Calixtus II., - A.D. 1099-1124.=--Urban’s successor, =Paschalis II.=, - A.D. 1099-1118, also a member of the Clugny brotherhood, at - once stirred up the fire of rebellion against the excommunicated - emperor, and favoured a conspiracy of the princes. The young - king, at the head of the insurgents, took his father prisoner, - and obliged him to abdicate in A.D. 1106. Six months afterwards - the emperor died. The church’s curse pursued even his corpse. - Twice interred in holy ground, first in the cathedral of Liège, - then in the cathedral of Spires, his bones were exhumed and - thrown into unconsecrated ground, until at last, in A.D. 1111, - his son obtained the withdrawal of the ban. At the Council - of Guastalla in A.D. 1106, Paschalis renewed the prohibition - of =Investiture=. But =Henry V.=, A.D. 1106-1125, concerned - himself as little about this prohibition as his father had done. - No sooner had he seated himself upon the throne in Germany than - he crossed the Alps to compel the pope to crown him emperor - and concede to him the right of investiture. The pope, who was - willing that the church should be poor if only she retained - her freedom, being now without counsel or help (for Matilda - was old and her warlike spirit was broken, and from the Normans - no assistance could be looked for), was driven in A.D. 1111, in - his perplexity to offer a compromise, whereby the emperor should - surrender investiture to the church, but on the other hand the - clergy should return to him all landed property and privileges - given them by the state since the times of Charlemagne, while - the Patrimony of Peter should continue the property of the - pope himself. On the basis of this agreement the coronation of - the emperor was to be celebrated in St. Peter’s on 12th Feb., - A.D. 1111. But when after the celebration had begun the document - which set forth the compact was read, the prelates present in - the cathedral raised loud cries of dissent and demanded that it - should immediately be cancelled. The coronation was not proceeded - with, the pope and his cardinals were thrown into prison, and a - revolt of the Romans was suppressed. The pope was then compelled - to rescind the synodal decrees and formally to grant to the king - the right of investiture; he had also, after solemnly promising - never again to put the emperor under ban, to proceed with the - coronation. But Hildebrand’s party called the pope to account - for this betrayal of the church. A synod at Rome in A.D. 1112 - declared the concessions wrung from him invalid, and pronounced - the ban against the emperor. The pope, however, remembering his - oaths, refused to confirm it, but it was nevertheless proclaimed - by his legate in the French and German synods. Matilda’s death - in A.D. 1115 called the emperor again to Italy. She had even in - the time of Gregory VII. made over all her goods and possessions - to the Roman Church; but she had the right of free disposal - only in regard to allodial property, not in regard to her feudal - territories. Henry, however, now laid claim to all her belongings. - At the Fast Synod of A.D. 1116 Paschalis asked pardon of God and - man for his sin of weakness, renewed and made more strict the - prohibition of investiture, but still stoutly refused to confirm - the ban of the emperor. In consequence of a rebellion of the - Romans he was obliged to take to flight, and he died in exile - in A.D. 1118. The high church party now chose =Gelasius II.=, - A.D. 1118-1119, but immediately after the election he was seized - by a second Cencius (see § 96, 7) on account of a private grudge, - fearfully maltreated and confined in chains within his castle. - The Romans indeed rescued him, but the emperor’s sudden arrival - in Rome led him, in order to avoid making inconvenient terms of - peace, to seek his own and the church’s safety in flight. The - people and nobles in concert with the emperor set up Gregory VIII. - as anti-pope. So soon as the emperor left Rome, Gelasius returned. - But Cencius fell upon him during Divine service, and only - with difficulty he escaped further maltreatment by flight - into France, where he died in the monastery of Clugny after a - pontificate of scarcely twelve months. The few cardinals present - at Clugny elected archbishop Guido of Vienne. He assumed the - title of =Calixtus II.=, A.D. 1119-1124. Pope and emperor met - together expressing desires for peace. But the auspiciously - begun negotiations never got beyond the statement of the terms - of contract, and ended in the pope renewing at the Council - of Rheims, in A.D. 1119, the anathema against the emperor and - anti-pope. Next year Calixtus crossed the Alps. He received - a hearty greeting in Rome. He laid siege to the anti-pope - in Sutri, took him prisoner, and after the most contumelious - treatment before the Roman mob, cast him into a monastic prison. - The investiture question, now better understood through learned - discussions on civil and ecclesiastical law, was at last - definitely settled in the =Worms Concordat=, as the result - of mutual concessions made at the National Assembly at Worms, - A.D. 1122. The arrangement come to was this: canonical election - of bishops and abbots of the empire by the diocesan clergy - and the secular nobles should be restored, and under imperial - inspection made free from all coercion, but in disputed elections - decisions should be given in accordance with the judgment of - the metropolitan and the rest of the bishops, the investing of - the elected with the sceptre in Germany before, in other parts - of the empire after, consecration, should belong to the emperor, - and investiture with ring and staff at the consecration should - belong to the pope. This agreement was solemnly ratified at the - =First Œcumenical Lateran Synod= in A.D. 1123. - - § 96.12. The contemporary =English Investiture Controversy= - was brought earlier to a conclusion. William the Conqueror had - unopposed put Norman prelates in the place of the English bishops, - and had homage rendered him by them, while they received from - him investiture with the ring and the staff. William Rufus, the - Conqueror’s son and successor, A.D. 1087-1100, a domineering and - greedy prince, after Lanfranc’s death in A.D. 1089 (§ 101, 1) - allowed the archbishopric of Canterbury to remain vacant for - four years, in order that he might himself enjoy the undisturbed - possession of the revenues. It was not till A.D. 1093, during - a severe illness and under fear of death, that he agreed to - bestow it upon Anselm, the celebrated Abbot of Bec (§ 101, 1, 3), - with the promise to abstain ever afterwards from simony. No - sooner had he recovered than he repented him of his promise. - He resumed his old practices, and even demanded of Anselm a - large sum for his appointment. For peace sake Anselm gave him - a voluntary present of money, but it did not satisfy the king. - When, in A.D. 1097, the archbishop asked permission to make a - journey to Rome in order to have the conflict settled there, - the king banished him. In Rome Anselm was honourably received - and his conduct was highly approved; but neither Urban II. nor - Paschalis II. could venture upon a complete breach with the - king. William the Conqueror’s third son, Henry I. Beauclerk, - A.D. 1100-1135, who, having also snatched Normandy from his - eldest brother Robert, needed the support of the clergy to - secure his position, agreed to the return of the exiled primate, - and promised to put a stop to every kind of simony; but he - demanded the maintenance of investiture and the oath of fealty - which Anselm now, in consequence of the decrees of a Roman - synod which he had himself agreed to, felt obliged to refuse. - Thus again the conflict was renewed. The king now confiscated - the goods and revenues of the see, and the archbishop was on the - point of issuing an excommunication against him, when at last an - understanding was come to in A.D. 1106, through the mediation of - the pope, according to which the crown gave up the investiture - with ring and staff, and the archbishop agreed to take the oath - of fealty.--In France, too, from the end of the 11th century, - owing to the pressure used by the high church reforming party, - the secular power was satisfied with securing the oath of - fealty from the higher clergy, without making further claim - to investiture.[277] - - § 96.13. =The Times of Lothair III. and Conrad III., - A.D. 1125-1152.=--After the death of Henry V. without issue, - the Saxon =Lothair=, A.D. 1125-1137, was elected, and the - Hohenstaufen grandson of Henry IV. descended in the female - line was passed over. =Honorius II.=, A.D. 1124-1130, successor - of Calixtus II., hastened to confer the papal sanction upon - the newly elected emperor, who already upon his election had, - by accepting spiritual investiture before temporal investiture, - and a minimising of the oath of fealty by ecclesiastical - reservations, showed himself ready to support the claims - of the clergy. But neither ban nor the preaching of a crusade - against Count Roger II. of Sicily (§ 95, 1) could prevent him - from building up a powerful kingdom comprehending all Southern - Italy. The next election of the cardinals gives us two popes: - =Innocent II.=, A.D. 1130-1143, and Anacletus II., A.D. 1130-1138. - The latter, although not the pope of the majority, secured a - powerful support in the friendship of Roger II., whom he had - crowned king by his legate at Palermo. Innocent, on the other - hand, fled to France. There the two oracles of the age, the - abbot Peter of Clugny and Bernard of Clairvaux, took his side - and won for him the favour of all Cisalpine Europe. Both popes - fished for Lothair’s favour with the bait of the promise of - imperial coronation. A second edition of the Synod of Sutri - would probably have enabled a more powerful king to attain the - elevation of Henry III. But Lothair was not the man to seize the - opportunity. He decided in favour of the _protégé_ of Bernard, - led him back in A.D. 1133 to the eternal city, had himself - crowned emperor by him in the Lateran and invested with Matilda’s - inheritance, which was declared by the curialists a fief of - the empire. But Lothair’s repeated demands, that what had been - acquired by the Concordat of Worms should be renounced, were - set aside, through the opposition not so much of the pope as - of St. Bernard and St. Norbert (§ 98, 2). At the prayer of the - pope, who immediately after Lothair’s departure had been driven - out by Roger, and moved by the prophetic exhortations of Bernard, - the emperor prepared for a second Roman campaign in A.D. 1136. - Leaving the conquest of Rome to the eloquence of the prophet - of Clairvaux, he advanced from one victory to another until he - brought all Southern Italy under the imperial sway, and died on - his return homeward in an Alpine hut in the Tyrol. Fuming with - rage Roger now crossed over from Sicily and in a short time he - reconquered his southern provinces of Italy. The appointment, - however, of a new pope after the death of Anacletus miscarried, - and Innocent was able at the =Second Œcumenical Lateran Synod= - in A.D. 1139 to declare the schism at an end. The pope then - renewed the excommunication of Roger and pronounced an anathema - against the teachings of Arnold of Brescia (§ 108, 7), a young - enthusiastic priest of the school of Abælard, who traced all - ecclesiastical corruption back to the wealth of the church and - the secular power of the clergy. He next prepared himself for - war with Roger. That prince, however, waylaid him and had him - brought into his tent, where he and his sons cast themselves at - the holy father’s feet and begged for mercy and peace. The pope - could do nothing else than play the _rôle_ of the magnanimous - given him in this comedy. He had therefore to confirm the - hated Norman in the possession of the conquered provinces - as a hereditary monarchy with the ecclesiastical privilege - of a native legate, and, as some set off to comfort himself - with, the prince was to regard the territory as a fief of the - papal see. But still greater calamities befell this pope. The - republican freedom, which the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy - won during the 12th century, awakened also among the Romans - a love of liberty. They refused to render obedience in temporal - matters to the pope and established in the Capitol a popular - senate, which undertook the civil government in the name of - the Roman Commune. Innocent died during the revolution. His - successor =Cœlestine II.= held the pontificate for only five - months, and =Lucius II.=, after vainly opposing the Commune - for seven months, was killed by a stone thrown in a tumult. - =Eugenius III.=, A.D. 1145-1153, a scholar and friend of - St. Bernard, was obliged immediately after his election to - seek safety in flight. An agreement, however, was come to in - that same year: the pope acknowledged the government of the - Commune as legitimate, while it recognised his superiority and - granted to him the investiture of the senators. Yet, though - taken back three times to Rome, he could never remain there for - more than a few months. He visited France and Germany (Treves) - in A.D. 1147. In France he heard of the fall of Edessa. Supported - by the fiery zeal of Bernard, the summons to a second crusade - (§ 94, 2) aroused a burning enthusiasm throughout all the West. - But in Rome he was unable to offer any effectual resistance - to the demagogical preaching by which Arnold of Brescia from - A.D. 1146 had inflamed the people and the inferior clergy with - an ardent enthusiasm for his ideal constitution of an apostolic - church and a democratic state. Since this change of feeling - had taken place in Rome, both parties, that of the Capitol - as well as that of the Lateran, had repeatedly endeavoured - to win to their side the first Hohenstaufen on the German - throne, =Conrad III.=, A.D. 1138-1152, by promise of bestowing - the imperial crown. But Conrad, meanwhile otherwise occupied, - refrained from all intermeddling, and when at last he actually - started upon a journey to Rome death overtook him on the way. - - § 96.14. =The Times of Frederick I. and Henry VI., - A.D. 1152-1190.=--The nephew and successor of Conrad III., - =Frederick I. Barbarossa=, A.D. 1152-1190, began his reign with - the firm determination to realize fully the ideas of Charlemagne - (§ 82, 3) by his pope Paschalis III., whom at a later period, - in A.D. 1165, he had canonized. With profound contempt at heart - for the Roman democracy of his time, he concluded a compact - in A.D. 1153 with the papal see, which confirmed him in the - possession of the imperial crown and gave to the pope the - _Dominium temporale_ in the Church States. After the death - of Eugenius which soon followed, the aged =Anastasius IV.= - occupied the papal chair for a year and a half, a time of peace - and progress. He was succeeded by the powerful =Hadrian IV.=, - A.D. 1154-1159. He was an Englishman, Nicholas Breakspear, son - of a poor English priest, the first and, down to the present - time, the only one of that nation who attained the papal dignity. - He pronounced an interdict upon the Romans who had refused him - entrance into the inner part of the city and had treacherously - slain a cardinal. Rome endured this spiritual famine only for - a few weeks, and then purchased deliverance by the expulsion of - Arnold of Brescia, who soon thereafter fell into the hands of a - cardinal. He was indeed again rescued by force, but Frederick I., - who had meanwhile in A.D. 1154 begun his first journey to - Rome, and on his way thither had humbled the proud Lombard - cities struggling for freedom, urged by the pope, insisted - that he should be surrendered up again, and subsequently gave - him over to the Roman city prefect, who, in A.D. 1155, without - trial or show of justice condemned him to be burnt and had - his ashes strewn upon the Tiber. In the camp at Sutri the pope - personally greeted the king who, after refusing for several days, - at length agreed to show him the customary honour of holding - his stirrup, doing it however with a very bad grace. Soon too - the senatorial ambassadors of the Roman people, who indulged in - bombastic, turgid declamation, presented themselves professing - their readiness on consideration of a solemn undertaking to - protect the Roman republic, and on payment of five thousand - pounds, to proclaim the German king from the Capitol Roman - emperor and ruler of the world. With a furious burst of anger - Frederick silenced them, and with scathing words showed them - how the witness of history pointed the contrast between their - miserable condition and the glory and dignity of the German name. - Yet on the day of the coronation, which they were not able to - prevent, the Romans took revenge for the insults he had heaped - upon them by an attack upon the papal residence in the castle - of Leo, and upon the imperial camp in front of the city, but - were repelled with sore loss. Soon thereafter, in A.D. 1155, the - emperor made preparations for returning home, leaving everything - else to the pope. The relations between the two became more - and more strained from day to day. The Lombards, too, once - again rebelled. Frederick therefore in A.D. 1158 made his second - expedition to Rome. On the Roncalian plains he held a great - assembly which laid down to the Lombards as well as to the pope - the imperial prerogatives. Hadrian would have given utterance to - his wrath by thundering an anathema, but he was restrained by the - hand of death. - - § 96.15. The cardinals of the hierarchical party elected - =Alexander III.=, A.D. 1159-1181, those of the imperial party, - Victor IV. A synod convened by the emperor at Pavia in A.D. 1160 - decided in favour of Victor, who was now formally recognised. - Meanwhile Milan threw off the yoke that had been laid upon her. - After an almost two years’ siege the emperor took the city in - A.D. 1162 and razed it to the ground. From France whither he had - fled, Alexander, in A.D. 1163, launched his anathema against the - emperor and his pope. The latter died in A.D. 1164, and Frederick - had Paschalis III. († A.D. 1168) chosen his successor; but in - A.D. 1165, Alexander returning from France, pressed on in advance - of him and was acknowledged by the Roman senate. Now for the - third time in A.D. 1166, Frederick crossed the Alps. A small - detachment of troops that had been sent in advance to accompany - the imperial pope to Rome under the leadership of the archbishops - of Cologne and Mainz, in a bloody battle at Monte Porzio in - A.D. 1167 utterly destroyed a Roman army of twenty times its - size. Frederick then himself hasted forward. After an eight - days’ furious assault the fortress of Leo surrendered, and - Paschalis was able to perform the _Te Deum_ in St. Peter’s. - The Transtiberines, too, after Alexander had sought safety - in flight, soon took the oath of fealty to the emperor upon - a guarantee of imperial protection of their republic. But at - the very climax of his success “the fate of Sennacherib” befell - him. The Roman malaria during the hot August became a deadly - fever plague, thinned the lines of his army and forced him to - withdraw. So weakened was he that he could not even assert his - authority in Lombardy, but had to return to Germany in A.D. 1168. - The emperor’s disaster told also unfavourably upon the fortunes - of his pope, whose successor Calixtus III. was quite disregarded. - In A.D. 1174 Frederick again went down into Italy and engaged - upon a decisive battle with the confederate cities of Lombardy, - but in A.D. 1176 at Legnano he suffered a complete defeat, - in consequence of which he agreed at the Congress of Venice, - in A.D. 1177, to acknowledge the freedom of the Lombard - cities, abandoned the imperial claims upon Rome, and recognised - Alexander III., who was also present there, as the rightful - pope, kissing his feet and holding his stirrup according to - custom. Rome, which he had not seen for nearly eleven years, - would no longer shut her gates against the pope. Welcomed - by senate and people, he made his public entrance into the - Lateran in March A.D. 1178, where in the following year he - gathered together 300 bishops in the =Third Lateran Council= - (the 11th œcumenical), in order by their advice to heal the - wounds which the schism of the church had made. Here also, - in order to prevent double elections in time to come, it was - resolved that for a valid papal election two-thirds of the whole - college of cardinals must be agreed. The right of concurrence - assigned by the decree of Nicholas II. in A.D. 1059 to the people - and emperor was treated as antiquated and forgotten, and was not - even alluded to. - - § 96.16. Even before his victory over the powerful Hohenstaufen, - Alexander III. during his exile won a yet more brilliant success - in England. King Henry II., A.D. 1154-1189, wished to establish - again the supremacy of the state over church and clergy, and - thought that he would have a pliant tool in carrying out his - plans in =Thomas à Becket=, whom he made archbishop of Canterbury, - in A.D. 1162. But as primate of the English church, Thomas - proved a vigorous upholder of hierarchical principles. Instead - of the accommodating courtier, the king found the archbishop - immediately upon his consecration the bold asserter of the claims - of the church. The jovial man of the world became at once the - saintly ascetic. At a council at Tours in A.D. 1163, he returned - into the pope’s own hand the pallium with which an English - prince had invested him in name of the king, resigning also his - archiepiscopal dignity, that he might receive these directly as - a papal gift. Straightway began the conflict between the king - and his former favourite. Henry summoned a diet at Clarendon, - where he obtained the approval of the superior clergy for his - anti-hierarchical propositions; Thomas also for a time withstood, - promising at last, when urged on all sides, to assent to the - constitutions, but refusing to sign the document when it was - placed before him. The king now ordered a process of deposition - to be executed against him, and Thomas then fled to France, - where the pope was at that time residing. The pope released him - from his promise, condemned the Constitutions of Clarendon, and - threatened the king with anathema and interdict. At last, after - protracted negotiations, in A.D. 1170 by means of a personal - interview on the frontiers of Normandy, a reconciliation was - effected; by which, however, neither the king nor the archbishop - renounced their claims. Thomas now returned to England and - threatened with excommunication all bishops who should agree - to the Constitutions of Clarendon. Four knights seized upon an - unguarded word of the king which he had uttered in passion, and - murdered the archbishop at the altar in A.D. 1170. Alexander - canonized the martyr to Hildebrandism, and the king was so - sorely pressed by the pope, his own people and his rebellious - sons, that he consented to do penance humbly at the tomb of - his deadly sainted foe, and submitted to be scourged by the - monks. Becket’s bones, for which a special chapel was reared at - Canterbury, were visited by crowds of pilgrims until Henry VIII., - when he had broken with Rome (§ 139, 4), formally arraigned - the saint as a traitor, had his name struck out of the calendar - and his ashes scattered to the winds.[278]--Thus by A.D. 1178 - Alexander III. had risen to the summit of ecclesiastical power; - but in Rome itself as well as in the Church States, he remained - as powerless politically as before. Soon, therefore, after the - great council he again quitted the city for a voluntary exile, - and never saw it more. His three immediate successors, too, - =Lucius III.= († A.D. 1185), =Urban III.= († A.D. 1187), and - =Gregory VIII.= († A.D. 1187), were elected, consecrated and - buried outside of Rome. =Clement III.= († A.D. 1191) was the - first to enter the Lateran again in A.D. 1188, on the basis of - a compromise which acknowledged the republican constitution under - the papal superiority. Meanwhile Frederick I., without regarding - the protest of the pope as liege lord of the Sicilian crown, had - in A.D. 1186 consummated the fateful marriage of his son Henry - with Constance, the posthumous daughter of king Roger, and aunt - of his childless grandson William II. († A.D. 1194), and thus the - heiress of the great Norman kingdom of Italy. From the crusade - which he then undertook in A.D. 1189 Frederick never returned - (§ 94, 3). His successor, =Henry VI.=, A.D. 1190-1197, compelled - the new pope =Cœlestine III.=, A.D. 1191-1198, to crown him - emperor in A.D. 1191, conquered the inheritance of his wife, - pushed back the boundaries of the Church States to the very - gates of Rome, and asserted his imperial rights even over the - city of Rome itself. He pressed on to the realizing of the scheme - for making the German crown together with the imperial dignity - for ever hereditary in his house. The princes of the empire in - A.D. 1196 elected his son Frederick II., when scarcely two years - old, as king of the Romans. He then thought under the pretext - of a crusade to conquer Greece, to which he had laid groundless - claims of succession, but while upon the way his plans were - overthrown by his sudden death at Messina. - - § 96.17. =Innocent III., A.D. 1198-1216.=--After the death - of Alexander III. the power and reputation of the Holy See had - fallen into the lowest degradation. Then the cardinal deacon, - Lothair Count of Segni in Anagni, succeeded in A.D. 1198 in his - 37th year, under the name of Innocent III., and raised the papacy - again to a height of power and glory never reached before. In - point of intellect and power of will he was not a whit behind - Gregory VII., while in culture (§ 102, 9), scholarship, subtlety - and adroitness he far excelled him. His piety, too, his moral - earnestness, his enthusiasm and devotion to the church and the - theocratical interest of the chair of St. Peter, were at least - as powerful and decidedly purer, deeper and more spiritual - than Gregory’s. And in addition to all these great endowments - he enjoyed an invariable good fortune which never forsook him. - His first task was the restoration of the Church States and - his political prestige in Rome. In both these directions he - was favoured by the sudden death of Henry VI. and the internal - disorders of the Capitoline government of that time. On the very - day of his enthronement the imperial prefect tendered him the - oath of fealty and the Capitol did homage to him as the superior. - And also before the second year had passed the Church States - in their fullest extent were restored by the expulsion of the - greater and smaller feudal lords who had been settled there - by Henry VI. Rome was indeed once more the scene of wild party - conflicts which forced the pope in A.D. 1203 to fly to Anagni. - He was able, however, to return in A.D. 1204 and to conclude - a definite and decisive peace with the Commune in A.D. 1205, - according to the terms of which the many-headed senate resigned, - and a single senator or podestà nominated by the pope was - entrusted with the executive authority. Meanwhile Innocent - had been gaining brilliant successes beyond the limits of the - States of the Church. These were won first of all in Sicily. - The widow of Henry VI. had her son Frederick of four years old, - after his father’s death, crowned king in Palermo. Unadvised - and helpless, pressed upon all sides, she sought protection - from Innocent, which he granted upon her renouncing the - ecclesiastical privileges previously claimed by the king - and making acknowledgment of the papal suzerainty. Dying in - A.D. 1198, Constance transferred to him the guardianship of her - son, and the pope justified the confidence placed in him by the - excellent and liberal education which he secured for his ward, - as well as by the zeal and success with which he restored rest - and peace to the land. In Germany, Philip of Swabia, Frederick’s - uncle, was appointed to carry on the government in the name - of his Sicilian nephew during his minority. The condition of - Germany, however, demanded the direct control of a firm and - vigorous ruler. The princes, therefore, insisted upon a new - election, for which Philip also now appeared as candidate. The - votes were split between two rivals; the Ghibellines voting - for Philip, A.D. 1198-1208, and the Guelph party for =Otto IV.= - of Brunswick, A.D. 1198-1218. The party of the latter referred - the decision to the pope. For three years he delayed giving - judgment, then he decided in favour of the Guelph, who paid - for the preference by granting all the demands of the pope, - and calling himself king by the grace of God and the pope. The - States of the Church were thus represented as including the Duchy - of Spoleto, and in the election of bishops the church was freed - from the influence of the state. By A.D. 1204, however, Philip’s - power and repute had risen to such a pitch that even the pope - found himself obliged to take into account the altered position - of matters. A papal court of arbitration at Rome to which both - claimants had agreed to submit, was on the point of giving its - decision unequivocally in favour of the Hohenstaufen, when the - murder of Philip by Otto of Wittelsbach, in A.D. 1208, rendered - it void. Otto IV. was now acknowledged by all, and in A.D. 1209 - he was crowned by the pope after new concessions had been made. - But as Roman emperor he either would not or could not perform - what he had promised before and at his coronation. He took to - himself the possessions of Matilda as well as other parts of - the States of the Church, and was not prevented from pursuing - his victorious campaign in Southern Italy by the anathema which - Innocent thundered against him in A.D. 1210. Then Innocent called - to mind the old rights of his former pupil to the German crown, - and insisted that they should be given effect to. In A.D. 1212, - Frederick II., now in his eighteenth year, accepted the call, was - received in Germany with open arms, and was crowned in A.D. 1215 - at Aachen. Otto could not maintain his position against him, and - so withdrew to his hereditary possessions, and died in A.D. 1218. - - § 96.18. King Philip Augustus II. of France, had in A.D. 1193 - married the Danish princess Ingeborg, but divorced her in - A.D. 1196, and married the beautiful Duchess Agnes of Meran. - Innocent compelled him in A.D. 1200 to put her away by issuing - against him an interdict, but it was only in A.D. 1213 that - he again took back Ingeborg as his legitimate wife.--From far - off Spain the young king Peter of Arragon went in A.D. 1204 to - Rome, laid down his crown as a sacred gift upon the tomb of the - chief of the apostles, and voluntarily undertook the payment of - a yearly tribute to the Holy See. In the same year a crusading - army, by founding a Latin empire in Constantinople, brought - the schismatical East to the feet of the pope (§ 94, 4). In - England, when the archbishopric of Canterbury became vacant, - the chapter filled it by electing their own superior Reginald. - This choice they had soon cause to rue. They therefore annulled - their election, and at the wish of the usurping king John - Lackland made choice of John, bishop of Norwich. Innocent - refused to confirm their action, and persuaded certain members - of the chapter staying in Rome to choose the cardinal priest - Stephen Langton, whose election he immediately confirmed.[279] - When the king refused to recognise this appointment, and on an - interdict being threatened swore that he would drive all priests - who should obey it out of the country, the pope issued it in - A.D. 1208 against all England, excommunicated the king, and - finally, in A.D. 1212, released all his subjects from their - oath of allegiance and deposed the monarch, while he commissioned - Philip Augustus of France to carry the sentence into effect. - John, now as cringing and terrified as before he had been proud - and despotic, humbled himself in the dust, and at Dover, in - A.D. 1213, placed kingdom and crown at the feet of the papal - legate Pandulf, and received it from his hands as a papal fief, - undertaking to pay twice a year the tribute imposed. But in - A.D. 1214 the English nobles extorted from their cowardly tyrant - as a safeguard against lordly wilfulness and despotism the famous - _Magna Charta_, against which the pope protested, threatening - excommunication and promising legitimate redress of their - grievances, though in consequence of confusion caused by the - breaking out again of the civil wars he was unable to enforce - his protest. And now his days were drawing to an end. At the - famous =Fourth Lateran Council of A.D. 1215=, more than 1,500 - prelates from all the countries of Christendom, along with the - ambassadors of almost all Christian kings, princes and free - cities, gave him homage as the representative of God on earth, - as visible Head of the Church, and supreme lord and judge of all - princes and peoples. A few months later he died.--As in Italy and - Germany, in France and England, he had also in all other states - of the Christian world, in Spain and Portugal, in Poland, Livonia - and Sweden, in Constantinople and Bulgaria, shown himself capable - of controlling political as well as ecclesiastical movements, - arranging and smoothing down differences, organizing and putting - into shape what was tending to disorder. Some conception of his - activity may be formed from the 5,316 extant decretals of the - eighteen years of his pontificate. - - § 96.19. =The Times of Frederick II. and his Successors, - A.D. 1215-1268.=--=Frederick II.=,[280] A.D. 1215-1250, contrary - to the Hohenstaufen custom, had not only agreed to the partition - of Sicily from the empire in favour of his son Henry, but also - renewed the agreements previously entered into with the pope - by Otto IV. He even increased the papal possessions by ceding - Ancona, and still further at his coronation at Aachen he showed - his goodwill by undertaking a crusade. He also allowed this - same Henry who became king of Sicily as a vassal of the pope, - to be elected king of the Romans in A.D. 1220, and then began - his journey to Rome to receive imperial coronation. The new pope - =Honorius III.=, A.D. 1216-1227, formerly Frederick’s tutor and - even still entertaining for him a fatherly affection, exacted - from him a solemn renewal of his earlier promises. But instead - of returning to Germany, Frederick started for Sicily in order - to make it the basis of operations for the future carrying out - of the ideas of his father and grandfather. The peace-loving - pope constantly urged him to fulfil his promise of fitting out - a crusade. But it was only after his successor =Gregory IX.=, - A.D. 1227-1241, a high churchman of the stamp of Gregory VII. - and Innocent III., urged the matter with greater determination, - that Frederick actually embarked. He turned back, however, - as soon as an epidemic broke out in the ships, but he did - not himself escape the contagion, and died three days after. - In A.D. 1227 the pope had in a senseless passion hurled an - anathema against him, and, in an encyclical to all the bishops, - painted the emperor’s ingratitude and breach of faith in - the darkest colours. The emperor on his part, in a manifesto - justifying himself addressed to the princes and people of Europe, - had quite as unsparingly lashed the worldliness of the church, - the corruption, presumption and self-seeking of the papacy, - and then in A.D. 1228 he again undertook the postponed crusade - (§ 94, 5). The pope’s curse followed “the pirate” to the very - threshold of the Holy Sepulchre, and a papal crusading force - made a raid upon Southern Italy. Frederick therefore hastened - his return, landed in A.D. 1229 in Apulia, and entered into - negotiations for peace, to which, however, the pope agreed - only in A.D. 1230, when the emperor’s victoriously advancing - troops threatened him with the loss of the States of the Church. - In consequence of the pope’s continued difficulties with his - Romans, who drove him three times out of the city, Frederick - had frequent opportunities of showing himself serviceable - to the pope by giving direct aid or mediating in his favour. - Nevertheless he continually conspired with the rebellious - Lombards, and in A.D. 1239 renewed the ban against the emperor. - The pope who had hitherto only charged Frederick with a tendency - to freethinking, as well as an inclination to favour the Saracens - (§ 95, 1), and to maintain friendly intercourse with the Syrian - sultans, now accused him of flippant infidelity. The emperor, - it was said, had among other things declared that the birth of - the Saviour by a virgin was a fable, and that Jesus, Moses and - Mohammed were the three greatest impostors the world had ever - seen,--a form of unbelief which spread very widely in consequence - of the crusades. Manifestoes and counter-manifestoes sought to - outdo one another in their violence. And while the wild hordes - of the Mongols were overspreading unopposed the whole of Eastern - Europe, the emperor’s troops were victoriously pressing forward - to the gates of Rome, and his ships were preventing the meeting - of the council summoned against him by catching the prelates who - in spite of his prohibition were hastening to it. The pope died - in A.D. 1241, and was followed in seventeen days by his successor - Cœlestine IV. - - § 96.20. For almost two years the papal chair remained vacant. - Then this position was won by =Innocent IV.=, A.D. 1243-1254, - who as cardinal had been friendly to the emperor, but as pope - was a most bitter enemy to him and to his house. The negotiations - about the removal of the ban were broken off, and Innocent - escaped to France, where at the =First Lyonese or 13th Œcumenical - Council of A.D. 1245=, attended by scarcely any but Frenchmen - and Spaniards, he renewed the excommunication of the emperor, - and declared him as a blasphemer and robber of the church - deprived of his throne. Once again with the most abject humility - Frederick sued for reconciliation with the church. The pope, - however, wished not for reconciliation, but the destruction of - the whole “viper brood” of the Hohenstaufens. But the rival king, - Henry Raspe of Thuringia, set up by the papal party in Germany, - and William of Holland, who was put forward after his death in - A.D. 1247, could not maintain their position against Frederick’s - son, Conrad IV., who as early as A.D. 1235 had been elected - in place of his rebel brother Henry as king of the Romans. - Even in Italy the fortune of war favoured at first the imperial - arms. At the siege of Parma, which was disloyal, the tide began - to turn. The sorely pressed citizens made a sally in A.D. 1248, - while Frederick was away at a hunt, and roused to courage by - despair, put his army to flight. His brave son, Enzio, king of - Sardinia and governor of Northern Italy, fell in A.D. 1249 into - the hands of the Bolognese, and was subjected to a life-long - imprisonment. Frederick himself in A.D. 1250 closed his active - life in the south in the arms of his son Manfred. The pope then - returned to Italy, in order to take possession of the Sicilian - kingdom, which he claimed as a papal fief. But in A.D. 1251 - =Conrad IV.=, summoned by Manfred, hasted thither from Germany, - subdued Apulia, conquered Naples, and was resolved to lay hands - on the person of the pope himself, who had also excommunicated - him, when his career was stopped by death in A.D. 1254, in - his twenty-sixth year. On behalf of Conrad’s two-year-old - son, Conradin, who had been born in Germany after his father’s - departure, Manfred undertook the regency in Southern Italy, - but found himself obliged to acknowledge the pope’s suzerainty. - Nevertheless the pope was determined to have him also overthrown. - Manfred, however, escaped in time to the Saracenic colony - of Luceria, and with its help utterly defeated the papal - troops sent out against him. Five days after Innocent IV. - died, =Alexander IV.=, A.D. 1254-1261, although without his - predecessor’s ability, sought still to continue his work. He - could not, however, either by ban or by war prevent Manfred, - who on the report of Conradin’s death had had himself crowned, - from extending the power and prestige of his kingdom farther and - farther into the north. =Urban IV.=, A.D. 1261-1264, a Frenchman - by birth, son of a shoemaker of Troyes, took up with all his - heart the heritage of hate against the Hohenstaufens, and in - A.D. 1263 invited Charles of Anjou, the youngest brother of - Louis IX. of France, to win by conquest the Sicilian crown. - While the prince was preparing for the campaign Urban died. - His successor, =Clement IV.=, A.D. 1265-1268, also a Frenchman, - could not but carry out what his predecessor had begun. Charles, - whom the Romans without the knowledge of the pope had elected - their senator, proceeded in A.D. 1265 into Italy, took the vassal - oath of fealty, and was crowned as Charles I., A.D. 1265-1285, - king of the two Sicilies. Treachery opened up his way into - Naples. Manfred fell in A.D. 1266 in the battle of Benevento; - and Conradin, whom the Ghibellines had called in as a deliverer - of Italy, after the disastrous battle of Tagliacozzo in A.D. 1268, - died on the scaffold in his sixteenth year. - - § 96.21. =The Times of the House of Anjou down to Boniface VIII., - A.D. 1288-1294.=--The papacy had emerged triumphantly from - its hundred years’ struggle with the Hohenstaufens, and by - the overthrow of this powerful house Germany was thrown into - the utmost confusion and anarchy. But Italy, too, was now in - a condition of extreme disorder, and the unconscionable tyrants - of Naples subjected it to a much more intolerable bondage than - those had done from whom they pretended to have delivered it. - After the death of Clement IV. the Holy See remained vacant - for three years. The cardinals would not elect such a pope - as would be agreeable to Charles I. During this papal vacancy - Louis IX. of France, A.D. 1226-1270, fitted out the seventh - and last crusade (§ 94, 6), from which he was not to return. - As previously he had reformed the administration of justice, - he now before his departure introduced drastic reforms in the - ecclesiastical institutions of his kingdom, which laid the first - foundations of the celebrated “Gallican Liberties.” Clement IV. - gave occasion for such procedure on the part of the monarch - who was a model of piety after the standard of those times, - by claiming in A.D. 1266 for the papal chair the _plenaria - dispositio_ of all prebends and benefices. In opposition - to this assumption the king secured by a Pragmatic Sanction - of A.D. 1269 to all churches and monasteries of his realm - unconditional freedom of all elections and presentations - according to old existing rights, confirmed to them anew all - privileges and immunities previously granted them, forbade - every form of simony as a heinous crime, and prohibited all - extraordinary taxation of church property on the part of the - Roman curia.--At last the cardinals took courage and elected - =Gregory X.=, A.D. 1271-1276, an Italian of the noble house - of Visconti. The desolating interregnum in Germany was also - put an end to by the election of =Count Rudolf of Hapsburg=, - A.D. 1273-1291, as king of the Germans. At the =Second Lyonese - or 14th Œcumenical Council of A.D. 1274=, the worthy pope - continued his endeavours without avail to rouse the flagging - enthusiasm of the princes so as to get them to undertake another - crusade. The union with the Greek church did not prove of an - enduring kind (§ 67, 4). The constitution, too, sanctioned - at the council, which provided, in order to prevent prolonged - vacancies in the papal see, that the election of pope should - not only be proceeded with in immured conclaves in the place - where the deceased pope last resided with the curia, but also - (though this was again abrogated in A.D. 1351 by a decree of - Clement VI.) should be expedited by limiting the supply of food - after three days to one dish, after other five days to water, - wine, and bread. Yet this completely failed to secure the object - desired. More successful, however, were the negotiations carried - on at Lyons with the ambassadors of the new German king. Rudolf, - in entering upon his government, renewed all the concessions - made by Otto IV. and Frederick II., renounced all imperial claims - upon Rome and the States of the Church, with the exception of the - possessions of Matilda, and abandoned all pretension to Sicily. - The pope on his part acknowledged him as king of the Romans and - undertook to crown him emperor in Rome, where this agreement - was to be formally ratified and signed. But Gregory died before - arrangements had been completed. - - § 96.22. The three following popes, Innocent V., Hadrian V., - and John XXI., died soon after one another. The last named, - previously known as Petrus [Peter] Hispanus, had distinguished - himself by his medical and philosophical writings. He was - properly the twentieth Pope John, but as there was a slight - element of uncertainty (§ 82, 6) he designated himself the - twenty-first. After a six months’ vacancy =Nicholas III.=, - A.D. 1277-1280, mounted the papal throne. By diplomacy he - secured the ratification of the still undecided concordat with - the German kingdom, and Rudolf, who had enough to do in Germany, - immediately withdrew from Italian affairs, even abandoning - his claims to imperial coronation. The powerful pope, whose - pontificate was marked by rapacity and nepotism, and who is - therefore put by Dante in hell, did not live long enough to - carry out his plans for the overthrow of the French yoke in - Italy. But he obliged Charles I. to resign his Roman senatorship, - and secretly encouraged a conspiracy of the Sicilians, which - under his successor =Martin IV.=, A.D. 1281-1285, a Frenchman - and a pliable tool of Charles, broke out in the terrible - “Sicilian Vespers” of A.D. 1282. The island of Sicily was - thereby rent from the French rule and papal vassalage, and in - a roundabout way the Hohenstaufens by the female line regained - the government of this part of their old inheritance (§ 95, 1). - Rome now again in A.D. 1284 shook off the senatorial rule which - Charles I. had meanwhile again assumed, and after his death - and that of Martin, which speedily followed, they transferred - this dignity to the new pope =Honorius IV.=, A.D. 1285-1287, - whose short but vigorous reign was followed by a vacancy of - eleven months. The Franciscan general then mounted the papal - throne as =Nicholas IV.=, A.D. 1288-1292. He filled up the - period of his pontificate with vain endeavours to revive the - spirit of the crusades and secure the suppression of heresy. - Violent party feuds of cardinals of the Orsini and Colonna - factions delayed the election of a pope after his death for - two years. They united at last in electing the most unfit - conceivable, Peter of Murrone (§ 98, 2), who, as =Cœlestine V.= - changed the monk’s cowl for the papal tiara, but was persuaded - after four months by the sly and ambitious Cardinal Cajetan - to resign. Cajetan now himself succeeded in A.D. 1294 as - Boniface VIII. The poor monk was confined by him in a tower, - where he died. He was afterwards canonized by Pope John XXII. - - § 96.23. =Temporal Power of the Popes.=--During the 12th and 13th - centuries, when the spiritual power of the papacy had reached its - highest point, the pope came to be regarded as the absolute head - of the church. Gregory VII. arrogated the right of confirming - all episcopal elections. The papal recommendations to vacant sees - (_Preces_, whence those so recommended were called _Precistæ_) - were from the time of Innocent III. transformed into mandates - (_Mandata_), and Clement IV. claimed for the papal chair - the right of a _plenario dispositio_ of all ecclesiastical - benefices. Even in the 12th century the theory was put forth - as in accordance with the canon law that all ecclesiastical - possessions were the property not of the particular churches - concerned but of God or Christ, and so of the pope as His - representative, who in administering them was responsible to - Him alone. Hence the popes, in special cases when the ordinary - revenues of the curia were insufficient, had no hesitation - in exercising the right of levying a tax upon ecclesiastical - property. They heard appeals from all tribunals and could - give dispensations from existing church laws. The right of - canonization (§ 104, 8), which was previously in the power of - each bishop with application simply to his own diocese, was - for the first time exercised with a claim for recognition over - the whole church by John XV., in A.D. 993, without, however, - any word of withdrawing their privilege from the bishops. - Alexander III. was the first to declare in A.D. 1170 that - canonization was exclusively the right of the papal chair. The - system of Gregory VII. made no claim of doctrinal infallibility - for the Holy See, though his ignorance of history led him to - suppose that no heretic had ever presided over the Roman church, - and his understanding of Luke xxii. 32 made him confidently - expect that none ever would. Innocent III., indeed, publicly - acknowledged that even the pope might err in matters of faith, - and then, but only then, become amenable to the judgment of - the church. And Innocent IV., fifty years later, taught that - the pope might err. It is therefore wrong to say, “I believe - what the pope believes;” for one should believe only what the - church teaches. Thomas Aquinas was the first who expressly - maintained the doctrine of papal infallibility. He says that - the pope alone can decide finally upon matters of faith, and that - even the decrees of councils only become valid and authoritative - when confirmed by him. Thomas, however, never went the length of - maintaining that the pope can by himself affirm any dogma without - the advice and previous deliberations of a council.--Kissing - the feet sprang from an Italian custom, and even an emperor - like Frederick Barbarossa humbled himself to hold the pope’s - stirrup. According to the _Donation of Constantine_ document - (§ 87, 4), Constantine the Great had himself performed this - office of equerry to Pope Sylvester. When the coronation of - the pope was introduced is still a disputed point. Nicholas I. - was, according to the _Liber pontificalis_, formally crowned on - his accession. Previously the successors of the apostles were - satisfied with a simple episcopal mitre (§ 84, 1), which on the - head of the crowned pope was developed into the tiara (§ 110, 15). - At the Lateran Council of A.D. 1059 Hildebrand is said to have - set upon the head of the new pope Nicholas II. a double crown to - indicate the council’s recognition of his temporal and spiritual - sovereignty. The papal granting of a golden rose consecrated by - prayer, incense, balsam and holy water to princes of exemplary - piety or even to prominent monasteries, churches, or cities, - conveying an obligation to make acknowledgment by a large money - gift, dates as far back as the 12th century. So far as is known, - Louis VII. was the first to receive it from Alexander III. - in A.D. 1163.--The popes appointed legates to represent them - abroad, as they had done even earlier at the synods held in the - East. Afterwards, when the institution came to be more fully - elaborated, a distinction was made between _Legati missi_ or - nuntios and _Legati nati_. The former were appointed as required - for diplomatic negotiations, visitation and organization of - churches, as well as for the holding of provincial synods, at - which they presided. They were called _Legati a latere_, if the - special importance of the business demanded a representation - from among the nearest and most trusted councillors of the pope, - _i.e._ one of the cardinals, as _Pontifices collaterales_. The - rank of _born_ legate, _Legatus natus_, on the other hand, was - a prelatic dignity of the highest order conferred once for all - by papal privilege, sometimes even upon temporal princes, who - had specially served the Holy See, as for example the king of - Hungary and the Norman princes of Italy (§ 96, 3, 13), which - made them permanently representatives of the pope invested with - certain ecclesiastical prerogatives.--Among the numerous literary - and documentary fictions and forgeries with which the Gregorian - papal system sought to support its ever-advancing pretensions to - authority over the whole church, is one which may be regarded as - the contemporary supplement to the work of the Pseudo-Isidore. - It is the production of a Latin theologian residing in the East, - otherwise unknown, who, at the time of the controversies waged - at the Lyonese Council of A.D. 1274 between the Greeks and - Latins (§ 67, 4), brought forth what professed to be an unbroken - chain of traditions from alleged decrees and canons of the most - famous Greek Councils, _e.g._ Nicæa, Chalcedon, etc., and church - fathers, most frequently from Cyril of Alexandria, the so-called - Pseudo-Cyril, in which the controverted questions were settled - in favour of the Roman pretensions, and especially the most - extreme claims to the primacy of the pope were asserted. It was - presented in A.D. 1261 to Urban IV., who immediately guaranteed - its genuineness in a letter to the emperor Michael Palæologus. - On its adoption by Thomas Aquinas, who diligently employed its - contents in his controversies against the Greeks as well as in - his dogmatic works, it won respect and authority throughout all - the countries of the West. - - - § 97. THE CLERGY. - - By tithes, legacies, donations, impropriations, and the rising value -of landed estates, the wealth of churches and monasteries grew from -year to year. In this way benefit was secured not only to the clergy -and the monks, but also in many ways to the poor and needy. The law -of celibacy strictly enforced by Gregory VII. saved the church from -the impoverishment with which it was beginning to be threatened by the -dividing or squandering of the property of the church upon the children -of the clergy. But while an absolute stop was put to the marriage -of the clergy, it tended greatly to foster concubinage, and yet more -shameful vices. Yet notwithstanding all the corruption that prevailed -among the clerical order it cannot be denied that the superior as well -as the inferior clergy embraced a great number of worthy and strictly -moral men, and that the sacerdotal office which the people could quite -well distinguish from the individuals occupying it, still continued to -be highly respected in spite of the immoral lives of many priests. Even -more hurtful to the exercise of their pastoral work than the immorality -of individual clergymen was the widespread illiteracy and gross -ignorance of Christian truth of those who should have been teachers. - - § 97.1. =The Roman College of Cardinals.=--All the clergy - attached to one particular church were called _Clerici cardinales_ - down to the 11th century. But after Leo IX. had reformed and - re-organized the Roman clergy, and especially after Nicholas II. - in A.D. 1059 had transferred the right of papal election to - the Roman cardinals, _i.e._ the seven bishops of the Roman - metropolitan dioceses and to the presbyters and deacons of the - principal churches of Rome, the title of cardinal was given to - them at first by way of eminence and very soon exclusively. It - was not till the 13th century that it became usual to give to - foreign prelates the rank of Roman cardinal priests as a mark of - distinction. Under the name of the holy college the cardinals, as - the spiritual dignitaries most nearly associated with the pope, - formed his ecclesiastical and civil council, and were also as - such entrusted with the highest offices of state in the papal - domains. Innocent IV. at Lyons in A.D. 1245 gave to them as a - distinction the red hat; Boniface VIII. in A.D. 1297 gave them - the purple mantle that indicated princely rank. To these Paul II. - in A.D. 1464 added the right of riding the white palfrey with red - cloth and golden bridle; and finally, Urban VIII. in A.D. 1630 - gave them the title “Eminence.” Sixtus V. in A.D. 1586 fixed - their number at seventy, after the pattern of the elders of - Israel, Exod. xxiv. 1, and the seventy disciples of Jesus, - Luke x. 1. The popes, however, took care to keep a greater - or less number of places vacant, so that they might have - opportunities of showing favour and bestowing gifts when - necessary. The cardinals were chosen in accordance with the - arbitrary will of the individual pope, who nominated them - by presenting them with the red hat, and installed them into - their high position by the ceremony of closing and opening the - mantle. From the time of Eugenius IV., A.D. 1431, the college - of cardinals put every newly elected pope under a solemn oath - to maintain the rights and privileges of the cardinals and not - to come to any serious and important resolution without their - advice and approval. - - § 97.2. =The Political Importance of the Superior Clergy= (§ 84) - reached its highest point during this period. This was carried - furthest in Germany, especially under the Saxon imperial dynasty. - On more than one occasion did the wise and firm policy of the - German clergy, splendidly organized under the leadership of - the primate of Mainz, save the German nation from overthrow - or dismemberment threatened by ambitious princes. This power - consisted not merely in influence over men’s minds, but also - in their position as members of the states of the empire and - territorial lords. Whether or not a warlike expedition was to - be undertaken depended often only on the consent or refusal of - the league of lords spiritual. It was the policy of the clergy to - secure a united, strong, well-organized Germany. The surrounding - countries wished to be included in the German league of churches - and states; not, however, as the emperor wished, as crown lands, - but as portions of the empire. Against expeditions to Rome, which - took the attention of German princes away from German affairs - and ruined Germany, the German clergy protested in the most - decided manner. They wished the chair of St. Peter to be free - and independent as a European, not a German, institution, with - the emperor as its supporter not its oppressor, but they manfully - resisted all the assumptions and encroachments of the popes. - One of the most celebrated of the German dignitaries of any age - was Bruno the Great, brother of the Emperor Otto I., equally - distinguished as a statesman and as a reformer of the church, - and the unwearied promoter of liberal studies. Chancellor under - his imperial brother from A.D. 940, he was his most trusted - counsellor, and was appointed by him in A.D. 953 Archbishop of - Cologne, and was soon after made Duke of Lorraine. He died in - A.D. 965. Another example of a German prelate of the true sort - is seen in Willigis of Mainz, who died in A.D. 1011, under the - two last Ottos and Henry II., whom he raised to the throne. The - good understanding that was brought about between this monarch - and the clergy of Germany was in great measure owing to the - wise policy of this prelate. Under Henry IV. the German clergy - got split up into three parties,--the papal party of Clugny - under Gebhard [Gebhardt] of Salzburg, including almost all - the Saxon bishops; an imperial party under Adalbert of Bremen, - who endeavoured with the emperor’s help to found a northern - patriarchate, which undoubtedly tended to become a northern - papacy; and an independent German party under St. Anno II. - of Cologne (§ 96, 6), in which notwithstanding much violence, - ambition, and self-seeking, there still survived much of the - spirit that had characterized the policy of the old German - bishops. Henry V., too, as well as the first Hohenstaufens, - had sturdy supporters in the German clergy; but Frederick II. - by his ill treatment of the bishops alienated their clergy from - the interest of the crown. The rise of the imperial dignitaries - after the time of Otto I., and the transference to them under - Otto IV. of the election of emperor raised the archbishops of - Mainz, Treves, and Cologne to the rank of spiritual electoral - princes as arch-chaplains or archchancellors. The Golden Bull - of Charles IV., in A.D. 1356 (§ 110, 4), confirmed and tabulated - their rights and duties. - - § 97.3. =The Bishops and the Cathedral Chapter.=--The - bishops exercised jurisdiction over all the clergy of their - diocese, and punished by deprivation of office and imprisonment - in monasteries. Especially questions of marriage, wills, - oaths, were brought before their tribunal. The German synodal - judicatures soon gave way before the Roman judiciary system. The - archdeacons emancipated themselves more and more from episcopal - authority and abused their power in so arbitrary a way that - in the 12th century the entire institution was set aside. For - the discharge of business episcopal officials and vicars were - then introduced. The _Chorepiscopi_ (§ 84) had passed out of - view in the 10th century. But during the crusades many Catholic - bishoprics had been founded in the East. The occupants of these - when driven away clung to their titles in hopes of better times, - and found employment as assistants or suffragans of Western - bishops. Thus arose the order of _Episcopi in partibus (sc. - infidelium)_ which has continued to this day, as a witness of - inalienable rights, and as affording a constant opportunity to - the popes of showing favour and giving rewards. For the exercise - of the archiepiscopal office, the Fourth Lateran Council of - A.D. 1215 made the receiving from the pope the pallium (§ 59, 7) - an absolutely essential condition, and those elected were obliged - to pay to the curia an arbitrary tax of a large amount called the - pallium fee. The canonical life (§ 84, 4) from the 10th century - began more and more to lose its moral weight and importance. Out - of attempts at reform in the 11th century arose the distinction - of _Canonici seculares_ and _regulares_. The latter lived in - cloisters according to monkish rules, and were zealous for the - good old discipline and order, but sooner or later gave way to - worldliness. The rich revenues of cathedral chapters made the - reversion of prebendal stalls the almost exclusive privilege of - the higher nobility, notwithstanding the earnest opposition of - the popes. In the course of the 13th century the cathedral clergy, - with the help of the popes, arrogated to themselves the sole - right of episcopal elections, ignoring altogether the claims - of the diocesan clergy and the people or nobles. The cathedral - clergy also made themselves independent of episcopal control. - They lived mostly outside of the cathedral diocese, and had - their canonical duties performed by vicars. The chapter filled - up vacancies by co-optation. - - § 97.4. =Endeavours to Reform the Clergy.=--As a reformer of the - English clergy, who had sunk very low in ignorance, rudeness and - immorality, the most conspicuous figure during the 10th century - was =St. Dunstan=. He became Archbishop of Canterbury in A.D. 959 - and died in A.D. 988. He sought at once to advance the standard - of education among the clergy and to inspire the Church with a - higher moral and religious spirit. For these ends he laboured on - with an energy and force of will and an inflexible consistency - and strictness in the pursuit of his hierarchical ideals, which - mark him out as a Hildebrand before Hildebrand. Even as abbot - of the monastery of Glastonbury he had given a forecast of - his life work by restoring and making more severe the rule of - St. Benedict, and forming a brotherhood thoroughly disciplined - in science and in ascetical exercises, from the membership - of which, after he had become bishop of Worcester, then of - London, and finally primate of England and the most influential - councillor of four successive kings, he could fill the places of - the secular priests and canons whom he expelled from their cures. - As the primary condition of all clerical reformation he insisted - upon the unrelentingly consistent putting down of marriage - and concubinage among the priests.[281]--In the 11th century - =St. Peter Damiani= distinguished himself as a zealous supporter - of the reform party of Clugny in the struggle against simony, - clerical immorality, and the marriage of priests. This obtained - for him not only his position as cardinal-bishop of Ostia, - but also his frequent employment, as papal legate in serious - negotiations. In A.D. 1061 he resigned his bishopric and - retired into a monastery, where he died in A.D. 1072. His - friend Hildebrand, who repeatedly called him forth from his - retreat to occupy a conspicuous place among the contenders for - his hierarchical ideal, was therefore called by him his “holy - Satan.” He had indeed little interest in pressing hierarchical - and political claims, and was inclined rather to urge moral - reforms within the church itself. In his _Liber Gomorrhianus_ - he drew a fearful picture of the clerical depravity of his - times, and that with a nakedness of detail which gave to - Pope Alexander II. a colourable excuse for the suppression - of the book. For himself, however, Damiani sought no other - pleasure than that of scourging himself till the blood flowed - in his lonely cell (§ 106, 4). His collected works, consisting - of epistles, addresses, tracts and monkish biographies, - were published at Rome in A.D. 1602 in 4 vols. by Cardinal - Cajetan.--In the 12th century St. Hildegard (§ 107, 1) and - the abbot Joachim of Floris, (§ 108, 5) raised their voices - against the moral degradation of the clergy, and among the men - who contributed largely to the restoring of clerical discipline, - the noble provost Geroch of Reichersberg in Bavaria, who died - in A.D. 1169 (§ 102, 5) and the canon Norbert, subsequently - archbishop of Magdeburg (§ 98, 2), are deserving of special - mention.--In the 13th century in England =Robert Grosseteste= - distinguished himself as a prelate of great nobility and - force of character. After being chancellor of Oxford he became - bishop of Lincoln, energetically reforming many abuses in his - diocese, and persistently contending against any form of papal - encroachment. He died in A.D. 1253.[282] - - § 97.5. =The Pataria of Milan.=--Nowhere during the 11th century - were simony, concubinage and priests’ marriages more general - than among the Lombard clergy, and in no other place was such - determined opposition offered to Hildebrand’s reforms. At the - head of this opposition stood Guido, archbishop of Milan, whom - Henry III. deposed in A.D. 1046. Against the papal demands, - he pressed the old claims of his chair to autonomy (§ 46, 1) - and renounced allegiance to Rome. The nobles and the clergy - supported Guido. But two deacons, Ariald and Landulf, about - A.D. 1057 formed a conspiracy among the common people, against - “the Nicolaitan sect” (§ 27, 8). To this party its opponents - gave the opprobrious name of Pataria, Paterini, from patalia, - meaning rabble, riffraff, or from Pattarea, a back street - of ill fame in Milan, the quarter of the rabble, where the - Arialdists held their secret meetings. They took the name - given in reproach as a title of honour, and after receiving - military organization from Erlembald, Landulf’s brother, they - opened a campaign against the married priests. For thirty years - this struggle continued to deluge city and country with blood. - - - § 98. MONASTIC ORDERS AND INSTITUTIONS. - - In spite of the great and constantly increasing corruption the -monastic idea during this period had a wonderfully rapid development, -and more persistently and successfully than ever before or since -the monks urged their claims to be regarded as “the knighthood of -asceticism.” A vast number of monkish orders arose, taking the place -for the most part of existing orders which had relaxed their rules. -These were partly reformed off-shoots of the Benedictine order, partly -new organizations reared on an independent basis. New monasteries -were being built almost every day, often even within the cities. -The reformed Benedictine monasteries clustered in a group around the -parent monastery whose reformed rule they adopted, forming an organized -society with a common centre. These groups were therefore called -Congregations. The oldest and, for two centuries, the most important, -of these congregations was that of the Brethren of Clugny, whose -ardent zeal for reform in the hierarchical direction was mainly -instrumental in raising again the church and the papacy out of that -degradation and corruption into which they had fallen during the -10th and 11th centuries. The otherwise less important order of the -Camaldolites was also a vigorous promoter of these movements. But -Clugny had in Clairvaux a rival which shared with it on almost equal -terms the respect and reverence of that age. The unreformed monasteries -of the Benedictines, on the other hand, still continued their easy, -luxurious style of living. They were commonly called the Black Monks -to distinguish them from the Cistercians who were known as the White -Monks. In order to prevent a constant splitting up of the monkish -fraternities, Innocent III. at the Lateran Council of A.D. 1215 forbade -the founding of new orders. Yet he himself took part in the formation -of the two great mendicant orders, and also the following popes issued -no prohibition.--The papacy had in the monkish orders its standing army. -It was to them, in a special manner, that Gregory’s system owed its -success. But they were also by far the most important promoters and -fosterers of learning, science, and art. The pope in various ways -favoured the emancipation of the monasteries from episcopal control, -their so-called _Exemption_; and conferred upon the abbots of famous -monasteries what was practically episcopal rank, with liberty to wear -the bishop’s mitre, so that they were called _Mitred Abbots_ (§ 84, 1). -The princes too classed the abbots in respect of dignity and order -next to the bishops; and the people, who saw the popular idea of the -church more and more represented in the monasteries, honoured them -with unmeasured reverence. From the 10th century the monks came to -be considered a distinct religious order (_Ordo religiosorum_). Lay -brethren, _Fratres conversi_, were now taken in to discharge the -worldly business of the monastery. They were designated _Fratres_, -while the others who received clerical ordination were addressed -as _Patres_. The monks rarely lived on good terms with the secular -clergy; for the former as confessors and mass priests often seriously -interfered with the rights and revenues of the latter.--Besides the -many monkish orders, with their strict seclusion, perpetual vows and -ecclesiastically sanctioned rule, we meet with organizations of a freer -type such as the Humiliati of Milan, consisting of whole families. -Of a similar type were the Beguines and Beghards of the Netherlands, -the former composed of women, the latter of men. These people abandoned -their handicraft and their domestic and civic duties for a monastic-like -mode of life retired from the world. The crusading enthusiasm also -occasioned a combination of the monastic idea with that of knighthood, -and led to the formation of the so-called Orders of Knights, which -with a Grandmaster and several Commanders, were divided into Knights, -Priests, and Serving Brethren.--Continuation, § 112. - - § 98.1. =Offshoots of the Benedictines.= - - 1. =The Brethren of Clugny.= Among the Benedictines, since - their reformation by the second Benedict (§ 85, 2) many - serious abuses had crept in. After the Burgundian Count - Berno, who died in A.D. 927, had done useful service by - restoring discipline and order in two monasteries of which - he was abbot, the Duke William of Aquitaine founded for him - a new institution. Thus arose in A.D. 910 the celebrated - monastery of Clugny, _Cluniacum_, in Burgundy, which the - founder placed under immediate papal control. Berno’s - successor Odo, who died in A.D. 942, abandoning the life - of a courtier on his recovery from a severe illness, made - it the head and heart of a separate Clugny-Congregation - as a branch of the Benedictine order. Strict asceticism, - a beautiful and artistic service, zealous prosecution of - science and the education of the young, with yet greater - energy in the promotion of a hierarchical reform of the - church as a whole, as well as an entire series of able - abbots, among whom Odilo († A.D. 1048), the friend of - Hildebrand, and Peter the Venerable († A.D. 1156) are - specially prominent, gave to this congregation, which - in the 12th century had 2,000 monasteries in France, an - influence quite unparalleled in this whole period. The - abbot of Clugny stood at the head, and appointed the priors - for all the other monasteries. Under the licentious Abbot - Pontius, who on account of his base conduct was deposed in - A.D. 1122, the order fell into decay, but rose again under - Peter the Venerable. Continuation, § 164, 2. - - 2. =The Congregation of the Camaldolites= was founded in - A.D. 1018 by the Benedictine Romuald, descended from the - Duke of Ravenna, at Camaldoli (_Campus Maldoli_), a wild - district in the Apennines. In A.D. 1086 a nunnery was placed - alongside of the monastery. The president of the parent - monastery at Camaldoli stood at the head of the whole order - as Major. The order carried out enthusiastically the high - church ideal of Clugny, and won great influence in its - time, although it by no means attained the importance of - the French order. - - 3. Twenty years later, in A.D. 1038, the Florentine Gualbertus - founded the =Order of Vallombrosa=, in a romantically - situated shady valley of the Apennines (_Vallis umbrosa_), - according to the rule of Benedict. This was the first of - all the orders to appoint lay brethren for the management - of worldly business, in order that the monks might observe - their vow of silence and strict seclusion. The parent - monastery attained to great wealth and reputation, but it - never had a great number of affiliated institutions. - - 4. =The Cistercians.= In A.D. 1098 the Benedictine abbot Robert - founded the monastery of Citeaux (_Cistercium_) near Dijon, - which as the parent monastery of the Congregation of the - Cistercians became the most formidable rival of Clugny. The - Cistercians were distinguished from the Brethren of Clugny - by voluntary submission to the jurisdiction of the bishops, - avoidance of all interference with the pastorates of others, - and the banishing of all ornaments from their churches - and monasteries. The order continued obscure for a while, - till St. Bernard (§ 102, 3), from A.D. 1115 abbot of the - monastery of Clairvaux (Claravallis), an offshoot of Citeaux, - by his ability and spirituality raised it far above all - other orders in the esteem of the age. In honour of him - the French Cistercians took the name of =Bernardines=. - The hostility between them and the Brethren of Clugny - was overcome by the personal friendship of Bernard and - Peter the Venerable. By the statutory constitution, the - so-called _Charta charitatis_, drawn up in A.D. 1119, - the administration of all the affairs of the order - was assigned to a general of the order, appointed by - the abbot of Citeaux, the abbots of the four chief - affiliated monasteries, and twenty other elected - representatives forming a high council. This council, - however, was answerable to the general assembly of all the - abbots and priors, which met at first yearly, but afterwards - every third year. The affiliated monasteries had a yearly - visitation of the abbot of Citeaux, but Citeaux itself was - to be visited by the four abbots just referred to. In the - 13th century this order had 2,000 monasteries and 6,000 - nunneries. - - 5. =The Congregation of Scottish Monasteries= in Germany - owed its origin to the persistent love of travel on the part - of Irish and Scottish monks, which during the 10th century - received a new impulse from the Danish invasions (§ 93, 1). - The first monastery erected in Germany for the reception - exclusively of Irish monks was that of St. Martin at Cologne, - built in the 10th century. Much more important, however, was - the Scottish monastery of St. James at Regensburg, founded - in A.D. 1067 by Marianus Scotus and two companions. It was - the parent monastery of eleven other Scottish cloisters in - South Germany. Old Celtic sympathies (§ 77, 8), which may have - originally bound them together, could not assert themselves - in the new home during this period as they did in earlier days; - and when Innocent III., at the Lateran Council of A.D. 1215, - sanctioned them as a separate congregation bound by the - Benedictine rule, there certainly remained no longer any - trace of Celtic peculiarities. They were distinguished at - first for strict asceticism, severe discipline and scientific - activity, but subsequently they fell lower than all the rest - in immorality and self-indulgence (§ 112). - - § 98.2. =New Monkish Orders.=--Reserving the great mendicant - orders, the following are the most celebrated among the vast - array of new orders, not bound by the Benedictine rule: - - 1. =The Order of Grammont= in France, founded by Stephen of - Ligerno in A.D. 1070. It took simply the gospel as its rule, - cultivated a quiet, humble and peaceable temper, and so by - the 12th century it had its very life crushed out of it by - the bold assumptions of its lay brethren. - - 2. =The Order of St. Anthony=, founded in A.D. 1095 by a - French nobleman of Dauphiny [Dauphiné], called Guaston, - in gratitude for the recovery of his son Guérin from the - so-called St. Anthony’s fire on his invoking St. Anthony. - He expended his whole property upon the restoring of a - hospital beside the church of St. Didier la Mothe, in a - chapel of which it was supposed the bones of Anthony lay, - and devoted himself, together with his son and some other - companions, to the nursing of the sick. At first merely a - lay fraternity, the members took in A.D. 1218 the monk’s - vow. Boniface VIII. made them canons under the rule of - St. Augustine (§ 45, 1). They were now called Antonians, - and devoted themselves to contemplation. The order spread - greatly, especially in France. They wore a black cloak with - a T-formed cross of blue upon the breast (Ezek. ix. 9) and a - little bell round the neck while engaged in collecting alms. - - 3. =The Order of Fontevraux= was founded in A.D. 1094 by - Robert of Arbrissel in Fontevraux (_Fons Ebraldi_) in - Poitou. Preaching repentance, he went through the country, - and founded convents for virgins, widows and fallen women. - Their abbesses, as representatives of the Mother of God, to - whom the order was dedicated, were set over the priests who - did their bidding. - - 4. =The Order of the Gilbertines= had its name from its - founder Gilbert, an English priest of noble birth. Here - too the women formed the main stem of the order. They were - the owners of the cloister property, and the men were only - its administrators. The monasteries of this order were - mostly both for men and women. It did not spread much - beyond England, and had at the time of the suppression - of the monasteries twenty-one well endowed convents, with - orphanages and houses for the poor and sick. - - 5. =The Carthusian Order= was founded in A.D. 1086 by Bruno - of Cologne, rector of the High School at Rheims. Disgusted - with the immoral conduct of Archbishop Manasseh, he retired - with several companions into a wild mountain gorge near - Grenoble, called Chartreuse. He enjoined upon his monks - strict asceticism, rigid silence, earnest study, prayer, and - a contemplative life, clothed them in a great coarse cowl, - and allowed them for their support only vegetables and bran - bread. Written statutes, _Consuetudines Cartusiæ_, which - soon spread over several houses of the Carthusians, were - first given them in A.D. 1134 by Guido, the fifth prior - of the parent monastery. A steward had management of the - affairs of the convent. Each ate in his own cell; only on - feast days had they a common meal. At least once a week they - fasted on salt, water and bread. Breaking silence, permitted - only on high festivals, and for two hours on Thursdays, was - punished with severe flagellation. Even the lay brethren - were treated with great severity, and were not allowed - either to sit or to cover their heads in the presence of - the brothers of the order. Carthusian nuns were added to - the order in the 13th century with a modified rule. - - 6. =The Premonstratensian Order= was founded in A.D. 1121 - by Norbert, the only German founder of orders besides and - after Bruno. A rich, worldly-minded canon of Xanthen in - the diocese of Cologne, he was brought to another mind by - the fall of a thunderbolt beside him. He retired along with - several other like-minded companions into the rough valley - of Prémontré in the bishopric of Laon (_Præmonstratum_, - because pointed out to him in a vision). In his rule he - joined together the canonical duties with an extremely - strict monastic life. He appeared in A.D. 1126 as a preacher - of repentance at the Diet of Spires, was there elected - archbishop of Magdeburg, and made a most impressive entrance - into his metropolis dressed in his mendicant garb. His order - spread and established many convents both for monks and for - nuns. - - 7. =The Trinitarian Order=, _ordo s. Trinitatis de redemptione - captivorum_, was called into existence by Innocent III., and - had for its work the redemption of Christian captives. - - 8. =The Cœlestine Order= was founded by Peter of Murrone, - afterwards Pope Cœlestine V. (§ 96, 22). Living in a - cave of Mount Murrone in Apulia, under strict penitential - discipline and engaged in mystic contemplation, the fame - of his sanctity attracted to him many companions, with - whom in A.D. 1254 he established a monastery on Mount - Majella. Gregory X., in whose presence Peter, according - to his biographer, hung up his monkish cowl in empty space, - upon a sunbeam which he took for a cord stretching across, - instituted the order as Brethren of the Holy Spirit. But - when in A.D. 1294 their founder ascended the papal throne, - they took his papal name. This order, which gave itself up - entirely to extravagant mystic contemplation, spread over - Italy, France and the Netherlands. - - § 98.3. =The Beginnings of the Franciscan Order down to - A.D. 1219.=--The founder of this order was =St. Francis=, born - in A.D. 1182, son of a rich merchant of Assisi in Umbria. His - proper name was Giovanni Bernardone. The name of Francis is said - to have been given him on account of his early proficiency in the - French language; “Francesco”--the little Frenchman. As a wealthy - merchant’s son, he gave himself to worldly pleasures, but was - withdrawn from these, in A.D. 1207, by means of a severe illness. - A dream, in which he saw a multitude with the sign of the cross, - bearing weapons designed for him and his companions, led him to - resolve upon a military career. But a new vision taught him that - he was called to build up the fallen house of God. He understood - this of a ruined chapel of St. Damiani at Assisi, and began to - apply the proceeds of valuable cloth fabrics from his father’s - factory to its restoration. Banished for such conduct from his - father’s house, he lived for a time as a hermit, until the gospel - passage read in church of the sending forth of the disciples - without gold or silver, without staff or scrip (Matt. x.), fell - upon his soul like a thunderbolt. Divesting himself of all his - property, supplying the necessaries of life by the meanest forms - of labour, even begging when need be, he went about the country - from A.D. 1209, sneered at by some as an imbecile, revered - by others as a saint, preaching repentance and peace. In the - unexampled power of his self-denial and renunciation of the world, - in the pure simplicity of his heart, in the warmth of his love - to God and man, in the blessed riches of his poverty, St. Francis - was like a heavenly stranger in a selfish world. Wonderful, - too, and powerful in its influence was the depth of his natural - feeling. With the birds of the forest, with the beasts of the - field, he held intercourse in childlike simplicity as with - brothers and sisters, exhorting them to praise their Creator. - The paradisiacal relation of man to the animal world seemed to - be restored in the presence of this saint.--Very soon he gathered - around him a number of like-minded men, who under his direction - had decided to devote themselves to a similar vocation. For the - society of “_Viri pœnitentiales de civitate Assisii oriundi_” - thus formed Francis issued, in A.D. 1209, a rule, at the basis - of which lay a literal acceptance of the precepts of Christ to - His disciples, sent forth to preach the kingdom of God (Matt. x.; - Luke x.), along with similar gospel injunctions (Matt. xix. 21, - 29; Luke vi. 29; ix. 23; xiv. 26), and then he went to Rome - to get for it the papal confirmation. The pope was, indeed, - unwilling; but through the pious man’s simplicity and humility - he was prevailed upon to grant his request. In later times this - incident was in popular tradition transformed into a legend, - representing the pope as at first bidding him go to attend the - swine, which the holy man literally obeyed. =Innocent III.= was - the more inclined to yield, owing to the painful experiences - through which the church had passed in consequence of its unwise - treatment of similar proposals made by the Waldensians thirty - years before. He therefore gave at least verbal permission to - Francis and his companions to live and teach according to this - rule. At the same time also Francis heartily responded to the - demand to place at the head of his rule the obligation to obey - and reverence the pope, and to conclude with a vow of the most - rigid avoidance of every kind of addition, abatement, or change. - There was no thought of founding a new monkish order, but only - of a free union and a wandering life, amid apostolic poverty, - for preaching repentance and salvation by word and example. On - entering the society the brothers were required to distribute all - their possessions among the poor, and dress in the poor clothing - of the order, consisting of a coarse cloak bound with a cord and - a capouch, to preach the gospel of the kingdom of God wherever - their master sent them, and to earn their livelihood by their - usual occupation, or any other servile work. In case of need they - were even to beg the necessaries of life. Thus mendicancy, though - only allowed in case of necessity, soon came to be transformed - by the lustre of the example of the poverty of Jesus and His - disciples and mother, who all had lived upon alms, and by the - idea of a twofold merit attaching to self-abnegation, inasmuch - as not only the receiver, by voluntarily submitting to the - disgrace which it involved in the eyes of the world, but also - the giver of alms, obtained before the judgment seat of God a - great reward. But neither as wages for work nor as alms were the - brothers permitted to accept money, but only the indispensable - means of life, while that which remained after their own wants - had been supplied was divided among the poor. From time to time - they withdrew, either singly or in little groups, for prayer, - contemplation, and spiritual exercises into deserts, caves, - or deserted huts; and annually at Pentecost they assembled for - mutual edification and counsel in the small chapel at Assisi, - dedicated to “Mary of the Angel,” given to St. Francis by the - Benedictines. This church, under the name of the _Portiuncula_, - became the main centre of the order, and all who visited it on - the day of its consecration received from the pope a plenary - indulgence. The number of the brothers meanwhile increased from - day to day. When representatives of all ranks in society and - of all the various degrees of culture sought admission, it soon - became evident that the obligation to preach, hitherto enjoined - upon all the members of the order, should be restricted to - those who were specially qualified for the work, and that the - rest should take care to carry out in their personal lives the - ideal of poverty, joined with loving service in institutions - for the poor, the sick, and the lepers. A further move in the - development of the order, tending to secure for it an independent - ecclesiastical position, was the admission into it of ordained - priests. Their missionary activity among Christian people was - restricted at first to Umbria and the neighbouring districts - of central Italy. But soon the thought of a missionary vocation - among the unbelievers got possession of the mind of the founder. - Even in A.D. 1212 he himself undertook for this purpose a journey - to the East, to Syria, and afterwards to Morocco; in neither case, - however, were his efforts attended with any very signal success. - In A.D. 1218, Elias of Cortona, with some companions, again took - up the mission to Syria, with equally little success; and in - A.D. 1219 five brethren were again sent to Morocco, and there - won the crown of martyrdom. In that same year, A.D. 1219, the - Pentecost assembly at Assisi passed the resolution to include - within the range of their call as itinerants the sending of - missions, with a “_minister_” at the head of each, into all - the Christian countries of Europe. They began immediately, - privileged with a papal letter of recommendation to the higher - secular clergy and heads of orders in France, to carry out the - resolution in France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany; while at the - same time Francis himself, accompanied by twelve brethren, again - turned his steps toward the East. - - § 98.4. =The Franciscans from A.D. 1219 to A.D. 1223.=--Soon - after the departure of St. Francis the report of his death - spread through Italy, and loosened the bonds which, by reason - of the obligation to render him obedience hitherto operative, - had secured harmony among the brethren. Francis had, on the - basis of Luke x. 7, 8, laid upon his companions only the commonly - accepted rules of fasting, but the observance of a more rigorous - fast required his own special permission. Now, however, some - rigorists, at a convention of the elders, gave expression to - the opinion, that the brethren should be enjoined to fast not - as hitherto, like all the rest of Christendom, only on two, but - on four, days of the week, a resolution which not only removed - the rule altogether from its basis in Luke x. 7, 8, but also - broke the solemn promise to observe the wish of Innocent III., - incorporated in it, that in no particular should it be altered. - And while the rule forbade any intercourse with women, brother - Philip obtained a papal bull which appointed him representative - of the order of “poor women,” afterwards the Nuns of St. Clara, - founded in A.D. 1212 on the model of the Franciscan ideal - of poverty. Another brother, John of Capella, sought to put - himself at the head of an independent order of poor men and women. - Many such projects were being planned. So soon as news reached - Francis of these vagaries, he returned to Italy, accompanied - by his favourite pupil, the energetic, wise, and politic Elias - of Cortona, whose organizing and governing talent was kept - within bounds down to the founder’s death. Perceiving that all - these confusions had arisen from the want of a strictly defined - organization, legitimized by the pope and under papal protection, - Francis now endeavoured to secure such privileges for his order. - He therefore entreated Honorius III. to appoint Cardinal Ugolino - of Ostia, afterwards Pope Gregory IX., previously a zealous - promoter of his endeavours, as protector and governor of his - brotherhood; and he soon with a strong hand put a stop to all - secessionist movements in the community. A vigorous effort was - now made by the brotherhood, suggested and encouraged by the - papal chair, to carry out a scheme of transformation, by means - of which the order, which had hitherto confined itself to simple - religious and ascetic duties, should become an independent and - powerful monkish order, to place it “with the whole force of its - religious enthusiasm, with its extraordinary flexibility and its - mighty influences over the masses, at the service of the papacy, - and to turn it into a standing army of the pope, ever ready - to obey his will in the great movements convulsing the church - and the world of that time.” Honorius III. took the first step - in this direction by a bull addressed, in Sept., A.D. 1220, to - Francis himself and the superiors of his order, there styled - “_Ordo fratrum minorum_,” by which a novitiate of one year and - an irrevocable vow of admission were prescribed, the wearing of - the official dress made its exclusive privilege, and jurisdiction - given to its own tribunal to deal with all its members. Francis - was now also obliged, willing or unwilling, to agree to a revision - of his rule. This new rule was probably confirmed or at least - approved at the famous Pentecost chapter held at the Portiuncula - chapel in A.D. 1221, called the “_Mat Chapter_” (_C. storearum_), - because the brethren assembled there lived in tents made of - rush-mats.[283] It is, as Carl Müller has incontestably proved, - this same rule which was formerly regarded by all as the first - rule composed in A.D. 1209. The older rule, however, formed in - every particular its basis, and the enlargements and modifications - rendered necessary by the adoption of the new ideas appear so - evidently as additions, that the two different constituents - can even yet with tolerable certainty be distinguished from one - another, and so the older rule can be reconstructed. But the - development and modification of the order necessarily proceeding - in the direction indicated soon led to a gradual reformation - of the rule, which in this new form was solemnly and formally - ratified by Honorius III. in November, A.D. 1223, as possessing - henceforth definite validity. In it the requirement of the literal - acceptance of the commands of Jesus on sending out His disciples - in Matthew x. and Luke x. is no longer made the basis and pattern, - as in the two earlier rules, but all the stress is laid rather - upon the imitation of the lives of poverty led by Jesus and His - apostles; as an offset to the renunciation of all property, the - obligation to earn their own support by work was now set aside, - and the practice of mendicancy was made their proper object in - life, came indeed to be regarded as constituting the special - ideal and sanctity of the order, which in consequence was - now for the first time entitled to be called a =mendicant or - begging order=. At its head stood a _general-minister_, and all - communications between the order and the holy see were conducted - through a _cardinal-protector_. The mission field of the order, - comprising the whole world, was divided into _provinces_ with - a _provincial-minister_, and the provinces into _custodies_ - with a _custos_ at its head.--Every third year at Pentecost - the general called together the provincials and custodes to - a general chapter, and the custodes assembled the brethren of - their dioceses as required in provincial and custodial chapters. - The dress of the order remained the same. The usual requirement - to go barefoot, however, was modified by the permission in cases - of necessity, on journeys and in cold climates, to wear shoes or - sandals. - - § 98.5. =The Franciscans from A.D. 1223.=--There was no mention - in the rule of A.D. 1223 of any sort of fixed place of abode - either in cloisters or in houses of their own. The life of the - order was thus conceived of as a homeless and possessionless - pilgrimage; and as for the means of life they were dependent on - what they got by begging, so also it was considered that for the - shelter of a roof they should depend upon the hospitable. The - gradual transition from a purely itinerant life had already begun - by the securing of fixed residences at definite points in the - transalpine district and first of all in Germany. After the first - sending forth of disciples in A.D. 1219, without much attention - to rule and without much plan, had run its course there with - scarcely any success, a more thoroughly organized mission, under - the direction of brother Cæsarius of Spires, consisting of twelve - clerical and thirteen lay brethren, including John v. Piano - Cupini, Thomas v. Celano, Giordano v. Giano, was sent by the - “_Mat Chapter_” of A.D. 1221 to Germany, which, strengthened by - oft-repeated reinforcements, carried on from A.D. 1228 a vigorous - propaganda in Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, and Norway. - In accordance with the rule of A.D. 1223 Germany as forming - one province was divided into five custodies, but in A.D. 1230 - into two distinct provinces, the Rhineland and Saxony, with a - corresponding number of custodies. Even more brilliant was the - success attending the mission to England in A.D. 1224. On their - missionary tours the brethren took up their residence temporarily - in hospitals and leper houses, or in hospitable parsonages and - private houses, and preached by preference in the open air, where - the people flocked around them in crowds, occasionally at the - invitation of a bishop or priest in the churches. Presents of - lands gave them the opportunity of erecting convents of their - own, with churches and burying-grounds for themselves, which, - placed under the charge of a guardian, soon increased in number - and importance. The begging, which was now made the basis of the - whole institution, was regulated by the principle, that, besides - the benefactions voluntarily paid into the cloister, monks sent - forth at particular terms, hence called Terminants[284] with - a beggar’s bag, should beg about for the necessaries of life. - With agriculture and industrial work, and generally all bodily - labour, the brothers had nothing to do. On the contrary, what - was altogether foreign to the intention of the founder and their - rules, and so originating not from within the order itself, but - from without, first of all by the admission of scientifically - cultured priests, a strong current set in in favour of scientific - studies, stimulated by their own personal ambition as well as - by rivalry with the Dominicans. These scholarly pursuits soon - yielded abundant fruit, which raised the reputation, power, - and influence of the order to such a height, that it has been - enabled to carry out in all details the task assigned it in - the papal polity. Architecture, painting, and poetry also found - among the members of the order distinguished cultivators and - ornaments.--Supported by accumulating papal privileges, which, - for example, gave immunity from all episcopal jurisdiction and - supervision, and allowed its clergy the right in all parts, - not only of preaching, but also of reading mass and hearing - confessions, and aided in its course of secularization by papal - modifications and alterations of its rule, which permitted the - obtaining and possessing rich cloister property, the order of - Minor Brothers or Minorites soon could boast of an extension - embracing several thousands of cloisters.--Francis, wasted by - long-continued sickness and by increasing infirmities, was found - dead, in A.D. 1226, stretched on the floor of the Portiuncula - chapel. Two years afterwards he was canonized by Gregory IX., - and in A.D. 1230 there was a solemn translation of his relics to - the beautiful basilica built in his honour at Assisi. The legend, - that a seraph during his last years had imprinted upon him the - bloody wound-prints or stigmata of the Saviour was also turned - to account for the glorification of the whole order, which - now assumed the epithet “_seraphic_.”--The one who possessed - most spiritual affinity to his master of all the disciples of - St. Francis, and after him most famous among his contemporaries - and posterity, was =St. Anthony of Padua=. Born in A.D. 1195 at - Lisbon, when an Augustinian canon at Coimbra he was, in A.D. 1220, - received into the communion of the Minorites, when the relics of - the five martyrs of Morocco were deposited there, and thereupon - he undertook a mission to Africa. But a severe sickness obliged - him to return home, and driven out of his course by a storm, he - landed at Messina, from whence he made a pilgrimage to Assisi. - The order now turned his learning to account by appointing him - teacher of theology, first at Bologna, then at Montpellier. For - three years he continued as custos in the south of France, going - up and down through the land as a powerful preacher of repentance, - till the death of the founder and the choice of a successor - called him back to Italy. He died at Padua in A.D. 1231. The - pope canonized him in A.D. 1232, and in A.D. 1263 his relics were - enshrined in the newly built beautiful church at Padua dedicated - to him. Among the numerous tales of prodigies, which are said - to have accompanied his goings wherever he went, the best known - and most popular is, that when he could obtain no ready hearing - for his doctrine among men, he preached on a lonely sea-shore - to shoals of fishes that crowded around to listen. His writings, - sermons, and a biblical concordance, under the title _Concordantiæ - Morales SS. Bibliorum_, are often printed along with the _Letters, - Hymns, Testament_, etc., ascribed to St. Francis.--Among the - legends of the order still extant about the life of St. Francis - is the _Vita I._ of Thomas of Celano, written in A.D. 1229, the - oldest and relatively the most impartial. On the other hand, the - later biographies, especially that of the so-called _Tres socii_ - and the _Vita II._ of Thomas, which has been made accessible by - the Roman edition of Amoni of 1880, written contemporaneously - somewhere about A.D. 1245, as well as that of St. Bonaventura - of A.D. 1263, recognised by the chapter of the order as the - only authoritative form of the legends, are all more or less - influenced by the party strifes that had arisen within its ranks, - while all are equally overladen with reports of miracles. In - A.D. 1399, by authority of the general chapter at Assisi, the - “_Liber Conformitatum_” of Bartholomew of Pisa pointed out forty - resemblances between Christ and St. Francis, in which the saint - has generally the advantage over the Saviour. In the Reformation - times an anonymous German version of this book was published by - Erasmus Alber with a preface by Luther, under the title, _Der - Barfüssermönche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran_, Wittenberg, 1542. - The most trustworthy contemporary source of information has been - only recently again rendered accessible to us in the _Memorabilia - de Primitiv. Fratrum in Teutoniam Missorum Conversatione et - Vita_ of the above-named Giordano of Giano, embracing the years - 1207-1238, which G. Voigt discovered among his father’s papers, - and has published with a full and comprehensive introduction. - The Franciscans of Quaracchi near Florence have re-edited it - “after the unique Berlin manuscript,” as well as the supplementary - document, the _De Adventu Fratrum Minorum in Anglia_, in the first - volume of their _Analecta Franciscana, Quar._, 1885.--Thode, in - his _Fr. v. A. und die Anfänge d. Kunst d. Renaissance in Ital._ - (Berl., 1885), has described in a thorough and brilliant style - the mighty influence which St. Francis and his order exerted - upon the development of art in Italy, especially of painting - and architecture, as well as of poetry in the vernacular; for - he has shown how the peculiar and close relation in which the - saint stood to nature gave the first effective impulse to the - emancipation of art from the trammels of formalism, and how the - new artistic tendency, inspired by his spirit, was first given - expression to in the building and adorning of the basilica at - Assisi dedicated to him.[285] - - § 98.6. =Party Divisions within the Franciscan Order.=--That - the founder was by no means wholly in sympathy with the tendency - which prevailed in his order from A.D. 1221, and only tolerated - what he was no longer in a position to prevent, might have been - guessed from the fact that from that time he withdrew himself - more and more from the supreme direction of the order, and - made it over to =Elias of Cortona=, as his general-vicar, who - in existing circumstances was better fitted for the task. But - from his _Testament_ it appears quite evident that he strictly - adhered to the views of his early days, and even attempted a - last but fruitless reaction against the tendency to worldly - conformity that had set in. Thus, for example, it still puts all - the brethren under obligation to perform honourable labour, and - will allow them to beg only in case of necessity, but especially - forbids them most distinctly by their sacred vow of obedience - from asking any privilege from the papal chair, or altering - the simple literal meaning of the rule of the order, and of this - his last will and testament by addition, abatement, or change. - After his death, on 4th October, 1226, Elias retained in his - hand the regency till the next meeting of the Pentecost chapter; - but then he was deprived of office by the election of John Pareus - as general-minister, a member of the stricter party. Meanwhile - the increasing number and wealth of their cloisters and churches, - with their appurtenances, made it absolutely necessary that - the brethren should face the question how the holding of such - possessions was to be reconciled with the strict injunction of - poverty in the sixth chapter of their rule, according to which - “the brothers are to possess nothing of their own, neither a - house, nor an estate, nor anything whatsoever, but are to go - about for alms as strangers and pilgrims in this world.” At - the next general chapter, in A.D. 1230, this question came up - for discussion, along with that of the validity of the testament - above referred to. When they could not agree among themselves, it - was decided, in spite of all the protestations of the general, to - request by a deputation the advice of the pope, Gregory IX., on - this and certain other disputed questions. With reference to the - testament, the pope declared that its demands, because issued - without the consent and approval of the general chapter, could - not be binding upon the order. With reference to the property - question, he repudiated the rendering of the rule in such - a way as if in this, just as in all other orders, only the - possession of property on the part of individual brothers was - forbidden; but the membership of the order as a whole could not - be prevented from holding property, as directly contrary to the - literal statements of the rule, without, however, entering upon - the question as to whose property the movables and immovables - standing really at the call of the order were to be considered. - And as he had at an earlier date, on the occasion of sending a - new Minorite mission to Morocco, granted as a privilege to the - order to take alms in money, which was allowed by the rule only - for the support of sick brethren, for the reason that without - money they would not be able there to procure the necessaries - of life, so he now extended this permission for other purposes - essential to the good of the order, _e.g._ building and - furnishing of cloisters and churches, as not contrary to the - rule, if the collecting and spending of the money is carried on, - not by members of the order, but by procurators chosen for the - work. It was probably to this victory of the lax party that Elias - owed his elevation at the next election, in A.D. 1332, to the - office of general. It also enabled him to maintain his position - for seven years, during which he showed himself particularly - active and efficient, not only as general of the order, but also - in political negotiations with the princes of Italy, especially - as mediator between the pope and the emperor, Gregory IX. and - Frederick II. But his government of the order in a despotic - and lordly manner, and his reckless endeavours to conform - to worldly customs, intensified the bitterness of his pious - opponents, and his growing friendliness with the emperor lost - him the favour of the pope. And so it came about that his - overthrow was accomplished at the general chapter in Rome, - in A.D. 1239. He now openly passed over into the service of the - emperor, against whom the ban had anew been issued, accompanied - him on his military campaigns, and inveighed unsparingly against - the pope in public speeches. As partisan of the banned emperor, - already _de jure_ excommunicated, the ban was pronounced against - him personally in A.D. 1244, and he was expelled from the - order. He died in A.D. 1253, reconciled with the church after - a penitential recantation and apology. His four immediate - successors in the generalship all belonged to the strict party; - but the growing estrangement of the order from the interests - and purposes of the curia, especially too its relations to - the _Evangelium æternum_, pronounced heretical in A.D. 1254 - (§ 108, 5), produced a reaction, in consequence of which the - general, John of Parma, was deprived of office in A.D. 1257. - With his successor, St. Bonaventura, the opposition succeeded - to the undisputed control of the order. The difficult question, - how the really pre-eminently rich cloister property was to - be reconciled with the rule of the order requiring absolute - abandonment of all possessions, found now among the preponderating - lax party, the so-called =Fratres de communitate=, its solution - in the assertion, that the goods in their hands had been bestowed - upon them by the donors only in usufruct, or even that they - were presented not so much to the order, as rather to the - Romish Church, yet with the object of supporting the order. - Nicholas III., in A.D. 1279, legitimated the theory, for he - decided the question in dispute in his bull _Exiit qui seminat_, - by saying that it is allowed to the disciples of St. Francis to - hold earthly goods in usufruct, but not in absolute possession, - as this is demanded by the example of Christ and His apostles. - But now arose a new controversy, over the form and measure - of using with a distinction of a _usus moderatus_ and a _usus - tenuis_ or _pauper_, the latter permitting no store even of - the indispensable necessaries of life beyond what is absolutely - required to satisfy present needs. Those, on the other hand, - who were dissatisfied with the principles affirmed in the papal - bull, the =Spirituales= or _Zelatores_, with Peter John de - Oliva and Ubertino de Casale at their head, assumed an attitude - of open, fanatical opposition to the papacy, identifying it - with antichrist (§ 108, 6). A section of them, which, besides - the points about poverty, took offence at the lax party also - over questions of clothing reform, obtained permission from - Cœlestine V., in A.D. 1294, to separate from the main body - of the order, and, under the name of =Cœlestine Eremites=, to - form an independent communion with a general of their own. They - settled for the most part in Greece and on the islands of the - Archipelago. Boniface VIII., in A.D. 1302, peremptorily insisted - upon their return to the West and to the present order. But as - he died soon after, even those who had returned continued their - separate existence and their distinctive dress.--Continuation, - § 112, 2. - - § 98.7. =The Dominican or Preaching Order.=--=St. Dominic=, - to whom this order owes its origin, was born, in A.D. 1170, - at Calaruega, in Old Castile, of a distinguished family (De - Guzman?). As a learned Augustinian canon at Osma, he had already - wrought zealously for the conversion of Mohammedans and heretics, - when Bishop Diego of Osma, entrusted in A.D. 1204, by King - Alphonso VIII. with obtaining a bride for his son Ferdinand, - took him as one of his travelling retinue. The sudden death - of the bride, a Danish princess, rendered the undertaking - nugatory. On their homeward journey they met at Montpellier - with the Cistercian mission, sent out for the conversion of - the Albigensians (§ 109, 1), the utter failure of which had - become already quite apparent. Dominic, inflamed with holy zeal, - prevailed upon his bishop to enter along with himself upon the - work already almost abandoned in despair; and after the bishop’s - early death, in A.D. 1206, he carried on the enterprise at his - own hand. For Albigensian women, converted by him, he founded a - sort of conventual asylum at Prouille, and a house at Toulouse, - which was soon afterwards gifted to him, became the first - centre where his disciples gathered around him, whence by-and-by - they removed into the cloister of St. Romanus, assigned to them - by Bishop Fulco. During the Albigensian crusade, the thought - ripened in his mind that he might secure a firmer basis and - more powerful support for his enterprise by founding a new, - independent order, whose proper and exclusive task should be the - combating and preventing of heresy by instruction, preaching, and - disputation. In order to obtain for this proposal ecclesiastical - sanction, he accompanied his patron, Bishop Fulco of Toulouse, - in A.D. 1215, to the Fourth Lateran Council at Rome. But pope and - council seemed little disposed to favour his idea. The former, - indeed, sought rather to persuade him to join some existing - ecclesiastical institution, and carry out his scheme under its - organization. Consequently Dominic, with his sixteen companions, - resolved to adopt the rule of St. Augustine, augmented by several - Præmonstratensian articles. When, however, Honorius III. had - ascended the papal chair, Dominic hastened again to Rome, and - in A.D. 1216 obtained from this pope without difficulty what - Innocent III. had refused him, namely, permission to found a new, - independent order, with the privilege of preaching and hearing - confession everywhere. Then, and also subsequently, he preached - frequently with great acceptance to those living in the papal - palace, and thus an opportunity was afforded of establishing the - office of a _magister sacri palatii_, or papal court preacher, - which was immediately occupied, and has ever since continued to - be held, by a Dominican. At a later period the supreme censorship - of books was also assigned to this same official. The first - general chapter of the order met at Bologna in A.D. 1220. There - the vow of poverty, which was hitherto insisted upon only in - the sense of all the earlier orders as a mere abandonment of - property on the part of individuals, was put in a severer form, - so that even the order as such kept itself free from every kind - of possession of earthly goods and revenues, except the bare - cloister buildings, and exhorted all its adherents to live - only on begged alms. Thus the Dominicans, even earlier than the - Franciscans, whose rule then permitted begging only in case of - need, constituted themselves into a regular mendicant order. - Dominic, however, chose voluntary poverty for himself and - his disciples, not like St. Francis simply for the purpose of - securing personal holiness, but rather only to obtain a perfectly - free course for his work in the salvation of others. The official - designation, “=Ordo fratrum Prædicatum=,” was also fixed at this - chapter.[286] At the second general chapter, in A.D. 1221, there - were already representatives from sixty cloisters out of eight - provinces. Dominic died soon after, at Bologna, on 6th August, - 1221, uttering anathemas against any one who should corrupt his - order by bestowing earthly goods upon it. He was canonized by - Gregory IX. in A.D. 1233. His immediate successor, Jordanus, - wrote his first biography, adorned, as we might expect, with - endless miracles. - - § 98.8. According to the constitutional rules of the order, - collected and revised by the third general of the order, - Raimund de Pennaforte, about A.D. 1238, the general who stands - at the head of the whole order, residing at Rome, _magister - generalis_, is elected to office for life at the general chapter - held annually at Pentecost, and he nominates his own _socii_ as - advisory assistants. The government of the provinces is conducted - by a provincial chosen every four years by the provincial chapter, - assisted by four advisory _definitores_, and each cloister elects - its own prior. The mode of life was determined by strict rules, - severe fasts were enjoined, involving strict abstinence from - the use of flesh, and during particular hours of the day absolute - silence had to be observed. In the matter of clothing, only - woollen garments were allowed. The dress consisted of a white - frock with white scapular and a small peaked capouch; but outside - of the cloister a black cloak with capouch was worn over it. From - the favourite play upon the name Dominican, _Domini canes_, in - contrast to the dumb dogs of Isaiah lvi. 10, the order adopted - as its coat of arms a dog with the torch of truth in its mouth. - The special vocation of the order as preachers and opponents of - heresy required a thorough scientific training. Every province - of the order was therefore expected to have a seminary capable - of giving a superior theological education to the members of - the order, to which they gave the name of a _studium generale_, - borrowed from the universities, although the predicate was - here used in a sense much more restricted (comp. § 99, 3). - But ambitious desires for scientific reputation incited them - to obtain authority for instituting theological chairs in the - University of Paris, the most celebrated theological seminary - of that age. The endeavour was favoured by a conflict of Queen - Blanca with the Parisian doctors, in consequence of which they - left the city and for a time gathered their students around - them partly at Rheims, partly at Angers, while the Dominicans, - encouraged by the bishop, established their first chair in the - vacant places in A.D. 1230. The Franciscans too accomplished - the same end about this time. The old professors on their return - used every means in their power to drive out the intruders, but - were completely beaten after almost thirty years of passionate - conflict, and the nurture of scholastic theology was henceforth - all but a monopoly of the two mendicant orders (§ 103, 3). - The art of ecclesiastical architecture and painting, which - during this age reached a hitherto unattained degree of - perfection, found many of its most distinguished ornaments - and masters in the preaching order. And in zeal for missions - to the Mohammedans and the heathen the Franciscans alone could - be compared with them. But the order reached the very climax - of its reputation, influence, and power when Gregory IX., in - A.D. 1232, assigned to it exclusive control of the inquisition - of heretics (§ 109, 2).--The veneration of the devout masses of - the people, who preferred to confide their secret confessions to - the itinerant monks, roused against both orders the hatred of the - secular clergy, the preference shown them by the popes awakened - the envy of the other orders, and their success in scientific - pursuits brought down upon them the ill-will of the learned. - Circumstances thus rendered it necessary for a long time that - the two orders should stand well together for united combat and - defence. But after all those hindrances had been successfully - overcome, the rivalry that had been suppressed owing to temporary - community of interests broke out all the more bitterly in the - endeavour to secure world-wide influence, intensified by opposing - philosophico-dogmatic theories (§ 113, 2), as well as by the - difference in the interpretation and explanation of the doctrine - of poverty, in regard to which they strove with one another - in the most violent and passionate manner (§ 112, 2). From - having in their hands the administration of the Inquisition - the preaching order obtained an important advantage over the - Minorites; while these, on the other hand, were far more popular - among the common people than the proud, ambitious Dominicans, - who occupied themselves with high civil and ecclesiastical - politics as counsellors and confessors of the princes and the - nobles.--Continuation, § 112, 4. - - § 98.9. To each of the =two mendicant orders= there was at an - early date attached a female branch, which was furnished by the - saint who founded the original order with a rule adapting his - order’s ideal of poverty to the female vocation, and therefore - designated and regarded as his “second order.” - - 1. The female conventual asylum, founded in A.D. 1206 at - Prouille, may be considered the first cloister of =Dominican - nuns=. The principal cloister and another institution, - however, was the convent of _San Sisto_ in Rome, given - to St. Dominic for this purpose by Honorius III. In all - parts of Christendom where the preaching order settled - there now appeared female cloisters under the supervision - and jurisdiction of its provincial superior, with seclusion, - strict asceticism, passing their time in contemplation, and - conforming as closely as possible to the mode of life and - style of clothing prescribed for the male cloisters. This - institution was presided over by a prioress. - - 2. The order of the =Nuns of St. Clara=, as “_the second - order of St. Francis_,” was founded by =St. Clara of - Assisi=. Born of a distinguished family, endowed with - great physical beauty, and destined to an early marriage, - in her eighteenth year, in A.D. 1212, she was powerfully - impressed by the teaching of St. Francis, so that she - resolved completely to abandon the world and its vanities. - She proved the earnestness of her resolve by obeying the - trying requirement of the saint to go through the streets - of the city clad in a penitent’s cloak, begging alms for - the poor. On Palm Sunday at the Portiuncula chapel she took - at the hand of her chosen spiritual father the three vows. - Her younger sister Agnes, along with other maidens, followed - her example. Francis assigned to this union of “poor women” - as a conventual residence the church of St. Damiani restored - by him, from which they were sometimes called the _Nuns - of St. Damiani_. When in A.D. 1219 St. Francis undertook - his journey to the east, he commended them to the care - of Cardinal Ugolino, who prescribed for them the rule of - the Benedictine nuns; but after the saint’s return they so - incessantly entreated him to draw up a rule for themselves, - that he at last, in A.D. 1224, prepared one for them and - obtained for it the approval of the pope. Clara died in - A.D. 1253, and was canonized by Innocent IV. in A.D. 1255. - Her order spread very widely in more than 2,000 cloisters, - and can boast not only of having received 150 daughters of - kings and princes, but also of having enriched heaven with - an immense number of beatified and canonized virgins. - - § 98.10. =The other Mendicant Orders.=--The brilliant success - of the Franciscans and Dominicans led other societies, either - previously existing, or only now called into being, to adopt the - character of mendicants. Only three of them succeeded, though in - a much less degree than their models, in gaining position, name - and extension throughout the West. The first of these was the - =Carmelite Order=. It owed its origin to the crusader Berthold, - Count of Limoges, who in A.D. 1156 founded a monastery at - the brook of Elias on Mount Carmel, to which in A.D. 1209 - the patriarch of Jerusalem prescribed the rule of St. Basil - (§ 44, 3). Hard pressed by the Saracens, the Carmelites - emigrated in A.D. 1238 to the West, where as a mendicant - order, under the name of _Frates Mariæ de Monte Carmelo_, with - unexampled hardihood they repudiated their founder Berthold, and - maintained that the prophet Elias had been himself their founder, - and that the Virgin Mary had been a sister of their order. What - they most prided themselves on was the sacred scapular which the - Mother of God herself had bestowed upon Simon Stock, the general - of the order in A.D. 1251, with the promise that whosoever should - die wearing it should be sure of eternal blessedness. Seventy - years later, according to the legends of the order, the Virgin - appeared to Pope John XXII. and told him she descended every - Saturday into purgatory, in order to take such souls to herself - into heaven. In the 17th century, when violent controversies - on this point had arisen, Paul V. authenticated the miraculous - qualities of this scapular, always supposing that the prescribed - fasts and prayers were not neglected. Among the Carmelites, - just as among the Franciscans, laxer principles soon became - current, causing controversies and splits which continued down - to the 16th century (§ 149, 6).--=The Order of Augustinians= - arose out of the combination of several Italian monkish societies. - Innocent IV. in A.D. 1243 prescribed to them the rule of - St. Augustine (§ 45, 1) as the directory of their common life. - It was only under Alexander IV. in A.D. 1256 that they were - welded together into one order as _Ordo Fratrum Eremitarum - S. Augustini_, with the duties and privileges of mendicant - monks. Their order spread over the whole West, and enjoyed - the special favour of the papal chair, which conferred - upon its members the permanent distinction of the office - of sacristan to the papal chapel and of chaplain to the Holy - Father (Continuation, § 112, 5).--Finally, as the fifth in the - series of mendicant orders, we meet with the =Order of Servites=, - _Servi b. Virg._, devoted to the Virgin, and founded in A.D. 1233 - by seven pious Florentines. It was, however, first recognised as - a mendicant order by Martin V., and had equal rank with the four - others granted it only in A.D. 1567 by Pius V. - - § 98.11. =Penitential Brotherhoods and Tertiaries of the - Mendicant Orders.=--Carl Müller was the first to throw light - upon this obscure period in the history of the Franciscans. The - results of his investigations are essentially the following: In - consequence of the appearance of St. Francis as a preacher of - repentance and of the kingdom of God there arose a religious - movement which, not merely had as its result the securing of - numerous adherents to the association of Minor Brethren directed - by himself, as well as to the society of “_poor women_” attaching - itself to St. Clara, but also awakened in many, who by marriage - and family duties were debarred from entering these orders, the - desire to lead a life of penitence and asceticism removed from - the noisy turmoil of the world in the quiet of their own homes - while continuing their industrial employments and the discharge - of civil duties. As originating in the movement inaugurated by - St. Francis, these “_Fratres pœnitentiæ_” designated themselves - “_the third order of St. Francis_,” and as such made the claim - that they should not be disturbed in their retired penitential - life to engage upon services for the State, military duty, and - so forth. In this way they frequently came into conflict with - the civil courts. Although in this direction powerfully supported - by the papal curia, the brotherhoods were just so much the less - able to press their claim to immunity in proportion as they - spread and became more numerous throughout the cities of Italy, - and the greater the rush into their ranks became from day to - day from all classes, men and women, married and unmarried. - The right of spiritual direction and visitation of them was - assigned in A.D. 1234 by Gregory IX. to the bishops; but in - A.D. 1247 Innocent IV., at the request of the Minorites, issued - an ordinance according to which this right was to be given to - them, but they were not able in any case to carry it out. Not - only the secular clergy were opposed, but they were vigorously - aided in their resistance by the Dominicans.--In A.D. 1209, at - the beginning of the Albigensian crusade, St. Dominic had founded, - at Toulouse, an association of married men and women under the - name of _Militia Christi_, which, recognisable by the wearing - of a common style of dress, undertook to vindicate the faith - of the church against heretics, to restore again any goods that - had wrongfully been appropriated by them, to protect widows - and orphans, etc. This _Militia_ migrated from France to Italy. - Although originally founded for quite different purposes than - the Penitential brotherhoods, it had the same privileges as these - enjoyed conferred upon it by the popes, and assimilated itself - largely to these in respect of mode of life and ascetic practices, - and practically became amalgamated with them. But still the - Penitential brotherhoods always formed a neutral territory, upon - which, according to circumstances, sometimes the secular clergy, - and sometimes one or other of the two mendicant orders, but much - more frequently the Minorite clergy, exercised visitation rights. - The first attempt at effecting a definite separation arose - from the Dominicans, whose seventh general, Murione de Zamorra, - prescribed a rule to those Penitential brotherhoods which were - more closely related to his order. Upon their adopting it they - were loosed from the general society as “_Fratres de Pœnitentia_” - =S. Dominici=, and described as exclusively attached to the - preaching order. In A.D. 1288, however, Jerome of Arcoli, the - former general of the Franciscans, ascended the papal throne as - Nicholas IV., and now used all means in his power to secure to - his own order the supremacy in every department. In the following - year, A.D. 1289, he issued the bill _Supra montem_, in which he - prescribed (_statuimus_) a rule of his own for all Penitential - brotherhoods; and then, since on this point, out of regard - for the powerful Dominican order, he did not venture to do - more than simply recommend, added the advice (_consulimus_), - that the visitation and instruction of these should be assigned - to the Minorite superiors, giving as a reason that all these - institutions owed their origin to St. Francis. Against both - the prescription and the advice, however, the bishops, as well - in the interest of their own prerogatives as for the protection - of their clergy, threatened in vocation and income, raised - a vigorous and persistent protest, which at last, however, - succumbed before the supreme power of the pope and the marked - preference on the part of the people for the clergy of the - orders. Those brotherhoods which adopted the rule thus obtruded - on them stood now in the position of rivals, alongside of those - of St. Dominic, as “_Fratres de pœnitentia_” =S. Francisci=. - The Dominican Penitentials afterwards adopted the name and - character of a “_third order of St. Dominic_” or “_Tertiaries_.” - In the Franciscan legends, however, the rule drawn up by - Nicholas IV. soon came to be represented as the one prescribed - to the Penitentials on their first appearance in A.D. 1221 by - St. Francis himself, only ratified anew by the pope, and has - been generally regarded as such down to our own day.--The rapid - growth in power and influence which the two older mendicant - orders owe to the Tertiary Societies, induced also the later - mendicant orders to produce an imitation of them within the range - of their activity. Crossing the Alps the Penitential brotherhoods - found among these orders, on this side, an open door,--the - Franciscan brothers being especially numerous,--and entered - into peculiarly intimate relations with the Beghard societies - which had sprung up there, forming, like them, associations of - a monastic type. - - § 98.12. =Working Guilds of a Monkish Order.=--(1) During the - 11th century, midway between the strictly monastic and secular - modes of life, a number of pious artisan families in Milan, - mostly weavers, under the name of =Humiliati=, adopted a communal - life with spiritual exercises, and community of handicraft and - of goods. Whatever profit came from their work was devoted to - the poor. The married continued their marriage relations after - entering the community. In the 12th century, however, a party - arose among them who bound themselves by vows of celibacy, and - to them were afterwards attached a congregation of priests. Their - society was first acknowledged by Innocent III. in A.D. 1021. - But meanwhile many of them had come under the influence of - Arnold (§ 108, 6), and so had become estranged from the Catholic - church. At a later period these formed a connection with the - French Waldensians, the _Pauperes de Lugduno_, adopted their - characteristic views, and for the sake of distinction took the - name of _Pauperes Italici_ (§ 108, 12).--Related in every respect - to the Lombard Humiliati, but distinguished from them by the - separation of the sexes and a universal obligation of celibacy, - were the communities of the =Beguines= and =Beghards=. Priority - of origin belongs to the Beguines. They took the three monkish - vows, but only for so long as they belonged to the society. Hence - they could at any time withdraw, and enter upon marriage and - other relations of social life. They lived under the direction - of a lady superior and a priest in a so-called Beguine-house, - _Curtis Beguinarum_, which generally consisted of a number of - small houses connected together by one surrounding wall. Each - had her own household, although on entrance she had surrendered - her goods over to the community and on withdrawing she received - them back. They busied themselves with handiwork and the - education of girls, the spiritual training of females, and - sewing, washing and nursing the poor in the houses of the city. - The surplus of income over expenditure was applied to works of - benevolence. Every Beguine house had its own costume and colour. - These institutions soon spread over all Belgium, Germany, and - France. The first Beguine house known to us was founded about - 1180 at Liège, by the famous priest and popular preacher, Lambert - la Bèghe, _i.e._ the Stammerer. Hallmann thinks that the name - of the society may have been derived from that of the preacher. - Earlier writers, without anything to support them but a vague - similarity of sound, were wont to derive it from Begga, daughter - of Pepin of Landen in the 7th century. Most likely of all, - however, is Mosheim’s derivation of it from “beggan,” which means - not to pray, “beten,” a praying sister, but to beg, as the modern - English, and so proves that the institute originally consisted - of a collection of poor helpless women. We may compare with this - the designation “Lollards,” § 116, 3.--After the pattern of the - Beguine communities there soon arose communities of men, Beghards, - with similar tendencies. They supported themselves by handicraft, - mostly by weaving. But even in the 13th century corruption and - immorality made their appearance in both. Brothers and sisters of - the New (§ 108, 4) and of the Free Spirit (§ 116, 5), Fratricelli - (§ 112, 2) and other heretics, persecuted by the church, took - refuge in their unions and infected them with their heresies. - The Inquisition (§ 109, 2) kept a sharp eye on them, and many - were executed, especially in France. The 15th General Council - at Vienna, in A.D. 1312, condemned eight of their positions - as heretical. There was now a multitude of Beguine and Beghard - houses overthrown. Others maintained their existence only by - passing over to the Tertiaries of the Franciscans. Later popes - took the communities that were free from suspicion under their - protection. But even among these many forms of immorality broke - out, concubinage between Beguines and Beghards, and worldliness, - thus obliging the civil and ecclesiastical authorities again - to step in. The unions still remaining in the time of the - Reformation were mostly secularized. Only in Belgium have - a few Beguine houses continued to exist to the present day - as institutions for the maintenance of unmarried women of the - citizen class.[287] - - § 98.13. =The Spiritual Order of Knights.=--The peculiarity of - the Order of Knights consists in the combination of the three - monkish vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience with the vow - to maintain a constant struggle with the infidels. The most - important of these orders were the following. - - 1. =The Templars=, founded in A.D. 1118 by Hugo de Payens - and Godfrey de St. Omer for the protection of pilgrims in - the Holy Land. The costume of the order was a white mantle - with a red cross. Its rule was drawn up by St. Bernard, - whose warm interest in the order secured for it papal - patronage and the unanimous approbation of the whole West. - When Acre fell in A.D. 1291 the Templars settled in Cyprus, - but soon most of them returned to the West, making France - their headquarters. They had their name probably from a - palace built on the site of Solomon’s temple, which king - Baldwin II. of Jerusalem assigned them as their first - residence.[288]--Continuation, § 112, 7. - - 2. =The Knights of St. John= or Hospitallers, founded by - merchants from Amalfi as early as the middle of the - 11th century, residing at first in a cloister at the - Holy Sepulchre, were engaged in showing hospitality to - the pilgrims and nursing the sick. The head of the order - Raimund du Puy, who occupied this position from A.D. 1118, - added to these duties, in imitation of the Templars, that - of fighting against the infidels. They carried a white cross - on their breast, and a red cross on their standard. Driven - out by the Saracens, they settled in Rhodes in A.D. 1310, - and in A.D. 1530 took possession of Malta.[289] - - 3. =The Order of Teutonic Knights= had its origin from a - hospital founded by citizens of Bremen and Lübeck during - the siege of Acre in A.D. 1120. The costume of the knights - was a white mantle with a black cross. Subsequently the - order settled in Prussia (§ 93, 13), and in A.D. 1237 - united with the order of the Brothers of the Sword, which - had been founded in Livonia in A.D. 1202 (§ 93, 12). Under - its fourth Grandmaster, the prudent as well as vigorous - Hermann v. Salza, A.D. 1210-1239, it reached the summit - of its power and influence. - - 4. =The Knights of the Cross= arose originally in Palestine - under the name of the Order of Bethlehem, but at a later - period settled in Austria, Bohemia, Moravia and Poland. - There they adopted the life of regular canons (§ 97, 5) - and devoted themselves to hospital work and pastoral duties. - They are still to be found in Bohemia as holders of valuable - livings, with the badge of a cross of red satin. - - In =Spain=, too, various orders of spiritual knights arose under - vows to fight with the Moors (§ 95, 2). The two most important - were the =Order of Calatrava=, founded in A.D. 1158 by the - Cistercian monk Velasquez for the defence of the frontier city - Calatrava, and the =Order of Alcantara=, founded in A.D. 1156 for - a similar purpose. Both orders were confirmed by Alexander III. - and gained great fame and still greater wealth in the wars - against the Moors. Under Ferdinand the Catholic the rank of - Grandmaster of both orders passed over to the crown. Paul III. - in A.D. 1540 released the knights from the vow of celibacy, but - obliged them to become champions of the Immaculate Conception of - the Virgin. Both orders still exist, but only as military orders - of merit. - - § 98.14. =Bridge-Brothers and Mercedarians.=--The name of - Bridge Brothers, _Frères Pontifex_, _Fratres Pontifices_, was - given to a union founded under Clement III., in Southern France, - in A.D. 1189, for the building of hospices and bridges at points - where pilgrims crossed the large rivers, or for the ferrying - of pilgrims over the streams. As a badge they wore a pick upon - their breast. Their constitution was modelled upon that of - the Knights of St. John, and upon their gradual dissolution - in the 13th century most of their number went over to that - order.--Petrus [Peter] Nolescens, born in Languedoc, of noble - parents and military tutor of a Spanish prince, moved by what - he had seen of the sufferings of Christian slaves at the hand - of their Moorish masters, and strengthened in his resolve by - an appearance of the Queen of Heaven, founded in A.D. 1228 the - knightly order of the =Mercedarians=, _Mariæ Virg. de mercede - pro redemptione Captivorum_. They devoted all their property - to the purchase of Christian captives, and where such a one was - in danger of apostatising to Islam and the money for redemption - was not procurable, they would even give themselves into slavery - in his place. When in A.D. 1317 the Grand Commandership passed - over into the hands of the priests, the order was gradually - transformed into a monkish order. After A.D. 1600, in consequence - of a reform after the pattern of the rule of the Barefoots, - it became a mendicant order, receiving the privileges of other - begging fraternities from Benedict XIII. in A.D. 1725. The order - proved a useful institution of its time in Spain, France and - Italy, and at a later period also in Spanish America. - - - - - III. Theological Science and its Controversies. - - - § 99. SCHOLASTICISM IN GENERAL.[290] - - The scientific activity of the Middle Ages received the name of -=Scholasticism= from the cathedral and cloister schools in which it -originated (§ 90, 8). The Schoolmen, with their enthusiasm and devotion, -their fidelity and perseverance, their courage and love of combat, may -be called the knights of theology. Instead of sword and spear they used -logic, dialectic and speculation; and profound scholarship was their -breastplate and helmet. Ecclesiastical orthodoxy was their glory -and pride. Aristotle, and also to some extent Plato, afforded them -their philosophical basis and method. The Fathers in their utterances, -_sententiæ_, the Councils in their dogmas and canons, the popes in -their decretals, yielded to this Dialectic Scholasticism theological -material which it could use for the systematising, demonstrating, and -illustrating of the Church doctrine. If we follow another intellectual -current, we find the Mystical Scholasticism taking up, as the highest -task of theology, the investigating and describing of the hidden life -of the pious thinker in and with God according to its nature, course, -and results by means of spiritual contemplation on the basis of one’s -individual experience. Dogmatics (including Ethics) and the Canon -Law constituted the peculiar field of the Dialectic Theology of the -Schoolmen. The standard of dogmatic theology during the 12th century -was the Book of the Sentences of the Lombard (§ 102, 5); that of the -Canon Law the Decree of Gratian. Biblical Exegesis as an independent -department of scientific study stood, indeed, far behind these two, -but was diligently prosecuted by the leading representatives of -Scholasticism. The examination of the simple literal sense, however, -was always regarded as a secondary consideration; while it was esteemed -of primary importance to determine the allegorical, tropological, and -anagogical signification of the text (§ 90, 9). - - § 99.1. =Dialectic and Mysticism.=--With the exception - of the speculative Scotus Erigena, the Schoolmen of the - Carlovingian Age were of a practical turn. This was changed - on the introduction of Dialectic in the 11th century. Practical - interests gave way to pure love of science, and it was now the - aim of scholars to give scientific shape and perfect logical form - to the doctrines of the church. The method of this =Dialectic - Scholasticism= consisted in resolving all church doctrines into - their elementary ideas, in the arranging and demonstrating of - them under all possible categories and in the repelling of all - possible objections of the sceptical reason. The end aimed at was - the proof of the reasonableness of the doctrine. This Dialectic, - therefore, was not concerned with exegetical investigations - or Scripture proof, but rather with rational demonstration. - Generally speaking, theological Dialectic attached itself to - the ecclesiastical system of the day as positivism or dogmatism; - for, appropriating Augustine’s _Credo ut intelligam_, it made - faith the principal starting point of its theological thinking - and the raising of faith to knowledge the end toward which it - laboured. On the other hand, however, scepticism often made its - appearance, taking not faith but doubt as the starting point - for its inquiries, with the avowed intention, indeed, of raising - faith to knowledge, but only acknowledging as worthy of belief - what survived the purifying fire of doubt.--Alongside of this - double-edged Dialectic, sometimes in conflict, sometimes in - alliance with it, we meet with the =Mystical Scholasticism=, - which appealed not to the reason but to the heart, and sought - by spiritual contemplation rather than by Dialectic to advance - at once theological science and the Christian life. Its object - is not Dogmatics as such, not the development of _Fides quæ - creditur_, but life in fellowship with God, the development of - _Fides qua creditur_. By contemplative absorption of the soul - into the depth of the Divine life it seeks an immediate vision, - experience and enjoyment of the Divine, and as an indispensable - condition thereto requires purity of heart, the love of God - in the soul and thorough abnegation of self. What is gained - by contemplation is made the subject of scientific statement, - and thus it rises to speculative mysticism. Both contemplation - and speculative mysticism in so far as their scientific - procedure is concerned are embraced under the name of scholastic - mysticism. The practical endeavour, however, after a deepening - and enhancing of the Christian life in the direction of a - real and personal fellowship with God was found more important - and soon out-distanced the scientific attempt at tabulating - and formulating the facts of inner experience. Practical - mysticism thus gained the ascendency during the 12th, 13th - and 14th centuries, and formed the favourite pursuit of the - numerous inmates of the nunneries (§ 107). - - § 99.2. =The Philosophical Basis of Dialectic Scholasticism= was - obtained mainly from the Aristotelian philosophy, which, down to - the end of the 12th century, was known at first only from Latin - renderings of Arabic and even Hebrew translations, and afterwards - from Latin renderings of the Greek originals (§ 103, 1). - Besides Aristotle, however, Plato also had his enthusiastic - admirers during the Middle Ages. The study of the writings of - Augustine and the Areopagite (§ 90, 7) led back again to him, - and the speculative mystics vigorously opposed the supremacy - of Aristotle.--At the outset of the philosophical career of - scholasticism in the 11th century we meet with the controversy - of Anselm and Roscellinus [Roscelin] about the relations of - thinking and being or of the idea and the substance of things - (§ 101, 3). =The Nominalists=, following the principles of the - Stoics, maintained that General Notions, _Universalia_, are mere - abstractions of the understanding, _Nomina_, which as such have - no reality outside the human mind, _Universalia =post= res_. - =The Realists=, on the contrary, affirmed the reality of General - Notions, regarding them as objective existences before and - apart from human thinking. But there were two kinds of realism. - The one, based on the Platonic doctrine of ideas, taught that - General Notions are really existent before the origin of the - several things as archetypes in the Divine reason, and then - also in the human mind before the contemplation of the things - empirically given, _Universalia =ante= res_. The other, resting - on Aristotle’s doctrine, considered them as lying in the things - themselves and as first getting entrance into the human mind - through experience, _Universalia =in= rebus_. The Platonic - Realism thought to reach a knowledge of things by pure thought - from the ideas latent in the human mind; the Aristotelian, on the - other hand, thought to gain a knowledge of things only through - experience and thinking upon the things themselves.--Continuation, - § 103, 1. - - § 99.3. =The Nurseries of Scholasticism.=--The work previously - done in cathedrals and cloister schools was, from about the - 12th century, taken up in a more comprehensive and thorough - way by the =Universities=. They were, as to their origin, - independent of church and state, emperor and pope. Here and - there famous teachers arose in the larger cities or in connection - with some celebrated cloister or cathedral school. Youths from - all countries gathered around them. Around the teacher who first - attracted attention others gradually grouped themselves. Teachers - and scholars organized themselves into a corporation, and thus - arose the University. By this, however, we are to understand - nothing less than a _Universitas litterarum_, where attention - was given to the whole circle of the sciences. For a long time - there was no thought of a distribution into faculties. When the - multitude of teachers and students demanded a distribution into - several corporations, this was done according to nations. The - name signifies the _Universitas magistrorum et scholarium_ - rather than an articulated whole. The study here pursued was - called _Studium generale_ or _universale_, because the entrance - thereto stood open to every one. At first each university - pursued exclusively and in later times chiefly some special - department of science. Thus, _e.g._ theology was prosecuted in - Paris and Oxford and subsequently also in Cologne, jurisprudence - in Bologna, Medicine in Salerno. The first university that - expressly made provision for teaching all sciences was founded - at Naples in A.D. 1224 with imperial munificence by Frederick II. - The earliest attempt at a distribution of the sciences among - distinct faculties was occasioned by the struggle between the - university of Paris and the mendicant monks (§ 103, 1), who - separated themselves from the other theological teachers and - as members of a guild formed themselves in A.D. 1259 into a - theological faculty. The number of the students, among whom - were many of ripe years, was immensely great, and in some of - the most celebrated universities reached often to ten or even - twenty thousand. There was a ten years’ course prescribed for - the training of the monks of Clugny: two years’ _Logicalia_, - three years’ _Literæ naturales et philosophicæ_, and five - years’ Theology. The Council at Tours in A.D. 1236 insisted - that every priest should have passed through a five years’ - course of study.[291] - - § 99.4. =The Epochs of Scholasticism.=--The intellectual work - of the theologians of the Middle Ages during our period ran its - course in four epochs, the boundaries of which nearly coincide - with the boundaries of the four centuries which make up that - period. - - 1. From the 10th century, almost completely destitute of any - scientific movement, the so-called _Sæculum obscurum_, there - sprang forth the first buds of scholarship, without, however, - any distinct impress upon them of scholasticism. - - 2. In the 11th century scholasticism began to show itself, and - that in the form of dialectic, both sceptical and dogmatic. - - 3. In the 12th century mysticism assumed an independent place - alongside of dialectic, carried on a war of extermination - against the sceptical dialectic, and finally appeared in a - more peaceful aspect, contributing material to the positive - dogmatic dialectic. - - 4. In the 13th century dialectic scholasticism gained the - complete ascendency, and reached its highest glory in the - form of dogmatism in league with mysticism, and never, in - the persons of its greatest representatives, in opposition - to it. - - § 99.5. =The Canon Law.=--After the Pseudo-Isidore (§ 87, 2) - many collections of church laws appeared. They sought to render - the material more complete, intentionally or unintentionally - enlarging the forgeries and massing together the most - contradictory statements without any attempt at comparison - or sifting. The most celebrated of these were the collections - of bishops Burchard of Worms about A.D. 1020, Anselm of Lucca, - who died in A.D. 1086, nephew of the pope of the same name, - Alexander II., and Ivo of Chartres, who died in A.D. 1116. Then - the Camaldolite monk =Gratian= of Bologna undertook not only - to gather together the material in a more complete form than - had hitherto been done, but also to reconcile contradictory - statements by scholastic argumentation. His work appeared about - A.D. 1150 under the title _Concordantia discordantium canonum_, - and is commonly called _Decretum Gratiani_. A great impulse was - given to the study of canon law by means of this work, especially - at Bologna and Paris. Besides the _Legists_, who taught the Roman - law, there now arose numerous _Decretists_ teaching the canon - law and writing commentaries on Gratian’s work. Gregory IX. - had a new collection of Decrees of Councils and Decretals in - five books, the so-called _Liber extra Decretum_, or shortly - _Extra_ or _Decretum Gregorii_, drawn up by his confessor and - Grand-Penitentiary, the learned Dominican Raimundus [Raimund] - de Pennaforti [Pennaforte], and sent it in A.D. 1234 to the - University of Bologna. Boniface VIII. in A.D. 1298 added to - this collection in five parts his _Liber Sextus_, and Clement V. - in A.D. 1314 added what are called after him the _Clementinæ_. - From that time down to A.D. 1483 the decretals of later popes - were added as an appendix under the name _Extravagantes_, - and with these the _Corpus juris canonici_ was concluded. - An official edition was begun in A.D. 1566 by the so-called - _Correctores Romani_, which in A.D. 1580 received papal sanction - as authoritative for all time to come.[292] - - § 99.6. The Schoolmen as such contributed nothing to =Historical - Literature=. Histories were written not in the halls of the - universities but in the cells of the monasteries. Of these - there were three kinds as we have already seen in § 90, 9. For - workers in the department of Biblical History, see § 105, 5; - and of Legends of the Saints, § 104, 8. For ancient Church - History Rufinus and Cassiodorus were the authorities and the - common text books (§ 5, 1). An interesting example of the manner - in which universal history was treated when mediæval culture - had reached its highest point, is afforded by the _Speculum - magnum s. quadruplex_ of the Dominican =Vincent of Beauvais= - (_Bellovacensis_). This treatise was composed about the middle - of the 13th century at the command of Louis IX. of France as - a hand-book for the instruction of the royal princes. It forms - an encyclopædic exposition of all the sciences of that day in - four parts, _Speculum historiale_, _naturale_, _doctrinale_, - and _morale_. The _Speculum doctrinale_ breaks off just at - the point where it should have passed over to theology proper, - and the _Speculum morale_ is a later compilation by an unknown - hand.[293] - - - § 100. THE _SÆCULUM OBSCURUM_: THE 10TH CENTURY.[294] - - In contrast to the brilliant theological scholarship and the -activity of religious life in the 9th century, as well as to the -remarkable culture and scientific attainments of the Spanish Moors -with their world-renowned school at Cordova, the darkness of the -10th century seems all the more conspicuous, especially its first -half, when the papacy reached its lowest depths, the clergy gave way -to unblushing worldliness and the church was consumed by the foulest -corruption. During this age, indeed, there were gleams of light even -in Italy, but only like a will o’ the wisp rising from swampy meadows, -a fanatical outburst on behalf of ancient classic paganism. The -literature of this period stood in direct and avowed antagonism to -Christian theology and the Christian church, and commended a godless -frivolity and the most undisguised sensuality. A grammarian Wilgard -of Ravenna taught openly that Virgil, Horace, and Juvenal were better -and nobler than Paul, Peter, and John. The church had still so much -authority as to secure his death as a heretic, but in almost all the -towns of Italy he had sympathisers, and that among the clergy as well -as among laymen. It was only by the influence of the monks of Clugny, -the reformatory ascetic efforts of Romuald (§ 98, 1) and St. Nilus the -Younger, a very famous Greek recluse of Gaeta, who died in A.D. 1005, -aided by the reformatory measures for the purification of the church -taken by the Saxon emperors, that this unclean spirit was gradually -driven out. The famous endeavours of Alfred the Great and their -temporary success were borne to the grave along with himself. From -A.D. 959 however, Dunstan’s reformation awakened anew in England -appreciation of a desire for theological and national culture. The -connection of the imperial house of Otto with Byzantium also aroused -outside of Italy a longing after old classical learning. The imperial -chapel founded by the brother of Otto I., Bruno the Great (§ 97, 2), -became the training school of a High-German clergy, who were there -carefully trained as far as the means at the disposal of that age -permitted, not only in politics, but also in theological and classical -studies. - - § 100.1. The degree to which =Classical Studies= were pursued - in Germany during the period of the Saxon imperial house is shown - by the works of the learned nun =Roswitha= of Gandersheim, north - of Göttingen, who died about A.D. 984. The first edition of her - works, which comprise six dramas on biblical and ecclesiastical - themes in the style of Terence, in prose interspersed with - rhymes, also eight legends, a history of Otto I., and a history - of the founding of her cloister in leonine hexameters, was - issued by the humanist Conrad Celtes, with woodcuts by Dürer - in A.D. 1501.--=Notker Labeo=, president of the cloister - school of St. Gall, who died in A.D. 1022, enriched the old - German literature by translations of the Psalms, of Aristotle’s - _Organon_, the _Moralia_ of Gregory the Great, and various - writings of Boethius [Boëthius].--In =England= the educational - efforts of =St. Dunstan= (§ 97, 4) were powerfully supported - by Bishop =Ethelwold= of Winchester, who quite in the spirit of - Alfred the Great (§ 90, 10) wrought incessantly with his pupils - for the extension and enrichment of the Anglo-Saxon literature. - Of his scholars by far the most famous was =Aelfric=, surnamed - Grammaticus, who flourished about A.D. 990. He wrote an - Anglo-Saxon Grammar, prepared a collection of homilies for all - the Sundays and festivals and a free translation from sermons of - the Latin Fathers, translated also the Old Testament heptateuch, - and wrote treatises on other portions of Scripture and on - biblical questions.[295] - - § 100.2. =Italy= produced during the second half of the century - many theologians eminent and important in their day. =Atto=, - bishop of Vercelli, who died about A.D. 960, distinguished - himself by his exegetical compilations on Paul’s epistles, and - as a homilist and a vigorous opponent of the oppressors of the - church during these rough times. Still more important was his - younger contemporary =Ratherius=, bishop of Verona, afterwards - of Liège, but repeatedly driven away from both, who died A.D. 974. - A strict and zealous reformer of clerical morals, he insisted - upon careful study of the Bible, and wrought earnestly against - the unblushing paganism of the Italian scholars of his age - as well as against all kinds of hypocrisy, superstition, and - ecclesiastical corruptions. This, and also his attachment to - the political interests of the German court, exposed him to - much persecution. Among his writings may be named _De contemptu - canonum_, _Meditationes cordis_, _Apologia sui ipsius_, _De - discordia inter ipsum et clericos_.--In =France= we meet with - =Odo of Clugny=, who died in A.D. 942, famed as a hymn writer - and homilist, and, in his _Collationum Ll. iii._, as a zealous - reprover of the corrupt morals of his age. In England and France, - =Abbo of Fleury= taught toward the end of the century. From - England, where he had been induced to go by St. Dunstan, he - returned after some years to his own cloister of Fleury, and by - his academic gifts raised its school to great renown. He wrote on - astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and history. He also composed - a treatise on dialectics, in which he makes his appearance as - the first and most eminent precursor of the Schoolmen. Chosen - abbot of his monastery and exercising strict discipline over his - monks, he suffered a martyr’s death by the hand of a murderer in - A.D. 1004.--=Gerbert of Rheims=, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. - (§ 96, 3, 4), during his active career lived partly in France, - partly in Italy. Distinguished both for classical and Arabic - scholarship, he shone in the firmament of this dark century - as it was passing away († A.D. 1003) like a star of the first - magnitude in theology, mathematics, astronomy, and natural - science, while by the common people he was regarded as a magician. - Under him the school of Rheims reached the summit of its fame. - - - § 101. THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. - - During the 11th century, with the moral and spiritual elevation of -the church, eager attention was again given to theological science. It -was at first mainly prosecuted in the monasteries of the Cistercians -and among the monks of Clugny, but afterwards at the seminaries which -arose toward the end of the century. The dialectic method won more -and more the upper hand in theology, and in the Eucharist controversy -between Lanfranc and Berengar, as well as in the controversy between -Anselm and Gaunilo about the existence of God, and between Anselm and -Roscelin about the Trinity, Dogmatism obtained its first victory over -Scepticism. - - § 101.1. =The Most Celebrated Schoolmen of this Century.= - - 1. =Fulbert= opens the list, a pupil of Gerbert, and - from A.D. 1007 Bishop of Chartres Before entering on - his episcopate he had founded at Chartres a theological - seminary. His fame spread over all the West, so that pupils - poured in upon him from every side. - - 2. The most important of these was =Berengar of Tours=, - afterwards a canon and teacher of the cathedral school - of his native city, and then again archdeacon at Angers. - He died in A.D. 1088. The school of Tours rose to great - eminence under him. - - 3. =Lanfranc=, the celebrated opponent of the last-named, - was abbot of the monastery of Bec in Normandy, and from - A.D. 1070 Archbishop of Canterbury (§ 96, 8). He died in - A.D. 1089. He wrote against Berengar _Liber de corpore et - sanguine Domini_. - - 4. Bishop =Hildebert of Tours=, who died in A.D. 1134, famous - as a writer of spiritual songs, was a pupil of Berengar. - But he avoided the sceptical tendencies of his teacher, and, - warned of the danger of dialectic and following the mystical - bent of his mind, he applied himself to the cultivation of - a life of faith, so that St. Bernard praised him as _tantam - columnam ecclesiæ_. - - 5. The monastic school of Bec, which Lanfranc had rendered - celebrated, reached the summit of its fame under his pupil - =Anselm of Canterbury=, who far excelled his teacher in - genius as well as in importance for theological science. - He was born in A.D. 1033 at Aosta in Italy, educated in the - monastery of Bec, became teacher and abbot there, was raised - in A.D. 1093 to the archiepiscopal chair of Canterbury, and - died in A.D. 1109. As a churchman he courageously defended - the independence of the church according to the principles - of Hildebrand (§ 96, 12). As a theologian he may be ranked - in respect of acuteness and profundity, speculative talent - and Christian earnestness, as a second Augustine, and - on the theological positions of that Father he based his - own. Though carrying dialectic even into his own private - devotions, there was yet present in him a vein of religious - mysticism. According to him faith is the condition of true - knowledge, _Fides præcedit intellectum_; but it is also with - him a sacred duty to raise faith to knowledge, _Credo ut - intelligam_. Only he who in respect of endowment and culture - is not capable of this intellectual activity should content - himself with simple _Veneratio_. His _Monologium_ contains - discussions on the nature of God, his _Proslogium_ proves - the being of God; his three books, _De fide Trinitatis et - de incarnatione Verbi_, develop and elaborate the doctrine - of the Trinity and Christology; while the three dialogues - _De veritate_, _De libero arbitrio_, and _De casu diaboli_ - treat of the object, and the tract _Cur Deus homo?_ treats - of the subject, of soteriology. The most able, profound, - and impressive of all his writings is the last-named, - which proves the necessity of the incarnation of God in - Christ for the reconciliation of man with God. It was an - epoch-making treatise in the historical development of the - church doctrine of satisfaction on Pauline foundations.[296] - Anselm took part in the controversy of the Greeks by his - work _De processione Spiritus_ (§ 67, 4). He discussed the - question of predestination in a moderate Augustinian form in - the book, _De concordia præscientæ et prædest. et gratiæ Dei - cum libero arbitrio_. In his _Meditationes_ and _Orationes_ - he gives expression to the ardent piety of his soul, as also - in the voluminous collection (426) of his letters.[297] - - 6. =Anselm of Laon=, surnamed Scholasticus, was the pupil - of Anselm of Canterbury. From A.D. 1076 he taught with - brilliant success at Paris, and thus laid the first - foundation of its university. Subsequently he returned - to his native city Laon, was made there archdeacon and - Scholasticus, and founded in that place a famous theological - school. He died in A.D. 1117. He composed the _Glossa - interlinearis_, a short exposition of the Vulgate between - the lines, which with Walafrid’s _Glossa ordinaria_ - (§ 90, 4), became the favourite exegetical handbook of - the Middle Ages. - - 7. =William of Champeaux=, the proper founder of the University - of Paris, had already taught rhetoric and dialectic for - some time with great success in the cathedral school, when - the fame of the theological school of Laon led him to the - feet of Anselm. In A.D. 1108 he returned to Paris, and - had immense crowds listening to his theological lectures. - Chagrined on account of a defeat in argument at the hand - of Abælard, one of his own pupils, he retired from public - life into the old chapel of St. Victor near Paris, and there - founded a monastery under the same name for canons of the - rule of St. Augustine. He died in A.D. 1121 as Bishop of - Chalons. - - 8. The abbot =Guibert of Nogent=, in the diocese of Laon, - who died about A.D. 1124, a scholar of Anselm at Bec, - was a voluminous writer and, with all his own love of - the marvellous, a vigorous opponent of all the grosser - absurdities of relic and saint worship. He wrote a useful - history of the first crusade, and a work important in - its day entitled, _Liber quo ordine sermo fieri debeat_. - His great work was one in four books, _De pignoribus - Sanctorum_, against the abuses of saint and relic worship, - the exhibition of pretended parts of the Saviour’s body, - _e.g._ teeth, pieces of the foreskin, navel cord, etc., - against the translation or distribution of the bodies - of saints, against the fraud of introducing new saints, - relics, and legends. - - § 101.2. =Berengar’s Eucharist Controversy, - A.D. 1050-1079.=--Berengar of Tours elaborated a theory of the - eucharist which is directly antagonistic to the now generally - prevalent theory of Radbert (§ 91, 3). He taught that while the - elements are changed and Christ’s body is really present, neither - the change nor the presence is substantial. The presence of His - body is rather the existence of His power in the elements, and - the change of the bread is the actual manifestation of this power - in the form of bread. The condition however of this power-presence - is not merely the consecration but also the faith of the receiver. - Without this faith the bread is an empty and impotent sign. - Such views were publicly expressed by him and his numerous - followers for a long while without causing any offence. But - when he formally stated them in a letter to his friend Lanfranc - of Bec, this churchman became Berengar’s accuser at the Synod - of Rome in A.D. 1050. The synod condemned him unheard. A second - synod of the same year held at Vercelli, before which Berengar - was to have appeared but could not because he had meanwhile - been imprisoned in France, in an outburst of fanatical fury - had the treatise of Ratramnus on the eucharist, wrongly ascribed - to Erigena, torn up and burnt, while Berengar’s doctrine was - again condemned. Meanwhile Berengar was by the intervention of - influential friends set at liberty and made the acquaintance of - the powerful papal legate Hildebrand, who, holding by the simple - Scripture doctrine that the bread and wine of the sacrament - was the body and blood of Christ, occupied probably a position - intermediate between Radbert’s grossly material and Berengar’s - dynamic hypothesis. Disinclined to favour the fanaticism of - Berengar’s opponents, Hildebrand contented himself with exacting - from him at the Synod of Tours in A.D. 1054 a solemn declaration - that he did not deny the presence of Christ in the Supper, but - regarded the consecrated elements as the body and blood of Christ. - Emboldened by this decision and still always persecuted by his - opponents as a heretic, Berengar undertook in A.D. 1059 a journey - to Rome, in order, as he hoped, by Hildebrand’s influence to - secure a distinct papal verdict in his favour. But there he found - a powerful opposition headed by the passionate and pugnacious - Cardinal Humbert (§ 67, 3). This party at the Lateran Council - in Rome in A.D. 1059, compelled Berengar, who was really very - deficient in strength of character, to cast his writings into - the fire and to swear to a confession composed by Humbert which - went beyond even Radbert’s theory in the gross corporeality of - its expressions. But in France he immediately again repudiated - this confession with bitter invectives against Rome, and - vindicated anew against Lanfranc and others his earlier views. - The bitterness of the controversy now reached its height. - Hildebrand had meanwhile, in A.D. 1073, himself become pope. - He vainly endeavoured to bring the controversy to an end by - getting Berengar to accept a confession couched in moderate - terms admitting the real presence of the body and blood in the - Supper. The opposite party did not shrink from casting suspicion - on the pope’s own orthodoxy, and so Hildebrand was obliged, in - order to avoid the loss of his great life work in a mass of minor - controversies, to insist at a second synod in Rome in A.D. 1079 - upon an unequivocal and decided confession of the substantial - change of the bread. Berengar was indiscreet enough to refer - to his private conversations with the pope; but now Gregory - commanded him at once to acknowledge and abjure his error. - With fear and trembling Berengar obeyed, and the pope dismissed - him with a safe conduct, distinctly prohibiting all further - disputation. Bowed down under age and calamities, Berengar - withdrew to the island of St. Come, near Tours, where he lived - as a solitary penitent in the practice of strict asceticism, and - died at a great age in peace with the church in A.D. 1088. His - chief work is _De Cœna S. adv. Lanfr._--Continuation, § 102, 5. - - § 101.3. =Anselm’s Controversies.= - - I. On the basis of his Platonic realism, Anselm of Canterbury - constructed the ontological proof of the being of God, that - there is given in man’s reason the idea of the most perfect - being to whose perfection existence also belongs. When he - laid this proof before the learned world in his _Monologium_ - and _Proslogium_, the monk Gaunilo of Marmoutiers, who - was a supporter of Aristotelian realism, opposed him, and - acutely pointed out the defects of this proof in his _Liber - pro insipiente_. He so named it in reference to a remark - of Anselm, who had said that even the _insipiens_ who, - according to Psalm xiv. 1, declares in his heart that there - is no God, affords thereby a witness for the existence of - the idea, and consequently also for the existence of God. - Anselm replied in his _Apologeticus c. Gaunilonem_. And - there the controversy ended without any definite result. - - II. Of more importance was Anselm’s controversy with - =Roscelin=, the Nominalist, canon of Compiègne. He in - a purely nominalistic fashion understood the idea of the - Godhead as a mere abstraction, and thought that the three - persons of the Godhead could not be _una res_, οὐσία, as - then they must all at once have been incarnate in Christ. - A synod at Soissons in A.D. 1092 condemned him as a - tritheist. He retracted, but afterwards reiterated his - earlier views. Anselm then, in his tract _De fide Trinitatis - et de incarnatione Verbi contra blasphemias Rucelini_, - proved that the drift of his argumentation tended toward - tritheism, and vindicated the trinitarian doctrine of the - church. For more than two centuries Nominalism was branded - with a suspicion of heterodoxy, until in the 14th century - a reaction set in (§ 113, 3), which restored it again to - honour. - - - § 102. THE TWELFTH CENTURY. - - In the 12th century dialectic and mysticism are seen contending -for the mastery in the department of theology. On the one side -stands Abælard, in whom the sceptical dialectic had its most -eminent representative. Over against him stands St. Bernard as -his most resolute opponent. Theological dialectic afterwards assumed -a pre-eminently dogmatic and ecclesiastical character, entering into -close relationship with mysticism. While this movement was mainly -carried on in France, where the University of Paris attracted teachers -and scholars from all lands, it passed over from thence into Germany, -where Provost Gerhoch and his brother Arno gave it their active support -in opposition to that destructive sort of dialectic that was then -spreading around them. Although the combination of dogmatic dialectic -and mysticism had for a long time no formal recognition, it ultimately -secured the approval of the highest ecclesiastical authorities. - - § 102.1. =The Contest on French Soil.= - - I. =The Dialectic Side of the Gulf.=--=Peter Abælard=, superior - to all his contemporaries in acuteness, learning, dialectic - power, and bold freethinking, but proud and disputatious, - was born at Palais in Brittany in A.D. 1079. His first - teacher in philosophy was Roscelin. Afterwards he entered - the school of William of Champeaux at Paris, the most - celebrated dialectician of his times. Having defeated - his master in a public disputation, he founded a school at - Melun near Paris, where thousands of pupils flocked to him. - In order to be nearer Paris, he moved his school to Corbeil; - then to the very walls of Paris on Mount St. Genoveva; - and ceased not to overwhelm William with humiliations, - until his old teacher retreated from the field. In order - to secure still more brilliant success, he began to study - theology under the Schoolman Anselm of Laon. But very soon - the ambitious scholar thought himself superior also to this - master. Relying upon his dialectical endowments, he took - a bet without further preparation to expound the difficult - prophet Ezekiel. He did it indeed to the satisfaction of - scholars, but Anselm refused to allow him to continue his - lectures. Abælard now returned to Paris, where he gathered - around him a great number of enthusiastic pupils. Canon - Fulbert appointed him teacher of his beautiful and talented - niece Heloise. He won her love, and they were secretly - married. She then denied the marriage in order that he - might not be debarred from the highest offices of the - church. Persisting in this denial, her relatives dealt - severely with her, and Abælard had her placed in the nunnery - of Argenteuil. Fulbert in his fury had Abælard seized during - the night and emasculated, so that he might be disqualified - for ecclesiastical preferment. Overwhelmed with shame, he - fled to the monastery of St. Denys, and there in A.D. 1119 - took the monastic vow. Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. - But even at St. Denys Abælard was obliged by the eager - entreaties of former scholars to resume his lectures. His - free and easy treatment of the church doctrine and his - haughty spirit aroused many enemies against him, who at - the Synod of Soissons in A.D. 1121 compelled him before the - papal legate to cast into the fire his treatise _De Unitate - et Trinitate divina_, and had him committed to a monastic - prison. By the intercession of some friends he was soon - again set free, and returned to St. Denys. But when he - made the discovery that Dionysius at Paris was not the - Areopagite the persecution of the monks drove him into - a forest near Troyes. There too his scholars followed him - and made him resume his lectures. His colony grew up under - his hands into the famous abbey of the Paraclete. Finding - even there no rest, he made over the abbey of the Paraclete - to Heloise, who had not been able to come to terms with - her insubordinate nuns at Argenteuil. He himself now became - abbot of the monastery of St. Gildasius at Ruys in Brittany, - and, after in vain endeavouring for eight years to restore - the monastic discipline, he again in A.D. 1136 resumed - his office of teacher and lectured at St. Genoveva near - Paris with great success. He wrote an ethical treatise, - “_Scito te ipsum_,” issued a new and enlarged edition of - his _Theologia christiana_, now extant as the incomplete - _Introductio ad theologiam_ in three books, and composed - a _Dialogus inter Philosophum, Judæum et Christianum_, in - which the heathen philosophers and poets of antiquity are - ranked almost as high as the prophets and apostles. In _Sic - et Non_, “Yes and No,” a collection of extracts from the - Fathers under the various heads of doctrine contradictory - of one another, the traditional theology was held up to - contempt. - - § 102.2. - - =Abælard= maintained, in opposition to the - Augustinian-Anselmian theory, that faith preceded - knowledge, that only what we comprehend is to be believed. - He did indeed intend that his dialectic should be used not - for the overthrow but for the establishment of the church - doctrine. He proceeded, however, from doubt as the principle - of all knowledge, regarding all church dogmas as problems - which must be proved before they can be believed: _Dubitando - enim ad inquisitionem venimus, inquirendo veritatem - percipimus_. He thus reduced faith to a mere probability - and measured the content of faith by the rule of subjective - reason. This was most glaring in the case of the trinitarian - doctrine, which with him approached Sabellian modalism. God - as omnipotent is to be called Father, as all wise the Son, - as loving and gracious the Spirit; and so the incarnation - becomes a merely temporal and dynamic immanence of the Logos - in the man Jesus. The significance of the ethical element - in Christianity quite overshadowed that of the dogmatic. He - taught that all fundamental truths of Christianity had been - previously proclaimed by philosophers and poets of Greece - and Rome, who were scarcely less inspired than the prophets - and apostles, the special service of the latter consisting - in giving currency to these truths among the uncultured. He - turns with satisfaction from the theology of the Fathers to - that of the apostles, and from that again to the religion of - Jesus, whom he represents rather as a reformer introducing - a pure morality than as a founder of a religious system. - Setting aside Anselm’s theory of satisfaction, he regards - the redemption and reconciliation of man as consisting in - the awakening in sinful man, by means of the infinite love - displayed by Christ’s teaching and example, by His life, - sufferings and death upon the cross, a responding love of - such fulness and power, that he is thereby freed from the - dominion of sin and brought into the glorious liberty of - the children of God.[298]--Abælard’s fame and following - grew in a wonderful manner from day to day; but also - powerful opponents dragged his heresies into light and - vigorously combated them. The most important of these were - the Cistercian monk William of Thierry and St. Bernard, who - called attention to the dangerous tendency of his teaching. - St. Bernard dealt personally with the heretic, but when - he failed in converting him, he appeared in A.D. 1141 at - the Synod of Sens as his accuser. The synod condemned as - heretical a series of statements culled from his writings - by Bernard. Abælard appealed to the pope, but even his - friends at Rome, among whom was Card. Guido de Castella, - afterwards Pope Cœlestine II., could not close their - eyes to his manifest heterodoxies. His friendship for - Arnold of Brescia also told against him at Rome (§ 108, 7). - Innocent II. therefore excommunicated Abælard and his - supporters, condemned his writings to be burnt and himself - to be confined in a monastery. Abælard found an asylum - with the abbot Peter the Venerable of Clugny, who not - only effected his reconciliation with Bernard, but also, - on the ground of his _Apologia s. Confessio fidei_, in - which he submitted to the judgment of the church, obtained - permission from the pope to pass his last days in peace at - Clugny. During this time he composed his _Hist. calamitatum - Abælardi_, an epistolary autobiography, which, though - not free from vanity and bitterness, is yet worthy to be - ranked with Augustine’s “Confessions” for its unreserved - self-accusation and for the depth of self-knowledge which - it reveals. He died in A.D. 1142, in the monastery of - St. Marcellus at Chalons, where he had gone in quest of - health. He was buried in the abbey of the Paraclete, where - Heloise laid on his coffin the letter of absolution of Peter - of Clugny. Twenty-two years later Heloise herself was laid - in the same quiet resting place.[299] - - § 102.3. - - II. =The Mystic Side of the Gulf.=--Abælard’s most famous - opponent was =St. Bernard of Clairvaux= (§ 98, 1), born - in A.D. 1091 at Fontaines near Dijon in Burgundy, died in - A.D. 1153, a man of such extraordinary influence on his - generation as the world seldom sees. Venerated as a miracle - worker, gifted with an eloquence that carried everything - before it (_doctor mellifluus_), he was the protector and - reprover of the Vicar of God, the peacemaker among the - princes, the avenger of every wrong. His genuine humility - made him refuse all high places. His enthusiasm for the - hierarchy did not hinder him from severely lashing clerical - abuses. It was his word that roused the hearts of men - throughout all Europe to undertake the second crusade, - and that won many heretics and schismatics back to the - bosom of the church. Having his conversation in heaven, - leading a life of study, meditation, prayer, and ecstatic - contemplation, he had also dominion over the earth, and by - counsel, exhortation, and exercise of discipline exerted - a quickening and healthful influence on all the relations - of life. His theological tendency was in the direction - of contemplative mysticism, with hearty submission to the - doctrine of the church. Like Abælard, but from the opposite - side, he came into conflict with the theory of Anselm; - for the ideal of theology with him was not the development - of faith into knowledge by means of thought, but rather - the enlightenment of faith in the way of holiness. Bernard - was not at all an enemy of science, but he rather saw in - the dialectical hair-splitting of Abælard, which grudged - not to cut down the main props of saving truth for the - glorification of its own art, the overthrow of all true - theology and the destruction of all the saving efficacy of - faith. Heart theology founded on heart piety, nourished and - strengthened by prayer, meditation, spiritual illumination - and holiness, was for him the only true theology. _Tantum - Deus cognoscitur, quantum diligitur. Orando facilius quam - disputando et dignius Deus quæritur et invenitur._ The Bible - was his favourite reading, and in the recesses of the forest - he spent much time in prayer and study of the Scriptures. - But in ecstasy (_excessus_) which consists in withdrawal - from sensible phenomena and becoming temporarily dead to - all earthly relations, the soul of the pious Christian - is able to rise into the immediate presence of God, so - that “_more angelorum_” it reaches a blessed vision and - enjoyment of the Divine glory and that perfect love which - loves itself and all creatures only in God. Yet even he - confesses that this highest stage of abstraction was only - attained unto by him occasionally and partially through - God’s special grace. Bernard’s mysticism is most fully set - forth in his eighty-six Sermons on the first two chapters - of the Song of Solomon and in the tract _De diligendo Deo_. - In his controversy with Abælard he wrote his _Tractatus de - erroribus Petri Abælardi_. To the department of dogmatics - belongs _De gratia et libero arbitrio_; and to that of - history, the biography of his friend Malachias (§ 149, 5). - The most important of his works is _De Consideratione_, - in 5 bks., in which with the affection of a friend, the - earnestness of a teacher, and the authority of a prophet, - he sets before Pope Eugenius III. the duties and dangers - of his high position. He was also one of the most brilliant - hymn writers of the Middle Ages. Alexander III. canonized - him in A.D. 1173, and Pius VIII. in A.D. 1830 enrolled him - among the _doctores ecclesiæ_ (§ 47, 22 c).--Soon after the - controversy with Abælard had been brought to a close by the - condemnation of the church, Bernard was again called upon - to resist the pretensions of dialectic. Gilbert de la Porrée - (Porretanus), teacher of theology at Paris, who became - Bishop of Poitiers in A.D. 1142 and died in A.D. 1154, - in his commentary on the theological writings of Boëthius - (§ 47, 23) ascribed reality to the universal term “God” - in such a way that instead of a Trinity we seemed to have - a Quaternity. At the Synod of Rheims, A.D. 1148, under - the presidency of Pope Eugenius III., Bernard appeared as - accuser of Porretanus. Gilbert’s doctrine was condemned, - but he himself was left unmolested.[300] - - § 102.4. - - III. =Bridging the Gulf from the Side of Mysticism.=--At the - school of the monastery of St. Victor in Paris, founded - by William of Champeaux after his defeat at the hands - of Abælard, an attempt was made during the first half of - the 12th century to combine mysticism and dialectic in the - treatment of theology. The peaceable heads of this school - would indeed have nothing to do with the speculations of - Abælard and his followers which tended to overthrow the - mysteries of the faith. But the mystics of St. Victor - made an important concession to the dialecticians by - entering with as much energy upon the scientific study - and construction of dogmatics as they did upon the devout - examination of Scripture and mystical theology. They - exhibited a speculative power and a profundity of thought - that won the hearty admiration of the subtlest of the - dialecticians. By far the most celebrated of this school - was =Hugo of St. Victor=. Descended from the family - of the Count of Halberstadt, born in A.D. 1097, nearly - related to St. Bernard, honoured by his contemporaries - as _Alter Augustinus_ or _Lingua Augustini_, Hugo was one - of the most profound thinkers of the Middle Ages. Having - enjoyed a remarkably complete course of training, he was - enthusiastically devoted to the pursuit of science, and, - endowed with rich and deep spirituality, he exerted a most - healthful and powerful influence upon his own and succeeding - ages, although church and science had to mourn their loss by - his early death in A.D. 1141. In his _Eruditio didascalica_ - we have in 3 bks. an encyclopædic sketch of all human - knowledge as a preparation to the study of theology, and - in other 3 bks. an introduction to the Bible and church - history.[301] His _Summa sententiarum_ is an exposition of - dogmatics on patristic lines, an ecclesiastical counterpart - of Abælard’s _Sic et Non_. The ripest and most influential - of all his works, and the most independent, is his _De - sacramentis christ. fidei_, in 2 bks., in which he treats - of the whole contents of dogmatics from the point of view - of the Sacraments (§ 104, 2). His exegetical works are less - important and less original. His mysticism is set forth _ex - professo_ in his _Soliloquium de arrha animæ_ and in the - series of three tracts, _De arca morali_, _De arca mystica_, - and _De vanitate mundi_. He makes Noah’s ark the symbol of - the church as well as of the individual soul which journeys - over the billows of the world to God, and, by the successive - stages of _lectio_, _cogitatio_, _meditatio_, _oratio_, - and _operatio_ reaches to _contemplatio_ or the vision of - God.--Hugo’s pupil, and from A.D. 1162 the prior of his - convent, was the Scotchman =Richard St. Victor=, who died - in A.D. 1173. With less of the dialectic faculty than - his master--though this too is shown in his 6 bks. _De - trinitate_, a scholastic exposition of the _Cognitio_ - or _Fides quæ creditur_--he mainly devoted his energies - to the development on the mystico-contemplative side of - the “_Affectus_” or _Fides qua creditur_, which aims at - the vision and enjoyment of God. This he represents as - reached by the three stages of contemplation, distinguished - as _mentis dilatatio_, _sublevatio_, and _alienatio_. - Among his mystical tracts, mostly mystical expositions - of Scripture passages, the most important are, _De - præparatione animæ ad contemplationem, s. de xii. - patriarchis_, and the 4 bks. _De gratia contemplationis - s. de arca mystica_. These are also known as _Benjamin - minor_ and _B. major_. In Richard there appears the first - indications of a misunderstanding with the dialecticians - which, among the late Victorines, and especially in the - case of Walter of St. Victor, took the form of vehement - hostility. - - § 102.5. - - IV. =Bridging the Gulf from the Side of Dialectics.=--After - Abælard’s condemnation theological dialectics came more - and more to be associated with the church doctrine and to - approach more or less nearly to a friendly alliance with - mysticism. Hugo’s writings did much to bring this about. - The following are the most important Schoolmen of this - tendency. - - 1. The Englishman =Robert Pulleyn=, teacher at Oxford - and Paris, afterwards cardinal and papal chancellor - at Rome, who died about A.D. 1150. His chief work is - _Sententiarum Ll. VIII._ Though very famous in its day, - it was soon cast into the shade by the Lombard’s work. - - 2. =Petrus [Peter] Lombardus [Lombard]=, born at Novara - in Lombardy, a scholar of Abælard, but powerfully - influenced by St. Bernard and Hugo St. Victor, was - Bishop of Paris from A.D. 1159 till his death in - A.D. 1164. He published a dogmatic treatise under - the title of _Sententiarum Ll. IV._; of which Bk. 1 - treated of God, Bk. 2 of Creatures, Bk. 3 of Redemption, - Bk. 4 of the Sacraments and the Last Things. For - centuries this was the textbook in theological - seminaries and won for its author the designation - of _Magister Sententiarum_. He himself compared this - gift laid on the altar of the church to the widow’s - mite, but the book attained a place of supreme - importance in mediæval theology, had innumerable - commentaries written on it and was officially authorized - as the theological textbook by the Lateran Council of - A.D. 1215. It is indeed a well arranged collection of - the doctrinal deliverances of the Fathers, in which - apparent contradictions are dialectically resolved, with - great skill, and wrought up together into an articulate - system, but from want of independence and occasional - indecision or withholding of any definite opinion, it - falls behind Hugo’s _Summa_ and Robert’s _Sentences_. - It had this advantage, however, that it gave freer scope - to scholars and teachers, and so was more stimulating as - a textbook for academic use. The Lombard’s works include - a commentary on the Psalms and _Catenæ_ on the Pauline - Epistles. - - 3. The Frenchman =Peter of Poitiers= (_Pictaviensis_), one - of the ablest followers of the Lombard, was chancellor - of the University of Paris toward the end of the century. - He wrote 5 bks. of Sentences or Distinctions, which in - form and matter are closely modelled on the work of his - master. - - 4. The most gifted of all the Summists of the 12th - century was the German =Alanus ab Insulis=, born at - Lille or Ryssel, lat. _Insulæ_. After teaching long - at Paris, he entered the Cistercian order, and died - at an advanced age at Clairvaux in A.D. 1203. A man - of extensive erudition and a voluminous writer, he was - called _Doctor universalis_. He wrote an allegorical - poem _Anticlaudianus_, which describes how reason and - faith in union with all the virtues restore human nature - to perfection. His _Regulæ de s. theologia_ give a - short outline of theology and morals in 125 paradoxical - sentences which are tersely expounded. A short but able - summary of the Christian faith is given in the 5 bks. - _De arte catholicæ fidei_. This work is characterized - by the use of a mathematical style of demonstration, - like that of the later school of Wolf, and an avoidance - of references to patristic authorities, which would have - little weight with Mohammedans and heretics. He is thus - rather an opponent than a representative of dialectic - scholasticism. The _Summa quadripartita c. Hæreticos - sui temporis_ ascribed to him was written by another - Alanus. - - § 102.6. =The Controversy on German Soil.=--The provost - =Gerhoch= and his brother, the dean =Arno= of Reichersberg - in Bavaria, were representatives of the school of St. Victor - as mediators between dialectics and mysticism. In A.D. 1150 - Gerhoch addressed a memorial to Eugenius III., _De corrupto - ecclesiæ statu_, and afterwards he published _De investigatione - Antichristi_. He found the antichrist in the papal schisms of - his times, in the ambition and covetousness of popes, in the - corruptibility of the curia, in the manifold corruptions of the - church, and especially in the spread of a dialectic destructive - of all the mysteries of the faith. The controversy in which - both of these brothers took most interest was that occasioned - by the revival of Adoptionism in consequence of the teaching - of French dialecticians, especially Abælard and Gilbert. It - led to the formulating of the Christological doctrine in such - a form as prepared the way for the later Lutheran theories - of the _Communicatio idiomatum_ and the _Ubiquitas corporis - Christi_ (§ 141, 9).--In South Germany, conspicuously in the - schools of Bamberg, Freisingen, and Salzburg, the dialectic of - Abælard, Gilbert, and the Lombard was predominant. Its chief - representatives were =Folmar of Triefenstein= in Franconia and - Bishop =Eberhard of Bamberg=. The controversy arose over the - doctrine of the eucharist. Folmar had maintained like Berengar - that not the actually glorified body of Christ is present in - the sacrament, but only the spiritual substance of His flesh - and blood, without muscles, sinews and bones. Against this gross - Capernaitic view (John vi. 52, 59) Gerhoch maintained that the - eucharistic body is the very resurrection body of Christ, the - substance of which is a glorified corporeity without flesh and - blood in a carnal sense, without sinews and bones. The bishop - of Bamberg took offence at his friend’s bold rejection of the - doctrine approved by the church, and so Folmar modified his - position to the extent of admitting that there was on the altar - not only the true, but also the whole body in the perfection - of its human substance, under the form of bread and wine. - But nevertheless both he and Abælard adhered to their radical - error, a dialectical dismemberment of the two natures of Christ, - according to which the divinity and humanity, the Son of God and - the Son of man, were two strictly separate existences. Christ, - they taught, is according to His humanity Son of God in no other - way than a pious man is, _i.e._ by adoption; but according to His - Divine nature He is like the Father omnipresent, omnipotent, and - omniscient. In respect of His human nature it must still be said - by Him, “My Father is greater than I.” He dwells, however, bodily - in heaven, and is shut in by and confined to it. Only His Divine - nature can claim _Latria_ or _adoratio_, worship. Only _Dulia, - cultus_, reverence, such as is due to saints, images, and relics, - should be given to His body and blood upon the altar. Gerhoch’s - doctrine of the Supper, on the other hand, is summed up in - the proposition: He who receives the flesh of the Logos (_Caro - Verbi_) receives also therewith the Logos in His flesh (_Verbum - carnis_). Folmar and Eberhard denounced this as Eutychian heresy. - A conference at Bamberg in A.D. 1158, where Gerhoch stood alone - as representative of his views, ended by his opponents declaring - that he had been convicted of heresy. In A.D. 1162 a Council - at Friesach in Carinthia, under the presidency of Archbishop - Eberhard of Salzburg, reached the same conclusion. - - § 102.7. =Theologians of a Pre-eminently Biblical and - Ecclesiastico-Practical Tendency.= - - 1. =Alger of Liège=, teacher of the cathedral school there, - was one of the most important German theologians in the - beginning of the 12th century. He resigned his appointment - in A.D. 1121, to spend his last years in the monastery of - Clugny, in order to enjoy the company and friendship of - its abbot, Peter the Venerable; and there he died about - A.D. 1130. The school of Liège, in which he had himself - been trained up in the high church Cluniac doctrine there - prevalent, flourished greatly during his rule of twenty - years. His chief works are _De Sacramentis corporis et - sanguinis Domini_ in 3 bks., distinguished by acuteness - and lucidity, and a controversial tract on the lines of - Radbert against Berengar’s doctrine condemned by the church. - In his _De misericordia et justitia_ he treats of church - discipline with circumspection, clearness, and decision. - - 2. =Rupert of Deutz=, more than any mediæval scholar before - or after, created an enthusiasm for the study of Scripture - as the people’s book for all times, the field in which the - precious treasure is hid, to be found by any one whose eyes - are made sharp by faith. He was a contemporary and fellow - countryman of Alger, and died in A.D. 1135. Though he - refers to the Hebrew and Greek texts, he cares less for - the literal than for the speculative-dogmatic and mystical - sense discovered by allegorical exegesis. In his principal - work, _De trinitate et operilus ejus_, he sets forth in - 3 bks. the creation work of the Father, in 30 bks. the - revealing and redeeming work of the Son, from the fall - to the death of Christ, and in the remaining 9 books the - sanctifying work of the Holy Spirit, from the resurrection - of Christ to the general resurrection. He maintains in - opposition to Anselm (who was afterwards followed by Thomas - Aquinas) that Christ would have become incarnate even if - men had not sinned (a view which appears in Irenæus, and - afterwards in Alexander Hales, Duns Scotus, John Wessel, - and others). In regard to the Lord’s Supper he maintained - the doctrine of consubstantiation, and he taught like pope - Gelasius (§ 58, 2) that the relation of the heavenly and - earthly in the eucharist is quite analogous to that of the - two natures in Christ.[302] - - 3. The Benedictine =Hervæus= in the cloister of Bourg-Dieu, - who died about A.D. 1150, was distinguished for deep piety - and zealous study of Scripture and the fathers. He wrote - commentaries on Isaiah and on the Pauline Epistles, the - latter of which was ascribed to Anselm and so published - among his works. - - § 102.8. - - 4. =John of Salisbury=, _Johannes Parvus Sarisberiensis_, - was a theologian of a thoroughly practical tendency, though - a diligent student of Abælard and an able classical scholar, - specially familiar with the writings of Cicero. As the - trusted friend of Hadrian IV. he was often sent from England - on embassies to the pope. In Becket’s struggle against the - encroachments of the Crown upon the rights of the church - (§ 96, 16) he stood by the primate’s side as his faithful - counsellor and fellow soldier, wrote an account of his - life and martyrdom, and laboured diligently to secure his - canonization. He was made Bishop of Chartres in A.D. 1176, - and died there in A.D. 1180. His works, distinguished - by singularly wide reading and a pleasing style, are - pre-eminently practical. In his _Policraticus s. de - nugis Curialium et vestigiis Philosophorum_ he combats - the _nugæ_ of the hangers on at court with theological - and philosophical weapons in a well balanced system of - ecclesiastico-political and philosophico-theological - ethics. His _Metalogicus_ in 4 bks. is a polemic against - the prostitution of science by the empty formalism of the - schoolmen. His 329 Epistles are of immense importance for - the literary and scientific history of his times. - - 5. =Walter of St. Victor=, Richard’s successor as prior - of that monastery, makes his appearance about A.D. 1130, - as the author of a vigorous polemic against dialectic - scholasticism, in which he combats especially Christological - heresies and spares the idolized Lombard just as little - as the condemned Abælard.[303] He combats with special - eagerness a new heresy springing from Abælard and developed - by the Lombard which he styles “Nihilism,” because by - denying the independence of the human nature of Christ - it teaches that Christ in so far as He is man is not an - _Aliquid_, _i.e._ an individual. - - 6. =Innocent III.= is deserving of a place here both on - account of his rich theological learning and on account - of the earnestness and depth of the moral and religious - view of life which he presents in his writings. The most - celebrated of these are _De contemtu mundi_ and 6 bks. - _Mysteria evang. legis ac sacramenti Eucharistitæ_, and - during his pontificate, his epistles and sermons. - - § 102.9. =Humanist Philosophers.=--While Abælard was striving - to prove Christianity the religion of reason, and for this was - condemned by the church, his contemporary =Bernard Sylvester=, - teacher of the school of Chartres, a famous nursery of classical - studies, was seeking to shake himself free of any reference to - theology and the church. Satisfied with Platonism as a genuinely - spiritual religion, and feeling therefore no personal need of the - church and its consolations, he carefully avoided any allusion - to its dogmas, and so remained in high repute as a teacher - and writer. His treatise, _De mundi universitates. Megacosmus - et Microcosmus_, in dialogue form discussing in a dilettante, - philosophizing style natural phenomena, half poetry, half prose, - was highly popular in its day. It fared very differently with - his accomplished and like-minded scholar =William of Conches=. - The vehemence with which he declared himself a Catholic Christian - and not a heathen Academic aroused suspicion. Though in his - _Philosophia mundi_, sometimes erroneously attributed to Honorius - of Autun, he studiously sought to avoid any contradiction of the - biblical and ecclesiastical theory of the world, he could not - help in his discussion of the origin of man characterizing the - literal interpretation of the Scripture history of creation as - peasant faith. The book fell into the hands of the abbot William - of Thierry, who accused its author to St. Bernard. The opposition - soon attained to such dimensions that he was obliged to publish - a formal recantation and in a new edition to remove everything - objectionable. - - - § 103. THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. - - Scholasticism took a new departure in the beginning of the -13th century, and by the middle of the century it reached its climax. -Material for its development was found in the works of Aristotle and -his Moslem expositors, and this was skilfully used by highly gifted -members of the Franciscan and Dominican orders so that all opposition -to the scholastic philosophy was successfully overborne. The Franciscans -Alexander of Hales and Bonaventura stand side by side with the brilliant -Dominican teachers Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. As reformers -of the scholastic philosophy from different points of view we meet with -Raimund Lull and Roger Bacon. There were also numerous representatives -of this simple biblical and practical tendency devoted to Scripture -study and the pursuit of the Christian life; and during this period we -find the first developments of German mysticism properly so called. - - § 103.1. =The Writings of Aristotle and his Arabic - Interpreters.=--Till the end of the 12th century Aristotle was - known in the Christian West only through Porphyry and Boëthius. - This philosophy, however, from the 9th century was diligently - studied in Arabic translations of the original text (§ 72) by - Moslem scholars of Bagdad and Cordova, who wrote expositions and - made original contributions to science. The most distinguished - of these, besides the logicians Alkindi in the 9th, and Alfarabi - in the 10th century, were the supernaturalistic Avicenna of - Bokhara, † A.D. 1037 Algazel of Bagdad, inclined to mysticism or - sufism, † A.D. 1111, and the pantheistic-naturalistic Averroes - of Cordova, † A.D. 1198. The Moors and Spanish Jews were also - devoted students of the peripatetic philosophy. The most famous - of these was Maimonides, † A.D. 1204, who wrote the rationalistic - work _More Nebochim_. On the decay of Arabic philosophy in Spain, - Spanish Jews introduced the study of Aristotle into France. - Dissatisfied with Latin translations from the Arabic, they - began in A.D. 1220 to make translations directly from the Greek. - Suspicions were now aroused against the new gospel of philosophy. - At a Synod in Paris A.D. 1209 (§ 108, 4) the physical writings - of Aristotle were condemned and lecturing on them forbidden. - This prohibition was renewed in A.D. 1215 by the papal legate - and the metaphysics included. But no prohibition of the church - could arrest the scientific ardour of that age. In A.D. 1231 - the definitive prohibition was reduced to a measure determining - the time to be devoted to such studies, and in A.D. 1254 we - find the university prescribing the number of hours during - which Aristotle’s physics and metaphysics should be taught. - Some decades later the church itself declared that no one should - obtain the degree of master who was not familiar with Aristotle, - “_the precursor of Christ in natural things as John Baptist was - in the things of grace_.” This change was brought about by the - belief that not Aristotle but Erigena was the author of all the - pantheistic heresies of the age (§§ 90, 7; 108, 4), and also - by the need felt by the Franciscans and Dominicans for using - Aristotelian methods of proof in defence of the doctrine of the - church. Philosophy, however, was now regarded by all theologians - as only the handmaid of theology. Even in the 11th century Petrus - [Peter] Damiani had indicated the mutual relation of the sciences - thus: _Debet velut ancilla dominæ quodam famulatus obsequio - subservire, ne si præcedit, oberret_.[304] - - § 103.2. On account of their characteristic tendencies Avicenna - was most popular with the Schoolmen and after him Algazel, while - Averroes, though carefully studied and secretly followed by - some, was generally regarded with suspicion and aversion. Among - his secret admirers was Simon of Tournay, about A.D. 1200, who - boasted of being able with equal ease to prove the falseness - and the truth of the church doctrines, and declared that Moses, - Christ, and Mohammed were the three greatest deceivers the world - had ever seen. The Parisian scholars ascribed to Averroes the - =Theory of a twofold Truth=. A positive religion was required - to meet the religious needs of the multitude, but the philosopher - might reach and maintain the truth independently of any revealed - religion. In the Christian West he put this doctrine in a less - offensive form by saying that one and the same affirmation might - be theologically true and philosophically false, and _vice versa_. - Behind this, philosophical scepticism as well as theological - unbelief sought shelter. Its chief opponents were Thomas Aquinas - and Raimund Lull, while at a later time Duns Scotus and the - Scotists were inclined more or less to favour it. - - § 103.3. =The Appearance of the Mendicant Orders.=--The - Dominican and Franciscan orders competed with one another in - a show of zeal for the maintenance of the orthodox doctrine, - and each endeavoured to secure the theological chairs in the - University of Paris, the principal seat of learning in those - days. They were vigorously opposed by the university corporation, - and especially by the Parisian doctor William of St. Amour, - who characterized them in his tract _De periculis novissimorum - temporum_ of A.D. 1255 as the precursors of antichrist. But - he was answered by learned members of the orders, Albert the - Great, Aquinas, and Bonaventura, and finally, in A.D. 1257, all - opposition on the part of the university was checked by papal - authority and royal command. The Augustinians, too, won a seat - in the University of Paris in A.D. 1261.--The learned monks gave - themselves with enthusiasm to the new science and applied all - their scientific gains to polemical and apologetical purposes. - They diligently conserved all that the earlier Fathers down to - Gregory the Great had written in exposition of the doctrine and - all that the later Fathers down to Hugo St. Victor and Peter - the Lombard had written in its defence. But what had been simply - expressed before was now arranged under elaborate scientific - categories. The Summists of the previous century supplied - abundant material for the work. Their _Summæ sententiarum_, - especially that of the Lombard, became the theme of innumerable - commentaries, but besides these, comprehensive original works - were written. These were no longer to be described as _Summæ - sententiarum_, but assumed with right the title of _Summæ - theologiæ_ or _theologicæ_. - - § 103.4. =Distinguished Franciscan Schoolmen.=--=Alexander - of Hales=, trained in the English cloister of Hales, _doctor - irrefragabilis_, was the most famous teacher of theology in - Paris, where in A.D. 1222 he entered the Seraphic Order. He - died in A.D. 1245. As the first church theologian who, without - the excessive hair-splitting of later scholastics, applied the - forms of the peripatetic philosophy to the scientific elaboration - of the doctrinal system of the church, he was honoured by his - grateful order with the title of _Monarcha theologorum_, and is - still regarded as the first scholastic in the strict sense of the - word. His _Summa theologica_, published at Nuremberg in A.D. 1482 - in 4 folio vols. was accepted by his successors as the model of - scientific method and arrangement. The first two vols. treat of - God and His Work, the Creature; the third, of the Redeemer and - His Work; the fourth, of the Sacraments of the O. and N.T. The - conclusion, which is not extant, treated of _Præmia salutis - per futuram gloriam_. Each of these divisions was subdivided - into a great number of _Quæstiones_, these again into _Membra_, - and these often into _Articuli_. The question at the head of - the section was followed by several answers affirmative and - negative, some of which were entitled _Auctoritates_ (quotations - from Scripture, the Fathers, and the teachers of the church), - some _Rationes_ (dictates of the Greek, Arabian, and Jewish - philosophers), and finally, his own conclusion. Among the - authorities of later times, Hugo’s dogmatic works (§ 102, 4) - occupy with him the highest place, but he seems to have had no - appreciation of his mystical speculations.--His most celebrated - disciple =John Fidanza=, better known as =Bonaventura=, had a - strong tendency to mysticism. Born at Bagnarea in the district - of Florence in A.D. 1221, he became teacher of theology in - Paris in A.D. 1253, general of his order in A.D. 1257, was made - Cardinal-bishop of Ostia by Gregory X. in A.D. 1273, and in the - following year was a member of the Lyons Council, at which the - question of the reunion of the churches was discussed (§ 67, 4). - He took an active part in the proceedings of that council, - but died before its close in A.D. 1274. His aged teacher - Alexander had named him a _Verus Israelita, in quo Adam non - peccasse videtur_. Later Franciscans regarded him as the noblest - embodiment of the idea of the Seraphic Order next to its founder, - and celebrated the angelic purity of his personality by the - title _doctor seraphicus_. Sixtus IV. canonized him in A.D. 1482, - and Sixtus V. edited his works in 8 fol. vols. in A.D. 1588, and - gave him in A.D. 1587 the sixth place in the rank of _Doctores - ecclesiæ_ as the greatest church teacher of the West. Like - Hugo, he combined the mystical and doctrinal sides of theology, - but like Richard St. Victor inclined more to the mystical. His - greatest dogmatic work is his commentary in 2 vols. fol. on the - Lombard. His able treatise, _De reductione artium ad theologiam_, - shows how theology holds the highest place among all the sciences. - In his _Breviloquium_ he seeks briefly but with great expenditure - of learning to prove that the church doctrine is in accordance - with the teachings of reason. In the _Centiloquium_, consisting - of 100 sections, he treats summarily of the doctrines of Sin, - Grace, and Salvation. In the _Pharetra_ he gives a collection - of the chief authorities for the conclusions reached in the - two previously named works. The most celebrated of his mystical - treatises are the _Diætæ salutis_, describing the nine days’ - journey (_diætæ_) in which the soul passes from the abyss of - sin to the blessedness of heaven, and the _Itinerarium mentis - in Deum_, in which he describes as a threefold way to the - knowledge of God a _theologia symbolica_ (=_extra nos_), - _propria_ (=_intra nos_) and _mystica_ (=_supra nos_), the - last and highest of which alone leads to the beatific vision - of God. - - § 103.5. =Distinguished Dominican Schoolmen.=--(1) =Albert - the Great=, the oldest son of a knight of Bollstadt, born in - A.D. 1193, at Laningen in Swabia, sent in A.D. 1212, because too - weak for a military career, to the University of Padua, where he - devoted himself for ten years to the diligent study of Aristotle, - entered then the Dominican order, and at Bologna pursued with - equal diligence the study of theology in a six years’ course. - He afterwards taught the regular curriculum of the liberal arts - at Cologne and in the cloisters of his order in other German - cities; and after taking his doctor’s degree at Paris, he taught - theology at Cologne with such success that the Cologne school, - owing to the crowds attracted to his lectures, grew to the - dimensions of a university. In A.D. 1254 he became provincial of - his order in Germany, was compelled in A.D. 1260 by papal command - to accept the bishopric of Regensburg, but returned to Cologne in - A.D. 1262 to resume teaching, and died there in A.D. 1280, in his - 87th year. His amazing acquirements in philosophical, theological, - cabalistic, and natural science won for him the surname of the - Great, and the title of _doctor universalis_. Since the time - of Aristotle and Theophrastus there had been no investigator in - natural science like him. Traces of mysticism may be discovered - in his treatise _Paradisus animæ_, and in his commentary on - the Areopagite. Indeed from his school proceeded the greatest - master of speculative mysticism (§ 114, 1). His chief work in - natural science is the _Summa de Creaturis_, the fantastic and - superstitious character of which may be seen from the titles - of its several books: _De virtutibus herbarum, lapidum, et - animalium_, _De mirabilibus mundi_, and _De secretis mulierum_. - He wrote three books of commentaries on the Lombard, and - two books of an independent system of dogmatics, the _Summa - theologica_. The latter treatise, which closely follows the - work of Alexander of Hales, is incomplete.[305] - - § 103.6. The greatest and most influential of all the Schoolmen - was the _Doctor angelicus_, =Thomas Aquinas=. Born in A.D. 1227, - son of a count of Aquino, at his father’s castle of Roccasicca, - in Calabria, he entered against his parents’ will as a novice - into the Dominican monastery at Naples. Removed for safety to - France, he was followed by his brothers and taken back, but two - years later he effected his escape with the aid of the order, and - was placed under Albert at Cologne. Afterwards he taught for two - years at Cologne, and was then sent to win his doctor’s degree at - Paris in A.D. 1252. There he began along with his intimate friend - Bonaventura his brilliant career. It was not until A.D. 1257, - after the opposition of the university to the mendicant orders - had been overcome, that the two friends obtained the degree of - doctor. Urban IV. recalled him to Italy in A.D. 1261, where he - taught successively in Rome, Bologna, Pisa, and Naples. Ordered - by Gregory to take part in the discussions on union at the Lyons - Council, he died suddenly in A.D. 1274, soon after his return - to Naples, probably from poison at the hand of his countryman - Charles of Anjou, in order that he might not appear at the - council to accuse him of tyranny. John XXII. canonized him in - A.D. 1323, and Pius V. gave him the fifth place among the Latin - _doctores ecclesiæ_.--Thomas was probably the most profound - thinker of the century, and was at the same time admired as - a popular preacher. He had an intense veneration for Augustine, - an enthusiastic appreciation of the church doctrine and the - philosophy which are approved and enjoined by this great Father. - He had also a vein of genuine mysticism, and was distinguished - for warm and deep piety. He was the first to give the papal - hierarchical system of Gregory and Innocent a regular place - in dogmatics. His _Summa philosophiæ contra Gentiles_, is a - Christian philosophy of religion, of which the first three books - treat of those religious truths which human reason of itself may - recognise, while the fourth book treats of those which, because - transcending reason though not contrary to it, _i.e._ doctrines - of the incarnation and the trinity, can be known only by Divine - revelation. He wrote two books of commentaries on the Lombard. - By far the most important work of the Middle Ages is his _Summa - theologica_, in three vols., in which he gives ample space to - ethical questions. His polemic against the Greeks is found in - the section in which he defines and proves the primacy of the - pope, basing his arguments on ancient and modern fictions and - forgeries (§ 96, 23), which he, ignorant of Greek and deriving - his knowledge of antiquity wholly from Gratian’s decree, accepted - _bona fide_ as genuine. His chief exegetical work is the _Catena - aurea_ on the Gospels and Pauline Epistles, translated into - English by Dr. Pusey, in 8 vols., Oxf., 1841, ff. In commenting - on Aristotle Thomas, unlike Albert, neglected the treatises on - natural science in favour of those on politics.--The Dominican - order, proud of having in it the greatest philosopher and - theologian of the age, made the doctrine of Thomas in respect - of form and matter the authorized standard among all its members - (§ 113, 2), and branded every departure from it as a betrayal - not only of the order but also of the church and Christianity. - The other monkish orders, too, especially the Augustinians, - Cistercians, and Carmelites, recognised the authority of the - Angelical doctor. Only the Franciscans, moved by envy and - jealousy, ignored him and kept to Alexander and Bonaventura, - until the close of the century, when, in Duns Scotus (§ 113, 1), - they obtained a brilliant teacher within their own ranks, whom - they proudly thought would prove a fair rival in fame to the - great Dominican teacher.[306] - - § 103.7. =Reformers of the Scholastic Method.=--=Raimund Lull=, - a Catalonian nobleman of Majorca, born in A.D. 1234, roused - from a worldly life by visions, gave himself to fight for Christ - against the infidels with the weapons of the Spirit. Learning - Arabic from a Saracen slave, he passed through a full course of - scholastic training in theology and entered the Franciscan order. - Constrained in the prosecution of his mission to seek a simpler - method of proof than that afforded by scholasticism, he succeeded - by the help of visions in discovering one by which as he and - his followers, the Lullists, thought, the deepest truths of all - human sciences could be made plain to the untutored human reason. - He called it the _Ars Magna_, and devoted his whole life to its - elaboration in theory and practice. Representing fundamental - ideas and their relations to the objects of thought by letters - and figures, he drew conclusions from their various combinations. - In his missionary travels in North Africa (§ 93, 16) he used his - art in his disputations with the Saracen scholars, and died in - A.D. 1315 in consequence of ill treatment received there, in - his 81st year. Of his writings in Latin, Catalonian, and Arabic, - numbering it is said more than a thousand, 282 were known in - A.D. 1721 to Salzinger of Mainz, but only 45 were included in - his edition of the collected works. - - § 103.8. =Roger Bacon=, an English monk, contemporary with - Lull, worked out his reform in a sounder manner by going back - to the original sources and thus obtaining deliverance from - the accumulated errors of later times. He appealed on matters - of natural science not to corrupt translations but to the - original works of Aristotle, and on matters of theology, not - to the Lombard but to the Greek New Testament. He prosecuted - his studies laboriously in mathematics and the Greek language. - Roger was called by his friends _Doctor mirabilis_ or _profundus_. - He was a prodigy of learning for his age, more in the department - of physics than in those of philosophy and theology. He was - regarded, however, by his own order as a heretic, and imprisoned - as a trafficker in the black arts. Born in A.D. 1214 at Ilchester, - he took his degree of doctor of theology at Paris, entered - the Franciscan order, and became a resident at Oxford. Besides - diligent study of languages, which secured him perfect command - of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, he busied himself with - researches and experiments in physics (especially optics), - chemistry, and astronomy. He made several important discoveries, - _e.g._ the principle of refraction, magnifying glasses, the - defects of the calendar, etc., while he also succeeded in making - a combustible material which may be regarded as the precursor - of gunpowder. He maintained the possibility of ships and land - vehicles being propelled most rapidly without sails, and without - the labour of men or animals. Yet he was a child of his age, and - believed in the philosopher’s stone, in astrology, and alchemy. - Thoroughly convinced of the defects of scholasticism, he spoke - of Albert the Great and Aquinas as boys who taught before they - learnt, and especially reproached them with their ignorance - of Greek. With an amount of brag that smacks of the empiric - he professed to be able to teach Hebrew in three days and Greek - in the same time, and to give a full course of geometry in seven - days. With fearless severity he lashed the corruptions of the - clergy and the monks. Only one among his companions seems to - have regarded Roger, notwithstanding all his faults, as a truly - great man. That was Clement IV. who, as papal legate in England, - had made his acquaintance, and as pope liberated him from - prison. To him Roger dedicated his _Opus majus s. de emendandis - scientiis_. At a later period the general of the Franciscan order, - with the approval of Nicholas IV., had him again cast into prison, - and only after that pope’s death was he liberated through the - intercession of his friends. He died soon after in A.D. 1291.[307] - - § 103.9. =Theologians of a Biblical and Practical Tendency.= - - 1. =Cæsarius of Heisterbach= near Bonn was a monk, then prior - and master of the novices of the Cistercian monastery there. - He died in A.D. 1230. His _Dialogus magnus visionum et - miraculorum_ in 12 bks., one of the best specimens of the - finest culture and learning of the Middle Ages, in the - form of conversation with the novices, gives an admirable - and complete sketch of the morals and manners of the times - illustrated from the history and legends of the monks, - clergy, and people. - - 2. His younger contemporary the Dominican =William Peraldus= - (Perault), in his _Summa virtutum_ and _Summa vitiorum_, - presents a summary of ethics with illustrations from life - in France. He died about A.D. 1250, as bishop of Lyons. - - 3. =Hugo of St. Caro= (St. Cher, a suburb of Vienne), - a Dominican and cardinal who died in A.D. 1263, gives - evidence of careful Bible study in his _Postilla in univ. - Biblia juxta quadrupl. sensum_ (a commentary accompanying - the text) and his _Concordantiæ Bibliorum_ (on the Vulgate). - To him we are indebted for our division of the Scriptures - into chapters. At the request of his order he undertook a - correction of the Vulgate from the old MSS. - - 4. =Robert of Sorbon= in Champagne, who died in A.D. 1274, was - confessor of St. Louis and teacher of theology at Paris. He - urged upon his pupils the duty of careful study of the Bible. - In A.D. 1250 he founded the Sorbonne at Paris, originally - a seminary for the education and support of the poorer - clergy who aspired to the highest attainments in theology. - Its fame became so great that it rose to the rank of a full - theological faculty, and down to its overthrow in the French - Revolution it continued to be the highest tribunal in France - for all matters pertaining to religion and the church. - - 5. =Raimund Martini=, Dominican at Barcelona, who died after - A.D. 1284, was unweariedly engaged in the conversion of Jews - and Mohammedans. He spoke Hebrew and Arabic as fluently as - Latin, and wrote _Pugio fidei contra Mauros et Judæos_.[308] - - § 103.10. =Precursors of the German Speculative Mystics.=--=David - of Augsburg=, teacher of theology and master of the novices in - the Franciscan monastery at Augsburg, deserves to be named first, - as one who largely anticipated the style of speculative mysticism - that flourished in the following century (§ 114). His writings, - partly in Latin, partly in German, are merely ascetic directories - and treatises of a contemplative mystical order, distinguished - by deep spirituality and earnest, humble piety. The German works - especially are models of a beautiful rhythmical style, worthy of - ranking with the finest creations of any century. He is author - of the important tract, _De hæresi pauperum de Lugduno_, in which - the pious mystic shows himself in the less pleasing guise of a - relentless inquisitor and heresy hunter.--A brilliant and skilful - allegory, =The Daughter of Zion=, the human soul, who, having - become a daughter of Babylon, went forth to see the heavenly - King, and under the guidance of the virgins Faith, Hope, Love, - Wisdom, and Prayer attained unto this end, was first written in - Latin prose; but afterwards towards the close of the 13th century - a free rendering of it in more than 4,000 verses was published - by the Franciscan Lamprecht of Regensburg. Its mysticism is like - that of St. Bernard and Hugo St. Victor.--In speculative power - and originality the Dominican =Theodorich of Freiburg=, _Meister - Dietrich_, a pupil of Albert the Great, far excelled all the - mystics of this century. About A.D. 1280 he was reader at Treves, - afterwards prior at Würzburg, took his master’s degree and taught - at Paris, A.D. 1285-1289. About A.D. 1320, however, along with - Meister Eckhart (§ 114, 1), he fell under suspicion of heresy, - and nothing further is known of him. Among his still unpublished - writings, mostly on natural and religious philosophy, the most - important is the book _De beatifica visione Dei per essentiam_, - which marks him out as a precursor of the Eckhart speculation.--On - Female Mystics, see § 107. - - - - - IV. The Church and the People. - - - § 104. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND ART. - - Public worship had for a long time been popularly regarded as -a performance fraught with magical power. The ignorant character of -the priests led to frequent setting aside of preaching as something -unessential, so that the service became purely liturgical. But now -popes and synods urged the importance of rearing a race of learned -priests, and the carefully prepared and eloquent sermons of Franciscans -and Dominicans found great acceptance with the people. The Schoolmen -gave to the doctrine of the sacraments its scientific form. The -veneration of saints, relics, and images became more and more the -central point of worship. Besides ecclesiastical architecture, which -reached its highest development in the 13th century, the other arts -began to be laid under contribution to beautify the ceremonial, the -dresses of the celebrants, and the inner parts of the buildings. - - § 104.1. =The Liturgy and the Sermon.=--The Roman =Liturgy= was - universally adopted except in Spain. When it was proposed at - the Synod of Toledo in A.D. 1088 to set aside the old Mozarabic - liturgy (§ 88, 1), the people rose against the proposal, and the - ordeals of combat and fire decided in favour of retaining the - old service. From that time both liturgies were used side by - side. The Slavic ritual was abandoned in Moravia and Bohemia - in the 10th century. The language of the church services - everywhere was and continued to be the Latin. The quickening - of the monkish orders in the 11th century, especially the - Cluniacs and Cistercians, but more particularly the rise of - the Franciscans and Dominicans in the 13th century, gave a great - impulse to preaching. Almost all the great monks and schoolmen - were popular preachers. The crowds that flocked around them - as they preached in the vernacular were enormous. Even in the - regular services the preaching was generally in the language - of the people, but quotations from Scripture and the Fathers, - as a mark of respect, were made in Latin and then translated. - Sermons addressed to the clergy and before academic audiences - were always in Latin.--As a preacher of repentance and of the - crusades, Fulco of Neuilly, † A.D. 1202, regarded by the people - as a saint and a miracle worker, had a wonderful reputation - (§ 94, 4). Of all mediæval preachers, however, none can be - compared for depth, spirituality, and popular eloquence with - the Franciscan =Berthold of Regensburg=, pupil and friend of - David of Augsburg (§ 103, 10), one of the most powerful preachers - in the German tongue that ever lived. He died in A.D. 1272. He - wandered from town to town preaching to crowds, often numbering - 100,000 men, of the grace of God in Christ, against the abuse - of indulgences and false trust in saints, and the idea of the - meritoriousness of pilgrimages, etc. His sermons are of great - value as illustrations of the strength and richness of the old - German language. Roger Bacon too (§ 103, 8), usually so chary - of praise, eulogises _Frater Bertholdus Alemannus_ as a preacher - worth more than the two mendicant orders together. - - § 104.2. =Definition and Number of the Sacraments= - (§§ 58; 70, 2).--Radbert acknowledged only two: Baptism - including confirmation, and the Lord’s Supper. Rabanus Maurus - by separately enumerating the bread and the cup, and counting - confirmation as well as baptism, made four. Hugo St. Victor again - held them to be an indefinite number. But he distinguished three - kinds: those on which salvation depends, Baptism, Confirmation, - and the Supper; those not necessary and forming important aids - to salvation, sprinkling with holy water, confession, extreme - unction, marriage, etc.; those necessary for particular callings, - the ordination of priests, sacred vestments. Yet he prepared the - way for the final ecclesiastical conception of the sacraments, - by placing its _Elementa Corporalia_ under the threefold - category as _divinam gratiam ex similitudine repræsentantia_, - _ex institutione significantia_, and _ex consecratione - continentia_. Peter the Lombard took practically the same - view, but fixed the number of the Sacraments at seven: Baptism, - Confirmation (§ 35, 4), the Supper, Penance, Extreme Unction, - Marriage, and Ordination (§ 45, 1). This number was first - officially sanctioned by the Florentine Council of A.D. 1439 - (§ 67, 6). Alexander of Hales gave a special rank to Baptism - and the Supper, as alone instituted by Christ, while Aquinas - gave this rank to all the seven. All the ecclesiastical - consecrations and benedictions were distinguished from the - sacraments as _Sacramentalia_.--The Schoolmen distinguished - the sacraments of the O.T., as _ex opera operante_, _i.e._ - efficacious only through faith in a coming Redeemer, from - the sacraments of the N.T. as _ex opera operato_, _i.e._ as - efficacious by mere receiving without the exercise of positive - faith on the part of all who had not committed a mortal sin. - Against old sectaries (§§ 41, 3; 63, 1) and new (§§ 108, 7, 12) - the scholastic divines maintained that even unworthy and - unbelieving priests could validly dispense the sacraments, - if only there was the _intentio_ to administer it in the form - prescribed by the church.[309] - - § 104.3. =The Sacrament of the Altar.=--At the fourth Lateran - Council of A.D. 1215 the doctrine of Transubstantiation was - finally accepted (§ 101, 2). The fear lest any of the blood - of the Lord should be spilt led to the withholding from the - 12th century of the cup from the laity, and its being given - only to the priests. If not the cause, then the consequence, - of this was that the priests were regarded as the only full and - perfect partakers of the Lord’s table. Kings at their coronation - and at the approach of death were sometimes by special favour - allowed to partake of the cup. The withdrawal of the cup from - the laity was dogmatically justified, specially by Alex. of - Hales, by the doctrine of _concomitantia_, _i.e._ that in the - body the blood was contained. Fear of losing any fragment also - led to the substitution of wafers, _the host_, for the bread - that should be broken.--A consecrated host is kept in the - _Tabernaculum_, a niche in the wall on the right of the high - altar, in the so-called _liburium_ or _Sanctissimum_, _i.e._ - a gold or silver casket, often ornamented with rich jewels. It - is taken forth, touched only by the priests, and exhibited to - the kneeling people during the service and in solemn processions. - - § 104.4. =Penance.=--Gratian’s decree (§ 99, 5) left it to - the individual believer’s decision whether the sinner could - be reconciled to God by heart penitence without confession. But - in accordance also with the teaching of the Lombard, confession - of mortal sins (Gal. v. 19 ff. and Cor. v. 9 f.), or, in case - that could not be, the desire at heart to make it, was declared - indispensable. The forgiveness of sins was still, however, - regarded as God’s exclusive prerogative, and the priest could - bind and loose only in regard to the fellowship of the church - and the enjoyment of the sacraments. Before him, however, - Hugo St. Victor had begun to transcend these limits; for he, - distinguishing between the guilt and the punishment of the - sinner, ascribed indeed to God alone the absolution from the - guilt of sin on the ground of sincere repentance, but ascribed - to the exercise of the priestly function, the absolution from the - punishment of eternal death, in accordance with Matthew xviii. 18 - and John xx. 23. Richard St. Victor held that the punishment - of eternal death, which all mortal sins as well as venial sins - entail, can be commuted into temporal punishment by priestly - absolution, atoned for by penances imposed by the priests, _e.g._ - prayers, fastings, alms, etc.; whereas without such satisfaction - they can be atoned for only by the pains of purgatory (§ 61, 4). - Innocent III., at the fourth Lateran Council of A.D. 1215, had - the obligation of confession of all sins raised into a dogma, - and obliged all believers under threat of excommunication to - make confession at least once a year, as preparation for the - Easter communion. The Provincial Synod at Toulouse in A.D. 1229 - (§ 109, 2) insisted on compulsory confession and communion three - times a year, at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. The three - penitential requirements, enforced first by Hildebert of Tours, - and adopted by the Lombard, _Contritio cordis_, _Confessio oris_, - and _Satisfactio operis_ continued henceforth in force. But - Hugo’s and Richard’s theory of absolution displaced not only - that of the Lombard, but, by an extension of the sacerdotal - idea to the absolution of the sinner from guilt, led to the - introduction of a full-blown theory of indulgence (§ 106, 2). - As the ground of the scientific construction given it by the - Schoolmen of the 13th century, especially by Aquinas, the - Catholic Church doctrine of penance received its final shape - at the Council of Florence in A.D. 1439. Penance as the fourth - sacrament consists of hearty repentance, auricular confession, - and satisfaction; it takes form in the words of absolution, - _Ego te absolvo_; and it is efficacious for the forgiveness of - sins. Any breach of the secrecy of the confessional was visited - by the fourth Lateran Council with excommunication, deposition, - and lifelong confinement in a monastery. The exaction of a - confessional fee, especially at the Easter confession, appears - as an increment of the priest’s income in many mediæval documents. - Its prohibition by several councils was caused by its simoniacal - abuse. By the introduction of confessors, separate from the local - clergy, the custom fell more and more into disuse. - - § 104.5. =Extreme Unction.=--Although as early as A.D. 416 - Innocent I. had described anointing of the sick with holy oil - (Mark vi. 13; Jas. v. 14) as a _Genus Sacramenti_ (§ 61, 3), - extreme unction as a sacrament made little progress till the - 9th century. The Synod of Chalons in A.D. 813 calls it quite - generally a means of grace for the weak of soul and body. The - Lombard was the first to give it the fifth place among the seven - sacraments as _Unctio extrema_ and _Sacramentum exeuntium_, - ascribing to it _Peccatorum remissio et corporalis infirmitatio - alleviatus_. Original sin being atoned for by baptism, and actual - sins by penance, Albert the Great and Aquinas describe it as the - purifying from the _Reliquiæ peccatorum_ which even after baptism - and penance hinder the soul from entering into its perfect rest. - Bodily healing is only a secondary aim, and is given only if - thereby the primary end of spiritual healing is not hindered. - It was long debated whether, in case of recovery, it should be - repeated when death were found approaching, and it was at last - declared to be admissible. The Council of Trent defines _Extreme - Unction_ as _Sacr. pœnitentiæ totius vitæ consummativum_. The - form of its administration was finally determined to be the - anointing of eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and hands, as well as - (except in women) the feet and loins, with holy oil, consecrated - by the bishop on Maundy Thursday. Confession and communion - precede anointing. The three together constitute the _Viaticum_ - of the soul in its last journey. After receiving extreme unction - recipients are forbidden again to touch the ground with their - bare feet or to have marital intercourse. - - § 104.6. =The Sacrament of Marriage= (§ 89, 4).--When marriage - came generally to be regarded as a sacrament in the proper sense, - the laws of marriage were reconstructed and the administration - of them committed to the church. It had long been insisted upon - by the church with ever-increasing decidedness, that the priestly - benediction must precede the marriage ceremonial, and that bridal - communion must accompany the civil action. Hence marriage had to - be performed in the immediate vicinity of a church, _ante ostium - ecclesiæ_. As another than the father often gave away the bride, - this position of sponsor was claimed by the church for the priest. - Marriage thus lost its civil character, and the priest came to - be regarded as performing it in his official capacity not in name - of the family, but in name of the church. Christian marriage in - the early times required only mutual consent of parties (§ 39, 1), - but the Council of Trent demanded a solemn agreement between - bride and bridegroom before the officiating priest and two or - three witnesses. In order to determine more exactly hindrances - to marriage (§ 61, 2) it was made a law at the second Lateran - Council in A.D. 1139, and confirmed at the fourth in A.D. 1215, - that the parties proposing to marry should be proclaimed in - church. To each part of the sacrament the _character indelibilis_ - is ascribed, and so divorce was absolutely forbidden, even - in the case of adultery (in spite of Matt. v. 32 and xix. 9), - though _separatio a mensa et toro_ was allowed. Innocent III. - in A.D. 1215 reduced the prohibited degrees from the seventh - to the fourth in the line of blood relationship (§ 61, 2). - - § 104.7. =New Festivals.=--The worship of Mary (§ 57, 2) - received an impulse from the institution of the Feast of the - Birth of Mary on 8th of September. To this was added in the - south of France in the 12th century, the Feast of the =Immaculate - Conception= on the 8th December. Radbert (§ 91, 4) by his - doctrine of _Sanctificatio in utero_ gave basis to the theory - of the Virgin’s freedom from original sin in her conception - and bearing. Anselm of Canterbury, however, taught in _Cur Deus - Homo?_ ii. 16, that Mary was conceived and born in sin, and that - she like all others had sinned in Adam. Certain canons of Lyons, - in A.D. 1140, revived Radbert’s theory, but raised the _Sanctif. - in utero_ into the _Immaculata conceptio_. St. Bernard protested - against the doctrine and the festival; sinless conception is a - prerogative of the Redeemer alone. Mary like us all was conceived - in sin, but was sanctified before the birth by Divine power, - so that her whole life was faultless; if one imagines that Mary’s - sinless conception of her Son had her own sinless conception - as a necessary presupposition, this would need to be carried - back _ad infinitum_, and to festivals of Immaculate Conceptions - there would be no end. This view of a _Sanctificatio in utero_, - with repudiation of the _Conceptio immaculata_, was also - maintained by Alex. of Hales, Bonaventura, Albert the Great, - and Aquinas. The feast of the Conception, with the predicate - “immaculate” dropped, gradually came to be universally observed. - The Franciscans adopted it in this limited sense at Pisa, in - A.D. 1263, but when, beginning with Duns Scotus (§§ 113, 112), - the doctrine of the immaculate conception came to be regarded - as a distinctive dogma of the order, the Dominicans felt - called upon to offer it their most strenuous opposition.[310] - (Continuation, § 112, 4.)--To the feast of All Saints, on - 1st November, the Cluniacs added in A.D. 998, the feast of - =All Souls= on 2nd November, for intercession of believers - on behalf of the salvation of souls in purgatory. In the - 12th century the =Feast of the Trinity= was introduced on - the Sunday after Pentecost. Out of the transubstantiation - doctrine arose the =Corpus Christi Festival=, on the Thursday - after Trinity. A pious nun of Liège, Juliana, in A.D. 1261, - saw in a vision the full moon with a halo around it, and an - inward revelation interpreted this phenomenon to indicate that - the festal cycle of the church still wanted a festival in honour - of the eucharist. Urban IV. gave effect to this suggestion in - A.D. 1264, avowedly in consequence of the miracle of the mass - of Bolsena. A priest of Bolsena celebrating mass spilt a drop - of consecrated wine, which left a blood-red stain on the corporal - or pall (§ 60, 5), in the form of a host. The festival did not - come into favour till Clement V. renewed its institution at - the Council of Vienne, in A.D. 1311. The church, by order - of John XXIII. in A.D. 1316, celebrated it by a magnificent - procession, in which the _liburium_ was carried with all pomp. - - § 104.8. =The Veneration of Saints= (§ 88, 4).--The numerous - =Canonizations=, from the 12th century exclusively in the - hands of the popes, gave an impulse to saint worship. It was - the duty of _Advocatus diaboli_ to try to disprove the reports - of virtues and miracles attributed to candidates. The proofs - of holiness adduced were generally derived from thoroughly - fabulous sources. The introduction of the name of accepted - candidates into the canon of the mass gave rise to the term - canonization. =Beatification= was a lower degree of honour, - often a preliminary to canonization at a later period. It - carried with it the veneration not of the whole church, but - of particular churches or districts. The Dominican Jacobus - a Voragine, who died in A.D. 1298, in his _Legenda aurea_ - afforded a pattern for numerous late legends of the saints. - A Parisian theologian who styled it _Legenda ferrea_, was - publicly expelled from his office. The =Veneration of Mary=, - to whom were rendered _Hyperdoulia_ in contradistinction from - the _Doulia_ of the saints, not only among the people, but with - the most cultured theologians, publicly and privately, literally - and figuratively, in prose and poetry, was almost equal to the - worship rendered to God, and indeed often overshadowed it. The - angel’s salutation (Luke i. 28) was in every prayer. Its frequent - repetition led to the use of the _Rosary_, a rose wreath for the - most blessed of women. The great rosary attributed to St. Dominic - has fifteen decades, or 150 smaller pearls of Mary, each of which - represents an _Ave Maria_, and after every ten there is a greater - Paternoster pearl. The small or common rosary has only five - decades of beads of Mary with a Paternoster bead for each decade. - Thrice repeated it forms the so-called _Psalter of Mary_. The - first appearance of the rosary in devotion was with the monk - Macarius in the 4th century, who took 300 stones in his lap, - and after every Paternoster threw one away. The rosary devotion - is also practised by Moslems and Buddhists. In cloisters, - Saturday was usually dedicated to the Mother of God, and - was begun by a special _Officium S. Mariæ_. May was called - the month of Mary.--In the 11th century no further trace is - found of the Frankish opposition to =Image Worship= (§ 92, 1). - But this in no way hindered the growth of =Relic Worship=. - Returning crusaders showered on the West innumerable relics, - which notwithstanding many sceptics were received generally - with superstitious reverence. Castles and estates were - often bartered for pretended relics of a distinguished - saint, and such treasures were frequently stolen at the - risk of life. No story of a trafficker in relics was too - absurd to be believed.--=Pilgrimages=, especially to Rome - and Palestine, were no less in esteem among the Western - Christians of the 10th century during the Roman pornocracy - (§ 96, 1) or the tyranny of the Seljuk dynasty in Palestine - (§ 94). The expectation of the approaching end of the world, - rather gave them an impulse during this century, which reached - its fullest expression in the crusades.--Continuation, § 115, 9. - - § 104.9. The earliest trace of a commemoration of =St. Ursula - and her 11,000 Virgins= is met with in the 10th century. - Excavations in the _Ager Ursulanus_ near Cologne in A.D. 1155 - led to the discovery of some thousand skeletons, several of - them being those of males, with inscribed tablets, one of the - fictitious inscriptions referring to an otherwise unknown pope - Cyriæus. St. Elizabeth of Schönau (§ 107, 1) at the same time - had visions in which the Virgin gave her authentic account of - their lives. Ursula, the fair daughter of a British king of - the 3rd century, was to have married a pagan prince; she craved - three years’ reprieve and got from her father eleven ships, each - with an equipment of a thousand virgins, with which she sailed - up the Rhine to Basel, and thence with her companions travelled - on foot a pilgrimage to Rome. On her return, in accordance with - the Divine instruction, Pope Cyriæus accompanied her, whose - name was on this account struck out of the list by the offended - cardinals; for as Martinus Polonus says, _Credebant plerique - eum non propter devotionem sed propter obtectamenta virginum - papatum dimississe_. Near Cologne they met the army of the Huns, - by whom they were all massacred, at last even Ursula herself - on her persistent refusal to marry the barbaric chief.--In - the absence of any historical foundations for this legend, - an explanation has been attempted by identifying Ursula with - a goddess of the German mythology. An older suggestion is - that perhaps an ancient inscription may have given rise to - the legend.[311] - - § 104.10. =Hymnology.=--The Augustan age of scholasticism - was that also of the composition of Latin hymns and sequences - (§ 88, 2). The most distinguished sacred poets were Odo of - Clugny, king Robert of France (_Veni, sancte Spiritus, et - emitte_), Damiani, Abælard, Hildebert of Tours, St. Bernard, - Adam of St. Victor,[312] Bonaventura, Aquinas, the Franciscan - Thomas of Celano, A.D. 126O (_Dies iræ_), and Jacopone da Todi, - † A.D. 1306 (_Stabat mater dolorosa_). The latter, an eccentric - enthusiast and miracle-working saint, called himself “_Stultus - propter Christum_.” Originally a wealthy advocate, living a life - of revel and riot, he was led by the sudden death of his young - wife to forsake the world. He courted the world’s scorn in the - most literal manner, appearing in the public market bridled like - a beast of burden and creeping on all fours, and at another time - appearing naked, tarred and feathered at the marriage of a niece. - But he glowed with fervent love for the Crucified and a fanatical - veneration for the blessed Virgin. He also fearlessly raised his - voice against the corruption of the clergy and the papacy, and - vigorously denounced the ambition of Boniface VIII. For this he - was imprisoned and fed on bread and water. When tauntingly asked, - “When wilt thou come out?” he answered in words that were soon - fulfilled, “So soon as thou shall come down.” =Sacred Poetry= in - the vernacular was used only in extra-ecclesiastical devotions. - The oldest German Easter hymn belongs to the 12th century.[313] - The Minnesingers of the 13th century composed popular songs - of a religious character, especially in praise of Mary; there - were also sacred songs for travellers, sailors, soldiers, etc. - Heretics separated from the church and its services spread their - views by means of hymns. St. Francis wrote Italian hymns, and - among his disciples Fra Pacifico, Bonaventura, Thomas of Celano, - and Jacopone followed worthily in his footsteps. - - § 104.11. =Church Music= (§ 88, 2).--The Gregorian _Cantus - firmus_ soon fell into disfavour and disuetude. The rarity, - costliness, and corruption of the antiphonaries, the difficulty - of their notation and of their musical system, and the want of - accurately trained singers, combined to bring this about. Singers - too had often made arbitrary alterations. Hence alongside of the - _Cantus firmus_ there gradually grew up a _Discantus_ or _Cantus - figuratus_, and instead of singing in unison, singing in harmony - was introduced. Rules of harmony, concord, and intervals were - now elaborated by the monk Hucbald of Rheims about A.D. 900, - while the German monk Reginus about A.D. 920 and the abbot Opo - of Clugny did much for the theory and practice of music. In place - of the intricate Gregorian notation the Tuscan Benedictine Guido - of Arezzo, A.D. 1000-1050, introduced the notation that is still - used, which made it possible to write the harmony along with - the melody, counterpoint, _i.e._ _punctum contra punctum_. The - discoverer of the measure of the notes was Franco of Cologne - about A.D. 1200. The organ was commonly used in churches. The - Germans were the greatest masters in its construction and in - the playing of it.--Continuation, § 115, 8. - - § 104.12. =Ecclesiastical Architecture.=--Church building, which - the barbarism of the 10th century, and the widespread expectation - of the coming end of the world had restrained, flourished during - the 11th century in an extraordinary manner. The endeavour to - infuse the German spirit into the ancient style of architecture - gave rise to the =Romance Style of Architecture=, which prevailed - during the 12th century. It was based upon the structure of - the old basilicas, the most important innovation being the - introduction of the vaulted in place of the flat wooden roof, - which made the interior lighter and heightened the perspective - effect. The symbolical and fanciful ornamentation was also richly - developed by figures from the plants and animals of Germany, from - native legends. Towers were also added as fingers pointing upward, - sometimes over the entrance to the middle aisle or at both sides - of the entrance, sometimes over the point where the nave and - transepts intersected one another, or on both sides of the choir. - The finest specimens of this style were the cathedrals of Spires, - Mainz, and Worms. But alongside of this appeared the beginnings - of the so-called =Gothic Architecture=, which reached its height - in the 13th and 14th centuries. Here the German ideas shook - themselves free from the bondage of the old basilica style. - Retaining the early ground plan, its pointed arch admitted - of development in breadth and height to any extent. The pointed - arch was first learnt from the Saracens, but its application to - the Gothic architecture was quite original, because it was not as - with the Saracens decorative, but constructive. The blank walls - were changed into supporting pillars, and became a magnificent - framework for the display of ingenious window architecture. A - rich stone structure rose upon the cruciform ground plan, and - the powerful arches towered up into airy heights. Tall tapering - pillars symbolized the heavenward strivings of the soul. The - rose window over the portal as the symbol of silence teaches that - nothing worldly has a voice there. The gigantic peaked windows - send through their beautifully painted glass a richly coloured - light full on the vast area. Everything in the structure points - upward, and this symbolism is finally expressed in the lofty - towers, which lose themselves in giddy heights. The victory over - the kingdom of darkness is depicted in the repulsive reptiles, - demonic forms, and dragon shapes which are made to bear up the - pillars and posts, and to serve as water carriers. The wit of - artists has made even bishops and popes perform these menial - offices, just as Dante condemned many popes to the infernal - regions.[314] - - § 104.13. The most famous architects were Benedictines. The - master builder along with the scholars trained by him formed - independent corporations, free from any other jurisdiction. - They therefore called themselves “=Free Masons=,” and erected - “=Lodges=,” where they met for consultation and discussion. From - the 13th century these lodges fell more and more into the hands - of the laity, and became training schools of architecture. To - them we are largely indebted for the development of the Gothic - style. Their most celebrated works are the Cologne cathedral - and the Strassburg minster. The foundation of the former was - laid under Archbishop Conrad of Hochsteden in A.D. 1248; the - choir was completed and consecrated in A.D. 1322 (§ 174, 9). - Erwin of Steinbach began the building of the Strassburg minster - in A.D. 1275. - - § 104.14. =Statuary and Painting.=--Under the Hohenstaufens - =statuary=, which had been disallowed by the ancient church, - rose into favour. Its first great master in Italy was Nicola - Pisano, who died in A.D. 1274. Earlier indeed a statuary school - had been formed in Saxony, of which no names but great works - have come down to us. The goldsmith’s craft and metallurgy were - brought into the service of the church by the German artists, - and show not only wonderful technical skill, but also high - attainment in ideal art. In =Painting= the Byzantines taught - the Italians, and these again the Germans. At the beginning - of the 13th century there was a school of painting at Pisa and - Siena, claiming St. Luke as its patron, and seeking to impart - more life and warmth to the stiff figures of the Byzantines. - Their greatest masters were Guido of Siena and Giunta of Pisa, - and the Florentine Cimabue, † A.D. 1300. Mosaic painting mostly - on a golden ground was in favour in Italy. Painting on glass - is first met with in the beginning of the 11th century in the - monastery of Tegernsee in Bavaria, and soon spread over Germany - and all over Europe.[315]--Continuation, § 115, 13. - - - § 105. NATIONAL CUSTOMS AND THE NATIONAL LITERATURE. - - It was an age full of the most wonderful contradictions and -anomalies in the life of the people, but every phenomenon bore -the character of unquestionable power, and the church applied the -artificer’s chisel to the unhewn marble block. In club law the most -brutal violence prevailed, but bowed itself willingly or unwillingly -before the might of an idea. The basest sensuality existed alongside -of the most simple self-denial and renunciation of the world, the most -wonderful displays of self-forgetting love. The most sacred solemnities -were parodied, and then men turned in awful earnest to manifest the -profoundest anxiety for their soul’s salvation. Alongside of unmeasured -superstition we meet with the boldest freethinking, and out of the -midst of widespread ignorance and want of culture there radiated forth -great thoughts, profound conceptions, and suggestive anticipations. - - § 105.1. =Knighthood and the Peace of God.=--Notwithstanding - its rude violence there was a deep religious undertone in - knighthood, which came out in Spain in the war with the Saracens, - and throughout Europe in the crusades. What princes could not do - to check savagery was to some extent accomplished by the church - by means of the injunction of the Peace of God. In A.D. 1034 - the severity of famine in France led to acts of cannibalism - and murder, which the bishops and synods severely punished. In - A.D. 1041 the bishops of Southern France enjoined the Peace of - God, according to which under threat of anathema all feuds were - to be suspended from Wednesday evening to Monday morning, as the - days of the ascension, death, burial, and resurrection of Christ. - At a later council at Narbonne in A.D. 1054, Advent to Epiphany, - Lent to eight days after Easter, from the Sunday before Ascension - to the end of the week of Pentecost, as well as the ember days - and the festivals of Mary and the Apostles, were added. Even on - other days, churches, cloisters, hospitals, and churchyards, as - well as priests, monks, pilgrims, merchants, and agriculturists, - in short, all unarmed men, and, by the Council of Clermont, - A.D. 1095, even all crusaders, were included in the peace of - God. Its healthful influence was felt even outside of France, - and at the 3rd Lateran Council in A.D. 1179 Alexander III. raised - it to the rank of a universally applicable law of the church. - - § 105.2. =Popular Customs.=--Superstition resting on old - paganism introduced a Christian mythology. In almost all - the popular legends the devil bore a leading part, and he - was generally represented as a dupe who was cheated out of - his bargain in the end. The most sacred things were made the - subjects of blasphemous parodies. On =Fool’s Festival= on New - Year’s day in France, mock popes, bishops, and abbots were - introduced and all the holy actions mimicked in a blasphemous - manner. Of a similar nature was the _Festum innocentum_ (§ 57, 1) - enacted by schoolboys at Christmas. Also at Christmas time the - so-called =Feast of Asses= was celebrated. At Rouen dramatic - representation of the prophecies of Christ’s birth were given; - at Beauvais, the flight into Egypt. This relic of pagan license - was opposed by the bishops, but encouraged by the lower clergy. - After bishops and councils succeeded in banishing these fooleries - from consecrated places they soon ceased to be celebrated. Under - the name of =Calends=, because their gatherings were on the - Calends of each month, brotherhoods composed of clerical and - lay members sprang up in the beginning of the 13th century - throughout Germany and France, devoting themselves to prayer - and saying masses for living and deceased members and relatives. - This pious purpose was indeed soon forgotten, and the meetings - degenerated into riotous carousings. - - § 105.3. =Two Royal Saints.=--=St. Elizabeth=, daughter of - Andrew II. of Hungary, married in her 14th year to St. Louis IV., - Landgrave of Thuringia, was made a widow in her 20th year - by the death of her husband in the crusade of Frederick II. - in A.D. 1227, and thereafter suffered many privations at the - hand of her brother-in-law. Her father confessor inspired her - with a fanatical spirit of self denial. She assumed in Marburg - the garb of the Franciscan nuns, took the three vows, and retired - into a house of mercy, where she submitted to be scourged by - her confessor. There she died in her 24th year in A.D. 1231. - Her remains are credited with the performance of many miracles. - She was canonized by Gregory IX., in A.D. 1235, and in the - 14th century the order of Elizabethan nuns was instituted for - ministering to the poor and sick.[316]--=St. Hedwig=, aunt of - Elizabeth, married Henry duke of Silesia, in her 12th year. - After discharging her duties of wife, mother, and princess - faithfully, she took along with her husband the vow of chastity, - and out of the sale of her bridal ornaments built a nunnery at - Trebnitz, where she died in A.D. 1243 in her 69th year. Canonized - in A.D. 1268, her remains were deposited in the convent church, - which became on that account a favourite resort of pilgrims. - - § 105.4. =Evidences of Sainthood.= - - 1. =Stigmatization.= Soon after St. Francis’ death in A.D. 1226, - the legend spread that two years before, during a forty days’ - fast in the Apennines, a six-winged seraph imprinted on his - body the nail prints of the wounded Saviour. The saint’s - humility, it was said, prevented him speaking of the miracle - except to those in closest terms of intimacy. The papal bull - canonizing the saint, however, issued in A.D. 1228, knows - nothing of this wonderful occurrence. What was then told of - the great saint was subsequently ascribed to about 100 other - ascetics, male and female. Some sceptical critics attributed - the phenomenon to an impressionable temperament, others - again accounted for all such stories by assuming that they - were purely fabulous, or that the marks had been deceitfully - made with human hands. Undoubtedly St. Francis had made - those wounds upon his own body. That pain should have been - felt on certain occasions in the wounds may be accounted for, - especially in the case of females, who constituted the great - majority of stigmatized individuals, on pathological grounds. - - 2. =Bilocation.= The Catholic Church Lexicon, published in - A.D. 1882 (II. 840), maintains that it is a fact universally - believed that saints often appeared at the same time at - places widely removed from one another. Examples are given - from the lives of Anthony of Padua, Francis Xavier, Liguori, - etc. This is explained by the supposition that either God - gives this power to the saint or sends angels to assume his - form in different places. - - § 105.5. =Religious Culture of the People.=--Unsuccessful - attempts were made by the Hohenstaufens to institute a public - school system and compulsory education. Waldensians and such - like (§ 108) obtained favour by spreading instruction through - vernacular preaching, reading, and singing. The Dominicans took - a hint from this. The Council of Toulouse, A.D. 1229 (§ 109, 2), - forbade laymen to read the Scriptures, even the Psalter and - Breviary, in the vulgar tongue. Summaries of the Scripture - history were allowed. Of this sort was the =Rhyming Bible= - in Dutch by Jacob of Maërlant, † A.D. 1291, which gives in - rhyme the O.T. history, the Life of Jesus, and the history of - the Jews to the destruction of Jerusalem. In the 13th century - =Rhyming Legends= gave in the vernacular the substance of the - Latin Martyrologies. The oldest German example in 3 bks. by - an unknown author contains 100,000 rhyming lines, on Christ - and Mary, the Apostles and the saints in the order of the - church year. Still more effectively was information spread - among the people during the 11th and subsequent centuries - by the performance of =Sacred Plays=. From simple responsive - songs they were developed into regular dramas adapted to - the different festivals. Besides historical plays which were - called =Mysteries==_ministeria_ as representations of the - _Ministri eccl._, there were allegorical and moral plays called - =Moralities=, in which moral truths were personified under the - names of the virtues and vices. The numerous pictures, mosaics, - and reliefs upon the walls helped greatly to spread instruction - among the people.[317] - - § 105.6. =The National Literature= (§ 89, 3).--_Walter v. d. - Vogelweide_, † A.D. 1230, sang the praises of the Lord, the - Virgin, and the church, and lashed the clerical vices and - hierarchical pretensions of his age. The 12th century editor - of the pagan _Nibelungenlied_ gave it a slightly Christian - gloss. _Wolfram of Eschenbach_, however, a Christian poet - in the highest sense, gave to the pagan legend of Parcival - a thoroughly Christian character in the story of the Holy - Grail and the Knights of the Round Table of King Arthur. His - antipodes as a purely secular poet was _Godfrey of Strassburg_, - whose Tristan and Isolt sets forth a thoroughly sensual picture - of carnal love; yet as the sequel of this we have a strongly - etherealized rhapsody on Divine love conceived quite in the - spirit of St. Francis.--The sprightly songs of the _Troubadours_ - of Southern France were often the vehicle of heretical sentiments - and gave expression to bitter hatred of the Romish Babylon.[318] - - - § 106. CHURCH DISCIPLINE, INDULGENCES, AND ASCETICISM. - - The ban, directed against notorious individual sinners and foes -of the church, and the interdict, directed against a whole country, -were formidable weapons which rarely failed in accomplishing their -purpose. Their foolishly frequent use for political ends by the popes -of the 13th century was the first thing that weakened their influence. -The penitential discipline of the church, too (§ 104, 4), began to -lose its power, when outward works, such as alms, pilgrimages, and -especially money fines in the form of indulgences were prescribed as -substitutes for it. Various protests against prevailing laxity and -formality were made by the Benedictines and by new orders instituted -during the 11th century. Strict asceticism with self-laceration and -mortification was imposed in many cloisters, and many hermits won -high repute for holiness. The example and preaching of earnest monks -and recluses did much to produce a revival of religion and awaken -a penitential enthusiasm. Not satisfied with mortifying the body by -prolonging fasts and watchings, they wounded themselves with severe -scourgings and the wearing of sackcloth next the skin, and sometimes -also brazen coats of mail, heavy iron chains, girdles with pricks, etc. - - § 106.1. =Ban and Interdict.=--From the 9th century a - distinction was made between _Excommunicatio major_ and - _minor_. The latter, inflicted upon less serious offences - against the canon law, merely excluded from participation in - the sacrament. The former, called =Anathema=, directed against - hardened sinners with solemn denunciation and the church’s - curse, involved exclusion from all ecclesiastical communion - and even refusal of Christian burial. Zealots who slew such - excommunicated persons were declared by Urban II. not to be - murderers. Innocent III., at the 4th Lateran Council A.D. 1215, - had all civil rights withdrawn from excommunicates and their - goods confiscated. Rulers under the ban were deposed and - their subjects released from their oath of allegiance. Bishops - exercised the right of putting under ban within their dioceses, - and the popes over the whole church.--The =Interdict= was first - recognised as a church institution at the Synod of Limoges in - A.D. 1031. While it was in force against any country all bells - were silenced, liturgical services were held only with closed - doors, penance and the eucharist administered only to the dying, - none but priests, mendicant friars, strangers, and children - under two years of age received Christian burial, and no one - could be married. Rarely could the people endure this long. It - was therefore a terrible weapon in the hands of the popes, who - not infrequently exercised it effectually in their struggles - with the princes of the 12th and 13th centuries. - - § 106.2. =Indulgences.=--The old German principle of - composition (§ 89, 5), and the Gregorian doctrine of purgatory - (§ 61, 4), formed the bases on which was reared the ordinance - of indulgences. The theory of the monks of St. Victor of the - 12th century regarding penitential satisfaction (§ 104, 4), - gave an impetus to the development of this institution of - the church. It copestone was laid in the 13th century by the - formulating of the doctrine of the superabundant merit of - Christ and the saints (_Thesaurus supererogationis Christi - et perfectorum_) by Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, and - Aquinas. The members of the body of Christ could suffer and - serve one for another, and thus Aquinas thought the merits of - one might lessen the purgatorial pains of another. Innocent III., - in A.D. 1215, allowed to bishops the right of limiting the pains - of purgatory to forty days, but claimed for the pope exclusively - the right of giving full indulgence (_Indulgentia plenaria_). - Clement VI. declared that the pope as entrusted with the keys - was alone the dispenser of the _Thesaurus supererogationis_. - Strictly indulgence was allowed only to the truly penitent, - as an aid to imperfect not a substitute for non-existent - satisfaction. This was generally ignored by preachers of - indulgences. This was specially the case in the times of the - crusaders. Popes also frequently gave indulgences to those who - simply visited certain shrines. - - § 106.3. =The Church Doctrine of the Hereafter.=--All who - had perfectly observed every requirement of the penances - and sacraments of the church to the close of their lives - had the gates of =Heaven= opened to them. All others passed - into the =Lower World= to suffer either positively=_sensus_, - inexpressible pains of fire, or negatively=_damnum_, loss of - the vision of God. There are four degrees corresponding to - four places of punishment. =Hell=, situated in the midst - of the earth, _abyssus_ (Rev. xx. 1), is place and state of - eternal punishment for all infidels, apostates, excommunicates, - and all who died in mortal sin. The next circle is the purifying - fire of =Purgatory=, or a place of temporary punishment positive - or negative for all believing Christians who did not in life - fully satisfy the three requirements of the sacrament of penance - (§ 104, 4). The =Limbus infantum= is a side chamber of purgatory, - where all unbaptized infants are kept for ever, only deprived - of blessedness in consequence of original sin. Then above this - is the =Limbus Patrum=, “Abraham’s bosom,” where the saints of - the Old Covenant await the second coming of Christ. - - § 106.4. =Flagellation.=--From the 8th century discipline was - often exercised by means of scourging, administered by the - confessor who prescribed it. In the 11th century voluntary - =Self-Flagellation= was frequently practised not only as - punishment for one’s own sin, but, after the pattern of Christ - and the martyrs, as atonement for sins of others. It originated - in Italy, had its great patron in Damiani (§ 97, 4), and was - earnestly commended by Bernard, Norbert, Francis, Dominic, - etc. It is reported of St. Dominic that he scourged himself - thrice every night, first for himself, and then for his living - companions, and then for the departed in purgatory. The zealous - Franciscan preachers were mainly instrumental in exerting an - enthusiasm for self-mortification among the people (§ 98, 4). - About A.D. 1225, Anthony of Padua attracted crowds who went - about publicly lashing themselves while singing psalms. Followers - of Joachim of Floris (§ 108, 5) as =Flagellants= rushed through - all Northern Italy in great numbers during A.D. 1260, preaching - the immediate approach of the end of the world.[319] - - - § 107. FEMALE MYSTICS. - - Practical mysticism which concerned itself only with the -salvation of the soul, had many representatives among the women of -the 12th and 13th centuries. Among them it was specially characterized -by the prevalence of ecstatic visions, often deteriorating into -manifestations of nervous affections which superstitious people -regarded as exhibitions of miraculous power. Examples are found -in all countries, but especially in the Netherlands, and the Rhine -provinces, in France, Alsace and Switzerland, in Saxony and Thuringia. -Those whose visions pointed to the inauguration of reforms are of -particular interest to us, as they often had a considerable influence -on the subsequent history of the church. - - § 107.1. =Two Rhenish Prophetesses of the 12th - Century.=--=St. Hildegard= was founder and abbess of a - cloister near Bingen on the Rhine, where she died in A.D. 1178 - in her 74th year. Grieving over clerical and papal corruptions, - she had apocalyptic visions of the antichrist, and travelled - far and engaged in an extensive correspondence in appealing for - radical reforms. St. Bernard and pope Eugenius III. who visited - Treves in A.D. 1147 acknowledged her prophetic vocation, and - the people ascribed to her wonderful healing power.--Hildegard’s - younger contemporary was the like-minded =St. Elizabeth - of Schönau=, abbess of the neighbouring convent of Schönau, - who died in A.D. 1165. Her prophecies were mostly of the - apocalyptic-visionary order, and in them with still greater - severity she lashed the corruptions of the clergy. She also - gave currency to the legend of St. Ursula (§ 104, 9). - - § 107.2. =Three Thuringian Prophetesses of the - 13th Century.=--=Mechthild of Magdeburg=, after thirty years - of Beguine life, wrote in a beautiful rhythmical style in German - her “Light of Deity,” setting forth the sweetness of God’s love, - the blessedness of glorified saints, the pains of purgatory and - hell, and denouncing with great moral earnestness the corruptions - of the clergy and the church, and depicting with a poet’s or - prophet’s power the coming of the last day. Influenced by the - apocalyptic views of Joachim of Floris (§ 108, 5), she also gives - expression to a genuinely German patriotism. With her it is a new - preaching order that leads to victory against antichrist, and the - founder of this order, who meets a martyr’s death in the conflict, - is a son of the Roman king. In contrast with Joachim, she thus - makes the German empire not a foe but the ally of the church. - Mechthild’s prophecies largely influenced Dante, and even - her name appears in that of his guide Matilda.--=Mechthild of - Hackeborn=, who died in A.D. 1310, in her _Speculum spiritualis - gratiæ_ published her visions of a reformatory and eschatological - prophetic order, more subjective and personal than those of the - former.--=Gertrude the Great=, who died in A.D. 1311, is more - decidedly a reformer than either of the Mechthilds or any other - woman of the Middle Ages. A diligent inquirer into the depths - of Scripture, she renounced the veneration usually shown to Mary, - the saints, and relics, repudiated all the ideas of her age - regarding merits, ceremonial exercises, and indulgences, and - in the exercise of simple faith trusted only to the grace of - God in Christ. She seems to belong to the 16th rather than to - the 13th century. Her visions, too, are more of a spiritual kind. - - - - - V. Heretical Opposition to Ecclesiastical Authority. - - - § 108. THE PROTESTERS AGAINST THE CHURCH. - - Mediæval endeavours after reform, partly proceeded from within the -church itself in attempts to restore apostolic purity and simplicity, -partly from without on the part of those who despaired of any good -coming out of the church, and who therefore warred bitterly against -it. Such attempts were often lost amid the vagaries of fanaticism and -heresy, which soon threatened the foundation of the social fabric, and -often came into collision with the State. Most widely spread and most -radical were the numerous dualistic sects of the Cathari. Montanist -fanaticism was revived in apocalyptic prophesyings. There were -also pantheistic sects, and among the Pasagians a sort of Ebionism -reappeared. Another group of sects originated through reformatory -endeavours of individual men, who perceiving the utter corruption -of the church of their day, sought salvation in a revolutionary -overthrow of all ecclesiastical institutions and repudiated often -the truth with the error which was the object of their hate. The only -protesting church of a thoroughly sensible evangelical sort was that -of the Waldensians. - - § 108.1. =The Cathari.=--Opposition to hierarchical pretensions - led to the spread of sects, especially in Northern Italy and - France, from the 11th century. Hidden remnants of Old Manichæan - sects got new courage and ventured into the light during the - period of the crusades. In France they were called Tisserands, - because mostly composed of weavers. In Italy they were called - Patareni or Paterini, either from the original meaning of - the word, rabble, riff-raff (§ 97, 5), or because they so - far adopted the attitude of the Pasaria of Milan, as to offer - lay opposition to the local clergy, or because of the frequent - use of the Paternoster. Of later origin are the names Publicani - and Bulgări, given as opprobrious designations to the Paulicians. - The most widely current name of Cathari, from early times a - favourite title assumed by rigorist sects (§ 41, 3), had its - origin in the East. In France they were called Albigensians, - from the province of Albigeois, which was their chief seat in - Southern France.--Of the =Writings of the Cathari= we possess - from the end of the 13th century a Provençal translation of the - N.T., free from all falsification in favour of their sectarian - views. Their tenets are to be learnt only from the polemical - writings of their opponents, Alanus ab Insulis (§ 102, 5), the - Dominican Joh. Moneta, about A.D. 1240, and Rainerius, Sacchoni, - Dominican and inquisitor, about A.D. 1250. - - § 108.2. Besides their opposition to the hierarchy, all these - sects had in common a dualistic basis to their theological - systems. They held in a more or less extreme form the following - doctrines: The good God who is proclaimed in the N.T. created - in the beginning the heavenly and invisible world, and peopled - it with souls clothed in ethereal bodies. The earthly world, on - the other hand, is the work of an evil spirit, who is held up - as object of worship in the O.T. Entering the heavenly world - he succeeded in seducing some of its inhabitants, whom he, when - defeated by the archangel Michael, took with him to earth, and - there imprisoned in earthly bodies, so as to make return to their - heavenly home impossible. Yet they are capable of redemption, - and may, on repentance and submission to purificatory ordinances, - be again freed from their earthly bonds and brought home again - to heaven. For this redemption the good God sent “the heavenly - man” Jesus (1 Cor. xv. 47) to earth in the appearance of man to - teach men their heavenly origin and the means of restoration. - The Cathari rejected the O.T., but accepted the N.T., which they - read in the vernacular. Marriage they regarded as a hindrance to - Christian perfection. They treated with contempt water baptism, - the Supper, and ordination, as well as all veneration of saints - and relics, and tolerated no images, crosses, or altars. Prayer, - abstinence, and baptism of the Spirit were regarded as the only - means of salvation. Preaching was next to prayer most prominent - in their public services. They also laid great stress upon - fasting, genuflection, and repetitions of stated formulæ, - especially the Lord’s Prayer. Their members were divided into - _Cregentz_ (_credentes_ or catechumens) and _Bos homes_ or - _Bos crestias_ (_boni homines, boni Christiani_=_perfecti_ or - _electi_). A lower order of the catechumens were the _Auditores_. - These were received as _Credentes_ after a longer period of - training amid various ceremonies and repetition of the Lord’s - prayer, etc. The order of the _Perfecti_ was entered by spiritual - baptism, the _Consolamentum_ or communication of the Holy Spirit - as the promised Comforter, without which no one can enjoy eternal - life. Even opponents such as St. Bernard admit that there was - great moral earnestness shown by some of them, and many met a - martyr’s death with true Christian heroism. Symptoms of decay - appeared in the spread among them of antinomian practices. This - moral deterioration showed itself as a radical part of this - system in the so-called =Luciferians= or devil worshippers, - whose dualism, like that of the Euchites and Bogomils (§ 71), - led to the adoption of two Sons of God. Lucifer the elder, - wrongly driven from heaven, is the creator and lord of this - earthly world, and hence alone worshipped in it. His expulsion - (Isa. xiv. 12) is carried out by the younger son, Michael, who - will, however, on this account, whenever Lucifer regains heaven, - be sent with all his company into eternal punishment. Of an - incarnation of God, even of a docetic kind, they know nothing. - They regarded Jesus as a false prophet who was crucified on - account of the evil he had done.--Catharist sects suspected - of Manichæan tendencies were discovered here and there during - the 11th century. In the following century their number had - increased enormously, and they spread over Lombardy and Southern - France, but were also found in Southern Italy, in Germany, - Belgium, Spain, and even in England. They had a pope residing - in Bulgaria, twelve magistri and seventy-two bishops, each with - a _Filius major_ and _minor_ at his side. In A.D. 1167 they - were able to muster an œcumenical Catharist Council at Toulouse. - Neither clemency nor severity could put them down. St. Bernard - prevailed most by the power of his love, and subsequently learned - Dominicans had more effect with their preaching and disputations. - They found abundant opportunity of displaying their hatred of - the papacy during the struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. - In spite of terrible persecution, which reached its height in - the beginning of the 13th century in the Albigensian crusade - (§ 109, 1), remnants of them were found down into the 14th century. - - § 108.3. The small sect of the =Pasagians= in Lombardy during - the 12th century, protesting against the Manichæan depreciation - of the O.T. of the Catharists, adopted views of a somewhat - Ebionite character. With the exception of sacrifice, they - enforced all the old ceremonial observances, even circumcision, - and held an Arian or Ebionite theory of the Person of Christ. - Their name meaning “passage,” seems to refer to pilgrimages to - the Holy Land, and possibly from this a clue to their origin may - be obtained. - - § 108.4. =Pantheistic Heretics.= - - 1. =Amalrich of Bena= taught first philosophy, then theology, - at Paris in the end of the 12th century. In A.D. 1204 - Innocent III. called him to account for his proposition, - Christian in sound, but probably pantheistically intended, - that no one could be saved who is not a member in Christ’s - body, and obliged him to retract. His death occurred soon - after, and some years later we find traces of a pantheistic - sect founded on the alleged doctrines of Amalrich vigorously - propagated by his disciple William the goldsmith. God had - previously appeared as Father incarnate in Abraham, and - as Son in Christ, and now henceforth as the Holy Spirit - in every believer, who therefore in the same sense as Christ - is God. As such, too, he is without sin, and what to others - would be sin is not so to him. In the age of the Son the - Mosaic law lost its validity, and in that of the Spirit, - the sacraments and services of the new covenant. God has - always been all in all. We find him in Ovid as well as in - Augustine, and the body of Christ is in common bread as well - as in the consecrated wafer on the altar. Saint worship is - idolatry. There is no resurrection; heaven and hell exist - only in the imagination of men. Rome is Babylon, and the - pope is antichrist; but to the king of France, after the - overthrow of antichrist, shall the kingdoms of the earth - be subject, etc. A synod at Paris in A.D. 1209 condemned - William and nine priests to be burnt, and four other priests - to imprisonment for life, and ordered that Amalrich’s - bones should be exhumed and scattered over an open field. - Regarding the physical works of Aristotle as the source of - this heresy, the council also prohibited all lectures upon - these (§ 103, 1). This was seen to be a mistake, and so - in A.D. 1225 Honorius III. fixed on the true culprit and - condemned the _De divisione naturæ_ of Erigena (§ 90, 6). - The penalties inflicted did not by any means lead to the - rooting out of the sect. During the whole 13th century it - continued to spread from Paris over all eastern France as - far as Alsace, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, and in - the 14th century reached its highest development in the - pantheistic-libertine doctrines of the Brothers and Sisters - of the Free Spirit (§ 116, 5). We never again meet with the - name of Amalrich, and the sects were never called after him. - - 2. =David of Dinant= at the same time with Amalrich taught - philosophy and theology in the University of Paris. He - also lived for a long while at the papal court in Rome, - high in favour with Innocent III. as a subtle dialectician. - The Synod of Paris of A.D. 1209, which passed judgment on - the Amalricians, pronounced David a heretic and ordered his - works to be burnt. He avoided personal punishment by flight. - The central point of his system was the assumption of a - single eternal substance without distinctions, from which - God, spirit (νοῦς), and matter (ὕλη) sprang as the three - principles of all later forms of existences (_corpora_, - _animæ_, and _substantiæ æternæ_). God is regarded as the - _primum efficiens_, matter as the _primum suscipiens_, and - spirit as the medium between the two. David’s scholars never - formed a sect and never had any connection apparently with - the followers of Amalrich. - - 3. =The Ortlibarians= were a sect condemned by Innocent III., - followers of a certain Ortlieb of Strassburg about A.D. 1212. - They held the world to be without beginning. They looked - upon Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, sinless like all - other children, but raised to be son of God only through - illumination from the doctrines of their sect, which had - existed from the earliest times. They admitted the gospel - story of Christ’s life, sufferings, and resurrection, not, - however, in a literal but only in a moral and mystical - acceptation. The consecrated host was but common bread, - and in it was the body of the Lord. A Jew entering their - sect needed not to be baptized, and fellowship with them - was sufficient to secure salvation. There is no resurrection - of the flesh; man’s spirit alone is immortal. After the - last judgment, which will come when pope and emperor are - converted to their views and all opposition is overcome, - the world will last for ever, and men will be born and die - just as now. They professed a strictly ascetic life, and - many of them fasted every second day. - - § 108.5. =Apocalyptic Heretics.=--The Cistercian abbot =Joachim - of Floris=, who died in A.D. 1202, with his notions of the so - called “_Everlasting Gospel_,” as a reformer and as one inclined - to apocalyptic prophecy, followed in the footsteps of Hildegard - of Bingen and Elizabeth of Schönau (§ 107, 1). His prophetic - views spread among the Franciscans and were long unchallenged. - In A.D. 1254 the University of Paris, warning against the begging - monks (§ 103, 3), got Alexander IV. to condemn these views as set - forth in commentaries on Isaiah and Jeremiah ascribed to Joachim, - but now found to be spurious. Preger doubts but, Reuter maintains - the genuineness of the three tracts grouped under the title of - the _Evangelium æternum_. The main points in his theory seem - to have been these: There are three ages, that of the Father - in the O.T., of the Son in the N.T., and of the Holy Spirit in - the approaching fulness of the kingdom of God on earth. Of the - apostles, Peter is representative of the first age, Paul of the - second, and John of the third. They may also be characterized as - the age of the laity, the clergy, and the monks, and compared in - respect of light with the stars, the moon, and the sun. The first - six periods of the N.T. age are divided (after the pattern of - the forty-two generations of Matt. i. and the forty-two months - or 1260 days of Rev. xi. 2, 3) into forty-two shorter periods of - thirty years each, so that the sixth period closes with A.D. 1260, - and then shall dawn the Sabbath period of the New Covenant as the - age of the Holy Spirit. This will be preceded by a short reign - of antichrist as a punishment for the corruptions of the church - and clergy. By the labours of the monks, however, the church is - at last purified and brought forth triumphant, and the life of - holy contemplation becomes universal. The germs of antichrist - were evidently supposed to lie in the Hohenstaufen empire of - Frederick I. and Henry VI. The commentaries on Isaiah and - Jeremiah went so far as to point to the person of Frederick II. - as that of the antichrist. - - § 108.6. =Ghibelline Joachites= in Italy, mostly recruited - from the Franciscans, sided with the emperor against the pope - and adopted apocalyptic views to suit their politics, and - regarded the papacy as the precursor of antichrist. One of - their chiefs, Oliva, who died in A.D. 1297, wrote a _Postilla - super Apoc._, in which he denounced the Roman church of his - day as the Great Whore of Babylon, and his scholar Ubertino of - Casale saw in the beast that rose out of the sea (Rev. xiii.) - a prophetic picture of the papacy.--In Germany these views - spread among the Dominicans during the 13th century, especially - in Swabia. The movement was headed by one Arnold. who wrote an - _Epistola de correctione ecclesiæ_ about A.D. 1246. He finds in - Innocent IV. the antichrist and in Frederick II. the executioner - of the Divine judgment and the inauguration of the reformation. - Frederick’s death, which followed soon after in A.D. 1250, and - the catastrophe of A.D. 1268 (§ 96, 20), must have put an end - to the whole movement. - - § 108.7. =Revolutionary Reformers.= - - 1. The =Petrobrusians=, whose founder, =Peter of Bruys=, - was a pupil of Abælard and a priest in the south of France, - repudiated the outward or visible church and sought the - true or invisible church in the hearts of believers. He - insisted on the destruction of churches and sanctuaries - because God could be worshipped in a stable or tavern, burnt - crucifixes in the cooking stove, eagerly opposed celibacy, - mass, and infant baptism, and after a twenty years’ career - perished at the stake about A.D. 1126 at the hands of a - raging mob. One of Peter’s companions, =Henry of Lausanne=, - whose fiery eloquence had been influential in inciting to - reform, succeeded to the leadership of the Petrobrusians, - who from him were called =Henricians=. St. Bernard succeeded - in winning many of them back. Henry was condemned to - imprisonment for life, and died in A.D. 1149. - - 2. =Arnold of Brescia=, who died in A.D. 1155, a preacher - of great moral and religious earnestness, addressed himself - to attack the worldliness of the church and the papacy. - Except in maintaining that sacraments dispensed by unworthy - priests have no efficacy, he does not seem to have deviated - from the church doctrine. Officiating as reader in his - native town, his bishop complained of him as a heretic - to the second Lateran Council of A.D. 1139. His views - were condemned, and he himself was banished and enjoined - to observe perpetual silence. He now went to his teacher - Abælard in France. Here St. Bernard accused him at the synod - convened against Abælard at Sens in A.D. 1141 (§ 102, 2) as - “the armour-bearer” of this “Goliath-heretic,” and obtained - the condemnation of both. He was then excommunicated - by Innocent II. and imprisoned in a cloister. Arnold, - however, escaped to Switzerland, where he lived and taught - undisturbed in Zürich for some years, till Bishop Hermann - of Constance, at the instigation of the Saint of Clairvaux, - threatened him with imprisonment or exile. He was now taken - under the protection of Guido de Castella, Abælard’s friend - and patron, and accompanied him to Bohemia and Moravia. - On Guido’s elevation as Cœlestine II. to the papal chair - in A.D. 1143, Arnold returned to his native land. From - A.D. 1146 we find him in Rome at the head of the agitation - for political and ecclesiastical freedom. For further - details of his history, see § 96, 13, 14. A party of - so-called Arnoldists occupied itself long after his death - with the carrying out of his ecclesiastico-political ideal. - - § 108.8. - - 3. The so called =Pastorelles= were roused to revolution by - the miseries following the crusades. An impulse was given - to the sect by the news of the imprisonment of St. Louis - (§ 94, 6). A Cistercian =Magister Jacob= from Hungary - appeared in A.D. 1251 with the announcement that he had - seen the Mother of God, who gave him a letter calling upon - the pastors to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. Those who have - heard the Christmas message are called of God to undertake - the great work which neither the corrupt hierarchy nor the - proud, ambitious nobles were able to perform; but before - them, the poor shepherds, the sea will open a way, so that - they may hasten with dry feet to the release of king Louis. - His fanatical harangues soon gathered immense crowds of - common people around him, estimated at about 100,000 men. - But instead of going to the Holy Land, they first gave - vent to their wrath against the clergy, monks, and Jews - at home by murdering, plundering, and ill treating them - in all manner of ways. The queen-mother Blanca, favourable - at first, now used all her power against them. Jacob was - slain at Bourges, his troops scattered, and their leaders - executed. - - 4. In the =Apostolic Brothers= we have a blending of Arnoldist - and Joachist tendencies. Their founder, =Gerhard Segarelli=, - an artisan of Parma, was moved about A.D. 1260 by the sight - of a picture of the apostles in their poverty to go about - preaching repentance and calling on the church to return to - apostolic simplicity. He did not question the doctrine of - the church. Only when Honorius in A.D. 1286 and Nicholas IV. - in A.D. 1290 took measures against them did they openly - oppose the papacy and denounce the Roman church as the - apocalyptic Babylon. Segarelli was seized in A.D. 1294 - and perished in the flames with many of his followers in - A.D. 1300. =Fra Dolcino=, a younger priest, now took the - leadership, and roused great enthusiasm by his preaching - against the Roman antichrist. He bravely held his ground - with 2,000 followers for two years in the recesses of the - mountains, but was reduced at last in A.D. 1307 by hunger, - and died like his predecessor at the stake. He distinguished - four stages in the historical development of the kingdom - of God on earth. The first two are those of the Father - and the Son in the O.T. and the N.T. The third begins - with Constantine’s establishment of the Christian empire, - advanced by the Benedictine rule and the reforms of the - Franciscans and Dominicans, but afterwards falling into - decay. The fourth era of complete restoration of the - apostolic life is inaugurated by Segarelli and Dolcino. - A new chief sent of God will rule the church in peace, and - the Holy Spirit will never leave the restored communion of - His saints. Remnants of the sect were long in existence in - France and Germany, where they united with the Fraticelli - and Beghards. Even in A.D. 1374 we find a synod at Narbonne - threatening them with the severest punishments. - - § 108.9. =Reforming Enthusiasts.= - - 1. A certain =Tanchelm= about A.D. 1115 preached in the - Netherlands against the corruptions of the church. He - claimed like honour with Christ as being assisted by the - same Spirit, is said to have betrothed himself to the - Virgin Mary, and to have been killed at last in A.D. 1124 - by a priest. - - 2. A Frenchman, =Eon de Stella= of Brittany, hearing in - a church the words “_per =Eum= qui venturus est judicare - vivos et mortuos_,” and understanding it of his own name, - went through the country preaching, prophesying, and working - miracles. He secured many followers, and when persecuted, - fled to the woods. He denied the Divine institution of - the hierarchy, denounced the Roman church as false because - of the wicked lives of the priests, rejected the doctrine - of a resurrection of the body, denied that marriage was - a sacrament, and regarded the communication of the Spirit - by imposition of hands the only true baptism. In A.D. 1148 - troops were sent against him, and he and many of his - followers were taken prisoners. His adherents were burnt, - but Eon was brought before a synod at Rheims, where he - answered the question of the pope Eugenius III., “Who art - thou?” by saying _Is qui venturus est_, etc. He was then - pronounced deranged and delivered over to the custody of - the archbishop. - - § 108.10. =The Waldensians.= - - 1. =Their Origin.=--A citizen of Lyons, named Valdez - (Valdesius, Waldus, the Christian name of Peter, given - to him first 120 years later, is quite unsupported), who - had become rich by the practice of usury, an occupation - condemned by the church, was about A.D. 1173 deeply - impressed by reading the legend of St. Alexius, and was - in his spiritual anxiety directed by a theologian to the - words of Christ to the rich young ruler in Matthew xix. 21. - Making over to his wife only his landed property, and - distributing all the rest of his possessions among the - poor, and then, for further instruction in regard to the - imitation of Christ required of him, having applied himself - to the study of the gospels, the Psalter, and other biblical - books, and a selection of classical passages translated for - his use by two friendly priests out of the writings of the - Fathers into the Romance dialect, he founded in A.D. 1177, - in company with certain men and women, who were prepared - like himself to abandon the world and all its goods, - a society for preaching the gospel among the people. In - accordance with the Lord’s command to the seventy disciples - (Luke x. 1-4), they went forth two and two in apostolic - costume, in woollen penitential garments, without staff - or scrip, their feet protected with merely wooden sandals - (_sabatas, sabots_), preaching repentance, and proclaiming - the gospel message of salvation throughout the land, in - order to bring back again among the people the Christian - life in its purity and simplicity. The Archbishop of - Lyons prohibited their preaching; but they referred to - Acts v. 29, and appealed, praying for a confirmation of - their association, to the Third Lateran Council of A.D. 1179, - under Alexander III., which, however, scornfully dismissed - their appeal. As they nevertheless still continued to preach, - Pope Lucius III., at the Council of Verona, in A.D. 1184, - laid them under the ban. They had hitherto no intention - of offering any sort of opposition to the doctrine, - worship, or constitution of the Catholic church. Even the - Catholic authorities did not so much take offence at what - they preached but rather only at this, that they without - ecclesiastical call and authority had assumed the function - of preaching. Innocent III., also, admitted the imprudence - of his predecessor, and favoured the plan of a Waldensian - who had left his brethren to transform the association of - the _Pauperes de Lugduno_ into the monastic-like lay union - of _Pauperes Catholici_, to which in A.D. 1208 he assigned - the duties of preaching, expounding Scripture, and holding - meetings for edification under episcopal supervision. But - this concession came too late. Since the church had itself - broken off the fetters which had previously bound them to - the traditional faith of the Catholic church, the Leonists - had gone too far upon the path of evangelical freedom to - be satisfied with any such terms. Innocent now renewed the - ban against them at the Fourth Lateran Council of A.D. 1215. - Of the later life and work of the founder we know with - certainty only this, that he made extensive journeys in - the interests of his cause. Even during his lifetime (he - died probably about A.D. 1217) the members (_socii_) of - the society (_Societas Valdesiana_) founded by him had - spread themselves in great numbers over the whole of the - south of France, the east of Spain, the north of Italy, - and the south of Germany, and had even crossed the Channel - into England. They were named, in accordance with their - fundamental principle, as well as from the starting - point of their apostolic mission, _Pauperes de Lugduno_ - or _Leonistæ_=from Lyons, also from the covering of - their feet, _Sabatati_; but they styled themselves among - one another _fratres_ and _sorores_, and their adherents - among the people _amici_ and _amicæ_; while the Catholic - polemical writers, who for a similar class among the - Cathari had employed the distinctive terms _Perfecti_ - and _Credentes_, made use of these designations in - treating of the Waldensians. The latter continue “in - the world,” that is, in the exercise of their family - duties, and the discharge of civil obligations, and all - the positions and entanglements connected therewith; - while the former devoted themselves to a celibate life, - to absolute poverty, to incessant preaching from place to - place, and to unconditional refusal of all oathtaking, and - a literal acceptance of all the precepts of the Sermon on - the Mount, involving the rejection of any sort of fixed - residence, and on the basis of Luke x. 7, 8, any handiwork - that would earn for them the necessaries of life. They - had their own _ministri_ for the administration of the - sacraments; but these were elected only _ad tempus_, - namely once a year, simply for the discharge of that duty. - At the head of the whole community down to his death stood - the founder himself. He led the entire movement, received - new members into the _societas_, and chose and ordained - the _ministri_.--The two most important sources for the - primitive history of the Waldensian movement, mutually - supplementing one another, are, the _Chronicon Laudunense_ - of an unnamed canon of Laon in the _Mon. Germ. Scrr._ - xxvi. 447, and the tract _De Septem Donis Spir. S._ of the - inquisitor Stephen de Borbone, who died A.D. 1261, which is - given in full in _de la Marche, Anecdotes historiques_, etc., - Paris, 1877. - - § 108.11. - - 2. =Their Divisions.=--One of the oldest, most important, - and most reliable sources of information regarding the - affairs of the old Waldensians was first published by - Preger in 1875, in his _Beiträge z. Gesch. d. Waldensier - im MA._, namely, an epistle embodied by the “_anonymous - writer of Passau_” in his heretic catalogue, from the - “Poor Men of Italy” to their fellow believers in Germany, - _ad Leonistas in Alamannia_, in which they give a report of - the proceedings at a convention held at Bergamo in A.D. 1218, - with the deputies from “_the ultramontane_,” that is, the - French, “Poor Men.” On the basis of this communication - Preger has contested the view that the “Poor Men of Italy” - were the Waldensians, and traces their origin rather to - the working men’s association of the _Humiliati_ that - had already sprung up in the eleventh century (§ 98, 7), - which having even before this, by adopting Arnoldist ideas, - become estranged from the Catholic church, came also into - connection with Valdez, appropriated many of his opinions, - and then entered into fraternal relations with the French - Waldesians. This theory, as also no less the explanations - connected therewith of the constitutional and doctrinal - differences of the two parties, has been proved by Carl - Müller in his _Die Waldensier u. ihre einzelne Gruppen - bis Auf d. 14. Jhd._ to be in many particulars untenable, - and he has shown that the Waldensian origin of “the Poor - Men of Lombardy” is witnessed to even by this epistle. - The results of his researches are in the main as follows: - The movement set on foot in A.D. 1177 by Valdez of Lyons - in the direction of an apostolic walk and conversation was - transplanted at a very early period into northern Italy, - and found there a favourable reception, especially in the - ranks of the Humiliati. These, too, as well as Valdez, in - A.D. 1179, approached Alexander III. with the prayer to - authorize their entering on such a vocation, but were also - immediately repulsed, attached themselves then to the “Poor - Men of Lyons,” submitting to the monarchical rule of their - founder, and along with them, in A.D. 1184, fell under the - papal ban. Yet among the Lombards a strong craving after - greater independence and freedom soon found expression, - which asserted itself most decidedly in the claim to the - right of their own independent choice and ordination of - lifelong organs of government for their society, as well - as for priestly services, which, however, Valdez, fearing - a dissolution of the whole society from the granting of - such partial independence, answered with a decided refusal. - With equal decision did he insist upon the disbanding of - those workmen’s associations for common production, which - the Lombards, as formerly the Humiliati, formed from the - laymen belonging to them, and forbade them even engaging - in any handicraft which they had hitherto pursued alongside - of their spiritual vocations, as inconsistent with the - apostolic life according to the prescriptions of Christ in - Luke x. Thus it came about, in consequence of the unyielding - temper of both parties, that there was a formal split; for - the Lombards appointed their own independent _præpositus_, - who, just like their _ministri_ charged with the conduct - of worship, held office for life. In the course of the year - the split widened through the adoption of other divergences - on the part of the Lombards. Yet after the death of the - founder, about A.D. 1217 they entered upon negotiations - about a reunion, which found a hearty response also among - the French. By means of epistolary explanations a basis - for union in regard to those questions which had occasioned - the separation had already been attained unto. The French - granted to the Lombards independent election and ordination - of their ministers for church government and worship, and - allowed the appointment to be for life, while they also - agreed to the continuance of their workmen’s associations. - In May, A.D. 1218, six brethren from the two parties were - at Bergamo appointed to draw up definite terms of peace, - and to secure a verbal explanation of other less important - differences, which was also accomplished without difficulty. - The whole peace negotiations, however, were ultimately - shattered over two questions, which first came to the front - during the verbal explanations: (i.) Over the question of - the felicity of the deceased founder, which the Lombards - were disposed to affirm only conditionally, _i.e._ in case - he had been penitent before his death for the sins of which - he had been guilty through his intolerant treatment of them, - while the French would have it affirmed unconditionally; - and (ii.) over the controversy about the validity of the - dispensation of the sacrament of the altar by an unworthy - person. On both sides they were thoroughly agreed in - saying that not the priest, but the omnipotence of God, - changed bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper into the body - and blood of Christ. But while the French drew from this - the conclusion that even an unworthy and wicked priest - could truly and effectually administer the sacrament, the - Italians persisted in the contrary opinion, and quoted - Scripture and the writings of the Fathers to prove the - correctness of their views. - - § 108.12. - - 3. =Attempts at Catholicizing.=--On the origin, character, - and task of the _Pauperes Catholici_ referred to above, - the epistles of Pope Innocent III. regarding them afford - us pretty accurate and detailed information. The first - impulse toward their formation was given by a disputation - with the French Waldensians held by Bishop Diego of Osma - at Pamiers in A.D. 1206, by means of which he succeeded, - aided by the powerful co-operation of his companion - St. Dominic, in persuading a number of the heretics to - return to the obedience of the Catholic church. Among - those converted on that occasion was the Spaniard Durandus - of Osca (Huesca), who now laid before the pope the plan - of forming from among the converted Waldensians a society - of Catholic Poor Men under the oversight of the bishops, - which, by appropriating and carrying out all the fundamental - principles of the Waldensian system--apostolic poverty, - apostolic dress, apostolic life, and apostolic vocation, - according to Luke x.--would not only paralyse or outbid - the ministry of the heretical Poor Men among the people, - but would also open up the way for their own return and - attachment again to the church. The pope approved of his - plan, and confirmed the union founded by him in A.D. 1208. - The undertaking of Durandus seems to have been from the - first not altogether without success in the direction - intended. At least we find that Bernard Primus was - encouraged one and a half years later to found a second - similar society on essentially the same basis, which - Innocent III. approved and confirmed. This later association - was distinguished from the earlier only in this, that it - allowed its members, besides their itinerant preaching - and pastoral work, to engage also in their own handicraft. - We are now led, by this difference, to the conclusion that, - as the institution of Durandus issued from the bosom of the - French Waldensians, that of Bernard had its origin among - the groups of the Poor Men of Lombardy. This supposition - is further confirmed when we observe that the latter, in - drawing up its Catholic confession of faith, expressly - abjures the formerly cherished conviction of the inefficacy - of sacramental actions performed by unworthy priests. - But the reason why both these unions, notwithstanding - papal approval and support, failed to exert any permanent - influence is to be sought pre-eminently in this, that, - tainted as their reputation was with the memory of their - former heresy, they were soon far outrun and overshadowed - by the two great mendicant orders, which wrought with - ampler means and appliances in the same direction. - - § 108.13. - - 4. =The French Societies.=--What these found fault with - in the Catholic church was, not its dogmatics, to which, - with the single exception of the doctrine of purgatory - and all therewith connected, indulgence, masses for souls, - foundations, alms, and works of piety on behalf of the dead, - they firmly adhered; nor yet its liturgical institutions, - which, with the exception of masses for souls, they left - untouched; nor yet its hierarchical constitutions _per - se_, for they transferred its leading principles into - their own organization: but it was simply this, that its - clergy had become guilty of the deadly sin of assuming and - exercising the apostolic prerogative without undertaking - the obligations of apostolic poverty, the apostolic life, - and the apostolic vocation, which alone warranted such - assumption. But as they thus, nevertheless, firmly adhered - to the Catholic principle of the validity of a sacrament - administered even by an unworthy person, if only he had - authority for doing so from the church, they could allow - themselves, and specially their lay adherents, to take - part in all Catholic services and acts of worship, without - regarding themselves or their followers as under obligation - to yield obedience to the pope and the bishops, or to - recognise their spiritual jurisdiction, authority to - inflict punishment, and right of arbitrary legislation - in regard to fasts, festivals, impediments to marriage, - etc.--As to the organization of the society, it is now - perfectly clear that there was a threefold division of - offices: bishops, presbyters, and deacons. Reception into - the _Societas Fratrum_ was consummated by the imparting - of the ordination of deacon. This, however, was preceded - by a longer or shorter novitiate, _i.e._ a period of trial - and preparation for the apostolic vocation of preaching. - The entrance into this novitiate (_conversio_) required - the surrender of all property for the benefit of the poor, - and on the part of those already married the abandonment - of every form of marital relationship; and on reception - into the brotherhood the vow of obedience to the superiors - was exacted, as well as a vow of celibacy and chastity.--To - the bishop, who as such was also called _minister_ and - _major_ or _majoralis_, belonged the right to administer - the sacraments of penance and ordination, as well as the - consecration of the eucharistic elements; he might preach - wherever he chose, and he assigned to presbyters and deacons - their spheres of labour. The presbyters, in addition to - preaching, also heard confessions, imposed penance, and - granted absolution, but did not administer the punishments - imposed, for this was the exclusive function of the - bishop.--The deacons were only to preach, but not to - hear confession, and their special duty consisted in - collecting contributions for the support of the brethren. - That also women, on the basis of Titus ii. 3, 4, were - admitted into these societies is an undoubted fact. Their - position was essentially the same as that of the deacons; - but the number of preaching sisters continued always - relatively small.--After the death of the founder the - society once a year chose from among the existing bishops - two _rectores_, who now together administered that supreme - government and high priesthood which had previously been - exercised by the founder alone. It was, however, by-and-by - found desirable to revert to the older monarchical - constitution, but all through the 13th century this - office was held only by a yearly tenure. The retiring - bishops, however, received for life the rank and title - of _major_. But even over the rector stood the _commune_ - or _congregatio_; _i.e._ the general chapter assembled - once or twice in the year, in which the brethren of all - the three orders had a seat and vote. The obligation - to wear the apostolic dress, persistence in which would - have in a very short time thrown all the brethren into - the Moloch arms of the Inquisition, was abandoned soon - after the erection of that tribunal in A.D. 1232.--The - lay adherents attracted by the preaching and pastoral - activity of the brethren, the so-called _Amici, Fautores, - Receptatores_, were not organized as exclusive and - independent communities, because their continued - participation in the services and sacraments of the - Catholic church was regarded as permissible. On the - other hand, they maintained, as far as possible, regular - intercourse with the brethren, who in various styles of - dress visited them secretly, preached to them, exhorted - and instructed them, prayed with them and said grace at - their tables, heard their confessions, imposed penances - and granted absolution, uttering the formula of absolution, - however, not in the language of an absolute judicial - proclamation, but as a supplication and fervent desire. - The _Amici_ were allowed to make their Easter confession - and observance of the Supper at the Catholic service. The - brethren had of course also an independent celebration - of the Lord’s Supper, which occurred only once a year, - on Maundy Thursday, but was confined as a rule to the - brothers and sisters there assembled. The profound - acquaintance with Holy Scripture, especially the New - Testament, not only among the preaching “brothers,” but - also among their “friends,” many of whom knew by heart - a large portion of the New Testament, was the subject of - general remark and the occasion of astonishment. Besides - Holy Scripture, the selection of patristic passages used - by Valdez and the _Moralia_ of Gregory the Great were in - high repute as means of instruction and edification.--The - systematic efforts put forth from A.D. 1232 for the - uprooting and extirpating of heresy wrought effectually - among the French Waldensian “brethren” and “friends.” The - remnants of them that survived the persecution were driven - farther and farther into the remotest valleys of the western - and eastern spurs of the Cottian Alps, into Dauphiné - and Provence on the French side, and into Piedmont on - the Italian side.--The most important sources are: _Adv. - Valdens. sectam_, of Bernard Abbot of Fonscalidus, who - died in A.D. 1193; _Doctrina de Moda Procedendi a Hæret._ - of the Inquisition at Carcassone and Toulouse of A.D. 1280; - the _consultatio_ of Arch. Peter Amelius of Narbonne and - the provincial synods held under him in A.D. 1243, 1244; - and the recently published _Practica Inquisition._ of the - inquisitor Bernard Guidonis of A.D. 1321.--Continuation, - § 119, 9A. - - § 108.14. - - A representation of the origin and character of the old - Waldensian movement completely different from that given - in the sources mentioned and used in the preceding sections, - especially in reference to the French societies, has - been current since the middle of the 16th century in the - modern Waldensian tradition, and by means of falsified or - misunderstood documents has been repeated by most Protestant - historians down to and including U. Hahn. The investigations - of Dieckhoff and Herzog first demolished for ever those - fabulous creations of Waldensian mythology, though more - recent Waldensian writers, _e.g._ Hudry-Ménos, but not - Comba, seek still tenaciously to assert their truth. - According to these traditions, long before the days of - Waldus of Lyons there were Waldensian, _i.e._ Vallensian - communities in the valleys of Piedmont, the “Israel of - the Alps,” the bearers of pure gospel truth, whose origin - was to be traced back at least to Claudius of Turin, while - others fondly carried it back to the Apostle Paul, who on - his journey to Spain (Rom. xv. 24) may have also visited - the Piedmontese valleys. It was to them that Peter of - Lyons owed his spiritual awakening and his surname of - Waldus, _i.e._ the Waldensian. For proof of this assertion - we are referred to a pretty copious manuscript literature - said to be old Waldensian, written in a peculiar Romance - dialect, deposited in the libraries of Geneva, Dublin, - Cambridge, Zürich, Grenoble, and Paris. Upon close and - unprejudiced examination of these literary pieces, of - which the oldest portion cannot possibly claim an earlier - date than the beginning of the 14th century, it has become - quite apparent that these, in so far as they are not - fabrications or interpolations, do not afford the least - grounds for justifying those Waldensian fantasies. This - view is further corroborated by the fact, that the most - careful and thorough investigator in this department, Carl - Müller, confidently maintains the conviction and shows - the basis on which it rests, “that the whole so-called - Waldensian literature of the pre-Hussite period has been - without exception derived from Catholic and not from - Waldensian sources.” The falsifications in this reputed - old Waldensian group of writings referred to, by means - of interpolation, omission, and alteration in the tracts - belonging to that collection, as well as the forging - of new writings, and that simply for the purpose of - vindicating for their society the mythical fame of - a primitive, independent, and ever pure evangelical - church, first found place after the Protestantizing - of the Romance or Piedmontese Waldensians, and were - thereafter successfully turned to account _bona_ or - _mala fide_ by their historians, Perrin, Leger, Muston, - Monastier, etc. In the _Nobla laiczon_ (=_lectio_), - _e.g._ a religious doctrinal poem, in the statement of - _vv._ 6, 7, that since the origin of the New Testament - writings 1,400 years had passed (mil e 4 cent anz) the - figure 4 was erased, so that it might appear to be an - ascertained fact that in A.D. 1100, seventy years before - the appearance of Waldus, there were already Waldensian - communities in existence. But when, in A.D. 1862, the - Morland manuscripts, which had been lost for 200 years, - were again discovered in Cambridge library, there was - found among them a copy of the _Nobla laiczon_, in which - before the word _cent_ an erasure was observable, in - which the outlines of the loop of the Arabic numeral 4 - were still clearly discernible. In another piece contained - in this collection the passage referred to was quoted - as “mil e CCCC anz.” Hussite writings translated from - the Bohemian were also palmed off as genuine Waldensian - works of the earlier centuries, and were in addition - provided with the corresponding date. A manuscript of the - New Testament at Zürich was assigned to the 12th century; - but on more careful scrutiny it was shown that the writer - must have had before him the Greek Testament of Erasmus. - But the most glaring case of falsification is seen in - the “Waldensian Confession of Faith,” first adduced by - Perrin as evidence of the faith of the old Waldensians, - to which a later hand had ascribed as the date of its - composition the year 1120. It copies almost word for - word the utterances of Bucer as given in Morel’s report - of his negotiations with that divine and Œcolampadius. - In this way a new stamp has been put upon the doctrinal - articles of the old Waldensians.[320] - - § 108.15. - - 5. =The Lombard-German Branch.=--In regard to the Lombards - themselves, since the epistle of Bergamo we have only - scanty reports, and these are found in the treatise of - Monata, of 1240, _Adv. Catharos et Valdenses_, and in - the _Summa de Catharis et Leonistis_ of the Dominican - inquisitor Rainerius Sacchoni, of 1250. We have ampler - accounts, however, from their German mission-field, which - had already extended so far as to stretch from the Rhine - provinces into Austria. From the time of the unsuccessful - endeavours at Bergamo to effect a union between the two - principal groups, there was, so far as we are aware, no - further intercourse between the two. On the other hand, - the German Waldensians during the 13th and 14th centuries - maintained a pretty regular communication with their - Italian brethren.--In general, too, the Lombards continued, - along with their German offspring, to hold firmly by the - fundamental tenets of the primitive Waldensian faith. Their - preaching brothers and sisters were also called in Germany - _Meister_ (_magistri_) and _Meïsterinnen_, the men also - _Apostles_ and _Twelve-Apostles_, or, since also there, - next to preaching, they had as their most essential and - important spiritual function the administration of the - sacrament of penance, _Beichtiger_ (_bihter_), confessors. - The view that had been already so vigorously maintained - at Bergamo, that a priest guilty of mortal sin, and - such in their eyes were all Catholic priests, could not - efficaciously administer any sacrament, led them naturally - to assume a much freer attitude toward the Catholic church, - which summed itself up in the radical principle, that - everything connected with that church which cannot be shown - from the New Testament to have been expressly taught and - enjoined by Christ or His apostles, is to be set aside as - an unevangelical human addition. This position however was - insisted upon by them less in criticism and confutation of - the church doctrine than in opposition to the practices of - the church as a whole. In consequence of this criticism, - they, transcending far the mere negations of the French, - rejected not only all church festivals, beyond the simple - Sunday festival, not only all processions and pilgrimages, - all ceremonies, candles, incense, holy water, images, - liturgical dress and cloths, all consecrations and blessing - of churches, bells, burying grounds, candles, ashes, palms, - robes, salt, water, etc., but also the centre and climax - of all Catholic worship, the mass; not only of purgatory - and everything in church practice that had sprung from it, - not only ban and interdict, but also invocation of saints, - image and relic worship, etc. Yet all the masters did - not go equally far in this negative direction. Especially - during the second half of the 13th century a remarkable - reaction set in against the severity and exclusiveness - of that negation, because increasing persecution obliged - them to withdraw into secrecy as much as possible with - their confession and their specifically Waldensian forms - of worship, or to suspend their services altogether, and - indeed, to save themselves from the suspicion of heresy, - to allow to themselves and their lay adherents liberty - to engage in the services of the Catholic church, and to - submit to the indispensable demands of the church, such - as the attendance at mass, making confession, and taking - the communion at Easter. They held indeed firmly by the - principle, _Quod sacerdos in mortali peccato sacramentum - non possit conficere_, but they comforted themselves by - the assurance already expressed at Bergamo, that the Lord - Himself directly gives to the worthy communicant who, in - case of need, receives the sacrament from the hand of an - unworthy priest, what by him cannot be communicated, for - the transubstantiation is effected not _in manu indigne - conficientis_, but _in ore digne sumentis_. Thus during - the times of oppression they kept their own observance of - the supper quite in abeyance, the dispensation of which - was not among them, as among the French, restricted to - the masters; but on this account they laid all the greater - weight on the necessity of confession to their own clergy as - those who could alone give absolution. Also the prohibition - of all oaths as well as bloodshedding, therefore also of - military service, and the acceptance of magisterial and - judicial offices, was strictly adhered to.--A peculiar - adaptation of the Roman Catholic tradition of the baptism - and donation of Constantine, which seems to have found - no acceptance among the French, became a favourite legend - among all the Lombard and German Waldensians. According - to it the ancient church had existed for three hundred - years in apostolic humility, simplicity, and poverty. - But when the Roman bishop Sylvester was endowed by the - emperor Constantine the Great with such superabundance of - worldly might, riches, and honour, the period of general - decline from the apostolic pattern set in. Only one of - his fellow clergy protested, and was, when all enticements - and threatenings proved of no avail, driven away along - with his adherents. The latter increased and spread - by-and-by over the earth. After a violent persecution, - which had almost cut off all of them, Peter Waldus made - his appearance with his companion, John of Lyons, as - the restorer of the apostolic life and calling, etc. To - this there was subsequently attached another legend. The - brethren had previously based their right to discharge - all priestly functions with the greatest confidence simply - on their apostolic life, and so they could not conceal - from themselves at a later period the fact that the want - of continued apostolic succession, on which the Catholic - church rested the claims of their priests, would place the - Waldensian masters very much in the shade as compared with - the Catholics. They began, therefore, not only to claim that - their founder Waldus had been previously a Roman presbyter, - but also to devise the fable of a bishop or even a cardinal - of the Romish church, through whose favour that defect had - been overcome.--Continuation, § 119, 9. - - § 108.16. - - 6. =Relations between the Waldensians and Older and - Contemporary Sects.=--Owing to the extraordinarily lively - and zealous propagandist activity of the sects at the - time of the origin and early development of the Waldensian - movement, there can scarcely be a doubt that the latter, - after it had freed itself from all obligation of obedience - to the pope and bishops, and had been driven out by them, - must at various points have come into close relations with - the other sects which, like it, had risen in rebellion - against the papacy and the hierarchy, and like it had been - persecuted by these. The numerous sect of the Cathari holds - a conspicuous position in this connection. That Waldus and - his companions must have decidedly repudiated the dualistic - principles which all these otherwise greatly diverging - Catharist sects had in common is indeed quite self-evident; - but this by no means prevented them from recognising - and appropriating such particular institutions, forms - of organization or modes of worship, peculiar moral - requirements, etc., practised by them as might seem fitted - to further their own ends. And that this actually was done, - many noticeable points of agreement between the two plainly - indicate. Thus on both sides we find a similar division of - members, the _Perfecti_ and _Credentes_ corresponding to - the _Fratres_ and _Amici_, and the kind of spiritual care - which the former took of the latter, the grace at table - said by the itinerant preachers, the importance attached to - the possession and use of bread that had been blessed by the - brethren, the frequent use by both of the Lord’s Prayer, the - rejection of purgatory and everything connected therewith, - also the prohibition of swearing and of military service, - the refusal of the magisterial _jus gladii_, etc. On the - other hand, however, it is more than probable that at last - the remnants of the Cathari which escaped the Inquisition - in great part had found refuge among the Waldensians in the - valleys of the Cottian Alps, and there became assimilated - and amalgamated with them (§ 119, 9A).--Further, the - assumption that the Lombard Waldensians had first reached - the principle by which they are distinguished from their - French brethren, about the incapacity of unworthy priests - for dispensing the sacraments, from outside influences, - perhaps from the Arnoldists, is raised almost to a certainty - by the statement made by their deputies at Bergamo in - A.D. 1218, that they had even themselves in earlier times - held the opposite view.--Even the pantheistic tendency of - an Amalrich and the Brethren of the New Spirit may have - found entrance among the German Waldensians, and have there - given origin to the sect of the Ortlibarians. - - - § 109. THE CHURCH AGAINST THE PROTESTERS. - - The church was by no means indifferent to the spread of those -heresies of the 11th and 12th centuries, which called in question -its own very existence. Even in the 11th century she called in the -aid of the stake as a type of the fire of hell that would consume -the heretics, and against this only one voice, that of Bishop Wazo -of Liège († A.D. 1048), was raised. In the 12th century protesting -voices were more numerous: Peter the Venerable (§ 98, 1), Rupert of -Deutz, St. Hildegard, St. Bernard, declared sword and fire no fit -weapons for conversion. St. Bernard showed by his own example how by -loving entreaty and friendly instruction more might be done than by -awakening a fanatical enthusiasm for martyrdom. But hangmen and stakes -were more easily produced than St. Bernards, of whom the 12th and -13th centuries had by no means a superabundance. By-and-by Dominic -sent out his disciples to teach and convert heretics by preaching and -disputation; as long as they confined themselves to these methods they -were not without success. But even they soon found it more congenial -or more effective to fight the heretics with tortures and the stake -rather than with discussion and discourse. The Albigensian crusade -and the tribunal of the Inquisition erected in connection therewith -at last overpowered the protesters and drove the remnants of their -sects into hiding. In the administration of punishment the church -made no distinction between the various sects; all were alike who -were at war with the church. - - § 109.1. =The Albigensian Crusade, A.D. 1209-1229.=--Toward the - end of the 12th century sects abounded in the south of France. - Innocent III. regarded them as worse than the Saracens, and in - A.D. 1203 sent a legate, Peter of Castelnau, with full powers to - secure their extermination. But Peter was murdered in A.D. 1208, - and suspicion fell on Raymond IV., Count of Toulouse. A crusade - under Simon de Montfort was now summoned against the sectaries, - who as mainly inhabiting the district of Albigeois were now - called =Albigensians=. A twenty years’ war was carried on with - mad fanaticism and cruelty on both sides, in which guilty and - innocent, men, women, and children were ruthlessly slain. At - the sack of Beziers with 20,000 inhabitants the papal legate - cried, “Slay all, the Lord will know how to seek out and save - His own.”[321] - - § 109.2. =The Inquisition.=--Every one screening a heretic - forfeited lands, goods, and office; a house in which such a - one was discovered was levelled to the ground; all citizens - had to communicate thrice a year, and every second year to - renew their oath of attachment to the church, and to refuse - all help in sickness to those suspected of heresy, etc. The - bishops not showing themselves zealous enough in enforcing - these laws, Gregory IX. in A.D. 1232 founded the Tribunal of - the Inquisition, and placed it in the hands of the Dominicans. - These as _Domini canes_ subjected to the most cruel tortures all - on whom the suspicion of heresy fell, and all the resolute were - handed over to the civil authorities, who readily undertook their - execution.[322]--Continuation § 117, 2. - - § 109.3. =Conrad of Marburg and the Stedingers.=--The first - Inquisitor of Germany, the Dominican =Conrad of Marburg=, also - known as the severe confessor of St. Elizabeth (§ 105, 3), after - a three years’ career of cruelty was put to death by certain - of the nobles in A.D. 1233. _Et sic_, say the Annals of Worms, - _divino auxilio liberata est Teutonia ab isto judicio enormi - et inaudito_. He was enrolled by Gregory IX. among the martyrs. - Perhaps wrongly he has been blamed for Gregory’s crusade of - A.D. 1234 against the =Stedingers=. These were Frisians of - Oldenburg who revolted against the oppression of nobles and - priests, refused socage and tithes, and screened Albigensian - heretics. The first crusade failed; the second succeeded and - plundered, murdered, and burned on every hand. Thousands of the - unhappy peasants were slain, neither women nor children were - spared, and all prisoners were sent to the stake as heretics. - - - - - _THIRD SECTION._ - - HISTORY OF THE GERMANO-ROMANIC CHURCH IN THE - 14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES (A.D. 1294-1517). - - - - - I. The Hierarchy, Clergy, and Monks. - - - § 110. THE PAPACY.[323] - - From the time of Gelasius II. (§ 96, 11) it had been the custom of -the popes whenever Italy became too hot for them to fly to France, and -from France they had obtained help to deliver Italy from the tyranny of -the latest representatives of the Hohenstaufens. But when Boniface VIII. -dared boldly to assert the universal sovereignty of the papacy even -over France itself, this presumption wrought its own overthrow. The -consequence was a seventy years’ exile of the papal chair to the -banks of the Rhone, with complete subjugation under French authority. -Under the protection of the French court, however, the popes found -Avignon a safe asylum, and from thence they issued the most extravagant -hierarchical claims, especially upon Germany. The return of the papal -court to Rome was the occasion of a forty years’ schism, during which -two popes, for a time even three, are seen hurling anathemas at one -another. The reforming Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel sought -to put an end to this scandal and bring about a reformation in the head -and the members. The fathers in these councils, however, in accordance -with the prevalent views of the age, maintained the need of one visible -head for the government of the church, such as was afforded by the -papacy. But the corruptions of the papal chair led them to adopt the -old theory that the highest ecclesiastical authority is not the pope -but the voice of the universal church expressed in the œcumenical -councils, which had jurisdiction over even the popes. The successful -carrying out of this view was possible only if the several national -churches which had come now more decidedly than ever to regard -themselves as independent branches of the great ecclesiastical -organism, should heartily combine against the corrupt papacy. But -this they did not do. They were contented with making separate attacks, -in accordance with their several selfish interests. Hence papal craft -found little difficulty in rendering the strong remonstrances of these -councils fruitless and without result. The papacy came forth triumphant, -and during the 15th century, the age of the Renaissance, reached a -degree of corruption and moral turpitude which it had not approached -since the 10th century. The vicars of God now used their spiritual -rank only to further their ambitious worldly schemes, and by the most -scandalous nepotism (the so-called nephews being often bastards of the -popes, who were put into the highest and most lucrative offices) as -well as by their own voluptuousness, luxury, revelry, and love of war, -brought ruin upon the church and the States of the Church. - - § 110.1. =Boniface VIII. and Benedict XI., - A.D. 1294-1304.=--=Boniface VIII.=, A.D. 1294-1303 (§ 96, 22), - was not inferior to his great predecessor in political talents - and strength of will, but was destitute of all spiritual - qualities and without any appreciation of the spiritual - functions of the papal chair, while passionately maintaining - the most extravagant claims of the hierarchy. The opposition - to the pope was headed by two cardinals of the powerful Colonna - family, who maintained that the abdication of Cœlestine V. - was invalid. In A.D. 1297 Boniface stripped them of all their - dignities, and then they appealed to an œcumenical council as - a court of higher jurisdiction. The pope now threatened them - and their supporters with the ban, fitted out a crusade against - them, and destroyed their castles. At last after a sore struggle - Palæstrina, the old residence of their family, capitulated. Also - the Colonnas themselves submitted. Nevertheless in A.D. 1299 he - had the famous old city and all its churches and palaces levelled - to the ground, and refused to restore to the outlawed family - its confiscated estates. Then again the Colonnas took up arms, - but were defeated and obliged to fly the country, while the - pope forbade under threat of the ban any city or realm to give - refuge or shelter to the fugitives. But neither his anathema - nor his army was able to keep the rebellious Sicilians under - papal dominion. Even in his first contest with the French king, - =Philip IV. the Fair=, A.D. 1285-1314, he had the worst of - it. The pope had vainly sought to mediate between Philip and - Edward I. of England, when both were using church property in - carrying on war with one another, and in A.D. 1295 he issued - the bull _Clericis laicos_, releasing subjects from their - allegiance and anathematizing all laymen who should appropriate - ecclesiastical revenues and all priests who should put them to - uses not sanctioned by the pope. Philip then forbade all payment - of church dues, and the pope finding his revenues from France - withheld, made important concessions in A.D. 1297 and canonized - Philip’s grandfather, Louis IX. His hierarchical assumptions - in Germany gave promise of greater success. After the first - Hapsburger’s death in A.D. 1291, his son Albert was set aside, - and Adolf, Count of Nassau, elected king; but he again was - overthrown and Albert I. crowned in A.D. 1298. Boniface summoned - Albert to his tribunal as a traitor and murderer of the king, - and released the German princes from their oaths of allegiance - to him. Meanwhile, during A.D. 1301, Boniface and Philip were - quarrelling over vacant benefices in France. The king haughtily - repudiated the pretensions of the papal legate and imprisoned - him as a traitor. Boniface demanded his immediate liberation, - summoned the French bishops to a council at Rome, and in the - bull _Ausculta fili_ showed the king how foolish, sinful, and - heretical it was for him not to be subject to the pope. The - bull torn from the messenger’s hands was publicly burnt, and - a version of it probably falsified published throughout the - kingdom along with the king’s reply. All France rose in revolt - against the papal pretensions, and a parliament at Notre Dame in - Paris A.D. 1302, at which the king assembled the three estates of - the empire, the nobles, the clergy, and (for the first time) the - citizens, it was unanimously resolved to support Philip and to - write in that spirit to Rome, the bishops undertaking to pacify - the pope, the nobles and citizens making their complaint to the - cardinals. The king expressly forbade his clergy taking any part - in the council that had been summoned, which, however, met in the - Lateran, in Nov., 1302. From it Boniface issued the famous bull - _Unam Sanctam_, in which, after the example of Innocent III. - and Gregory IX., he set forth the doctrine of the two swords, - the spiritual wielded _by_ the church and the temporal _for_ - the church, by kings and warriors indeed, but only according - to the will and by the permission of the spiritual ruler. That - the temporal power is independent was pronounced a Manichæan - heresy; and finally it was declared that no human being could - be saved unless he were subject to the Roman pontiff. King and - parliament now accused the pope of heresy, simony, blasphemy, - sorcery, tyranny, immorality, etc., and insisted that he should - answer these charges before an œcumenical council. Meanwhile, in - A.D. 1303, Boniface was negotiating with king Albert, and got him - not only to break his league with Philip, but also to acknowledge - himself a vassal of the papal see. The pope had all his plans - laid for launching his anathema against Philip, but their - execution was anticipated by the king’s assassins. His chancellor - Nogaret and Sciarra, one of the exiled Colonnas, who, with the - help of French gold, had hatched a conspiracy among the barons, - attacked the papal palace and took the pope prisoner while he - sat in full state upon his throne. The people indeed rescued - him, but he died some weeks after in a raging fever in his - 80th year. Dante assigns him a place in hell. In the mouth of - his predecessor Cœlestine V. have been put the prophetic words, - _Ascendisti ut vulpes, regnatis ut leo, morieris ut canis_.[324] - His successor =Benedict XI.=, A.D. 1303, 1304, would have - willingly avenged the wrongs of Boniface, but weak and - unsupported as he was he soon found himself obliged, not - only to withdraw all imputations against Philip, who always - maintained his innocence, but also to absolve those of the - Colonnas who were less seriously implicated. - - § 110.2. =The Papacy during the Babylonian Exile, - A.D. 1305-1377.=--After a year’s vacancy the papal chair - was filled by Bertrand de Got, Archbishop of Bordeaux, - a determined supporter of Boniface, who took the name of - =Clement V.=, A.D. 1305-1314. He refused to go to be enthroned - at Rome, and forced the cardinals to come to Lyons, and finally, - in A.D. 1309, formally removed the papal court to Avignon, which - then belonged to the king of Naples as Count of Provence. At - this time, too, Clement so far yielded to Philip’s wish to have - Boniface condemned and struck out of the list of popes, as to - appoint two commissions to consider charges against Boniface, - one in France and the other in Italy. Most credible witnesses - accused the deceased pope of heresies, crimes, and immoralities - committed in word and deed mostly in their presence, while the - rebutting evidence was singularly weak. A compromise was effected - by Clement surrendering the Templars to the greedy and revengeful - king. In the bull _Rex gloriæ_ of A.D. 1311 he expressly declares - that Philip’s proceeding against Boniface was _bona fide_, - occasioned by zeal for church and country, cancels all Boniface’s - decrees and censures upon the French king and his servants, and - orders them to be erased from the archives. =The 15th œcumenical - Council of Vienne in A.D. 1311= was mainly occupied with the - affairs of the Templars, and also with the consideration of the - controversies in the Franciscan order (§ 112, 2).--=Henry VII.= - of Luxemburg was raised to the German throne on Albert’s death - in A.D. 1208 in opposition to Philip’s brother Charles. Clement - supported him and crowned him emperor, hoping to be protected by - him from Philip’s tyranny. At Milan in A.D. 1311 Henry received - the iron crown of Lombardy; but at Rome the imperial coronation - was effected in A.D. 1312, not in St. Peter’s, the inner city - being held by Robert of Naples, papal vassal and governor of - Italy, but only in the Lateran at the hands of the cardinals - commissioned to do so. The emperor now, in spite of all papal - threats, pronounced the ban of the empire against Robert, - and in concert with Frederick of Sicily entered on a campaign - against Naples, but his sudden death in A.D. 1313 (according - to an unsupported legend caused by a poisoned host) put an end - to the expedition. Clement also died in the following year; and - to him likewise has Dante assigned a place in hell. - - § 110.3. After two years’ murderous strife between the Italian - and French cardinals, the French were again victorious, and - elected at Lyons =John XXII.=, A.D. 1316-1334, son of a shoemaker - of Cahors in Gascony, who was already seventy-two years old. - He is said to have sworn to the Italians never to use a horse - or mule but to ride to Rome, and then to have taken ship - on the Rhone for Avignon, where during his eighteen years’ - pontificate he never went out of his palace except to go into - the neighbouring cathedral. Working far into the night, this - seemingly weak old man was wont to devote all his time to his - studies and his business. The weight of his official duties - will be seen from the fact that 60,000 minutes, filling 59 vols. - in the papal archives, belong to his reign.--In Germany, after - the death of Henry VII. there were two rivals for the throne, - =Louis IV. the Bavarian=, A.D. 1314-1347, and Frederick III. - of Austria. The pope, maintaining the closest relations with - Robert of Anjou, his feudatory as king of Naples and his - protector as Count of Provence, and esteeming his wish as - a command, refused to acknowledge either, declared the German - throne still vacant, and assumed to himself the administration - of the realm during the vacancy. At Mühldorf in A.D. 1322 - Louis conquered his opponent and took him prisoner. He sent - a detachment of Ghibellines over the Alps, while he made himself - master of Milan and put an end to the papal administration - in Northern Italy. The pope in A.D. 1323 ordered him within - three months to cease discharging all functions of government - till his election as German king should be acknowledged and - confirmed by the papal chair. Louis first endeavoured to come to - an understanding with the pope, but soon employed the sharp pens - of the Minorites, who in May, 1324, drew up a solemn protest - in which the king, basing his claims to royalty solely on the - election of the princes and treating the pope as one who had - forfeited his chair in consequence of his heresies (§ 112, 2), - appealed from this false pope to an œcumenical council and a - future legitimate pope. John now thundered an anathema against - him, declared that he was deprived of all his dignities, freed - his subjects from their allegiance, forbade them, under pain - of anathema, to obey him, and summoned all European potentates - to war against the excommunicated monarch. Louis now sought - Frederick’s favour, and in A.D. 1325 shared with him the royal - dignity. In Milan in A.D. 1327 he was crowned king of Lombardy, - and in A.D. 1328 in Rome he received the imperial crown from - the Roman democracy. Two bishops of the Ghibelline party gave - him consecration, and the crown was laid on his head by Sciarra - Colonna in the name of the Roman people. In vain did the pope - pronounce all these proceedings null and void. The king began a - process against the pope, deposed him as a heretic and antichrist, - and finally condemned him to death as guilty of high treason, - while the mob carried out this sentence by burning the pope - in effigy upon the streets. The people and clergy of Rome, in - accordance with an old canon, elected a new pope in the person - of a pious Minorite of the sect of the Spirituales (§ 112, 2), - who took the name of Nicholas V. Louis with his own hand placed - the tiara on his head, and was then himself crowned by him. All - this glory, however, was but short lived. An unsuccessful and - inglorious war against Robert of Naples and a consequent revolt - in Rome caused the emperor in A.D. 1328, with his army and his - pope, amid the stonethrowing of the mob, to quit the eternal city, - which immediately became subject to the curia. He did not fare - much better in Tuscany or Lombardy; and thus the Roman expedition - ended in failure. Returning to Munich, Louis endeavoured in vain - amid many humiliations to move the determined old man at Avignon. - But Nicholas V., the most wretched of all the anti-popes, went - to Avignon with a rope about his neck in A.D. 1328, cast himself - at the pope’s feet, was absolved, and died a prisoner in the - papal palace in A.D. 1333. Next year John died. Notwithstanding - the expensive Italian wars 25,000,000 gold guldens was found in - the papal treasury at his death.--Roused by his opposition to - the stricter party among the Franciscans (§ 112, 2), its leaders - lent all their influence to the Bavarian and supported the charge - of heresy against the pope. Against John’s favourite doctrine - that the souls of departed saints attain to the vision of God - only after the last judgment, these zealots cited the opinions - of the learned world (§ 113, 3), with the University of Paris - at its head. Philip VI. of France was also in the controversy - one of his bitterest opponents, and even threatened him with - the stake. Pressed on all sides the pope at last in A.D. 1333 - convened a commission of scholars to decide the question, but - died before its judgment was given. His successor hasted to - still the tumult by issuing the story of a deathbed recantation, - and gave ecclesiastical sanction to the opposing view. - - § 110.4. =Benedict XII.=, A.D. 1334-1342, would probably have - yielded to the urgent entreaties of the Romans to return to Rome - had not his cardinals been so keenly opposed. He then built a - palace at Avignon of imposing magnitude, as though the papacy - were to have an eternal residence there. Louis the Bavarian - retracted his heretical sentiments in order to get the ban - removed and to obtain an orderly coronation. The first diet of - the electoral union was held at Rhense near Mainz, in A.D. 1338, - where it was declared that the election of a German king and - emperor was, by God’s appointment, the sole privilege of the - elector-princes, and needed not the confirmation or approval - of the pope. This encouraged Louis to assert anew his imperial - pretensions. Benedict’s successor =Clement VI.=, A.D. 1342-1352, - added by purchase in A.D. 1348 the city of Avignon to the county - of Venaissin, which Philip III. had gifted to the papal chair in - A.D. 1273. Both continued in the possession of the Roman court - till A.D. 1791 (§ 165, 13). Louis, now at feud with some of the - powerful German nobles, sought to make terms of peace with the - new pope. But Clement was not conciliatory, and made the unheard - of demand that Louis should not only annul all his previous - ordinances, but also should in future issue no enactment in - the empire without permission of the papal see; and on Maunday - Thursday, A.D. 1346, he pronounced him without title or dignity - and called upon the electors to make a new choice, which, if - they failed to do, he would proceed to do himself. As fittest - candidate he recommended Charles of Bohemia, who was actually - chosen by the five electors who answered the summons, under the - title of =Charles IV.=, A.D. 1346-1378, and had his election - confirmed by the pope. The new emperor solemnly promised never - to set foot on the domains of the Roman church without express - papal permission, and to remain in Rome only so long as was - required for his coronation. Louis died before he was able to - engage in war with his rival, and when, six months later, the - next choice of Louis’ party also died, Charles was acknowledged - without a dissentient voice. He was crowned emperor in Rome - by a cardinal appointed by Innocent VI., in A.D. 1355. Without - doing anything to restore the imperial prestige in Italy, Charles - went back like a fugitive to Germany, despised by Guelphs and - Ghibellines. But in the following year, at the Diet of Nuremberg, - he passed a new imperial law in the so called Golden Bull of - A.D. 1356, according to which the election of emperor was to - be made at Frankfort, by three clerical electors (Mainz, Cologne, - and Treves) and four temporal princes (Bohemia, the Palatine of - the Rhine, Saxony, and Brandenburg), and he appeased the pope’s - wrath by various concessions to the curia and the clergy. - - § 110.5. The famous Rienzi was made apostolic notary by - Clement VI. in A.D. 1343, and as tribune of the people headed - the revolt against the barons in A.D. 1347. Losing his popularity - through his own extravagances he was obliged to flee, and being - taken prisoner by Charles at Prague, he was sent to Avignon in - A.D. 1350. Instead of the stake with which Clement had threatened - him, =Innocent VI.=, A.D. 1352-1362, bestowed senatorial rank - upon him, and sent him to Rome, hoping that his demagogical - talent would succeed in furthering the interests of the papacy. - He now once more, amid loud acclamations, entered the eternal - city, but after two months, hated and cursed as a tyrant, he was - murdered in A.D. 1354, while attempting flight.--By A.D. 1367 - things had so improved in Rome that, notwithstanding the - opposition of king and court and the objections of luxurious - cardinals unwilling to quit Avignon, =Urban V.=, A.D. 1362-1370, - in October of that year made a triumphal entrance into Rome - amid the jubilations of the Romans. Charles’ Italian expedition - of the following year was inglorious and without result. The - disquiet and party strifes prevailing through the country made - the position of the pope so uncomfortable, that notwithstanding - the earnest entreaty of St. Bridget (§ 112, 8), who threatened - him with the Divine judgment of an early death in France, he - returned in A.D. 1370 to Avignon, where in ten weeks the words - of the northern prophetess were fulfilled. His successor was - =Gregory XI.=, A.D. 1370-1378. Rome and the States of the Church - had now again become the scene of the wildest anarchy, which - Gregory could only hope to quell by his personal presence. The - exhortations of the two prophetesses of the age, St. Bridget and - St. Catherine (§ 112, 4), had a powerful influence upon him, but - what finally determined him was the threat of the exasperated - Romans to elect an anti-pope. And so in spite of the renewed - opposition of the cardinals and the French court, the curia - again returned to Rome in A.D. 1377; but though the rejoicing - at the event throughout the city was great, the results were by - no means what had been expected. Sick and disheartened, the pope - was already beginning to speak of going back to Avignon, when - his death in A.D. 1378 put an end to his cares and sufferings. - - § 110.6. =The Papal Schism and the Council of Pisa.=--Under - pressure from the people the cardinals present in Rome almost - unanimously chose the Neapolitan archbishop of Bari, who took - the name of =Urban VI.=, A.D. 1378-1389. His energies were - mainly directed to the emancipating of the papal chair from - French interference and checking the abuses introduced into - the papal court during the Avignon residence; but the impatience - and bitterness which he showed in dealing with the greed, pomp, - and luxury of the cardinals roused them to choose another pope. - After four months, they met at Fundi, declared that the choice - of Urban had been made under compulsion, and was therefore - invalid. In his place they elected a Frenchman, Robert, cardinal - of Geneva, who was enthroned under the name of Clement VII., - A.D. 1378-1394. The three Italians present protested against - this proceeding and demanded, but in vain, the decision of a - council. Thus began the greatest and most mischievous =papal - schism=, A.D. 1378-1417. France, Naples, and Savoy at once, and - Spain and Scotland somewhat later, declared in favour of Clement; - while the rest of Western Europe acknowledged Urban. The two - most famous saints of the age, St. Catherine and St. Vincent - Ferrér (§ 115, 2), though both disciples of Dominic, took - different sides, the former as an Italian favouring Urban, - the latter as a Spaniard favouring Clement. Failing to secure - a footing in Italy, Clement took possession of the papal castle - at Avignon in A.D. 1379. The schism lasted for forty years, - during which time =Boniface IX.=, A.D. 1389-1404, =Innocent VII.=, - A.D. 1404-1406, and =Gregory XII.=, A.D. 1406-1415, elected - by the cardinals in Rome, held sway there in succession, while - at Avignon on Clement’s death his place was taken by the Spanish - cardinal Pedro de Luna as Benedict XIII., A.D. 1394-1424. The - Council of Paris of A.D. 1395 recommended the withdrawal of both - popes and a new election, but Benedict insisted upon a decision - by a two-thirds majority in favour of one or other of the two - rivals. An =œcumenical council at Pisa=, in A.D. 1409, dominated - mainly by the influence of Gerson (§ 118, 4), who maintained that - the authority of the councils is superior to that of the pope, - made short work with both contesting popes, whom it pronounced - contumacious and deposed. After the cardinals present had bound - themselves by an oath that whosoever of them might be chosen - should not dissolve the council until a reform of the church - in its head and members should be carried out, they elected - a Greek of Candia in his seventieth year, Cardinal Philangi, - who was consecrated as =Alexander V.=, A.D. 1409-1410, and for - three years the council continued to sit without effecting any - considerable reforms. The consequence was that the world had the - edifying spectacle of three contemporary popes anathematizing - one another. - - § 110.7. =The Council of Constance and Martin V.=--Alexander V. - died after a reign of ten months by poison administered, as - was supposed, by Balthasar Cossa, resident cardinal legate - and absolute military despot, suspected of having been in - youth engaged in piracy. Cossa succeeded, as =John XXIII.=, - A.D. 1410-1415. He was acknowledged by the new Roman king, - =Sigismund=, A.D. 1411-1437, and soon afterwards, in A.D. 1412, - by Ladislas [Ladislaus] of Naples, so that Gregory XII. was thus - deprived of his last support. The University of Paris continued - to demand the holding of a council to effect reforms. Sigismund, - supported by the princes, insisted on its being held in a - German city. Meanwhile Ladislas [Ladislaus] had quarrelled - with the pope, and had overrun the States of the Church and - plundered Rome in A.D. 1413, and John was obliged to submit - to Sigismund’s demands, He now summoned the =16th œcumenical - Council of Constance=, A.D. 1414-1418 (§ 119, 5). It was the - most brilliant and the most numerously attended council ever - held. More than 18,000 priests and vast numbers of princes, - counts, and knights, with an immense following; in all about - 100,000 strangers, including thousands of harlots from all - countries, and hordes of merchants, artisans, showmen, and - players of every sort. Gerson and D’Ailly, the one representing - European learning, the other the claims of the Gallican church - (§ 118, 4), were the principal advisers of the council. The - decision to vote not individually but by nations (Italian, - German, French, and English) destroyed the predominance of - the Italian prelates, who as John’s creatures were present - in great numbers. Terrified by an anonymous accusation, which - charged the pope with the most heinous crimes, he declared - himself ready to withdraw if the other two popes would also - resign, but took advantage of the excitement of a tournament - to make his escape disguised as an ostler. Sigismund could with - difficulty keep the now popeless council together. John, however, - was captured, seventy-two serious charges formulated against - him, and on 26th July, A.D. 1415, he was deposed and condemned - to imprisonment for life. He was given up to the Count Palatine - Louis of Baden, who kept him prisoner in Mannheim, and afterwards - in Heidelberg. Meanwhile the leader of an Italian band making use - of the name of Martin V. purchased his release with 3,000 ducats. - He now submitted himself to that pope, and was appointed by him - cardinal-bishop of Tuscoli, and dean of the sacred college, but - soon afterwards died in Florence, in A.D. 1419. Gregory XII. also - submitted in A.D. 1415, and was made cardinal-bishop of Porto. - Benedict, however, retired to Spain and refused to come to - terms, but even the Spanish princes withdrew their allegiance - from him as pope. The cardinals in conclave elected the crafty - Oddo Colonna, who was consecrated as =Martin V.=, A.D. 1417-1431. - There was no more word of reformation. With great pomp the - council was closed, and indulgence granted to its members. As - the whole West now recognised Martin as the true pope the schism - may be said to end with his accession, though Benedict continued - to thunder anathemas from his strong Spanish castle till his - death in A.D. 1424, and three of his four cardinals elected as - his successor Clement VIII. and the fourth another Benedict XIV. - Of the latter no notice was taken, but Clement submitted in - A.D. 1429, and received the bishopric of Majorca.--Martin V. - on entering Rome in A.D. 1420 found everything in confusion - and desolate. By his able administration a change was soon - effected, and the Rome of the Renaissance rose on the ruins - of the mediæval city.[325] - - § 110.8. =Eugenius IV. and the Council of Basel.=--Martin V. - commissioned Cardinal Julian Cesarini to look after the - Hussite controversy in the =Basel Council=, A.D. 1431-1449. - His successor =Eugenius IV.=, A.D. 1431-1447, confirmed this - appointment. After thirteen months he ordered the council to - meet at Bologna, finding the heretical element too strong in - Germany. The members, however, unanimously refused to obey. - Sigismund, too, protested, and the council claimed to be - superior to the pope. The withdrawal of the bull within sixty - days was insisted upon. As a compromise, the pope offered to - call a new council, not at Bologna, but at Basel. This was - declined and the pope threatened with deposition. A rebellion, - too, broke out in the States of the Church; and in A.D. 1433 - Eugenius was completely humbled and obliged to acquiesce in the - demands of the council. One danger was thus averted, but he was - still threatened by another. In A.D. 1434 Rome proclaimed itself - a republic and the pope fled to Florence. The success of the - democracy, however, was now again of but short duration. In - five months Rome was once more under the dominion of the pope. - Negotiations for union with the Greeks were begun by the pope - at =Ferrara= A.D. 1438. A small number of Italians under the - presidency of the pope here assumed the offices of an œcumenical - council, those at Basel being ordered to join them, the Basel - Council being suspended, and the continuance of that council - being pronounced schismatical. Julian, now styled “_Julianus - Apostata II._,” with almost all the cardinals, betook himself - to Ferrara. Under the able cardinal Louis d’Aleman (§ 118, 4), - archbishop of Arles, some still continued the proceedings of - the council at Basel, but in consequence of a pestilence they - moved, in A.D. 1439, to =Florence=. A union with the Greeks was - here effected, at least upon paper. The Basel Council banned by - the pope, deposed him, and in A.D. 1439 elected a new pope in - the person of Duke Amadeus of Savoy, who on his wife’s death - had resigned his crown to his son and entered a monkish order. - He called himself Felix V. Princes and people, however, were - tired of rival papacies. Felix got little support, and the - council itself soon lost all its power. Its ablest members one - after another passed over to the party of Eugenius. In A.D. 1449 - Felix resigned, and died in the odour of sanctity two years - afterwards.[326] - - § 110.9. Only =Charles VII.= of France took advantage of the - reforming decree of Basel for the benefit of his country. He - assembled the most distinguished churchmen and scholars of his - kingdom at Bourges, and with their concurrence published, in - A.D. 1438, twenty-three of the conclusions of Basel that bore on - the Gallican liberties under the name of the =Pragmatic Sanction=, - and made it a law of his realm. For the rest he maintained an - attitude of neutrality towards both popes, as also shortly before - the electors convened at Frankfort had done. Those assembled at - the Diet of Mainz in A.D. 1439 recognised the reforming edicts - of Basel as applying to Germany. =Frederick IV.=, A.D. 1439-1493, - who as emperor is known as Frederick III., under the influence of - the cunning Italian Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini (§ 118, 6), though - at first in the opposition, went over to the side of Eugenius IV. - in A.D. 1446 upon receiving 100,000 guldens for the expenses of - an expedition to Rome and certain ecclesiastical privileges for - his Austrian subjects. Some weeks later the electors of Frankfort - took the same steps, stipulating that Eugenius should recognise - the decrees of the Council of Constance and the reforming decrees - of Basel, and should promise to convene a new free council in - a German city to bring the schism to an end, which if he failed - to do they would quit him in favour of Basel. But at the diet, - held in September of that year at Frankfort, the legates of the - pope and of the king succeeded by diplomatic arts in coming to - an understanding with the electors met at Mainz. Thus it happened - that in the so-called =Frankfort Concordat of the Princes= a - compromise was effected, which Eugenius confirmed in A.D. 1447, - with a careful explanation to the effect that none of these - concessions in any way infringed upon the rights and privileges - of the Holy See. In the following year Frederick in name of the - German nation concluded with Eugenius’ successor, Nicholas V., - the =Concordat of Vienna=, A.D. 1448. The advantages gained by - the German church were quite insignificant. Frederick received - imperial rank as reward for the betrayal of his country, and was - crowned in Rome, in A.D. 1452, as the last German emperor. - - § 110.10. =Nicholas V., Calixtus III., and Pius II., - A.D. 1447-1464.=--With =Nicholas V.=, A.D. 1447-1455, a - miracle of classical scholarship and founder of the Vatican - Library, the Roman see for the first time became the patron of - humanistic studies, and under this mild and liberal pope the - secular government of Rome was greatly improved. The conquest of - Constantinople by the Turks, in A.D. 1453, produced excitement - throughout the whole of Europe. The eloquence of the pope - roused the crusading spirit of Christendom, and oratorical - appeals were thundered from the pulpits of all churches and - cathedrals. But the princes remained cold and indifferent. - After Nicholas, a Spaniard, the cardinal Alphonso Borgia, then - in his seventy-seventh year, was raised to the papal chair as - =Calixtus III.=, A.D. 1455-1458. Hatred of Turks and love of - nephews were the two characteristics of the man. Yet he could - not rouse the princes against the Turks, and the fleet fitted out - at his own cost only plundered a few islands in the Archipelago. - Calixtus’ successor was Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the able and - accomplished apostate from the Basel reform party, who styled - himself, with intended allusion to Virgil’s “_pius Æneas_,” - =Pius II.=, A.D. 1458-1464. The pope’s Ciceronian eloquence - failed to secure the attendance of princes at the Mantuan - Congress, summoned in A.D. 1459 to take steps for the equipment - of a crusade. A war against the Turks was indeed to have been - undertaken by emperor Frederick III., and a tax was to have been - levied on Christians and Jews for its cost; but neither tax nor - crusade was forthcoming. Pius demanded of the French ambassadors - a formal repudiation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and - when they threatened the calling of an œcumenical council, he - issued the bull _Execrabilis_, which pronounced “the execrable - and previously unheard of” enormity of an appeal to a council to - be heresy and treason. In A.D. 1461 the pope, by a long epistle, - attempted the conversion of Mohammed II., the powerful conqueror - of Constantinople. As the discovery of the great alum deposit - at Rome in A.D. 1462 was attributed to miraculous direction, the - pope was led to devote its rich resources to the fitting out of - a crusade against the Turks. He wished himself to lead the army - in person, in order to secure victory by uplifted hands, like - Moses in the war with Amalek. But here again the princes left him - in the lurch. Coming to Ancona in A.D. 1464 to take ship there - upon his great undertaking, only his own two galleys were waiting - him. After long weary waiting, twelve Venetian ships arrived, - just in time to see the pope prostrated with fever and excitement. - - § 110.11. =Paul II., Sixtus IV. and Innocent VII., - A.D. 1464-1492.=--Among the popes of the last forty years of - the 15th century =Paul II.=, A.D. 1464-1471, was the best, - though vain, sensual, greedy, fond of show, and extravagant. - He was impartial in the administration of justice, free from - nepotism, and always ready to succour the needy. His successor, - =Sixtus IV.=, A.D. 1471-1484, formerly Franciscan general, - was one of the most wicked of the occupants of the chair of - Peter. His appeal for an expedition against the Turks finding no - response outside of Italy, his love of strife found gratification - in fomenting internal animosities among the Italian states. - In favour of a nephew he sought the overthrow in A.D. 1478 of - the famous Medici family in Florence. Julian was murdered, but - Lorenzo escaped, and the archbishop, as abettor of the crime, - was hanged in his official robes. The pope placed the city - under ban and interdict. It was only the conquest of Otranto in - A.D. 1480, and the terror caused by the landing of the Turks in - Italy, that moved him to make terms with Florence. His nepotism - was most shamelessly practised, and he increased his revenues - by taxing the brothels of Rome. His powerful government did - something towards the improvement of the administration of - justice in the Church States and his love of art beautified - the city. In A.D. 1482 Andrew, archbishop of Crain, a Slav by - birth and of the Dominican order, halted at Basel on his return - from Rome, where he had been as ambassador for Frederick, and, - with the support of the Italian league and the emperor, issued - violent invectives against the pope, and summoned an œcumenical - council for the reform of the church in its head and members. The - pope ordered his arrest and extradition, but this the municipal - authorities refused. After a volley of bulls and briefs, charges - and appeals, and after innumerable embassies and negotiations - between Basel, Vienna, Innsbrück, Florence, and Rome, in which - the emperor abandoned the archbishop and the papal legates - dangled an interdict over Basel, the authorities decided to - imprison the objectionable prelate, but refused to deliver him - up. After eleven months’ imprisonment, however, he was found - hanged in his cell in A.D. 1484. Sixtus had died three months - before and Basel was absolved by his successor =Innocent VIII.=, - A.D. 1484-1492. In character and ability he was far inferior to - his predecessor. The number of illegitimate children brought by - him to the Vatican gave occasion to the popular witticism: “_Octo - Nocens genuit pueros totidemque puellas, Hunc merito poterit - dicere Roma patrem_.” The mighty conqueror of half the world, - Mohammed II., had died in A.D. 1481. His two sons contested - for the throne, and Bajazet proving successful committed the - guardianship of his brother to the Knights of St. John in Rhodes. - The Grandmaster transferred his prisoner, in A.D. 1489, to the - pope. Innocent rewarded him with a cardinalate, and Bajazet - promised the pope not only continual peace, but a yearly - tribute of 40,000 ducats. He also voluntarily presented his - holiness with the spear which pierced the Saviour’s side. All - this, however, did not prevent the pope from repeatedly but - ineffectually seeking to rouse Christendom to a crusade against - the Turks. To this pope also belongs the odium of familiarizing - Europe with witch prosecutions (§ 117, 4).[327] - - § 110.12. =Alexander VI., A.D. 1492-1503.=--The Spanish cardinal - Roderick Borgia, sister’s son of Calixtus III., purchased the - tiara by bribing his colleagues. In him as Alexander VI. we have - a pope whose government presents a scene of unparalleled infamy, - riotous immorality, and unmentionable crimes, of cruel despotism, - fraud, faithlessness, and murder, and a barefaced nepotism, such - as even the city of the popes had never witnessed before. He - had already before his election five children by a concubine, - Rosa Vanossa, four sons and one daughter, Lucretia, and his one - care was for their advancement. His favourite son was Giovanni, - for whom while cardinal he had purchased the rank of a Spanish - grandee, with the title Duke of Gandia, and when pope he bestowed - on him, in A.D. 1497, the hereditary dukedom of Benevento. But - eight days after his corpse with dagger wounds upon it was taken - out of the Tiber. The pope exclaimed, “I know the murderer.” - Suspicion fell first upon Giovanni Sforsa of Pesaro, Lucretia’s - husband, who had charged the murdered man with committing incest - with his sister, but afterwards upon Cardinal Cæsar Borgia, the - pope’s second son, who was jealous of his brother because of the - favour shown him by Lucretia and by her father. Alexander’s grief - knew no bounds, but sought escape from it by redoubled love to - the suspected son. In A.D. 1498 the papal bastard resigned the - cardinalate as an intolerable burden, married a French princess, - and was made hereditary duke of Romagna. Suddenly at the same - time, and in the same manner, in A.D. 1503, father and son took - ill. The father died after a few days, but the vigour of youth - aided the son’s recovery. Cæsar Borgia was at a later period cast - into prison by Julius II., and fell in A.D. 1507 in the service - of his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre. It was generally - believed that Alexander died of poisoned wine prepared by his - son to secure the removal of a rich cardinal. The father as well - as the two brothers were suspected of incest with Lucretia. This - pope, too, did not hesitate to intrigue with the Turkish sultan - against Charles VIII. of France. With unexampled assumption, - during the contention of Portugal and Spain about the American - discoveries, he presented Ferdinand and Isabella in A.D. 1493 - with all islands and continents that had been discovered or might - yet be discovered lying beyond a line of demarcation drawn from - the North to the South Pole. Once only, when grieving over the - death of his favourite son, had this pope a twinge of conscience. - He had resolved, he said, to devote himself to his spiritual - calling and secure a reform in church discipline. But when - the commission appointed for this purpose presented its first - reform proposals the momentary emotion had already passed away. - Nothing was further from his thought than the calling of an - œcumenical council, which not only the king of France, but also - the Florentine reformer Savonarola demanded (§ 119, 11). - - § 110.13. =Julius II., A.D. 1503-1513.=--Alexander’s successor, - Pius III., son of a sister of Pius II., died after a twenty-six - days’ pontificate. He was followed by a nephew of Sixtus IV., - a bitter enemy of the Borgias, who took the name of Julius II. - He was essentially a warrior, with nothing of the priest about - him. He was also a lover of art, and carried on the works which - his uncle had begun. His youthful excesses had seriously impaired - his health. As pope, he was not free from nepotism and simony, in - controversy passionate, and in policy intriguing and faithless. - He transformed the States of the Church into a temporal despotic - monarchy, and was himself incessantly engaged in war. When - he broke with France, which held Milan from A.D. 1499 with - Alexander’s consent, =Louis XII.=, A.D. 1498-1515, convened - a French national council at Tours in A.D. 1510. This council - renewed the Pragmatic Sanction, which in a weak hour Louis XI., - in A.D. 1462, had abrogated, and had in consequence obtained, - in A.D. 1469, the title _Rex Christianissimus_, and refused to - obey the pope. Also =Maximilian I.=, A.D. 1493-1519, who even - without papal coronation called himself “elected Roman emperor,” - directed the learned humanist Wimpfeling of Heidelberg to collect - the gravamina of the Germans against the Roman curia, and to - sketch out a Pragmatic Sanction for Germany. France and Germany, - with five revolting cardinals, convoked an œcumenical council at - Pisa, in A.D. 1511. Half in sport, half in earnest, Maximilian - spoke of placing on his own head the tiara, as well as the - imperial crown. The pope put Pisa, where only a few French - prelates ventured, under an interdict, and anathematized the - king of France, who then had medals cast, with the inscription, - _Perdam Babylonis nomen_. In a murderous battle at Ravenna, in - A.D. 1512, the army of the papal league was all but annihilated. - But two months later, the French, by the revolt of the Milanese - and the successes of the Swiss, were driven to their homes - ingloriously, and the schismatic council, which had been shifted - from Pisa to Milan, had to withdraw to Lyons, where it was - dissolved by the pope “on account of its many crimes.” Meanwhile - the pope had summoned a council to meet at Rome, the =fifth - œcumenical Lateran Council=, A.D. 1512-1517, at which however - only fifty-three Italian bishops were present. There the ban upon - the king of France was renewed, but a concordat was concluded - with Maximilian, redressing the more serious grievances of which - he had complained. The pope succeeded in freeing Northern Italy - from French oppression, and only his early death prevented him - from delivering Southern Italy from the Spanish yoke. - - § 110.14. =Leo X., A.D. 1513-1521.=--John, son of Lorenzo - Medici, who was cardinal in A.D. 1488, in his eighteenth year, - when thirty-eight years of age ascended the papal throne as - Leo X.; a great patron of the Renaissance, but luxurious and - pleasure-loving, extravagant and frivolous, without a spark - of religion (§ 120, 1), and a zealous promoter of the fortunes - of his own family. The attempt of Louis XII., with the help of - Venice, to regain Milan failed, and being hard pressed in his - own country by Henry VIII. of England, the French king decided - at last, in Dec., 1513, to end the schism and recognise the - Lateran Council. His successor, =Francis I.=, A.D. 1515-1547, was - more fortunate. In the battle of Marignano he gained a brilliant - victory over the brave Swiss, in consequence of which the - duchy of Milan fell again into the hands of France. At Bologna, - in A.D. 1516, the pope in person now greeted the king, who - proferred him obedience, and concluded a political league and - an ecclesiastical concordat with his holiness, abrogating the - Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., but maintaining the king’s - right to nominate all bishops and abbots of his realm, with - reservation of the annats for the papal treasury. The Lateran - Council, though attended only by Italian bishops, was pronounced - œcumenical. During its five years’ sittings it had issued - concordats for Germany and France, the papal bull _Pastor - æternus_ was solemnly ratified, which renewed the bull _Unam - sanctam_ and by various forgeries proved the power of the - pope to be superior to the authority of councils, quieted the - bishops’ objections to the privileges of the begging friars by - a compromise, and as a protection against heresy gave the right - of the censorship of the press to bishops, while explicitly - asserting the immateriality, individuality, and immortality of - the human soul.[328] - - § 110.15. =Papal Claims to Sovereignty.=--From A.D. 1319 the - popes secured large revenues from the Annats, revenues for a - full year of all vacancies; the Reservations, the holding of - rich benefices and bestowing them upon payment of large sums; - the Expectances, naming for payment a successor to an incumbent - still living; the Offices held _in commendam_, provisionally - on payment of a part of the incomes; the _Jus spoliarum_, the - Holy See being the legitimate heir of all property gained by - Churchmen from their offices; the Taxing of Church property for - particularly pressing calls; innumerable Indulgences, Absolutions, - Dispensations, etc. The happy thought occurred to Paul II., in - A.D. 1469, to extend the law of Annats to such ecclesiastical - institutions as belonged to corporations. He reckoned the - lifetime of a prelate at fifteen years, and so claimed his tax - of such institutions every fifteenth year. The doctrine of the - papal infallibility in matters of faith, under the influence - of the reforming councils of the 15th century, was rather less - in favour than before. The rigid Franciscans opposed the papal - doctrine of poverty (§§ 98, 4; 112, 2); and John XXII. was almost - unanimously charged by his contemporaries with heresy, because - of his views about the vision of God. Even the most zealous - curialists of the 15th century did not venture to ascribe to - the pope absolute infallibility. A distinction was made between - the infallibility of the office, which is absolute, and that of - the person, which is only relative; a pope who falls into error - and heresy thereby ceases to be pope and infallible. This was the - opinion of the Dominican Torquemada (§ 112, 4), whom Eugenius IV. - rewarded at the Basel Council with a cardinalate and the title - of _Defensor fidei_, as the most zealous defender of papal - absolutism. From the 14th century the popes have worn the triple - crown. The three tiers of the tiara, richly ornamented with - precious stones, indicated the power of the pope over heaven by - his canonizing, over purgatory by his granting of indulgences, - and over the earth by his pronouncing anathemas. Until the papal - court retired to Avignon the Lateran was the usual residence of - the popes, and after the ending of the schism, the Vatican.[329] - - § 110.16. =The Papal Curia.=--The chief courts of the papal - government are spoken of collectively as the curia, their members - being taken from the higher clergy. The following are the most - important: the _Cancellaria Romana_, to which belonged the - administration of affairs pertaining to the pope and the college - of cardinals; the _Dataria Romana_, which had to do with matters - of grace not kept secret, such as absolutions, dispensations, - etc.; while the _Pœnitentiaria Romana_ dealt with matters which - were kept secret; the _Camera Romana_, which administered the - papal finances; and the _Rota Romana_, which was the supreme - court of justice. Important decrees issued by the pope himself - with the approval of the cardinals are called _bulls_. They are - written on parchment in the Gothic character in Latin, stamped - with the great seal of the Roman church, and secured in a metal - case. The word bull was originally applied to the case, then - to the seal, and at last to the document itself. Less important - decrees, for which the advice of the cardinals had not been asked, - are called _briefs_. The brief is usually written on parchment, - in the ordinary Roman characters, and sealed in red wax with the - pope’s private seal, the fisherman’s ring. - - - § 111. THE CLERGY. - - Provincial synods had now lost almost all their importance, and -were rarely held, and then for the most part under the presidency of -a papal legate. The cathedral chapters afforded welcome provision for -the younger sons of the nobles, who were nothing behind their elder -brothers in worldliness of life and conversation. For their own -selfish interests they limited the number of members of the chapter, -and demanded as a qualification evidence of at least sixteen ancestors. -The political significance of the prelates was in France very small, -and as champions of the Gallican liberties they were less enthusiastic -than the University of Paris and the Parliament. In England they -formed an influential order in the State, with carefully defined -rights; and in Germany, as princes of the empire, especially the -clerical elector princes, their political importance was very great. -In Spain, on the other hand, at the end of the 15th century, by -the ecclesiastico-political reformation endeavours of Ferdinand -“the Catholic” and Isabella (§ 118, 7), the higher clergy were made -completely dependent upon the Crown. - - § 111.1. =The Moral Condition of the Clergy= was in general - very low. The bishops mostly lived in open concubinage. The lower - secular clergy followed their example, and had toleration granted - by paying a yearly tax to the bishop. The people, distinguishing - office and person, made no objection, but rather looked on it - as a sort of protection to their wives and daughters from the - dangers of the confessional. Especially in Italy, unnatural vice - was widely spread among the clergy. At Constance and Basel it - was thought to cure such evils by giving permission to priests - to marry; but it was feared that the ecclesiastical revenues - would be made heritable, and the clergy brought too much - under the State.--The mendicant orders were allowed to hear - confession everywhere, and when John de Polliaco, a Prussian - doctor, maintained that the local clergy only should be taken - as confessors, John XXII., in A.D. 1322, pronounced his views - heretical. - - § 111.2. The French concordat of A.D. 1516 (§ 110, 14), - which gave the king the right of appointing commendator abbots - (§ 85, 5), to almost all the cloisters, induced many of the - younger sons of old noble families to take orders, so as to - obtain rich sinecures or offices, which they could hold _in - commendam_. They bore a semi-clerical character, and had the - title of =abbé=, which gradually came to be given to all the - secular clergy of higher culture and social position. In Italy - too it became customary to give the title =abbate= to the younger - clergy of high rank, before receiving ordination. - - - § 112. MONASTIC ORDERS AND SOCIETIES. - - The corruption of monastic life was becoming more evident from day -to day. Immorality, sloth, and unnatural vice only too often found -a nursery behind the cloister walls. Monks and nuns of neighbouring -convents lived in open sin with one another, so that the author of the -book _De ruina ecclesia_ (§ 118, 4, c) thinks that _Virginem velare_ -is the same as _Virginem ad scortandum exponere_. In the Benedictine -order the corruption was most complete. The rich cloisters, after the -example of their founder, divided their revenues among their several -members (_proprietarii_). Science was disregarded, and they cared -only for good living. The celebrated Scottish cloister (§ 98, 1) of -St. James, at Regensburg, in the 14th century, had a regular tavern -within its walls, and there was a current saying, _Uxor amissa in -monasterio Scotorum quæri debet_. The mendicants represented even -yet relatively the better side of monasticism, and maintained their -character as exponents of theological learning. Only the Carthusians, -however, still held fast to the ancient strict discipline of their -order. - - § 112.1. =The Benedictine Orders.=--For the reorganization of - this order, which had abandoned itself to good living and luxury, - Clement V., at the Council of Vienna, A.D. 1311, issued a set of - ordinances which aimed principally at the restoration of monastic - discipline and the revival of learning among the monks. But they - were of little or no avail. Benedict XII. therefore found it - necessary, in A.D. 1336, with the co-operation of distinguished - French abbots, to draw up a new constitution for the Benedictines, - which after him was called the Benedictina. The houses of Black - Friars were to be divided into thirty-six provinces, and each - of them was to hold every third year a provincial chapter for - conference and determination of cases. In each abbey there - should be a daily penitential chapter for maintaining discipline, - and an annual chapter for giving a reckoning of accounts. In - order to reawaken interest in scientific studies, it was enjoined - that from every cloister a number of the abler monks should be - maintained at a university, at the cost of the cloister, to study - theology and canon law. But the disciplinary prescriptions of the - Benedictina were powerless before the attractions of good living, - and the proposals for organization were repugnant to the proud - independence of monks and abbots. The enactments in favour of - scientific pursuits led to better results. The first really - successful attempt at reforming the cloisters was made, in - A.D. 1435, by the general chapter of the Brothers of the Common - Life, who not only dealt with their own institutions, but also - with all the Benedictine monasteries throughout the whole of - the West. The soul of this movement was Joh. Busch, monk in - Windesheim, then prior in various monasteries, and finally - provost of Sulte, near Hildesheim, A.D. 1458-1479. The so called - _Bursfeld Union_ or Congregation resulted from his intercourse - with the abbot of the Benedictine monastery at Bursfeld, on the - Weser, John of Hagen (ab Andagine). Notwithstanding the bitter - hostility of corrupt monks and nuns, there were in a short time - seventy-five monasteries under this Bursfeld rule, where the - original strictness of the monastic life was enforced. The rule - was confirmed by the council of A.D. 1440, and subsequently - by Pius II. Most of the cloisters under this rule joined the - Lutheran reformation of the 16th century, and Bursfeld itself is - at this day the seat of a titular Lutheran abbot.--A new branch - of the Benedictine order, the =Olivetans=, was founded by Bernard - Tolomæi. Blindness having obliged him to abandon his teaching of - philosophy at Siena, the blessed Virgin restored him his sight; - and then, in A.D. 1313, he forsook the world, and withdrew - with certain companions into almost inaccessible mountain - recesses, ten miles from Siena. Disciples gathered around him - from all sides. He built a cloister on a hill, which he called - the Mount of Olives, and founded under the Benedictine rule - a congregation of the Most Blessed Virgin of the Mount of Olives, - which obtained the sanction of John XXII. Tolomæi became its - first general, in A.D. 1322, and held the office till his death, - caused by infection caught while attending the plague stricken - in A.D. 1348. There were new elections of abbots every third - year. The Olivetans were zealous worshippers of Mary, and - strict ascetics. In several of their cloisters, which numbered - as many as one hundred, the study of theology and philosophy - was diligently prosecuted. They embraced also an order of nuns, - founded by St. Francisca Romana. - - § 112.2. =The Franciscans.=--At the Council of Vienna, in - A.D. 1312, Clement V. renewed the decree of Nicholas III., and - by the constitution _Exivi de paradiso_ decided in favour of - the stricter view (§ 98, 4), but ordered all rigorists to submit - to their order. But neither this nor the solemn ratification of - his predecessor’s decisions by John XXII. in A.D. 1317 put an - end to the division. The contention was now of a twofold kind. - The =Spirituals= confined their opposition to a rigoristic - interpretation of the vow of poverty. The =Fraticelli= carried - their opposition into many other departments. They exaggerated - the demand of poverty to the utmost, but also repudiated - the primacy of the pope, the jurisdiction of bishops, the - admissibility of oaths, etc. In the south of France within - a few years 115 of them had perished at the stake; and the - Spirituals also suffered severely.--The Dominicans were the - cause of a new split in the Seraphic order. The Inquisition - at Narbonne had, in A.D. 1321, condemned to the stake a Beghard - who had affirmed, what to the Dominicans seemed a heretical - proposition, that Christ and the apostles had neither personal - nor common property. The Franciscans, who, on the plea of a - pretended transference of their property to the pope, claimed - to be without possessions, pronounced that proposition orthodox, - and the Dominicans complained to John XXII. He pronounced - in favour of the Dominicans, and declared the Franciscans’ - transference of property illusory; and finding this decision - contrary to decrees of previous popes, he asserted the right - of any pontiff to reverse the findings of his predecessors. The - Franciscans were driven more and more into open revolt against - the pope. They made common cause with the persecuted Spirituals, - and like them sought support from the Italian Ghibellines and - the emperor, Louis the Bavarian (§ 110, 3). The pope summoned - their general, Michael of Cesena, to Avignon; and while detaining - him there sought unsuccessfully to obtain his deposition by - the general synod of the order. Michael, with two like-minded - brothers, William Occam (§ 113, 3) and Bonagratia of Bergamo, - escaped to Pisa in a ship of war, which the emperor sent for - them in A.D. 1328. There, in the name of his order, he appealed - to an œcumenical council to have the papal excommunication and - deposition annulled which had now been issued against him. After - the disastrous Italian campaign in A.D. 1330, the excommunicated - churchmen accompanied the emperor to Munich, where they conducted - a literary defence of their rights and privileges, and charged - the pope with a multitude of heresies. Michael died at Munich, - in A.D. 1342.--After the overthrow of the schismatic Minorite - pope, Nicholas V. (§ 110, 3), the opposition soon gave in - its submission. But to the end of his life John XXII. was a - bloody persecutor of all schismatical Franciscans, who showed - a fanatical love of martyrdom, rather than abate one iota of - their opposition to the possession of property. - - § 112.3. The strict and lax tendencies were brought to light in - connection with successive attempts at reformation. In A.D. 1368 - Paolucci of Foligni founded the fraternity of Sandal-wearers, - which embraced the remnants of the Cœlestine eremites - (§ 98, 4). This strict rule was soon modified so as to admit - of the possession of immovable property and living together - in conventual establishments. Those who adhered rigidly to the - original requirements as to seclusion, asceticism, and dress - were now called =Observants= and the more lax =Conventuals=. - Crossing the Alps in A.D. 1388, they spread through Europe, - converting heretics and heathens. Both sections received - papal encouragement. Their leader for forty years was =John - of Capistrano=, born A.D. 1386, died A.D. 1456, who inspired - all their movements, and as a preacher gathered hundreds of - thousands around him. His predecessor in office, Bernardino - of Siena, who died in A.D. 1444, was canonized after a hard - fight in A.D. 1450. John was deputed by the pope in that same - year to proceed to Austria and Germany to convert the Hussites - and preach a crusade against the Turks. His greatest feat was - the repulse, in A.D. 1456, of the Turks, under Mohammed II., - before Belgrade, ascribed to him and his crusade, which delivered - Hungary, Germany, and indeed the whole West, from threatened - subjection to the Moslem yoke. Capistrano died three months - afterwards. Notwithstanding all the efforts of his followers, - his beatification was not secured till A.D. 1690, and the decree - of canonization was not obtained till A.D. 1724.--Continuation - § 149, 6. - - § 112.4. =The Dominicans.=--The Dominicans, as they interpreted - the vow of poverty only of personal and not of common property, - soon lost the character of a mendicant order.--One of their most - distinguished members was =St. Catharine of Siena=, who died - in A.D. 1380, in her thirty-third year. Having taken the vow of - chastity as a child, living only on bread and herbs, for a time - only on the eucharistic elements, she was in vision affianced to - Christ as His bride, and received His heart instead of her own. - She felt the pains of Christ’s wounds, and, like St. Dominic, - lashed herself thrice a day with an iron chain. She gained - unexampled fame, and along with St. Bridget procured the - return of the pope from Avignon to Rome.--The controversy - of the Dominicans with the Franciscans over the _immaculata - conceptio_ (§ 104, 7) was conducted in the most passionate - manner. The visions of St. Catherine favoured the Dominican, - those of St. Bridget the Franciscan views; during the schism - the French popes favoured the former, the Roman popes the - latter. The Franciscan view gained for the time the ascendency. - The University of Paris sustained it in A.D. 1387, and made its - confession a condition of receiving academic rank. The Dominican - Torquemada combated this doctrine, in A.D. 1437, in his able - _Tractatus de veritate Conceptionis B. V._ In A.D. 1439, the - Council of Basel, which was then regarded as schismatical, - sanctioned the Franciscan doctrine. Sixtus IV., who had - previously, as general of the Franciscans, supported the views - of his order in a special treatise, authorized the celebration - of the festival referred to, but in A.D. 1483 forbade controversy - on either side. A comedy with a very tragical conclusion was - enacted at Bern, in connection with this matter in A.D. 1509. - The Dominicans there deceived a simple tailor called Jetzer, who - joined them as a novice, with pretended visions and revelation - of the Virgin, and burned upon him with a hot iron the wound - prints of the Saviour, and caused an image of the mother of - God to weep tears of blood over the godless doctrine of the - Franciscans. When the base trick was discovered, the prior and - three monks had to atone for their conduct by death at the stake. - (Continuation § 149, 13.) A new controversy between the two - orders broke out in A.D. 1462, at Brescia. There, on Easter Day - of that year, the Franciscan Jacob of Marchia in his preaching - said that the blood of Christ shed upon the cross, until its - reassumption by the resurrection, was outside of the hypostatic - union with the Logos, and therefore as such was not the subject - of adoration. The grand-inquisitor, Jacob of Brescia, pronounced - this heretical, and at Christmas, A.D. 1463, a three days’ - disputation was held between three Dominicans and as many - Minorites before pope and cardinals, which yielded no result. - Pius II. reserved judgment, and never gave his decision. - - § 112.5. =The Augustinians.=--In A.D. 1432, =Zolter=, at the - call of the general of the Augustinians, reorganized the order, - and in A.D. 1438 Pius II. gave a constitution to the Observants. - The “Union of the Five Convents” founded by him in Saxony and - Franconia, with Magdeburg as its centre, formed the nucleus of - =regular Augustinian Observants=, which had =Andrew Proles= of - Dresden as their vicar-general for a second time in A.D. 1473. - Notwithstanding bitter opposition, the union spread through - all Germany, even to the Netherlands. In A.D. 1475 the general - of the order at Rome took offence at Proles for looking directly - to the apostolic see, and not to him, for his authority. He - therefore abolished the institution of vicars, insisted that all - Observants should return to their allegiance to the provincials, - and make full restitution of all the cloisters which they had - appropriated, and empowered the provincial of Saxony to imprison - and excommunicate Proles and his party, in case of their refusal. - Proles did not submit, and when the ban was issued appealed - directly to the pope. A papal commission in A.D. 1477 decided - that all Observant cloisters placed by the duke under the pope’s - protection should so continue, confirmed all their privileges, - and annulled all mandates and anathemas issued against Proles - and his followers. With redoubled energy and zeal Proles now - wrought for the extension and consolidation of the congregation - until A.D. 1503, when he resigned office in his 74th year, - and soon after died. He was one of the worthiest and most - pious men in the German Church of his time; but Flacius is - quite mistaken when he describes him as a precursor of Luther, - an evangelical martyr and witness for the truth in the sense - of the Reformation of the 16th century. Energetic and devoted - as he was in prosecuting his reformation, he gave himself - purely to the correcting of the morals of the monks and - restoring discipline; but in zeal for the doctrine of merits, - the institution of indulgences, mariolatry, saint and image - worship, and in devotion to the papacy, he and his congregation - were by no means in advance of the age. - - § 112.6. As his successor in the vicariate the chapter, in - accordance with the wish of Proles, elected =John von Staupitz=. - He had been prior of the Augustinian cloister at Tübingen, and - became professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, - in A.D. 1502. Like his predecessor, he devoted himself to - the interests of the congregation, and by the union which he - effected between it and the Lombard Observant congregation, - he greatly increased its importance. In carrying out a plan - for uniting the Saxon Conventuals with the German Observants - by combining in his own hand the Saxon provincial priorate with - the German vicariate, he encountered such difficulties that he - was obliged to abandon the attempt; but he succeeded thus far, - that from that time the Conventuals and Observants of Germany - dwelt in peace side by side. He directed the troubled spirit of - Luther to the crucified Saviour (§ 122, 1), and thus became the - spiritual father of the great reformer. The new constitutions - for the German congregations, proffered by him and accepted - by the chapter at Nuremberg, A.D. 1504, are characterized by - earnest recommendations of Scripture study. But of a deep and - comprehensive evangelical and reformatory application of them - we find no traces as yet, even in Staupitz; neither do we - see any zealous study of Augustine’s writings, and consequent - appreciation of his theological principles, such as is shown - by the mystics of the 13th and 14th centuries. All this appears - later in his little treatise “On the Imitation of the Willingly - Dying Christ” of A.D. 1515. A discourse on predestination - in A.D. 1517 moves distinctly on Augustinian lines, and the - mysticism of St. Bernard may be traced in the book “On the - Love of God” of that same year. True as he was to Luther as - a counsellor and helper during the first eventful year of - struggle, the reformer’s protest soon became too violent for - him, and in A.D. 1520 he resigned his office, withdrew to the - Benedictine cloister at Salzburg, and died as its abbot in - A.D. 1524. His continued attachment to the positive tendencies - of the Reformation is proved by his “Fast Sermons,” delivered - in A.D. 1523.--His successor =Link=, Luther’s fellow student - at Magdeburg, was and continued to be an attached friend of - the reformer. Unsuccessful in his endeavours to remove abuses, - he resigned office in A.D. 1523, and became evangelical pastor - in Altenburg, and married. The very small opposition chose in - place of him Joh. Spangenberg, who, unable to withstand the - movement among the German Conventuals, as well as among the - Observants, resigned in A.D. 1529. - - § 112.7. =Overthrow of the Templars.=--The order of Knights - Templar, whose chief seat was now in Paris and the south of - France, by rich presents, exactions, and robberies in the - island of Cyprus, vast commercial speculations and extensive - money-lending and banking transactions with crusaders and - pilgrims and needy princes, had acquired immense wealth in - money and landed property in the East and the West. They - had in consequence become proud, greedy, and vicious. Their - independence of the State had long been a thorn in the eye - of Philip the Fair of France, and their policy was often at - variance with his. But above all their great wealth excited - his cupidity. In a letter to a visitor of the order Innocent III. - had in A.D. 1208 bitterly complained of their unspirituality, - worldliness, avarice, drunkenness, and study of the black art, - saying that he refrained from remarking upon yet more shameful - offences with which they were charged. Stories also were current - of apostasy to Mohammedanism, sorcery, unnatural vice, etc. - It was said that they worshipped an idol Baphomet; that a - black cat appeared in their assemblies; that at initiation - they abjured Christ, spat on the cross, and trampled it under - foot. A Templar expelled for certain offences gave evidence in - support of these charges. Thereupon in A.D. 1307 Philip had all - Templars in his realm suddenly apprehended. Many admitted their - guilt amid the tortures of the rack; others voluntarily did so - in order to escape such treatment. A Parliament assembled at - Tours in A.D. 1308 heartily endorsed the king’s opinion, and - the pope, Clement V., was powerless to resist (§ 110, 2). While - the pope’s commissioners were prosecuting inquiries in all - countries, Philip without more ado in A.D. 1310 brought to the - stake one hundred Templars who had retracted their confession. - The =œcumenical council at Vienne in A.D. 1311=, summoned for - the final settlement of the matter, refused to give judgment - without hearing the defence of the accused. But Philip threatened - the pope till a decree was passed disbanding the order because - of the suspicion and ill repute into which it had fallen. Its - property was to go to the Knights of St. John. But a great part - had already been seized by the princes, especially by Philip. - Final decision in regard to individuals was committed by the - pope to the provincial synods of the several countries. Judgment - on the grand-master, James Molay, and the then chief dignitaries - of the order, he reserved to himself. Philip paid no attention - to this, but, when they refused to adhere to their confession - of guilt, had them burnt in a slow fire at Paris in A.D. 1314. - Most of the other knights turned to secular employments, many - entered the ranks of the Knights of St. John, while others ended - their days in monastic prisons.--Scholars are to this day divided - in opinion as to the degree of guilt or innocence which may be - ascribed to the Templars in regard to the serious charges brought - against them.[330] - - § 112.8. =New Orders.=--In A.D. 1317 the king of Portugal, - for the protection of his frontier from the Moors, instituted - the =Order of Christ=, composed of knights and clergy, and to - it John XXII. in A.D. 1319 gave the privileges of the order - of Calatrava (§ 98, 13). Alexander VI. released them from the - vow of poverty and allowed them to marry. The king of Portugal - was grand-master, and at the beginning of the 16th century - it had 450 companies and an annual revenue of one and a half - million livres. In A.D. 1797 it was converted into a secular - order.--Among the new monkish orders the following are the most - important: - - 1. =Hieronymites=, founded in A.D. 1370 by the Portuguese - Basco and the Spaniard Pecha as an order of canons regular - under the rule of Augustine, and confirmed by Gregory XI. - in A.D. 1373. Devoted to study, they took Jerome as their - patron, and obtained great reputation in Spain and Italy. - - 2. =Jesuates=, founded by Colombini of Siena, who, excited - by reading legends of the saints, combined with several - companions in forming this society for self-mortification - and care of the sick, for which Urban V. prescribed the - Augustinian rule in A.D. 1367. They greeted all they met - with the name of Jesus: hence their designation. - - 3. =Minimi=, an extreme sect of Minorites (§ 98, 3), founded - by Francis de Paula in Calabria in A.D. 1436. Their rule - was extremely strict, and forbade them all use of flesh, - milk, butter, eggs, etc., so that their mode of life was - described as _vita quadragesimalis_. - - 4. =Nuns of St. Bridget.= To the Swedish princess visions of - the wounded and bleeding Saviour had come in her childhood. - Compelled by her parents to marry, she became mother of - eight children; but at her husband’s death, in A.D. 1344, - she adopted a rigidly ascetic life, and in A.D. 1363 - founded a cloister at Wedstena for sixty nuns in honour - of the blessed Virgin, with thirteen priests, four deacons, - and eight lay brothers in a separate establishment. All were - under the control of the abbess. She also founded at Rome a - hospice for Swedish pilgrims and students, made a pilgrimage - from Rome to Jerusalem, and died at Rome in A.D. 1373. - The _Revelationes S. Brigittæ_ ascribed to her were in - high repute during the Middle Ages. They are full of bitter - invectives against the corrupt papacy; call the pope worse - than Lucifer, a murderer of the souls committed to him, who - condemns the guiltless and sells believers for filthy lucre. - There were seventy-four cloisters of the order spread over - all Europe. Her successor as abbess of the parent abbey was - her daughter, St. Catherine of Sweden, who died in A.D. 1381. - - 5. The French =Annunciate Order= was founded in A.D. 1501 by - Joanna of Valois, the divorced wife of Louis XII., and when - abolished by the French Revolution it numbered forty-five - nunneries. - - § 112.9. =The Brothers of the Common Life=, a society of pious - priests, gave themselves to the devotional study of Scripture, - the exercise of contemplative mysticism, and practical imitation - of the lowly life of Christ with voluntary observance of the - three monkish vows, and residing, without any lifelong obligation, - in unions where things were administered in common. Pious laymen - were not excluded from their association, and institutions for - sisters were soon reared alongside of those for the brothers. The - founder of this organization was Gerhard Groot, _Gerardus magnus_, - of Deventer in the Netherlands, a favourite pupil of the mystic - John of Ruysbroek (§ 114, 7). Dying a victim to his benevolence - during a season of pestilence in A.D. 1384, a year or two after - the founding of the first union institute, he was succeeded by - his able pupil and assistant Florentius Radewins, who zealously - carried on the work he had begun. The house of the brothers at - Deventer soon became the centre of numerous other houses from - the Scheld to the Wesel. Florentius added a cloister for regular - canons at Windesheim, from which went forth the famous cloister - reformer Burch. The most important of the later foundations of - this kind was the cloister built on Mount St. Agnes near Zwoll. - The famous Thomas à Kempis (§ 114, 7) was trained here, and - wrote the life of Groot and his fellow labourers. Each house was - presided over by a rector, each sister house by a matron, who was - called Martha. The brothers supported themselves by transcribing - spiritual books, the lay brothers by some handicraft; the sisters - by sewing, spinning, and weaving. Begging was strictly forbidden. - Besides caring for their own souls’ salvation, the brothers - sought to benefit the people by preaching, pastoral visitation, - and instructing the youth. They had as many as 1,200 scholars - under their care. Hated by the mendicant friars, they were - accused by a Dominican to the Bishop of Utrecht. This dignitary - favoured the brothers, and when the Dominican appealed to the - pope, he applied to the Constance Council of A.D. 1418, where - Gerson and d’Ailly vigorously supported them. Their accuser was - compelled to retract, and Martin V. confirmed the brotherhood. - Though heartily attached to the doctrines of the Catholic Church, - their biblical and evangelical tendencies formed an unconscious - preparation for the Reformation (§ 119, 10). A great number - of the brothers joined the party of the reformers. In the - 17th century the last remnant of them disappeared.[331] - - - - - II. Theological Science. - - - § 113. SCHOLASTICISM AND ITS REFORMERS. - - The University of Paris took the lead, in accordance with the -liberal tendencies of the Gallican Church, in the opposition to -hierarchical pretensions, and was followed by the universities of -Oxford, Prague, and Cologne, in all of which the mendicant friars -were the teachers. Most distinguished among the schoolmen of this -age was John Duns Scotus, whose works formed the doctrinal standard -for the Franciscans, as those of Aquinas did for the Dominicans. -After realism had enjoyed for a long time an uncontested sway, William -Occam, amid passionate battles, successfully introduced nominalism. -But the creative power of scholasticism was well nigh extinct. Even -Duns Scotus is rather an acute critic of the old than an original -creator of new ideas. Miserable quarrels between the schools and a -spiritless formalism now widely prevailed in the lecture halls, as well -as in the treatises of the learned. Moral theology degenerated into -fruitless casuistry and abstruse discussion on subtly devised cases -where there appeared a collision of duties. But from all sides there -arose complaint and contradiction. On the one side were some who made -a general complaint without striking at the roots of the evil. They -suggested the adoption of a better method, or the infusion of new life -by the study of Scripture and the Fathers, and a return to mysticism. -To this class belonged the Brothers of the Common Life (§ 112, 9) and -d’Ailly and Gerson, the supporters of the Constance reforms (§ 118, 4). -Here too we may place the talented father of natural theology, Raimund -of Sabunde, and the brilliant Nicholas of Cusa, in whom all the nobler -aspirations of mediæval ecclesiastical science were concentrated. But -on the other side was the radical opposition, consisting of the German -mystics (§ 114), the English and Bohemian reformers (§ 119), and the -Humanists (§ 120). - - § 113.1. =John Duns Scotus.=--The date of birth, whether - A.D. 1274 or A.D. 1266, and the place of birth, whether in - Scotland, Ireland, or England, of this Franciscan hero, honoured - with the title _doctor subtilis_, are uncertain; even the place - and manner of his training are unknown. After lecturing with - great success at Oxford, he went in A.D. 1304 to Paris, where - he obtained the degree of doctor, and successfully vindicated - the _immaculata conceptio B. V._ (§ 104, 7) against the Thomists. - Summoned to Cologne in A.D. 1308 to engage in controversy with - the Beghards, he displayed great skill in dialectics, but died - during that same year. His chief work, a commentary on the - Lombard, was composed at Oxford. His answers to the questions - proposed for his doctor’s degree were afterwards wrought up - into the work entitled _Quæstiones quodlibetales_. The opponent - and rival of Thomas, he controverted his doctrine at every point, - as well as the doctrines of Alexander and Bonaventura of his own - order, and other shining stars of the 13th century. In subtlety - of thought and dialectic power he excelled them all, but in - depth of feeling, profundity of mind, and ardour of faith he - was far behind them. Proofs of doctrines interested him more - than the doctrines themselves. To philosophy he assigns a purely - theoretical, to theology a pre-eminently practical character, - and protests against the Thomist commingling of the two. He - accepts the doctrine of a twofold truth (§ 103, 3), basing it - on the fall. Granting that the Bible is the only foundation - of religious knowledge, but contending that the Church under - the Spirit’s guidance has advanced ever more and more in the - development of it, he readily admits that many a point in - constitution, doctrine, and worship cannot be established from - the Bible; _e.g._ immaculate conception, clerical celibacy, - etc. He has no hesitation in contradicting even Augustine and - St. Bernard from the standpoint of a more highly developed - doctrine of the Church. - - § 113.2. =Thomists and Scotists.=--The Dominicans and Franciscans - were opposed as followers respectively of Thomas and of Scotus. - Thomas regarded individuality, _i.e._ the fact that everything - is an individual, every _res_ is a _hæc_, as a limitation and - defect; while Duns saw in this _hæcitas_ a mark of perfection - and the true end of creation. Thomas also preferred the Platonic, - and Duns the Aristotelian realism. In theology Duns was opposed - to Thomas in maintaining an unlimited arbitrary will in God, - according to which God does not choose a thing because it is - good, but the thing chosen is good because He chooses it. Thomas - therefore was a determinist, and in his doctrine of sin and - grace adopted a moderate Augustinianism (§ 53, 5), while Duns - was a semipelagian. The atonement was viewed by Thomas more in - accordance with the theory of Anselm, for he assigned to the - merits of Christ as the God-Man infinite worth, _satisfactio - superabundans_, which is in itself more than sufficient - for redemption; but Duns held that the merits of Christ were - sufficient only as accepted by the free will of God, _acceptatio - gratuita_. The Scotists also most resolutely contended for - the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin, while - the Thomists as passionately opposed it.--Among the immediate - disciples of Duns the most celebrated was =Francis Mayron=, - teacher at the Sorbonne, who died in A.D. 1325 and was dignified - with the title _doctor illuminatus_ or _acutus_. The most notable - of the Thomists was =Hervæus Natalis=, who died in A.D. 1323 - as general of the Dominicans. Of the later Thomists the most - eminent was =Thomas Bradwardine=, _doctor profundus_, a man of - deep religious earnestness, who accused his age of Pelagianism, - and vindicated the truth in opposition to this error in his _De - causa Dei c. Pelagium_. He began teaching at Oxford, afterwards - accompanied Edward III. as his confessor and chaplain on his - expeditions in France, and died in A.D. 1349 a few weeks after - his appointment to the archbishopric of Canterbury.[332] - - § 113.3. =Nominalists and Realists.=--After nominalism - (§ 99, 2) in the person of Roscelin had been condemned by the - Church (§ 101, 3) realism held sway for more than two centuries. - Both Thomas and Duns supported it. By sundering philosophy - and theology Duns opened the way to freer discussion, so that - by-and-by nominalism won the ascendency, and at last scarcely - any but the precursors of the Reformation (§ 119) were to be - found in the ranks of the realists. The pioneer of the movement - was the Englishman =William Occam=, a Franciscan and pupil of - Duns, who as teacher of philosophy in Paris obtained the title - _doctor singularis et invincibilis_, and was called by later - nominalists _venerabilis inceptor_. He supported the _Spirituals_ - (§ 112, 2) in the controversies within his order. He accompanied - his general, Michael of Cesena, to Avignon, and escaping with - him in A.D. 1328 from threatened imprisonment, lived at Munich - till his death in A.D. 1349. There, protected by Louis the - Bavarian, he vindicated imperial rights against papal pretensions, - and charged various heresies against the pope (§ 118, 2). In - philosophy and theology he was mainly influenced by Scotus. - In accordance with his nominalistic principles he assumed the - position in theology that our ideas derived from experience - cannot reach to a knowledge of the supernatural; and thus he - may be called a precursor of Kant (§ 171, 10). The _universalia_ - are mere _fictiones_ (§ 99, 2), things that do not correspond to - our notions; the world of ideas agrees not with that of phenomena, - and so the unity of faith and knowledge, of theological and - philosophical truth, asserted by realists, cannot be maintained - (§ 103, 2). Faith rests on the authority of Scripture and the - decisions of the Church; criticism applied to the doctrines of - the Church reduces them to a series of antinomies.--In A.D. 1339 - the University of Paris forbade the reading of Occam’s works, and - soon after formally condemned nominalism. Thomists and Scotists - forgot their own differences to combine against Occam; but all - in vain, for the Occamists were recruited from all the orders. - The Constance reform party too supported him (§ 118, 4).[333] - Of the Thomists who succeeded to Occam the most distinguished - was =William Durand= of St. Pourçain, _doct. resolutissimus_, - who died in A.D. 1322 as Bishop of Meaux. =Muertius of Inghen,= - one of the founders of the University of Heidelberg in A.D. 1386 - and its first rector, was also a zealous nominalist. The last - notable schoolman of the period was =Gabriel Biel= of Spires, - teacher of theology at Tübingen, who died A.D. 1495, a nominalist - and an admirer of Occam. He was a vigorous supporter of the - doctrine of the immaculate conception, and delivered public - discourses on the “Ethics” of Aristotle. - - § 113.4. =Casuistry=, or that part of moral theology which - seeks to provide a complete guide to the solution of difficult - cases of conscience, especially where there is collision of - duties, moral or ecclesiastical, makes its first appearance in - the penitentials (§ 89, 6), and had a great impetus given it in - the compulsory injunction of auricular confession (§ 104, 4). It - was also favoured by the hair-splitting character of scholastic - dialectics. The first who elaborated it as a distinct science - was Raimundus [Raimund] de Pennaforte, who besides his works on - canon law (§ 99, 5), wrote about A.D. 1238 a _summa de casibus - pœnitentialibus_. This was followed by the Franciscan _Antesana_, - the Dominican _Pisana_, and the Angelica of the Genoese Angelus - of A.D. 1482, which Luther in A.D. 1520 burned along with the - papal bull and decretals. The views of the different casuists - greatly vary, and confuse rather than assist the conscience. - Out of them grew the doctrine of probabilism (§ 149, 10). - - § 113.5. =The Founder of Natural Theology.=--The Spaniard - =Raimund of Sabunde= settled as a physician in Toulouse in - A.D. 1430, but afterwards turned his attention to theology. - Seeing the need of infusing new life into the corrupt - scholasticism, he sought to rescue it from utter formalism and - fruitless casuistry by a return to simple, clear, and rational - thinking. Anselm of Canterbury was his model of a clear and - profound thinker and believing theologian (§ 101, 1). He also - turned for stimulus and instruction to the book of nature. - The result of his studies is seen in his _Theologia naturalis - s. liber creaturarum_, published in A.D. 1436. God’s book - of nature, in which every creature is as it were a letter, - is the first and simplest source of knowledge accessible to - the unlearned layman, and the surest, because free from all - falsifications of heretics. But the fall and God’s plan of - salvation have made an addition to it necessary, and this we - have in the Scripture revelation. The two books coming from the - one author cannot be contradictory, but only extend, confirm, - and explain one another. The facts of revelation are the - necessary presupposition or consequences of the book of nature. - From the latter all religious knowledge is derivable by ascending - through the four degrees of creation, _esse_, _vivere_, _sentire_, - and _intelligere_, to the knowledge of man, and thence to the - knowledge of the Creator as the highest and absolute unity, and - by arguing that the acknowledgment of human sinfulness involved - an admission of the need of redemption, which the book of - revelation shows to be a fact. In carrying out this idea Raimund - attaches himself closely to Anselm in his scientific reconciling - of the natural and revealed idea of God and redemption. Although - he never expressly contradicted any of the Church doctrines, the - Council of Trent put the prologue of his book into the _Index - prohibitorum_. - - § 113.6. =Nicholas of Cusa= was born in A.D. 1401 at Cues, - near Treves, and was originally called Krebs. Trained first by - the Brothers at Deventer (§ 112, 9), he afterwards studied law - at Padua. The failure of his first case led him to begin the - study of theology. As archdeacon of Liège he attended the Basel - Council, and there by mouth and pen supported the view that the - council is superior to the pope, but in A.D. 1440 he passed over - to the papal party. On account of his learning, address, and - eloquence he was often employed by Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V. - in difficult negotiations. He was made cardinal in A.D. 1448, - an unheard of honour for a German prelate. In A.D. 1450 he was - made bishop of Brixen, but owing to a dispute with Sigismund, - Archduke of Austria, he suffered several years’ hard imprisonment. - He died in A.D. 1464 at Todi in Umbria. His principal work - is _De docta ignorantia_, which shows, in opposition to proud - scholasticism, that the absolute truth about God in the world - is not attainable by men. His theological speculation approaches - that of Eckhart, and like it is not free from pantheistic - elements. God is for him the absolute maximum, but is also the - absolute minimum, since He cannot be greater or less than He is. - He begets of Himself His likeness, _i.e._ the Son, and He again - turns back as Holy Spirit into unity. The world again is the - aggregated maximum. His _Dialogus de pace_, occasioned by the - fall of Constantinople in A.D. 1453, represents Christianity - as the most perfect of all religions, but recognises in all - others, even in Islam, essential elements of eternal truth. - Like Roger Bacon (§ 103, 8), he assigns a prominent place to - mathematics and astronomy, and in his _De separatione Calendarii_ - of A.D. 1436 he recommended reforms in the calendar which were - only effected in A.D. 1582 by Gregory XIII. (§ 149, 3). He - detected the pseudo-Isidore (§ 87, 2) and the Donation of - Constantine (§ 87, 4) frauds. - - § 113.7. =Biblical and Practical Theologians.= - - 1. The Franciscan =Nicholas of Lyra=, _doctor planus et utilis_, - a Jewish convert from Normandy, and teacher of theology at - Paris, did good service as a grammatico-historical exegete - and an earnest expositor of Scripture. Luther gratefully - acknowledges the help he got in his Bible translation from - the postils of Lyra.[334] He died in A.D. 1340. - - 2. =Antonine of Florence= played a prominent part at the - Florentine Council of A.D. 1439, and was threatened - by Eugenius IV. with the loss of his archbishopric. He - discharged his duties with great zeal, especially during - a plague and famine in A.D. 1448, and during the earthquake - which destroyed half of the city in A.D. 1457. As an earnest - preacher, an unwearied pastor, and upright churchman he was - universally admired, and was canonized by Hadrian VI. in - A.D. 1523. He had a high reputation as a writer. His _Summa - historialis_ is a chronicle of universal history reaching - down to his own time; and his _Summa theologica_ is a - popular outline of the Thomist doctrine. - - 3. The learned and famous abbot =John Trithemius=, born - in A.D. 1462, after studying at Treves and Heidelberg, - entered in A.D. 1487 the Benedictine cloister of Sponheim, - became its abbot in the following year, resigned office - in A.D. 1505 owing to a rebellion among his monks, and - died in A.D. 1516 as abbot of the Scottish cloister of - St. James at Würzburg. Influenced by Wessel’s reforming - movement (§ 119, 10), he urged the duty of Scripture study - and prayer, but still practised and commended the most - extravagant adoration of Mary and Ann. Though he was keenly - alive to the absurdity of certain forms of superstition, - he was himself firmly bound within its coils. He lashed - unsparingly the vices of the monks, but regarded the - monastic life as the highest Christian ideal. He pictured - in dark colours the deep and widespread corruption of the - Church, and was yet the most abject slave of the hierarchy - which fostered that corruption. - - - § 114. THE GERMAN MYSTICS.[335] - - The schoolmen of the 13th century, with the exception of -Bonaventura, had little sympathy with mysticism, and gave their whole -attention to the development of doctrine (§ 99, 1). The 14th century -was the Augustan age of mysticism. Germany, which had already in -the previous period given Hugo of St. Victor and the two divines of -Reichersberg (§ 102, 4, 6), was its proper home. Its most distinguished -representatives belonged to the preaching orders, and its recognised -grand-master was the Dominican Meister Eckhart. This specifically -German mysticism cast away completely the scholastic modes of thought -and expression, and sought to arrive at Christian truth by entirely new -paths. It appealed, not to the understanding and cultured reason of the -learned, but to the hearts and spirits of the people, in order to point -them the surest way to union with God. The mystics therefore wrote -neither commentaries on the Lombard nor gigantic _summæ_ of their own -composition, but wrought by word and writing to meet immediate pressing -needs. They preached lively sermons and wrote short treatises, not in -Latin, but in the homely mother tongue. This popular form however did -not prevent them from conveying to their readers and hearers profound -thoughts, the result of keen speculation; but that in this they did -not go over the heads of the people is shown by the crowds that flocked -to their preaching. The “Friends of God” proved a spiritual power -over many lands (§ 116, 4). From the practical prophetic mysticism -of the 12th and 13th centuries (§§ 107; 108, 5) it was distinguished -by avoiding the visionary apocalyptic and magnetic somnambulistic -elements through a better appreciation of science; and from the -scholastic mysticism of that earlier age (§§ 102, 3, 4, 6; 103, 4) -by abandoning allegory and the scholastic framework for the elevation -of the soul to God, as well as by indulgence in a somewhat pantheistic -speculation on God and the world, man and the God-Man, on the -incarnation and birth of God in us, on our redemption, sanctification, -and final restoration. Its younger representatives however cut off all -pantheistic excrescences, and thus became more practical and edifying, -though indeed with the loss of speculative power. In this way they -brought themselves more into sympathy with another mystic tendency -which was spreading through the Netherlands under the influence of -the Flemish canon, John of Ruysbroek. In France too mysticism again -made its appearance during the 15th century in the persons of d’Ailly -and Gerson (§ 118, 4), in a form similar to that which it had assumed -during the 12th and 13th centuries in the Victorines and Bonaventura. - - § 114.1. =Meister Eckhart.=--One of the profoundest - thinkers of all the Christian centuries was the Dominican - Meister Eckhart, the true father of German speculative mysticism. - Born in Strassburg about A.D. 1260, he studied at Cologne under - Albert the Great, but took his master’s degree at Paris in - A.D. 1303. He had already been for some years prior at Erfurt - and provincial vicar of Thuringia. In A.D. 1304 he was made - provincial of Saxony, and in A.D. 1307 vicar-general of Bohemia. - In both positions he did much for the reform of the cloisters - of his order. In A.D. 1311 we find him teacher in Paris; - then for some years teaching and preaching in Strassburg; - afterwards officiating as prior at Frankfort; and finally as - private teacher at Cologne, where he died in A.D. 1327. While - at Frankfort in A.D. 1320 he was suspected of heresy because - of alleged intercourse with Beghards (§ 98, 12) and Brothers - of the Free Spirit (§ 116, 5). In A.D. 1325 the archbishop - of Cologne renewed these charges, but Eckhart succeeded in - vindicating himself. The archbishop now set up an inquisition - of his own, but from its sentence Eckhart appealed to the pope, - lodged a protest, and then of his own accord in the Dominican - church of Cologne, before the assembled congregation, solemnly - declared that the charge against him rested upon misrepresentation - and misunderstanding, but that he was then and always ready to - withdraw anything that might be erroneous. The papal judgment, - given two years after Eckhart’s death, pronounced twenty-eight - of his propositions to be pantheistic in their tendency, - seventeen being heretical and eleven dangerous. He was therefore - declared to be suspected of heresy. The bull, contrary to reason - and truth, went on to say that Eckhart at the end of his life - had retracted and submitted all his writings and doctrines - to the judgment of the Holy See. But Eckhart had indignantly - protested against the charge of pantheism, and certainly in his - doctrine of God and the creature, of the high nobility of the - human soul, of retirement and absorption into God, he has always - kept within the limits of Christian knowledge and life. Attaching - himself to the Platonic and Neoplatonic doctrines, which are met - with also in Albert and Thomas, and appealing to the acknowledged - authorities of the Church, especially the Areopagite, Augustine, - and Aquinas, Eckhart with great originality composed a singularly - comprehensive and profound system of religious knowledge. - Although in all his writings aiming primarily at quickening and - edification, he always grounds his endeavours on a theoretical - investigation of the nature of the thing. But knowledge is for - him essentially union of the knowing subject with the object to - be known, and the highest stage of knowledge is the intuition - where all finite things sink into the substance of Deity.[336] - - § 114.2. =Mystics of Upper Germany after Eckhart.=--A noble band - of mystics arose during the 14th and 15th centuries influenced - by Eckhart’s writings, who carefully avoided pantheistic extremes - by giving a thoroughly practical direction to their speculation. - Nearest to Eckhart stands the author of “=The German Theology=,” - in which the master’s principles are nobly popularized and - explained. Luther, who took it for a work of Tauler, and - published it in A.D. 1516, characterized it as “a noble little - book, showing what Adam and Christ are, and how Adam should - die and Christ live in us.” In the most complete MS. of this - tract, found in A.D. 1850, the author is described as a “Friend - of God.”--The Dominican =John Tauler= was born at Strassburg, - studied at Paris, and came into connection with Eckhart, whose - mysticism, without its pantheistic tendencies, he adopted. When - Strassburg was visited with the Black Death, he laboured as - preacher and pastor among the stricken with heroic devotion. - Though the city was under an interdict (§ 110, 3), the Dominicans - persisted for a whole year in reading mass, and were stopped - only by the severe threats of the master of their order. The - magistrates gave them the alternative either to discharge their - official duties or leave the city. Tauler now, in A.D. 1341, - retired to Basel, and afterwards to Cologne. In A.D. 1437 - we find him again in Strassburg, where he died in A.D. 1361. - His thirty sermons, with some other short tracts, appeared - at Leipzig in A.D. 1498. The most important of all Tauler’s - works is, “The Imitation of the Poverty of Christ.” It was - thought to be of French authorship, but is now admitted to be - Tauler’s.[337]--=Rulman Merswin=, a rich merchant of Strassburg, - in his fortieth year, A.D. 1347, with his wife’s consent, - retired from his business and forsook the world, gave his - wealth to charities, and bought in A.D. 1366 an old, abandoned - convent near the city, which he restored and presented to the - order of St. John. Here he spent the remainder of his days in - pious contemplation, amid austerities and mortifications and - favoured with visions. He died in A.D. 1382. Four years after - his conversion he attained to clear conceptions and inner - peace. His chief work, composed in A.D. 1352, “The Book of the - Nine Rocks,” was long ascribed to Suso. It is full of bitter - complaints against the moral and religious corruption of all - classes, and earnest warnings of Divine judgment. Its starting - point is a vision. From the fountains in the high mountains - stream many brooks over the rocks into the valley, and thence - into the sea; multitudes of fishes transport themselves from - their lofty home, and are mostly taken in nets, only a few - succeed in reaching their home again by springing over these - nine rocks. At the request of the “Friend of God from the - Uplands” he wrote the “Four Years from the Beginning of Life.” - His “Banner Tract” describes the conflict with and victory - over the Brothers of the Free Spirit under the banner of - Lucifer (§ 116, 4, 5). - - § 114.3. =The Friend of God in the Uplands.=--In a book - entitled “The Story of Tauler’s Conversion,” originally called - “The Master’s Book,” but now assigned to Nicholas of Basel, - it is told that in A.D. 1346 a great “Master of Holy Scripture” - preached in an unnamed city, and that soon his fame spread - through the land. A layman living in the Uplands, thirty miles - off, was directed in a vision thrice over to go to seek this - Friend of God, companion of Rulman. He listened to his preaching, - chose him as his confessor, and then sought to show him that - he had not yet the true consecration. Like a child the master - submitted to be taught the elements of piety of religion - by the layman, and at his command abstaining from all study - and preaching for two years, gave himself to meditation and - penitential exercises. When he resumed his preaching his success - was marvellous. After nine years’ labour, feeling his end - approaching, he gave to the layman an account of his conversion. - The latter arranged his materials, and added five sermons of - the master, and sent the little book, in A.D. 1369, to a priest - of Rulman’s cloister near Strassburg. In A.D. 1486 the master - was identified with Tauler. This however is contradicted by - its contents. The historical part is improbable and incredible, - and its chronology irreconcilable with known facts of Tauler’s - life. We find no trace of the original ideas or characteristic - eloquence of Tauler; while the language and homiletical - arrangement of the sermons are quite different from those - of the great Dominican preacher. - - § 114.4. =Nicholas of Basel.=--After long hiding from the - emissaries of the Inquisition the layman Nicholas of Basel, - in extreme old age, was taken with two companions, and burned - at Vienna, as a heretic, between A.D. 1393-1408. He has been - identified by Schmidt of Strassburg with the “Friend of God.” - This is more than doubtful, since of the sixteen heresies, - for the most part of a Waldensian character, charged against - Nicholas, no trace is found in the writings of the Friend of - God; while it is made highly probable by Denifle’s researches - that the “Friend of God” was but a name assumed by Rulman Merswin. - - § 114.5. =Henry Suso=, born A.D. 1295, entered the Dominican - cloister of Constance in his 13th year. When eighteen years old - he took the vow, and till his twenty-second year unceasingly - practised the strictest asceticism, in imitation of the - sufferings of Christ. He completed his studies, A.D. 1325-1328, - under Eckhart at Cologne, and on the death of his pious mother - withdrew into the cloister, where he became reader and afterwards - prior. The first work which he here published, in A.D. 1335, the - “Book of the Truth,” is strongly influenced by the spirit of his - master. Accused as a heretic, he was deposed from the priorship - in A.D. 1336. His “Book of Eternal Wisdom” was the favourite - reading of all lovers of German mysticism. Blending the knight’s - and fanatic’s idea of love with the Solomonic conception of - Wisdom, which he identifies sometimes with God, sometimes with - Christ, sometimes with Mary, he chose her for his beloved, - and was favoured by her with frequent visions and was honoured - with the title of “Amandus.”--Like most of his fellow monks at - Constance, Suso was a supporter of the pope in his contest with - Louis the Bavarian, while the city sided with the emperor. When, - in A.D. 1339, the monks, in obedience to the papal interdict, - refused to perform public worship, they were expelled by the - magistrates. In his fortieth year Suso had begun his painful - career of self-discipline, which he carried so far as to endanger - his life. Now driven away as an exile, he began his singularly - fruitful wanderings, during which, passing from cloister to - cloister as an itinerant preacher, he became either personally - or through correspondence most intimately acquainted with all - the most notable of the friends of mysticism, and made many - new friends in all ranks, especially among women. In A.D. 1346, - along with eight companions, he ventured to return to Constance. - There however he met with his sorest trial. An immoral woman, - who pretended to him that she sorrowed over and repented of her - sins, while really she continued in the practice of them, and - was therefore turned away by him, took her revenge by charging - him with being the father of the child she was about to bear. - Probably this painful incident was the occasion of his retiring - into the monastery of Ulm, where he died in A.D. 1366. In him - the poetic and romantic element overshadowed the speculative, - and in his attachment to ecclesiastical orthodoxy he kept aloof - from all reformatory movements. - - § 114.6. =Henry of Nördlingen= is only slightly known to us - by the letters which he sent to his lady friend, the Dominican - nun =Margaret Ebner=. He was spiritually related to Tauler, - as well as to Suso, and shared with the great preacher in his - sorrows over the calamities of the age, which his sensitive - nature felt in no ordinary degree during enforced official - idleness under the interdict. His mysticism, by its sweetly - sentimental character, as well as by its superstitious tendency - to reverence Mary and relics, was essentially distinguished - from that of Tauler. His friend Margaret, who had also a - spiritual affinity to Tauler, and was highly esteemed by all - the “Friends of God,” was religiously and politically, as a - supporter of the anathematized emperor, much more decided. - In depth of thought and power of expression however she - is quite inferior to the earlier Thuringian prophetesses - (§ 107, 2).--=Hermann of Fritzlar=, a rich and pious layman, - is supposed to have written, A.D. 1343-1349, a life of the - saints in the order of the calendar, as a picture of heart - purity, with mystic reflections and speculations based on the - legendary matter, and all expressed in pure and simple German. - Hermann, however, was only the author of the plan, and the actual - writer was a Dominican of Erfurt, =Giseler of Slatheim=.--A - Franciscan in Basel, =Otto of Passau=, published, in A.D. 1386, - “The Four-and-Twenty Elders, or the Golden Throne,” which became - a very popular book of devotion, in which the twenty-four elders - of Revelation iv. 4, one after another, show the loving soul - how to win for himself a golden throne in heaven. Passages of - an edifying and contemplative description from the Fathers and - teachers of the Church down to the 13th century are selected by - the author, and adapted to the use of the unlearned “Friends of - God” in a German translation. - - § 114.7. =Mystics of the Netherlands.= - - 1. =John of Ruysbroek= was born, in A.D. 1298, in the village - of Ruysbroek, near Brussels. In youth he was addicted more - to pious contemplation than to scholastic studies, and - in his sixtieth year he resigned his position as secular - priest in Brussels, and retired into a convent of regular - canons (§ 97, 3) near Brussels, where he died as its prior - in A.D. 1481, when eighty-eight years old. He was called - _doctor ecstaticus_, because he regarded his mystical - views, which he developed amid pious contemplation in the - shades of the forest, and there wrote out in Flemish speech, - as the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. His mysticism was - essentially theistic. The _unio mystica_ consisted not - in the deification of man, but was wrought only through - the free grace of God in Christ without the loss of man’s - own personality. His genuine practical piety led him to - see in the moral depravity of the clergy, not less than - of the people generally, the cause of the decay of the - Church, so that even the person of the pope did not escape - his reproof. Numerous pilgrims from far and near sought - the pious sage for counsel and quickening. His favourite - disciple was Gerhard Groot of Deventer, who impressed - much of his master’s spirit upon the brotherhood of the - Common Life (§ 112, 9).--Of this noble school of mystics - the three following were the most distinguished. - - 2. =Hendrik Mande=, who died A.D. 1430, impressed by a sermon - of Groot’s, and favoured during a long illness by visions, - abandoned the life of a courtier for the fellowship of - the Brethren of Deventer, and in A.D. 1395 entered the - cloister of Windesheim, to which he bequeathed his wealth, - and where he continued to enjoy visions of the Saviour and - the saints. His works, written in Dutch, are characterized - by spirituality and depth of feeling, copious and - appropriate imagery, and great moral earnestness. - - 3. =Gerlach Peters= was the favourite scholar of Florentius - in Deventer. He subsequently entered the monastery of - Windesheim, where, after a painful illness, he died in - A.D. 1411, in his thirty-third year. “An ardent spirit - in a body of skin and bone,” praising God for his terrible - bodily sufferings as a means of grace bestowed on him, - his devotion reaches the sublimest heights of enthusiasm. - He wrote the _Soliloquium_, the voice of a man who has - daily struggled in God’s presence to free his heart from - worldly bonds, and by God’s grace in the cross of Christ - to have Adam’s purity restored and union with the highest - good secured. - - 4. =Thomas à Kempis=, formerly Hamerken, was born in A.D. 1380 - at Kempen, near Cologne. He was educated at Deventer, and - died as sub-prior of the convent of St. Agnes, near Zwoll, - in A.D. 1471. To him, and not to the chancellor Gerson, - according to the now universally accepted opinion, belongs - the world renowned book _De Imitatione Christi_. Reprinted - about five thousand times, oftener than any other book - except the Bible, it has been also translated into more - languages than any other. Free from all Romish superstition, - it is read by Catholics and Protestants, and holds an - unrivalled position as a book of devotion. A photographic - reproduction of the original edition of A.D. 1441 was - published from the autograph MSS. of Thomas, by Ch. Ruelans, - London, 1879.[338] - - - - - III. The Church and the People. - - - § 115A. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION - OF THE PEOPLE. - - Preaching in the vernacular was carried on mainly by the Brothers -of the Common Life, the mystics, and several heretical sects, _e.g._ -Waldensians, Wiclifites, Hussites, etc.; and stimulated by their -example, others began to follow the same practice. The so called -_Biblia pauperum_ set forth in pictures the New Testament history -with its Old Testament types and prophecies; _Bible Histories_ made -known among the people the Scripture stories in a connected form; and, -after the introduction of printing, the German _Plenaries_ helped also -to spread the knowledge of God’s word by renderings for private use of -the principal parts of the service. For the instruction of the people -in faith and morals a whole series of _Catechisms_ was constructed -after a gradually developed type. The “Dance of Death” in its various -forms reminded of the vanity of all earthly pleasures. The spirit of -the Reformation was shown during this period in the large number of -hymns written in the vernacular. Church music too received a powerful -impulse. - - § 115.1. =Fasts and Festivals.=--New =Mary Festivals= were - introduced: _F. præsentationis M._ on 21st Nov. (Lev. xii. 5-8), - _F. visitationis M._ (Luke i. 39-51), on 2nd July. In the - 15th century we meet with the festivals of the Seven Pains of - Mary, _F. Spasmi M._, on Friday or Saturday before Palm Sunday. - Dominic instituted a rosary festival, _F. rosarii M._, on 1st - Oct., and its general observance was enjoined by Gregory XIII. - in A.D. 1571.--The =Veneration of Ann= (§ 57, 2) was introduced - into Germany in the second half of the 15th century, but soon - rose to a height almost equal to that of Mary.--The =Fasts= of - the early Church (§ 56, 7) had, even during the previous period, - been greatly relaxed. Now the most special fast days were mere - days of abstinence from flesh, while most lavish meals of fish - and farinaceous food were indulged in. Papal and episcopal - dispensations from fasting were also freely given. - - § 115.2. =Preaching= (§ 104, 1).--To aid and encourage preaching - in the language of the people, unskilled preachers were supplied - with _Vocabularia prædicantium_. Surgant, a priest of Basel, - wrote, in the end of the 15th century, a treatise on homiletics - and catechetics most useful for his age, _Manuale Curatorum_. - In it he showed how Latin sermons might be rendered into the - tongue of the people, and urged the duty of hearing sermons. - The mendicants were the chief preachers, especially the mystics - of the preaching orders, during the 14th century (§ 114), and - the Augustinians, particularly their German Observants, during - the 15th (§ 112, 5), and next to them, the Franciscans.--The - most zealous preacher of his age was the Spanish Dominican - =Vincent Ferrér=. In A.D. 1397 he began his unprecedentedly - successful preaching tours through Spain, France, Italy, England, - Scotland, and Ireland. He died in A.D. 1419. He laboured with - special ardour for the conversion of the Jews, of whom he is - said to have baptized 35,000. Wherever he went he was venerated - as a saint, received with respect by the clergy and prelates, - highly honoured by kings and princes, consulted by rich and - poor regarding temporal and spiritual things. He was canonized - by Calixtus III. in A.D. 1455. Certain Flagellants (§ 116, 3) - whom he met in his travels followed him, scourging themselves - and singing his penitential songs, but he stopped this when - objected to by the Council of Constance. His sermons dealt - with the realities of actual life, and called all classes - to repent of their sins. Of a similar spirit was the Italian - Dominican =Barletta=, who died in A.D. 1480, whose burlesque - and scathing satire rendered him the most popular preacher - of the day. In his footsteps went the Frenchmen =Maillard= - and =Menot=, both Franciscans, and the German priest of - Strassburg, =Geiler of Kaisersberg=, quite equal to them in - quaint terseness of expression and biting wit. All these were - preeminently distinguished for moral earnestness and profound - spirituality.[339] - - § 115.3. =The _Biblia Pauperum_.=--The typological - interpretation of the Old Testament history received a fixed - and permanent form in the illustrations introduced into the - service books and pictures printed on the altars, walls, and - windows of churches, etc., during the 12th century. A set of - seventeen such picture groups was found at Vienna, of which the - middle panels represent the New Testament history, _sub gracia_, - above it an Old Testament type from the period _ante legem_, and - under it one from the period _sub lege_. This picture series was - completed by the =Biblia pauperum=, so called from the saying - of Gregory I., that pictures were the poor man’s Bible. Many of - the extant MSS., all depending on a common source, date from the - 14th and 15th centuries. The illustrations of the New Testament - are in the middle, and round about are pictures of the four - prophets, with volumes in their hands, on which the appropriate - Old Testament prophecies are written. On right and left are Old - Testament types. The multiplication of copies of this work by - woodcuts and types was one of the first uses to which printing - was put.[340] - - § 115.4. =The Bible in the Vernacular.=--The need of - =translations of the Bible= into the language of the people, - specially urged by the Waldensians and Albigensians, was now - widely insisted upon by those of reformatory tendencies (§ 119). - On the introduction of printing, about A.D. 1450, an opportunity - was afforded of rapidly circulating translations already made - in most of the European languages. Before Luther, there were - fourteen printed editions of the Bible in High and five in Low - German. The translations, made from the Vulgate, were in all - practically the same. The translators are unknown. The diction - is for the most part clumsy, and the sense often scarcely - intelligible. Translations had been made in England by the - Wiclifites, and in Bohemia by the Hussites. In France, various - renderings of separate books of Scripture were circulated, - and a complete French Bible was issued by the confessor of - Charles VIII., Jean de Rely, at Paris, in A.D. 1487. Two - Italian Bibles were published in Venice, in A.D. 1471, one by - the Camaldulite abbot Malherbi, closely following the Vulgate; - the other by the humanist Bruccioli, which often falls back - on the original text. The latter was highly valued by Italian - exiles of the Reformation age. In Spain a Carthusian, Ferreri, - attempted a translation, which was printed at Valencia in - A.D. 1478. More popular however than these translations were the - =Bible Histories=, _i.e._ free renderings, sometimes contracted, - sometimes expanded, of the historical books, especially these - of the Old Testament. From A.D. 1470 large and frequent editions - were published of the German =Plenaries=, containing at first - only the gospels and epistles, afterwards also the Service of - the Mass, for all Sundays and festivals and saints’ days, with - explanations and directions. - - § 115.5. =Catechisms and Prayer Books.=--Next to preaching, - the chief opportunity for imparting religious instruction was - confession. Later catechisms drew largely upon the baptismal - and confessional services. In the 13th and 14th centuries the - decalogue was added, and afterwards the seven deadly sins and - the seven principal virtues. Pictures were used to impress - the main points on the minds of the people and the youth. - The catechetical literature of this period, both in guides - for priests and manuals for the people, was written in the - vernacular.--During the 15th century there were also numerous - so-called _Artes moriendi_, showing how to die well, in which - often earnest piety appeared side by side with the grossest - superstition. There were also many prayer books, _Hortuli animæ_, - published, in which the worship of Mary and the saints often - overshadowed that of God and Christ, and an extravagant belief - in indulgences led to a mechanical view of prayer that was - thoroughly pagan. - - § 115.6. =The Dance of Death.=--The fantastic humour of the - Middle Ages found dramatic and spectacular expression in the - Dance of Death, in which all classes, from the pope and princes - to the beggars, in turn converse with death. It was introduced - into Germany and France in the beginning of the 14th century, - with the view of raising men out of the pleasures and troubles - of life. It was called in France the Dance of the Maccabees, - because first introduced at that festival. Pictures and verbal - descriptions of the Dance of Death were made on walls and - doors of churches, around MSS. and woodcuts, where death was - generally represented as a skeleton. Hans Holbein the Younger - gave the finishing touch to these representations in his - _Imagines Mortis_, the originals of which are in St. Petersburg. - In this masterpiece, the idea of a dancing pair is set aside, - and in its place forty pictures, afterwards increased to - fifty-eight, full of humour and moral earnestness, pourtray - the power of death in the earthly life.[341] - - § 115.7. =Hymnology= (§ 104, 10).--The =Latin Church poetry= of - the 14th and 15th centuries was far beneath that of the 12th and - 13th. Only the mystics, _e.g._ Thomas à Kempis, still composed - some beautiful hymns. We have now however the beginnings of - =German= and =Bohemian= hymnology. The German flagellators sang - German hymns (§ 116, 3), and so obtained much popular favour. - The Hussite movement of the 15th century gave a great impulse - to church song. Huss himself earnestly urged the practice of - congregational singing in the language of the people, and himself - composed Bohemian hymns. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren - were specially productive in this department (§ 119, 8). In - many churches, at least on high festivals, German hymns were - sung, and in some even at the celebration of mass and other parts - of public worship. The spiritual songs of this period were of - four kinds: some half German, half Latin; others translations of - Latin hymns and sequences; others, original German compositions - by monks and minstrels; and adaptations of secular songs to - spiritual purposes. In the latter case the original melodies - were also retained. Popular forms and melodies for sacred songs - were now secured, and these were subsequently appropriated by - the Reformers of the 16th century. - - § 115.8. =Church Music= (§ 104, 11).--Great improvements were - made in organs by the invention of pedals, etc. =Church music= - was also greatly developed by the introduction of harmony and - counterpoint. The Dutch were pre-eminent in this department. - Ockenheim, founder of the second Dutch school of music, at - the end of the 15th century, was the inventor of the canon - and the fugue. The greatest composer of this school was - Jodocus Pratensis, about A.D. 1500, and next to him may be - named the German, Adam of Fulda. - - § 115.9. =Legendary Relics.=--The legend of angels having - transferred the house of Mary from Nazareth, in A.D. 1291, - to Tersato in Dalmatia, in A.D. 1294 to Reccanati, and finally, - in A.D. 1295, to Loretto in Ancona, arose in the 14th century, - in connection with the fall of Acre (§ 94, 6) and the overthrow - of the last remnants of the kingdom of Jerusalem. When and how - the legend arose of the _Scala santa_ at Rome being the marble - steps of Pilate’s prætorium, brought there by St. Helena, is - unknown.--Even Frederick the Wise, at an enormous cost, brought - together 1,010 sacred relics into his new chapel at Wittenberg, - a mere look at which secured indulgence for 100 years. In a - catalogue of relics in the churches of St. Maurice and Mary - Magdalene at Halle, published in A D. 1520, are mentioned a - piece of earth, from a field of Damascus, of which God made - the first man; a piece from a field at Hebron, where Adam - repented; a piece of the body of Isaac; twenty-five fragments - of the burning bush of Horeb; specimens of the wilderness - manna; six drops of the Virgin’s milk; the finger of the - Baptist that pointed to the Lamb of God; the finger of Thomas - that touched the wounds of Jesus; a bit of the altar at which - John read mass for the Virgin; the stone with which Stephen was - killed; a great piece of Paul’s skull; the hose of St. Thomas - of Canterbury; the baret of St. Francis, etc. The collection - consisted of 8,933 articles, and could afford indulgence - for 39,245,100 years and 220 days! Benefit was to be had by - contributions to the church, which went into the pocket of the - elector-archbishop, Albert of Mainz. The craze for =pilgrimages= - was also rife among all classes, old and young, high and low. - Signs and wonders and newly discovered relics were regarded - as consecrating new places of pilgrimage, and the stories of - pilgrims raised the fame of these resorts more and more. In - A.D. 1500 Düren, by the possession of a relic of Ann, stolen - from Mainz, rapidly rose to first rank. The people of Mainz - sought through the pope to recover this valuable property, - but he decided in favour of Düren, because God had meanwhile - sanctioned the transfer by working many miracles of healing. - - - § 115B. NATIONAL LITERATURE AND ECCLESIASTICAL ART. - - Toward the close of the 13th century, and throughout the 14th, -a national literature, in prose and poetry, sprang up in Italy, which -in several respects has close relations to the history of the church. -The three Florentines, Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, boldly burst -through the barriers of traditional usage, which had made Latin the -only vehicle for literature and science, and became the creators of -a beautiful Italian style; while their example powerfully influenced -their own countrymen, and those of other western nations, during the -immediately succeeding ages. The exclusive use of the Latin language -had produced a uniform hierarchical spirit, and was a restraint to -the anti-hierarchical movements of the age after independent national -development in church and State. The breaking down of this barrier to -progress was an important step. But all the three great men of letters -whom we have named were also highly distinguished for their classical -culture. They introduced the study of the ancient classics, and were -thus the precursors of the humanists. They also presented a united -front against the corruptions of the church, against hierarchical -pretensions, the greed and moral debasement of the papacy, as well -as against the moral and intellectual degradation of the clergy -and the monks. Petrarch and Boccaccio too warred against the -depraved scholasticism. The Augustan age of German national poetry -was contemporary with the age of the Hohenstaufens. It consisted -in popular songs, these often of a sacred character. During the -14th century the sacred drama reached the highest point of its -development, especially in Germany, England, France, and Spain. The -spirit of the Renaissance, which during the 15th century dominated -Italian art, made itself felt also in the domain of ecclesiastical -architecture and painting. - - § 115.10. =The Italian National Literature.=[342]--=Dante - Alighieri=, born at Florence in A.D. 1265, was in A.D. 1302 - banished as a Ghibelline from his native city, and died an - exile at Ravenna, in A.D. 1321. His boyish love for Beatrice, - which after her early death continued to fill his soul to - the end of his life, gave him an impulse to a “New Life,” - and proved the unfailing source of his poetic inspiration. His - studies at Bologna, Padua, and Paris made him an enthusiastic - admirer of Thomas, but alongside of his scholastic culture - there lay the quick perception of the beautiful, combined with - a lively imagination. He was thus able to deal with the burning - questions of his day in one of the greatest poetic masterpieces - of any age, people, or tongue. His _Divina Commedia_ describes - a vision in which the poet is led, first by the hand of - Virgil, as the representative of human wisdom, through Hell - and Purgatory, then by Beatrice, whose place at times is taken - by the German Matilda (§ 107, 2), and finally by St. Bernard, - as representatives of revealed religion, through Paradise and - the several heavens up to the empyræum, the eternal residence - of the triune God. The poet presents his readers with a - description of what he saw, and reports his conversations - with his guides and the souls of more important personages, - most of them shortly before deceased, in which the problems of - philosophy, theology, and politics are discussed. His political - views, of which he treats _ex professo_ in the three books of - his _De monarchia_, are derived from Aquinas’ theory of the - State, but breathe a strong Italian Ghibelline patriotism, so - that he places not only Boniface VIII. but also Frederick II. - in Hell. In the struggle between the empire and the papacy - he stands decidedly on the side of the former. With profound - sorrow he bewails the corruption of the church in its head and - members, but holds firmly by its confession of faith. And while - lashing vigorously the corruptions of monkery, he eulogizes - the heavenliness of the lives of Francis and Dominic.[343] - =Petrarch=, who died in A.D. 1374, broke away completely from - scholasticism, and turned with enthusiasm to classical studies. - He combated superstition, _e.g._ astrology, but also contends - against the unbelief of his age, and in his letters and poems - lashes with merciless severity the immorality of the papacy - and the secularization of the church.[344] In =Boccaccio= - again, who died in A.D. 1375, antipathy to scholasticism, - monkery, and the hierarchy had reached its utmost stage. He - has no anger and denunciation, but only contempt, reproach, - and wit to shoot against them. He also makes light of the - moral requirements of Christianity and the church, especially - the seventh commandment. But in later years he manifested - deep penitence for the lascivious writing of his youth, to - which he had given reckless and shameless expression in his - “Decameron.” - - § 115.11. =The German National Literature.=--The German - prose style was greatly ennobled by the mystics (§ 114), and - the highest development of German satire against the hierarchy, - clergy, and monks was reached by Sebastian Brant, of Strassburg, - who wrote in A.D. 1494 his “Ship of Fools.” Among popular - preachers John Tauler held the first rank (§ 114, 2). In - Strassburg, Geiler of Kaisersberg distinguished himself as - an original preacher. His sermons were full of biting wit, - keen sarcasm, and humorous expressions, but also of profound - earnestness and withering exposures of the sins of the clergy - and monks. His best known work is a series of sermons on Brant’s - “Ship of Fools,” published in A.D. 1498. - - § 115.12. =The Sacred Drama= (§ 105, 5).--The poetic merit of - most of the German mysteries performed at high festivals is not - great. The Laments of Mary however often rose to true poetic - heights. Comedy and burlesque too found place especially in - connection with Judas, or the exchangers, or the unconverted - Magdalene. A priest, Theodoric Schernberg, wrote a play on the - fall and repentance of the popess Johanna (§ 82, 6). On Shrove - Tuesday plays were performed, in which the clergy and monks - were held up to ridicule. Hans Roseuplüt of Nuremberg, about - A.D. 1450, was the most famous writer of German Shrovetide - plays. In France, about the end of the 14th century, a society - of young people of the upper rank was formed, called _Enfans - sans souci_, whose _Sotties_, buffooneries, in which the church - was ridiculed, were in high repute in the cities and at the - court. Their most distinguished poet was Pierre Gringoire, who, - in the beginning of the 16th century, in the French _Chasse - du Cerf des Cerfs_, parodied the _Servus servorum_ (§ 46, 10), - and the church is represented as the old befooled mother. The - numerous Italian mysteries were produced mainly by the gifted - and cultured sons of Tuscany, who had already developed their - native tongue into a beautiful and flexible language. In Spain, - during the 15th century, the _Autos_, partly as Christmas plays - and partly as sacramental or passion plays, were based on the - ancient mysteries, and in form inclined more to the allegorical - moralities. - - § 115.13. =Architecture and Painting= (§ 104, 12, 14)--=Gothic - architecture= was the prevailing style in the churches of - Germany, France, and England. In Italy, the humanist movement - (§ 120, 1) led to the imitation of ancient classical models, - and thus the Renaissance style was introduced, which flourished - for 300 years. Its real creator was the Florentine Bruneleschi, - who won imperishable renown by the grand cupola of the cathedral - of Florence. Bramante, died A.D. 1514, marks the transition - from the earlier Renaissance of the 15th century to the later - of the 16th, at the summit of which stands Michael Angelo, - A.D. 1474-1564. After a plan of Bramante Julius II., in - A.D. 1506, began the magnificent reconstruction of St. Peter’s - at Rome, the execution of which in its gigantic proportions - occupied the reigns of twenty popes. It was completed under - Urban VIII., in A.D. 1636. This great building, in consequence - of the traffic in indulgences, entered on to defray its cost, - became the occasion of the loss to the papacy of the half - of western Christendom.--Sacred =Statuary=, in the hands of - Ghiberti, died A.D. 1455, and Michael Angelo, reached the - highest stage of excellence.--Of =Painting=, the Augustan - age of which was the 15th century, there were properly four - schools. Giotto, who died in A.D. 1336, was founder of the - Florentine school, which was specially distinguished by its - delineations of sacred history. To it belonged the Dominican - Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, who painted only as he prayed, - Leonardo da Vinci, Fra Bartolomeo, and Michael Angelo. Then - there was the Lombard or Venetian School, at the head of - which stands Giovanni Bellini, died A.D. 1516, which turned - away from the church and applied itself with its fresh living - colouring to the depicting of earthly ideals. Its most eminent - representatives were Correggio, died A.D. 1534, and Titian, - died A.D. 1576. In the Umbrian school, again, the spirit of - St. Francis continued still to breathe. Its greatest master - was Raphael of Urbino, the noblest and most renowned of all - Christian painters, distinguished also as an architect. The - German school had its ablest representatives in the brothers - Hubert and John van Eyk, Albert Dürer, and Hans Holbein the - Elder.--Continuation § 149, 15. - - - § 116. POPULAR MOVEMENTS. - - In consequence of the shameful debasement of the papacy and the -deep corruption of the clergy and monks, the influence of the church -on the moral and religious culture of the people, in spite of the -ardent zeal of the homilists and catechists, was upon the whole much -less than formerly. Reverence for the church as it stood was indeed -tottering, but was not yet completely overthrown. The religious -enthusiasm of earlier times was fading away, but occasional phenomena -still continued to arise, like St. Bridget and St. Catharine of Siena -(§ 112, 4, 8), Claus of Flüe, and the Maid of Orleans. But in order -to elevate a John of Nepomuk into a recognised national saint, it -was necessary to produce forged legendary stories in post-Reformation -times. The market-place tricks of John of Capistrano (§ 112, 3) were -of such a kind, that even the papal curia only after a century and a -half had passed could venture to adorn him with the halo of saintship. -The ever-increasing nuisance of the sale of indulgences smothered -religious earnestness and crushed all religious spirit out of the -people. But earnestness showed itself again in the reactions of the -Beghards and Lollards, or in the explosions of the Flagellants, and -spirituality often found rich nourishment in the preaching of the -mystics. One current issuing from the widespread Friends of God -passed deep into the heart of the German people; another, springing -probably from the same source, but with a quite different tendency, -appears in the Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit. On the other -hand, superstition also prevailed, and was all the more dangerous -the more it parted with its poetic and naïve character (§ 117, 4). -Toward the end of that period however a new era dawned in social -life, as well as in national literature. Knighthood paled before -gunpowder. The establishment of civic corporations developed a sense -of freedom, and introduced a healthy understanding and appreciation -of civil liberty. The printing of books began the dissemination of -knowledge, and the discovery of America opened to view a new world -for trade, colonization, and the spread of Christianity. To the -pious heart of the discoverer the extension of Christ’s kingdom -proved the most powerful motive to his continued exertions, and -from the treasures of the new world he hoped also to obtain the -means for conquering again the Holy Sepulchre and the Holy Land. - - § 116.1. =Two National Saints.=--=John of Nepomuk=, of - Pomuk in Bohemia, was from A.D. 1380 pastor, then canon, - archiepiscopal secretary, and vicar-general of Prague. King - Wenzel had him seized, cruelly tortured, and flung over the - bridge into the Moldau, because, so runs the legend, he as - confessor of the queen sturdily refused to betray the secrets - of the confessional, but really because he had roused the king’s - anger to the uttermost in a violent controversy between the - king’s archbishop, John of Jenzenstein, and the chapter over - their election and consecration of an abbot. The confession - legend appears first in an Austrian writer of A.D. 1451, - who gives it distinctly as a tradition. It is evidently - connected with the Taborite rejection of the Catholic doctrine - of auricular confession (§ 119, 7). If it be accepted as true, - then, seeing that all the older chroniclers ascribe the cruel - treatment of this prelate to the share he took in the abbot’s - election, it will be necessary to assume two victims of the - king’s wrath instead of one. The John Nepomuk of the legend, - and the confessor of the queen, was tortured by the king’s - command in A.D. 1383; the other, who figures in the old - chronicles as archiepiscopal vicar-general, and is simply - called John, was tortured in A.D. 1393, and then thrown over - the bridge into the Moldau. This latter story appears first - in a Bohemian chronicle of A.D. 1541. In the 17th century the - Jesuits, in order to deprive the heretical national saint and - martyr John Huss of his supremacy by bringing forward another - genuine Bohemian, but also a thoroughly Catholic saint, gave - currency to the legend, adorned with many additional stories - of miracles. Benedict XIII. (§ 164, 1) was just the pope - to aid such a device by sanctioning, as he did in A.D. 1729, - the canonization of a purely fictitious saint-confessor John - Nepomuk. He is patron saint of bridges, whose image in Bohemia, - and other strictly Catholic lands, is met with at almost - every bridge, and is reverenced as the protector from unjust - accusations, as well as the dispenser of rain in seasons - of great drought. Although no mention is made of the story - about the confessional in the letter of complaint to Rome - by Archbishop Jenzenstein, Catholic historians still insist - that the confessor’s steadfastness was the real cause, the - election of the abbot the ostensible cause, of the martyrdom - of A.D. 1393.[345] The need of strengthening the position - of the Romish church, in face of the progress of the Swiss - Reformation of the 16th century, led also to the elevation - of the recluse, =Nicolaus [Nicolas] of Flüe= upon the pedestal - of a Swiss national saint. Esteemed even before his birth a - saint by reason of signs and wonders, “Brother Claus,” after - a long, active life in the world, in his 50th year, the father - of ten children, forsook house and home, with the approval - of his wife, abstained from all nourishment save that of the - sacrament, and died, after spending nineteen years in the - wilderness, in A.D. 1487. During this period he was the trusted - adviser of all classes upon public and private affairs. He - is specially famous as having saved Switzerland, by appearing - personally at the Diet of Stanz, in A.D. 1481, stopping - the conflict between cities and provinces, which threatened - to break up the confederation and bring about civil war, and - suggesting the peaceable compromise of the “Agreement of Stanz.” - That Brother Claus did assist in securing harmony is a well - established fact, but it is also demonstrable that he was not - personally present at Stanz. He was beatified by Clement X. - in A.D. 1671, but notwithstanding repeated endeavours by his - admirers, he has not yet been canonized. - - § 116.2. =The Maid of Orleans, A.D. 1428-1431.=--Joan of Arc - was the daughter of a peasant in the village of Domremy, in - Champagne. Even in her thirteenth year she thought she saw - a peculiar brightness and heard a heavenly voice exhorting - her to chastity and piety. She now bound herself by a vow to - perpetual virginity. Afterwards the heavenly voices became more - frequent, and the brightness took the shape of the archangel - Michael, St. Catharine, and other saints, who saluted her as - saviour of her fatherland. France was, under the imbecile king - Charles VI., and still more after his death, rent by the rival - parties of the Armagnacs and Burgundians. The former fought for - the rights of the dauphin Charles VII.; the latter supported his - mother Isabella and the English king Henry V., who was succeeded - in A.D. 1422 by his son Henry VI., then only nine months old. - Joan was the enthusiastic supporter of the dauphin. He found - himself in A.D. 1428 in the greatest straits. The last bulwark - of his might, the city of Orleans, was besieged by the English, - and seemed near its fall. Then her voices commanded Joan to - relieve Orleans, and to accompany the dauphin to his coronation - at Rheims. She now published her call, which had been hitherto - kept secret, overcame all difficulties, was recognised as - a messenger of heaven, assumed the male attire of a soldier, - and placed herself at the head of an enthusiastic crowd. Great - success attended the movements of this girl of seventeen years. - In the latter campaigns of the war she became the prisoner of - Burgundy, who delivered her over to the English. At Rouen she - was subjected to an ecclesiastical tribunal, which after four - months’ investigation condemned her to the stake as a heretic - and sorceress. In view of the fire, her courage failed. Yielding - to the persuasion of her confessor, she acknowledged her guilt, - and had her sentence commuted to that of imprisonment for life. - But eight days later she was led forth to the stake. Her rude - keepers had taken away her female attire, and forced her to wear - again male garments, and this act to which she was compelled was - made a charge against her. She died courageously and piously in - A.D. 1431. At the demand of her family, which had been ennobled, - a revision of the process against her was made in A.D. 1450, when - she was pronounced innocent, and the charges against her false. - The endeavour of Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, in A.D. 1876, - in the name of Catholic France, to have her canonized, was not - responded to by the papal curia. The infallible church, that - had burnt her as a witch in A.D. 1431, could scarcely give her - a place among its saints, even after 450 years had gone. - - § 116.3. =Lollards, Flagellants, and Dancers.=--During a plague - at Antwerp in A.D. 1300 the =Lollards= made their appearance, - nursing the sick and burying the dead. They spread rapidly - over the Netherlands and the bordering German provinces. Like - the Beghards however, and for the same reasons, they soon fell - under suspicion of heresy, and were subjected to the persecution - of the Inquisition, until Gregory XI., in A.D. 1347, again - granted them toleration. But the name Lollard still continued - to be associated with heresy or hypocrisy (§ 119, 1).[346] - The =Flagellant= fraternities, which had sprung up in the - 12th century (§ 106, 4), greatly increased during this period, - and reached their height during the 14th century. Their - influence was greatest during the visitation of the Black - Death, A.D. 1348-1350, which cost Europe many millions of - lives. Issuing from Hungary, rushing forth with the force of - an avalanche, and massing in great numbers on the upper Rhine, - they spread over all Germany, Belgium and Holland, Switzerland, - England, and Sweden. Entrance into France was refused them - at the bidding of the Avignon pope Clement VI. In long rows - of penitents, with uncovered head, screaming forth their - penitential songs, and with tears streaming down their cheeks, - they rushed about lashing their bare backs. They also from - city to city and from village to village read aloud a letter - of warning, said to have been written by Christ, and brought - to the Patriarch of Jerusalem by an angel. This paroxysm - lasted for three years. In Lombardy, in A.D. 1399, when famine, - pestilence, the Turkish war, and expectation of the end of the - world inclined men to such extravagances, the Flagellants made - their appearance again, dressed in white robes, and so called - _Bianchi_, _Albati_. Princes, scholars, and popes, universities - and councils sought to check this silly fanaticism, but were - not able to suppress it. Many Flagellants were also heretical - in their views, spoke of the hierarchy as antichrist, withdrew - from the worship of the church, declared the bloody baptism of - the scourge the only true sacrament, and died at the stake of - the Inquisition.--The =Dancers=, _Chorisantes_, were a sect - closely related to the Flagellants, but their fanaticism seemed - more of a pathological than of a religious order. Half naked - and crowned with leaves they rushed along the streets and into - houses, dancing in a wild, tumultuous manner. They made a great - noise in the Rhine Provinces in A.D. 1374 and in A.D. 1418. They - were regarded as demoniacs and cured by calling upon St. Vitus. - - § 116.4. =The Friends of God.=--During the 14th century many - detachments of mystic sects spread through all Southern Germany, - and even from the Netherlands to Hungary and Italy. A powerful - religious awakening, with an undertone of contemplative mysticism, - was now experienced in the castles of the knights, in the shops - of artisans, and in the stalls of traders, as well as in the - Beguine houses, the monasteries, and nunneries of the Dominicans - and other monkish orders. A great free association was then - called forth under the name of “Friends of God” (John xv. 15), - whose members maintained personal and epistolary correspondence - with one another. The headquarters of this movement were - Cologne, Strassburg, and Basel. Its preachers and supporters - were mostly Dominicans. They drew their intellectual and - spiritual nourishment from the writings of the German mystics. - They repudiated all sectarian intentions, carefully observed - the rites and ceremonies and attended on the worship of the - church, and accepted all its dogmas. But all the greater on - this account was their sorrow over the deep decay of religious - and moral life, and their lamentations over the corruption - of the clergy and hierarchy. Fantastic visionary conceptions, - however, derived from the domain of mysticism, were by no means - rare among them. - - § 116.5. =Pantheistic Libertine Societies.=--A demoniacally - inspired counterpart to the fraternity of the “Friends of God” is - found in the sect of the Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit. - This sect, derived for the most part from the artisan class, - may be regarded as carrying out to a consistent development the - views of Amalrich of Bena (§ 108, 4). We meet with these in the - beginning of the 14th century wandering about, missionarising - and agitating in all parts of Southern Germany as well as in - Switzerland, while they were particularly numerous in the Rhine - Provinces, where Cologne and Strassburg were their main resorts. - Often associating with strolling Beghards (§ 98, 12) they - are frequently confounded with these. They were communistic - libertine pantheists. Every pious man is a Christ, in whom God - becomes man. Whatever is done in love is pure. The perfect are - free from the law, and cannot sin. The church with her sacraments - and institutions is a thorough cheat; purgatory, heaven, and - hell are mere figments, the marriage bond contrary to nature, - all property is common good, and theft of it allowable. Their - secret services ended with immoral orgies. The Inquisition - exterminated the sect by sword and stake.--The Adamites in - Austria in A.D. 1312 and the Turlupines in the Isle of France - showed similar tendencies. In the beginning of the 15th century - they reappeared as _Homines intelligentiæ_ at Brussels. In - A.D. 1421 the Hussite leader Ziska rooted out the Bohemian - Adamites or Picards, who went naked after the pattern of - paradise, and had a community of wives. Picard is just a - modification of the heretical designation Beghard. They gained - a footing in several villages, and built an establishment on a - small island in a tributary of the Moldau, from which they made - excursions into the surrounding districts, until Ziska put an - end to them by conquering the island in A.D. 1421. - - - § 117. CHURCH DISCIPLINE. - - The reckless and shameless sale of indulgences often made the -exercise of church discipline impossible, and the discreditable -conduct of the mendicant monks destroyed all respect for the -confessional. The scandalous misuse of the ban and interdict had shorn -these of much of their terror. Frightful curses were pronounced at Rome -every Maundy Thursday against heretics by the solemn reading of the -bull _In Cœna Domini_. The Inquisition was still abundantly occupied -with persecuting and burning numerous heretics, and at the end of our -period Innocent VIII. carried to the utmost extreme the persecution and -burning of witches. - - § 117.1. =Indulgences.=--The scholastic theory of indulgences - (§ 106, 2) was authoritatively proclaimed by Clement VI. in - A.D. 1343. The reforming councils of the 15th century wished - only to prevent them being misused, for the purpose of filling - the papal treasury. Sixtus IV., in A.D. 1477, declared that - it was allowable to take money for indulgences for the dead, - and that their souls might be freed from purgatory. The pert - question, why the pope would not rather free all souls at - once by the exercise of his sovereign power, was answered - by the assertion that the church, in accordance with Divine - righteousness, could dispense its grace only _discrete et cum - moderamine_. The institution of the jubilee gave a great impulse - to the sale of indulgences. In A.D. 1300 Boniface VIII., at the - bidding of an old man, proclaimed a complete indulgence for one - hundred years to all Christians who would do penance for fifteen - days in the churches of the apostles at Rome, and by this means - gathered from day to day 200,000 pilgrims within the walls of - the Holy City. Later popes made a jubilee every fiftieth year, - then every thirty-third, and finally every twenty-fifth. Instead - of appearing personally at Rome, it was enough to pay the cost - of such a journey. The nepotism and extravagance of the popes - had left an empty exchequer, which this sale of indulgences - was intended to fill. The war with the Turks and the building - of St. Peter’s gave occasion to repeated indulgence crusades. - Traffickers in indulgences in the most barefaced way cried - up the quality of their wares; the conditions of repentance - and purpose of reformation were scarcely so much as named. - Indulgences were even granted beforehand for sins that were - contemplated. - - § 117.2. =The Inquisition=, since A.D. 1232 under the direction - of the Dominicans (§ 109, 2), spread through all European - countries during the 14th century. While the papal court resided - at Avignon the Inquisition was at its height in =France=, where - Waldensians and Albigensians, Beghards and Lollards, Fraticelli - and Fanatical Spiritualists, were brought in crowds to the stake - and subjected to the most cruel tortures. Bernard Delicieux, a - Franciscan, raised his voice, A.D. 1300-1320, against the inhuman - cruelty of the inquisitors, and with noble independence and - heroic bravery appealed to king and pope against the merciless - sacrifice of so many victims. He was shut up for life in a - dark dungeon, and fed on bread and water.--In =Germany=, where, - from the murder of Conrad of Marburg in A.D. 1233 (§ 109, 3), - for almost a century and a half we find no trace of a regularly - constituted Inquisition, it made its appearance again in - A.D. 1368. During that year Urban V. issued a bull, by which - he required that the civil and ecclesiastical authorities of - Germany should support with their counsel and influence the two - inquisitors who were searching out the heretical Beghards and - Beguines (§ 116, 5), and place their prisons at the disposal - of the Holy Office, which had still no prison of its own. His - successor, Gregory XI., in A.D. 1372 increased the number of - inquisitors in Germany to five, one in each of the archdioceses - of Mainz, Cologne, Salzburg, Magdeburg, and Bremen; while his - successor, Boniface IX., in A.D. 1399 added a sixth for North - Germany. But these papal bulls would probably, owing to the - disinclination of the Germans to the Inquisition, like the - attempts of Gregory IX., never have been put in force, had not - Charles IV. (§ 110, 4, 5) taken up the matter with an ardent - zeal that even went beyond the intentions of Urban and Gregory. - During his second journey to Rome, in A.D. 1369, he issued - from Lucca four imperial decrees, and in A.D. 1378 from Treves - a fifth, by which he granted to the Inquisition throughout - Germany all the rights, powers, and privileges which it had - anywhere, and required that all civil and ecclesiastical - authorities, under pain of severest penalties and confiscation - of all their goods, should support the Inquisition in its search - for heretics and in its discovery and burning of all religious - writings in the vulgar tongue composed and circulated by laymen - or semi-laymen.--The =Spanish Inquisition= was re-established - under Ferdinand and Isabella in A.D. 1480, and thoroughly - organized by the grand-inquisitor Torquemada, A.D. 1483-1499. - One of the first inquisitors appointed by him in A.D. 1484 was - an Augustinian, Pedro Arbires, who amid the most unrelenting - cruelties performed the duties of his office with such zeal, - that in sixteen months many hundreds had perished at the stake; - but his fanatical career was ended by his murder at the altar - in A.D. 1485. Not only the two who did the deed, but also all - their relatives and friends, to the number of two hundred, - suspected of complicity in a plot, were burned, while the - “martyr” himself was beatified by Alexander VII. in A.D. 1661, - and canonized by Pius IX. in A.D. 1867. This terrible tribunal - further undertook the persecution of the hated Moors and Jews - who had been baptized under compulsion (§ 95, 2, 3), which - through numerous confiscations greatly enriched the national - exchequer of Spain. This institution reached its highest - point under the grand-inquisitor the Cardinal Francis Ximenes, - A.D. 1507-1517, under whom 2,536 persons were burnt alive - and 1,368 in effigy. The _auto da fès_, which ended at the - stake, were conducted with a horrible pomp. Even those who were - acquitted of the charge of heresy were compelled for a long - time to wear the _san benito_, an armless robe with a red cross - marked on it before and behind. According to Llorente, who had - been general secretary of the Inquisition at Madrid, the Spanish - inquisition, down to its suppression by Joseph Buonaparte in - A.D. 1808, had executed in person 31,912, burned in effigy - 17,659, and subjected to severe punishments 291,456.[347] - - § 117.3. =The Bull “_In Cœna Domini_.”=--It was customary - to repeat from time to time the more important decrees of - excommunication, to show that they were still valid. In this - way the famous bull _In Cœna Domini_ was gradually constructed. - The earliest sketch of it was given by Urban V., who died in - A.D. 1370, and it was published in its final form by Urban VIII. - in A.D. 1627. It contains a summary of all the rights of the - Roman hierarchy, with anathemas against all opposing claims, - not only on the part of secular princes and laymen, but also of - antipapal councils, and concludes with a solemn excommunication - of all heretics, to which Paul V. in A.D. 1610 added Lutherans, - Zwinglians, and Calvinists, together with all their sympathisers. - Pius V., in A.D. 1567, in a new redaction insisted that it should - be read yearly in the Catholic churches of all lands, but could - not get this carried out, especially in France and Germany. In - A.D. 1770 Clement XIV. forbade its being read. - - § 117.4. =Prosecution of Witches.=--Down to the beginning of - the 13th century many churchmen had spoken against the popular - superstition regarding sorcery, witchcraft, and compacts with the - devil, and a whole series of provincial councils had pronounced - such belief to be heathenish, sinful, and heretical. Even in - Gratian’s decretal (§ 99, 5) there was a canon which required - the clergy to teach the people that witchcraft was a delusion, - and belief in it incompatible with the Christian faith. But - upon the establishment of the Inquisition in the beginning of - the 13th century witchcraft came more and more to occupy the - attention of the ecclesiastical authorities. Heresy and sorcery - were now regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on - and serviceable to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore - treated in the same way as offences to be punished with - torture and the stake. The Dominicans, as administrators of - the Inquisition, were the most zealous defenders of the belief - in witchcraft, whereas the Franciscans generally spoke of it - simply as foolish, heathenish, and heretical. Thomas Aquinas - included it in his theological system, and Eymerich in his - _Directorium Inquisitorium_ (§ 109, 2). Yet witch prosecutions - were only occasional incidents during the 14th and 15th centuries, - especially in Germany, where clergy and people were adverse - to them. But it was quite otherwise after Innocent VIII., on - 3rd December, 1484, by his bull _Summis desiderantes affectibus_, - complaining of previous laxity, called attention to the spread - of witchcraft in the country, and appointed two inquisitors, - Sprenger and Institor, to secure its extermination. These - administered their office with such zeal and success, that - in A.D. 1489 at Cologne they were able, as the result of their - experiences, to publish under the title _Malleus maleficarum_ - a complete code for witch prosecutions. From the confessions - wrung from their victims by torture and suggestive questions, - they obtained a full, dogmatic system of compacts and intrigues - with the devil, of _Succubis_ and _Incubis_, of witch ointment, - broomsticks, and ovenforks, of witches’ sabbaths, Walpurgis - nights, and flights up chimneys. Soon this illusion spread - like an epidemic, and thousands throughout Germany and all - other Catholic countries, mostly old women, but also some young - maidens, were subjected to the most horrible tortures, and after - confession had been extorted, to death by fire. The _Malleus_ - accounted for the fact that women and very rarely men were found - engaged in such proceedings, by this statement: _Dicitur enim - femina a feret minus, quia semper minorem habet et servat fidem, - et hoc ex natura._--The Reformation of the 16th century made - no change in these horrible proceedings, which rather rose to - a height during the 17th century. Theologians of all confessions - believed in the possibility and reality of compacts with the - devil, and regarded this to be as essential to an orthodox creed - as belief in the devil’s existence. The jurists and civil judges - in Protestant and Catholic countries were no less narrow-minded - and superstitious than the theologians. Among Catholics the - most celebrated defenders of the witch prosecutions were Jean - Bodin (§ 148, 3), Peter Binsfeld, and the Jesuit Mart. Delrio - (§ 149, 11). Among Protestant vindicators of these prosecutions - may be named the Heidelberg physician Thomas Erastus (§ 144, 1), - James I. of England, and the famous criminal lawyer Carpzov of - Leipzig. Noble men however were not wanting on both sides who - were shrewd and sensible enough to oppose such crude conceptions. - In the 16th century we have the physician Weier, who wrote his - _De præstigiis dæmonorum_ in A.D. 1563, and in the 17th the - Jesuits Tanner and Spee (§ 149, 11; 156, 3), and the Dutch - Protestant Bekker (§ 160, 5). The writings of the Halle jurist - Thomasius in A.D. 1701, 1704, were the first to tell powerfully - in favour of liberal views. In A.D. 1749 a nun of seventy - years old was burnt at Würzburg as a witch. In A.D. 1754 a - girl of thirteen and in A.D. 1756 one of fourteen years were - put to death at Landshut as suspected of witchcraft. In German - Switzerland a servant girl at Glarus in A.D. 1782 was the last - victim. In bigoted Catholic countries the delusion lasted longer, - but prosecutions were seldomer carried the length of judicial - murder. In Mexico however, the Alcade Ignacio Castello of - San Jacobo on 20th August, 1877, “with consent of the whole - population,” burnt five witches alive. Altogether since the - issue of the bull of Innocent there have been certainly no less - than 300,000 women brought to the stake as witches. - - - - - IV. Attempts at Reformation. - - - § 118. ATTEMPTED REFORMS IN CHURCH POLITY. - - The struggle between imperialism and hierarchism, which is present -through the whole course of the Middle Ages, rose to a height in the -times of Louis the Bavarian, A.D. 1314-1347 (§ 110, 3, 4), and is -of special interest here because of the literary war waged against -one another by the rival supporters of the emperor and the pope. It -concerns itself first of all only with the questions in debate between -the imperial and the sacerdotal parties; but soon on the imperialist -side there appeared a reforming tendency, which could not be given -effect to without carrying the discussion into a multitude of other -departments where reformation was also needed. Of quite another kind -was the “reformation of head and members” desired by the great councils -of the 15th century. The contention here was based, not so much upon -any superiority claimed by the emperor over the pope and by the State -over the church, but rather upon the subordination of the pope to the -supreme authority of the universal church represented by the œcumenical -councils. Yet both agreed in this, that with like energy they attacked -the corruption of the papacy, in the one case in the interest of the -State, in the other in the interest of the church. - - § 118.1. =The Literary War between Imperialists and Curialists in - the 14th Century.=--The literary controversy over the debatable - land between church and State was conducted with special vigour - in the earlier part of our period, on account of the conflict - between Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France (§ 110, 1). - The ablest vindicators of the independence of the State were the - advocate =Peter Dubois= and the Dominican theologian =John of - Paris=. Among their scholars were the men who twenty years later - sought refuge from the wrath of Pope John XXII. at the court of - Louis the Bavarian at Munich. Of these the most important was the - Italian =Marsilius of Padua=. As teacher of theology, philosophy, - and medicine at Paris, in A.D. 1324, when the dispute between - emperor and pope had reached its height, he composed jointly with - his colleague =John of Jandun= in Champagne a _Defensor pacis_, - a civil and ecclesiastical memoir, which, with an insight and - clearness very remarkable for that age, developed the evangelical - mean of the superiority of the State over the church, and of - the empire over the papacy, historically, exegetically, and - dogmatically; and for this end established theories of Scripture - and tradition, of the tasks and place of the church in the State, - of excommunication and persecution of heretics, of liberty of - faith and conscience, etc., which even transcend the principles - laid down on these points by the Reformation of the 16th century. - Both authors accompanied Louis to Italy in A.D. 1326, and there - John of Jandun died in A.D. 1328. Marsilius continued with the - emperor as his physician, counsellor, and literary defender, and - died at Munich between A.D. 1341-1343. In A.D. 1327 John XXII. - condemned the _Defensor pacis_, and Clement VI. pronounced its - author the worst heretic of all ages. The book, often reprinted - during the 16th century, was first printed at Basel in A.D. 1522. - - § 118.2. Alongside of Marsilius there also stood a goodly array - of schismatical Franciscans, with their general, Michael of - Cesena, at their head (§ 112, 2), who were like himself refugees - at the court of Munich. They persistently contested the heresies - of John XXII. in regard to the vision of God (§ 110, 3) and his - lax theory of poverty. Their polemic also extended to the whole - papal system, and the corruption of church and clergy connected - therewith. The most celebrated of them in respect of scientific - attainments was =William Occam= (§ 113, 3). His earlier treatises - dealt with the pope’s heresies, and only after the Diet of - Rhense (§ 110, 4) did he take up the burning questions about - church and State. In the comprehensive _Dialogus_ he rejects - the infallibility of the pope as decidedly as his temporal - sovereignty, and denies the Divine institution of the primacy. - Also a German prelate, =Leopold of Bebenburg=, Canon of Würzburg, - and from A.D. 1353 Bishop of Bamberg, inspired by genuinely - German patriotism, made his appearance in A.D. 1338 as a brave - and prudent defender of imperial rights against the assumptions - of the papacy.--The ablest of all Marsilius’ opponents was the - Spanish Franciscan =Alvarus Pelagius=, who wrote in A.D. 1330 the - treatise _De planctu ecclesiæ_, in which, while sadly complaining - of the corruption of the church and clergy, he yet ascribes - to the pope as the vicar of Christ unlimited authority over - all earthly principalities and powers, and regards him as the - fountain of all privileges and laws. A still more thoroughgoing - deification of the papacy had appeared a few years earlier - in the _Summa de potestate ecclesiæ ad Johannem Papam_ by - the Augustinian =Augustinus Triumphus= of Ancona. But neither - he nor Pelagius, in view of the manifest contradictions of the - pope’s doctrines of poverty (§ 112, 2), dared go the length of - maintaining papal infallibility. A German canon of Regensburg, - =Conrad of Megensburg=, also took part in the controversy, - seeking to vindicate and glorify the papacy. - - § 118.3. =Reforming Councils of the 15th Century.=--The - longing for reform during this period found most distinct - expression in the councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel - (§ 110, 7-9). The fruitlessness of these endeavours, though - they had the sympathy of the people generally, shows that there - was something essentially defective in them. The movement had - kept itself aloof from all sectaries and separatists, wishing to - hold by and reform the presently existing church. But its fault - was this, that it insisted only upon a reformation in the head - and members, not in the spirit, that it aimed at lopping off - the wild growths of the tree, without getting rid of the corrupt - sap from which the very same growths would again proceed. Only - that which was manifestly unchristian in the pretensions of - the hierarchy, the covetousness and greed of the pope, the - immorality of the clergy, the depravity and ignorance of - the monks, etc.--in short, only abuses in hierarchical - constitution and discipline--were dealt with. There was no - word about doctrine. The Romish system, in spite of all its - perversions, was allowed to stand. The current forms of worship, - notwithstanding the introduction of many unevangelical elements - and pagan superstitions, were left untouched. It was not seen - that what was most important of all was the revival of the - preaching of repentance and of justification through Him who - is the justifier of the ungodly. And so it happened that at - Constance Huss, who had pointed out and followed this way, was - sent to the stake, and at Basel the doctrine of the immaculate - conception (§ 112, 4) was admitted as a doctrine of the church. - It was not merely the election of a new pope opposed to the - Reformation that rendered the negotiations at Pisa and Constance - utter failures, the wrong principle upon which they proceeded - insured a disappointing result. - - § 118.4. =Friends of Reform in France during the 15th Century.= - - 1. =Peter d’Ailly=, professor and chancellor of the University - of Paris, Bishop of Cambray in A.D. 1397 and cardinal in - A.D. 1411, was one of the ablest members of the councils of - Pisa and Constance. He died in A.D. 1425 as cardinal-legate - in Germany. His chief dogmatic treatise, the _Quæstiones_ - on the Sentences of the Lombard, occupies the standpoint - of Occam. In many of his other works he falls back upon - the position of the mystics of St. Victor (§ 102, 4), - and recommends with much warmth the diligent study of the - Scriptures. His ideas about church reform are centred in - the affirmation of the Gallican Liberties, which he had - to maintain as a French bishop, but are expressed with the - moderation becoming a Roman cardinal. In opposition to Occam - and the Spirituals, he founds the temporal sovereignty of - the pope on the _Donatio Constantini_. He also holds by - the primacy of the Roman bishop, as firmly established by - Scripture. But the πέτρα of Matthew xvi. 18 he understands - not of Peter, but of Christ. In this passage therefore no - pre-eminence is given to Peter over the other apostles in - the _potestas ordinis_, but by the injunction of John xx., - “Feed My sheep,” such pre-eminence is given in the _potestas - regiminis_. The œcumenical council, as representative of the - whole church, stands superior to the pope as administrative - head. - - 2. d’Ailly’s successor as professor and chancellor was the - celebrated =Jean Charlier=, better known from the name of - his birthplace near Rheims as =Gerson=. Having denounced the - Duke of Burgundy’s murder of the Duke of Orleans, and having - thus incurred that prince’s hatred, he withdrew after the - Council of Constance into Bavaria. Soon after the duke’s - death, in A.D. 1419, he returned to France, and settled - at Lyons, where he died in A.D. 1429. Like d’Ailly, Gerson - was a decided nominalist, and sought to give new life - to scholasticism by combining with it Scripture study - and mysticism. He, too, was powerfully influenced by the - Victorine mystics, and yet more by Bonaventura He had - no appreciation of the speculative element in German - mysticism. Gerson was the first French theologian who - employed the language of the people, particularly in his - smaller practical tracts. He was mainly instrumental in - bringing about the Council of Pisa. In the Council of - Constance he was one of the most conspicuous figures. - Restrained by no personal or official relationship with - the curia, he could by speech and writing express himself - much more freely than d’Ailly. The principle and means - of the reform of the church, in its head and members, was - recognised by Gerson in his statement that the highest - authority of the church is to be sought not in the pope, - but in the œcumenical council. He held however in every - point to the Romish system of doctrine. He did indeed - unweariedly proclaim the Bible the one norm and source - of all Christian knowledge, but he would not allow the - reading of it in the vernacular, and regarded all as - heretics who did not in the interpretation of it submit - unconditionally to the judgment of the church. - - 3. Nicholas of Clemanges was in A.D. 1393 rector of the - University of Paris, but afterwards retired into solitude. - He had the profoundest insight into the corruption of the - church, and acknowledged Holy Scripture to be the only - source of saving truth. From this standpoint he demanded - a thorough reform in theological study and the whole - constitution of the church. - - 4. Louis d’Aleman, cardinal and Archbishop of Arles, who died - in A.D. 1450, was the most powerful and most eloquent of the - anti-papal party at Basel. He was therefore excommunicated - by Eugenius IV. At last submitting to the pope, he was - restored by Nicholas V. and in A.D. 1527 beatified by - Clement VII. - - § 118.5. =Friends of Reform in Germany.= - - 1. Even before the appearance of the Parisian friends of - reform, a German, =Henry of Langenstein=, at Marburg had - insisted upon the princes and prelates calling an œcumenical - council for putting an end to schism and reforming the - church. In a treatise published in A.D. 1381 he gave a sad - but only too true picture of the desolate condition of the - church. The cloisters he designated _prostibula meretricium_, - cathedral churches _speluncæ raptorum et latronum_, etc. - From A.D. 1363 he taught in Paris, from A.D. 1390 in Vienna, - where in A.D. 1397 he died as rector of the university. - - 2. =Theodorich or Dietrich of Niem= in Westphalia - accompanied Gregory XI. from France to Rome as his - secretary in A.D. 1377. From A.D. 1395-1399 he was Bishop - of Verdun, was probably present at the Council of Pisa, - and certainly at that of Constance. He died in this latter - place in A.D. 1417. His writings are of great value for - the history of the schism and of the councils of Pisa and - Constance. His language is simple, strong, and faithful. - - 3. =Gregory of Heimburg= was present at the Basel Council, - in terms of close friendship with Æneas Sylvius, who was - then also on the side of reform. He became in A.D. 1433 - syndicus at Nuremberg, went to the council at Mantua - in A.D. 1459 as envoy of Duke Sigismund of Austria, was - banished in A.D. 1460 by his old friend, now Pius II., - afterwards led a changeful life, never free from the - papal persecutions, and died at Dresden in A.D. 1472. His - principal writings on civil and ecclesiastical polity, - powerful indictments against the Roman curia inspired by - love for his German fatherland, appeared at Frankfort in - A.D. 1608 under the title _Scripta nervosa justitiæque - plena_. - - 4. =Jacob of Jüterboyk [Jüterbock]=, who died in A.D. 1465, - was first a Cistercian monk in Poland and teacher of - theology at Cracow, then Carthusian at Erfurt, and to the - end of his life a zealous defender of the positions of the - Council of Basel, at which he was present in A.D. 1441. His - writings leave untouched the doctrines of the church, but - vigorously denounce the political and moral corruption of - the papacy and monasticism, the greedy misuse of the sale - of indulgences, and insist upon the subordinating of the - pope under general councils, and their right even to depose - the pontiff. Whoever contests this latter position teaches - that Christ has given over the church to a sinful man, like - a bridegroom who surrenders his bride to the unrestrained - will of a soldier. All possession of property on the part - of those in sacred offices is with him an abomination, and - unhesitatingly he calls upon the civil power to put an end - to this evil. - - 5. The =Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa= (§ 113, 6) also for a long - time was one of the most zealous friends of reform in the - Basel Council. - - 6. =Felix Hemmerlin=, canon at Zürich, was to the end of - his life an ardent supporter of the reform measures of the - Council of Basel, at which he had been present. As he gave - effect to his views in his =official= position, he incurred - the hatred and persecution of the inmates of his convent - to such an extent, that they laid a plot to murder him in - A.D. 1439. His whole life was an almost unbroken series of - sufferings and persecutions. These in great part he brought - on himself by his zealous support of the reactionary party - of the nobles that sided with Austria in opposition to the - patriotic revolutionary party that struggled for freedom. - Deprived of his revenues and deposed from office, he was - imprisoned in A.D. 1454, and died between A.D. 1457-1464 - in the prison of the monastery of the Minorites at Lucerne, - martyr as much to his political conservatism as to his - ecclesiastical reformatory principles. His writings were - placed in the _Index prohibitorum_ by the Council of Trent. - - 7. To this place also belongs the work written in the Swabian - dialect, “=The Reformation of the Emperor Sigismund=,” - which demands a thoroughgoing and radical reform of - the clergy and the secular priests, insisting upon the - renunciation of all personal property on the part of the - latter, enforcing against prelates, abbots, monasteries, - and monks all the reforms of the Basel Council, and making - proposals for their execution in the spirit of the Taborites - and Hussites. The author is styled in the MSS. Frederick - of Landscron, and describes himself as a councillor of - Sigismund. The tract was therefore regarded during the - 15th and 16th centuries as a work composed under the - direction of the emperor, setting forth the principles - of reformation attempted at the Basel or Constance Council. - According to Böhm its author was the Taborite Reiser - (§ 119, 9), who, under the powerful reforming impulse - of the Basel Council of A.D. 1435-1437, composed it in - A.D. 1438. - - § 118.6. =An Italian Apostate from the Basel Liberal - Party.=--=Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini=, born at Siena in A.D. 1405, - appeared at Basel, first as secretary of a bishop, then of a - cardinal, and finally of the Basel anti-pope Felix V., as a most - decided opponent of Eugenius IV., and wrote in A.D. 1439 from - this point of view his history of the council. In A.D. 1442 he - entered the service of the then neutral Emperor Frederick III., - was made _Poeta laureatus_ and imperial councillor, and as such - still fought for the independence of the German church. But in - A.D. 1445, with all the diplomatic arts which were so abundantly - at his disposal, he wrought to secure the subjection of the - emperor and German princes under the pope (§ 110, 10). Made - bishop of Siena in A.D. 1450, he was raised to the cardinalate - by Calixtus III. in A.D. 1456, and two years later ascended the - papal throne as Pius II. The lasciviousness of his earlier life - is mirrored in his poems, novels, dialogues, dramas, and letters. - But as pope, old and weak, he maintained an honourable life, and - in a bull of retractation addressed to the University of Cologne - exhorted Christendom _Æneam rejicite, Pium recipite_! - - § 118.7. =Reforms in Church Policy in Spain.=--Notwithstanding - the church feeling awakened by the struggle with the Moors, a - vigorous opposition to papal pretensions was shown during the - 14th century by the Spanish princes, and after the outbreak - of the great schism the anti-pope Clement VII., in A.D. 1381, - purchased the obedience of the Spanish church by large - concessions in regard to appointment to its bishoprics and - the removal of the abuses of papal indulgences. The popes, - indeed, sought not unsuccessfully to enlist Spain in their - favour against the reformatory tendencies of the councils - of the 15th century, until =Ferdinand= of Aragon [Arragon], - A.D. 1479-1516, and =Isabella= of Castille [Castile], - A.D. 1474-1504, who had on account of their zeal for the - Catholic cause been entitled by the pontiff himself “their - Catholic majesties,” entered so vigorous a protest against - papal usurpations, that toward the end of the 15th century the - royal supremacy over the Spanish church had won a recognition - never accorded to it before. They consistently refused to - acknowledge any bishop appointed by the pope, and forced from - Sixtus IV. the concession that only Spaniards nominated by - the Crown should be eligible for the highest ecclesiastical - offices. All papal rescripts were subject to the royal approval, - ecclesiastical tribunals were carefully supervised, and appeals - from them were allowed to the royal judicatures. The church had - also to give ordinary and extraordinary tithes of its goods and - revenues for State purposes. The Spanish inquisition (§ 117, 2), - thoroughly recognised in A.D. 1483, was more of a civil than - an ecclesiastical institution. As the bishops and inquisitors - were appointed by the royal edict, the orders of knights - (§ 98, 13), by the transference of the grand-mastership to - the king, were placed in complete subjection to the Crown; - and whether he would or not Alexander VI. was obliged to accord - to the royal commission for church and cloister visitation - and reform the most absolute authority. But in everything - else these rulers were worthy of the name of “Catholics,” - for they tolerated in their church only the purely mediæval - type of strict orthodoxy. The most distinguished promoter - of their reforms in church polity was a Franciscan monk, - =Francis Ximenes=, from A.D. 1492 confessor to Isabella, - afterwards raised by her to the archbishopric of Toledo, - made a Roman cardinal by Alexander VI., and grand-inquisitor - of Spain in A.D. 1507. He died in A.D. 1517. - - - § 119. EVANGELICAL EFFORTS AT REFORM. - - Alongside of the Parisian reformers, but far in advance of them, -stand those of the English and Bohemian churches represented by Wiclif -and Huss. The reformation aimed at by these two was essentially of -the same kind, Wiclif being the more original, while Huss was largely -dependent upon his great English precursor. For in personal endowment, -speculative power, rich and varied learning, acuteness and wealth of -thought, originality and productivity of intellect, the Englishman -was head and shoulders above the Bohemian. On the other hand, Huss -was far more a man for the people, and he conducted his contention -in a sensible, popular, and practical manner. There were also powerful -representatives of the reform movement in the Netherlands during this -period, who pointed to Scripture and faith in the crucified Saviour as -the only radical cure for the corruptions of the church. While Wiclif -and Huss attached themselves to the Augustinian theology, the Dutchmen -gave themselves to quiet, calm contemplation and the acquirement of -practical religious knowledge. In Italy too a reformer appeared of a -strongly evangelical spirit, who did not however show the practical -sense of those of the Netherlands. - - § 119.1. =Wiclif and the Wiclifites.=--In England the kings and - the Parliament had for a long time withstood the oppressive yoke - of the papal hierarchy. Men too like John of Salisbury, Robert - Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, and Thomas Bradwardine had raised their - voices against the inner corruption of the church. =John Wiclif=, - a scholar of Bradwardine, was born about A.D. 1320. As fellow of - the University of Oxford, he supported in A.D. 1366 the English - Crown against the payment of tribute to the papal court then at - Avignon, admitted by John Lackland (§ 96, 18), of which payment - had now for a long time been refused. This secured him court - favour, the title of doctor, and a professorship of theology at - Oxford; and in A.D. 1374 he was chosen as member of a commission - which was to discuss at Brügge in the Netherlands with the papal - envoys the differences that had arisen about the appointing - to ecclesiastical offices. After his return he openly spoke - and wrote against the papal “antichrist” and his doctrines. - Gregory XI. now, in A.D. 1377, condemned nineteen propositions - from his writings, but the English court protected him from the - strict inquiry and punishment threatened. Meanwhile Wiclif was - ever becoming bolder. Under his influence religious societies - were formed which sent out travelling preachers of the gospel - among the people. By their opponents they were called Lollards - (§ 116, 3), a name to which the stigma of heresy was already - attached. Wiclif translated for them the Scriptures from - the Vulgate into English. The bitterness of his enemies now - reached its height. Just then, in A.D. 1381, a rebellion of - the oppressed peasants that deluged all England with blood - broke out. Its origin has been quite gratuitously assigned to - the religious movement. When he had directly repudiated the - doctrine of transubstantiation, a synod at London, in A.D. 1382, - condemned his writings and his doctrine as heretical, and the - university also cast him out. Court and Parliament could only - protect his person. He now retired to his rectory at Lutterworth - in Leicestershire, where he died on 31st December, 1384.--For - five centuries his able writings were left unprinted, to moulder - away in the obscurity of libraries. His English works have - now been edited by Matthews, London, 1880. Lechler of Leipzig - edited Wiclif’s most complete and comprehensive work, the - “_Trialogus_” (Oxford, 1869), in which his whole theological - system is developed. Buddensieg of Dresden published the keen - antipapal controversial tract, “_De Christo et suo adversario - Antichristo_” (Leipzig, 1880). The Wiclif Society, instituted - at the fifth centenary of Wiclif’s death for the purpose of - issuing critical editions of his most important works, sent - forth as their first performance Buddensieg’s edition of - “twenty-six Latin controversial tracts of Wiclif’s from MSS. - previously unprinted,” in 2 vols., London, 1883. Among Wiclif’s - systematic treatises we are promised editions of the _Summa - theologiæ_, _De incarnatione Verbi_, _De veritate s. Scr._, - _De dominio divino_, _De ecclesia_, _De actibus animæ_, etc., - some by English, some by German editors.--As the principle of - all theology and reformation Wiclif consistently affirms the - sole authority of Divine revelation in the Holy Scriptures. He - has hence been called _doctor evangelicus_. Anything that cannot - be proved from it is a corrupting human invention. Consistently - carrying out this principle, he denounced the worship of saints, - relics, and images, the use of Latin in public worship, elaborate - priestly choir singing, the multiplication of festivals, private - masses, extreme unction, and generally all ceremonialism. The - Catholic doctrine of indulgence and the sale of indulgences, - as well as the ban and the interdict, he pronounced blasphemous; - auricular confession he regarded as a forcing of conscience; the - power of the keys he explained as conditional, its binding and - loosing powerless, except when in accordance with the judgment - of Christ. He denied the real presence of the body and blood - of Christ in the Lord’s Supper, and affirmed, like Berengar, - a spiritual communication thereof, which however he makes - dependent, not only on the faith of the receiver, but also - on the worthiness of the officiating priest. The doctrine of - purgatory he completely rejected, and supported Augustine’s - predestinationism against the prevalent semipelagianism. The - papacy was antichrist; the pope has his power only from the - emperor, not from God. The hierarchical system should be - replaced by the apostolic presbyterial constitution. Ordination - confers no indelible character; a priest who has fallen into - mortal sin cannot dispense the sacrament. Every believer is as - such a priest. The State is a representation of Christ, as the - God-Man ruler of the universe; the clergy represent only the - poor and suffering life of His humanity. Monkery is contrary - to nature, etc.--Wiclif’s supporters, many of them belonging - to the noblest and most cultured orders, were after his death - subjected to violent persecution, which reached its height when - the House of Lancaster in the person of Henry IV. ascended the - English throne in A.D. 1399. An act of parliament was passed in - A.D. 1400 which made death by fire the punishment of the heresy - of the Lollards. Among the martyrs which this law brought to - the stake was the noble Sir John Oldcastle, who in A.D. 1418 - was hung up between two beams in iron chains over a fire and - there slowly burnt. The Council of Constance in A.D. 1415 - condemned forty-five propositions from Wiclif’s writings, and - ordered his bones to be exhumed and scattered abroad. Many - germs sown by him continued until the Reformation came.[348] - - § 119.2. =Precursors of the Hussite Movement.=--Owing to its - Greek origin (§ 79, 2, 3), the Bohemian church had a certain - character of its own and barely tolerated the Roman constitution - and ritual. In Bohemia too the Waldensians had numerous - supporters during the 13th century. And even before the - appearance of Huss three distinguished clergymen in and around - Prague by earnest preaching and pastoral work had awakened in - many a consciousness of crying abuses in the church. - - 1. =Conrad of Waldhausen= was a famous preacher when called - by Charles IV. to Prague, where after fifteen years’ labour - he died in A.D. 1369. Preaching in German, he inveighed - against the cupidity, hypocrisy, and immorality of the - clergy and monks, against the frauds connected with the - worship of images and relics and shrines, and threw back - upon his accusers the charge of heresy in his still extant - _Apologia_. - - 2. More influential than Conrad as a preacher of repentance - in Prague was =John Milicz of Cremsier= in Moravia, who - died in A.D. 1374. Believing the end of the world near - and antichrist already come, he went to Rome in A.D. 1367 - to place before Urban V. his scheme of apocalyptic - interpretation. Escaping with difficulty from the - Inquisition, he returned to Prague, and there applied - himself with renewed zeal to the preaching of repentance. - His preaching led to the conversion of 200 fallen women, - for whom he erected an institution which he called Jerusalem. - But the begging friars accused him before Gregory XI. as a - heretic. Milicz fearlessly went for examination to Avignon - in A.D. 1374, where he soon died before judgment had been - passed. The most important of his works is _De Antichristo_. - - 3. =Matthias of Janow=, of noble Bohemian descent, died in - A.D. 1374, after fourteen years’ work as a preacher and - pastor in Prague. His sermons, composed in Bohemian, lashed - unsparingly the vices of the clergy and monks, as well - as the immorality of the laity, and denounced the worship - of images and relics. None of his sermons are extant, - but we have various theological treatises of his on the - distinguishing of the true faith from the false and the - frequent observance of the communion. At a Prague synod of - A.D. 1389 he was obliged to retract several of his positions, - and especially to grant the propriety of confessing and - communicating half-yearly. Janow however, like Conrad and - Milicz, did not seriously contest any fundamental point of - the doctrine of the church. - - § 119.3. =John Huss of Hussinecz= in Bohemia, born A.D. 1369, - was Bachelor of Theology at Prague, in A.D. 1394, Master - of Liberal Arts in A.D. 1396, became public teacher in the - university in A.D. 1398, was ordained priest in A.D. 1400, - undertook a pastorate in A.D. 1402 in the Bethlehem chapel, - where he had to preach in the Bohemian language, was chosen - confessor of Queen Sophia in A.D. 1403, and was soon afterwards - made synodal preacher by the new archbishop, Sbynko of Hasenburg. - Till then he had in pious humility accepted all the doctrines - of the Romish Church, and even in A.D. 1392 he offered his last - four groschen for an indulgence, so that for a long time dry - bread was his only nourishment. But about A.D. 1402 he reached - an important crisis in his life through the study of Wiclif’s - theological works.--Bohemians who had studied in Oxford brought - with them Wiclif’s philosophical works, and in A.D. 1348 the - discussion on realism and nominalism broke out in Prague. The - Bohemians generally sided with Wiclif for realism; the Germans - with the nominalists (§ 113, 3). This helped to prepare an - entrance for Wiclif’s theological writings into Bohemia. Of the - national party which favoured Wiclif’s philosophy and theology, - Huss was soon recognised as a leader. A university decree of - A.D. 1403 condemned forty-five propositions from Wiclif’s works - as heretical, and forbade their promulgation in lectures or - sermons. Huss however was still highly esteemed by Archbishop - Sbynko. In A.D. 1405 he appointed Huss, with other three - scholars, a commission to investigate a reputed miracle at - Wilsnack, where on the altar of a ruined church three blood-red - coloured hosts were said to have been found. Huss pronounced - the miracle a cheat, and proved in a tract that the blood of - Christ glorified can only be invisibly present in the sacrament - of the altar. The archbishop approved this tract, and forbade - all pilgrimages to the spot. He also took no offence at Huss - for uttering Wiclifite doctrine in his synod sermon. Only when, - in A.D. 1408, the clergy of his diocese complained that Huss by - his preaching made the priests contemptible before the people, - did he deprive him of his function as synod preacher. When the - majority of cardinals at Leghorn in A.D. 1408 took steps to put - an end to the schism, king Wenzel determined to remain neutral, - and demanded the assent of the university as well as the clergy - of his realm. But only the Bohemian members of the university - agreed, while the rest, along with the archbishop, supported - Gregory XII. Sbynko keenly resented the revolt of the Bohemians, - and forbade Huss as their spokesman to preach within his diocese. - Huss paid no attention to the prohibition, but secured a royal - injunction, that henceforth in the university Bohemians should - have three votes and foreigners only one. The foreigners then - withdrew, and founded the University of Leipzig in A.D. 1409. - Huss was made first rector of the newly organized University - of Prague; but the very fact of his great popularity in Bohemia - caused him to be profoundly hated in other lands.[349] - - § 119.4. The archbishop escaped prosecution only by - unreservedly condemning the doctrines of Wiclif, burning his - books, and prohibiting all lectures upon them. Huss and his - friends appealed to John XXIII., but this did not prevent the - archbishop burning in his palace yard about two hundred Wiclifite - books that had previously escaped his search. For this he was - hooted in the streets, and compelled by the courts of law to - pay the value of the books destroyed. John XXIII. cited Huss - to appear at Rome. King, nobles, magistrates, and university - sided with him; but the papal commission condemned him when he - did not appear, and the archbishop pronounced anathema against - him and the interdict against Prague (A.D. 1411). Huss appealed - to the œcumenical council, and continued to preach. The court - forced the archbishop to become reconciled with Huss, and to - admit his orthodoxy. Sbynko reported to the pope that Bohemia - was free from heresy. He soon afterwards died. The pope himself - was the cause of a complete breach, by having an indulgence - preached in Bohemia in A.D. 1412 for a crusade against Ladislaus - of Naples, the powerful adherent of Gregory XII. Huss opposed - this by word and writing, and in a public disputation maintained - that the pope had no right to grant such indulgence. His most - stanch supporter was a Bohemian knight, Jerome of Prague, who - had studied at Oxford, and returned in A.D. 1402 an enthusiastic - adherent of Wiclif’s doctrines. Their addresses produced - an immense impression, and two days later their disorderly - followers, to throw contempt on the papal party, had the bull - of indulgence paraded through the streets, on the breast of a - public prostitute, representing the whore of Babylon, and then - cast into the flames. But many old friends now withdrew from Huss - and joined his opponents. The papal curia thundered against him - and his followers the great excommunication, with its terrible - curses. Wherever he resided that place was put under interdict. - But Huss appealed to the one righteous Judge, Jesus Christ. At - the wish of the king he left the city, and sought the protection - of various noble patrons, from whose castles he went forth - diligently preaching round about. He spread his views all over - the country by controversial and doctrinal treatises in Latin - and Bohemian, as well as by an extensive correspondence with - his friends and followers. Thus the trouble and turmoil grew - from day to day, and all the king’s efforts to restore peace - were in vain. - - § 119.5. The Roman emperor Sigismund summoned Huss to attend the - Council of Constance (§ 110, 7), and promised him a safe-conduct. - Though not yet in possession of this latter, which he only - got at Constance, trusting to the righteousness of his cause, - for which he was quite willing to die a martyr’s death, he - started for Constance on 11th October, A.D. 1414, reaching his - destination on 3rd November. On 28th November he was sentenced - to imprisonment at a private conference of the cardinals, on the - pretended charge of an attempt at flight, first in the Dominican - cloister, then in the bishop’s castle of Gottlieben, where he - was put in chains, finally in the Franciscan cloister. Sigismund, - who had not been forewarned when he was cast into prison, ordered - his release; but the council convinced him that Huss, arraigned - as a heretic before a general council, was beyond the reach - of civil protection. His bitterest enemies and accusers were - two Bohemians, Michael of Deutschbrod and Stephan of Palecz. - The latter extracted forty-two points for accusations from his - writings, which Huss from his prison retracted. D’Ailly and - Gerson were both against him. The brave knight John of Chlum - stood faithfully by him as a comforter to the last. For almost - seven months was he harassed by private examinations, in which, - notwithstanding his decided repudiation of many of them, he was - charged with all imaginable Wiclifite heresies. The result was - the renewed condemnation of those forty-five propositions from - Wiclif’s writings, which had been condemned A.D. 1408 by the - University of Prague. At last, on 5th June, A.D. 1415, he was - for the first time granted a public trial, but the tumult at - the sitting was so great that he was prevented from saying a - single word. Even on the two following days of the trial he - could do little more than make a vain protest against being - falsely charged with errors, and declare his willingness to be - better instructed from God’s word. The humility and gentleness of - his demeanour, as well as the enthusiasm and believing joyfulness - which he displayed, won for him many hearts even outside of the - council. All possible motives were urged to induce him to submit. - Sigismund so exhorted him, with the threat that if he did not - he would withdraw his protection. The third and last day of - trial was 8th June, A.D. 1415, and judgment was pronounced in - the cathedral church on the 6th July. After high mass had been - celebrated, a bishop mounted the pulpit and preached on Romans - vi. 6. He addressed Sigismund, who was present, “By destroying - this heretic, thou shalt obtain an undying name to all ensuing - generations.” Once again called upon to recant, Huss repeated - his previous protests, appealed to the promise of a safe-conduct, - which made Sigismund wince and blush, and kneeling down prayed - to God for his enemies and unjust judges. Then seven bishops - dressed him in priestly robes in order to strip him of them one - after another amid solemn execrations. Then they put on him a - high pyramidal hat, painted with figures of devils, and bearing - the inscription, _Hæresiarcha_, and uttered the words, “We give - thy soul to the devil.” He replied: “I commend it into the hands - of our Saviour Jesus Christ.” On that same day he was given over - by Sigismund to Louis Count-palatine of the Rhine, and by him - to the Constance magistrates, and led to the stake. Amid prayer - and praise he expired, joyfully, courageously, and confidently, - showing himself worthy to rank among the martyrs who in the best - times of Christianity had sealed their Christian confession with - their blood. His ashes were scattered on the Rhine. The later - Hussites, in accordance with an old Christian custom (§ 39, 5), - celebrated the day of his death as the _dies natalis_ of the - holy martyr John Huss.--=Jerome of Prague= had gone unasked to - Constance. When he saw that his longer stay would not help his - friend, but only involve himself in his fate, he left the city; - but was seized on the way, and taken back in chains in April, - A.D. 1415. During a severe half-year’s imprisonment, and wearied - with the importunities of his judges, he agreed to recant, and - to acquiesce in the sentence of Huss. But he was not trusted, and - after as before his recantation he was kept in close confinement. - Then his courage revived. He demanded a public trial before the - whole council, which was at last granted him in May, A.D. 1416. - There he solemnly and formally retracted his previous retractation - with a believer’s confidence and a martyr’s joy. On May 30th, - A.D. 1416, he, too, died at the stake, joyfully and courageously - as Huss had done. The Florentine humanist Poggio, who was present, - has given enthusiastic expression in a still extant letter to his - admiration at the heroic spirit of the martyr. - - § 119.6. In all his departures from Romish doctrine Huss was - dependent upon Wiclif, not only for the matter, but even for - the modes of expression. He did not however separate himself - quite so far from the Church doctrines as his English master. - He firmly maintained the doctrine of transubstantiation; he was - also inclined to withhold the cup from the laity; and, though - he sought salvation only from the Saviour crucified for us, he - did not refuse to give any place to works in the justification - of the sinner, and even invocation of the saints he did not - wholly condemn. While he energetically protested against the - corruption of the clergy, he never denied that the sacrament - might be efficaciously administered by an unworthy priest. In - everything else however he was in thorough agreement with the - English reformer. The most complete exposition of his doctrine - is found in the _Tractatus de ecclesia_ of A.D. 1413. Augustine’s - doctrine of predestination is its foundation. He distinguishes - from the church as a visible human institution the idea of the - church as the true body of Christ, embracing all elected in - Christ to blessedness from eternity. Its one and only head is - Christ: not Peter, not the pope; for this church is no monster - with two heads. Originally and according to Christ’s appointment - the bishop of Rome was no more than the other bishops. The - donation of Constantine first gave him power and dignity over - the rest. As the church in the beginning could exist without - a pope, so the church unto the end can exist without one. The - Christian can obey the pope only where his commands and doctrines - agree with those of Christ. In matters of faith Holy Scripture - is the only authority. Fathers, councils, and popes may err, - and have erred; only the word of God is infallible.--That - this liberal reforming Council of Constance, with a Gerson - at its head, should have sentenced such a man to death is not - to be wondered at when we rightly consider how matters stood. - His hateful realism seemed to the nominalistic fathers of the - council the source of all conceivable heresies. It had even - been maintained that realism consistently carried out would - give a fourth person to the Godhead. His devotion to the national - interests of Bohemia in the University of Prague had excited - German national feeling against him. And, further, the council, - which was concerned only with outward reforms, had little - sympathy with the evangelical tone of his spirit and doctrine. - Besides this, Huss had placed himself between the swords of two - contending parties. The hierarchical party wished, in order to - strike terror into their opponents, to show by an example that - the church had still the power to burn heretics; and the liberal - party refused to this object of papal hate all protection, lest - they should endanger the cause of reformation by incurring a - suspicion of sympathy with heresy.--The prophecy said to have - been uttered by Huss in his last moments, “To-day you burn a - goose (this being the meaning of Huss in Slavonian), but from - its ashes will arise a swan (Luther’s coat of arms), which you - will not be able to burn,” was unknown to his contemporaries. - Probably it originated in the Reformation age from the appeals - of both martyrs to the judgment of God and history. Huss had - often declared that instead of the weak goose there would come - powerful eagles and falcons.[350] - - § 119.7. =Calixtines and Taborites.=--During the imprisonment - of their leader the Hussite party was headed by Jacob of Misa, - pastor of St. Michael’s church in Prague. With consent of Huss - he introduced the use of the cup by the laity and rejected the - _jejunium eucharisticum_ as opposed to Matthew xxvi. 26. This - led to an interchange of controversial tracts between Prague and - Constance on the withholding of the cup. The council decreed that - whoever disobeys the Church on this point is to be punished as a - heretic. This decree, followed by the execution of Huss, roused - Bohemia to the uttermost. King Wenceslaw died in A.D. 1419 in the - midst of national excitement, and the estates refused to crown - his brother Sigismund, “the word-breaker.” Now arose a civil war, - A.D. 1420-1436, characterized by cruelties on both sides rarely - equalled. At the head of the Hussites, who had built on the brow - of a steep hill the strong fortress Tabor, was the one-eyed, - afterwards blind, =John Ziska of Trocznov=. The crusading armies - sent against the Hussites were one after another destroyed; - but the gentle spirit of Huss had no place among most of his - followers. The two parties became more and more embittered toward - one another. The aristocratic =Calixtines= (_calix_, cup) or - Utraquists (_sub utraque_), at whose head was Bishop Rokycana - of Prague, declared that they would be satisfied if the Catholic - church would concede to them four articles: - - 1. Communion under both kinds; - - 2. Preaching of the pure gospel in the vulgar tongue; - - 3. Strict discipline among the clergy; and - - 4. Renunciation by the clergy of church property. - - On the other hand, the =Taborites= would have no reconciliation - with the Romish church, regarding as fundamentally corrupt in - doctrine and worship whatever is not found in Scripture, and - passing over into violent fanaticism, iconoclasm, etc. After - Ziska’s death of the plague in A.D. 1424, the majority of the - Taborites elected Procopius the Great as his successor. A small - party that regarded no man worthy of succeeding the great Ziska, - refused him allegiance, and styled themselves Orphans. They were - the most fanatical of all.--Meanwhile the Council of Basel had - met (§ 110, 8) and after long fruitless negotiations it was - resolved in A.D. 1433 that 300 Hussite deputies should appear - at Basel. After a fifty days’ disputation the four Calixtine - articles with certain modifications were accepted by the council. - On the basis of this =Basel Compact= the Calixtines returned - to the Romish church. The Taborites regarded this as shameful - treason to the cause of truth, and continued the conflict. But - in A.D. 1434 they were utterly annihilated at Böhmischbrod, not - far from Prague. In the Treaty of Iglau in A.D. 1436 Sigismund - swore to observe the compact, and was recognised as king. But - the concessions sworn to by church and state were more and more - restricted and ultimately ignored. Sigismund died in A.D. 1437. - In place of his son-in-law, Albert II., the Utraquists set up a - rival king in the person of the thirteen year old Polish prince - Casimir; but Albert died in A.D. 1439. His son, Ladislaus, born - after his father’s death, had, in George Podiebrad, a Calixtine - tutor. After he had grown up in A.D. 1453, he walked in his - grandfather’s footsteps, and died in A.D. 1457. The Calixtines - now elected Podiebrad king, as a firm supporter of the compact. - Pius II. recognised him in the hope that he would aid him in his - projected war against the Turks. When this hope was disappointed - he cancelled the compact, in A.D. 1462. Paul II. put the king - under him, and had a crusade preached against him. Podiebrad - however still held his ground. He died in A.D. 1471. His - successor, Wladislaw II., a Polish prince, though a zealous - Catholic, was obliged to confirm anew to the Calixtines - at the Diet of Cuttenberg, in A.D. 1485, all their rights - and liberties. Yet they could not maintain themselves as - an independent community. Those of them who did not join - the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren gradually during the - 16th century became thoroughly amalgamated with the Catholic - church. - - § 119.8. =The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren.=--George Podiebrad - took Tabor in A.D. 1453, and scattered the last remnants of the - Taborites. Joining with the evangelical Friends of God, they - received from the king a castle, where, under the leadership - of the local pastor, Michael of Bradacz, they formed a _Unitas - fratrum_, and called themselves Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. - But in A.D. 1461 Podiebrad withdrew his favour, and confiscated - their goods. They fled into the woods, and met for worship in - caves. In A.D. 1467 the most distinguished of the Bohemian and - Moravian Brethren met in a Bohemian village, Shota, with the - German Waldensians, and chose three brethren by lot as priests, - who were ordained by Michael and a Waldensian priest. But - when the validity of their ordination was disputed, Michael - went to the Waldensian bishop Stephen, got from him episcopal - consecration, and then again ordained the three chosen at Shota, - one, Matthias of Conewald, as bishop, the other two as priests. - This led Rokycana to persecute them all the more bitterly. They - increased their numbers however, by receiving the remnants of - the Waldensians and many Utraquists, until by the beginning of - the 16th century they had four hundred congregations in Bohemia - and Moravia. Under Wladislaw II. persecution was stopped from - A.D. 1475, but was renewed with great violence in A.D. 1503. They - sent in A.D. 1511 a confession of faith to Erasmus (§ 120, 6), - with the request that he would give his opinion about it; which - he however, fearing to be compromised thereby, declined to do. - After the death of Bishop Matthias, in A.D. 1500, a dislike - of monarchy led to the appointment of four _Seniors_ instead - of one bishop, two for Bohemia and two for Moravia. The most - important and influential of these was Luke of Prague, who - died in A.D. 1518, rightly regarded as the second founder - of the union. He impressed a character upon the brotherhood - essentially distinct in respect of constitution and doctrine - from the Lutheran Reformation.--Continuation § 139, 19. - - § 119.9. =The Waldensians.= - - 1. The range of the missionary enterprise of the - =Lombard-German Waldensians= was widely extended during - the 14th century. At the close of that period it stretched - “from western Switzerland across the southern borders - of the empire, from the upper and middle Rhine along - the Main and through Franconia into Thuringia, from - Bohemia up to Brandenburg and Pomerania, and with its - last advances reached to Prussia, Poland, Silesia, Hungary, - Transylvania, and Galicia.” The anonymous writer of Passau, - about A.D. 1260 or 1316, reports from his own knowledge - of numerous “Leonists,” who in forty-two communities, with - a bishop at Einzinspach, in the diocese of Passau, were in - his time the subject of inquisitorial interference, and in - theory and practice bore all the characteristic marks of - the Lombard Leonists. The same applies to the Austrian - Waldensians, of whose persecution in A.D. 1391 we have - an account by Peter of Pilichdorf. We may also with equal - confidence pronounce the Winkelers, so called from holding - their services in secret corners, who about this time - appeared in Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, and the Rhine - Provinces, to be Waldensians of the same Lombard type. - Their confessors, Winkelers in the narrower sense, were - itinerant, celibate, and without fixed abode, carrying - on missionary work, and administering the sacrament of - penance to their adherents. Although, in order to avoid - the attentions of the Inquisition, they took part in - the Catholic services, and in case of need confessed to - Catholic priests, they were nevertheless traced about - A.D. 1400 to Strassburg. Thirty-two of them were thrown - into prison, and induced under torture to confess. The - Dominicans insisted that they should be immediately burned, - but the council was satisfied with banishing them from the - city. At a later period the Hussites obtained an influence - over them. One of their most notable apostles at this time - was Fr. Reiser of Swabia. In his travels he went to Bohemia, - attached himself to the Hussites there, received from - them priestly ordination, and in A.D. 1433 accompanied - their representatives to the Basel Council. Then Procopius - procured him a call to a pastorate in the little Bohemian - town of Landscron, which, however, he soon abandoned. - Encouraged by the reformatory tendency of the council, - he now remained for a long time in Basel, then conducted - missionary work in Germany, at first on his own account, - afterwards at the head of a Taborite mission of twelve - agents, in which position he styled himself _Fridericus Dei - gratia Episcopus fidelium in Romana ecclesia Constantini - donationem spernentium_. At last, in A.D. 1457, he went - to Strassburg, with the intention of there ending his days - in peace. But soon after his arrival he was apprehended, - and in A.D. 1458, along with his faithful follower, Anna - Weiler, put to death at the stake.--On the Waldensians - in German Switzerland, and the Inquisition’s oft repeated - interference with them, Ochsenbein gives a full report, - drawn from original documents, specially full in regard - to the great Inquisition trial at Freiburg, in A.D. 1430, - consisting of ninety-nine wearisome and detailed examinations. - Subsequently terrible persecutions, aiming at their - extermination, became still more frequent in Switzerland. - Also the Swiss Waldensians already bore unmistakable - marks of having been influenced by the Hussites. Finally, - Wattenbach has made interesting communications regarding - the Waldensians in Pomerania and Brandenburg, based - upon a manuscript once in the possession of Flacius, but - afterwards supposed to have been lost, discovered again - in the Wolfenbüttel library in A.D. 1884, though in a - very defective form, which contains the original reports - of 443 prosecutions for heresy in Pomerania, Brandenburg, - and Thuringia. By far the greatest number of these trials - were conducted between A.D. 1373 and 1394, by the Cœlestine - provincial Peter, appointed inquisitor by the pope. From - A.D. 1383 Stettin was the centre of his inquisitorial - activity, and on the conclusion of his work he could boast - that during the last two years he had converted to the - Catholic faith more than 1,000 Waldensians. The victims of - the Inquisition belonged almost exclusively to the peasant - and artisan classes. Their objectionable doctrines and - opinions are essentially almost the same as those of their - ancestors of the 13th century. Although equally with their - predecessors they abhorred the practice of the Catholic - church, and declared all swearing and slaughter to be - mortal sin, they yet in great part, and as it seems even - without the application of torture, were persuaded to - abjure their heresy, and incurred nothing more than a - light penance. They did this, perhaps, only in the hope - that their indulgent confessors would absolve them from - their sin. The last protocols bring us down to A.D. 1458. - Since a great number of these heretics were found again - in Brandenburg, the elector caused one of their most - distinguished leaders, the tailor Matthew Hagen, and - three of his disciples to be taken prisoners to Berlin, - and commissioned the Bishop of Brandenburg to investigate - the case; but owing to his sickness this duty devolved - upon John Cannemann, professor and doctor of theology. The - elector was himself present at the trial. The investigation - showed that the Waldensians of Brandenburg had evidently - been influenced in their opinions by the Bohemian Taborites, - and that they were constantly in close communion with them, - and Hagen confessed that he had been there ordained by - Fr. Ryss or Reiser to the clerical office. When Hagen - persistently refused to retract, he was delivered over - to the civil authorities for punishment, and was by them - executed, probably at the stake. His three companions - abjured their heresy, and on submitting to church discipline - and wearing clothes marked with the sign of the cross, were - pardoned. Cannemann then proceeded to Angermünde, where in - the city and surrounding country crowds of such heretics - resided; and there he succeeded without great difficulty - in bringing them to abjure their errors and accept the - Catholic confession.--The Waldensians in Bohemia and - Moravia quite voluntarily amalgamated with the “_United - Brethren_” there. The remnants of the German and Swiss - Waldensians may have attached themselves to the Reformation - of the 16th century, but probably for the most part to the - Protestant sects of that age, some joining Schwenkfeld, - and still more going with the Anabaptists, to whom they - were essentially much more closely related than to Luther - or Zwingli.--As to the ultimate fate of the Lombard - Waldensians themselves, we know nothing. Probably many - of them sought escape from the persecutions which raged - against them among the French Waldensians in the valleys - of Piedmont. - - § 119.9A. - - 2. The remnants of the =French Waldensians= and their lay - adherents down to the beginning of the 14th century had for - the most part settled in the remote and little cultivated - valleys on both sides of the Cottian Alps. This settlement, - which bore the character of an assembly as well as that of - an isolation, now rendered indispensable the organization - of an independent congregational order, such as had never - been attempted before. In the arrangements of this community, - not only was the question of clerical rank simplified by - the combination of the order of bishop or _majoralis_ with - that of the presbyter, to which combined office was given - the honourable designation of “_barbe_,” uncle, and instead - of the hitherto annual tenure of this office was introduced - a life tenure, but also to the laity was assigned a share - in the church government at their synod meetings. A bull - of John XXII., of A.D. 1332, informs us that then in the - Piedmontese valleys _ita creverunt et multiplicati sunt - hæretici, præcipue de secta Waldensium, quod frequenter - congregationes per modum capitali facere inibi præsumpserunt, - in quibus aliquando 500 Valdenses fuerunt insimul congregati_; - yet certainly not merely clergy, as among the earlier - congregations on the yearly tenure. The great, yea, - extraordinarily great, number of the Waldensians in the - Piedmontese valleys is proved by this, that from thence, - since A.D. 1340, flourishing colonies of Waldensians were - transplanted into Calabria and Apulia with the connivance - of the larger proprietors in those parts. Those who had - settled on the western side, in the province of Dauphiné, - succumbed completely in A.D. 1545 to the oft repeated - persecutions. The colonies of southern Italy, however, - seem long to have led a quiet and little disturbed life - under the protection of the territorial princes, until - their adoption of Protestant views called down upon - them the attention of the Inquisition, and led to their - utter extermination in A.D. 1561. On the other hand, the - Waldensians of Piedmont, in spite of continuous oppression - and frequently renewed persecution, maintained their - existence down to the present day. When in the beginning - of the 15th century their residence came under the sway of - the Duke of Savoy, the persecutions began, and lasted down - to A.D. 1477, when a crusade for their extermination was - summoned by Innocent VIII., which ended in the utter rout - of the crusading army by Savoy and France. They had now a - long period of repose, till their adoption of Protestant - views in the 16th century anew awakened against them the - horrors of persecution. In this time of rest brotherly - intercourse was cultivated between the Waldensian groups - and the Bohemian Brethren, who had hitherto maintained - relations only with the German Waldensians. This movement - originated with the Bohemians. Even at an earlier date, - these, inspired by the wish to seek abroad what they could - not obtain at home, namely, communion with a church free - from Romish corruptions, had made a voyage of discovery - in the east, which yielded no result. Now, in A.D. 1497, - they determined to make another similar search, under the - leadership of Luke of Prague, in the primitive haunts of - the Waldensians in France and Italy. The deputies went - forth, beginning with the south of France, and the remnants - of the French communities in their settlements among the - Piedmontese Alps. More detailed reports of their intercourse - with these no longer exist, but it cannot be doubted that - there was a mutual interchange of religious writings. It - is a question therefore that has been much discussed as - to which party was the chief gainer by this interchange. - But it can now be no longer questioned that the Waldensians, - as those who were far less advanced in the direction of - the evangelical reformation, learnt much from the Bohemians, - and by transferring it into their own literature, secured - it as their permanent property. - - § 119.10. =The Dutch Reformers= sprang mostly from the Brothers - of the Common Life (§ 112, 9). - - 1. =John Pupper of Goch= in Cleves, prior of a cloister - founded by him at Mecheln, died A.D. 1475. His works - show him to have been a man of deep spirituality. Love, - which leads to the true freedom of sons of God, is - the _material_, the sole authority of Scripture is the - _formal_, principle of his theology, which rests on a - purely Augustinian foundation. He contends against the - doctrine of righteousness by works, the meritoriousness - of vows, etc. - - 2. =John Ruchrath of Wesel=, professor in Erfurt, afterwards - preacher at Mainz and Worms, died in A.D. 1481. On the - basis of a strictly Augustinian theology he opposed the - papal systems of anathemas and indulgences, and preached - powerfully salvation by Jesus Christ only. For the church - doctrine of transubstantiation he substituted one of - impanation. He spiritualized the doctrine of the church. - Against the ecclesiastical injunction of fasts, he wrote - _De jejunio_; against indulgences, _De indulgentiis_; - against the hierarchy, _De potestate ecclesiastica_. The - Dominicans of Mainz accused and condemned him as a heretic - in A.D. 1479. The old man, bent down with age and sickness, - was forced to recant, and to burn his writings, and was - sentenced to imprisonment for life in a monastery. - - 3. =John Wessel= of Gröningen was a scholar of the Brothers - of the Common Life at Zwoll, where Thomas à Kempis exerted - a powerful influence over him. He taught in Cologne, Lyons, - Paris, and Heidelberg, and then retired to the cloister - of Agnes Mount, near Zwoll, where he died in A.D. 1489. - His friends called him _Lux mundi_. Scholastic dialectics, - mystical depths, and rich classical culture were in him - united with a clear and accurate knowledge of science. - Luther says of him: “Had I read Wessel before, my enemies - would have said, Luther has taken everything from Wessel, - so thoroughly do our ideas agree.” His views are in - harmony with Luther’s, especially in what he teaches of - Holy Scripture, the universal priesthood of Christians, - indulgence, repentance, faith, and justification. He - taught that not only popes but even councils may err and - have erred; excommunication has merely outward efficacy, - indulgence has to do only with ecclesiastical penalties, - and God alone can forgive sins; our justification rests - on Christ’s righteousness and God’s free grace. Purgatory - meant for him nothing more than the intermediate position - between earthly imperfection and heavenly perfection, which - is attained only through various stages. The protection - of powerful friends saved him from the persecution of - the Inquisition. Many of his works were destroyed by the - diligence of the mendicant friars. The most important of - his extant writings is the _Farrago_, a collection of short - treatises.[351] - - 4. The priest of Rostock, =Nicholas Russ=, in the end of - the 15th century, deserves honourable mention alongside - of these Dutchmen. Living in intimate relations with - Bohemian Waldensians, he was subjected to many indignities, - and died a fugitive in Livonia. He wrote in the Dutch - language a tract against the hierarchy, indulgences, - worship of saints and relics, etc., which was translated - into German by Flacius. A copy of it was found in Rostock - library in A.D. 1850. It is entitled, “Of the Rope or - of the Three Strings.” The rope that will raise man from - the depths of his corruption must be made up of the three - strings, faith, hope, and love. These three strings are - described in succession, and so the book forms a complete - compendium of Christian faith and life, with a sharp polemic - against the debased church doctrine and morals of the age. - - § 119.11. =An Italian Reformer.=--=Jerome Savonarola=, born - A.D. 1452, monk and from A.D. 1481 prior of the Dominican - cloister of San Marco in Florence, was from A.D. 1489 in high - repute in that city as an eloquent and passionate preacher of - repentance, with even reckless boldness declaiming against the - depravity of clergy and laity, princes and people. With his whole - soul a Dominican, and as such an enthusiastic admirer of Thomas, - practising rigid self-discipline by fasts and flagellations, - he was led by the study of Augustine and Scripture to a pure - and profound knowledge of the evangelical doctrine of salvation, - which he sought, not in the merits and intercession of the saints, - nor in the performance of good works, but only in the grace of - God and justification through faith in the crucified Saviour - of sinners. But with this he combined a prophetic-apocalyptic - theory, according to which he thought himself called and fitted - by Divine inspiration, like the prophets of the Old Testament, - to grapple with the political problems of the age. And, in fact, - he made many a hardened sinner tremble by revealing contemplated - secret sins, and many of his political prophecies seem to have - been fulfilled with surprising accuracy. Thus he prophesied - the death of Innocent VIII. in A.D. 1492, and proclaimed the - speedy overthrow of the house of the Medici in Florence, as - well as the punishment of other Italian tyrants and the thorough - reformation of the church by a foreign king crossing the Alps - with a powerful army. And lo, in the following year, the king - of France, Charles VIII., crossed the Alps to enforce his claims - upon Naples and force from the pope recognition of the Basel - reforms; the Medici were banished from Florence, and Naples - unresistingly fell into the hands of the French. Thus the ascetic - monk of San Marco became the man of the people, who now began - with ruthless energy to carry out, not only moral and religious - reformatory notions, but also his political ideal of a democratic - kingdom of God. In vain did Alexander VI. seek by offer of a - cardinal’s hat to win over the demagogical prophet and reformer; - he only replied, “I desire no other red hat than that coloured - by the blood of martyrdom.” In vain did the pope insist that - he should appear before him at Rome; in vain did he forbid him - the pulpit, from which he so powerfully moved the people. An - attempt to restore the Medici also failed. At the carnival in - A.D. 1497 Savonarola proved the supremacy of his influence over - the people by persuading them, instead of the usual buffoonery, - to make a bonfire of the articles of luxury and vanity. But - already the political movements were turning out unfavourably, - and his utterances were beginning to lose their reputation - as true prophecies. Charles VIII. had been compelled to quit - Italy in A.D. 1495, and Savonarola’s assurances of his speedy - return were still unfulfilled. Popular favour vacillated, while - the nobles and the libertine youth were roused to the utmost - bitterness against him. The Franciscans, as members of a rival - order, were his sworn enemies. The papal ban was pronounced - against him in A.D. 1497, and the city was put under the - interdict. A monk of his cloister, Fra Domenico Pescia, offered - to pass the ordeal of fire in behalf of his master, if any of his - opponents would submit to the same trial. A Franciscan declared - himself ready to do so, and all arrangements were made. But - when Domenico insisted upon taking with him a consecrated host, - the trial did not come off, to the great disappointment of a - people devotedly fond of shows. A fanatical mob took the prophet - prisoner. His bitterest enemies were his judges, who, after - torture had extorted from him a confession of false prophecy - most repugnant to his inmost convictions, condemned him to - death by fire as a deceiver of the people and a heretic. On - 23rd May, A.D. 1498, he was, along with Domenico and another - monk, hung upon a gallows and then burned. The believing - joy with which he endured death deepened the reverence of - an ever-increasing band of adherents, who proclaimed him - saint and martyr. His portrait in the cell once occupied - by him, painted by Fra Bartolomeo, surrounded with the halo - of a saint, shows the veneration in which he was held by his - generation and by his order. His numerous sermons represent - to us his burning oratory. His chief work is his _Triumphus - crucis_ of A.D. 1497, an eloquent and thoughtful vindication - of Christianity against the half pagan scepticism of the - Renaissance, then dominant in Florence and at the court. - An exposition of the 51st Psalm, written in prison and not - completed, works out, with a clearness and precision never - before attained, the doctrine of justification by faith. It - was on this account republished by Luther in A.D. 1523.[352] - - - § 120. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. - - The classical literature of Greek, and especially of Roman, -antiquity was during the Middle Ages in the West by no means so -completely unknown and unstudied as is commonly supposed. Rulers -like Charlemagne, Charles the Bald, Alfred the Great, and the German -Ottos encouraged its study. Such scholars as Erigena, Gerbert, Barnard -Sylvester, John of Salisbury, Roger Bacon, etc., were relatively -well acquainted with it. Moorish learning from Spain and intercourse -with Byzantine scholars spread classical culture during the 12th -and 13th centuries, and the Hohenstaufen rulers were its eager and -liberal patrons. In the 14th century the founders of a national Italian -literature, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, earnestly cultivated and -encouraged classical studies. But an extraordinary revival of interest -in such pursuits took place during the 15th century. The meeting of -Greeks and Italians at the Council of Florence in A.D. 1439 (§ 67, 6) -gave the first impulse, while the Turkish invasion and the downfall -of Constantinople in A.D. 1453 gave it the finishing touch. Immense -numbers of Byzantine scholars fled to Italy, and were accorded an -enthusiastic reception at the Vatican and in the houses of the Medici. -With the aid of printing, invented about A.D. 1450, the treasures of -classical antiquity were made accessible to all. From the time of this -immigration, too, classical studies took an altogether new direction. -During the Middle Ages they were made almost exclusively to subserve -ecclesiastical and theological ends, but now they were conducted in -a thoroughly independent spirit, for the purpose of universal human -culture. This “humanism” emancipated itself from the service of the -church, assumed toward Christianity for the most part an attitude of -lofty indifference, and often lost itself in a vain worship of pagan -antiquity. Faith was mocked at as well as superstition; sacred history -and Greek mythology were treated alike. The youths of all European -countries, thirsting for knowledge, crossed the Alps, to draw from -the fresh springs of the Italian academies, and took home with them -the new ideas, transplanting into distant lands in a modified form -the libertinism of the new paganism that had now over-run Italy. - - § 120.1. =Italian Humanists.=--Italy was the cradle of humanism, - the Greeks who settled there (§ 62, 1, 2), its fathers. The first - Greek who appeared as a teacher in Italy was Emmanuel Chrysoloras, - in A.D. 1396. After the Council of Florence, =Bessarion= and - =Gemisthus Pletho= settled there, both ardent adherents of - the Platonic philosophy, for which they created an enthusiasm - throughout all Italy. From A.D. 1453 Greek _littérateurs_ came - in crowds. From their schools classical culture and pagan ideas - spread through the land. This paganism penetrated even the - highest ranks of the hierarchy. =Leo X.=[353] is credited with - saying, “How many fables about Christ have been used by us and - ours through all these centuries is very well known.” It may not - be literally authentic, but it accurately expresses the spirit of - the papal court. Leo’s private secretary, Cardinal =Bembo=, gave - a mythological version of Christianity in classical Latin. Christ - he styled “Minerva sprung from the head of Jupiter,” the Holy - Spirit “the breath of the celestial Zephyr,” and repentance - was with him a _Deos superosque manesque placare_. Even during - the council of Florence Pletho had expressed the opinion that - Christianity would soon develop into a universal religion not - far removed from classical paganism; and when Pletho died, - Bessarion comforted his sons by saying that the deceased had - ascended into the pure heavenly spheres, and had joined the - Olympic gods in mystic Bacchus dances. In the halls of the - Medici there flourished a new Platonic school, which put Plato’s - philosophy above Christianity. Alongside of it arose a new - peripatetic school, whose representative, =Peter Pompanazzo - [Pomponazzo]=, who died A.D. 1526, openly declared that from - the philosophical point of view the immortality of the soul - is more than doubtful. The celebrated Florentine statesman and - historian =Macchiavelli=,[354] who died A.D. 1527, taught the - princes of Italy in his “Prince,” in direct contradiction to - Dante’s idealistic “Monarchia,” a realistic polity which was - completely emancipated from Christianity and every system of - morality, and presented the monster Cæsar Borgia (§ 110, 12) - as a pattern of an energetic prince, consistently labouring for - the end he had in view. Looseness of morals went hand in hand - with laxity in religion. Obscene poems and pictures circulated - among the humanists, and their practice was not behind their - theory. Poggio’s lewd facetiæ, as well as Boccadelli’s indecent - epigrams, fascinated the cultured Christian world as much by - their lascivious contents as by their classical style. From the - dialogues of Laurentius Valla on lust and the true good, which - were meant to extol the superiority of Christian morals over - those of the Epicureans and Stoics, comes the saying that the - Greek courtesans were more in favour than the Christian nuns. - The highly gifted poet, Pietro Aretino, in his poetical prose - writings reached the utmost pitch of obscenity. He was called - “the divine Aretino,” and not only Charles V. and Francis I. - honoured him with presents and pensions, but also Leo X., - Clement VIII., and even Paul III. showed him their esteem and - favour. In their published works the Italian humanists generally - ignored rather than contested the church and its doctrines and - morality. But =Laurentius Valla=, who died A.D. 1457, ventured - in his _Adnotationes in N.T._ freely to find fault with and - correct the Vulgate. He did even more, for he pronounced the - Donation of Constantine (§ 87, 4) a forgery, and poured forth - bitter invectives against the cupidity of the papacy. He also - denied the genuineness of the correspondence of Christ with - Abgarus [Abgar] (§ 13, 2), as well as that of the Areopagite - writings (§ 47, 11) and questioned if the Apostles’ Creed was - the work of the apostles (§ 35, 2). The Inquisition sought to - get hold of him, but Nicholas V. (§ 110, 10) frustrated the - attempt and showed him kindness. With all his classical culture, - however, Valla retained no small reverence for Christianity. In - a still higher degree is this true of =John Picus=, Prince of - =Mirandola=, the phœnix of that age, celebrated as a miracle - of learning and culture, who united in himself all the nobler - strivings of the present and the past. When a youth of twenty-one - he nailed up at Rome nine hundred theses from all departments - of knowledge. The proposed disputation did not then come off, - because many of those theses gave rise to charges of heresy, - from which he was cleared only by Alexander VI. in A.D. 1493. - The combination of all sciences and the reconciliation of all - systems of philosophy among themselves and with revelation on - the basis of the Cabbala was the main point in his endeavours. - He has wrought out this idea in his _Heptaplus_, in which, by - means of a sevenfold sense of Scripture, he succeeds in deducing - all the wisdom of the world from the first chapter of Genesis. - He died in A.D. 1494, in the thirty-first year of his age. In - the last year of his life, renouncing the world and its glory, - he set himself with all his powers to the study of Scripture, - and meant to go from land to land preaching the Cross of Christ. - His intentions were frustrated by death. His saying is a very - characteristic one: _Philosophia veritatem quærit, theologia - invenit, religio possidet_. - - § 120.2. =German Humanism.=--The home of German humanism was - the University of =Erfurt=, founded A.D. 1392. At the Councils - of Constance and Basel Erfurt, next to Paris, manifested - the greatest zeal for the reformation of head and members, - and continued to pursue this course during the twenty years’ - activity of John of Wesel (§ 119, 10). About A.D. 1460 the first - representatives of humanism made their appearance there, a German - Luder and a Florentine Publicius. From their school went forth - among others Rudolph of Langen, who carried the new light into - the schools of Westphalia, and John of Dalberg, afterwards Bishop - of Worms. When these two had left Erfurt, =Maternus Pistorius= - headed the humanist movement. Crowds of enthusiastic scholars - from all parts of Germany gathered around him. As men of poetic - tastes, who appreciated the ancient classics, they maintained - excellent relations with the representatives of scholasticism. - But in A.D. 1504 Busch, a violent revolutionist, appearing - at Erfurt, demanded the destruction of the old scholastic - text-books, and thus produced an absolute breach between the - two tendencies. Maternus retired, and =Mutian=, an old Erfurt - student, assumed the leadership in Gotha. Erfurt and Gotha were - kept associated by a lively intercourse between the students - resident at these two places. Mutian had no literary ambitions, - and firmly declined a call to the new University of Wittenberg. - All the more powerfully he inspired his contemporaries. His - bitter opposition to hierarchism and scholasticism was expressed - in keen satires. On retiring from public life, he devoted himself - to the study of Holy Scripture and the Fathers. Shortly before - his death he wrote down this as his confession of faith: _Multa - scit rusticus, quæ philosophus ignorat; Christus vero pro nobis - mortuus est, qui est vita nostra, quod certissime credo_. The - leadership passed over to Eoban Hesse. The members of the society - joined the party of Luther, with the exception of Crotus Rubianus. - =Ulrich von Hutten= was one of the followers of Mutian, a knight - of a noble Franconian family, inspired with ardent patriotism - and love of freedom, who gave his whole life to battle against - pedantry, monkery, and intolerance. Escaping in A.D. 1504 from - Fulda, where he was being trained for the priesthood, he studied - at Erfurt, fought in Maximilian’s army with the sword, in Mutian’s - and Reuchlin’s ranks with the pen, and after the fall of Sickingen - became a homeless wanderer, until he died in want, in A.D. 1523, - on Ufenan, an island in the Lake of Zürich.[355] - - § 120.3. Next to Erfurt, =Heidelberg=, founded in A.D. 1386, - afforded a congenial home for humanist studies. The most - brilliant representative of humanism there was =Rudolph - Agricola=, an admirer and disciple of À. Kempis and Wessel. - His fame rests more on the reports of those who knew him - personally than on any writings left behind by him. His pupils - mostly joined the Reformation.--The University of =Wittenberg=, - founded by Frederick the Wise in A.D. 1502, was the nursery of - a wise and moderate humanism. Humanist studies also found an - entrance into Freiburg, founded in A.D. 1455, into =Tübingen=, - founded in A.D. 1477, where for a long time Reuchlin taught, - and into =Ingolstadt=, founded in A.D. 1472, where the Duke - of Bavaria spared no efforts to attract the most distinguished - humanists. Conrad Celtes, a pupil of Agricola, taught at - Ingolstadt until his removal to Vienna in A.D. 1497. Eck - and Rhegius, too, were among its ablest alumni. As a bitter - opponent of Luther, Eck gave the university a most pronounced - anti-reformation character; whereas Rhegius preached the - gospel in Augsburg, and spent his life in the service of the - Reformation. Reuchlin also taught for a time in Ingolstadt, - and the patriotism and reformatory tendencies of Aventinus - the Bavarian historian received there the first powerful - impulse. At =Nuremberg= the humanists found a welcome in the - home of the learned, wealthy, and noble Councillor Pirkheimer. - In Reuchlin’s controversy with the scholars of Cologne he showed - himself an eager apologist, and headed the party of Reuchlin. - He greeted Luther’s appearance with enthusiasm, and entertained - the reformer at his own house on his return from the discussion - with Cajetan (§ 122, 3), on account of which Eck made the papal - bull against Luther tell also against him. What he regarded - as Luther’s violence, however, soon estranged him, while the - cloister life of his three sisters and three daughters presented - to him a picture of Catholicism in its noblest and purest form. - His eldest sister, Christas, abbess of the Clara convent at - Nuremburg [Nuremberg], one of the noblest and most cultured - women of the 16th century, had a powerful influence over him. - He died in A.D. 1530. - - § 120.4. =John Reuchlin=, born in A.D. 1455 at Pforzheim, went - to the celebrated school at Schlettstadt in Alsace, studied at - Freiburg, Paris, Basel, and Orleans, taught law in Tübingen, - and travelled repeatedly in Italy with Eberhard the Bearded - of Württemberg. After Eberhard’s death he went to the court of - the Elector-palatine Philip, and along with D’Alberg [Dalberg] - did much for the reputation of the University of Heidelberg. - Afterwards he was for eleven years president of the Swabian - court of justiciary at Tübingen. When in A.D. 1513 the seat - of this court was removed to Augsburg he retired to Stuttgart, - was called in A.D. 1519 by William of Bavaria to Ingolstadt as - professor of Greek and Hebrew. On the outbreak of the plague - at Ingolstadt in A.D. 1520, he accepted a call back to Tübingen, - where he died in A.D. 1522. He never gave in his adhesion to - the reforming ideas of Luther. He left unanswered a letter - from the reformer in A.D. 1518. But as a promoter of every - scientific endeavour, especially in connection with the study - of the original text of the O.T., Reuchlin had won imperishable - renown. He was well entitled to conclude his _Rudimenta linguæ - Hebraicæ_ of A.D. 1506 with Horace’s words, _Stat monumentum aëre - perennino_, for that book has been the basis of all Christian - Hebrew philology.[356] He also discussed the difficult subject - of Hebrew accents in a special treatise, _De Acc. et Orthogr. - Hebr._ 11. iii, and the secret doctrines of the Jews in his _De - arte Cabbalistica_. He offered to instruct any Jew who wished - it in the doctrines of Christianity, and also to care for his - temporal affairs. His attention to rabbinical studies involved - him in a controversy which spread his fame over all Europe. - A baptized Jew, Pfefferkorn, in Cologne in A.D. 1507 exhibited - a neophyte’s zeal by writing bitter invectives against the Jews, - and in A.D. 1509 called upon the Emperor Maximilian to have all - rabbinical writings burnt because of the blasphemies against - Christ which they contained. The emperor asked the opinion of - the universities of Mainz, Cologne, Erfurt, and Heidelberg, - as well as of Reuchlin and the Cologne inquisitor Hoogstraten. - Erfurt and Heidelberg gave a qualified, Reuchlin an unqualified - answer in opposition to the proposal. The openly abusive - Jewish writings, _e.g._ the notorious _Toledoth Jeschu_, he - would indeed condemn, but all other books, _e.g._ the Talmud, - the Cabbala, the biblical glosses and commentaries, books of - sermons, prayers, and sacred songs, as well as all philosophical, - scientific, poetic, and satirical writings of the Jews, he - was prepared unconditionally to defend. Pfefferkorn contended - against him passionately in his “Handspiegel” of A.D. 1511, to - which Reuchlin replied in his “Augenspiegel.” The theological - faculty of Cologne, mostly Dominicans, pronounced forty-three - statements in the “Augenspiegel” heretical, and demanded its - suppression. Reuchlin now gave free vent to his passion, and - in his _Defensio c. calumniatores suos Colonienses_ denounced - his opponents as goats, swine, and children of the devil. - Hoogstraten had him cited before a heresy tribunal. Reuchlin - did not appear, but appealed to Pope Leo X. (A.D. 1513). A - commission appointed by Leo met at Spires in A.D. 1514, and - declared him not guilty of heresy, found Hoogstraten liable - in the costs of the process, which was enforced with hearty - satisfaction by Franz von Sickingen in A.D. 1519. But meanwhile - Hoogstraten had made a personal explanation of his affairs at - Rome, and had won over the influential _magister sacri palatii_, - Sylvester Prierias (§ 122, 2), who got the pope in A.D. 1520 - to annul the judgment and to condemn Reuchlin to pay the costs - and observe eternal silence. The men of Cologne triumphed, but - in the public opinion of Germany Reuchlin was regarded as the - true victor. - - § 120.5. A multitude of vigorous and powerful pens were now - in motion on behalf of Reuchlin. In the autumn of A.D. 1515 - appeared the first book of the =Epistolæ obscurorum virorum=, - which pretended to be the correspondence of a friend with - the Cologne teacher Ortuinus Gratius of Deventer. In the most - delicious monkish Latin the secret affairs of the mendicant - monks and their hatred of Reuchlin were set forth, so that - even the Dominicans, according to Erasmus, for a time regarded - the correspondence as genuine. All the more overwhelming was - the ridicule which fell upon them throughout all Europe. The - mendicants indeed obtained from Leo a bull against the writers - of the book, but this only increased its circulation. The - authors remained unknown; but there is no doubt they belonged - to the Mutian party. Justus Jonas, a member of that guild, - affirms that Crotus Rubianus had a principal hand in its - composition. The idea of it was probably suggested by Mutian - himself. Ulrich von Hutten repudiated any share in it, and - on internal and external grounds this is more than probable. - Busch, Urban, Petrejus, and Eoban Hesse most likely contributed - to it. In order to keep up the deception, Venice was given as - the place of publication, the name of the famous Aldus Manutius, - the papal publisher of Venice, was put upon the title, and - a pseudo-papal imprimatur was attached. The second book was - issued in A.D. 1517 by Frobenius in Basel. The monkish party - published as a counterblast _Lamentationes obscurorum virorum_ - at Cologne in A.D. 1518, but the lame and forced wit of the - book marked it at once as a ridiculous failure. The monks and - schoolmen were once and for ever morally annihilated.[357] - - § 120.6. =Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam= was the most brilliant - of all the humanists, not only of Germany, but also of all Europe. - Born in A.D. 1465, he was educated by the Brothers of the Common - Life at Deventer and Herzogenbusch, and afterwards forced by his - relatives to enter a monastery in A.D. 1486. In A.D. 1491 he was - relieved from the monastic restraints by the Bishop of Cambray, - and sent to finish his studies at Paris. He visited England in - A.D. 1497, in the company of young Englishmen to whom he had been - tutor. There the humanist theologian Colet of Oxford exerted over - him a wholesome influence that told upon his whole future life. - After spending a year and a half in England, he passed the next - six years, sometimes in France, sometimes in the Netherlands; - was in Italy from A.D. 1507 till A.D. 1510; then again for - five years in England, for most of that time teaching Greek - at Cambridge; then other six years in the Netherlands; and at - last, in A.D. 1521, he settled with his publisher Frobenius in - Basel, where he enjoyed intercourse with the greatest scholars - of the day, and maintained an extensive correspondence. He - refused every offer of official appointment, even the rank of - cardinal, but in reality held undisputed sway as king in the - world of letters. He did much for the advancement of classical - studies, and in various ways promoted the Protestant Reformation. - The faults of the scholastic method in the study of theology - he unsparingly exposed, while the misdeeds of the clergy and - the ignorance and sloth of the monks afforded materials for his - merciless satires. The heathenish spirit of many of the humanists, - as well as the turbulent and revolutionary procedure of Ulrich - von Hutten, was quite distasteful to him; but his Pelagianising - tendencies also prevented him from appreciating the true character - of the gospel. He desired a reformation of the Church, but he had - not the reformer’s depth of religious emotion, world-conquering - faith, self-denying love, and heroic preparation for martyrdom. - He was much too fond of a genial literary life, and his perception - of the corruption of the church was much too superficial, so that - he sought reformation rather by human culture than by the Divine - power of the gospel. When the Reformation conquered at Basel in - A.D. 1529, Erasmus withdrew to Freiburg. He returned to Basel - in A.D. 1536 for conference with Frobenius, and died there under - suspicion of heresy without the sacraments of the church. His - friends the monks at an earlier period, on the occasion of a - false report of his death, had said in their barbarous Latin that - he died “_sine lux, sine crux, sine Deus_.” The most important of - his works are his critical and exegetical treatises on the N.T. - The first edition of his Greek N.T., with Latin translation, - short notes, and three introductory sections, was published - in A.D. 1516. In the second edition of A.D. 1519, one of - these introductory sections, _Ratio veræ theologiæ_, appeared - in a greatly extended form; and from A.D. 1522 it was issued - separately, and passed through several editions. Scarcely less - important were his paraphrases of all the biblical books except - the Apocalypse, begun in A.D. 1517. He did much service too - by his editions of the Fathers. On his polemic with Luther - see § 125, 3. His _Ecclesiastes s. concionator evangelicus_ - of A.D. 1535 is a treatise on homiletics admirable of its kind. - In his “Praise of Folly” (Ἐγκώμιον μωρίας, _s. Laus stultitiæ_) - of A.D. 1511, dedicated to his friend Sir Thomas More, he - overwhelms with ridicule the schoolmen, as well as the monks - and the clergy; and in his “Colloquies” of A.D. 1518, by which - he hoped to make boys _latiniores et meliores_, he let no - opportunity pass of reproaching the monks, the clergy, and - the forms of worship which he regarded as superstitious. Also - his _Adagia_ of A.D. 1500 had afforded him abundant scope for - the same sort of thing. A piety of the purest and noblest type, - derived from the schools of the Brothers of the Common Life, and - from intercourse with Colet, breathes through his _Enchiridion - militis christiani_ of A.D. 1502.[358]--Continuation § 123, 3. - - § 120.7. =Humanism in England.=--In England we meet with two - men in the end of the 15th century, closely related to Erasmus, - of supreme influence as humanists in urging the claims of reform - within the Catholic church. =John Colet= in A.D. 1496 returned - to England after a long sojourn in Italy, where he had obtained, - not only humanistic culture, but also, through contact with - Savonarola and Mirandola, a powerful religious impulse. He then - began, at Oxford, his lectures on the Pauline epistles, in which - he abandoned the scholastic method and returned to the study - of Scripture and the Fathers. There, in A.D. 1498, he attached - himself closely to Erasmus and to young Thomas More, who was - studying in that place. In A.D. 1505 Colet was made doctor and - Dean of St. Paul’s, in which position he expounded with great - success whole biblical books and large portions of others in his - sermons. After his father’s death in A.D. 1510, he applied his - great wealth to the founding of a grammar school at St. Paul’s - for the instruction of more than 150 boys in classical, biblical, - and patristic literature. A convocation of English bishops in - A.D. 1512, to devise means for rooting out heresy (§ 119, 1), - gave him the opportunity in his opening sermon to speak plainly - to the assembled bishops. He told them that reform of their - own order was the best way to protect the church against the - incursion of heretics. This aroused the bitter wrath of the old, - bigoted Bishop Fitzjames of London, who disliked him exceedingly - on account of his reforming tendencies and his pastoral and - educational activity. But the archbishop, Warham of Canterbury, - repelled the bishop’s fanatical charge of heresy as well as King - Henry’s suspicions in regard to the political sympathies of the - simple, pious man. Colet died in A.D. 1519.--=Thomas More=, born - in A.D. 1480, was recommended to the king by Cardinal Wolsey, and - rose from step to step until in A.D. 1529 he succeeded his patron - as Lord Chancellor of England. In bonds of closest intimacy - with Colet and Erasmus, More also shared in their desires for - reform, but applied himself, in accordance with his civil and - official position, more to the social and political than to the - ecclesiastical aspects of the question. His most comprehensive - contribution is found in his famous satire, “Utopia,” of - A.D. 1516, in which he sets forth his views as to the natural - and rational organization of all social and political relations - of life in contrast to the corrupt institutions of existing - states. The religious side of this utopian paradise is pure - deism, public worship being restricted to the use of what - is common to all religions, and peculiarities of particular - religions are relegated to special or private services. We - cannot however from this draw any conclusion as to his own - religious beliefs. More continued to the end a zealous Catholic - and a strict ascetic, and was a man of a singularly noble and - steadfast character. In the controversy between the king and - Luther (§ 125, 3) he supported the king, and as chancellor he - wrote, in direct contradiction to the principles of religious - toleration commended in his “Utopia,” with venomous bitterness - against the adherents of the anti-Catholic reformation. But - he decidedly refused to acquiesce in the king’s divorce; and - when Henry quarrelled with the pope in A.D. 1532 and began to - carry out reforms in a Cæsaro-papistic manner (§ 139, 4), he - resigned his offices, firmly refused to acknowledge the royal - supremacy over the English church, and, after a long and severe - imprisonment, was beheaded in A.D. 1535.[359] - - § 120.8. =Humanism in France and Spain.=--In =France= humanist - studies were kept for a time in the background by the world-wide - reputation of the University of Paris and its Sorbonne. But a - change took place when the young king Francis I., A.D. 1515-1547, - became the patron and promoter of humanism. One of its most - famous representatives was =Budæus [Buddæus]=, royal librarian, - who aided in founding a college for the cultivation of science - free from the shackles of scholasticism, and exposed the - corruptions of the papacy and the clergy. But much as he - sympathized with the spirit of the Reformation, he shrank - from any open breach with the Catholic church. He died in - A.D. 1540. His like-minded contemporary, =Faber Stapulensis=, - as a teacher of classical literature at Paris gathered crowds - of pupils around him, and from A.D. 1507 applied himself almost - exclusively to biblical exegetical studies. He criticised and - corrected the corrupt text of the Vulgate, commented on the - Greek text of the gospels and apostolic epistles, and on account - of this, as well as by reason of a critical dissertation on Mary - Magdalene of A.D. 1521, was condemned by the Sorbonne. Francis I. - and his sister Margaret of Orleans protected him from further - persecution. Also his former pupil, William Briçonnet, Bishop - of Meaux, who was eagerly endeavouring to restore morality - and piety among his clergy, appointed him his vicar-general, - and gave him an opportunity to bring out his French translation - of the New Testament from the Vulgate in A.D. 1523, which was - followed by a translation of the Old Testament and a French - commentary on the pericopes of the Sundays and festivals. - As Faber here represented the Scriptures as the only rule of - faith for all Christians, and taught that man is justified not - by his works, but only by faith in the grace of God in Christ, - the Sorbonne charged him with the Lutheran heresy, and Parliament, - during the king’s imprisonment in Spain (§ 126, 5) in A.D. 1525, - appointed a commission to search out and suppress heresy in the - diocese of Meaux. Faber’s books were condemned to the flames, - but he himself, threatened with the stake, escaped by flight to - Strassburg. After his return the king provided for him a safe - retreat at Blois, where he wrought at his translation of the Old - Testament, which he completed in A.D. 1528. He spent his last - years at Nérac, the residence of his patroness Margaret, now - Queen of Navarre, where he died in A.D. 1536 in his 86th year. - Though at heart estranged from the Catholic church, he never - formally forsook it.--In =Spain= Cardinal Ximenes (§ 118, 7) - acted as the Mæcenas of humanist studies. The most distinguished - Spanish humanist was =Anton of Lebrija=, professor at Salamanca, - a fellow labourer with Ximenes on the Complutensian Polyglott, - and protected by him from the Inquisition, which would have - called him to account for his criticism of the Vulgate. He died - in A.D. 1522. - - § 120.9. =Humanism and the Reformation of the Sixteenth - Century.=--Humanists, in common with the reformers, inveighed - against the debased scholasticism as well as against the - superstition of the age. They did so however on very different - grounds, and conducted their warfare by very different methods. - While the reformers employed the word of God, and strove - after the salvation of the soul, the humanists employed wit - and sarcasm, and sought after the temporal well-being of - men. Hence the reaction of the despised scholasticism and the - contemned monasticism against humanism was often in the right. - A reformation of the church by humanism alone would have been - a return to naked paganism. But, on the other hand, classical - studies afforded men who desired a genuine reformation of - the church a rich, linguistic, philosophical, and scientific - culture, without which, as applied to researches in church - history, the exposition of Scripture, and the revision of - doctrine, the reforms of the sixteenth century could hardly - have been carried out in a comprehensive and satisfactory manner. - The most permanent advantage won for the church and theology - by the revival of learning was the removal of =Holy Scripture= - from under the bushel, and giving it again its rightful place - as the lamp of the church. It pointed back from the Vulgate, - of which since A.D. 1500, some ninety-eight printed editions - had appeared, to the original text, condemned the allegorical - method of exposition, awakened an appreciation of the grammatical - and historical system of interpretation, afforded scientific - apparatus by its philological studies, and by issuing printed - Bibles secured the spread of the original text. From the time - of the invention of printing the Jews were active in printing - the Old Testament. From A.D. 1502 a number of Christian scholars, - under the presidency of Ximenes, wrought at Alcala at the great - Complutensian Polyglott, published in A.D. 1520. It contained the - Hebrew and Greek texts, the Targums, the LXX., and the Vulgate, - as well as a Latin translation of the LXX. and of the Targums, - with a much-needed grammatical and lexical apparatus. Daniel - Bomberg of Antwerp published at Venice various editions of the - Old Testament, some with, some without, rabbinical commentaries. - His assistants were Felix Pratensis, a learned Jew; and Jacob ben - Chaijim, a rabbi of Tunis. As the costly Complutensian Polyglott - was available only to a few, Erasmus did great service by his - handy edition of the Greek New Testament, notwithstanding its - serious critical deficiencies. Erasmus himself brought out five - successive editions, but very soon more than thirty impressions - were exhausted. - - - - - THIRD DIVISION. - - History of the Development of the Church under - Modern European Forms of Civilization. - - - § 121. CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. - - In the Reformation of the sixteenth century the intelligence of -Germany, which had hitherto been under the training and tutelage of -the Romish church, reached maturity by the application of the formal -and material principles of Protestantism,--the sole normative authority -of Scripture, and justification by faith alone without works of merit. -It emancipated itself from its schoolmaster, who, for selfish ends, -had made and still continued to make strenuous efforts to check every -movement towards independence, every endeavour after ecclesiastical, -theological, and scientific freedom, every struggle after evangelical -reform. Yet this emancipation was not completely effected in all the -purely German nationalities, much less among those Romanic and Slavonic -peoples which had bowed their necks to the papal hierarchy. The Romish -church of the Reformation not only adhered to the form and content of -its former unevangelical constitution, but also still further developed -and formally elaborated its creed in the same unevangelical direction, -and the result was a split in the western church into an Evangelical -Protestant and a Roman Catholic church. Then again the principles of -the Reformation were set forth in different ways, and Protestantism -branched off into two divisions, the Lutheran and the Reformed. Besides -these three new western churches and the one old eastern church, which -all rested upon the common œcumenical basis of the old Catholic church, -a variety of sects sprang out of them. Through these greater and lesser -divisions, modern church history, where, with some advantages and -some disadvantages, one church is pitted against another, possesses -a character entirely different from the church history of earlier times. - - Modern church history naturally falls into four divisions. - The distinguishing characteristic of each is found partly in - the opposition of particular churches to one another, partly - in the antagonism of faith and unbelief. The transition from - one to another corresponds generally with the boundaries of - the centuries. The =sixteenth century= forms the Reformation - period, in which the new Protestantism, parted from the old - Roman Catholicism, cast off the deformatory elements which had - attached themselves to it, and developed for itself a system - of doctrine, worship, and constitution; while the Roman Catholic - church, from the middle of the century, set to work upon a - counter-Reformation, by which it succeeded in large measure - in reconquering the field that had been lost. The =seventeenth - century= was characterized on the Protestant side as the age - of orthodoxy, in which confessionalism obtained undivided - supremacy, deteriorating however in doctrine and life into - a frigid formalism, which called forth the movement of Pietism - as a corrective; but, on the Roman Catholic side, it was - characterized as a period of continued successful restoration. - In the =eighteenth century= begins the struggle against the - dominant church and the prevailing conceptions of Christianity - in the forms of deism, naturalism, and rationalism within - both the Protestant and Catholic churches. The fourth division - embraces the =nineteenth century=. The newly awakened faith - strives vigorously with rationalism, and then, on the Protestant - side, splits into unionism and confessionalism; while, on the - Roman Catholic side, it makes its fullest development in a - zealous ultramontanism. But rationalism again renews its youth - under the cloak of science, and alongside of it appears a more - undisguised unbelief in the distinctly antichristian forms of - pantheism, materialism, and communism, which seeks to annihilate - everything Christian in church and state, in science and faith, - in social and political life. - - - - - FIRST SECTION. - - CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. - - - - - I. The Reformation.[360] - - - § 122. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. - - At the beginning of the sixteenth century everything seemed to -combine in favour of those reforming endeavours which had been -held back during the Middle Ages. There was a lively perception of -the corruptions of the church, a deep and universal yearning after -reformation, the scientific apparatus necessary for its accomplishment, -a pope, Leo X., careless and indolent; a trafficker in indulgences, -Tetzel, stupidly bold and shameless; a noble, pious, and able prince, -Frederick the Wise (§ 123, 9), to act as protector of the new creed; -an emperor, Charles V. (§ 123, 5), powerful and hostile enough to -kindle the purifying fire of tribulation, but too much occupied with -political entanglements to be able to indulge in reckless and violent -oppression. There were also thousands of other persons, circumstances, -and relations helping, strengthening, and furthering the work. And now, -at the right hour, in the fittest place, and with the most suitable -surroundings, a religious genius, in the person of Luther, appeared -as the reformer, with the rarest combination of qualities of head and -heart, character and will, to engage upon that great work for which -Providence had so marvellously qualified him. This mighty undertaking -was begun by ninety-five simple theses, which he nailed to the door of -the church of Wittenberg, and the Leipzig Disputation marked the first -important crisis in its history. - - § 122.1. =Luther’s Years of Preparation.=--Martin Luther, - a miner’s son, was born on November 10th, A.D. 1483. His - childhood was passed under severe parental control and amid - pinching poverty, and he went to school at Mansfeld, whither - his parents had migrated; then at Magdeburg, where, among the - Brothers of the Common Life, he had mainly to secure his own - support as a singing boy upon the streets; and afterwards at - Eisenach, where Madame Ursula Cotta, moved by his beautiful - voice and earnest entreaty, took him into her house. In A.D. 1501 - he entered on the study of jurisprudence at Erfurt (§ 120, 2), - took the degree of bachelor in A.D. 1502, and that of master in - A.D. 1505. During a fearful thunderstorm, which overtook him as - he travelled home, he was driven by terror to vow that he would - become a monk, impressed as he was by the sudden death of an - unnamed friend which had taken place shortly before. On the - 17th July, A.D. 1505, he entered the Augustinian convent at - Erfurt. In deep concern about his soul’s salvation, he sought - by monkish asceticism, fasting, prayer, and penances to satisfy - his conscience, but the inward struggles only grew stronger. An - old monk proclaimed to the weary inquirer, almost fainting under - the anxiety of spirit and self-imposed tortures, the comforting - declaration of the creed, “I believe in the forgiveness of sins.” - Still more powerful in directing him proved the conversation - of his noble superior, John Staupitz (§ 112, 6). He showed him - the way of true repentance and faith in the Saviour crucified - not for _painted_ sins. Following his advice, Luther diligently - studied the Bible, together with, of his own accord, Augustine’s - writings. In A.D. 1507 he was ordained priest, and in A.D. 1508 - Staupitz promoted him to the University of Wittenberg, founded - in A.D. 1502, where he lectured on the “Dialectics” and “Physics” - of Aristotle; and in A.D. 1509 he was made _Baccalaureus - biblicus_. In the autumn of the same year he went again, - probably by Staupitz’ advice, to Erfurt, until, a year and a - half afterwards, he obtained a definite settlement at Wittenberg. - Highly important for his subsequent development was the journey - which, in A.D. 1511, he took to Rome in the interests of his - order. On the first view of the holy city, he sank upon his - knees, and with his hands raised to heaven cried out, “I greet - thee, holy Rome.” But he withdrew utterly disgusted with the - godless frivolity and immorality which he witnessed among the - clergy on every side, and dissatisfied with the externalism - of the penitential exercises which he had undertaken. During - his whole journey the Scripture sounded in his ear, “The just - shall live by his faith.” It was a voice of God in his soul, - which at last carried the blessed peace of God into his wounded - spirit. After his return, in A.D. 1512, Staupitz gave him - no rest until he took the degree of doctor of divinity; and - now he gave lectures in the university on Holy Scripture, and - afterwards preached in the city church of Wittenberg. He applied - himself more and more, by the help of Augustine, to the study - of Scripture and its fundamental doctrine of justification by - faith alone. About this time too he was powerfully influenced - by Tauler’s mysticism and the “Deutsche Theologie,” of which - he published an edition in A.D. 1516. - - § 122.2. =Luther’s Theses of A.D. 1517.=--The æsthetic and - luxurious pope Leo X. (§ 110, 14), avowedly for the building of - St. Peter’s, really to fill his own empty coffers, had proclaimed - a general indulgence. Germany was divided between three indulgence - commissions. The elector-cardinal Albert of Mainz, archbishop - of Magdeburg, and brother of Elector Joachim of Brandenburg, - undertook the direction of the commission for his archiepiscopal - province, for which he was to receive half the proceeds for the - payment of his debts. The most shameless of the traffickers in - indulgences employed by him was the Leipzig Dominican prior, - John Tetzel. This man had been sentenced at Innsbrück to be - drowned for adultery, but on the intercession of the Elector - of Saxony had his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life. - He now was taken from his prison in order to do this piece of - work for Albert. With great success he went from place to place, - and offered his wares for sale, proclaiming their virtues in the - public market with unparalleled audacity. He went to Jüterbock, - in the vicinity of Wittenberg, where he attracted crowds of - purchasers from all around. Luther discovered in the confessional - the corrupting influence of such procedure, and on the afternoon - of All Saints’ Day, =October 31st, A.D. 1517=, he nailed on - the door of the Castle Church of Wittenberg ninety-five theses, - explaining the meaning of the indulgence. Although they were - directed not so much against the principle of indulgences as - against their misunderstanding and abuse, they comprehended - the real germ of the Reformation movement, negatively in the - conception of repentance which they set forth, and positively - in the distinct declaration that the grace of God in Christ can - alone avail for the forgiveness of sin. With incredible rapidity - the theses spread over all Germany, indeed over all Europe. - Luther accompanied them with a sermon on indulgence and grace. - The immense applause which its delivery called forth led the - supporters of the old views to gird on their armour. Tetzel - publicly burnt the theses at Jüterbock, and with the help of - Wimpina posted up and circulated at Frankfort and other places - counter-theses. The Wittenberg students purchased quantities - of these theses, and in retaliation burnt them, but Luther did - not approve their conduct. In April, A.D. 1518, Luther went - to Heidelberg, to take part there in a regular chapter of the - Augustinians, which was usually accompanied by public preaching - and disputations by members of the order. The disputation, which - on this occasion was assigned to Luther, gave him the welcome - opportunity of making known to wider circles these philosophical - and theological views which he had hitherto uttered only in - Wittenberg. The professors of the University of Heidelberg - repudiated and opposed them, but in almost every case mildly - and with tolerance. On the other hand, many of the young - theologians studying there enthusiastically accepted his - doctrines, and several of them, _e.g._ Martin Bucer of - Strassburg (§ 125, 1), John Brenz and Erhard Schnepf of Swabia - (§ 133, 3), as well as Theobald Billicanus, afterwards reformer - of Nördlingen, etc., there and then consecrated themselves to - their life work. - - § 122.3. =Prierias, Cajetan, and Miltitz, - A.D. 1518, 1519.=--Leo X. at first regarded the matter as an - insignificant monkish squabble, and praised Brother Martin as - a real genius. He gave no heed to Hoogstraten’s outcry of heresy, - nor did he encourage the Dominican Prierias in his attack on - Luther. The book of Prierias was a harmless affair. Luther gave - it a short and crushing reply. Prierias answered in a second - and third tract, which Luther simply republished with sarcastic - and overwhelming prefaces. The pope then enjoined silence upon - his luckless steward. In May, A.D. 1518, Luther wrote a humble - epistle to the pope, and added a series of _Resolutiones_ in - vindication of his theses. Staupitz is said to have revised - both. Meanwhile it had been determined in Rome to deal with - the Wittenberg business in earnest. The papal procurator made - a complaint against Luther. A court was commissioned, which - summoned him to appear in person at Rome to answer for himself. - But, on the representations of the University of Wittenberg - and the Elector Frederick the Wise, the pope charged Cardinal - Cajetan, his legate at the Diet of Augsburg, to take up the - consideration of the matter. Luther appeared, and made his - appeal to the Bible. The legate however wished him to argue - from the schoolmen, demanded an unconditional recantation, - and at last haughtily dismissed “the beast with deep eyes - and wonderful speculations in his head.” Luther made a formal - appeal _a sanctissimo Domino Leone male informato ad melius - informandum_, and quitted Augsburg in good spirits. The cardinal - now sought to rouse Frederick against the refractory monk, but - Luther’s buoyant and humble confidence won the noble elector’s - heart. Cajetan continued a vigorous opponent of the reformed - doctrine. But Luther’s superiority in Scripture knowledge - had so impressed the cardinal, that he now applied himself - closely to the study of the Bible in the original tongues; - and thus, while firmly attached to the Romish system, he was - led on many points, _e.g._ on Scripture and tradition, divorce, - injunctions about meats, the use of the vernacular in public - worship, the objectionableness of the allegorical interpretation, - etc., to adopt more liberal views, so that he was denounced - by some Roman Catholic controversialists as guilty of various - heresies.--Luther had no reason in any case to look for any - good from Rome. Hence he prepared beforehand an appeal for an - œcumenical council, which the publisher, against Luther’s will, - at once spread abroad. In Rome the cardinal’s pride was wounded - by the failure of his undertaking. A papal bull defined the - doctrine of indulgences, in order more exactly to guard against - misrepresentations, and an accomplished courtier, the papal - chamberlain, Carl von Miltitz, a Saxon, was sent to Saxony, - in A.D. 1519, as papal nuncio, to convey to the elector the - consecrated golden rose, and to secure a happy conclusion - to the controversy. The envoy began by addressing a sharp - admonition to Tetzel, and met Luther with hypocritical - graciousness. Luther acknowledged that he had acted rashly, - wrote a humble, submissive letter to the pope, and published - “_An Instruction on some Articles ascribed to him by his - Traducers_.” But after all the retractations which he made - at the diet he still firmly maintained justification by faith, - without merit of works. He promised the nuncio to abstain - from all further polemic, on condition that his opponents - also should be silent. But silent these would not be. - - § 122.4. =The Leipzig Disputation, A.D. 1519.=--John Eck - of Ingolstadt had engaged in controversy with a zealous - supporter and colleague of Luther, Andrew Bodenstein of - Carlstadt, professor and preacher at Wittenberg, and Luther - himself took part in the discussion between the two. This - disputation came off at Leipzig, and lasted from June 27th - to July 16th. But Eck’s vanity led him not only to seek the - greatest possible fame from his present disputation, but also - to drag in Luther by challenging his theses. Eck disputed for - eight days with Carlstadt about grace and free will, and with - abundant eloquence, boldness, and learning vindicated Romish - semi-Pelagianism. Then he disputed for fourteen days with Luther - about the primacy of the pope, about repentance, indulgences, - and purgatory, and pressed him hard about the Hussite heresy. - But Luther sturdily opposed him on the grounds of Scripture, - and confirmed himself in the conviction that even œcumenical - councils might err, and that not all Hussite doctrines are - heretical. Both parties claimed the victory. Luther continued - the discussion in various controversial treatises, and Eck, - too, was not silent. New combatants also, for and against, - from all sides appeared upon the scene. The liberal humanists - (§ 120, 2) had at first taken little notice of Luther’s - contention. But the Leipzig Disputation led them to change - their attitude. Luther seemed to them now a new Reuchlin, - Eck another specimen of Ortuinus Gratius. A biting satire of - Pirkheimer (§ 120, 3), “Der abgehobelte Eck,” appeared in the - beginning of A.D. 1520, exceeding in Aristophanic wit any of - the epistles of the Obscurantists. It was followed by several - satires by Ulrich von Hutten, who received new inspiration - from Luther’s appearance at Leipzig. Hutten and Sickingen, - with their whole party, undertook to protect Luther with body - and soul, with sword and pen. This was a covenant of some - advantage to the Reformation in its early years; but had it - not been again abrogated, it might have diverted the movement - into an altogether wrong direction. From this time forth Duke - George of Saxony, at whose castle and in whose presence the - disputation had been conducted, became the irreconcilable enemy - of Luther and his Reformation. - - § 122.5. =Philip Melanchthon.=--At the Leipzig Disputation there - also appeared a man fated to become of supreme importance in the - carrying out of the Reformation. Born on February 16th, A.D. 1497, - at Bretten in the Palatinate, Philip Melanchthon entered the - University of Heidelberg in his thirteenth year, and at the - age of sixteen published a Greek grammar. He took the degree - of master at seventeen, and at twenty-one, in A.D. 1518, on the - recommendation of his grand-uncle Reuchlin, he was made Professor - of Greek in Wittenberg. His fame soon spread over all Europe, and - attracted to him thousands of hearers from all parts. Luther and - Erasmus vied with one another in lauding his talents, his fine - culture and learning, and his contemporaries have given him the - honourable title of _Præceptor Germaniæ_. He was an Erasmus of - nobler form and higher power, a thorough contrast to Luther. His - whole being breathed modesty, mildness, and grace. With childlike - simplicity he received the recognised truths of the gospel. He - bowed humbly before the powerful, practical spirit of Luther, who - also, on his part, acknowledged with profound thankfulness the - priceless treasure God had sent to him and to his work in this - fellow labourer. Melanchthon wrote to his friend Œcolampadius - at Basel an account of the Leipzig Disputation, which by chance - fell into Eck’s hands. This occasioned a literary controversy, - in which Eck’s vain over-estimation of himself appears in - very striking contrast to the noble modesty of Melanchthon. - He took part in the Reformation first in February, A.D. 1521, - by a pseudonymous apology for Luther.[361] - - § 122.6. =George Spalatin.=--In consequence of his influential - position at the court of the elector, which he obtained on - Mutian’s (§ 120, 2) recommendation, after completing his - philosophical, legal, and theological studies at Erfurt, - George Burkhardt, born in A.D. 1484 at Spalt, in the diocese - of Eichstadt, and hence called Spalatinus, played an important - part in the German Reformation. Frederick the Wise, who had, - in A.D. 1509, entrusted him with the education of his nephew - John Frederick, appointed him, in A.D. 1514, his court chaplain, - librarian, and private secretary, in which capacity he accompanied - the elector to all the diets, and was almost exclusively the - channel for communicating to him tidings about Luther. John the - Constant, in A.D. 1525, made him superintendent of Altenburg, - and took him with him to the diets of Spires, in A.D. 1526, 1529, - and of Augsburg in A.D. 1530. John Frederick the Magnanimous, his - former pupil, employed him in A.D. 1537 on important negotiations - at the conference of the princes at Schmalkald [Schmalcald] - (§ 134, 1). From A.D. 1527 Spalatin was specially busy with - the visitation and organization of the Saxon church (§ 127, 1), - conducted, in the interests of the Reformation, an extensive - correspondence, and composed several works on the history of his - times and the history of the Reformation. - - - § 123. LUTHER’S PERIOD OF CONFLICT, A.D. 1520, 1521. - - The Leipzig Disputation had carried Luther to a more advanced -standpoint. He came to see that he could not remain standing half way, -that the carrying out of the Reformation principle, justification by -faith, was incompatible with the hierarchical system of the papacy -and its dogmatic foundation. But amid all the violence and subjective -one-sidedness which he showed at the beginning of this period of -conflict, he had sufficient control of himself to make clear the -spiritual character of his reforming endeavours, and firmly to reject -the carnal weapons which Ulrich von Hutten and his revolutionary -companions wished him to take up, thankful as he was for their warm -sympathy. His standpoint as a reformer is shown in the writings which -he published during this period. The Romish bull of excommunication -provoked him to strong words and extreme measures, and with heroic -boldness he entered Worms to present to the emperor and diet an -account of his doings. The papal ban was followed by the imperial -decree of outlawry. But the Wartburg exile saved him from the hands -of his enemies and--of his friends. - - § 123.1. =Luther’s Three Chief Reformation Writings, - A.D. 1520.=--In the powerful treatise, “To His Imperial Majesty - and the Christian Nobility of the German Nation on the Improvement - of the Christian Condition,” which appeared in the beginning of - August, A.D. 1520, Luther bombards first of all the three walls - behind which the Romanists entrenched themselves, the superiority - of the spiritual to the civil power, the sole right of the pope - to interpret Scripture and to summon œcumenical councils. Then he - commends to the laity, as consecrated by baptism to a spiritual - priesthood, especially civil rulers ordained of God, the task - of carrying out the reformation which God’s word requires, but - the pope and clergy hinder; and then finally he makes a powerful - appeal for carrying out this work in a practical way. He exposes - the false pretensions of the papal curia, demands renunciation of - annats and papal confirmation of newly elected bishops, complete - abandonment of the interdict and the abuse of excommunication, - the prohibition of pilgrimages and the begging of the monks, a - limitation of holy days, reform of the universities, permission - to the clergy to marry, reunion with the Bohemian Picards - (§ 119, 8), etc.--The second work, “On the Babylonish Captivity - of the Church,” is a dogmatic treatise, and is directed mainly - against the misuse of the sacraments and the reckoning of them - as seven, which have been made in the hands of the pope an - instrument of tyranny over the church. Only three are recognised - as founded on Scripture: baptism, penance, and the Lord’s Supper, - with the remark that, strictly speaking, even penance, as wanting - an outward sign, cannot be styled a sacrament. The doctrine of - transubstantiation, the withholding of the cup from the laity, - and the idea of a sacrifice in the mass are decidedly rejected. - The third treatise, “On the Freedom of a Christian Man,” enters - the ethical domain. It represents the life of the Christian, - rooted in justifying faith, as complete oneness with Christ. - His relation therefore to the world around is set forth in two - propositions: A Christian man is a free lord over all things, - and subject to no one; and a Christian man is a ministering - servant of all things, and subject to every one. On the one - hand, he has the perfect freedom of a king and priest set over - all outward things; but, on the other hand, he yields complete - submission in love to his neighbour, which, as consideration of - the weak, his very freedom demands.[362] - - § 123.2. =The Papal Bull of Excommunication, A.D. 1520.=--In - order to reap the fruits of his pretended victory at Leipzig, - Eck had gone to Rome, and was sent back triumphant as papal - nuncio with the bull _Exsurge Domini_ of June 16th. It charged - Luther with forty-one heresies, recommended the burning of his - works, and threatened to put him and his followers, if they - did not retract in sixty days, under the ban. Miltitz renewed - his attempts at conciliation, which, however, led to no result, - although Luther, to show at least his good will, attended - the conference, and, as a basis for a mutual understanding, - published his treatise, “On the Freedom of a Christian Man,” - in Oct., A.D. 1520. He accompanied this with a letter to the - pope, in which he treated him with personal respect, as a - sheep among wolves and as a Daniel sitting among lions; but - there was in it no word of repentance or of any desire to - retract. It could easily have been foreseen that these two - documents would prove thoroughly distasteful to the Romish - court. Meanwhile Eck had issued the bull. Luther published - a scathing polemic against it, and renewed his appeal, made - two years before, to an œcumenical council. In Saxony Eck - gained only scorn and reproach with his bull; but in Lyons, - Mainz, Cologne, etc., Luther’s works were actually burnt. - It was then that Luther took the boldest step in his whole - career. With a numerous retinue of doctors and students, whom - he had invited by a notice posted up on the blackboard, on the - 10th Dec., A.D. 1520, at the Elster gate of Wittenberg, he cast - into the blazing pile the bull and the papal decretals with the - words, “Because thou hast troubled the saints of the Lord, let - eternal fire consume thee.” It was the utter renunciation of the - pope and his church, and with it he cut away every possibility - of a return. - - § 123.3. =Erasmus, A.D. 1520.=--Erasmus (§ 120, 6) had been - hitherto on good terms with Luther. They entertained for one - another a genuine regard. Diverse as their positive tendencies - were, they were at one in contending against scholasticism and - monkery. Erasmus was not sorry to see such heavy blows dealt - to the detested monks, and constantly refused to write against - Luther; he had also, he confessed, no wish to learn from his - own experience the sharpness of Luther’s teeth. When the papal - bull appeared, without hesitation he disapproved it, and indeed - refused to believe in its genuineness. He, as the oracle of his - age, was applied to by many for his opinion of the matter. His - judgment was that not the papal decision in itself but its style - and form should be disapproved. He desired a tribunal of learned, - pious men and three princes (the emperor and the kings of England - and Hungary), to whose verdict Luther would have to submit. When - Frederick the Wise consulted him, he expressed the opinion that - Luther had made two mistakes, in touching the crown of the pope - and the belly of the monks; he regretted in Luther’s proceedings - a want of moderation and discretion. Not without profit did the - elector hear the oracle thus discourse.--Continuation § 125, 3. - - § 123.4. =Luther’s Controversy with Emser, - A.D. 1519-1521.=--Emser, secretary and orator in the service - of Duke George, after the Leipzig Disputation, which he had - attended, sought by letter-writing to alienate the Bohemians - (§ 139, 19) from Luther, representing him as having there spoken - bitterly against them. This roused Luther to make a passionate - reply. After several pamphlets of a violent character had been - issued by both combatants, Emser issued his charge in a full and - comprehensive treatise, to which Luther replied in his work, “The - Answer of Martin Luther to the Unchristian, Ultra-ecclesiastical, - and Over-ingenious Book of Emser at Leipzig.” They had also a - sharp passage at arms with one another, in A.D. 1524, over the - canonization of Bishop Benno of Meissen, in which Emser, by his - duke’s order, took a zealous part (§ 129, 1). But all the later - writings in this controversy Luther left unanswered. Emser, with - great bitterness, assailed Luther’s translation of the Bible, in - which he professed to have found 1,400 heretical falsifications - and more than 1,000 lexical blunders. Luther was candid enough to - acknowledge that several of his animadversions were not unfounded. - On Emser’s own translation, which appeared shortly before his - death in A.D. 1527, see § 149, 14. - - § 123.5. =The Emperor Charles V.=--The Emperor Maximilian - had died on 12th Jan., A.D. 1519. The Elector of Saxony, as - administrator of the empire, managed to determine the election, - which took place on 28th June, A.D. 1519, against the French - candidate, Francis I., who was supported by the pope, in favour - of the young king of Spain, Charles I., grandson of Maximilian. - Detained at home by Spanish affairs, it was 23rd Oct., A.D. 1520, - before he was crowned at Aachen. All hopes were now directed - toward the young emperor. It was expected that he would put - himself at the head of the religious and national movement in - Germany. But Charles, uninspired by German sentiment, and even - ignorant of the German language, had other interests, which he - was not inclined to subordinate to German politics. The German - crown was with him only an integral part of his power. Its - interests must accommodate themselves to the common interests - of the whole dominions, upon which the sun never set. The German - movement he regarded as one, indeed, of high importance, but he - regarded it not so much from its religious as from its political - side. It afforded him the means for keeping the pope in check - and obliging him to sue for his favour. Two things required he - of the pope as the price of suppressing the German movement: - renunciation of the French alliance, and repeal of the papal - brief by which a transformation had been recommended of the - Spanish Inquisition, the main buttress of absolute monarchy - in Spain. The pope granted both demands, and the hopes of the - Germans in their new emperor, that he would finally free their - nation from the galling yoke of Rome, were thus utterly blasted. - - § 123.6. =The Diet at Worms, A.D. 1521.=--Immediately after the - arrival of the bull the emperor gave it the full force of law in - the Netherlands, where he was then staying. He did not at once - venture to make the same proclamation for Germany, specially from - regard to Frederick the Wise, Luther’s own prince, who insisted - that he should not be condemned unheard. Personal negotiations - between Frederick and the emperor and his councillors at Cologne, - in November, A.D. 1520, ended with a demand that the elector - should bring Luther to the diet, summoned to meet at Worms, - on 28th January, A.D. 1521; but at the desire of Aleander, the - papal nuncio, who energetically protested against the proposal - that civil judges should treat of matters of faith with an - already condemned heretic, the emperor, in December, withdrew - this summons. In the beginning of February there came a papal - brief, in which he was urgently entreated to give effect to - the bull throughout Germany. Aleander even sketched an imperial - mandate for its execution, but was not able to prevent the - emperor from laying it before his councillors for their opinion - and approval. This was done in the middle of February. And - now there arose a quite unexpected storm of opposition. The - councillors demanded that Luther should be brought under an - imperial safe conduct to Worms, there to answer for himself. - His attacks on Romish abuses they would not and could not regard - as crimes, for they themselves, with Duke George at their head, - had presented to the pope a complaint containing 101 counts. On - the other hand, they declared that if Luther would not retract - his doctrinal vagaries, they would be prepared to carry out - the edict. They persisted in this attitude when another scheme - was proposed to them, which insisted on the burning of Luther’s - writings. In the beginning of March a third proposal was made, - which asked only for the temporary sequestration of his works. - And to this they agreed. The emperor, though against his own - will, submitted to their demand, and cited the reformer of - Wittenberg to answer for himself at Worms. On 6th March he - signed a summons, accompanied with a safe conduct, both intended, - as Aleander said in writing to Rome, rather to frighten him - from coming than with any desire for his presence. But the - result was not as they desired. The courier appointed to deliver - this citation was not sent, but instead of him, on the 12th, an - imperial herald, who delivered to Luther a respectful invitation - beginning with the address, “Noble, dear, and worshipful sir.” - This herald was to bring him honourably and safely to Worms, - and to conduct him back again in safety. All this was done behind - the back of Aleander, who first came to know about it on the 15th, - and certainly was not wrong in attributing the emperor’s change - of mind to a suspicion of French political intrigues, in which - Leo X., notwithstanding his negotiations for an alliance with - the emperor, was understood to have had a share. Two weeks later, - however, such suspicions were seen to be unfounded. Too late the - sending of the herald was regretted, and an effort was made to - conciliate the nuncio by the publication of the sequestrating - mandate, which had been hitherto suppressed. - - § 123.7. =Luther= was meanwhile not idle at Wittenberg, while - waiting with heroic calm the issue of the Worms negotiations. - He preached twice daily, delivered lectures at the university, - taught and exhorted by books, letters, and conversations, - fought with his opponents, especially Emser, etc. While Luther - was engaged with these multifarious tasks the imperial herald - arrived. He now set everything aside, and on 2nd April boldly - and confidently obeyed the summons. The fears of his Wittenberg - friends and the counsels to turn back which reached him on - his way were rejected with a heroic consciousness that he - was in the path of duty. He had written on 14th March to - Spalatin, _Intrabimus Wormatiam invitis omnibus portis inferni - et potentatibus aëris_; and again from Oppenheim he wrote him, - that he would go to Worms even if there were as many devils - there as tiles upon the roofs. Still another attempt was - made upon him at Oppenheim. The emperor’s confessor, Glapio, - a Franciscan, who was by no means a blind worshipper of the - Roman curia, thought it possible that a good understanding - might be reached. He was of opinion that if Luther would - only withdraw the worst of his books, especially that on - the Babylonish Captivity, and acknowledge the decisions of - the Council of Constance, all might be agreeably settled. With - this in his mind he applied to the Elector of Saxony, and when - he received no encouragement there, to Franz von Sickingen, who - invited Luther, on his arrival at Ebernburg, near Worms, to an - interview with Glapio; but Luther declined the invitation.--His - journey all through was like a triumphal march. On 16th April, - amid a great concourse of people, he entered Worms, along with - his friends Justus Jonas and Nic. Amsdorf, as well as his legal - adviser Jerome Schurf. He was called to appear on the following - day. He admitted that the books spread out before him were his, - and when called on to retract desired one day’s adjournment. - On the 18th the trial proper began. Luther distinguished three - classes of his writings, systematic treatises, controversial - tracts against the papacy and papal doctrine, and controversial - tracts against private individuals, and did not know that he - had said anything in them that he could retract. He was asked - to give a direct answer. He then gave one “without horns or - teeth,” saying that he could and would retract nothing unless - proved false from Scripture, or on other good and clear grounds, - and concluded with the words, “Here stand I; I can no otherwise! - God help me, Amen.” Among the German knights and princes he had - won many hearts, but had made no favourable impression on the - emperor, who, when Luther denounced the absolute authority of - councils, stopped proceedings and dismissed the heretical monk. - On the following day, without consulting the opinion of the - councillors, he passed sentence of unconditional condemnation. - But the councillors would not have the matter settled in this - fashion, and the emperor was obliged, on 24th April, to reopen - negotiations before a select commission, under the presidency of - the Archbishop of Treves. Of no avail was a private conference - of the archbishop and Luther on the 25th, in which the prelate - accompanied his exhortation to retract with the promise of - a rich priorate in his neighbourhood under his own and the - emperor’s protection and favour. Luther supported his refusal - by confident reference to the words of Gamaliel, Acts v. 38. - On 26th April he left Worms unhindered; for the emperor had - decidedly refused to yield to the vile proposal that the safe - conduct of a heretic should be violated.--In consequence of - Luther’s persistent refusal to retract anything, the majority - of the diet pronounced themselves ready to agree to the - emperor’s judgment against him. The latter now assigned to - Aleander the drawing up of a new mandate, which should in the - severest terms proclaim the ban of the empire against Luther - and all his friends. After it had been approved in an imperial - cabinet council, and was ready for printing in its final form - in Latin and German, with the date 8th May, it was laid before - the emperor for signature, which, however, he put off doing - from day to day, and finally, in spite of all the nuncio’s - remonstrances, he decided that it must be produced before the - diet. When it appeared that this must be done, the two nuncios - were all impatient to have it passed soon. But it was only on - the 25th May, after the close of the diet, and after several - princes, especially the Electors of Saxony and the Palatinate, - had gone, that Charles let them present the edict, to which - all present agreed. On the 26th May, after Divine service - in church, he solemnly signed the Latin and German forms, - which were published with blast of trumpets on the following - day, and on Wednesday the sequestrated books of Luther were - burnt.--Undoubtedly political motives occasioned this long - delay in signing the documents. Perhaps he suspected the pope - of some new act of political treachery; probably also he wished - to postpone the publication of the edict until the imperial - councillors had promised to contribute to his proposed journey - to Rome, and perhaps until the nobles dissenting from the - proceedings against Luther had departed. - - § 123.8. =The Wartburg Exile, A.D. 1521, 1522.=--Some days - after Luther had dismissed the imperial herald, his carriage - was stopped in a wood near Eisenach by two disguised knights - with some retainers. He was himself carried off with show of - violence, and brought to the Wartburg, where he was to remain - in knight’s dress under the name of Junker Georg without himself - knowing anything more of the matter. It was indeed a contrivance - of the wise elector, though probably he took no active share - in the matter, so that he could declare at Worms that he knew - nothing of the Saxon monk. The most contradictory reports were - spread. Sometimes the Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (§ 122, 2) - was thought of as the perpetrator of the act, sometimes Franz - von Sickingen (§ 124, 2), sometimes a Franconian nobleman who - was on intimate terms with Frederick. And as the news rapidly - spread that Luther’s body, pierced with a sword, had been found - in an old silver mine, the tumult in Worms became so great that - Aleander had good cause to fear for his life.--From the Wartburg - Luther maintained a lively correspondence with his friends, and - even to the general public he proved, by edifying and stirring - tracts, that he still lived, and was not inclined to be silenced - or repressed. He completed the exposition of the _Magnificat_, - wrought upon the Latin exposition of the Psalms, issued the - first series of his “Church Postils,” wrote an “Instruction - to Penitents,” a book “On Confession, whether the Pope have - the Power to Enjoin it,” another “Against the Abuses of the - Mass,” also “On Priestly and Monkish Vows,” etc. When Cardinal - Albert, in September, A.D. 1521, proclaimed a pilgrimage with - unlimited indulgence to the relic shrine at Halle (§ 115, 9), - Luther wrote a scathing tract, “Against the New Idol at Halle.” - And when Spalatin assured him that the elector would not suffer - its being issued, he declined to withhold it, but sent him - the little book, with imperative orders to give it over to - Melanchthon for publication. While Spalatin still delayed - its issue, Luther left his castle, pushed his way toward - Wittenberg through the very heart of Duke George’s territories, - and suddenly appeared among his friends in the dress of a knight, - with long beard and hair. When he heard that the mere report - of what he was proposing to do had led those in Halle to stop - the traffic in indulgences, he decided not to proceed with the - publication, but instead he addressed a letter to Albert, in - which the archbishop had to read many a strong word about “the - knavery of indulgences,” “the Pharaoh-like hardened condition - of ecclesiastical tyrants,” etc. The prelate sent a most humble, - apologetic, and gracious reply to the bold reformer. Luther then - returned to his protective exile, as he had left it, unmolested. - But the longer it continued the more insupportable did this - electoral guardianship become. He would rather “burn on glowing - coals than spend thus a half idle life.” But it was just this - enforced exile that saved Luther and the Reformation from utter - overthrow. Apart from the dangers of the ban of the empire, - which would have perhaps obliged him to throw himself into - the arms of Hutten and his companions, and thus have turned - the Reformation into a revolution this confinement in the - Wartburg was in various ways a blessing to Luther and his - work. It was of importance that men should learn to distinguish - between Luther’s work and Luther’s person, and of yet greater - importance was the discipline of this exile upon Luther himself. - He was in danger of being drawn out of the path of positive - reformation into that of violent revolutionism. The leisure - of the Wartburg gave him time for calm reflection on himself - and his work, and the extravagances of the Wittenberg fanatics - and the wild excuses of the prophets of Zwickau (§ 124, 1) - could be estimated with a freedom from prejudice that would - have been impossible to one living and moving in the midst of - them. Besides, he had not reached that maturity of theological - knowledge needed for the conduct of his great undertaking, and - was in many ways fettered by a one-sided subjectivism. In his - seclusion he could turn from merely destructive criticism to - construction, and by undisturbed study of Scripture became - able to enlarge, purify, and confirm his religious knowledge. - But most important of all was the plan which he formed in the - Wartburg, and so far as the New Testament is concerned carried - out there, of translating the whole of the Scriptures.[363] - - § 123.9. =The Attitude of Frederick the Wise to the - Reformation.=--Frederick the Wise, A.D. 1486-1525, has usually - been styled “the Promoter of the Reformation.” Kolde, however, - has sought to represent him as favouring Luther because of - his interest in the University of Wittenberg founded by him, - the success of which was largely owing to Luther, and because - of his patriotic desire to have German questions settled at - home rather than in Rome. This author supposes that after the - Diet of Worms Frederick took no particular interest in the - Reformation, beyond watching to see how things would turn out. - To all this Köstlin has replied that Frederick’s whole attitude - during the Diet of Worms betrayed a warm and hearty interest - in evangelical truth; that his correspondence with Tucher of - Nuremberg, A.D. 1518-1523, supports this view; that in one - of these letters he addresses his correspondent with evident - satisfaction as a good Lutheran; that in another he incloses - a copy of Luther’s _Assertio omnium articulorum_; that at a - later period he forwards him a copy of Luther’s New Testament, - and expresses the hope that he will gain spiritual blessing - from its perusal. He himself found it his greatest comfort - in the hour of death, partook of the communion in both kinds - after the reformed manner, which takes away all ground for - the suspicion that he yielded only to the importunities of - his brother John and his chaplain Spalatin. And even though - Frederick, as late as A.D. 1522, continued to increase the - rich collection of relics which he had previously made for - his castle church, this only proves that not all at once but - only bit by bit he was able to break away from his earlier - religious tendencies and predilections. - - - § 124. DETERIORATION AND PURIFICATION OF THE WITTENBERG - REFORMATION, A.D. 1522-1525. - - During Luther’s absence, the Reformation at Wittenberg advanced -only too rapidly, and at last ran out into the wildest extravagances. -But Luther hastened thither, regulated the movement, and guided it -back into wise evangelical ways. This fanaticism arose in Wittenberg, -but soon spread into other parts. The Reformation was at the same time -threatened with danger from another quarter. The religious movement -came into contact with the struggle of the German knights against the -princes and that of the German peasants against the nobles, and was -in danger of being identified with these revolutionary proceedings -and sharing their fate. But Luther stood firm as a wall against all -temptations, and thus these dangers were avoided. - - § 124.1. =The Wittenberg Fanaticism, A.D. 1521, 1522.=--In - A.D. 1521 an Augustinian, Gabriel Didymus or Zwilling, preached - a violent tirade against vows and private masses. In consequence - of this sermon, thirteen of the brethren of his order at once - withdrew. Two priests in the neighbourhood married. Carlstadt - wrote against celibacy and followed their example. At the - Wittenberg convent, secessions from the order were allowed - at pleasure, and mendicancy, as well as the sacrifice of the - mass, was abolished. But matters did not stop there. Didymus, - and still more Carlstadt, spread a fanatical spirit among the - people and the students, who were encouraged in the wildest - acts of violence. The public services were disturbed in order - to stop the idolatry of the mass, images were thrown out of - the churches, altars were torn down, and a desire evinced - to put an end to theological science as well as to clerical - orders. A fanatical spirit began now also to spread at Zwickau. - At the head of this movement stood the tailor Nicolas Storch - and a literate Marcus Stübner, who boasted of Divine revelations; - while Thomas Münzer, with fervid eloquence, proclaimed the new - gospel from the pulpit. Restrained by energetic measures taken - against them, the Zwickau prophets wandered abroad. Münzer went - to Bohemia, Storch and Stübner to Wittenberg. There they told - of their revelations and inveighed against infant baptism as - a work of Satan. The excitement in Wittenberg became greater - day by day. The enemies of the Reformation rejoiced; Melanchthon - could give no counsel, and the elector was confounded. Then - could Luther no longer contain himself. Against the elector’s - express command he left the Wartburg on 3rd March, A.D. 1522, - wrote him a noble letter, availed himself of his knight’s - incognito on the way, and appeared publicly at Wittenberg. - For a week he preached daily against fanaticism, and got - complete control of the wild revolutionary elements. The - prophets of Zwickau left Wittenberg. Carlstadt remained, but - for a couple of years held his peace. Luther and Melanchthon - now laboured to secure a positive basis for the Reformation. - Melanchthon had already made a beginning in A.D. 1521 by the - publication of his _Loci communes rerum theologicarum_. Luther - now, in A.D. 1522, against the decided wish of his friend, - published his _Annotationes in epist. t. Pauli ad Rom. et - Cor._ In Sept. of the same year appeared Luther’s translation - of the N.T. Besides these he also issued several treatises - in defence of the Reformation. - - § 124.2. =Franz von Sickingen, A.D. 1522, 1523.=--A private - feud led Franz von Sickingen to attack the Elector and Archbishop - of Treves in A.D. 1522, but soon other interests were involved, - and he was joined by the whole party of the knights. Sickingen’s - opponent was a prelate and a pronounced enemy of the Reformation, - and he was also a prince and a peer of the empire. In both - characters he was opposed by Sickingen, who called for support - in the name of religion and freedom. The knights, discontented - with the imperial government and bureaucracy, with princes and - prelates, crowded to his standard. Sickingen would also have - gladly secured the monk of Wittenberg as an ally, but Luther - was not to be won. Sickingen’s enterprise failed. The Elector - of the Palatinate and the young Landgrave of Hesse hasted to - the help of their beleaguered neighbours. The knights were - overthrown one after another; Sickingen died of mortal wounds - in May, A.D. 1523, immediately after the taking of the shattered - Ebernburg. The power of the knights was utterly broken. The - Reformation thus lost indeed brave and noble protectors, but - it was itself saved. - - § 124.3. =Andrew Bodenstein of Carlstadt, A.D. 1524, - 1525.=--Even after the suppression of the Wittenberg - fanaticism, Carlstadt continued to entertain his revolutionary - views, and it was only with difficulty that he restrained himself - for a few years. In A.D. 1524 he left Wittenberg and went to - Orlamünde. With bitter invectives against Luther’s popism, he - there resumed his iconoclasm, and brought forward his doctrine - of the Lord’s Supper, in which the real presence of the body - and blood of Christ was absolutely denied (§ 131, 1). In order - to prevent disturbance, Luther, by the order of the elector, - went to Jena, and there in Carlstadt’s presence preached most - emphatically against image breakers and sacramentarians. This - roused Carlstadt’s indignation. When Luther visited Orlamünde, - he was received with stone throwing and curses. Carlstadt was - now banished from his territories by the elector. He then went - to Strassburg, where he sought to win over the two evangelical - pastors, Bucer and Capito. Luther issued a letter of warning, - “To the Christians of Strassburg.” Carlstadt went to Basel, - and published violent tracts against Luther’s “unspiritual - and irrational theology.” Luther replied in A.D. 1525, - earnestly, thoroughly, and firmly in his treatise, “Against - the Heavenly Prophets, or Images and the Sacraments.” Carlstadt - had secured the support of the Swiss reformers, who continued - the controversy with Luther. He involved himself in the Peasants’ - War, and afterwards, by Luther’s intercession with the elector, - obtained leave to return to Saxony. He retracted his errors, - but soon again renewed his old disorderly practices; and, after - a singularly eventful career, died as professor and preacher - at Basel during the plague of A.D. 1541. - - § 124.4. =Thomas Münzer, A.D. 1523, 1524.=--The prophets - when expelled from Wittenberg did not remain idle, but set - themselves to produce all sort of disorders in church and state. - At the head of these disturbers stood Thomas Münzer. After his - expulsion from Zwickau, he had gone to Bohemia, and was there - received as an apostle of the Taborite doctrine (§ 119, 7). - In A.D. 1523 he returned to Saxony, and settled at Allstadt - [Allstädt] in Thuringia, and when driven out by the elector - he went to Mühlhausen. In both places he soon obtained a large - following. The Wittenberg Reformation was condemned no less - than the papacy. Not the word of Scripture but the Spirit was - to be the principle of the Reformation; not only everything - ecclesiastical but also everything civil was to be spiritualized - and reorganized. The doctrine of the evangelical freedom of - the Christian was grossly misconceived, the sacraments despised, - infant baptism denounced, and sole weight laid on the baptism - of the Spirit. Princes should be driven from their thrones, - the enemies of the gospel destroyed by the sword, and all - goods be held in common. When Luther wrote a letter of warning - on these subjects to the church at Mühlhausen, Münzer issued - an abusive rejoinder, in which he speaks contemptuously of - Luther’s “honey-sweet Christ,” and “cunningly devised gospel.” - From Mühlhausen, Münzer went forth on a proselytising crusade - in A.D. 1524, to Nuremberg, and then to Basel, but found little - response in either city. His revolutionary extravagances were - more successful among the peasants of Southern Germany. - - § 124.5. =The Peasant War, A.D. 1524, 1525.=--The peasants of - the empire had long groaned under their heavy burdens. Twice - already, in A.D. 1502, 1514, had they risen in revolt, with - little advantage to themselves. When Luther’s ideas of the - freedom of a Christian man reached them, they hastily drew - conclusions in accordance with their own desires. Münzer’s - fanatical preaching led to the adoption of still more decidedly - communistic theories. In August, A.D. 1524, in the Black Forest, - a rebellion broke out, which was, however, quickly suppressed. - In the beginning of A.D. 1525 troubles burst forth afresh. - The peasants stated their demands in twelve articles, which - they insisted upon princes, nobles, and prelates accepting. - All Franconia and Swabia were soon under their power, and - even many cities made common cause with them. Münzer, however, - was not satisfied with this success. The twelve articles were - too moderate for him, and still more distasteful to him were - the terms that had been made with the nobles and clergy. He - returned to Thuringia and settled again at Mühlhausen. From - thence he spread his fanaticism through the whole land and - organized a general revolt. With merciless cruelty thousands - were massacred, all cloisters, castles, and palaces were - ruthlessly destroyed. Boldly as Luther had attacked the - existing ecclesiastical tyranny, he resolutely left civil - matters alone. He preached that the gospel makes the soul - free, but not the body or property. He had profound sympathy - for the sorely oppressed peasants, and so long as their - demands did not go beyond the twelve articles, he hoped to - be able to regulate the movement by the power of the word. - The revolutionists had themselves in their twelfth article - offered to abandon any of their claims that might be found - to have no countenance from the word of God. When Münzer’s - disorders began in Thuringia, Luther visited the cities most - threatened and exhorted them to quiet and obedience. But the - death of the elector on 5th May called him back to Wittenberg. - From thence he now published his “Exhortations to Peace on the - Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants,” in which he speaks - pointedly to the consciences of the nobles no less than of the - peasants. But when the agitation continued to spread, and one - enormity after another was perpetrated, he gave vent to his - wrath in no measured terms in his book, “Against the Robbing - and Murdering Peasants.” He there, with burning words, called - upon the princes vigorously to stamp out the fanatical rebellion. - Philip of Hesse was the first to take the field. He was joined - by the new Elector of Saxony, Frederick’s brother, =John the - Constant=, A.D. 1525-1532, as well as by George of Saxony and - Henry of Brunswick. On 15th May, A.D. 1525, the rebels were - annihilated after a severe struggle at Frankenhausen. Münzer - was taken prisoner and beheaded. Even in Southern Germany the - princes were soon in all parts masters of the situation. In - this war 100,000 men had lost their lives and the most fertile - districts had been turned into barren wastes. - - - § 125. FRIENDS AND FOES OF LUTHER’S DOCTRINE, - A.D. 1522-1526. - - Luther’s fellow labourers in the work of the gospel increased -from day to day, and so too the number of the cities in Northern and -Southern Germany in which pure doctrine was preached. But Wittenberg -was the heart and centre of the whole movement, the muster-ground for -all who were persecuted and exiled for the sake of the gospel, the -gathering point and nursery of new preachers. Among the theological -opponents of Luther’s doctrine appears a crowned head, Henry VIII. -of England, and also “the king of literature,” Erasmus of Rotterdam, -entered the lists against him. But neither the one nor the other, to -say nothing of the rude invectives of Thomas Murner, was able to shake -the bold reformer and check the rapid spread of his opinions. - - § 125.1. =Spread of Evangelical Views.=--The most powerful - heralds of the Reformation were the monkish orders. Cloister - life had become so utterly corrupt that the more virtuous of - the brethren could no longer endure it. Anxious to breathe a - healthier atmosphere, evangelists inspired by a purer doctrine - arose in all parts of Germany, first and most of all among - the Augustinian order (§ 112, 6), which almost to a man went - over to the Reformation and had the glory of providing its - first martyr (§ 128, 1). The order regarded Luther’s honour - as its own. Next to them came the Franciscans, prominent during - the Middle Ages as a fanatical opposition (§ 98, 4; 108, 5; - 112, 2), of whom many had the courage to free themselves of - their shackles. From their cloisters proceeded, _e.g._, the - two famous popular preachers, Eberlin of Günzburg and Henry - of Kettenbach in Ulm, the Hamburg reformer Stephen Kempen, - the fervent Lambert reformer of Hesse, Luther’s friend - Myconius of Gotha, and many more. Other orders too supplied - their contingent, even the Dominicans, to whom Martin Bucer, - the Strassburg reformer, belonged. Blaurer of Württemberg - was a Benedictine, Rhegius a Carmelite, Bugenhagen a - Premonstratensian, etc. At least one of the German bishops, - George Polenz of Samland, openly joined the movement, preached - the gospel in Königsberg, and inspired the priests of his diocese - with the same views. Other bishops, such as those of Augsburg, - Basel, Bamberg, Merseburg, sympathised with the movement or at - least put no hindrance in its way. But the secular clergy gave - crowds of witnesses. In all the larger and even in some of the - smaller towns of Germany Luther’s doctrines were preached from - the pulpits with the approval of the magistrates, and where these - were refused the preachers took to the market-places and fields. - Where ministers were wanting, artisans and knights, wives and - maidens, carried on the work.--One of the first cities which - opened its gates freely to the gospel was Strassburg. Nowhere - were Luther’s writings more zealously read, discussed, printed, - and circulated than in that city. Shortly before Geiler of - Kaisersberg (§ 115, 11) had prepared the soil for receiving - the first seed of the Reformation. From A.D. 1518 Matthew Zell - had wrought as pastor at St. Laurence in Münster. When the - chapter forbade him the use of the stone pulpit erected for - Geiler, the joiners’ guild soon made him a wooden pulpit, which - was carried in solemn procession to Münster, and set up beside - the one that had been closed against him. Zell was soon assisted - by Capito, Bucer, Hedio, and others. - - § 125.2. =“The Sum of Holy Scripture” and its Author.=--This - work, called also _Deutsche Theologie_, appeared anonymously - at Leyden in A.D. 1523, and was confiscated in March, A.D. 1524. - In various Dutch editions and in French, Italian, and English - translations, it was soon widely spread over Europe; but - so vigorously was it suppressed, that by the middle of the - century it had disappeared and was forgotten. In A.D. 1877 - the Waldensian Comba discovered and published an old Italian - version, and Benrath translated into German in A.D. 1880 an - old Dutch edition of A.D. 1526, and succeeded in unravelling - for the most part its interesting history. He found that it - was composed in Latin, and on the entreaty of the author’s - friends rendered into Dutch. This led to the discovery, in - the possession of Prof. Toorenenberger of Amsterdam, of the - Latin original, which had appeared anonymously at Strassburg - in A.D. 1527 with the title, _Æconomica christiana_. Benrath - has also discovered the author to be Hendrik van Bommel, who - was in the first half of A.D. 1520 priest and rector of a - sisterhood at Utrecht, expelled in A.D. 1536 from Cleves, - from A.D. 1542 to 1560 evangelical teacher and preacher at - Wesel, dying in A.D. 1570 as pastor at Duisburg. The “Sum” is - evidently influenced by those works of Luther which appeared - up to A.D. 1523, its thoroughly popular, edifying, and positive - contents are based upon a careful study of Scripture, and it is - throughout inspired by the one grand idea, that the salvation - of sinful men rests solely on the grace of God in Christ - appropriated by faith. - - § 125.3. =Henry VIII. and Erasmus.=--Henry VIII. of England, - as a second son, had been originally destined for the church. - Hence he retained a certain predilection for theological - studies and was anxious to be regarded as a learned theologian. - In A.D. 1522 he appeared as the champion of the Romish doctrine - of the seven sacraments in opposition to Luther’s book on the - “Babylonish Captivity of the Church,” treating the peasant’s - son with lordly contempt. Luther paid him in the same coin, and - treated his royal opponent with less consideration than he had - shown to Emser and Eck. The king obtained what he desired, the - papal honorary title of _Defensor fidei_, but Luther’s crushing - reply kept him from attempting to continue the controversy. - He complained to the elector, who consoled him by reference - to a general council (comp. § 129, 1). The pretty tolerable - relations between Erasmus and Luther now suffered a severe - shock. Erasmus, indebted to the English king for many favours, - was roused to great bitterness by Luther’s unmeasured severity. - He had hitherto refused all calls to write against Luther. Many - pulpits charged him with having a secret understanding with the - heretic; others thought he was afraid of him. All this tended - to drive Erasmus into open hostility to the reformer. He now - diligently studied Luther’s writings, for which he obtained - the pope’s permission, and seized upon a doctrine which would - not oblige him to appear as defender of Romish abuses, though - to gauge and estimate it in its full meaning he was quite - incompetent. Luther’s life experiences, joined with the study - of Paul’s epistles and Augustine’s writings, had wrought in - him the conviction that man is by nature incapable of doing - any good, that his will is unfree, and that he is saved without - any well doing of his own by God’s free grace in Christ. With - Luther, as with Augustine, this conviction found expression - in the doctrine of absolute predestination. Melanchthon had - also formulated the doctrine in the first edition of his _Loci - communes_. This fundamental doctrine of Luther was now laid hold - upon by Erasmus in A.D. 1524 in his treatise, Διατριβή _de libra - arbitrio_, pronounced dangerous and unbiblical, while his own - semi-Pelagianism was set over against it. After the lapse of - a year, Luther replied in his treatise, _De servo arbitrio_, - with all the power and confidence of personal, experimental - conviction. Erasmus answered in his _Hyperaspistes diatribes - adv. Lutheri servum arbitrium_ of A.D. 1526, in which he gave - free vent to his passion, but did not advance the argument - in the least. Luther therefore saw no need to continue the - discussion.[364] - - § 125.4. =Thomas Murner.=--The Franciscan, Thomas Murner of - Strassburg, had published in A.D. 1509 his “Fools’ Exorcism” - and other pieces, which gave him a high place among German - satirists. He spared no class, not even the clergy and - the monks, took Reuchlin’s part against the men of Cologne - (§ 120, 4), but passionately opposed Luther’s movement. His - most successful satire against Luther is entitled, “On the - Great Lutheran Fool as Exorcised by Dr. Murner, A.D. 1522.” - It does not touch upon the spiritual aspect of the Reformation, - but lashes with biting wit the revolutionary, fanatical, and - rhetorical extravagances which were often closely associated - with it. Luther did not venture into the lists with the savagely - sarcastic monk, but the humanists poured upon him a flood of - scurrilous replies. - - § 125.5. A notable Catholic witness on behalf of the - Reformation is the “=Onus ecclesiæ=,” an anonymous tract of - A.D. 1524, written by Bishop Berthold Pirstinger of Chiemsee. - In apocalyptic phraseology it describes the corruption of - the church and calls for reformation. The author however - denounces Luther as a sectary and revolutionist, though he - distinctly accepts his views of indulgences. He would reform - the church from within. Four years after, the same divine - wrote a “_Tewtsche Theologey_,” in which, with the exception - of the doctrine of indulgence, the whole Romish system is - vindicated and the corruptions of the church are ignored. - - - § 126. DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE, - A.D. 1522-1526. - - In consequence of the terms of his election, Charles V. had, at -the Diet of Worms, to agree to the erection of a standing imperial -government at Nuremberg, which in his absence would have the supreme -direction of imperial affairs. Within this commission, though presided -over by Archduke Ferdinand, the emperor’s brother, a majority was -soon found which openly favoured the new religion. Thus protected -by the highest imperial judicature, the Reformation was able for -a long time to spread unhindered and so made rapid progress (§ 125, 1). -The Nuremberg court succumbed indeed to the united efforts of its -political opponents, among whom were many nobles of an evangelical -spirit, but all the more energetically did these press the interests -of the Reformation. And their endeavours were so successful, that -it was determined that matters should be settled without reference -to pope and council at a general German national assembly. But the -papal legate Campegius formed at Regensberg [Regensburg], in A.D. 1524, -a league of the Catholic nobles for enforcing the edict of Worms, -against which the evangelical nobles established a defensive league -at Torgau, in A.D. 1526. The general national assembly was vetoed by -the emperor, but the decision of the Diet of Spires of A.D. 1526 gave -to all nobles the right of determining the religious matters of their -provinces after their own views. - - § 126.1. =The Diet at Nuremberg, A.D. 1522, 1523.=--The - imperial court held its first diet in the end of A.D. 1522. - Leo X. had died in Dec., A.D. 1521, and Hadrian VI. (§ 149, 1), - strictly conservative in doctrine and worship, a reformer of - discipline and hierarchical abuses, had succeeded with the - determination “to restore the deformed bride of Christ to her - pristine purity,” but vigorously to suppress the Lutheran heresy. - His legate presented to the diet a letter confessing abuses and - promising reforms, but insisting on the execution of the edict - of Worms. The diet declared that in consequence of the admitted - corruptions of the church, the present execution of the Worms - edict was not to be thought of. Until a general council in a - German city, with guaranteed freedom of discussion, had been - called, discussion should be avoided, and the word of God, with - true Christian and evangelical explanation, should be taught. - - § 126.2. =The Diet at Nuremberg, A.D. 1524.=--A new diet was - held at Nuremberg on 14th Jan., A.D. 1524. It dealt first of - all with the question of the existence of the imperial court. - The reformatory tendencies of the government showed that what - was vital to this court was so also to the Reformation. This - party had important supporters in the arch-catholic Ferdinand, - who hoped thus to strengthen himself in his endeavour to obtain - the Roman crown, in the Elector of Mainz, the prime mover in - the traffic in indulgences, who had personal antipathies to - the foes of the court, in the elector of Saxony, its proper - creator, and in the princes of Brandenburg. But there were - powerful opponents: the Swabian league, the princes of Treves, - the Palatinate and Hesse, who had been successful in opposition - to Sickingen, and the imperial cities, which, though at one - with the court in favouring the Reformation, were embittered - against it because of its financial projects. The papal legate - Campegius also joined the opposition. Hadrian VI. had died in - A.D. 1523, and was succeeded by =Clement VII.=, A.D. 1523-1534. - A skilful politician with no religious convictions, he determined - to strengthen in every possible way the temporal power of - the papal see. His legate was a man after his own mind. The - opposition prevailed, and even Ferdinand after a struggle gave - in. The newly organized governing body was only a shadow of - the old, without power, influence, or independence. Thus a - second (§ 124, 2) powerful support was lost to the Reformation, - and the legate again pressed for the execution of the edict - of Worms. But the evangelicals mustering all their forces, - especially in the cities, secured a majority. They were indeed - obliged to admit the legality of the edict; they even promised - to carry it out, but with the saving clause “as far as possible.” - A council in the sense of the former diet was demanded, and - it was resolved to call a general national assembly at Spires, - to be wholly devoted to religious and ecclesiastical questions. - In the meantime the word of God in its simplicity was to be - preached. - - § 126.3. =The Convention at Regensburg, A.D. 1524.=--While the - evangelical nobles, by their theologians and diplomatists, were - eagerly preparing for Spires, an assembly of the supporters - of the old views met at Regensburg, June and July, A.D. 1524. - Ignoring the previous arrangement, they proceeded to treat - of the religious and ecclesiastical questions which had - been reserved for the Spires Diet. This was the result of - the machinations of Campegius. The Archduke Ferdinand, the - Bavarian dukes, the Archbishop of Salzburg, and most of the - South German bishops, joined the legate at Regensburg in - insisting upon the edict of Worms. Luther’s writings were - anew forbidden, their subjects were strictly enjoined not to - attend the University of Wittenberg; several external abuses - were condemned, ecclesiastical burdens on the people lightened, - the number of festivals reduced, the four Latin Fathers, Ambrose, - Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory, set up as the standard of - faith and doctrine, while it was commanded that the services - should be conducted unchanged after the manner of these Fathers. - Thus was produced that rent in the unity of the empire which - never again was healed.--The imperial and the papal policies - were so bound up with one another, that the proceedings of the - Nuremberg diets, with their national tendencies, were distasteful - to the emperor; and so in the end of July there came an imperial - rescript, making attendance at the national assembly a _crimen - læsæ majestatis_, punishable with ban and double-ban. The nobles - obeyed, and the assembly was not held. With it Germany’s hopes - of a peaceful development were shattered. - - § 126.4. =The Evangelical Nobles, A.D. 1524.=--Several nobles - hitherto indifferent became now supporters of the Reformation. - Philip of Hesse, moved by an interview with Melanchthon, gave - himself enthusiastically to the cause of evangelical truth. - Also the Margrave Casimir, George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke - Ernest of Lüneburg, the Elector Louis of the Palatinate, and - Frederick I. of Denmark, as Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, did - more or less in their several countries for the furtherance of - the Reformation cause. The grand-master of the Teutonic order, - Albert of Prussia, returned from the Diet of Nuremberg, where - he had heard Osiander preach, doubtful of the scripturalness - of the rule of his order. He therefore visited Wittenberg to - consult Luther, who advised him to renounce the rule, to marry, - and obtain heirs to his Prussian dukedom (§ 127, 3). The cities - took up a most decided position. At two great city diets at - Spires and Ulm in A.D. 1524, it was resolved to allow the - preaching of a pure gospel and to assist in preventing the - execution of the edict of Worms in their jurisdiction. - - § 126.5. =The Torgau League, A.D. 1526.=--Friends and foes of - the Reformation had joined in putting down the peasant revolt. - Their religious divergences however immediately after broke - out afresh. George consulted at Dessau in July, A.D. 1525, with - several Catholic princes as to means for preventing a renewal - of the outbreak, and they unanimously decided that the condemned - Lutheran sect must be rooted out as the source of all confusion. - Soon afterwards two Leipzig citizens, who were found to have - Lutheran books in their possession, were put to death. But - Elector John of Saxony had a conference at Saalfeld with Casimir - of Brandenburg, at which it was agreed at all hazards to stand - by the word of God; and at Friedewald in November Hesse and the - elector pledged themselves to stand true to the gospel. A diet - at Augsburg in December, for want of a quorum, had reached no - conclusion. A new diet was therefore summoned to meet at Spires, - and all the princes were cited to appear personally. Duke George - meanwhile gathered the Catholic princes at Halle and Leipzig, - and they resolved to send Henry of Brunswick to Spain to the - emperor. Shortly before his arrival, the emperor had concluded - a peace at Madrid with the king of France, who had been taken - prisoner in the battle of Pavia. Francis I., feeling he could - not help himself, had agreed to all the terms, including - an undertaking to join in suppressing the heretics. Charles - therefore fully believed that he had a free hand, and determined - to root out heresy in Germany. Henry of Brandenburg brought - to the German princes an extremely firm reply, in which this - view was expressed. But before its arrival the elector and the - landgrave had met at Gotha, and had subsequently at Torgau, the - residence of the elector, renewed the league to stand together - with all their might in defence of the gospel. Philip undertook - to gain over the nobles of the uplands. But the fear of the - empire hindered his success. The elector was more fortunate - among the lowland nobles. On 9th June the princes of Saxony, - Lüneberg [Lüneburg], Grubenhagen, Anhalt, and Mansfeld met at - Magdeburg, and subscribed the Torgau League. Also the city of - Magdeburg, emancipated since A.D. 1524 from the jurisdiction - of its archbishop, Albert of Mainz, and accepting the Lutheran - confession, now joined the league. - - § 126.6. =The Diet of Spires, A.D. 1526.=--The diet met on - 25th June, A.D. 1526. The evangelical princes were confident; - on their armour was the motto, _Verbum Dei manet in æternum_. - In spite of all the prelates’ opposition, three commissions were - approved to consider abuses. When the debates were about to begin, - the imperial commissioners tabled an instruction which forbade - them to make any change upon the old doctrines and usages, and - finally insisted upon the execution of the edict of Worms. The - evangelicals however took comfort from the date affixed to the - document. They knew that since its issue the relation of pope - and emperor had become strained. Francis I. had been relieved - by the pope from the obligation of his oath, and the pope - had joined with Francis in a league at Cognac, to which also - Henry VIII. of England adhered. All Western Europe had combined - to break the supremacy gained by the Burgundian-Spanish dynasty - at Pavia, and the duped emperor found himself in straits. Would - he now be inclined to stand by his instruction? The commissioners, - apparently at Ferdinand’s wish, had kept back the document till - the affairs of the Catholics became desperate. The evangelical - nobles felt encouraged to send an embassy to the emperor, - but before it started the emperor realized their wishes. In - a letter to his brother he communicated a scheme for abolishing - the penalties of the edict of Worms and referring religious - questions to a council. At the same time he called for help - against his Italian enemies. Seeing then that in present - circumstances it did not seem advisable to revoke, still less - to carry out the edict, the only plan was to give to each prince - discretionary power in his own territory. This was the birthday - of the territorial constitution on a formally legitimate basis. - - - § 127. ORGANIZATION OF THE EVANGELICAL PROVINCIAL CHURCHES, - A.D. 1526-1529. - - The nobles had now not only the right but also had it enjoined on -them as a duty to establish church arrangements in their territories -as they thought best. The three following years therefore marked the -period of the founding and organizing of the evangelical provincial -churches. The electorate of Saxony came first with a good example. -After this pattern the churches of Hesse, Franconia, Lüneburg, East -Friesland, Schleswig and Holstein, Silesia, Prussia, and a whole group -of Low German states modelled their constitution and worship. - - § 127.1. =The Organization of the Church of the Saxon - Electorate, A.D. 1527-1529.=--Luther wrote in A.D. 1528 an - instruction to visitors of pastors in the electorate, which - showed what and how ministers were to preach, indicated the - reforms to be made in worship, protested against abuse of the - doctrine of justification by urging the necessity of preaching - the law, etc. The whole territory was divided under four - commissions, comprising lay and clerical members. Ignorant - and incompetent religious teachers were to be removed, but - to be provided for. Teachers were to be settled over churches - and schools, and superintendents over them were to inspect - their work periodically, and to these last the performance - of marriages was assigned. Vacant benefices were to be applied - to the improvement of churches and schools; and those not vacant - were to be taxed for maintenance of hospitals, support of the - poor, founding of new schools, etc. The dangers occasioned by - the often incredible ignorance of the people and their teachers - led to Luther’s composing his two catechisms in A.D. 1529. - - § 127.2. =The Organization of the Hessian Churches, - A.D. 1526-1528.=--Philip of Hesse had assembled the peers - temporal and spiritual of his dominions in Oct., A.D. 1526, - at Homberg, to discuss the question of church reform. A - reactionary attempt failed through the fervid eloquence - of the Franciscan Lambert of Avignon, a notable man, who, - awakened in his cloister at Avignon by Luther’s writings, - but not thoroughly satisfied, set out for Wittenberg, engaged - on the way at Zürich in public disputation against Zwingli’s - reforms, but left converted by his opponent, and then passed - through Luther’s school at Wittenberg. There he married - in A.D. 1523, and after a long unofficial and laborious - stay at Strassburg, found at last, in A.D. 1526, a permanent - residence in Hesse. He died in A.D. 1530.--Lambert’s personality - dominated the Homberg synod. He sketched an organization of the - church according to his ideal as a communion of saints with a - democratic basis, and a strict discipline administered by the - community itself. But the impracticability of the scheme soon - became evident, and in A.D. 1528 the Hessian church adopted the - principles of the Saxon church visitation. Out of vacant church - revenues the University of Marburg was founded in A.D. 1527 as - a second training school in reformed theology. Lambert was one - of its first teachers. - - § 127.3. =Organization of other German Provincial Churches, - A.D. 1528-1530.=--George of =Franconian-Brandenburg=, after his - brother Casimir’s death, organized his church at the assembly of - Anspach after the Saxon model. =Nuremberg=, under the guidance - of its able secretary of council, Lazarus Spengler, united - in carrying out a joint organization. In =Brunswick-Lüneburg=, - Duke Ernest, powerfully impressed by the preaching of Rhegius - at Augsburg, introduced the evangelical church organization - into his dominions. In =East Friesland=, where the reigning - prince did not interest himself in the matter, the development - of the church was attended to by the young nobleman Ulrich of - Dornum. In =Schleswig= and =Holstein= the prelates offered no - opposition to reorganization, and the civil authorities carried - out the work. In =Silesia= the princes were favourable, Breslau - had been long on the side of the Reformation, and even the - grand-duke who, as king of Bohemia, was suzerain of Silesia, - felt obliged to allow Silesian nobles the privileges provided - by the Diet of Spires. In =Prussia= (§ 126, 4), Albert of - Brandenburg, hereditary duke of these parts, with the hearty - assistance of his two bishops, provided for his subjects an - evangelical constitution. - - § 127.4. =The Reformation in the Cities of Northern Germany, - A.D. 1524-1531.=--In these cities the Reformation spread rapidly - after their emancipation from episcopal control. It was organized - in =Magdeburg= as early as A.D. 1524 by Nic. Amsdorf, sent for - the purpose by Luther (§ 126, 5). In =Brunswick= the church was - organized in A.D. 1528 by Bugenhagen of Wittenberg. In =Bremen= - in A.D. 1525 all churches except the cathedral were in the - hands of the Lutherans; in A.D. 1527 the cloisters were turned - into schools and hospitals, and then the cathedral was taken - from the Catholics. At =Lübeck=, nobles, councillors, and - clergy had oppressed and driven away the evangelical pastors; - but the councillors in their financial straits became indebted - to sixty-four citizens, who stipulated that the pastors must - be restored, the Catholics expelled, the cloisters turned into - hospitals and schools, and finally Bugenhagen was called in to - prepare for their church a Lutheran constitution. - - - § 128. MARTYRS FOR EVANGELICAL TRUTH, A.D. 1521-1529. - - On the publication of the edict of Worms several Catholic -princes, most conspicuously Duke George of Saxony, began the -persecution. Luther’s followers were at first imprisoned, scourged, -and banished, and in A.D. 1521 a bookseller who sold Luther’s books -was beheaded. The persecution was most severe in the Netherlands, -a heritage of the emperor independent of the empire. Also in Austria, -Bavaria, and Swabia many evangelical confessors were put to death by -the sword and at the stake. The peasant revolt of A.D. 1525 increased -the violence of the persecution. On the pretence of punishing rebels, -those who took part in the Regensburg Convention (§ 126, 3) were -expelled the country, thousands of them with no other fault than -their attachment to the gospel. The conclusion of the Diet of Spires -in A.D. 1526 (§ 126, 6) added new fuel to the flames. While the -evangelical nobles, taking advantage of that decision, proceeded -vigorously to the planting and organizing of the reformed church, -the enemies of the Reformation exercised the power given them in -cruel persecutions of their evangelical subjects. The vagaries -of Pack (§ 132, 1) led to a revival and intensification of the -spirit of persecution. In Austria, during A.D. 1527, 1528, a church -visitation had been arranged very much in the style of that of Saxony, -but with the object of tracking out and punishing heretics. In Bavaria -the highways were watched, to prevent pilgrims going to preaching over -the borders. Those caught were at first fined, but later on they were -drowned or burned. - - =The first martyrs for evangelical truth= were two young - Augustinian monks of Antwerp, Henry Voes and John Esch, who - died at the stake in A.D. 1523, and their heroism was celebrated - by Luther in a beautiful hymn. They were succeeded by the - prior of the cloister, Lampert Thorn, who was strangled in - prison. The Swabian League, which was renewed after the rising - of the Diet of Spires, with the avowed purpose of rooting - out the Anabaptists, directed its cruel measures against - all evangelicals. The Bishop of Constance in A.D. 1527 had - John Hüglin burnt as an opposer of the holy mother church. - The Elector of Mainz cited the court preacher, George Winkler, - of Halle, for dispensing the sacrament in both kinds at - Ascheffenburg [Aschaffenburg]. Winkler defended himself, and - was acquitted, but was murdered on the way. Luther then wrote - his tract, “Comfort to the Christians of Halle on the Death - of their Pastor.” In North Germany there was no bloodshedding, - but Duke George had those who confessed their faith scourged - by the gaoler and driven from the country. The Elector Joachim - of Brandenburg with his nobles resolved in A.D. 1527 to give - vigorous support to the old religion. But the gospel took deep - root in his land, and his own wife Elizabeth read Luther’s - writings, and had the sacrament administered after the Lutheran - form. But the secret was revealed, and the elector stormed and - threatened. She then escaped, dressed as a peasant woman, to - her cousin the Elector of Saxony. - - - § 129. LUTHER’S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIFE, A.D. 1523-1529. - - Only in December, A.D. 1524, did Luther leave the cloister, the -last of its inhabitants but the prior, and on 13th June, A.D. 1525, -married Catherine Bora, of the convent of Nimptschen, of whom he -afterwards boasted that he prized her more highly than the kingdom -of France and the governorship of Venice. Though often depressed -with sickness, almost crushed under the weight of business, and -harassed even to the end by the threats of his enemies against his -life, he maintained a bright, joyous temper, enjoyed himself during -leisure hours among his friends with simple entertainments of song, -music, intellectual conversation, and harmless, though often sharp -and pungent, interchange of wit. Thus he proved a genuine comfort -and help in all kinds of trouble. By constant writing, by personal -intercourse with students and foreigners who crowded into Wittenberg, -by an extensive correspondence, he won and maintained a mighty -influence in spreading and establishing the Reformation. By Scripture -translation and Scripture exposition, by sermons and doctrinal -treatises, he impressed upon the people his own evangelical views. -A peculiarly powerful factor in the Reformation was that treasury -of sacred song (§ 142, 3) which Luther gave his people, partly in -translations of old, partly in the composition of new hymns, which -he set to bright and pleasing melodies. He was also most diligent in -promoting education in churches and schools, in securing the erection -of new elementary and secondary schools, and laid special stress on -the importance of linguistic studies in a church that prized the pure -word of God. - - § 129.1. =Luther’s Literary Works.=--In A.D. 1524 appeared the - first collection of spiritual songs and psalms, eight in number, - with a preface by Luther. His reforms of worship were extremely - moderate. In A.D. 1523 he published little tracts on baptism - and the Lord’s Supper, repudiating the idea of a sacrifice in - the mass, and insisting on communion in both kinds. In A.D. 1527 - he wrote his “German Mass and Order of Public Worship” (§ 127, 1) - which was introduced generally throughout the elector’s dominions. - He wrote an address to burgomasters and councillors about the - improvement of education in the cities. Besides his polemic - against Erasmus and Carlstadt, against Münzer and the rebellious - peasants, as well as against the Sacramentarians (§ 131), he - engaged at this time in controversy with Cochlæus. A papal - bull for the canonization of Bishop Benno of Meissen (§ 93, 9) - called forth in A.D. 1524 Luther’s tract, “Against the new God - and the old Devil being set up at Meissen.” He was persuaded by - Christian II. of Denmark to write, in A.D. 1526, a very humble - letter to Henry VIII. of England (§ 125, 3), which was answered - in an extremely venomous and bitter style. When his enemies - triumphantly declared that he had retracted, Luther answered, - in A.D. 1527, with his book, “Against the Abusive Writing of - the King of England,” in which he resumed the bold and confident - tone of his earlier polemic. A humble, conciliatory epistle - sent in A.D. 1526 to Duke George was no more successful. He - now unweariedly continued his Bible translation. The first - edition of the whole Bible was published by Hans Lufft in - Wittenberg, in A.D. 1534. A collection of sayings of Luther - collected by Lauterbach, a deacon of Wittenberg, in A.D. 1538, - formed the basis of later and fuller editions of “Luther’s - Table Talk.” A chronologically arranged collection was made - ten years later, and was published in A.D. 1872 from a MS. in - the Royal Library at Dresden. Aurifaber in his collection did - not follow the chronological order, but grouped the utterances - according to their subjects, but with many arbitrary alterations - and modifications. The saying falsely attributed to Luther, “Who - loves not wine, women, and song?” etc., is assigned by Luther - himself to his Erfurt landlady, but has been recently traced to - an Italian source. - - § 129.2. The famous Catholic Church historian Döllinger, who in - his history of the Reformation had with ultramontane bitterness - defamed Luther and his work, twenty years later could not forbear - celebrating Luther in a public lecture as “the most powerful - patriot and the most popular character that Germany possessed.” - In A.D. 1871 he wrote as follows: “It was Luther’s supreme - intellectual ability and wonderful versatility that made him - the man of his age and of his nation. There has never been a - German who so thoroughly understood his fellow countrymen and - was understood by them as this Augustinian monk of Wittenberg. - The whole intellectual and spiritual making of the Germans - was in his hands as clay in the hands of the potter. He has - given more to his nation than any one man has ever done: - language, popular education, Bible, sacred song; and all that - his opponents could say against him and alongside of him seemed - insipid, weak, and colourless compared with his overmastering - eloquence. They stammered, he spoke. It was he who put a stamp - upon the German language as well as upon the German character. - And even those Germans who heartily abhor him as the great - heretic and betrayer of religion cannot help speaking his words - and thinking his thoughts.” - - - § 130. THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND, A.D. 1519-1531. - - While Luther’s Reformation spread in Germany, a similar movement -sprang up in the neighbouring provinces of German Switzerland. Its -earliest beginnings date back as far as A.D. 1516. The personal -characteristics of its first promoter, and the political democratic -movement in which it had its rise, gave it a complexion entirely -different from that of the Lutheran Reformation. The most conspicuous -divergence occurred in the doctrine of the supper (§ 131), and since -the Swiss views on this point were generally accepted in the cities -of the uplands, the controversy passed over into the German Reformed -Church and hindered common action, notwithstanding common interests -and common dangers. - - § 130.1. =Ulrich Zwingli.=--Zwingli, born at Wildhaus in - Toggenburg on January 1st, A.D. 1484, a scholar of the famous - humanist Thomas Wyttenbach at Basel, was, after ten years’ - service as pastor at Glarus, made pastor of Maria-Einsiedeln - in A.D. 1516. The crowding of pilgrims to the famous shrine - of Mary at that place led him to preach against superstitious - notions of meritorious performances. But far more decisive - in determining his attitude toward the Reformation was his - appointment on January 1st, A.D. 1519, as Lent priest at Zürich, - where he first became acquainted with Luther’s works, and took - sides with him against the Romish court party. Zwingli soon - took up a distinctive position of his own. He would be not - only a religious, but also a political reformer. For several - years he had vigorously opposed the sending of Swiss youths as - mercenaries into the armies of foreign princes. His political - opponents, the oligarchs, whose incomes depended on this traffic, - opposed also his religious reforms, so that his support was - wholly from the democracy. Another important distinction between - the Swiss and German movements was this, that Zwingli had grown - into a reformer not through deep conviction of sin and spiritual - conflicts, but through classical and biblical study. The writings - of Pico of Mirandola (§ 120, 1), too, were not without influence - upon him. To him, therefore, justification by faith was not - in the same degree as to Luther the guiding star of his life - and action. He began the work of the Reformation not so much - with purifying the doctrine, as with improving the worship, - the constitution, the ecclesiastical and moral life. His - theological standpoint is set forth in these works: _Comment. - de vera et falsa relig._, A.D. 1525; _Fidei ratio ad Car. - Imp._, A.D. 1530; _Christian. fidei brevis at clara expos._, ed. - Bullinger, A.D. 1536; _De providentia Dei_; and _Apologeticus_. - Of the two principles of the anti-Romish Reformation (§ 121) - the Wittenberg reformer placed the material, the Zürich reformer - the formal, in the foreground. The former only rejected what was - not reconcilable with Scripture; the latter repudiated all that - was not expressly enjoined in Scripture. The former was cautious - and moderate in dealing with forms of worship and mere externals; - the latter was extreme, immoderate, and violent. Luther retained - pictures, altars, the ornaments of churches, and the priestly - character of the service, purifying it simply from unevangelical - corruptions; Zwingli denounced all these things as idolatry, - and burnt even organ pipes and clock bells. Luther recognised - no action of the Holy Spirit apart from the word and sacrament; - Zwingli separated it from these, and identified it with mere - subjective feeling. The sacraments were with him mere memorial - signs; justification solely by the merits of Christ as a - joyous assurance of salvation had for him a negative rather - than a positive significance, _i.e._ opposition to the Romish - doctrine of merits; original sin was for him only hereditary - moral sickness, a _naturalis defectus_, which is not itself - sin, and virtuous heathens, like Hercules, Theseus, Socrates, - and Cato were admitted as such into the society of the blessed, - without apparently sharing in the redemption of Christ. His - speculations, which led on one side almost to pantheism, - favoured a theory of predestination, according to which the - moral will has no freedom over against Providence.[365] - - § 130.2. =The Reformation in Zürich, A.D. 1519-1525.=--In - A.D. 1518 a trafficker in indulgences, the Franciscan Bernard - Samson, of Milan, carried on his disreputable business in - Switzerland. At Zwingli’s desire Zürich’s gates were closed - against him. In A.D. 1520 the council gave permission to priests - and preachers in the city and canton to preach only from the - O. and N.T. All this happened under the eyes of the two papal - nuncios staying in Zürich; but they did not interfere, because - the curia was extremely anxious to get auxiliaries for the - papal army for an attack on Milan. Zwingli was promised a rich - living if he would no more preach against the pope. He refused - the bait, and went on his way as a reformer. The continued - indulgence of the curia allowed the Reformation to take even - firmer root. Zwingli published, in A.D. 1522, his first work, - “Of Election, and Freedom in Use of Food,” and the Zürichers - ate flesh and eggs during Lent of A.D. 1522. He also claimed - liberty to marry for the clergy. At this time Lambert came from - Avignon to Zürich (§ 127, 2). He preached against the new views, - disputed in July with Zwingli, and confessed himself defeated - and convinced. Zwingli’s opponents had placed great hopes in - Lambert’s eloquence and dialectic skill. All the greater was - the effect of the unexpected result of the disputation. The - council, now impressed, commanded that the word of God should - be preached without human additions. But when the adherents of - the Romish party protested, it arranged a public disputation on - 29th Jan., A.D. 1523, on sixty-seven theses or _conclusiones_ - drawn up by Zwingli: “All who say, The gospel is nothing without - the guarantee of the Church, blaspheme God;--Christ is the one - way to salvation;--Our righteousness and our works are good - so far as they are Christ’s, neither right nor good so far as - they are our own,” etc. A former friend of Zwingli, John Faber, - but quite changed since he had made a visit to Rome, and now - vicar-general of the Bishop of Constance, undertook to support - the old doctrines and customs against Zwingli. Being restricted - to Scripture proof he was forced to yield. The cloisters were - forsaken, violent polemics were published against the canon - of the mass and the worship of saints and images. The council - resolved to decide the question of the mass and images by a - second disputation in October, A.D. 1523. Leo Judä, Lent priest - at St. Peter’s in Zürich, contended against image worship, - Zwingli against the mass. Scarcely any opposition was offered - to either of them. At Pentecost, A.D. 1524, the council had - all images withdrawn from the churches, the frescoes cut down, - and the walls whitewashed. Organ playing and bell ringing - were forbidden as superstitious. A new simple biblical formula - of baptism was introduced, and the abolition of the mass, in - A.D. 1525, completed the work. At Easter of this year Zwingli - celebrated a lovefeast, at which bread was carried in wooden - trenchers, and wine drunk from wooden cups. Thus he thought the - genuine Christian apostolic rite was restored. In A.D. 1522 he - had married a widow of forty-three years of age, but he publicly - acknowledged it only in A.D. 1524. He penitently confesses that - his pre-Reformation celibate life, like that of most priests - of his age, had not been blameless; but the moral purity of his - later life is beyond suspicion. - - § 130.3. =Reformation in Basel, A.D. 1520-1525.=--In Basel, at - an early period, Capito and Hedio wrought as biblical preachers. - But so soon as they had laid a good foundation they accepted a - call to Mainz, in A.D. 1520, which they soon again quitted for - Strassburg, where they carried on the work of the Reformation - along with Bucer. Their work at Basel was zealously and - successfully continued by Röublin. He preached against the mass, - purgatory, and saint worship, often to 4,000 hearers. On the - day of Corpus Christi he produced a Bible instead of the usual - relics, which he scornfully called dead bones. He was banished, - and afterwards joined the Anabaptists. A new epoch began in - Basel in A.D. 1523. =Œcolampadius= or John Hausschein, born - at Weinsberg in A.D. 1482, Zwingli’s Melanchthon, was preacher - in Basel in A.D. 1516, and was on intimate terms there with - Erasmus. He accepted a call in A.D. 1518 to the cathedral of - Augsburg, but a year after withdrew into an Augsburg convent - of St. Bridget. There he studied Luther’s writings, and, in - A.D. 1522, found shelter from persecution in Sickingen’s castle, - where he officiated for some months as chaplain. He then returned - to Basel, became preacher at St. Martin’s, and was soon made, - along with Conrad Pellican (§ 120, 4, footnote), professor in - the university. Around these two a group of younger men soon - gathered, who energetically supported the evangelical movement. - They dispensed baptism in the German language, administered the - communion in both kinds, and were indefatigable in preaching. - In A.D. 1524 the council allowed monks and nuns, if they so - wished, to leave their cloisters. Of special importance for - the progress of the Reformation in Basel was the arrival in - A.D. 1524 of William Farel from Dauphiné (§ 138, 1). He had - been obliged to fly from France, and was kindly received by - Œcolampadius, with whom he stayed for some months. In February - he had a public disputation with the opponents of the Reformation. - University and bishop had interdicted it, but all the more - decided was the council that it should come off. Its result - was a great impulse to the Reformation, though Farel in this - same year, probably at the suggestion of Erasmus, whom he - had described as a new Balaam, was banished by the council - (§ 138, 1).[366] - - § 130.4. =The Reformation in the other Cantons, - A.D. 1520-1525.=--In =Bern=, from A.D. 1518 Haller, Kolb, and - Mayer carried on the work of the Reformation as political and - religious reformers after the style of Zwingli. Nic. Manuel, - poet, satirist, and painter, supported their preaching by his - satirical writings against pope, priests, and superstition - generally. Also in his Dance of Death, which he painted on - the walls of a cloister at Bern, he covered the clergy with - ridicule. In A.D. 1523 the council allowed departures from the - convents, and several monks and nuns withdrew and married. The - opposition called in the Dominican John Haim, as their spokesman, - in A.D. 1524. Between him and the Franciscan Mayer there arose - a passionate discussion, and the council exiled both. But Haller - continued his work, and the Reformation took firmer root from - day to day.--In =Muhlhausen [Mühlhausen]=, where Ulr. von Hutten - spent his last days, the council issued a mandate in A.D. 1524 - which gave free course to the Reformation. At =Biel=, too, - it was allowed unrestricted freedom. In East Switzerland, - =St. Gall= was specially prominent under its burgomaster Joachim - v. Watt, who zealously advanced the interests of the Reformation - by word, writing, and action. John Karsler, who had studied - theology in Wittenberg in A.D. 1522, and was then obliged, - in order to avoid reading the mass, to learn and practise the - trade of a saddler, preached the gospel here in the Trades’ - Hall in his saddler’s apron in A.D. 1524, and took the office - of reformed pastor and Latin preceptor in A.D. 1537. He died in - A.D. 1574 as President of St. Gall. In =Schaffhausen= Erasmus - Ritter, called upon to oppose in discussion the reformed pastor - Hofmeister, owned himself defeated, and joined the reform party. - In the canton =Vaud= Thos. Platter, the original and learned - sailor, afterwards rector of the high school at Burg, laid the - foundations of the Reformation. In =Appenzel= and =Glarus= the - work gradually advanced. But in the Swiss midlands the nobles - raised opposition in behalf of their revenues, and the people - of Berg, whose whole religion lay in pilgrimages, images, and - saints, constantly opposed the introduction of the new views. - Lucerne and Freiburg were the main bulwarks of the papacy in - Switzerland. - - § 130.5. =Anabaptist Outbreak, A.D. 1525.=--In Switzerland, - though the reformers there had taken very advanced ground, - a number of ultra-reformers arose, who thought they did not - go far enough. Their leaders were Hätzer (§ 148, 1), Grebel, - Manz, Röublin, Hubmeier, and Stör. They began disturbances - at Zolticon near Zürich. Hubmeier held a council at Waldshut, - Easter Eve, A.D. 1525, and was rebaptized by Röublin. During - Easter week 110 received baptism, and subsequently more than - 300 besides. The Basel Canton, where Münzer had been living, - broke out in open revolt against the city. St. Gall alone - had 800 Anabaptists. Zürich at Zwingli’s request at once took - decided measures. Many were banished, some were mercilessly - drowned. Bern, Basel, and St. Gall followed this example.[367] - - § 130.6. =Disputation at Baden, A.D. 1526.=--The reactionary - party could not decline the challenge to a disputation, but - in the face of all protests it was determined to be held in - the Catholic district of Baden. The champions and representatives - of the cantons and bishops appeared there in May, A.D. 1526, - Faber and Eck leading the papists and Haller of Bern and - Œcolampadius of Basel representing the party of reform. Zwingli - was forbidden by the Zürich council to attend, but he was kept - daily informed by Thos. Platter. Eck’s theses were combatted one - after another. It lasted eight days. Eck outcried Œcolampadius’ - weak voice, but the latter was immensely superior in intellectual - power. At last Thomas Murner (§ 125, 4) appeared with forty - abusive articles against Zwingli. Œcolampadius and ten of - his friends persisted in rejecting Eck’s theses; all the - rest accepted them. The Assembly of the States pronounced - the reformers heretics, and ordered the cantons to have them - banished. - - § 130.7. =Disputation at Bern, A.D. 1528.=--The result of - the Bern disputation was ill received by the democrats of - Bern and Basel. A final disputation was arranged for at - =Bern=, which was attended by 350 of the clergy and many - noblemen. Zwingli, Œcolampadius, Haller, Capito, Bucer, - and Farel were there. It continued from 7th to 27th January, - A.D. 1528. The Catholics were sadly wanting in able disputants, - and they sustained an utter defeat. Worship and constitution - were radically reformed. Cloisters were secularized; preachers - gave their official oath to the civil magistrates. There were - serious riots over the removal of the images. The valuable - organ in the minster of St. Vincent was broken up by the - ruthless iconoclasts. A political reformation was carried - out along with the religious, and all stipendiaries received - their warning. - - § 130.8. =Complete Victory of the Reformation at Basel, St. Gall, - and Schaffhausen, A.D. 1529.=--The Burgomaster von Watt brought - to =St. Gall= the news of the victorious issue of the disputation - at Bern. This gave the finishing blow to the Catholic party. - Thus in A.D. 1528, certainly not without some iconoclastic - excesses, the Reformation triumphed.--In =Basel=, the council - was divided, and so it took but half measures. On Good Friday, - A.D. 1528, some citizens broke the images in St. Martin’s - Church. They were apprehended. But a rising of citizens obliged - the council to set them free, and several churches from which - the images had been withdrawn were given over to the reformers. - In December, A.D. 1528, the trades presented a petition asking - for the final abolition of idolatry. The Catholic party and - the reformed took to arms, and a civil war seemed imminent. - The council, however, succeeded in quelling the disturbance - by announcing a disputation where the majority of the citizens - should decide by their votes. But the Catholic minority - protested so energetically that the council had again recourse - to half measures. The dissatisfaction of the reformed led - to an explosion of violent image breaking in Lent, A.D. 1529. - Huge bonfires of images and altars were set a blaze. The strict - Catholic members of the council fled, the rest quelled the - revolt by an unconditional surrender. Even Erasmus gave way - (§ 120, 6). Œcolampadius had married in A.D. 1528. He died - in A.D. 1531. In =Schaffhausen= up to A.D. 1529 matters were - undecided, but the proceedings at Basel and Bern gave victory - to the reformed party. The drama here ended with a double - marriage. The abbot of All Saints married a nun, and Erasmus - Ritter married the abbot’s sister. Images were removed without - tumult and the mass abolished. - - § 130.9. =The first Treaty of Cappel, A.D. 1529.=--In the five - forest cantons the Catholics had the upper hand, and there every - attempted political as well as religious reform was relentlessly - put down. Zürich and Bern could stand this no longer. Unterwalden - now revolted, and found considerable support in the other four - cantons, and the position of the cities became serious. The - forest cantons now turned to Austria, the old enemy of Swiss - freedom, and concluded at Innsbrück in A.D. 1529 a formal league - with King Ferdinand for mutual assistance in matters touching - the faith. Trusting to this league, they increased their cruel - persecutions of the reformed, and burnt alive a Zürich preacher, - Keyser, whom they had seized on the public highway on neutral - territory. Then the Zürichers rose up in revolt. With their - decided preponderance they might certainly have crushed the - five cantons, and then all Switzerland would have surrounded - Zwingli in the support of reform. But Bern was jealous of - Zürich’s growing importance, and even many Zürichers for fear - of war urged negotiations for peace with the old members of the - league. Thus came about the First Treaty of Cappel in A.D. 1529. - The five cantons gave up the Austrian league document to be - destroyed, undertook to defray the costs of the war, and agreed - that the majority in each canton should determine the faith of - that canton. As to freedom of belief it was only said that no - party should make the faith of the other penal. This was less - than Zwingli wished, yet it was a considerable gain. Thurgau, - Baden, Schaffhausen, Solothurn, Neuenburg, Toggenburg, etc., - on the basis of this treaty, abolished mass, images, and altars. - - § 130.10. =The Second Treaty of Cappel, A.D. 1531.=--Even - after the treaty the five cantons continued to persecute - the reformed, and renewed their alliance with Austria. Their - undue preponderance in the assembly led Zürich to demand a - revision of the federation. This led the forest cantons to - increase their cruelties upon the reformed. Zürich declared - for immediate hostilities, but Bern decided to refuse all - commercial intercourse with the five cantons. At the diet at - Lucerne, the five cantons resolved in September, A.D. 1531, - to avert famine by immediately declaring war. They made their - arrangements so secretly that the reformed party was not the - least prepared, when suddenly, on the 9th October, an army of - 8,000 men, bent on revenge, rushed down on the Zürich Canton. - In all haste 2,000 men were mustered, who were almost annihilated - in the battle of Cappel on 11th October. There, too, Zwingli - fell. His body was quartered and burnt, and the ashes scattered - to the winds. Zürich and Bern soon brought a force of 20,000 - men into the field, but the courage of their enemies had grown - in proportion as all confidence and spirit departed from the - reformed. Further successes led the forest cantons, which had - hitherto acted only on the defensive, to proceed on the offensive, - and the reformed were constrained to accept on humbling terms - the Second Treaty of Cappel of A.D. 1531. This granted freedom - of worship to the reformed in their own cantons, but secured the - restoration of Catholicism in the five cantons. The defeated had - also to bear the costs of the war, and to renounce their league - with Strassburg, Constance, and Hesse. The hitherto oppressed - Catholic minority began now to assert itself on all hands, and - in many places were more or less successful in securing the - ascendency. So it was in Aargau, Thurgau, Rapperschwyl, St. Gall, - Rheinthal, Solothurn, Glarus, etc. - - - § 131. THE SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY, A.D. 1525-1529.[368] - - Luther in his “Babylonish Captivity of the Church,” of A.D. 1520, -had, in opposition to prevailing views, which made the efficacy of the -sacraments dependent on the objective receiving without regard to the -faith of the receiver, _opus operatum_, pressed forward the subjective -side in a somewhat extreme manner. During the earlier period of -his career as a reformer, and indeed even at a later period, as his -letter to the men of Strassburg shows, he was in danger of going to -the extreme of overlooking or denying the real objective and Divine -contents of the sacrament. But decided as the opposition was to the -scholastic theory of transubstantiation, and convinced as he was that -the bread and wine were to be regarded as mere symbols, the text of -Scripture seemed clearly to say to him that he must recognise there -the presence of the true body and blood of Christ. His anxiety to -avoid the errors of the fanatics, and his simple acceptance of the -word of Scripture, led him to that conviction which inspired him to -the end, that IN, WITH, and UNDER the bread and wine the true body -and blood of the Lord are received, by believers unto salvation, by -unbelievers unto condemnation. - - =Carlstadt= (§ 124, 3) had denied utterly the presence of the - body and blood of the Lord in the sacrament. He sought to set - aside the force of the words of institution by giving to τοῦτο - an absurd meaning: Christ had pointed to His own present body, - and said, “This here is My body, which in death I will give - for you, and in memory thereof eat this bread.” When Carlstadt, - expelled from Saxony, came to Strassburg, he sought to interest - the preachers there, Bucer and Capito, in himself and his - sacramental view. But Luther was not moved by their attempts - at conciliation. =Zwingli=, too, took the side of Carlstadt. - In essential agreement with Carlstadt, but putting the matter - on another basis, Zwingli interpreted the words of institution, - “This is,” by “This signifies,” and reduced the significance - of the sacrament to a symbolical memorial of Christ’s suffering - and death. In an epistle to the Lutheran Matthew Alber at - Reutlingen in A.D. 1524 he set forth this theory, and sided - with Carlstadt against Luther. He developed his views more - fully in his dogmatic treatise, _Commentarius de vera et falsa - relig._, A.D. 1525, where he characterizes Luther’s doctrine - as an _opinio non solum rustica sed etiam impia et frivola_. - =Œcolampadius=, too, took part in the controversy as supporter - of his friend Zwingli when attacked by Bugenhagen, and wrote in - A.D. 1525 his _De genuina verborum Domini, Hoc est corpus meum, - expositione_. He wished to understand the σῶμα of the words of - institution as equivalent to “sign of the body.” Œcolampadius - laid his treatise before the Swabian reformers Brenz and Schnepf; - but these, in concert with twelve other preachers, answered in - the _Syngramma Suevicum_ of A.D. 1525 quite in accordance with - Luther’s doctrine. The controversy continued to spread. Luther - first openly appeared against the Swiss in A.D. 1526 in his - “Sermon on the Sacrament against the Fanatics,” and to this - Zwingli replied. Luther answered again in his tract, “That - the words, This is My body, stand firm;” and in A.D. 1528 he - issued his great manifesto, “Confession in regard to the Lord’s - Supper” (§ 144, 2, note). Notwithstanding the endeavours of the - Strassburgers at conciliation the controversy still continued. - Zwingli’s statement was the shibboleth of the Swiss Reformation, - and was adopted also in many of the upland cities. Strassburg, - Lindau, Meiningen, and Constance accepted it; even in Ulm, - Augsburg, Reutlingen, etc., it had its supporters.--Continuation, - § 132, 4. - - - § 132. THE PROTEST AND CONFESSION OF THE EVANGELICAL NOBLES, - A.D. 1527-1530. - - For three years after the diet at Spires in A.D. 1526 no public -proceedings were taken on religious questions. The success of the -Reformation however during these years roused the Catholic party to -make a great effort. At the next diet at Spires, in A.D. 1529, the -Catholics were in the majority, and measures were passed which, it -was hoped, would put an end to the Reformation. The evangelicals -tabled a formal protest (hence the name Protestants), and strove -hard to have effect given to it. The union negotiations with the -Swiss and uplanders were not indeed successful, but in the Augsburg -Confession of A.D. 1530 they raised before emperor and empire a -standard, around which they henceforth gathered with hearty goodwill. - - § 132.1. =The Pack Incident, A.D. 1527, 1528.=--In A.D. 1527 - dark rumours of dangers to the evangelicals began to spread. - The landgrave, suspecting the existence of a conspiracy of the - German Catholic princes, gave to an officer in Duke George’s - government, Otto von Pack, 10,000 florins to secure documents - proving its existence. He produced one with the ducal seal, - which bound the Catholic princes of Germany to fall upon - the elector’s territories and Hesse, and to divide the lands - among them, etc. The landgrave was all fire and fury, and - even the Elector John joined him in a league to make a vigorous - demonstration against the purposed attack. But Luther and - Melanchthon pressed upon the elector our Lord’s words, “All - they that take the sword shall perish with the sword,” and - convinced him that he ought to abide the attack and restrict - himself to simple defence. The landgrave, highly offended - at the failure of his project, sent a copy of the document - to Duke George, who declared the whole affair a tissue of - lies. Philip had begun operations against the elector, but - was heartily ashamed of himself when he came to his sober - senses. Pack when interrogated became involved in contradictions, - and was found to be a thoroughly bad subject, who had been - before convicted of falsehood and intrigues. The landgrave - expelled him from his territories. He wandered long a homeless - exile, and at last, in A.D. 1536, was executed by Duke George’s - orders in the Netherlands. All this seriously injured the - interests of the gospel. Mutual distrust among the Protestant - leaders continued, and sympathy was created for the Catholic - princes as men who had been unjustly accused. - - § 132.2. =The Emperor’s Attitude, A.D. 1527-1529.=--The - faithlessness of the king of France and the ratification of - the League of Cognac (§ 126, 6) led to very strained relations - between the pope and the emperor. Old Frundsberg raised an - army in Germany, and the German peasants, without pay or reward, - crossed the Alps, burning with desire to humiliate the pope. - On 6th May, A.D. 1527, the imperial army of Spaniards and - Germans stormed Rome. The so-called sack of Rome presented - a scene of plunder and spoliation scarcely ever paralleled. - Clement VII., besieged in St. Angelo, was obliged to surrender - himself prisoner. But once again Germany’s hopes were cast - to the ground by the emperor. Considering the opinion that - prevailed in Spain, and influenced by his own antipathy to the - Saxon heresy, besides other political combinations, he forgot - that he had been saved by Lutheran soldiers. In June, A.D. 1528, - at Barcelona, he concluded a peace with the pope and promised - to use his whole power in suppressing heresy. By the Treaty of - Cambray, in July, A.D. 1529, the French war also was finally - brought to a conclusion. In this treaty both potentates promised - to uphold the papal chair, and Francis I. renewed his undertaking - to furnish aid against heretics and Turks. Charles now hastened - to Italy to be crowned by the pope, meaning then by his personal - attentions to settle the affairs of Germany. - - § 132.3. =The Diet at Spires, A.D. 1529.=--In the end of - A.D. 1528 the emperor issued a summons for another diet at - Spires, which met on 21st Feb., A.D. 1529. Things had changed - since A.D. 1526. The Catholics were roused by the Pack episode, - halting nobles were terrorized by the emperor, the prelates - were present in great numbers, and the Catholics, for the - first time since the Diet at Worms, were in a decided majority. - The proposition of the imperial commissioners to rescind the - conclusions of the diet of A.D. 1526 was adopted by a majority, - and formulated as the diet’s decision. No innovations were to - be introduced until at least a council had been convened, mass - was everywhere to be tolerated, the jurisdiction and revenues - of the bishops were in all cases to be fully restored. It was - the death-knell of the Reformation, as it gave the bishops - the right of deposing and punishing preachers at their will. - As Ferdinand was deaf to all remonstrances, the evangelicals - presented a solemn protest, with the demand that it should - be incorporated in the imperial statute book. But Ferdinand - refused to receive it. The =Protestants= now took no further - steps, but drew up a formal statement of their case for the - emperor, appealed to a free council and German national assembly, - and declared their constant adherence to the decisions of the - previous diet. This document was signed by the Elector of Saxony, - the Landgrave of Hesse, George of Brandenburg, the two dukes - of Lüneburg, and Prince Wolfgang of Anholt [Anhalt]. Of the - upland cities fourteen subscribed it. - - § 132.4. =The Marburg Conference, A.D. 1529.=--The Elector of - Saxony and Hesse entered into a defensive league with Strassburg, - Ulm, and Nuremberg at Spires. The theologians present agreed - only with hesitation to admit the Zwinglian Strassburg. The - landgrave at the same time formed an alliance with Zürich, - which attached itself to the interests of Francis I. of - France. Thus began the most formidable coalition which had - ever yet been formed against the house of Austria. But one - point had been overlooked which broke it all up again, _viz._ - the religious differences between the Lutheran and Zwinglian - confessions. Melanchthon returned to Wittenburg [Wittenberg] - with serious qualms of conscience; Luther had declared against - any league, most of all against any fraternising with the - “Sacramentarians,” and the elector to some extent agreed with - him. Even the Nuremberg theologians had their scruples. The - proposed league was to have been ratified at Rotach in June. - The meeting took place, but no conclusion was reached. The - landgrave was furious, but the elector was resolute. Philip - now summoned leading theologians on both sides to a =conference - at Marburg= in his castle, which lasted from 1st till 3rd Oct., - A.D. 1529. On the one side were Luther, Melanchthon, Justus - Jonas, from Wittenberg, Brenz from Swabia, and Osiander from - Nuremberg; on the other side, Zwingli from Zürich, Œcolampadius - from Basel, Bucer and Hadio [Hedio] from Strassburg. After, by - the landgrave’s well-meant arrangement, Zwingli had discussed - privately with Melanchthon, and Luther with Œcolampadius, during - the first day, the public conference began on the second. First - of all several points were discussed on the divinity of Christ, - original sin, baptism, the word of God, etc., in reference - to which suspicions of Zwingli’s orthodoxy had been current - in Wittenberg. On all these Zwingli willingly abandoned his - peculiar theories and accepted the doctrines of the œcumenical - church. But his views of the Lord’s Supper he stoutly maintained. - He took his stand upon John vi. 63, “The flesh profiteth - nothing;” but Luther wrote with chalk on the table before - him, “This is My body,” as the word of God which no one may - explain away. No agreement could be reached. Zwingli declared - that notwithstanding he was ready for brotherly fellowship, - but this Luther and his party unanimously refused. Luther said, - “You are of another spirit than we.” Still Luther had found - his opponents not so bad as he expected, and also the Swiss - found that Luther’s doctrine was not so gross and capernaitic - as they had imagined. They agreed on fifteen articles, in - the fourteenth of which they determined on the basis of the - œcumenical church doctrine to oppose the errors of Papists - and Anabaptists, and in the fifteenth the Swiss admitted that - the true body and blood of Christ are in the sacrament, but - they could not admit that they were corporeally in the bread - and wine. Three copies of these Marburg articles were signed - by the theologians present.--Continuation, § 133, 8. - - § 132.5. =The Convention of Schwabach and the Landgrave - Philip.=--A convention met at Schwabach in Oct., A.D. 1529, - at which a confession of seventeen articles was proposed - to the representatives of the Swiss, but rejected by them. - Meanwhile the imperial answer to the decisions of the diet - had arrived from Spain, containing very ungracious expressions - against the Protestants. The evangelical nobles sent an embassy - to the emperor to Italy; but he refused to receive the protest, - and treated the ambassadors almost as prisoners. They returned - to Germany with a bad report. Hitherto there had been only a - defensive federation against attacks of the Swabian League or - other Catholic princes. Luther’s hope that the emperor might - yet be won was shattered. The question now was, what should be - done if an onslaught upon the reformed should be made by the - emperor himself. The jurists indeed were of opinion that the - German princes were not unconditionally subject to the emperor; - they too have authority by God’s grace, and in the exercise of - this are bound to protect their subjects. But Luther did not - hesitate for a moment to compare the relation of the elector - to the emperor with that of the burgomaster of Torgau to the - elector; for he maintained the idea of the empire as firmly - as that of the church. He insisted that the princes should not - withstand the emperor, and that they should bear everything - patiently for God’s sake. Only if the emperor should proceed - to persecute their own subjects for their faith should - they renounce their obedience. The landgrave’s negotiations - with Zwingli also led to no result. For political purposes, - notwithstanding the opposition of Wittenberg, there was formed a - coalition of all the Protestants of the north with the exception - of Denmark, extending also to the south and embracing even - Venice and France. The Swiss would stop the way of the emperor - over the Alps; Venice would be of service with her fleet, and - the most Christian king of France was to be summoned as the - protector of political and religious freedom of Germany. But - these fine plans were seen to be vain dreams when the time for - putting them in practice came round. - - § 132.6. =The Diet of Augsburg, A.D. 1530.=--From Boulogne, - where the pope crowned him, the emperor summoned a diet to - meet at Augsburg, at which for the first time in nine he was - to be personally present. He would once again seek to induce - the Protestants quietly to return to the old faith, and so - his missive was very conciliatory. But before its arrival new - irritations had arisen at Augsburg. The Elector John allowed - the preachers accompanying him, Spalatin and Agricola, to - engage freely in preaching. The emperor was greatly displeased - at this, and sent him a request to withdraw this permission, - which, however, he did not regard. On 15th June, accompanied - by the papal legate Campegius (§ 126, 2, 3), he made a brilliant - entrance, the Protestants, on the ground of 2 Kings v. 17, 18, - offering no opposition to all the civil and ecclesiastical - reception ceremonies. This gave the emperor greater confidence - in renewing the demand to stop the preaching. But the Protestants - stood firm, and Margrave George called down the unmeasured - wrath of the emperor by his decided but humble declaration, - that before he would deny God’s word, he would kneel where - he stood and have his head struck off. Just as decidedly he - refused the emperor’s call to join the Corpus Christi procession - on the following day, even with the addition that it was “to the - glory of Almighty God.” At last they yielded the matter of the - preaching so far as to discontinue it during the emperor’s stay, - on the other party undertaking to discontinue controversial - discourses. On 20th June the diet opened. The matter of the - Turkish war was on the emperor’s motion postponed, to allow - of the thorough discussion of the religious questions. - - § 132.7. =The Augsburg Confession, 25th June, A.D. 1530.=--In - view of the diet the evangelical theologians prepared for the - elector a short confession in the form of a revision of the - seventeen Schwabach Articles, the so called Torgau Articles. - Melanchthon employed the days that preceded the opening of - the diet in drawing up on the basis of the Torgau Articles, - in constant correspondence with the evangelical theologians, - the =Augsburg Confession=, _Confessio Augustana_. This concise, - clear, and decided though temperate document received the hearty - approval of Luther, who, as still under the ban, was kept back - by the elector at Coburg. It contained twenty-one _Articuli - fidei præcipui_, and also seven _Articuli in quibus recensentur - abusus mutati_. On 24th June the Protestants said they desired - their confession to be publicly read. But it was with difficulty - that they obtained the emperor’s consent to allow its being read - on the 25th June, and even then not in the public hall, but in - a much smaller episcopal chapel, where only members of the diet - could find room. The two chancellors of the electorate, Baier - and Brück, appeared, the one with a German, the other with - a Latin copy of the confession. The emperor wished the Latin, - but the elector insisted that on German soil the German copy - should be read. When this was done Dr. Brück handed both copies - to the emperor, who kept the Latin one and gave the German one - to the Elector of Mainz. Both were subscribed by Elector John, - Margrave George, Duke Ernest of Lüneburg, Landgrave Philip, - Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, and the cities of Nuremberg and - Reutlingen. The confession made a favourable impression - on many of the assembled princes, and many prejudices were - dissipated; while the evangelicals were greatly strengthened by - the unanimous confession of their faith before the emperor and - the empire. The Catholic theologians Faber, Eck, Cochlæus, and - Wimpina were ordered by the emperor to controvert the confession. - Meanwhile Melanchthon entered into negotiations with the legate - Campegius, in which his love of peace went so far as to withdraw - all demands for marriage of the clergy, and the giving of the - cup to the laity, and to allow the ecclesiastical jurisdiction - of the bishops, reserving the question about the mass to the - decision of a council. But these weak concessions found little - or no favour among the other Protestants, and the legate could - make no binding engagement until he consulted Rome. On 3rd Aug. - the confutation of the Catholic theologians was read. The - emperor declared that it maintained the views by which he - would stand. He expected the princes would do the same. He - was defender of the Church, and was not disposed to suffer - ecclesiastical schism in Germany. The Protestants demanded for - closer inspection a copy of the confutation. This was refused. - The landgrave now left the diet. To the elector he said that - he gave over to him and to God’s word body and goods, land - and people; and to the representatives of the cities he wrote: - “Say to the cities that they are not women, but men. There is - no fear; God is on our side.” The zealous Papist Duke William of - Bavaria declared to Eck, “If I hear well, the Lutherans sit upon - the Scripture and we alongside of it.” The cities siding with - Zwingli, Strassburg, Memmingen, Constance, and Lindau, presented - their own confession drawn up by Bucer and Capilo [Capito], the - _Confessio Tetrapolitana_. In its eighteenth article it taught - that Christ gives in the sacrament His true body and His true - blood to be eaten and drunk for the feeding of the soul. The - emperor had a Catholic reply read, with which he expressed - satisfaction. Luther had meanwhile from Coburg supported those - contending for the confession by prayer, counsel, and comfort. - He preached frequently, wrote many letters, negotiated with - Bucer (§ 133, 8), wrought at the translation of the prophets, - and composed several evangelical works of edification. - - § 132.8. =The Conclusions of the Diet of Augsburg.=--The firm - bright spirit of the minority made it seem to the Catholic - majority too considerable to allow of an open breach. A further - attempt was therefore made to reach some agreement. A commission - was appointed, comprising from either side two princes, two - doctors of canon law, and three theologians. On the twenty-one - doctrinal articles, with the exception of that on the sacraments, - they were practically agreed, but the Protestants were called - upon to abandon everything in regard to constitution and customs. - Thus the attempt failed. Five imperial cities took the side - of the emperor, the rest attached themselves to the Protestant - princes. The Protestants wished to read Melanchthon’s apology - for the Augsburg Confession against the charge of the Catholic - confutation, but the emperor with unbending stubbornness refused. - This was the most decided piece of work Melanchthon ever did. - At the close of the diet, 22nd Sept., the Protestant princes - were informed that time for reflection would be allowed them - till 15th April of the following year; meanwhile they should - not enforce any innovations and should allow confession and - the mass in their territories. The early calling of a council - was expressly promised. The princes of the church had all their - rights restored. The emperor declared his firm determination to - enforce in its full rigour the edict of Worms, and commissioned - the public prosecutor to proceed against the disobedient even - to the length of putting them under the ban. The judicature was - formally and expressly empowered to carry out the conclusions - of the diet. Finally, the emperor expressed the wish that on - account of his frequent absence his brother Ferdinand should - be chosen King of Rome. The election was accordingly soon - carried out at Frankfort; but the elector lodged a protest - against it. - - - § 133. INCIDENTS OF THE YEARS A.D. 1531-1536. - - The Protestants now made an earnest effort to effect a union by -forming in A.D. 1531 the Schmalcald League. To this decided action -and the political difficulties of the emperor we owe the Peace of -Nuremburg [Nuremberg] of A.D. 1532. The bold step of the landgrave -freed Württemberg from the Austrian yoke and papal oppression. At -the same time the Reformation triumphed in Anhalt, Pomerania, and -several Westphalian cities. All Westphalia might have been one but -for the Anabaptists. Bucer’s unwearied efforts at last succeeded by -the Wittenberg concordat in opening the way for the Schmalcald League -into the cities of the Uplands. The league now comprised an imposing -array of powerful members. - - § 133.1. =The Founding of the Schmalcald League, - A.D. 1530, 1531.=--The conferring upon the court of justiciary - the power to execute the decrees of the Diet of Augsburg was - most dangerous to the Protestants. For protection against this - design, the Protestant nobles at a convention at Schmalcald in - Dec., A.D. 1530, formed the bold resolution, that all should - stand as one in resisting every attack of the court. But when - the question came to be discussed, whether in case of need they - should go the length of armed resistance to the emperor opinion - was divided. The views of the jurists finally prevailed over - those of the theologians, and the elector insisted on a league - against every aggressor, even should it be the emperor himself. - At a new convention at Schmalcald in March, A.D. 1531, a league - on these terms was concluded for six years. The members of it - were the electorate of Saxony, Hesse, Lüneburg, Anhalt, Mansfeld, - and eleven cities. - - § 133.2. =The Peace of Nuremberg, A.D. 1532.=--The energetic - combination of the Protestants had now rendered them formidable, - and the Sultan Soliman was threatening a new attack. If the - Protestants were to be conquered, an agreement must be come - to with the Turks; if the Turks were to be humbled, a peaceable - settlement with the Protestants was indispensable. Ferdinand’s - policy at first inclined to the latter direction, and by his - advice the emperor summoned a diet at Regensburg, and till the - meeting forbade any prosecutions on the basis of the decrees of - the Diet of Augsburg. But soon the catastrophe in Switzerland - (§ 130, 10) changed Ferdinand’s policy. It seemed to him now - the fittest time to deal a similar blow to the evangelicals in - Germany. He therefore sent an embassy to the sultan, empowered - to make the most humiliating conditions of peace. But Soliman - rejected all proposals with scorn, and in April, A.D. 1532, - advanced with an army of 300,000 men. Meanwhile the Diet of - Regensburg had opened on 17th April, A.D. 1532. The Protestants - no longer presented a humble petition, as they had done two - years before, but they firmly made their demands. There was - no longer talk of compromise or suffrance. They demanded - peace in matters of religion; the annulling of all religious - prosecutions; and, finally, a free general council, where - matters should be decided solely by God’s word. So long as - Ferdinand had any hope of getting a favourable answer from - the Turks, he would not seriously consider proposals for peace. - But when that hope was shattered, and Soliman’s terrible host - approached, there was no time to lose. At Nuremberg the peace - was concluded on 23rd July, A.D. 1532. The faithful elector - was allowed to see the happy day, but died in that same year. - He was succeeded by his son, =John Frederick the Magnanimous=, - A.D. 1532-1547. A noble army was soon raised from the imperial - guards. Soliman suffered various misfortunes on land and water, - and withdrew without accomplishing anything. The emperor now - went to Italy, and insisted on the pope calling a general - council. But the pope thought the time had not come for that. - Also the annulling of prosecutions promised in the treaty - remained long unfulfilled. Pending prosecutions, mostly about - restitution of ecclesiastical goods and jurisdiction, were - pronounced to be not matters of religion, but of spoliation - and breach of the peace. The Protestants made a formal complaint - in Jan., A.D. 1534. This was disregarded, and arrangements - were being made to put certain nobles under the ban when events - occurred at Württemberg which changed the aspect of affairs. - - § 133.3. =The Evangelization of Württemberg, - A.D. 1534, 1535.=--The Swabian League in the interest of - Austria had obtained the banishment of Duke Ulrich in A.D. 1528, - and frustrated every attempt to secure his return. His son - Christopher had been educated at the court of Ferdinand, - and in A.D. 1532 accompanied the emperor to Spain. He made - his escape into the Alps, and publicly claimed his German - inheritance. The Landgrave Philip, Ulrich’s personal friend, - had long resolved to reconquer Württemberg for him. At last, - in the spring of A.D. 1534, with aid of French gold, he carried - out his plan. At Laufen Ferdinand’s army was almost annihilated, - and he himself was obliged in the Peace of Cadau of A.D. 1534 - to restore Ulrich to Württemberg as an under-feudatory, but - with seat and vote in the imperial diet, and to allow him a - free hand in carrying out the Reformation in his territory. - Luther’s views had from the first found hearty reception in - Württemberg. The oldest and most distinguished of the Swabian - reformers, whose reputation had spread far beyond Württemberg, - was John Brenz (§§ 131, 1; 132, 4; 135, 2; 136, 6, 8). He - was preacher in Swabian Halle from A.D. 1522, provost in - Stuttgart from A.D. 1553, and died in A.D. 1570. But Ferdinand’s - government had stretched its arm so far as to visit with death - all manifestations of sympathy with the Reformation. All the - more rapidly did the work of evangelization now proceed. Ulrich - brought with him Ambrose Blaurer, a disciple of Zwingli and - friend of Bucer, and Erhard Schnapf, a decided supporter of - Luther; to the former he assigned the evangelization of the - upper, and to the latter the evangelization of the lower - division of his territories. Both had agreed in accepting - a common formula of Reformation principles. By the founding - of the University of Tübingen, organized after the pattern - of Marburg, Ulrich rendered important service to the cause - of Protestant learning. Several neighbouring courts and cities - were encouraged to follow Württemberg’s example. - - § 133.4. =The Reformation in Anhalt and Pomerania, - A.D. 1532-1534.=--Wolfgang of =Anhalt= had at an early date - introduced the Reformation on the banks of the Saale and into - Zerbst. Another prince of Anhalt, George, at first an opponent - of Luther, but converted by means of his writings, began in - A.D. 1532 the Reformation of the country east of the Elbe. And - when the Bishop of Brandenburg refused to ordain his married - priests, he sent them to be ordained by Luther in Wittenberg. - Much more violent was the Reformation of =Pomerania=. Nobles - and clergy sought to rouse the people against Lutheranism. - Prince Barnim was an ardent supporter of Luther, but his brother - George was bitterly opposed. On George’s death, his son Philip - joined with Barnim in introducing the Reformation into the land. - At the Assembly of Treptow, in Dec., A.D. 1534, they presented - a scheme of Reformation, which the nobles heartily accepted. It - was carried into operation by Bugenhagen by a church visitation - after the pattern of that of Saxony. - - § 133.5. =The Reformation in Westphalia, A.D. 1532-1534.=--In - the Westphalian cities much was accomplished by Luther’s hymns. - Pideritz, priest of =Lamgo=, was a supporter of Eck; but wishing - to see the working of the new views for himself, he went to - Brunswick, and returned to inaugurate the Reformation in his - own city. At =Soest=, the Catholic council condemned to death - a workman who had spoken of it with disrespect. Two blundering - attempts were made upon the scaffold, and the victim at last - was conducted home by the crowd in triumph. He died next day. - The council precipitately fled from the city. And thus in July, - A.D. 1533, Catholicism lost its last prop in that place. In - =Paderborn=, where liberty of preaching had been enjoyed, the - Elector of Cologne (§ 135, 7) had some of the leading Lutherans - imprisoned; and when some on the rack confessed to a treasonable - correspondence with the Landgrave of Hesse, of which they had - been falsely accused, he condemned them to death. But moved - by the request of an old man to share their death, and by - the weeping of the wives and maidens, Hermann spared their - lives. In =Münster=, Luther’s doctrines were preached as early - as A.D. 1531 by Rottmann, and soon the evangelicals won the - ascendency, so that council and clergy left the city. The Bishop - of Waldeck, after an unsuccessful attempt by force of arms, was - obliged in A.D. 1533 to grant unconditional religious freedom. - The neighbouring cities were about to follow the example of - the capital, when a catastrophe occurred which resulted in the - complete restoration of Catholicism. - - § 133.6. =Disturbances at Münster, A.D. 1534, 1535.=--Rottmann - had added to his Zwinglian creed the renunciation of infant - baptism, and prepared the way for Anabaptist excesses. John - of Leyden appeared in A.D. 1534, gained great popularity as - a preacher, and the council was weak enough to grant legal - recognition to the fanatics. Mad enthusiasts flocked into the - city. One of their prophets proclaimed it as God’s will that - unbelievers should be expelled. This was done on 27th February, - A.D. 1534. Seven deacons divided what was left among the - believers. In May the bishop laid siege to the city. This had - the effect of confining the mad disorder to Münster. After the - destruction of all images, organs, and books, with exception - only of the Bible, community of goods was introduced. John of - Leyden got the council set aside as required by his revelations, - and appointed a theocratic government of twelve elders, who - took their inspiration from the prophet. He proclaimed polygamy, - himself taking seventeen wives, while Rottmann contented himself - with four. In vain did the moral conscience of the inhabitants - protest. The objectors were executed. One of his fellow prophets - proclaimed John king of the whole world. He set up a showy - and expensive establishment, and committed the most frightful - abominations. He regarded himself as called to inaugurate the - millennium, sent out twenty-eight apostles to extend his kingdom, - and named twelve dukes who should rule the world under him. - The besiegers made an unsuccessful attempt in August, A.D. 1534, - to storm the city. Had not aid been sent them before the end - of the year from Hesse, Treves, Cleves, Mainz, and Cologne, - they would have been obliged to raise the siege. Even then they - could only think of reducing the city by famine. It was already - in great straits. On St. John’s night, A.D. 1535, a deserter - led the troops to the walls. After a stubborn resistance the - Anabaptists were beaten. Rottmann threw himself into the hottest - of the fight, and there perished. John, with his chief officers, - was taken prisoner, put to death with frightful tortures on - 22nd Jan., A.D. 1536, and then hung in chains from St. Lambert’s - tower. Catholicism was thus restored to absolute supremacy. - - § 133.7. =Extension of the Schmalcald league, A.D. 1536.=--A - war with France had broken out in A.D. 1536, which taxed all - the emperor’s resources. Francis I. had made a league with - Soliman for a combined attack upon the emperor. Instead therefore - of punishing the Protestant princes for their proceedings in - Württemberg, he was obliged to do all he could to conciliate - them, as Francis was bidding for their alliance. Ferdinand - therefore, from the summer of A.D. 1535, sought to ingratiate - himself with the Protestants. In November he received a visit - of the elector in Vienna, and granted the extension of the Peace - of Nuremberg to all nobles who since its ratification had become - Protestants. The elector then went to an assembly at Schmalcald, - where the Schmalcald League was extended for ten years, the - French embassy dismissed, and the opposition to Austria abandoned. - On the basis of the Vienna compact Württemberg, Pomerania, Anhalt, - and several cities were added to the league. Signature of the - Augsburg Confession was the indispensable condition of reception. - Bucer managed to win over the upland cities to accept this - condition. - - § 133.8. =The Wittenberg Concordat of A.D. 1536.=--Bucer and - ultimately Œcolampadius, made such concessions on the doctrine - of the sacraments as satisfied Luther, but they were rejected - by Bullinger of Zürich. In December, A.D. 1535, there was a - conference at Cassel between Bucer and Melanchthon. A larger - conference was afterward held at Wittenberg, at which Bucer - and Capito from Strassburg, and eight other distinguished - theologians from the uplands, were present. As they accepted - the formula “in, with, and under,” the only question remaining - was whether unbelievers partook of the body of Christ. They - admitted this in regard to the unworthy, but not, as Luther - wished, in regard to the godless and unbelieving. Luther was - satisfied. On 25th May, A.D. 1536, Melanchthon composed the - “Wittenberg Concord,” which was signed by all, and ratified - by the common partaking of the sacrament. In consequence of - this union effort, three of the Swiss theologians, Bullinger, - Myconius, and Grynæus seceded, and produced the _Confessio - Helvetica prior_, in which the Zwinglian doctrine of the - sacraments was moderately but firmly maintained. - - - § 134. INCIDENTS OF THE YEARS A.D. 1537-1539. - - Clement VII. made many excuses for postponing the calling of a -council. At last, in A.D. 1533, he declared himself willing to do -so in the course of the year; but he required of the Protestants -unconditional acceptance of its decisions, to which they would not -agree. His successor, Paul III., A.D. 1534-1549, called one to meet -at Mantua in A.D. 1537. Luther composed for it as a manifesto the -Schmalcald Articles; but finally the Protestants renewed their demand -for a free council in a German city. In A.D. 1538 the Catholic nobles -concluded the Holy Alliance at Nuremberg for carrying out the decrees -of the Diet of Augsburg; but the political difficulties of the emperor -compelled him to make new concessions to the Protestants in the -Frankfort Interim of A.D. 1539. But in the same year the duchy of -Saxony and the electorate of Brandenburg went over to the Reformation. -By the beginning of A.D. 1540 almost all North Germany was won. Duke -Henry of Brunswick alone held out for the old faith. - - § 134.1. =The Schmalcald Articles, A.D. 1537.=--In A.D. 1535 - Paul III. sent his legate Vergerius (§ 139, 24) into Germany - to fix a place of meeting for the council. At Wittenberg he - conferred with Luther and Bugenhagen, who scarcely expecting - the council were indifferent as to the place. The council was - formally summoned to meet at Mantua on May 23rd, A.D. 1537. At - a diet at Schmalcald in Feb., A.D. 1537, the Protestants stated - their demands. Luther, by the elector’s orders, had drawn up - the articles of which the council must treat. These Schmalcald - Articles are distinctly polemical, and indicate boldly the - limits of the papal hierarchy demanded by evangelicals. The - first part states briefly four uncontested positions on the - Trinity and the Person of Christ; the second part deals with - the office and work of Christ or our redemption, and marks - abruptly the points of difference between the two confessions; - the third part treats of those points which the council may - further discuss. In the second part Luther unconditionally - rejected the primacy of the pope, as not of Divine right and - inconsistent with the character of a true evangelical Church. - When the articles had been subscribed by the theologians, - Melanchthon added under his name: “As to the pope, I hold - that if he will not oppress the gospel, for the sake of the - peace and unity of those Christians who are or may be under - him, his superiority over bishops _jure humano_ might be allowed - by us.” Melanchthon’s tracts on “The Power of the Pope” and the - “Jurisdiction of Bishops” were also subscribed by the theologians - and added to the Schmalcald Articles. It was then decided that - in order to secure a free Christian council it must be held in - a German city. The elector even made the bold proposal to have - a counter-council summoned, say, at Augsburg, by Luther and his - fellow bishops. - - § 134.2. =The League of Nuremberg, A.D. 1538.=--The Protestant - princes were astonished at the close of the Schmalcald - convention to be told by Vice-Chancellor Held, on behalf - of the emperor, that he did not recognise the Peace of - Cadau or the Vienna Compact, and that the prosecutions - would be resumed. They therefore resumed their old attitude - of opposition. But Held visited all the Catholic courts in - order to complete the formation of a Catholic league for - the suppression of Protestantism. Ferdinand, who knew well - that Held exceeded his instructions, was very angry, for the - emperor was in the greatest straits, but he could not offer - direct opposition without offending the Catholic princes. So - on July 10th, A.D. 1538, the Holy Alliance was actually formed - at Nuremberg, embracing George of Saxony, Albert of Brandenburg, - Henry and Eric of Brunswick, King Ferdinand, and the Archbishop - of Salzburg. The Schmalcald nobles prepared to meet force with - force. A general bloody engagement seemed unavoidable. - - § 134.3. =The Frankfort Interim, A.D. 1539.=--As the emperor - needed help against Soliman, he recalled Held, and sent in - his place John, formerly Archbishop of Leyden. The electors - of Brandenburg and the Palatinate went as mediators with the - new envoy to Frankfort, where negotiations were opened with - the Protestants present, who demanded an unconditional, lasting - peace, and a judiciary court with Protestant as well as Catholic - members. These demands were at first refused, but pressing - need obliged the emperor to reopen negotiations, proposing - that a diet should be held, consisting of learned theologians - and simple, peaceable laymen, to effect a final union of - Christians in faith and worship. He would also grant suspension - of all proceedings against the Protestants for eighteen months. - The Protestants accepted in this “Frankfort Interim” what had - been greatly sought for at the Diet of Nuremberg. It was a - victory of the Schmalcald over the Nuremberg League. The public - confidence in Protestantism grew, and the cause rapidly spread - into new regions. - - § 134.4. =The Reformation in Albertine Saxony, A.D. 1539.=--Duke - George of Saxony, A.D. 1500-1539, was a devoted adherent of the - old faith. Of his four sons only one survived, and he almost - imbecile. He had him married, but he died two months after - the marriage. The old prince was in perplexity, for his brother - Henry, an ardent supporter of the Reformation, was his next - heir. He could ill brook the idea of having the whole work of - his life immediately undone. On the day of the death of his last - son he proposed to his nobles a scheme of succession, according - to which his brother Henry should succeed him only if he joined - the Nuremberg League; otherwise it should go to the emperor - or the King of Rome. Duke Henry rejected the proposal, and - Duke George died before he could produce another scheme. With - loud rejoicing the people received their new prince, and their - allegiance was sworn to him at Leipzig. Luther was there, for - the first time for twenty years, and preached with extraordinary - success. The Reformation proceeded rapidly throughout the whole - district. The King of Rome wished indeed to question George’s - claim, but the Schmalcald League resolved to stand by him, so - that Ferdinand thought it prudent to take no further steps. - - § 134.5. =The Reformation in Brandenburg and Neighbouring - States, A.D. 1539.=--Henry of Neumark joined the Schmalcald - League, and introduced the Reformation into his territories; - but his brother Joachim II. of Brandenburg, A.D. 1535-1571, - for several years adhered to the old faith without forbidding - evangelical preaching, which gradually made an impression on - his own mind. In the beginning of A.D. 1539, with the approval - of his nobles, he gave his adhesion to the reformed doctrines. - The city of Berlin asked for communion in both kinds, and a - considerable section of the nobles of Brandenburg expressed a - hearty longing for the pure gospel. On November 1st, A.D. 1539, - Joachim assembled all the preachers of his land in the Nicolai - Church at Spandau, the Bishop of Brandenburg held the first - evangelical communion, and the whole court and many knights - received the communion in both kinds. The people followed the - example of the prince. Joachim sketched a service which let - several of the old ceremonies remain, but justification by - faith was the central point of the doctrine, and communion - in both kinds the centre of the worship. The Duchess Elizabeth - of Calenberg-Brunswick followed her brother’s example. After - the death of her husband Eric, who was otherwise minded, she - exercised her influence as regent for the spread of the reformed - religion. The Cardinal-archbishop and Elector of Mainz, Albert - of Brandenburg, sought to preserve his archiepiscopal diocese of - Magdeburg, but his constant calls for money would be responded - to only on condition that he granted liberty of preaching. At - his Halle residence he made vigorous resistance, but there too - was obliged to yield. Before his eyes, Justus Jonas, Luther’s - most trusted friend and fellow labourer, Prof. and Provost of - Wittenberg since A.D. 1521, carried on the work of Reformation - in the city. The cardinal, in a rage, left Halle and the “idol - of Halle” (§ 123, 8) for Mainz.--Mecklenburg also about this - time adopted the evangelical constitution, mainly promoted by - one of its princes, Magnus Bishop of Schwerin. The Abbess of - Quedlinburg, Anna von Stolberg, had not ventured, so long as - Duke George of Saxony lived, to bring forward her evangelical - confession; but now without opposition she reformed her convent - and the city. - - - § 135. UNION ATTEMPTS OF A.D. 1540-1546. - - The Frankfort Interim revived the idea of a free union among those -who in the main agreed upon matters of faith and worship. With the -object of realizing this idea a whole series of religious conferences -were held. But near as its realization at one time seemed to be all -the measures taken proved one after another abortive, because the -emperor would not recognise the conclusions of any conference at -which a papal legate was not present. And just at this time, when -the imposing might of the Protestant nobles excited the brightest -hopes, the Protestant princes themselves laid the grounds of their -deepest humiliation: the landgrave by his double marriage, and the -elector by his quarrels with the ducal Saxon court. - - § 135.1. =The Double Marriage of the Landgrave, - A.D. 1540.=--Landgrave Philip of Hesse had married Christina, - a daughter of the deceased Duke George of Saxony. Various causes - had led to an estrangement between them, and a strong sensuous - nature, which he had been unable to control, had driven him to - repeated acts of unfaithfulness. His conscience reproved him; - he felt himself unworthy to be admitted to communion, great - as his desire for it was, and doubted of his soul’s salvation. - From regard to his wife he could not think of a divorce. Then - came the idea, suggested by the O.T. polygamy that had not been - abrogated in the N.T., that with consent of his wife he might - enter into a regular second marriage with Margaret von der Saale, - one of his sister’s lady’s-maids. In Nov., A.D. 1539, he sent - Bucer to Wittenberg in order to get the advice of Luther and - Melanchthon. The alternative was either continued adultery, or - an honourable married life with a second wife taken with consent - of the first. Luther and Melanchthon entreated him earnestly - for his own and for the gospel’s sake to avoid this terrible - scandal, but haltingly admitted that the latter alternative - was less heinously wicked than the former. They added, however, - that in order to avoid scandal the marriage should be private, - and their answer regarded not as a theological opinion, but - confidential counsel. The landgrave had the marriage consummated - in May, A.D. 1540. But the story soon spread. The court of - Albertine Saxony was deeply incensed, the elector beside - himself with rage, the theologians in most extreme embarrassment. - Melanchthon started to attend a religious conference at Hagenau, - but the excitement over the unhappy business prostrated him - on a sick-bed at Weimar. The emperor threatened Philip with - the infliction of capital punishment, which by the law of the - empire was attached to the crime of bigamy. At last the elector - called a convention of Saxon and Hessian theologians at Eisenach - to consult about the matter. Luther refused to treat it as a - question of law, and demanded absolute privacy as the condition - of permission. Among the opponents of the Reformation, it was - Duke Henry of Brunswick who insisted upon exacting the utmost - penalties of the law. He indeed was least fitted by his own - character to assume the part of defender of morals. It was - well known that he was then living in adultery with Eva von - Trott, after her pretended death and burial. In his perplexity, - Philip turned to the imperial chancellor Granvella, who was - willing to intercede for him, but on conditions to which the - landgrave could not accede. At last, at the Diet of Regensburg, - in A.D. 1541, Philip undertook to further the imperial interests - and to join no union in any way inimical to these; and upon - these terms the emperor agreed to grant him a full indemnity. - - § 135.2. =The Religious Conference at Worms, - A.D. 1540.=--Negotiations for peace with France having failed, - the emperor still required the support of the Protestant - party. He therefore agreed to the holding of a religious - conference at =Worms=, in order to reach if possible a good - mutual understanding on the basis of Holy Scripture. It was - held in Nov., A.D. 1540, under the presidency of Granvella. - On one side were Melanchthon, Bucer, Capito, Brenz, and Calvin; - on the other, Eck, Gropper, canon of Cologne, the Spaniard - Malvenda, etc. But the emperor had insisted on the papal - nuncio Marone taking part, and this, contrary to his intention, - brought the whole affair to naught. For Marone first of all - presented a number of formal objections, and when at last, - in Jan., A.D. 1541, the conference began, and awakened the - utmost apprehensions for the papacy, he rested not till - Granvella, even before the first article on original sin had - been discussed, dissolved the conference in the name and by - command of the emperor. But the emperor did not give up the - idea of conciliation, and called a diet at Regensburg, at - which the negotiations were to be renewed. - - § 135.3. =The Religious Conference at Regensburg, - A.D. 1541.=--The diet at Regensburg was opened on April 5th, - A.D. 1541. The emperor, anxious to reach a peaceable conclusion, - named as members of the conference Eck, Gropper, and Julius - von Pflugk, Dean of Meissen, on the one side; and Melanchthon, - Bucer, and Pistorius, on the other side; with Granvella and - Frederick, count-palatine, as presidents. The nuncio Contarini - was representative of the curia. By such a gathering the emperor - hoped to reach the wished for conclusion. In Italy (§ 139, 22) - there had sprung up a number of men well instructed in Scripture, - who sought to reform the doctrine of the church by adopting the - principle of justification by faith without touching the primacy - of the pope and the whole hierarchical system. Contarini was one - of the leaders of this party. He had come to an understanding - with the emperor that justification by faith, the use of - the cup in communion by the laity, and marriage of priests - should be allowed for Germany, and that, on the other hand, - the Protestants were to agree to the primacy of the pope. The - _justitia imputativa_ was acknowledged by both parties; and - even when Contarini, on the basis of that imputation, insisted - upon a _justitia inhærens_, _i.e._ not merely a declaring but - a making righteous, seeing that he grounded it solely on the - merits of Christ, the Protestants acquiesced. Differences arose - over the doctrine of the church, which were reserved for another - occasion. And now they came to the sacrament of the altar. - Communion in both kinds was agreed to by both; but trouble - arose over the word transubstantiation. Not only Eck, who had - opposed all concessions, but even Contarini, who had his orders - from Rome, would not yield. No more would the Protestants. - The conference had therefore to be dissolved. The emperor - wished both parties to accept the articles agreed on as - a common standard, and to have toleration granted upon the - disputed points; but the Catholic majority would not agree - to this. The Regensburg Interim, therefore, as the decision - of the diet is usually called, extends the Nuremberg Peace - (§ 133, 2) to all presently members of the Schmalcald League, - and enforced upon Protestants only the accepted articles. - - § 135.4. =The Regensburg Declaration, A.D. 1541.=--The emperor, - in order to satisfy the naturally dissatisfied Protestants, - made a special declaration, annulling the prosecutions decree - of the Augsburg Diet and relieving the adherents of the Augsburg - Confession from all disabilities. Also the injunction that no - one should withhold their dues from the clergy was extended - to the Protestant ministers. But on the very day when the - declaration was issued the emperor held a private session - with the Catholic majority, in which the Nuremberg League was - renewed and the pope received into it. Thus he hoped to receive - help from all parties and to ward off internecine conflict till - a more convenient season. He concluded a separate treaty with - the landgrave and the Elector Joachim II., both undertaking - to support imperial interests. The elector expressly promised - not to join the Schmalcald League; and the landgrave promised - to oppose all consorting of the league not only with foreign - powers (England and France), but also with the Duke of Cleves, - with whom the emperor had a standing feud. In return the - landgrave was granted an amnesty for all previous delinquencies - and undisturbed liberty in matters of religion. The emperor’s - negotiations with the Elector of Saxony broke down over the - Cleves dispute, for the Duke of Cleves was his brother-in-law. - - § 135.5. =The Naumburg Bishopric, A.D. 1541, 1542.=--Since - A.D. 1520 the Lutheran doctrines had spread in the diocese - of Naumburg. When the bishop died, in A.D. 1511, the chapter - elected the learned and mild provost Julius von Pflugk. But - the elector regarded it as proper in a Lutheran state to have a - Lutheran bishop, and so refused to confirm Pflugk’s appointment, - and had Nic. von Arnsdorf (§ 127, 4) ordained bishop by Luther, - in A.D. 1542, “without chrism, butter, suet, lard, tar, grease, - incense, and coals.” The civil administration of the diocese was - committed to an electoral officer; Arnsdorf was satisfied with - the small income of 600 florins and the rest of the revenues - were applied to pious uses. After the battle of Mühlberg, - in A.D. 1547, Arnsdorf was expelled and Pflugk restored. On - his death in 1564, the chapter, though then Lutheran, did not - restore Arnsdorf, but gave over the administration to a Saxon - prince. The elector’s violent procedure in this case caused - great offence to the Albertine court. Duke Henry had died in - A.D. 1541, and was succeeded by his son Maurice. The elector - and the young duke quarrelled over a question of jurisdiction, - and it was only with great difficulty that Luther and the - landgrave managed to effect a peaceful solution of the dispute. - But the mutual estrangement and rivalry between the courts soon - afterwards broke out in a violent form. - - § 135.6. =The Reformation in Brunswick and the Palatinate, - A.D. 1542-1546.=--Duke Henry of Brunswick accused the city - of Goslar of the destruction of two monasteries, and in spite - of all the concessions to Protestants the court pronounced - the ban against the city, and empowered Henry to carry it - out. The elector and the landgrave, acting for the Schmalcald - League in defence of the city, entered Henry’s territory in - A.D. 1542 and conquered it. The gospel was now preached, and an - evangelical constitution was given to Brunswick by Bugenhagen. - This completed the conquest of North Germany for the gospel.--In - South Germany Regensburg received the Reformation in A.D. 1542; - but Bavaria, owing to Ferdinand’s influence, gave no place to - the heretics. In the Upper Palatinate evangelical preachers - had for a long time been tolerated. The young prince of - the Neuburg Palatinate in A.D. 1543 called Osiander from - Nuremburg [Nuremberg], and joined the Schmalcald League. - The Elector-palatine Louis died in A.D. 1543. His brother - Frederick II., who succeeded him was not unfavourable to the - Reformation, and formally introduced it into his dominions in - A.D. 1546. Even in Austria evangelical views made such advance - that Ferdinand neither could nor would attempt those violent - measures that he had previously tried. - - § 135.7. =The Reformation in the Electorate of Cologne, - A.D. 1542-1544.=--Hermann von Weid (§ 133, 5), Archbishop and - Elector of Cologne, now far advanced in life, by the study of - Luther’s Bible had convinced himself of the scripturalness of - the Augsburg Confession. He resolved to reform his province - in accordance with God’s word. At the Bonn Assembly of March, - A.D. 1542, he made known his plan, and found himself supported - by his nobles. He invited Bucer to inaugurate the work, and - he was soon joined by Melanchthon. In July, A.D. 1543, the - elector laid before the nobles his Reformation scheme, and - they unanimously accepted it. The cathedral chapter and the - university opposed it in the interests of the papacy; also - the Cologne council from fear of losing their authority. - Nevertheless the movement advanced, and it was hoped that the - opposition would gradually be overcome. Cologne was to remain - after as before an ecclesiastical principality, but with an - evangelical constitution. The Bishop of Münster prepared to - follow the example, and had the work in Cologne been lasting, - certainly many others would have pursued the same course. - - § 135.8. =The Emperor’s Difficulties, A.D. 1543, 1544.=--Soliman - in A.D. 1541 had overrun Hungary, converted the principal - church into a mosque, and set a pasha over the whole land, - which now became a Turkish province. Aid against the Turks - was voted at a diet at Spires in the beginning of A.D. 1542, - and the Protestants were left unmolested for five years after - the conclusion of the war. The campaign against the Turks led - by Joachim II. was unsuccessful. Meanwhile new troubles arose - with France, and Soliman prepared for a second campaign. - The emperor now summoned a diet to meet at Nuremberg, Jan., - A.D. 1543. Ferdinand was willing to grant to the Protestants - the Regensburg Declaration, but William of Bavaria would rather - see the whole world perish or the crescent ruling over all - Germany. In summer of A.D. 1543 the emperor was beset with - dangers from every side; France attacked the Netherlands, - Soliman conquered Grau, the Danes closed the Sound against - the subjects of the emperor, a Turco-French fleet held sway - in the Mediterranean and had already taken Nizza, and the - Protestants were assuming a threatening attitude. Christian III. - of Denmark and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden asked to be received - into the Schmalcald League. The Duke of Cleves, too, broke - his truce. This roused the emperor most of all. He rushed down - upon Cleves and Gelderland, and conquered them, and restored - Catholicism. The emperor’s circumstances now improved: Cleves - was quieted; Denmark and England came to terms with him. But - his most dangerous enemies, Soliman and Francis I., were still - in arms. He could not yet dispense with the powerful support - of the Protestants. - - § 135.9. =Diet at Spires, A.D. 1544.=--In order to get - help against the Turks and French, at the Diet of Spires, - in Feb., A.D. 1544, the emperor relieved the Protestants of - all disabilities, promised a genuine, free Christian council - to settle matters in dispute, and, in case this should not - succeed, in next autumn a national assembly to determine - matters definitely without pope or council. The emperor promised - to propose a scheme of Reformation, and invited the other nobles - to bring forward schemes. After such concessions the Protestants - went in heartily with the emperor’s political projects. He - wished first of all help against the French. In the same year - the emperor led against France an army composed mostly of - Protestants, and in Sept., A.D. 1544, obliged the king to - conclude the Peace of Crespy. The Turks had next to be dealt - with, and the Protestants were eager to show their devotion - to the emperor. In prospect of the national assembly the - Elector of Saxony set his theologians to the composition of - a plan of Reformation. This document, known as the “Wittenberg - Reformation,” allows to the prelates their spiritual and civil - functions, their revenues, goods, and jurisdiction, the right - of ordination, visitation, and discipline, on condition that - these be exercised in an evangelical spirit. - - § 135.10. =Differences between the Emperor and the Protestant - Nobles, A.D. 1545, 1546.=--The pope by calling a council to - meet at Trent sowed seeds of discord between the emperor and - the Protestants. The emperor’s proposals of reform were so - far short of the demands of the Protestants that they were - unanimously rejected. The Reformation movement in Cologne had - seriously imperilled the imperial government of the Netherlands. - An attempt of Henry to reconquer Brunswick was frustrated by the - combined action of the Landgrave of Hesse and the Duke of Saxony. - Frederick II., elector-palatine, began to reform his provinces - and to seek admission to the Schmalcald League. Four of the - six electors had gone over, and the fifth, Sebastian, who after - Albert’s death in A.D. 1545 had been, by Hessian and Palatine - influence, made Elector of Mainz, had just resolved to follow - their example. All these things had greatly irritated the - emperor. He concluded a truce with the Turks in Oct., A.D. 1545, - and arranged with the pope, who pledged his whole possessions - and crown, for the campaign against the heretics. On 13th Dec., - A.D. 1545, the pope opened the =Council of Trent=, and made - it no secret that it was intended for the destruction of the - Protestants. The emperor attempted to get the Protestants to - take part. In Jan., A.D. 1546, a conference was held in which - Cochlæus (§ 129, 1) and others met with Bucer, Brenz, and Major; - but it was soon dissolved, owing to initial differences. The - horrible fratricide committed at Neuburg upon a Spaniard, Juan - Diaz, showed the Protestants how good Catholics thought heretics - must be dealt with. The murderer was seized, but by order of the - pope to the Bishop of Trent set again at liberty. He remained - unpunished, but hanged himself at Trent A.D. 1551. - - § 135.11. =Luther’s Death, A.D. 1546.=--Luther died at Eisleben - in his 63rd year on 18th Feb., 1546. During his last years he - was harassed with heavy trials. The political turn that affairs - had taken was wholly distasteful to him, but he was powerless to - prevent it. In Wittenberg itself much was done not in accordance - with his will. Wearied with his daily toils, suffering severe - pain and consequent bodily weakness, he often longed to die - in peace. In the beginning of A.D. 1546 the Counts of Mansfeld - called him to Eisleben in order to compose differences between - them by his impartial judgment. In order to perform this - business he spent the three last weeks of his life in his - birthplace, and, with scarcely any previous illness, on the - night of the 18th Feb., he peacefully fell asleep in Jesus. - His body was taken to Wittenberg and there buried in the - castle church. - - - § 136. THE SCHMALCALD WAR, THE INTERIM, AND THE COUNCIL, - A.D. 1546-1551. - - All attempts at agreement in matters of religion were at an end. -The pope, however, had at last convened a council in a German city. -The emperor hoped to conciliate the Protestants by bringing about -a reformation after a fashion, removing many hierarchical abuses, -conceding the marriage of the clergy, the cup to the laity, and even -perhaps accepting the doctrine of justification. But he soon came to -a rupture with the Protestants, and war broke out before the Schmalcald -Leaguers were prepared for it. Their power, however, was far superior -to that of the emperor; but through needless scruples, delays, and -indecision they let slip the opportunity of certain victory. The power -of the league was utterly destroyed, and the emperor’s power reached -the summit of its strength. All Southern Germany was forced to submit -to the hated interim, and in North Germany only the outlawed Magdeburg -ventured to maintain, in spite of the emperor, a pure Protestant -profession. - - § 136.1. =Preparations for the Schmalcald War, A.D. 1546.=--In - consequence of variances among the members of the league the - emperor conceived a plan of securing allies from among the - Protestants themselves by a judicious distribution of favours. - The Margrave Hans of Cüstrin and Duke Eric of Brunswick, the - one cousin, the other son-in-law, of the exiled and imprisoned - Duke of Wolfenbüttel, were ready to take part in war against the - robbers of their friend’s dominions. Much more eager, however, - was the emperor to win over the young Duke Maurice of Saxony. He - tempted him with the promise of the electorate and the greater - part of the elector’s territory, and was successful. The emperor - could not indeed formally release any of them from submission - to the council, but he promised in any case to reserve for - their countries the doctrine of justification, the cup in lay - communion, and the marriage of priests. Now when he was sure - of Maurice the emperor proceeded openly with his preparations, - and made no secret of his intention to punish those princes who - had despised his imperial authority and taken to themselves the - possessions of others. The Schmalcald Leaguers could no longer - deceive themselves, and so they began their preparations. - With such an open breach the Diet of Regensburg ended in June, - A.D. 1546. - - § 136.2. =The Campaign on the Danube, A.D. 1546.=--Schärtlin, - at the head of a powerful army, could have attacked the emperor - or taken the Tyrol; but the council of war, listening to William - of Bavaria, who professed neutrality, and hoping to win over - Ferdinand, foolishly ordered delay. Thus the emperor gained - time to collect an army. On 20th June, A.D. 1546, he issued - from Regensburg a ban against the Landgrave Philip and the - Elector John Frederick as oath-breaking vassals. These princes - at the head of their forces had joined Schärtlin at Donauwörth - [Donauwört]. Papal despatches fell into their hands, in which - the pope proclaimed a crusade for the rooting out of heretics, - promising indulgence to all who would aid in the work. Fatal - indecision still prevailed in the council of war, and winter - came on without a battle being fought. The news that Maurice - had taken possession of the elector’s domains led the landgrave - and the ex-elector to return home, and Schärtlin, for want of - money and ammunition, was unable to face a winter campaign in - Franconia. Thus the whole country lay open to the emperor. One - city after another accepted terms more or less severe. In the - beginning of A.D. 1547 he was master of all Southern Germany. - Now at last he put an end to the Cologne movement (§ 135, 7). - The pope had issued the ban against the archbishop in A.D. 1546, - and now the emperor had the former coadjutor proclaimed - archbishop and elector, in spite of the opposition of the - nobles. Hermann was willing to secure the religious peace of - his dominions by resignation, but this was refused, and being - too weak to offer resistance, he resigned unconditionally. Thus - the Rhine provinces were irretrievably lost to Protestantism. - - § 136.3. =The Campaign on the Elbe, A.D. 1547.=--After rapidly - reconquering his own territories, the Elector John Frederick - hastened with a considerable army to meet his enemy. At Mühlberg - he suddenly came upon the emperor’s forces. There scarcely was - a battle. His comparatively small armament melted away before - the superior numbers of the imperial host, and the elector was - taken prisoner on 24th April, A.D. 1547. He had already been - sentenced to death as a rebel and heretic. It was deemed more - prudent to require of him only the surrender of his fortresses. - The pious prince willingly resigned all temporal dignities, but - in matters of religion he was inflexible. He was sentenced to - life-long imprisonment and his possessions were mostly given - to Maurice. The Landgrave Philip, for want of money, ammunition, - and troops, had been prevented from doing anything. The news - of John Frederick’s misfortunes brought him almost to despair. - Too powerless to offer opposition, he surrendered at discretion - to the emperor. He was to prostrate himself before the emperor, - surrender all his fortresses, neither now nor in future suffer - enemies of the emperor in his lands, and for all his life to - renounce all leagues, to liberate Henry of Brunswick and restore - him to his dominions. The ceremony of prostration was performed - at Halle on 19th July. The two electors with the landgrave - then went by invitation to a supper with the Duke of Alba. - After supper the duke declared the landgrave his prisoner. - The elector’s remonstrances then with Alba and next day with - the imperial councillors were all in vain. The emperor was - equally deaf to all representations. - - § 136.4. =The Council of Trent, A.D. 1545-1547.=--The Council - of Trent opened in Dec., A.D. 1545 (§ 149, 2). At the outset, - contrary to the emperor’s wishes, the pope laid down conditions - that excluded Protestants from taking part in it. Scripture and - tradition were first discussed. The O.T. Apocrypha (§§ 59, 1; - 161, 8) had equal authority assigned it with the other books - of the O. and N.T., and the Vulgate was declared to be the - only authentic text for theological discussions and sermons. - Tradition was placed on equal terms alongside of Scripture, - but its contents were carefully defined. Original sin was - extinguished by baptism, and after baptism there is only - actual transgression. The scholastic doctrine of justification - was sanctioned anew, but accommodated as far as possible to - Scripture phraseology; justification is the inward actual change - of a sinner into a righteous man, not merely the forgiveness - of sins, but pre-eminently the sanctification and renewal of - the inner man. It is effected, not so much by the imputation - of Christ’s merits, as by the infusion of habitual righteousness, - which enables men to win salvation by works. It is not forensic, - but a physical act of God, is wrought not once for all, and not - by faith alone, but gradually by the free co-operation of the - man. The emperor, who saw in these decisions the overthrow of - his attempts at conciliation, was highly displeased, and wished - at least to postpone their promulgation. The pope obeyed for - a time; but when the emperor threatened to interfere in the - proceedings of the council, he had the decrees published, Jan., - A.D. 1547, and some weeks after, on the plea of a dangerous - plague having broken out, removed the council to Bologna, where - for the time proceedings were suspended. - - § 136.5. =The Augsburg Interim, A.D. 1548.=--At a diet - at Augsburg in Sept., A.D. 1547, the Protestants declared - themselves willing to submit to a council meeting again at - Trent, and beginning afresh; but as the pope refused this, - the emperor was obliged to plan an interim, which should form - a standard for all parties till a settlement at a proper council - should be reached. It granted the cup to the laity and marriage - of priests, but held by the Tridentine doctrine of justification. - It represented the pope as simply the highest bishop, in whom - the unity of the church is visibly set forth. The right of - interpreting Scripture was given exclusively to the church. - The sacraments were enumerated as seven, and the doctrine - of transubstantiation emphatically maintained. The duty of - fasting, and seeking the intercession of the mother of God - and the saints, observing all Catholic ceremonies of worship, - processions, festivals, etc., was strictly insisted upon. The - emperor was satisfied, and so too some of the Protestant princes. - Maurice, however, felt that his people would not agree to its - adoption. He gave at last a half assent, which the emperor - accepted as approval. The emperor took no notice of those who - opposed it, the presence of his Spaniards in their dominions - would prevent all trouble. The emperor was not strong enough - to force the Catholic nobles to accept his interim, and so its - observance was to be binding only on the Protestants. Landgrave - Philip, whose power was for ever broken, gave in, but nothing - in the world would induce the noble John Frederick to submit. - The pope too refused persistently to recognise the interim, and - only in Aug., A.D. 1549, did he allow the bishops to agree to - the concessions made by it to the Protestants. - - § 136.6. =The Execution of the Interim= had on all sides to - be compulsorily enforced. Nuremberg, Augsburg, Ulm were one - after another coerced into adopting it. Constance resisted, - was put under the ban, and lost all privileges, till at last - instead of the interim the papacy found entrance, and evangelical - Protestantism got its death-blow. The other cities submitted to - the inevitable. All preachers refusing the interim were exiled - and persecuted. Over 400 true servants of the word wandered with - wives and children through South Germany homeless and without - bread. Frecht of Ulm was taken in chains to the emperor’s camp. - Brenz, one of the most determined opponents of the interim, - during his wanderings often by a miracle escaped capture. Much - more lasting was the opposition in North Germany. In Magdeburg, - still lying under the imperial ban, the fugitive opponents of - the interim gathered from all sides, and there alone was the - press still free in its utterances against the interim. A - flood of controversial tracts, satires, and caricatures were - sent out over all Germany. In Hesse and Brandenburg the princes - were unable to enforce the obnoxious measures; still less could - Maurice do so in the electorate. - - § 136.7. =The Leipzig or Little Interim, A.D. 1549.=--Maurice - in his difficulties sent for Melanchthon. Since the death - of Luther and the overthrow of John Frederick of Saxony, - Melanchthon’s tendency to yield largely for peace’ sake had - lost its wholesome checks. In writing to the minister Carlowitz, - the bitterest foe of Luther and the elector, he even went so far - as to complain of Luther’s combativeness. The result of various - negotiations was the drawing up of a document at the assembly in - Leipzig, 22nd December, A.D. 1548, by the Wittenberg theologians - in accordance with the views of Melanchthon. This modified - interim became the standard for religious practice in Saxony, - and a directory of worship in harmony with it was drawn up - by the theologians, and published in July, A.D. 1549. Calvin - and Brenz wrote letters that cut Melanchthon to the heart. - The measure was everywhere viewed by zealous Lutherans with - indignation, and the Interim of Leipzig was even more hateful - to the people than that of Augsburg. Imprisonment and exile - were vigorously carried out by means of it, yet the revolution - and ferment continued to increase.--The Leipzig Interim treated - Romish customs and ceremonies almost as things indifferent, - passed over many less essential doctrinal differences, and - gave to fundamental differences such a setting as might - be applied equally to the pure evangelical doctrine as to - that of the Augsburg Interim. The evangelical doctrine of - justification was essentially there, but it was not decidedly - and unambiguously expressed; and still less were Romish errors - sharply and unmistakably repudiated. Good works were said to - be necessary, but not in the sense that one could win salvation - by means of them. Whether good works in excess of the law’s - demands could be performed was not explicitly determined. On - church and hierarchy, the positions of the Augsburg Interim - were simply restated. To the pope as the highest bishop, as well - as to the other bishops, who performed their duties according - to God’s will for edification and not destruction, all churchmen - were to yield obedience. The seven sacraments were acknowledged, - though in another than the Romish sense. In the mass the Latin - language was again introduced. Images of saints were allowed, - but not for worship; so too the festivals of Mary and of _Corpus - Christi_, but without processions, etc. - - § 136.8. =The Council again at Trent, A.D. 1551.=--In September, - A.D. 1549, Paul III. dissolved the council at Bologna, where it - had done nothing. His successor, =Julius III.=, A.D. 1550-1555, - the nominee of the imperial party, acceded to the emperor’s - wishes to have the council again held at Trent. The Protestant - nobles declared their willingness to recognise it, but demanded - the cancelling of the earlier proceedings, a seat and vote for - their representatives. This the emperor was prepared to grant, - but the pope and prelates would not agree. The council began - its proceedings on 1st May, A.D. 1551, with the doctrine of - the Lord’s Supper. Meanwhile the Protestants prepared a new - confession, which might form the basis of their discussions - in the council. Melanchthon, who was beginning to take courage - again, sketched the _Confessio Saxonica_, or, as it has been - rightly named, the _Repetitio Confessionis Augustanæ_, in which - no trace of the indecision and ambiguity of the Leipzig Interim - is to be found. The pure doctrine is set forth firmly, with even - a polemical tone, though in a moderate and conciliatory manner. - Brenz, who had been in hiding up to this time, by order of Duke - Christopher of Württemberg, sketched for a like purpose the - “Württemberg Confession.” In November, A.D. 1551, the first - Protestants, lay delegates from Württemberg and Strassburg, - appeared in Trent. They were followed in January by Saxon - statesmen. On 24th January, A.D. 1552, these laid their - credentials before the council, but, notwithstanding all - the effort of the imperial commissioners, they could not gain - admission. In March the Württemberg and Strassburg theologians - arrived, with Brenz at their head, and Melanchthon, with two - Leipzig preachers, was on the way, when suddenly Maurice put - an end to all their well concerted plans. - - - § 137A. MAURICE AND THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG A.D. 1550-1555. - - In the beginning of A.D. 1550 the affairs of the Reformation were -in a worse condition than ever before. In the fetters of the interim, -it was like a felon on whom the death sentence was about to be passed. -Then just at the right time appeared the Elector Maurice as the man -who could break the fetters and lead on again to power and honour. -His betrayal of the cause had brought Protestantism to the verge of -destruction; his betrayal of the emperor proved its salvation. The -Compact of Passau guaranteed to Protestants full religious liberty -and equal rights with Catholics until a new council should meet. The -Religious Peace of Augsburg removed even this limitation, and brought -to a conclusion the history of the German Reformation. - - § 137.1. =The State of Matters in A.D. 1550.=--It was a doleful - time for Germany. The emperor at the height of his power was - laying his plans for securing the succession in the imperial - dignity to his son Philip of Spain. In a bold, autocratic - spirit he trampled on all the rights of the imperial nobles, - and contrary to treaty he retained the presence of Spanish - troops in the empire, which daily committed deeds of atrocious - violence. The deliverance of the landgrave was stubbornly - refused, though all the conditions thereof were long ago - fulfilled. Protestant Germany groaned under the yoke of the - interim; the council would only confirm this, if not rather - enforce something even worse. Only one bulwark of evangelical - liberty stood in the emperor’s way, the brave, outlawed - Magdeburg. But how could it continue to hold out? Down to - autumn, A.D. 1552, all attempts to storm the city had failed. - Then Maurice undertook, by the order of the emperor and at the - cost of the empire, to execute the ban. - - § 137.2. =The Elector Maurice, A.D. 1551.--Maurice had lost the - hearts of his own people, and was regarded with detestation by - the Protestants of Germany, and notwithstanding imperial favour - his position was by no means secure. Yet he was too much of the - German and Protestant prince to view with favour the emperor’s - proceedings, while he felt indignant at the illegal detention - of his father-in-law. In these circumstances he resolved to - betray the emperor, as before he had betrayed to him the cause - of Protestantism. A master in dissimulation, he continued the - siege of Magdeburg with all diligence, but at the same time - joined a secret league with the Margrave Hans of Cüstrin and - Albert of Franconian Brandenburg, as also with the sons of the - landgrave, for the restoration of evangelical and civil liberty, - and entered into negotiations with Henry II. of France, who - undertook to aid him with money. Magdeburg at last capitulated, - and Maurice entered on 4th November, A.D. 1551. Arrears of - pay formed an excuse for not disbanding the imperial troops, - and, strengthened by the Magdeburg garrison and the auxiliary - troops of his allies, he threw off the mask, and issued public - proclamations in which he brought bitter charges against the - emperor, and declared that he could no longer lie under the - feet of priests and Spaniards. The emperor in vain appealed for - help to the Catholic princes. He found himself without troops - or money at Innsbrück, which could not stand a siege, and every - road to his hereditary territories seemed closed, for where - the leagued German princes were not the Ottomans on sea and - the French on land were ready to oppose him. Maurice was already - on the way to Innsbrück “to seek out the fox in his hole.” But - his troops’ demands for pay detained him, and the emperor gained - time. On a cold, wet night he fled, though not yet recovered - from fever, over the mountains covered with snow, and found - refuge in Villach. Three days after Maurice entered Innsbrück; - the council had already dissolved. - - § 137.3. =The Compact of Passau, A.D. 1552.=--Before the - flight of the emperor from Innsbrück, Maurice had an interview - with Ferdinand at Linz, where, besides the liberation of the - landgrave, he demanded a German national assembly for religious - union, and till it met unconditional toleration. The emperor, - notwithstanding all his embarrassments, would not listen to the - proposal. Negotiations were reopened at Passau, and Maurice’s - proposals were in the main accepted. Ferdinand consented, but - the emperor would not. Ferdinand himself travelled to Villach - and employed all his eloquence, but unconditional toleration - the emperor would not grant. His stubbornness conquered; the - majority gave in, and accepted a compact which gave to the - Protestants a full amnesty, general peace, and equal rights, - till the meeting of a national or œcumenical council, to be - arranged for at the next diet. Meanwhile the emperor had made - great preparations. Frankfort was his main stronghold, and - against it Maurice now advanced, and began the siege. Matters - were not promising, when the Passau delegate appeared in his - camp with the draft of the terms of peace. Had he refused his - signature, the ban would have been pronounced against him, - and his cousin would have been restored to the electorate. - He therefore subscribed the document. With difficulty Ferdinand - secured the subscription of the emperor, who believed himself - to be sufficiently strong to carry on the battle. The two - imprisoned princes were now at last liberated, and the preachers - exiled by the interim were allowed to return. John Frederick - died in A.D. 1554, and the Landgrave Philip in A.D. 1567. - - § 137.4. =Death of Maurice, A.D. 1553.=--The Margrave Albert - of Brandenburg had been Maurice’s comrade in the Schmalcald - war, and with him also he turned against the emperor. But after - the ratification of the Passau Compact, to which he was not a - party, Albert continued the war against the prelates and their - principalities. He now fell out with Maurice, and was taken into - his service by the emperor, who not only granted him an amnesty - for all his acts of spoliation and breaches of the truce, but - promised to enforce recognition of him from all the bishops. - Albert therefore helped the emperor against the French, and - then carried his conquests into Germany. Soon an open rupture - occurred between him and Maurice. In the battle of Sievershausen - Maurice gained a brilliant victory, but received a mortal wound, - of which he died in two days. Albert fled to France. The rude - soldier was broken down by misfortune, the religious convictions - of his youth awakened, and the composition of a beautiful and - well-known German hymn marks the turning point in his life. - He died in A.D. 1557.--The year 1554 was wholly occupied with - internal troubles. A desire for a lasting peace prevailed, and - the calamities of both parties brought Protestants and Catholics - nearer to one another. Even Henry of Brunswick was willing to - tolerate Protestantism in his dominions. - - § 137.5. =The Religious Peace of Augsburg, A.D. 1555.=--When - the diet met at Augsburg in February, A.D. 1555, the emperor’s - power was gone. To save his pride and conscience he renounced - all share in its proceedings in favour of his brother. - The Protestant members stood well together in claiming - unconditional religious freedom, and Ferdinand inclined - to their side. Meanwhile Pope Julius died, and the cardinals - Morone and Truchsess hasted from the diet to Rome to take part - in the papal election. The Catholic opposition was thus weakened - in the diet. The Protestants insisted that the peace should - apply to all who might in future join this confession. This - demand gave occasion to strong contests. At last the simple - formula was agreed upon, that no one should be interfered with - on account of the Augsburg Confession. But a more vehement - dispute arose as to what should happen if prelates or spiritual - princes should join the Protestant party. This was a vital - question for Catholicism, and acceptance of the Protestant - view would be its deathblow. It was therefore proposed that - every prelate who went over would lose, not only his spiritual - rank, but also his civil dominion. But the opposition would - not give in. Both parties appealed to Ferdinand, and he - delayed giving a decision. Advice was also asked about the - peace proclamation. The Protestants claimed that the judges - of the imperial court should be sworn to observe the Religious - Peace, and should be chosen in equal numbers from both religious - parties. On 30th Aug. Ferdinand stated his resolution. As - was expected, he went with the Catholics in regard to prelates - becoming Protestants, but, contrary to all expectations, he - also refused lasting unconditional peace. On this last point, - however, he declared himself on 6th Sept. willing to yield - if the Protestants would concede the point about the prelates. - They sought to sell their concession as dearly as possible - by securing to evangelical subjects of Catholic princes the - right to the free exercise of their religion. But the Catholic - prelates, on the ground of the territorial system (§ 126, 6) - advocated by the Protestants themselves, would not give in. - It was finally agreed that every noble in matters of religion - had territorial authority, but that subjects of another faith, - in case of the free exercise of their religion being refused, - should have guaranteed unrestricted liberty to withdraw without - loss of honour, property, or freedom. On 25th Sept., A.D. 1555, - the decrees of the diet were promulgated. The Reformed were - not included in the Religious Peace; this was first done in - the Peace of Westphalia (§ 153, 2). - - - § 137B. GERMANY AFTER THE RELIGIOUS PEACE. - - The political importance of the Protestant princes was about equal -to that of the Catholics; the Electors of Cologne, Mainz, and Treves -were not more powerful than those of Saxony, the Palatinate, and -Brandenburg; and the great array of Protestant cities, with almost -all the minor princes, were not behind the combined forces of Austria -and Bavaria. The maintenance of the peace was assigned to a legally -constituted corporation of Catholic and Protestant nobles, which held -power down to A.D. 1806. The hope of reaching a mutual understanding -on matters of religion was by no means abandoned, but the continuance -of the peace was to be in no way dependent upon its realization. A new -attempt to effect a union, which like all previous efforts ended in -failure, was soon made in the Worms Consultation. Equally unsuccessful -was a union project of the emperor Ferdinand I. Protestantism could get -no more out of the Catholic princes. A second attempt to protestantize -the Cologne electorate broke down as the first had done (§ 136, 2). - - § 137.6. =The Worms Consultation, A.D. 1557.=--Another effort - was made after the failure of the council in the interests of - union. Catholic and Protestant delegates under the presidency - of Pflugk met at Worms in A.D. 1557. At a preliminary meeting - the princes of Hesse, Württemburg [Württemberg], and the - Palatinate adopted the Augsburg Confession as bond of union - and standard for negotiations. The Saxon delegates insisted - upon a distinct repudiation of the interim and the insertion - of other details, which gave the Catholics an excuse for putting - an end to the negotiations. They had previously expressly - refused to acknowledge Scripture as the unconditional and - sole judge of controversies, as that was itself a matter in - dispute (§ 136, 4). - - § 137.7. =Second Attempt at Reformation in the Electorate of - Cologne, A.D. 1582.=--The Archbishop and Elector of Cologne, - Gebhard Truchsess of Waldburg went over in A.D. 1582 to the - Protestant Church, married the Countess Agnes of Mansfeld, - proclaimed religious freedom, and sought to convert his - ecclesiastical principality into a temporal dominion. His - plan was acceptable to nobles and people, but the clergy of - his diocese opposed it with all their might. The pope thundered - the ban against him, and Emperor Rudolph II. deposed him. The - Protestant princes at last deserted him, and the newly elected - archbishop, Duke Ernest of Bavaria, overpowered him by an armed - force. The issue of Gebhard’s attempt struck terror into other - prelates who had been contemplating similar moves. - - § 137.8. =The German Emperor.=--=Ferdinand I.=, A.D. 1556-1564, - conciliatory toward Protestantism, thoroughly dissatisfied - with the Tridentine Council, once and again made attempts to - secure a union, which all ended in failure. =Maximilian II.=, - A.D. 1564-1576, imbued by his tutor, Wolfgang Severus, with an - evangelical spirit, which was deepened under the influence of - his physician Crato von Crafftheim (§ 141, 10), gave perfect - liberty to the Protestants in his dominions, admitted them - to many of the higher and lower offices of state, kept down - the Jesuits, and was prevented from himself formally going - over to Protestantism only by his political relations with - Spain and the Catholic princes of the empire. These relations, - however, led to the adoption of half measures, out of which - afterwards sprang the Thirty Years’ War. His son =Rudolph II.=, - A.D. 1576-1612, educated by Jesuits at the Spanish court, gave - again to that order unlimited scope, injured the Protestants on - every side, and was only prevented by indecision and cowardice - from attempting the complete suppression of Protestantism. - - - § 138. THE REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERLAND.[369] - - In French Switzerland the Reformation appeared somewhat later, -but in essentially the same form as in German Switzerland. Its special -character was given it by Farel and Viret, the predecessors of Calvin. -The powerful genius of Calvin secured for his views victory over -Zwinglianism in Switzerland, and won the ascendency for them in the -other Reformed Churches. - - § 138.1. =Calvin’s Predecessors, A.D. 1526-1535.=--=William - Farel=, the pupil and friend of the liberal exegete Faber - Stapulensis (§ 120, 8), was born in A.D. 1489 at Gap in - Dauphiné. When in A.D. 1521 the Sorbonne condemned Luther’s - doctrines and writings, he was obliged, as a suspected adherent - of Luther, to quit Paris. He retired to Meaux, where he was - well received by Bishop Briçonnet, but so boldly preached - the reformed doctrines, that even the bishop, on renewed - complaints being made, neither could nor would protect him. - He then withdrew to Basel (§ 130, 3). His first permanent - residence was at Neuchatel, where in November, A.D. 1530, - the Reformation was introduced by his influence. He left - Neuchatel in A.D. 1532 in order to work in Geneva. But the - civil authorities there could not protect him against the - bishop and clergy. He was obliged to leave the city, but - Saunier, Fromant, and Olivetan (§ 143, 5) continued the work - in his spirit. A revolution took place; the bishop thundered - his ban against the refractory council, and the senate replied - by declaring his office forfeited. Farel now returned to Geneva, - A.D. 1535, and there accompanied him =Peter Viret=, afterwards - the reformer of Lausanne. Viret was born at Orbe in A.D. 1511, - and had attached himself to the Protestant cause during his - studies in Paris. He therefore had also been obliged to quit - the capital. He retired to his native town, and sought there - diligently to spread the knowledge of the gospel. The arrival - of these two enthusiastic reformers in Geneva led to a life - and death struggle, from which the evangelicals went forth - triumphant. As the result of a public disputation in August, - A.D. 1535, the magistracy declared in their favour, and - Farel gave the movement a doctrinal basis by the issuing - of a confession. In the following year Calvin was passing - through Geneva. Farel adjured him in God’s name to remain - there. Farel indeed needed a fellow labourer of such genius - and power, for he had a hard battle to fight. - - § 138.2. =Calvin before his Genevan Ministry.=--=John Calvin=, - son of diocesan procurator Gerhard Cauvin, was born on 10th July, - A.D. 1509, at Noyou in Picardy. Intended for the church, he was, - from his twelfth year, in possession of a benefice. Meeting with - his relation Olivetan, he had his first doubts of the truth of - the Catholic system awakened. With his father’s consent he now - turned to the study of law, which he eagerly prosecuted for - four years at Orleans and Bourges. At Bourges, Melchior Wolmar, - a German professor of Greek, exercised so powerful an influence - over him, especially through the study of the Scriptures, that - he decided, after the death of his father, to devote himself - exclusively to theology. With this intention he went to Paris - in A.D. 1532, and there enthusiastically adopted the principles - of the Reformation. The newly appointed rector of the university, - Nic. Cop, had to deliver an address on the Feast of All Saints. - Calvin prepared it for him, and expressed therein such liberal - and evangelical views, as had never before been uttered in that - place. Cop read it boldly, and escaped the outburst of wrath - only by a timely flight. Calvin, too, found it prudent to quit - Paris. The bloody persecution of the Protestants by Francis I. - led him at last to leave France altogether. So he went, in - A.D. 1535, to Basel, where he became acquainted with Capito - and Grynæus. In the following year he issued the first sketch - of the _Institutio Religionis Christianæ_. It was made as - a defence of the Protestants of France, persecuted by Francis - on the pretext that they held Anabaptist and revolutionary - views. He therefore dedicated the book to the king, with a - noble and firm address. He soon left Basel, and went to the - court of the evangelical-minded Duchess Renata of Ferrara - (§ 139, 22), in order to secure her good offices for his fellow - countrymen suffering for their faith. He won the full confidence - of the duchess, but after some weeks was banished the country - by her husband. On his journey back to Basel, Farel and Viret - detained him in Geneva in A.D. 1536, and declared that he was - called to be a preacher and teacher of theology. On 1st October, - A.D. 1536, the three reformers, at a public disputation in - Lausanne, defended the principles of the Reformation. Viret - remained in Lausanne, and perfected the work of Reformation - there. As a confession of faith, a catechism, not in dialogue - form, was composed by Calvin as a popular summary of his - _Institutio_ in the French language, and was sworn to, in - A.D. 1536, by all the citizens of Geneva. The _Catechismus - Genevensis_, highly prized in all the Reformed churches, was - a later redaction, which appeared first in French in A.D. 1542, - and then in Latin, in A.D. 1545.[370] - - § 138.3. =Calvin’s First Ministry in Geneva, A.D. 1536-1538.=--In - Geneva, as in other places, there sprang up alongside of the - Reformation, and soon in deadly opposition to it, an antinomian - libertine sect, which strove for freedom from all restraint - and order (§ 146, 4). In the struggle against this dangerous - development, which found special favour among the aristocratic - youth of Geneva, Calvin put forth all the power of his logical - mind and unbending will, and sought to break its force by - the exercise of an excessively strict church discipline. He - created a spiritual consistory which arrogated to itself the - exclusive right of church discipline and excommunication, and - wished to lay upon the magistrates the duty of inflicting civil - punishments on all persons condemned by it. But not only did - the libertine sections offer the most strenuous opposition, - but also the magistrates regarded with jealousy and suspicion - the erection of such a tribunal. Magistrates and libertines - therefore combined to overthrow the consistory. A welcome - pretext was found in a synod at Lausanne in A.D. 1538, which - condemned the abolition of all festivals but the Sundays, - the removal of baptismal fonts from the churches, and the - introduction of leavened bread at the Lord’s Supper by the - Genevan church as uncalled for innovations. The magistrates - now demanded the withdrawal of these, and banished the preachers - who would not obey. Farel went to Neuchatel, where he remained - till his death in A.D. 1565; Calvin went to Strassburg, where - Bucer, Capito, and Hedio gave him the office of a professor - and preacher. During his three years’ residence there Calvin, - as a Strassburg delegate, was frequently brought into close - relationship with the German reformers, especially with - Melanchthon (§§ 134, 135). But he ever remained closely - associated with Geneva, and when Cardinal Sadolet (§ 139, 12) - issued from Lyons in A.D. 1539 an appeal to the Genevese to - return to the bosom of the Romish church, Calvin thundered - against him an annihilating reply. His Genevan friends, too, - spared no pains to win for him the favour of the council and - the citizens. They succeeded all the more easily because since - the overthrow of the theocratic consistory the libertine party - had run into all manner of riotous excesses. By a decree of - council of 20th Oct., A.D. 1540, Calvin was most honourably - recalled. After long consideration he accepted the call in - Sept., A.D. 1541, and now, with redoubled energy, set himself - to carry out most strictly the work that had been interrupted. - - § 138.4. =Calvin’s Second Ministry in Geneva, - A.D. 1541-1564.=--Calvin set up again, after his return, the - consistory, consisting of six ministers and twelve lay elders, - and by it ruled with almost absolute power. It was a thoroughly - organized inquisition tribunal, which regulated in all details - the moral, religious, domestic, and social life of the citizens, - called them to account on every suspicion of a fault, had the - incorrigible banished by the civil authorities, and the more - dangerous of them put to death. The Ciceronian Bible translator, - Sebastian Castellio, appointed rector of the Genevan school by - Calvin, got out of sympathy with the rigorous moral strictures - and compulsory prescriptions of matters of faith under the - Calvinistic rule, and charged the clergy with intolerance and - pride. He also contested the doctrine of the descent into hell, - and described the Canticles as a love poem. He was deposed, - and in order to escape further penalties he fled to Basel in - A.D. 1544. A libertine called Gruet was executed in A.D. 1547, - because he had circulated an abusive tract against the clergy, - and blasphemous references were found in his papers; _e.g._ - that Christianity is only a fable, that Christ was a deceiver - and His mother a prostitute, that all ends with death, that - neither heaven nor hell exists, etc. The physician, Jerome - Bolsec, previously a Carmelite monk in Paris, was imprisoned - in A.D. 1551, and then banished, because of his opposition - to Calvin’s doctrine of predestination. He afterwards returned - to the Romish church, and revenged himself by a biography - of Calvin full of spiteful calumnies. On the execution of - Servetus in A.D. 1533, see § 148, 2. Between the years 1542 - and 1546 there were in Geneva, with a population of only - 20,000, no less than fifty-seven death sentences carried out - with Calvin’s approval, and seventy-six sentences of banishment. - The magistrates faithfully supported him in all his measures. - But under the inquisitorial reign of terror of his consistory, - the libertine party gained strength for a vehement struggle, - and among the magistrates, from about A.D. 1546, there arose - a powerful opposition, and fanatical mobs repeatedly threatened - to throw him into the Rhone. This struggle lasted for nine - years. But Calvin abated not a single iota from the strictness - of his earlier demands, and so great was the fear of his - powerful personality that neither the rage of riotous mobs - nor the hostility of the magistracy could secure his banishment. - In A.D. 1555 his party again won the ascendency in the elections, - mainly by the aid of crowds of refugees from France, England, - and Scotland, who had obtained residence and thus the rights of - citizens in Geneva. From this time till his death on 27th March, - A.D. 1564, his influence was supreme. The impress of his strong - mind was more and more distinctly stamped upon every institution - of the commonwealth, the demands of his rigorous discipline were - willingly and heartily adopted as the moral code, and secured - for Geneva that pre-eminence which for two centuries it retained - among all the Reformed churches as an honourable, pious, and - strictly moral city. In spite of a weak body and frequent - attacks of sickness Calvin, during the twenty-three years of - his two residences in Geneva, performed an amazing amount of - work. He had married in A.D. 1540, at Strassburg, Idaletta de - Bures, the widow of an Anabaptist converted by him. His wife - died in A.D. 1549. He preached almost daily, attended all - the sittings of the consistory and the preachers’ association, - inspired all their deliberations and resolutions, delivered - lectures in the academy founded by his orders in A.D. 1559, - composed numerous doctrinal, controversial, and apologetical - works, conducted an extensive correspondence, etc. - - § 138.5. =Calvin’s Writings.=--The most important of the - writings of Calvin is his already mentioned _Institutio - Religionis Christianæ_, of which the best and most complete - edition appeared in A.D. 1559, a companion volume to - Melanchthon’s _Loci_, but much more thorough and complete - as a formal and scientific treatise. In this work Calvin - elaborates his profound doctrinal system with great speculative - power and bold, relentless logic, combined with the peculiar - grace of a clear and charming style. Next in order of importance - came his commentaries on almost all the books of Scripture. - Here also he shows himself everywhere possessed of brilliant - acuteness, religious geniality, profound Christian sympathy, - and remarkable exegetical talent, but also a stickler for - small points or seriously fettered by dogmatic prejudices. - His exegetical productions want the warmth and childlike - identification of the commentator with his text, which in - so high a degree distinguishes Luther, while in form they are - incomparably superior for conciseness and scientific precision. - In the pulpit Calvin was the same strict and consistent logician - as in his systematic and polemical works. Of Luther’s popular - eloquence he had not the slightest trace.[371] - - § 138.6. =Calvin’s Doctrine.=--Calvin set Zwingli far below - Luther, and had no hesitation in characterizing the Zwinglian - doctrine of the sacraments as profane. With Luther, who highly - respected him, he never came into close personal contact, but - his intercourse with Melanchthon had a powerful influence upon - the latter. But decidedly as he approached Luther’s doctrine, - he was in principle rather on the same platform with Zwingli. - His view of the Protestant principles is essentially Zwinglian. - Just as decidedly as Zwingli had he broken with ecclesiastical - tradition. In the doctrine of the person of Christ he inclined - to Nestorianism, and could not therefore reach the same - believing fulness as Luther in his doctrine of the Lord’s - Supper. He taught, as Berengar before had done, that the - believer by means of faith partakes in the sacrament only - spiritually, but yet really, of the body and blood of the - Lord, through a power issuing from the glorified body of Christ, - whereas the unbeliever receives only bread and wine. In his - doctrine of justification he formally agrees with Luther, but - introduced a very marked difference by his strict, almost Old - Testament, legalism. His predestination doctrine goes beyond - even that of Augustine in its rigid consistency and unbending - severity.[372] - - § 138.7. =The Victory of Calvinism over Zwinglianism.=--By - his extensive correspondence and numerous writings Calvin’s - influence extended far beyond the limits of Switzerland. Geneva - became the place of refuge for all who were exiled on account - of their faith, and the university founded there by Calvin - furnished almost all Reformed churches with teachers, who - were moulded after a strict Calvinistic pattern. Bern, not - uninfluenced by political jealousies, showed most reluctance - in adopting the Calvinistic doctrine. Zürich was more compliant. - After Zwingli’s death, =Henry Bullinger= stood at the head - of the Zürich clergy. With him Calvin entered into doctrinal - negotiations, and succeeded in at last bringing him over to - his views of the Lord’s Supper. In the _Consensus Tigurinus_ - of A.D. 1549, drawn up by Calvin, a union was brought about on - a Calvinistic basis; but Bern, where the Zwinglians contending - with the Lutheranised friends of Calvin had the majority, - refused subscription. The _Consensus pastorum Genevensium_, - of A.D. 1554, called forth by the conflict with Bolsec, - in which the predestination doctrine of Calvin had similar - prominence, not only Bern, but also Zürich refused to accept. - Yet these two confessions gradually rose in repute throughout - German Switzerland. Even Bullinger’s personal objection - to the predestination doctrine was more and more overcome - from A.D. 1556 by the influence of his colleague Peter - Martyr (§ 139, 24), though he never accepted the Calvinistic - system in all its severity and harshness. When even the - Elector-palatine Frederick III. (§ 144, 1) wished to lay - a justificatory confession before the Diet of Augsburg in - A.D. 1566, which threatened to exclude him from the peace - on account of his going over to the Reformed church, Bullinger, - who was entrusted with its composition, sent him, as an appendix - to the testament he had composed, a confession, which came - to be known as the _Confessio Helvetica posterior_ (§ 133, 8). - This confession, not only obtained recognition in all the Swiss - cantons, with the exception of Basel, which likewise after - eighty years adopted it, but also gained great consideration - in the Reformed churches of other lands. Its doctrine of - the sacraments is Calvinistic, with not unimportant leanings - toward the Zwinglian theory. Its doctrine of predestination - is Calvinism, very considerably modified. - - § 138.8. =Calvin’s Successor in Geneva.=--=Theodore Beza= was - from A.D. 1559 Calvin’s most zealous fellow labourer, and after - his death succeeded him in his offices. He soon came to be - regarded at home and abroad with something of the same reverence - which his great master had won. He died in A.D. 1605. Born in - A.D. 1519 of an old noble family at Vezelay in Burgundy, he - was sent for his education in his ninth year to the humanist - Melchior Wolmar of Orleans, and accompanied his teacher when - he accepted a call to the Academy of Bourges, until in A.D. 1534 - Wolmar was obliged to return to his Swabian home to escape - persecution as a friend and promoter of the Reformation. Beza - now applied himself to the study of law at the University of - Orleans, and obtained the rank of a licentiate in A.D. 1539. - He then spent several years in Paris as a man of the world, - where he gained the reputation of a poet and wit, and wasted - a considerable patrimony in a loose and reckless life. A secret - marriage with a young woman of the city in humble circumstances, - in A.D. 1544, put an end to his extravagances, and a serious - illness gave a religious direction to his moral change. He had - made the acquaintance of Calvin at Bourges, and in A.D. 1543 he - went to Geneva, was publicly married, and in the following year - received, on Viret’s recommendation, the professorship of Greek - at Lausanne. Thoroughly in sympathy with all Calvin’s views, - he supported his doctrine of predestination against the attacks - of Bolsec, justified the execution of Servetus in his tract _De - hæreticis a civili magistratu puniendis_, zealously befriended - the persecuted Waldensians, along with Farel made court to the - German Protestant princes in order to secure their intercession - for the French Huguenots, and negotiated with the South German - theologians for a union in regard to the doctrine of the - supper. In A.D. 1558 Calvin called him to Geneva as a preacher - and professor of theology in the academy erected there. In - A.D. 1559 he vindicated Calvin’s doctrine of the supper against - Westphal’s attacks (§ 141, 10) in pretty moderate language; but - in A.D. 1560 he thundered forth two violent polemical dialogues - against Hesshus (§ 144, 1). The next two years he spent in - France (§ 139, 14) as theological defender and advocate of - the Huguenots. After Calvin’s death the whole burden of the - government of the Genevan church fell upon his shoulders, and - for forty years the Reformed churches of all lands looked with - confidence to him as their well-tried patriarch. Next to the - church of Geneva, that of his native land lay nearest to his - heart. Repeatedly we find him called to France to direct the - meetings of synod. But scarcely less lively was the interest - which he took in the controversies of the German Reformed - with their Lutheran opponents. At the Religious Conference of - Mömpelgard, which the Lutheran Count Frederick of Württemberg - called in A.D. 1586, to make terms if possible whereby the - Calvinistic refugees might have the communion together with - their Lutheran brethren, Beza himself in person took the field - in defence of the palladium of Calvinistic orthodoxy against - Andreä, whose theory of ubiquity (§ 141, 9, 10) he had already - contested in his writings. Very near the close of his life the - Catholic Church, through its experienced converter of heretics, - Francis de Sales (§ 156, 1), made a vain attempt to win him back - to the Church in which alone is salvation. To a foolish report - that this effort had been successful Beza himself answered in - a satirical poem full of all his youthful fire.[373] - - - § 139. THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS. - - The need of reform was so great and widespread, that the movement -begun in Germany and Switzerland soon spread to every country in -Europe. The Catholic Church opposed the Reformation everywhere with -fire and sword, and succeeded in some countries in utterly suppressing -it; while in others it was restricted within the limits of a merely -tolerated sect. The German Lutheran Confession found acceptance -generally among the Scandinavians of the north of Europe, the Swiss -Reformed among the Romanic races of the south and west; while in the -east, among the Slavs and Magyars, both confessions were received. -Calvin’s powerful personal influence had done much to drive the -Lutheran Confession out of those Romance countries where it had -before obtained a footing. The presence of many refugees from the -various western lands for a time in Switzerland, as well as the -natural intercourse between it and such countries as Italy and France, -contributed to the same result. But deeper grounds than these are -required to account for this fact. On the one hand, the Romance people -are inclined to extremes, and they found more thorough satisfaction -in the radical reformation of Geneva than in the more moderate -reformation of Wittenberg; and, on the other hand, they have a love -for democratic and republican forms of government which the former, -but not the latter, gratified.--Outside of the limits of the German -empire the Lutheran Reformation first took root, from A.D. 1525, -in Prussia, the seat of the Teutonic Knights (§ 127, 3); then in the -Scandinavian countries. In Sweden it gained ascendency in A.D. 1527, -and in Denmark and Norway in A.D. 1537. Also in the Baltic Provinces -the Reformation had found entrance in A.D. 1520; by A.D. 1539 it had -overcome all opposition in Livonia and Esthonia, but in Courland it -took other ten years before it was thoroughly organized. The Reformed -church got almost exclusive possession of England in A.D. 1562, -of Scotland in A.D. 1560, and of the Netherlands in A.D. 1579. The -Reformed Confession obtained mere toleration in France in A.D. 1598; -the Reformed alongside of the Lutheran gained a footing in Poland -in A.D. 1573, in Bohemia and Moravia in A.D. 1609, in Hungary in -A.D. 1606, and in Transylvania in A.D. 1557. Only in Spain and Italy -did the Catholic Church succeed in utterly crushing the Reformation. -Some attempts to interest the Greek church in the Lutheran Confession -were unsuccessful, but the remnants of the Waldensians were completely -won over to the Reformed Confession. - - § 139.1. =Sweden.=--For fifty years Sweden had been free from - the Danish yoke which had been imposed upon it by the Calmar - union of A.D. 1397. The higher clergy, who possessed two-thirds - of the land, had continuously conspired in favour of Denmark. - The Archbishop of Upsala, Gustavus Trolle, fell out with the - chancellor, Sten Sture, and was deposed. Pope Leo X. pronounced - the ban and interdict against Sweden. Christian II. of Denmark - conquered the country in A.D. 1520, and in the frightful - massacre of Stockholm during the coronation festivities, in - spite of his sworn assurances, 600 of the noblest in the land, - marked out by the archbishop as enemies of Denmark, were slain. - But scarcely had Christian reached home when =Gustavus Vasa= - landed from Lübeck, whither he had fled, drove out the Danes, - and was elected king, A.D. 1523. In his exile he had become - favourably inclined to the Reformation, and now he joined the - Protestants to have their help against the opposing clergy. - =Olaf Peterson=, who had studied from A.D. 1516 in Wittenberg, - soon after his return home, in A.D. 1519, began as deacon - in Strengnæs, along with =Lawrence Anderson=, afterwards - administrator of the diocese of Strengnæs, to spread the - reformed doctrines. Subsequently they were joined by Olaf’s - younger brother, =Laurence Peterson=. During the king’s absence - in A.D. 1524, two Anabaptists visited Stockholm, and even the - calm-minded Olaf was for a time carried away by them. The king - quickly suppressed the disturbances, and entered heartily upon - the work of reformation. Anderson, appointed chancellor by Vasa, - in A.D. 1526 translated the N.T., and Olaf with the help of - his learned brother undertook the O.T. The people, however, - still clung to the old faith, till at the Diet of =Westnæs=, - in A.D. 1527, the king set before them the alternative of - accepting his resignation or the Reformation. The people’s love - for their king overcame all clerical opposition. Church property - was used to supply revenues to kings and nobles, and to provide - salaries for pastors who should preach the gospel in its purity. - The Reformation was peacefully introduced into all parts of - the land, and the diets at Örebro, in A.D. 1529, 1537, and - at Westnæs, in A.D. 1544, carried out the work to completion. - The new organization adopted the episcopal constitution, and - also in worship, by connivance of the people, many Catholic - ceremonies were allowed to remain. Most of the bishops accepted - the inevitable. The Archbishop Magnus of Upsala, papal legate, - went to Poland, and Bishop Brask of Linköping fled with all the - treasures of his church to Danzig. Laurence Peterson was made - in A.D. 1531 first evangelical Archbishop of Upsala, and married - a relative of the royal house. But his brother Olaf fell into - disfavour on account of his protest against the king’s real or - supposed acts of rapacity. He and Anderson, because they had - failed to report a conspiracy which came to their knowledge in - the confessional, were condemned to death, but were pardoned - by the king. Gustavus died in A.D. 1560. Under his son Eric - a Catholic reaction set in, and his brother John III., in - A.D. 1578, made secret confession of Catholicism to the Jesuit - Possevin, urged thereto by his Catholic queen and the prospect - of the Polish throne. John’s son Sigismund, also king of - Poland, openly joined the Romish Church. But his uncle Charles - of Sodermanland, a zealous Protestant, as governor after John’s - death, called together the nobles at Upsala in A.D. 1593, when - the Latin mass-book introduced by John was forbidden, and the - acknowledgment of the Augsburg Confession was renewed. But as - Sigismund continued to favour Catholicism, the peers of the - realm declared, in A.D. 1604, that he had forfeited the throne, - which his uncle now ascended as Charles IX.--The Reformation - had been already carried from Sweden into =Finland=.[374] - - § 139.2. =Denmark and Norway.=--=Christian II.=, nephew of the - Elector of Saxony and brother-in-law of the Emperor Charles V., - although he had associated himself with the Romish hierarchy in - Sweden for the overthrow of the national party, had in Denmark - taken the side of the Reformation against the clergy, who were - there supreme. In A.D. 1521 he succeeded in getting Carlstadt - to come to his assistance, but he was soon forced to quit the - country. In A.D. 1523 the clergy and nobles formally renounced - their allegiance, and gave the crown to his uncle =Frederick I.=, - Duke of Schleswig and Holstein. Christian fled to Saxony, - was there completely won over to the Reformation by Luther, - converted also his wife, the emperor’s sister, and had the - first Danish N.T., by Hans Michelson, printed at Leipzig and - circulated in Denmark. To secure the emperor’s aid, however, - he abjured the evangelical faith at Augsburg in A.D. 1530. - In the following year he conquered Norway, and bound himself - on his coronation to maintain the Catholic religion. But in - A.D. 1532 he was obliged to surrender to Frederick, and spent - the remaining twenty-seven years of his life in prison, where - he repented his apostasy, and had the opportunity of instructing - himself by the study of the Danish Bible.--Frederick I. had - been previously favourable to the Reformation, yet his hands - were bound by the express terms of his election. His son - Christian III. unreservedly introduced the Reformation into - his duchies. In this he was encouraged by his father. In - A.D. 1526 he openly professed the evangelical faith, and - invited the Danish reformer =Hans Tausen=, a disciple of - Luther, who had preached the gospel amid much persecution - since A.D. 1524, to settle as preacher in Copenhagen. At a - diet at Odensee [Odense] in A.D. 1527 he restricted episcopal - jurisdiction, proclaimed universal religious toleration, gave - priests liberty to marry and to leave their cloisters, and thus - laid the foundations of the Reformation. Tausen in A.D. 1530 - submitted to the nobles his own confession, _Confessio Hafinca_, - and the Reformation rapidly advanced. Frederick died in A.D. 1533. - The bishops now rose in a body, and insisted that the estates - should refuse to acknowledge his son =Christian III.= But when - the burgomaster of Lübeck, taking advantage of the anarchy, - plotted to subject Denmark to the proud commercial city, and - in A.D. 1534 actually laid siege to Copenhagen, the Jutland - nobles hastened to swear fealty to Christian. He drove out the - Lübeckers, and by A.D. 1536 had possession of the whole land. - He resolved now to put an end for ever to the machinations of - the clergy. In August, A.D. 1536, he had all bishops imprisoned - in one day, and at a diet at Copenhagen had them formally - deposed. Their property fell into the royal exchequer, all - monasteries were secularized, some presented to the nobles, - some converted into hospitals and schools. In order to complete - the organization of the church Bugenhagen was called in in - A.D. 1537. He crowned the king and queen, sketched a directory - of worship, which was adopted at the =Diet of Odensee [Odense]= - in A.D. 1539, and returned to Wittenberg in A.D. 1542. In place - of bishops Lutheran superintendents were appointed, to whom - subsequently the title of bishop was given, and the Augsburg - Confession accepted as the standard. The Reformation was - contemporaneously introduced into =Norway=, which acknowledged - the king in A.D. 1536. The Archbishop of Drontheim, Olaf - Engelbrechtzen, fled with the church treasures to the Netherlands. - =Iceland= stood out longer, but yielded in A.D. 1551, when the - power of the rebel bishops was broken.[375] - - § 139.3. =Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia.=--Livonia had - seceded from the dominion of the Teutonic knights in A.D. 1521, - and under the grand-master Walter of Plattenburg assumed the - position of an independent principality. In that same year a - Lutheran archdeacon, =Andr. Knöpken=, expelled from Pomerania, - came to Riga, and preached the gospel with moderation. Soon - after Tegetmaier came from Rostock, and so vigorously denounced - image worship that excited mobs entered the churches and tore - down the images; yet he was protected by the council and the - grand-master. The third reformer =Briesmann= was the immediate - scholar of Luther. The able town clerk of Riga, Lohmüller, - heartily wrought with them, and the Reformation spread through - city and country. At Wolmar and Dorpat, in A.D. 1524, the work - was carried on by Melchior Hoffmann, whose Lutheranism was - seriously tinged with Anabaptist extravagances (§ 147, 1). - The diocese of Oesel adopted the reformed doctrines, and at - the same time a Lutheran church was formed in Reval. After - strong opposition had been offered, at last, in A.D. 1538, - Riga accepted the evangelical confession, joined the Schmalcald - League, and in a short time all Livonia and Esthonia accepted - the Augsburg Confession. Political troubles, occasioned - mainly by Russia, obliged the last grand-master, =Kettler=, - in A.D. 1561 to surrender Livonia to Sigismund Augustus of - Poland, but with the formal assurance that the rights of the - evangelicals should be preserved. He himself retained Courland - as an hereditary duchy under the suzerainty of Poland, and - gave himself unweariedly to the evangelical organization of - his country, powerfully assisted by Bülau, first superintendent - of Courland.--The Lutheran church of Livonia had in consequence - to pass through severe trials. Under Polish protection a Jesuit - college was established in Riga in A.D. 1584. Two city churches - had to be given over to the Catholics, and Possevin conducted - an active Catholic propaganda, which was ended only when Livonia, - in A.D. 1629, as also Esthonia somewhat earlier, came under the - rule of Sweden. In consequence of the Norse war both countries - were incorporated into the Russian empire, and by the Peace - of Nystadt, of A.D. 1721, its Lutheran church retained all its - privileges, on condition that it did not interfere in any way - with the Greek Orthodox Church in the province. In A.D. 1795 - Courland also came under Russian sway, and all these are now - known as the Baltic Provinces. - - § 139.4. =England.=[376]--=Henry VIII.=, A.D. 1509-1547, after - the literary feud with Luther (§ 125, 3), sought to justify his - title, “Defender of the Faith,” by the use of sword and gibbet. - Luther’s writings were eagerly read in England, where in many - circles Wiclif’s movements were regarded with favour, and two - noble Englishmen, John Fryth and William Tyndal, gave to their - native land a translation of the N.T. in A.D. 1526. Fryth was - rewarded with the stake in A.D. 1533, and Tyndal was beheaded - in the Netherlands in A.D. 1535.[377] But meanwhile the king - quarrelled with the pope. On assuming the government he had - married Catharine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic - and Isabella, six years older than himself, the widow of his - brother Arthur, who had died in his 16th year, for which he - got a papal dispensation on the ground that the former marriage - had not been consummated. His adulterous love for Anne Boleyn, - the fair maid of honour to his queen, and Cranmer’s biblical - opinion (Lev. xviii. 16; xx. 21) convinced him in A.D. 1527 - of the sinfulness of his uncanonical marriage. Clement VII., - at first not indisposed to grant his request for a divorce, - refused after he had been reconciled to the emperor, Catharine’s - nephew (§ 132, 2). Thoroughly roused, the king now threw off - the authority of the pope. Convocation was forced to recognise - him in A.D. 1531 as head of the English Church, and in 1532 - Parliament forbade the paying of annats to the pope. In - the same year Henry married Anne, and had a formal divorce - from Catharine granted by a spiritual court. Parliament in - A.D. 1534 formally abolished papal jurisdiction in the land, - and transferred all ecclesiastical rights and revenues to the - king. The venerable Bishop Fisher of Rochester and the resolute - chancellor, Sir Thomas More (§ 120, 7), in A.D. 1535 paid the - price of their opposition on the scaffold. Now came the long - threatened ban. Under pretext of a highly necessary reform no - less than 376 monasteries were closed during the years 1536-1538, - their occupiers, monks and nuns, expelled, and their rich - property confiscated.[378] Nevertheless in doctrine the king - wished to remain a good Catholic, and for this end passed in - the Parliament of A.D. 1539 the law of the Six Articles, which - made any contradiction of the doctrines of transubstantiation, - the withholding of the cup, celibacy of the clergy, the mass, - and auricular confession, a capital offence. Persecution raged - equally against Lutherans and Papists, sometimes more against - the one, sometimes more against the other, according as he - was moved by his own caprice, or the influence of his wives - and favourites of the day. On the one side, at the head of - the Papists, stood Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, and Bonner, - Bishop of London; and on the other, Thomas Cranmer, whom the - king had raised in A.D. 1533 to the see of Canterbury, in order - to carry out his reforms in the ecclesiastical constitution. - But Cranmer, who as the king’s agent in the divorce negotiations - had often treated with foreign Protestant theologians, and at - Nuremberg had secretly married Osiander’s niece, was in heart - a zealous adherent of the Swiss Reformation, and furthered as - far as he could with safety its introduction into England. Among - other things, he secured the introduction in A.D. 1539, into - all the churches of England, of an English translation of the - Bible, revised by himself. He was supported in his efforts by - the king’s second wife, Anne Boleyn; but she, having fallen - under suspicion of unfaithfulness, was executed in A.D. 1536. - The third wife, Jane Seymour, died in A.D. 1537 on the death - of a son. The fourth, Anne of Cleves, was after six months, in - A.D. 1540, cast aside, and the promoter of the marriage, the - chancellor, Thomas Cromwell, was brought to the scaffold. The - king now in the same year married Catharine Howard, with whom - the Catholic party got to the helm again, and had the Act of - the Six Articles rigorously enforced. But she, too, in A.D. 1543, - was charged with repeated adulteries, and fell, together with - her friends and those reputed as guilty with her, under the - executioner’s axe. The sixth wife, Catharine Parr, who again - favoured the Protestants, escaped a like fate by the death of - the tyrant.[379] - - § 139.5. =Edward VI.=, A.D. 1547-1553, son of Henry VIII. and - Jane Seymour, succeeded his father in his tenth year. At the - head of the regency stood his mother’s brother, the Duke of - Somerset. =Cranmer= had now a free hand. Private masses and - image worship were forbidden, the supper was administered in - both kinds, marriage of priests was made legitimate, and a - general church visitation appointed for the introduction of - the Reformation. Gardiner and Bonner, who opposed these changes, - were sent to the Tower. Somerset corresponded with Calvin, and - invited at Cranmer’s request distinguished foreign theologians - to help in the visitation of the churches. Martin Bucer and Paul - Fagius from Strassburg came to Cambridge, and Peter Martyr to - Oxford.[380] Bernardino Ochino was preacher to a congregation - of Italian refugees in London. A commission under Cranmer’s - presidency drew up for reading in the churches a collection - of _Homilies_, for the instruction of the young a _Catechism_, - and for the service a liturgy mediate between the Catholic - and Protestant form, the so-called _Book of Common Prayer_ - of A.D. 1549; but from the second edition of which were left - out chrism and exorcism, auricular confession, anointing the - sick, and prayer for the dead. Then followed, in A.D. 1553, - a confession of faith, consisting of forty-two articles, - drawn up by Cranmer and Bishop Ridley of Rochester, which - was distinctly of the reformed type, and set forward the - ecclesiastical supremacy of the king as an article of faith. - The young king, who supported the Reformation with all his heart, - died in A.D. 1553, after nominating as his successor Jane Grey, - the grand-daughter of a sister of his father. Not she, however, - but a fanatical Catholic, =Mary=, A.D. 1553-1558, daughter of - Henry VIII. and Catharine of Spain, actually ascended the throne. - The compliant Parliament now abrogated all the ecclesiastical - laws of Edward VI., which it had itself sanctioned, reverted - to Henry’s law of the Six Articles, and entrusted Gardiner - as chancellor with its execution. The Protestant leaders - were thrown into the Tower, the bones of Bucer and Fagius - were publicly burnt, married priests with wives and children - were driven in thousands from the land. In the following - year, A.D. 1554, Cardinal Reginald Pole, who had fled during - Henry’s reign, returned as papal legate, absolved the repentant - Parliament, and received all England back again into the fold - of the Romish church.[381] The noble and innocent Lady Jane - Grey, only in her sixteenth year, though she had voluntarily - and cheerfully resigned the crown, was put to death with her - husband and father. In the course of the next year, A.D. 1555, - Bishops Ridley, Latimer, Ferrar, and Hooper with noble constancy - endured death at the stake.[382] In prison, Cranmer had renounced - his evangelical faith, but abundantly atoned for this weakness - by the heroic firmness with which he retracted his retractation, - and held the hand which had subscribed it in the flames, that - it might be first consumed. He suffered in A.D. 1556.--The - queen had married in A.D. 1554 Philip II. of Spain, eleven - years her junior, and when in A.D. 1555 he returned to Spain, - she fell into deep melancholy, and under its pressure her - hatred of Protestantism was shown in the most bloody and - cruel deeds. A heretic tribunal, after the fashion of the - Spanish Inquisition, was created, which under the presidency - of the “Bloody Bonner,” consigned to the flames crowds of - confessors of the gospel, clergymen and laymen, men and women, - old and young. After the persecution had raged for five years, - “Bloody Mary” died of heart-break and dropsy.[383] - - § 139.6. =Elizabeth=, A.D. 1558-1603, the daughter of Anne - Boleyn, though previously branded by the Parliament as a bastard, - now ascended the throne unopposed as the last living member - of the family of Henry VIII. Educated under the supervision - of Cranmer in the Protestant faith of her mother, she had been - obliged during the reign of her sister outwardly to conform - to the Romish church. She proceeded with great prudence and - moderation; but when Paul IV. pronounced her illegitimate, and - the Scottish princess Mary Stuart, grand-daughter of Henry’s - sister, assumed the title of queen of England, Elizabeth more - heartily espoused the cause of Protestantism. In A.D. 1559 the - Parliament passed the Act of Uniformity, which reasserted the - royal supremacy over the national church, prescribed a revision - of the _Book of Common Prayer_, which set aside the prayer - for deliverance from the “detestable enormities” of the papacy, - etc., and practically reproduced the earlier, less perfect - of the Prayer Books of Edward VI., while every perversion to - papacy was threatened with confiscation of goods, imprisonment, - banishment, and in cases of repetition with death, as an - act of treason. At the head of the clergy was Matthew Parker, - consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury by some bishops exiled - under Mary. He had formerly been chaplain to Anne Boleyn. - Under his direction Cranmer’s forty-two articles were reduced - to thirty-nine, giving a type of doctrine midway between - Lutheranism and Calvinism; these were confirmed by convocation - in A.D. 1562, and were adopted as a fundamental statute - of England by Act of Parliament in A.D. 1571. This brings - to a close the first stage in the history of the English - Reformation,--the setting up by law of the Anglican State - Church with episcopal constitution, with apostolical succession, - under royal supremacy, as the Established Church.[384] (For the - Puritan opposition to it see § 143, 3.) The somewhat indulgent - manner in which the Act of Uniformity was at first enforced - against the Catholics encouraged them more and more in attempts - to secure a restoration. Even in A.D. 1568 William Allen founded - at Douay a seminary to train Catholic Englishmen for a mission - at home, and Gregory XIII. some years later, for a similar - purpose, founded in Rome the “English College.” His predecessor, - Pius V., had in A.D. 1570 deposed and issued the ban against - the queen, and threatened all with the greater excommunication - who should yield her obedience. Parliament now punished every - withdrawal from the State church as high treason. Day and night - houses were searched, and suspected persons inquisitorially - examined by torture, and if found guilty they were not - infrequently put to death as traitors.[385]--Continuation, - §§ 153, 6; 154, 3. - - § 139.7. =Ireland.=--Hadrian IV., himself an Englishman - (§ 96, 14), on the plea that the donation of Constantine - (§ 87, 4) embraced also the “islands,” gave over Ireland - to King Henry II. as a papal fief in A.D. 1154. Yet the king - only managed to conquer the eastern border, the _Pale_, during - the years 1171-1175. Henry VIII. introduced the Reformation - into this province in A.D. 1535, by the help of his Archbishop - of Dublin, George Brown. The ecclesiastical supremacy of the - Crown was proclaimed, monasteries closed and their property - impropriated, partly divided among Irish and English peers. - But in matters of faith there was little change. More opposition - was shown to the sweeping reformation of faith and worship - of Edward VI. The bishops, Brown included, resisted, and - the inferior clergy, who now were required to read the - Book of Common Prayer in a language to most of them strange, - diligently fostered the popular attachment to the old faith. - The ascension of Queen Mary therefore was welcomed in Ireland, - while Elizabeth’s attempt to reintroduce the Reformation met - with opposition. Repeated outbreaks, in which also the people - of the western districts took part, ended in A.D. 1601 in - the complete subjugation of the whole island. By wholesale - confiscation of estates the entire nobility was impoverished - and the church property was made over to the Anglican clergy; - but the masses of the Irish people continued Catholic, and - willingly supported their priests out of their own scanty - resources.[386]--Continuation, § 153, 6. - - § 139.8. =Scotland.=--Patrick Hamilton, who had studied - in Wittenberg and Marburg, first preached the gospel in - Scotland, and died at the stake in his twenty-fourth year - in A.D. 1528.[387] Amid the political confusions of the regency - during the minority of James V., A.D. 1513-1542, a sister’s son - of Henry VIII. of England, the Reformation obtained firm root - among the nobles, who hated the clergy, and among the oppressed - people, notwithstanding that the bishops, with David Beaton, - Archbishop of St. Andrew’s at their head, sought to crush it - by the most violent persecution. When Henry VIII. called on his - nephew to assist him in his Reformation work, James refused, and - yielding to Beaton’s advice formed an alliance with France and - married Mary of Guise. This occasioned a war in A.D. 1540, the - disastrous issue of which led to the king’s death of a broken - heart. According to the king’s will Beaton was to undertake the - regency, for Mary Stuart was only seven days old. But the nobles - transferred it to the Protestant Earl of Arran, who imprisoned - Beaton and had the royal child affianced to Henry’s son Edward. - Beaton escaped, by connivance of the queen-mother got possession - of the child, and compelled the weak regent, in A.D. 1543, to - abjure the English alliance. The persecution of the Protestants - by fire and sword now began afresh. After many others had fallen - victims to his persecuting rage, Beaton had a famous Protestant - preacher, George Wishart, burnt before his eyes; but was soon - after, in A.D. 1546, surprised in his castle and slain. When - in A.D. 1548 Somerset, the English regent after Henry’s death, - sought to renew negotiations about the marriage of Mary, now - five years old, with Edward VI., her mother had her taken - for safety to France, where she was educated in a convent and - affianced to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II. By hypocritical - acts she contrived to have the regency transferred in A.D. 1554 - from Arran to herself. For two years the Reformation progressed - without much opposition. In December, A.D. 1557, its most - devoted promoters made a “covenant,” pledging themselves - in life and death to advance the word of God and uproot the - idolatry of the Romish church. The queen-regent, however, after - the marriage of her daughter with the dauphin in A.D. 1558, - felt herself strong enough to defy the Protestant nobles. The - old strict laws against heretics were renewed, and a tribunal - established for the punishment of apostatizing priests. The last - victim of the persecution was Walter Mill, a priest eighty-two - years old, who died at the stake at Perth (?) in A.D. 1559.[388] - The country now rose in open revolt. The regent was thus - obliged to make proclamation of universal religious toleration. - But instead of keeping her promise to have all French troops - withdrawn, their number was actually increased after Francis II. - ascended the French throne. Elizabeth, too, was indignant at - the assumption by the French king and queen of the English - royal title, so that she aided the insurgents with an army - and a fleet. During the victorious progress of the English - the regent died, in A.D. 1560. The French were obliged to - withdraw, and the victory of the Scotch Protestants was - decisive. - - § 139.9. There was one man, whose unbending opposition to the - constitution, worship, doctrine, and discipline of the Church - of Rome, manifested with a rigid determination that has scarcely - ever been equalled, left its indelible impress upon the Scottish - Reformation. =John Knox=, born in A.D. 1505, was by the study - of Augustine and the Bible led to adopt evangelical views, which - in A.D. 1542 he preached in the south of Scotland. Persecuted - in consequence by Archbishop Beaton, he joined the conspirators - after that prelate’s assassination, in A.D. 1546, was taken - prisoner, and in A.D. 1547 served as slave in the French galleys. - The ill treatment he thus endured developed his naturally - strong and resolute character and that fearlessness which - so characterized all his subsequent life. By English mediation - he was set free in A.D. 1549, and became in A.D. 1551 chaplain - to Edward VI., but took offence at the popish leaven allowed - to remain in the English Reformation, and consequently declined - an offered bishopric. When the Catholic Mary ascended the throne - in A.D. 1553, he fled to Geneva, where he enjoyed the closest - intimacy with Calvin, whose doctrine of predestination, rigid - presbyterianism, and rigorous discipline he thoroughly approved. - After presiding for some time over a congregation of English - refugees at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, he returned in A.D. 1555 - to Scotland, but in the following year accepted a call to - the church of English refugees at Geneva that had meanwhile - been formed. The Scottish bishops, who had not ventured to - touch him while present, condemned him to death after his - departure, and burned him in effigy. But Knox kept up a lively - correspondence with his native land by letters, proclamations, - and controversial tracts, and with the help of several - friends translated the Scriptures into English. In A.D. 1558 - he published with the title, “The First Blast of the Trumpet - against the Monstrous Regiment of Women,” the most violent - of all his controversial works, directed mainly against the - English Queen Mary, who was now dead. It roused against him - the unconquerable dislike of her successor, and increased - the hatred of the other two Maries against him to the utmost - pitch. Yet he accepted the call of the Protestant lords, and - returned next year to Scotland, and was the heart and soul - of the revolution that soon thereafter broke out. Images and - mass-books were burnt, altars in churches broken in pieces, - and 150 monasteries were destroyed; for said Knox, “If the - nests be pulled down, the crows will not come back.” After - the death of the regent in A.D. 1560, the Parliament proclaimed - the abolition of the papacy, ratified the strictly Calvinistic - _Confessio Scotica_, and forbade celebrating the mass on - pain of death. Then in December, the first _General Assembly_ - prescribed, in the “First Book of Discipline,” a strictly - presbyterial constitution under Christ as only head, with - a rigidly puritan order of worship (§ 163, 3). - - § 139.10. In Aug., A.D. 1561, Queen =Mary Stuart=, highly - cultured and high-spirited, returned from France to Scotland, - a young widow in her 19th year. Brought up in a French convent - in fanatical attachment to the Romish Church, and at the French - court, with absolutist ideas as well as easy-going morals, the - severe Calvinism and moral strictness of Scottish Puritanism - were to her as distasteful as its assertion of political - independence. At the instigation of her half-brother James - Stuart, whom she raised to the earldom of Moray, and who was - head of the ministry as one of the leaders of the reformed - party, she promised on her arrival not to interfere with the - ecclesiastical arrangements of the country, but refused to - give royal sanction to the proceedings of A.D. 1560, held - Catholic service in her court chapel, and on all hands favoured - the Romanists. By her marriage, in A.D. 1565, with the young - Catholic Lord Darnley, grandson by a second marriage of her - grandmother Margaret of England, who now assumed the title of - king, Moray was driven from his position, and the restoration - of Catholicism was vigorously and openly prosecuted by - negotiations with Spain, France, and the pope. The director - of all those intrigues was the Italian musician David Rizzio, - who came to the country as papal agent, and had become Mary’s - favourite and private secretary. The rudeness and profligacy - of the young king had soon estranged from him the heart of the - queen. He therefore took part in a conspiracy of the Protestant - lords, promising to go over to their faith. Their first victim - was the hated Rizzio. He was fallen upon and slain on 9th March, - A.D. 1566, while he sat beside the queen, already far advanced - in pregnancy. Darnley soon repented his deed, was reconciled to - the queen, fled with her to the Castle of Dunbar, and an army - gathered by the Protestant Earl of Bothwell soon suppressed - the rising. The rebels and assassins were at Mary’s entreaty - almost all pardoned. Darnley, now living in mortal enmity with - the heads of the Protestant nobility, and again on bad terms - with the queen, fell sick in Dec., A.D. 1566, at Glasgow. On - his sick-bed a reconciliation with his wife was effected, and - apparently in order that she might the better nurse him, he was - brought to a villa near Edinburgh. But on the night of 9th Feb., - A.D. 1567, while Mary was present at the marriage of a servant, - the house with its inhabitants was blown up by an explosion - of gunpowder. Public opinion charged Bothwell and the queen - with contriving the horrible crime. Bothwell was tried, but - acquitted by the lords. Suspicion increased when soon after - Bothwell carried off the queen to his castle, and married her - on 15th May. In the civil war that now broke out Mary was taken - prisoner, and on 24th July obliged to abdicate in favour of her - one-year old son James VI., for whom Mary undertook the regency. - Bothwell fled to Denmark, where he died in misery and want; - but Mary was allowed to escape from prison by the young George - Douglas. He also raised on her behalf a small army, which, - however, in May, A.D. 1568, was completely destroyed by Moray - at the village of Langside. The unhappy queen could now only - seek protection with her deadly enemy Elizabeth of England, - who, after twenty years’ imprisonment, sent her to the scaffold - in A.D. 1587, on the plea that she was guilty of murdering her - own husband and of high treason in plotting the death of the - English queen.--Mary’s guilt would be conclusively established, - if a correspondence with Bothwell, said to have been found in - her desk, should be accepted as genuine. But all her apologists, - with apparently strong conviction, have sought to prove that - these letters are fabrications of her enemies. The thorough - investigation given to original documents, however, by Bresslau - [Breslau], has resulted in recognising only the second of these - as a forgery, and so proving, not indeed Mary’s complicity in - the murder of her husband, but her adulterous love for Bothwell, - and showing too that her apparent reconciliation with Darnley - on his sick-bed was only hypocritical.[389] - - § 139.11. The young queen had at first sought to win by her - fair speeches the bold and influential reformer =John Knox=, - who was then preacher in Edinburgh. But his heart was cased - in sevenfold armour against all her flatteries, as afterwards - against her threats; even her tears found him as stern and - cold as her wrath. When he called an assembly of nobles to put - a stop to the Catholic worship introduced by her at court, he - was charged with high treason, but acquitted by the lords. The - marriage with Darnley and all that followed from this unhappy - union only increased his boldness. He publicly preached without - reserve against the papacy and the light carriage of the - queen, on the outbreak of the civil war urged her deposition, - and demanded her execution for adultery and the murder of her - husband. The assassination of Regent Moray in A.D. 1570 threw - the country into further confusion, which was only overcome - by his third successor, Morton. The fugitive Knox now returned - to Edinburgh, and soon after died, on 24th Nov., A.D. 1572. - Of his extant writings the most important is his “History - of the Reformation,” reaching down to A.D. 1567. Morton’s - vigorous government completely destroyed Mary’s party, but - also restricted the pretensions of Presbyterianism. After - his overthrow in A.D. 1578, =James VI.=, now in his 12th year, - himself undertook the government at the head of a council - of state. His weakness of character showed itself in his - vacillating between an alliance with Catholic Spain and one - with Protestant England, as well as between secret favouring - of Catholicism and open endeavouring to supersede puritan - Presbyterianism by Anglican-Protestant episcopacy. In A.D. 1584 - the parliament, enlarged by the introduction of the lower - orders of the nobility, so defined the royal supremacy as to - deprive the Presbyterian church of several of her rights and - privileges. But in A.D. 1592 the king was obliged absolutely - to restore these. After Elizabeth’s death in A.D. 1603, as the - great-grandson of Henry VII., he united the kingdoms of England - and Scotland under the title of James I.[390]--Continuation, - § 153, 6. - - § 139.12. =The Netherlands.=--By the marriage of Mary of - Burgundy, the heiress of Charles the Bald, with Maximilian I., - in A.D. 1478, the Netherlands passed over to the house of - Hapsburg, and after Maximilian’s death, in A.D. 1519, went - to his grandson Charles V. Even in the previous period the - ground was broken in these regions for the introduction of - the Reformation of the 16th century by means of the Brothers - of the Common Life (§ 112, 9) and the Dutch precursors of - the Reformation (§ 119, 10), working as they did among an - intrepid and liberty loving people. The writings of Luther - were introduced at a very early date into Holland, and the - first martyrs from the Lutheran Confession (§ 128, 1) were - led to the stake at Antwerp, in A.D. 1523. The alliance - with France and Switzerland, however, was the occasion of - subsequently securing the triumph of the Reformed Confession - (see § 160, 1). But fanatical Anabaptists soon followed in the - wake of the reform movement, and sent forth their emissaries - into Germany and Switzerland. As the emperor had here an - authority as absolute as his heart could desire, he proceeded - to execute unrelentingly the edict of Worms, and multitudes of - witnesses for the gospel as well as fanatical sectaries were put - to death by the sword and at the stake. Still more dreadful was - the havoc committed by the Inquisition after Charles’ abdication, - in A.D. 1555, under his son and successor =Philip II.= of Spain, - which had for its aim the overthrow alike of ecclesiastical and - political liberty. In order the more successfully to withstand - the Reformation, the four original bishoprics were increased by - the addition of fourteen new bishoprics, and three were raised - into archbishoprics, Utrecht, Mechlin, and Cambray. But even - these measures failed in securing the end desired, because the - Dutch, even those who hitherto had remained faithful to the - Romish Church, saw in them simply an instrument for advancing - Spanish despotism.--In A.D. 1523 Luther’s translation of the N.T. - had already been rendered into Dutch and printed at Amsterdam. - In A.D. 1545 Jacob van Liesfield translated the whole Bible, and - was for this sent to the scaffold in A.D. 1545. A Calvinistic - symbol was set forth in A.D. 1562 in the Belgic Confession. The - league formed by the nobles, in A.D. 1566, to offer resistance - to the tyranny of the Spaniards, to which their oppressors gave - the contemptuous designation of the Beggars--a name which they - themselves adopted as a title of honour--increased in strength - and importance from day to day, and the people, thirsting for - revenge, tore down churches, images, and altars. The prudent - regent, however, =Margaret of Parma=, Philip’s half-sister, - would have been more successful in preventing an outburst of - rebellion by her conciliatory manœuvres, had her brother given - her greater freedom of action. Instead of doing so he sent - to her aid, in A.D. 1587, the terrible =Duke of Alva=, with - a standing army of 10,000 Spaniards. The “Bloody Council” - instituted by him for stamping out the revolt now began its - horrible proceedings, sending thousands upon thousands to - the rack and the scaffold. The regent, protesting against - such acts, demanded her recall, and Alva was put in her place. - The bloody tribunal moved now from city to city; all the - leading throughfares were covered with victims hanging from - gibbets, and when Alva at last, in A.D. 1573, was at his own - request recalled, he could boast of having carried out in six - years 18,600 executions. Meanwhile the great =Prince of Orange, - William the Silent=, formerly royal governor of the Dutch - Provinces, but since A.D. 1568 a fugitive under the ban, had - now openly signified his adhesion to Protestantism, and in 1572 - placed himself at the head of the revolt. After gaining several - victories by land and by sea, he succeeded, in the so called - _Pacification of Ghent_, of A.D. 1576, in uniting almost all - the provinces, Protestant and Catholic, under a resolution to - exercise toleration to one another and show resistance to the - common foe. The new governor, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, - managed indeed to detach the southern Catholic provinces from - the league, but all the more closely did the seven northern - provinces bind themselves together in the Union of Utrecht of - A.D. 1579, promising to fight to the end for their religious - and political liberty. William’s truest friend, counsellor, - and director of his political actions, since the formation - of the league of A.D. 1566, was =Philip van Marnix=, Count - of St. Aldegonde. He had drawn up the articles of the league, - and was equally celebrated as a statesman and soldier, and as - theologian, satirist, orator, and poet. He was pre-eminently - an ardent patriot, and an enthusiastic adherent of Calvin’s - Reformation. He had been himself a pupil of the great Genevan. - Besides a spirited material version of the Psalter, his chief - satirico-theological work was “The Beehive of the Holy Roman - Church,” written in the Flemish dialect.--After William’s - assassination by the hand of a Catholic, in A.D. 1584, he - was succeeded by his son =Maurice=, who after long years of - bloody conflict succeeded, in A.D. 1609, in completely freeing - his country from the Spanish yoke.[391] - - § 139.13. =France.=--The Reformation in France had its beginning - from Wittenberg, but subsequently the Genevan reformers obtained - a dominating influence. Even in A.D. 1521, the Sorbonne issued - a _Determinatio super doctr. Luth._, pronouncing Luther’s - teaching and writings heretical, which Melanchthon in the - same year answered with unusual vigour in his _Apologia adv. - furiosum Parisiensium theologastrorum decretum_. Everything - depended upon the attitude which the young king =Francis I.=, - A.D. 1515-1547, might assume in reference to the various - religious parties. His love of humanist studies, now flourishing - in France, whose zealous promoter and protector he was against - the attacks of the scholastic Sorbonne (§ 120, 8), as well as - the traditional policy of his family in ecclesiastical matters - since the time of St. Louis (§ 96, 21), seemed to favour the - hope that he would not prove altogether hostile to the ideas - of the Reformation. But even as early as A.D. 1516 he had, - in his concordat with the pope (§ 110, 14), surrendered the - acquisitions of the Basel Council by the revocation of the - Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., and in this way, by the - right given him to nominate all the bishops and abbots, he - obtained a power over all the clergy of his realm which was - too much in accordance with his dynastic ideas to allow of - his sacrificing it in favour of the Lutheran autonomy in the - management of the church, let alone the yet more radical demands - of the Calvinistic constitution. Even in his antagonism to the - emperor (§§ 126, 5, 6; 133, 7), which led him to befriend in - a very decided manner the German Protestants, his interests - crossed one another, inasmuch as he required to retain the - goodwill of the pope. Suppression of Protestantism in his own - land and the fostering of it in Germany were thus the aims of - his crooked policy. He did indeed for a time entertain the idea - of introducing a moderate Reformation into France after the - Erasmian model, in order to secure closer attachment to and - union with German Protestantism. He entered into negotiations - with Philip the Magnanimous, and had Melanchthon invited in - A.D. 1535 to attend a conference on these matters in France. - Melanchthon was not indisposed to go, but was interdicted - by his prince the elector, who feared lest he might make - too great concessions. And just about this time fanatically - violent pamphlets and placards were published, which were even - thrown into the royal apartments, and thus the anger of the king - was roused to the utmost pitch. The persecutions, which, from - A.D. 1524, had already brought many isolated witnesses to the - scaffold and the stake, now assumed a systematic and general - character. In A.D. 1535, an Inquisition tribunal was set up, - with members nominated by the pope, and as supplementary thereto - there was instituted in the Parliament of Paris the so-called - _chambre ardente_: the former drew up the process against - the heretics, the latter pronounced and executed the sentence. - Thousands of heroic confessors died under torture, on the - gallows, by sword, or by fire. Under =Henry II.=, A.D. 1547-1559, - who continued his father’s crooked policy, the _chambre ardente_ - became more and more active, and the cruelty of the persecution - increased. Among the sworn foes of the Reformation, Diana - of Poitiers, an old love of his father’s, had for a time the - greatest influence over the king. He raised her to the rank - of duchess. With diabolic satisfaction she gloated upon the - spectacle of _autos-de-fé_ carried out at her request, and - enriched herself with the confiscated goods of the victims. - Side by side with her, inspired by a like hate of Protestantism, - stood the great marshal and all-powerful minister of state, - the Constable Montmorency. These two were further backed up - by all the influence of the powerful ducal family of the Guises, - a branch of a Lorraine house naturalized in France, consisting - of six brothers, at their head the two eldest, the Cardinal - Charles of Lorraine, Archbishop of Rheims, who died in A.D. 1574, - and Francis, the conqueror of Calais. The least influential in - the league at that time was the queen, Catharine de Medici. - - § 139.14. In spite of all persecutions, the Reformed church - made rapid progress, especially in the southern districts. Its - adherents came to be known by the name of =Huguenots=, meaning - originally Leaguers, Covenanters, on account of their connection - with Geneva. A popular etymology of the word derives it from the - nightly assemblies in a locality haunted by the spirit of King - Hugo. Calvin and Beza, as sons of France, assisted the young - church with counsel and help. But even within the bounds of - the kingdom it had very important political supporters. Certain - members of the house of Bourbon, a powerful branch of the royal - family, Anton, who married the brilliant heiress of Navarre, - Jeanne d’Albret, and his brother Louis de Condé, had attached - themselves to the Protestant cause. Also other distinguished - personages, _e.g._ the noble Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, - a nephew of Montmorency, and several prominent members of - Parliament, were enthusiastically devoted to Protestantism, - and, withdrawing from the frivolous and licentious court, - gave to the profession of the reformed faith a wide reputation - for strict morality and deep piety. The first general synod of - the reformed church was held in Paris from 25th to 28th May, - A.D. 1559. It adopted a Calvinistic symbol, the _Confessio - Gallicana_, and, as a directory for the constitution and - discipline of the church, forty articles, also inspired by - the spirit of Calvin.--Henry II. was followed in succession - by his three sons, Francis, Charles, and Henry, all of whom - died without issue. Under =Francis II.=, A.D. 1559, 1560, - who ascended the throne in his sixteenth year, the two Guises, - the uncles of his queen Mary Stuart, held unlimited sway and - gave abundance of work to the _chambre ardente_. A conspiracy - directed against them in A.D. 1560 led to the execution of - 1,200 persons implicated in it. Even the two Bourbons were - cast into prison, and the younger condemned to death. The king’s - early death, however, prevented the execution of the sentence. - The queen-mother, Catharine de Medici, now succeeded in breaking - off the yoke of the Guises and securing to herself the regency - during the minority of her son =Charles IX.=, A.D. 1560-1574. - But the attempts of the Guises to undermine her authority - obliged her to seek supporters meanwhile among the Protestants. - Coligny was able in A.D. 1560 to demand religious toleration - of the imperial Parliament, and succeeded at last so far that - in A.D. 1561 an edict was issued abolishing capital punishment - for heresy. In order to bring about wherever that was possible - an understanding between the two great religious parties, a - five weeks’ religious conference was held in September of that - same year in the Abbey of Poissy, near Paris, to which on the - evangelical side Beza from Geneva and Peter Martyr from Zürich, - besides many other theologians, were invited. On the Catholic - side, the Cardinal of Lorraine represented the doctrine of - his church, and subsequently also the general of the Jesuits, - Lainez. The proceedings, in which Beza’s learning, eloquence, - and praiseworthy courtesy toward his opponents had great weight, - were concentrated on the doctrines of the Church and the Lord’s - Supper, but yielded no result. In order that they might be able - to inflame the Lutherans and the Reformed against one another, - the Catholics endeavoured to bring forward supporters of the - Augsburg Confession into the discussions on those points. Five - German theologians were actually brought forward, among them - Jac. Andreä of Württemberg, but too late to take part in the - conference. On 17th January, A.D. 1562, the regent issued an - edict, by which the Protestants were allowed to hold religious - services outside of the towns, and also to have meetings of - synod under the supervision of royal commissioners. - - § 139.15. The rage of the Guises and their fanatical party - at this edict knew no bounds. Francis of Guise swore to cut - it up with his sword, and on 1st March, A.D. 1562, at Passy - in Champagne, he fell upon the Huguenots assembled there for - worship in a barn, and slew them almost to a man. At Cahors, - a Huguenot place of worship was surrounded by a Catholic mob - and set on fire. None of those gathered together there survived, - for those who escaped the flames were waylaid and murdered. At - Toulouse, the oppressed Protestants, with wives and children, - to the number of 4,000, had betaken themselves to the capitol. - They were promised a free outlet, and were then slaughtered, - because no one, it was said, should keep his word with a heretic - (§ 200, 3). Louis Condé summoned his fellow Protestants to take - up arms in their own defence against such atrocities, entrenched - himself in Orleans, and obtained, by the help of the Landgrave - Philip of Hesse, German auxiliaries. The Guises, on the other - hand, won over to their side the king and his mother. And now - the strict legitimist Coligny placed himself at the head of - the Huguenot movement. The battle of Dreux in Dec., A.D. 1562, - resulted unfavourably to the Protestants, but during the siege - of Orleans Francis of Guise was assassinated by a Huguenot - nobleman. The regent now, in the peace edict of Amboise, - of 19th Nov., A.D. 1563, allowed to the Protestants liberty - of worship except in certain districts and cities, of which - Paris was one. After securing emancipation from the yoke of the - Guises, however, she soon began openly to show her old hatred - of the Protestants. She joined in a league with Spain for the - extirpating of heresy, restricted in A.D. 1564 by the Edict of - Roussillon her previous concessions, and laid incessant plots in - order to effect the capture or murder of the two great leaders - of the Huguenot party. The threatening incursions of the Duke - of Alva upon the neighbouring provinces of the Netherlands, in - A.D. 1567, occasioned the outbreak of the second religious war. - The projected removal of the court to Monceaux fell through - indeed, in consequence of the hasty flight of the king to Paris, - but the overthrow of the royal army in the battle of St. Denys, - in Nov., A.D. 1567, in which Montmorency fell, as well as the - reinforcement of the Huguenot army by an auxiliary corps under - the leadership of John Casimir, the prince of the Palatinate, - led Catharine to conclude the Peace of Longjumeau, of March, - A.D. 1568, which guaranteed anew all previous concessions. - But when the persecution of the Huguenots was continued in - numberless executions, before the year was out they had again, - for the third time, to have recourse to arms. England supported - them with money and ammunition, and Protestant Germany gave - them 11,000 auxiliaries; while Spain helped their opponents. - Louis Condé fell by the hand of an assassin in A.D. 1569, but - the Huguenots had so evidently the best of it, that the king - and his mother found themselves obliged to grant them complete - liberty of conscience and of worship in the peace treaty of - St. Germain-en-Laye, on 8th of Aug., A.D. 1570, excepting in - Paris and in the immediate surroundings of the palace. As a - guarantee for the treaty, four strongholds in southern France - were surrendered to them. It was further stipulated, in order - to confirm for ever the good undertaking, that Henry of Navarre, - son of Jeanne d’Albret, should marry Margaret, the sister of - Charles IX. - - § 139.16. At the marriage, consummated on 18th of August, - A.D. 1572, subsequently known as the =Bloody Marriage=, the - chiefs of the Huguenot party were gathered together at Paris. - Jeanne d’Albret had died at the court, probably by poison, on - 9th June, and Coligny had been fatally wounded by a shot on - 22nd August. On the night of St. Bartholomew, between the 23rd - and 24th August, the castle bell tolled. This was the concerted - signal for the destruction of all the Huguenots present in Paris. - For four days the carnage was unweariedly carried on by the - city militia appointed for the purpose, the royal Swiss guards, - and crowds of fanatical artisans. Coligny fell praying amid the - blows of his murderers. No Huguenot was spared, neither children, - nor women, nor the aged. Their princely chiefs, Henry of Navarre - and Henry Condé, the son of Louis, were offered the choice - between death and taking part in the celebration of mass. They - decided for the latter. Meanwhile messengers had hasted into the - provinces with the death-warrants, and there the slaughter began - afresh. The whole number of victims is variously estimated at - from 10,000 to 100,000; in Paris alone there fell from 1,000 - to 10,000.--The death decree was not indeed so much the result - of long planned and regularly conceived conspiracy, as a sudden - resolve suggested by political circumstances. The queen-mother - was at variance with her son with respect to his anti-Spanish - policy, which had always inclined him favourably to Coligny; - and so, in concert with her favourite son, Henry of Anjou, she - succeeded in dealing a deadly stroke at the great admiral by the - hand of an assassin. The king swore to take fearful vengeance on - the unknown perpetrators of this crime. Catharine now made every - effort to avert the threatened blow. She managed to convince the - king, by means of her fellow conspirators, that the Huguenots - regarded him as an accomplice in the perpetrating of the outrage, - and that so his life was in danger because of them. He now swore - by God’s death that not merely the chiefs, to whom Catharine - and her auxiliaries had directed special attention, but all the - Huguenots in France, should die, in order that not one should - remain to bring this charge against him. On the other hand, - it is all but certain that the thought of such a diabolical - deed had previously suggested itself, if indeed expression - had not been explicitly given to it. To the Spanish and Romish - courts, the French government represented the deed as an _acte - prémédité_, to the German court as an _acte non prémédité_. But - even before this a letter from Rome to the Emperor Maximilian II. - (§ 137, 8) had contained the following: “_At that hour_ - (referring to the marriage festivities) _when all the birds - are in the cage, they can seize upon them altogether, and can - have any one that they desire_.” He was profoundly excited about - the villany of the transaction, while Philip II. of Spain on - hearing of it is said to have laughed for the first time in his - life. Pope Gregory XIII. indeed feared the worst consequences, - but soon changed his mind, and had Rome illuminated, all the - bells rung, the cannons fired, a _Te Deum_ performed, processions - made, and a medal struck, with the inscription, _Ugonottorum - strages_. He instructed the French ambassador to inform his king - that this performance was a hundred times more grateful to him - than fifty victories over the Turks.[392] - - § 139.17. The dreadful deed, however, completely failed in - accomplishing the end in view. Even after 100,000 had been - slaughtered there still remained more than ten times that - number of Huguenots, who, in possession of their strongholds, - occupied positions of great strategical importance. After - a brief breathing time of peace, therefore, they were able, - on five occasions, in A.D. 1573, 1576, 1577, 1580, to renew - the religious civil war, when once and again the truce had - been broken by the Catholics. Charles IX. was succeeded by - Catharine’s favourite son, =Henry III.=, A.D. 1574-1589, who, - joining the most shameless immorality to the narrowest bigotry - and asceticism (§ 149, 17), was no way behind his brother in - dissoluteness, and was still more conspicuous for dastardliness - and cowardice. Henry Condé had, just immediately after Charles’s - death, abjured again the Catholic confession, and put himself at - the head of the Huguenot revolt. Henry of Navarre rejoined his - old friends two years later, after having in the meantime vied - with his brother-in-law and his incestuous wife in frivolity - and immorality. He was able to take part successfully in the - fifth religious war, in which the Huguenots, supported once - more by the German auxiliaries under the Count-palatine John - Casimir, secured such advantages, that the court, in the Treaty - of Beaulieu, of A.D. 1576, were obliged to grant them complete - religious freedom and a larger number of strongholds. But now - Henry of Guise, in concert with his brothers Louis, cardinal and - Archbishop of Rheims, and Charles, Duke of Mayenne, formed the - Holy League, which he compelled the king to join, and renewed - the war with increased vigour. In the eighth war since A.D. 1584, - which on the part of the Guises was really as much directed - against the king’s Huguenot policy as against the Huguenots - themselves, Henry was obliged, by the Treaty of Nemours, of - A.D. 1585, to declare that the Protestants were deprived of - all rights and privileges. In the battle of Coutras, however, - in A.D. 1587, Henry of Navarre annihilated the opposing forces. - But as he failed to follow up the advantages then secured, the - Guises again recruited their strength to such a degree that they - were able openly to work for the dethronement of the king. Henry - could save himself only by the murder of both the elder Guises - at the Diet of Blois. There was now no alternative left him - but to cast himself into the arms of the Huguenots, and on this - account, at the siege of the capital, he was murdered by the - Dominican Clement. Henry of Navarre, as the only legitimate heir, - now ascended the throne as =Henry IV.=, A.D. 1589-1610. After a - hard struggle, lasting for four years, in which he was supported - by England and Germany, while his opponents, headed by the Duke - of Mayenne, were aided with money and men by Spain, Savoy, and - the pope, he at last decided, in A.D. 1593, to pass over to - Catholicism, because, as he said, “Paris is well worth a mass.” - He secured, however, for his former co-religionists, by the - =Edict of Nantes=, of 13th April, A.D. 1598, complete liberty - of holding religious services in all the cities where previously - there had been reformed congregations, as well as thorough - equality with the Catholics in all civil rights and privileges, - especially in regard to eligibility for all civil and military - offices. The fortresses and strongholds hitherto held by them - were to be left with them for eight years, and in the Parliament - a special “Chamber of the Edict” was instituted, with eight - Catholic and eight Protestant members. But, on the other hand, - they continued to be under the Catholic marriage laws, were - obliged to cease from work on the Catholic festivals, and to - pay tithes to the Catholic clergy. After a stubborn resistance - on the part of the Parliament of Paris, the university, and - the Sorbonne, as well as on that of the bishops, the king, in - February, A.D. 1599, secured the incorporation of the edict - among the laws of France. On 14th May, A.D. 1610, he was struck - down by the dagger of the Feuillant Ravaillac, a fanatical - Jesuit. Notwithstanding his many moral shortcomings, France - has rightly celebrated him as one of the greatest and best - of her kings. With wisdom, prudence, and humanity he wrought - unweariedly for the advancement of a commonwealth that had - been reduced to the lowest depths. He protected the Protestants - in the enjoyment of privileges guaranteed to them, and though - he did indeed put upon his old Huguenot friends some gentle - pressure to get them to follow his example, he yet honoured - those who steadfastly refused. His minister Sully, although - it is supposed that he had felt obliged to advise the king - to go over to Catholicism, stood himself unhesitatingly true - to his profession of the Huguenot faith, while he retained - the king’s confidence, and proved his most faithful adviser - and administrator during all the negotiations of peace and war. - Philip du Plessis Mornay, on the other hand, distinguished even - more as a statesman, diplomatist, and field marshal than as - a theologian and author,[393] but above all as a Christian and - a man in the noblest sense of the word, who, in the belief that - evangelical truth would, even in the Catholic church, assert - its conquering power, had agreed with the Catholic League to - instruct the king in the Catholic faith, and had thus made - the act of apostasy appear to him less offensive. But just - because the mere presence of a friend of high moral character - and true religious principles acted as too sharp a sting to - the king’s conscience, he had to submit to be relegated to an - honorary post as governor of Saumur, where he became founder - of the famous academy which Louis XIV. suppressed in A.D. 1685. - Theodore Agrippa d’Aubigné, too, distinguished as a brave - warrior in the army of the Huguenots, as well as a historian, - poet, and satirist, stood high in favour with the king, though - Henry, often roused by his unbending pride, repeatedly expelled - him from the court. After Henry’s death D’Aubigné returned to - Geneva, where he died in A.D. 1630.[394] - - § 139.18. =Poland.=--The Reformation had been introduced - into Poland first of all by the exiled Bohemian Brethren, - and Luther’s writings soon after their appearance were eagerly - read in that region. =Sigismund I.=, A.D. 1506-1548, opposed it - with all his might. It met with most success in Prussian Poland. - Dantzig, in A.D. 1525, drove out the Catholic council. Sigismund - went down there himself, had several citizens executed, and - restored the old mode of worship in A.D. 1526. But scarcely had - he left the town when it again went back to the profession of - the Lutheran faith. Elbing and Thorn followed its example. In - Poland proper also the new doctrines made way. In spite of all - prohibitions many young Poles flocked to Wittenberg, and brought - away from it to their native country a glowing enthusiasm for - Luther and his teaching. The Swiss Confession had already found - entrance there, and the persecutions which Ferdinand of Austria - carried on after the Schmalcald war in Bohemia and Moravia - led great numbers of Bohemian Brethren to cross over into the - Polish territories. =Sigismund Augustus=, A.D. 1548-1572, was - personally favourable to the Reformation. He studied Calvin’s - “Institutes,” received letters from him and from Melanchthon, - and, in accordance with the decisions of a national assembly - at Petrican in A.D. 1555 demanded of the pope a national council, - as well as permission for the marriage of priests, the communion - in both kinds, the celebration of mass in the vernacular, and - abolition of annats. The pope naturally refused to yield, but - in A.D. 1556 sent into the country a legate of a despotic and - violent temper, called Aloysius Lippomanus, who was replaced - in A.D. 1563 by the bland and eloquent Commendone. Both were - powerfully supported in their struggle against heresy by the - fanatically Catholic cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, Bishop of - Ermeland. The Protestant nobility then recalled, in A.D. 1556, - their celebrated countryman =John à Lasco=, who twenty years - before had, on account of his evangelical faith, resigned his - office as provost of Gnesen and left his fatherland. He had - meanwhile taken part in the Reformation of East Friesland, and - had acted for several years as preacher at Emden. After that, - he had gone, at the call of Cranmer, in A.D. 1550, to England; - upon the death of Edward VI., along with a part of his London - flock of foreign exiles, had sought refuge in Denmark, which, - however, was refused on account of his attachment to Zwingli’s - doctrine; and at last settled down at Frankfort-on-the-Maine as - pastor to a congregation of French, English, and Dutch exiles. - After his return home he endeavoured to bring about a union of - the Lutherans and Reformed, in concert with several friends made - a translation of the Bible, and died in A.D. 1560. At a =general - synod at Sendomir=, in A.D. 1570, a union was at last effected - between the three dissentient parties, by which the Lutheran - doctrine of the Lord’s Supper was acknowledged, yet in so - indefinite a form that Calvin’s view might also be entertained. - The Lutheran opposition at the synod had been suppressed by - urgent entreaty, but afterwards broke out again in a still more - violent form. At the Synod of Thorn, in A.D. 1595, the Lutheran - pastor Paul Gericke was the leader of it; but one of the nobles - present held a dagger to his heart, and the synod suspended him - from his office as a disturber of the peace. Sigismund Augustus - had meanwhile died, in A.D. 1572. During the interregnum that - followed, the Protestant nobles formed a confederation, which - before the election of a new king succeeded in obtaining - a comprehensive religious peace, the =Pax dissidentium of - A.D. 1573=, by means of which Catholics and Protestants were - for all time to live together in peace and enjoy equal civil - rights. The newly elected king, =Henry of Anjou=, sought to - avoid binding himself by oath to the observance of this peace, - but the imperial marshal addressed him in firm and decided - language, _Si non jurabis, non regnabis_. In the following - year, however, the new king left Poland in order to mount the - French throne as Henry III. =Stephen Bathori=, A.D. 1576-1586, - swore without hesitation to observe the peace, and kept - his oath. Under his successor, Sigismund III., a Swedish - prince, A.D. 1587-1632, the Protestants had to complain of - the infringement of many of their rights, which from this time - down to the overthrow of the Polish kingdom, in A.D. 1772, they - never again enjoyed.[395]--Continuation, § 164, 4. - - § 139.19. =Bohemia and Moravia.=--The numerous Bohemian and - Moravian Brethren (§ 119, 8), at whose head was the elder Luke - of Prague, greeted the appearance of Luther with the most hopeful - joy. By messages and writings, however, which in A.D. 1522-1524 - were interchanged between them, some important diversities of - view were discovered. Luke disliked Luther’s realistic theory - of the Lord’s Supper, continued to hold by the seven sacraments, - rejected the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and took - special offence at Luther’s view of Christian freedom, which - seemed to him to want the necessary rigour of the apostolic - discipline of the life and to under-estimate the importance - and worth of celibacy and virginity. Luther, on the other hand, - charged them with a want of grasp of the doctrine and a Novatian - over-estimation of mere outward exercises and discipline. And so - these negotiations ended in mutual recrimination, and only after - Luke’s death, in A.D. 1528, and the glorious Diet of Augsburg, - in A.D. 1530, were they reopened. The Lutheranizing tendency, - for which especially the two elders John Roh and John Augusta - laboured, now gained the upper hand for two decades. In - A.D. 1532 the Brethren presented to the Margrave George of - Brandenburg an apology of the doctrine and customs, which was - printed at Wittenberg, and had a preface by Luther, in which he - expressed himself in very favourable terms about the doctrine - of the “Picards,” and only objected to their spiritualizing - tendency, of which their doctrine of the supper and of baptism - was not altogether free, inasmuch as they, while practising - infant baptism, required that each one should on reaching - maturity take the vows upon himself and have baptism repeated. - Still more favourably did he speak of their confession presented - in A.D. 1535 to King Ferdinand, in which they had left out - the rebaptizing, substituting for it the solemn imposition of - hands as confirmation. When the Brethren at Luther’s request - had modified the two articles at which he took offence, - their unsatisfactory theory of justification, and that of - the wholesomeness, though not necessity, of clerical celibacy, - he declared himself thoroughly satisfied, and at their last - personal conference, in A.D. 1542, he stretched his hand - over the table to Augusta and his companions as the pledge - of indissoluble brotherly fellowship, although not agreed in - regard to various matters of constitution and discipline. The - refusal of the Brethren to fight against their German fellow - Protestants in the Schmalcald war led to their king Ferdinand - upon its close issuing some penal statutes against them. Driven - away into exile in A.D. 1548, many of them went to Poland, the - larger number to Prussia, from whence they returned to their - native land in A.D. 1574. Meantime matters had there in many - respects taken an altogether new turn. In the later years of his - reign Ferdinand had become more favourable to the evangelical - movement in his hereditary dominions, and Maximilian II., - A.D. 1564-1576, gave it an absolutely free course (§ 137, 8). - Thus the Brethren could not only go on from day to day - increasing in numbers and in influence, but alongside of them - there grew up a genuine Lutheran community and an independent - Calvinist body. The Crypto-calvinism which was also at the - same time gaining the victory in Saxony (§ 141, 10) cast its - shadow upon the Lutheranizing movement among the Brethren. And - this movement told all the more against the Lutheran party there - from the circumstance that at an earlier period there had been - powerful influences at work, inspired by a national Bohemian - spirit, to resist German interference in matters of religion. - Since the death of the elder Luke the national party had - succeeded more and more in working back to the genuine Bohemian - constitution, discipline, and confession of their fathers. At - the head of this movement stood John Blahoslaw, from A.D. 1553 - deacon of Jungbunzlau, after Luke of Prague and before - Amos Comenius (§ 167, 2) the most important champion of the - Bohemian-Moravian Confession. To him chiefly are the Brethren - indebted for the high development of literary and scientific - activity which they manifested during the second half of - the century, and his numerous writings, but pre-eminently - his translation of the N.T., proved almost as influential and - epoch-making for the Bohemian language as Luther’s translation - of the Bible did for the written language of Germany. Himself - one of the ablest among the very numerous writers of spiritual - songs in Bohemian, he was the restorer of the simple and - majestic Bohemian chorales. As he had himself, in A.D. 1568, - translated the N.T. from the original Greek text, he also - undertook, with the help of several younger men of noble - gifts, a similar translation of the O.T. and a commentary on - the whole Bible. But he died in A.D. 1571, in his forty-eighth - year, before the issue of his great work, upon the inception - of which he had expended so much thought and care. This great - undertaking was completed and published in six volumes between - A.D. 1579-1593. The strong spiritual affinity between the - society of the Brethren and the Calvinistic church, especially - in its doctrine of the supper and in its zeal for rigid church - discipline, was meanwhile again brought into prominence, and - had led to a more and more decided loosening of attachment - to the Lutheran church, and, in spite of the antagonism of - its episcopalianism to the Calvinistic presbyterianism, to the - formation of closer ties with Calvinism. But now, on the other - hand, the common danger that threatened them from Rudolph II., - who had been king of Bohemia from A.D. 1575, at the instigation - of Jesuits through the Spanish court, led all non-Catholics, - of whatever special confession, to draw as closely together as - possible. Thus a league came to be formed in the same year in - which the Brethren were far outnumbered by Lutherans, Reformed, - and Calixtines (§ 119, 7), by means of which, in the _Confessio - Bohemica_ of A.D. 1575, a common symbol was drawn up, and all - the four parties were placed under the management of a common - consistory. But when, after Maximilian’s death, Rudolph II. - proceeded more and more rigorously in his efforts to completely - suppress all heresy, the Bohemians rose with one heart, and - at last, in A.D. 1609, extorted from him the rescript which - gave them absolute religious liberty according to the Bohemian - Confession, a common consistory of their own, and an academy - at Prague. Bohemia was now an almost completely evangelical - country, and scarcely a tenth part of its inhabitants - professed attachment to the Catholic faith.[396]--Continuation, - §§ 153, 2; 167, 2. - - § 139.20. =Hungary and Transylvania.=--From A.D. 1524, Martin - Cyriaci, a student of Wittenberg, wrought in =Hungary= for - the spread of the true doctrine. King Louis II. threatened its - adherents with all possible penalties. But in A.D. 1526 he fell - in battle against the Turks at Mohacz. The election of a new - king resulted in two claimants taking possession of the field; - Ferdinand of Austria secured a footing in the western, and - the Woiwode John Zapolya in the eastern provinces. Both sought - to suppress the Reformation, in order to win over the clergy - to support them. But it nevertheless gained the ascendency, - favoured by the political confusions of the time. =Matthias - Devay=, a scholar of Luther, and for a time a resident in - his house, from A.D. 1521 preached the gospel at Ofen, having - been called thither by several of the leading inhabitants on - Melanchthon’s recommendation, and in A.D. 1533 had a Hungarian - translation of the Pauline epistles printed at Cracow. In - A.D. 1541 Erdösy issued the complete New Testament, which was - also the first book printed in Hungary. At a synod at Erdöd, in - A.D. 1545, twenty-nine ministers drew up a confession of faith - in twelve articles, in agreement with the Augsburg Confession. - But also the Swiss doctrine had now found entrance, and won - more and more adherents from day to day. These adopted at a - council at Czengar, in A.D. 1557, a Calvinistic confession, - with decided repudiation of the Zwinglian as well as the - Lutheran theory of the Lord’s Supper, describing the latter - as an _insania sarcophagica_. The government of Maximilian II. - did not interfere with the progress of the Reformation; but when - Rudolph II. attempted to interfere with violent measures, the - Protestants rose in revolt under Stephen Bocskai, and compelled - the king to grant them complete religious liberty by the Vienna - Peace of A.D. 1606. Among the native Hungarians the Reformed - confession prevailed, but the German residents remained true - to Lutheranism. (Continuation § 153, 3.)--As early as A.D. 1521 - merchants had brought into =Transylvania= from Hermanstadt - copies of Luther’s writings. King Louis II. of Hungary, however, - carried his persecution of the evangelicals even into this - territory, which was continued after his death by Zapolya. - In A.D. 1529, however, Hermanstadt ventured to expel all - adherents of the Romish church from within its walls. In - Cronstadt, the work of the Reformation was carried on from - A.D. 1533 by =Jac. Honter=, who had studied at Basel. Since - Zapolya through an agreement with Ferdinand, in A.D. 1538, - was assured of possession for his lifetime of Transylvania, - he acted more mildly toward the Protestants. After his death - the monk Martinuzzi, as Bishop of Grosswardein, assumed the helm - of affairs for Zapolya’s son during his minority, oppressing the - Protestants with bloody persecutions, while Isabella, Zapolya’s - widow, was favourable to them. Martinuzzi therefore handed over - the country to Ferdinand, but was assassinated in A.D. 1551. - After some years Isabella returned with her son, and a =national - assembly at Clausenburg=, in A.D. 1557, gave an organization - to the country as an independent principality, and proclaimed - universal religious liberty. The Saxon population continued - attached to the Lutheran confession, and the Czecks and Magyars - preferred to adopt the Reformed.[397] - - § 139.21. =Spain.=--The connection brought about between Spain - and Germany through the election of =Charles V.= as emperor led - to the very early introduction into the Peninsula of Luther’s - doctrine and writings. Indeed many of the theologians and - statesmen who went in Charles’ train into Germany returned - with evangelical convictions in their hearts, as, _e.g._, the - Benedictine Alphonso de Virves, the fiery Ponce de la Fuente, - both court chaplains of the emperor, and his private secretary - Alphonso Valdez. A layman, Roderigo de Valer, by earnest study - of the Bible attained unto a knowledge of the gospel, and became - the instrument of leading many others into the way of salvation. - The Inquisition confiscated his goods and condemned him to - wear the _san benito_ (§ 117, 2). Juan Gil, a friend of Valer, - Bishop of Tortosa, founded a society for the study of the - Bible. The Inquisition deposed him, and only Charles’ favour - protected him from the stake; but subsequently his bones were - dug up and burnt. Many other prelates also, such as Carranza - of Toledo, Guerrero of Granada, Guesta of Leon, Carrubias of - Ciudad Roderigo, Agostino of Lerida, Ayala of Segovia, etc., - admitted the necessity for a thoroughgoing revision of doctrine, - without detaching themselves from the pope and the Romish church; - and in this direction they laboured with zeal and success amid - the threatenings of the Inquisition. The first Protestant martyr - in Spain was Francisco san Romano, a merchant who had become - acquainted with Luther’s doctrine at Antwerp. He was led to the - stake at Valladolid, in A.D. 1544. Francis Enzina, in A.D. 1543, - translated the New Testament. He was cast into prison, and the - book prohibited. A complete Spanish Bible was printed by Cassiod. - de Reyna at Basel, in A.D. 1569. In Seville and Valladolid first - of all, and at a later period also in many other Spanish cities, - evangelical congregations held secret services. Even so soon as - about A.D. 1550, the Reformation movement threatened to become - so general and widespread, that a Spanish historian of that age, - Ilesca, in his history of the popes, expresses the conviction - that all Spain would have become overrun with heresy if the - Inquisition had delayed for three months longer to put an - end to the pestilence. But it now applied that remedy in the - largest and strongest doses possible. The measures of the - Inquisition were specially prompt and vigorous during the - reign of =Philip II.=, A.D. 1555-1598. Scarcely a year passed - in which there were not at each of the twelve Inquisition courts - one or more great _autos-de-fé_, in which crowds of heretics - were burnt. And the remedy was effectual. After two decades - the evangelical movement was stamped out. How determinedly the - crusade was carried out is shown by the proceedings in the case - of the Archbishop of Toledo, Barthol. Carranza. This prelate had - published a “Commentary on the Catechism,” in which he expressed - a wish to see “the ancient spirit of our forefathers and of - the early church revived in its simplicity and purity.” The - grand-inquisitor discerned therein Lutheran heresy, and though - he bore one of the highest positions in the Spanish church, - Carranza was kept close prisoner for eight years in the dungeons - of the Inquisition, and after he had at last reached the pope - with his appeal, he was kept for nine years in the castle of - St. Angelo at Rome. There at last, upon his abjuring sixteen - heretical propositions, especially about justification, saint - and image worship, he was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment - in the Dominican cloister at Orvieto, but died some weeks after, - in A.D. 1576, in his seventy-third year. At the Quemadero, - the scene of the _autos-de-fé_ of the Madrid Inquisition court, - there were till quite recently discernible the traces of the - human hecatombs that had there been offered up to the insatiable - Moloch of religious fanaticism. The official newspaper of the - capital of the 12th April, A.D. 1869, reports how on the removal - of the soil for the purpose of lengthening a street, the grim - geological archives of the burnings of the Inquisition were laid - bare, while with horrifying minuteness it proceeds to describe - the maximum reached, and the gradual diminution of these papal - atrocities.[398] - - § 139.22. =Italy.=--The Reformation made progress in Italy - in various directions. A large number of the humanists - (§ 120, 1) had in a self-sufficient paganism lost all interest - in Christianity, and were just as indifferent toward the - Reformation as toward the old church; but another section were - inclined to favour a reformation after the style of Erasmus. - Both remained in outward connection with the old church. But - besides these there were many learned men of a more decided - tendency, some of them attempting reforms at their own hand, - and so not infrequently rejecting fundamental doctrines of - Christianity, such as the various Anti-trinitarians of that age - (§ 148), some who attached themselves to the German, but more - frequently to the Swiss reformers. Both brought the reforming - ideas before the people by preaching and writing. Almost all the - works of the German and Swiss reformers were immediately after - their publication circulated in Italy in translations, and under - the shield of anonymity scattered broadcast through the land, - before the Inquisition laid hold upon them. Among the princely - supporters of the Reformation movement, the most prominent was - Renata of Este, Duchess of Ferrara, and sister-in-law of the - French king Francis, distinguished as much for piety as for - culture and learning. Her court was a place of refuge and a - rallying point for French and Italian exiles. Calvin stayed - some weeks with her in A.D. 1536, and confirmed her in her - evangelical faith by personal conversation, and subsequently - by epistolary correspondence. Her husband, Hercules of Ferrara, - whom she married in A.D. 1534, at first let her do as she liked, - but in A.D. 1536 expelled Calvin from his dominions, and had his - wife confined, in A.D. 1554, as an obstinate Lutheran heretic, - in the old castle of Este. Still she was allowed to return - to her husband after she had brought herself to confess to a - Romish priest. But when after his death, in A.D. 1560, Alphonso, - her son, put before her the alternative of either recanting - her faith or leaving the country, she returned to France, and - there openly made profession of her faith and attached herself - to the Huguenots. Francis of Guise was her son-in-law, and she - was subjected on account of her Protestantism to the incessant - persecutions of the Guises. She died in A.D. 1575.--We have - seen already, in § 135, 3, that the idea had been mooted of - a propaganda of Catholic Christians in Italy. With a strong - and lively conviction of the importance of the doctrine of - justification by faith they made it the central point of - religious life and knowledge, and thus, without directly - opposing it, they inspired new life into the Catholic church. - The first germ of this movement appeared in the so-called - _Oratory of Divine Love_, an association formed in the beginning - of A.D. 1520 at Rome, after the apostolic model, for mutual - religious edification, consisting of fifty or sixty young, eager - men, mostly of the clerical order. One of the original founders - was Jac. Sadolet, who in this spirit expounded the Epistle - to the Romans. To it also belonged such men as the founder - of the Theatine order (§ 149, 7), Cajetan of Thiene, and John - Pet. Caraffa, Bishop of Chieta, and afterwards Pope Paul IV., - who sought the church’s salvation rather in the practice of - a rigorous inquisitorial discipline. The sack of Rome (§ 132, 2) - broke up this association in A.D. 1527, but spread its efforts - over all Italy. The fugitive English cardinal, Reginald Pole, - attached himself in Venice to the party of Sadolet. In Ferrara - there was Italy’s most famous poetess, Vittoria Colonna; at - Modena the Bishop Morone, who, although as papal legate in - Germany, a zealous defender of the papal claims (§§ 135, 2; - 137, 5), yet in his own diocese even subsequently aided the - evangelical tendencies of his companions with much ardour, and - hence under Paul IV. was cast into the Inquisition, to come out - only under Pius V., after undergoing a three years’ imprisonment. - In Naples there was Juan Valdez, Alphonso’s brother, secretary - of the Spanish viceroy of Naples, and author of the “One Hundred - and Ten Divine Considerations,” as well as a book of Christian - doctrine for the young in the Spanish language. In Siena there - was Aonio Paleario, professor of classical literature, famous as - poet and orator. In Rome there was the papal notary Carnesecchi, - formerly the personal friend of Clement VII. In other places - there were many more. The most conspicuous representative of - the party was the Venetian Gasparo Contarini (§ 135, 3), who - died in A.D. 1542. - - § 139.23. The tendency of the thought of these men is most - clearly and fully set forth in the little work, “The Benefit - of Christ’s Death.” At Venice, where it first appeared in - A.D. 1542, within six years 60,000 copies of this tract were - issued, and afterwards innumerable reprints and translations of - it were circulated. Since Aonio Paleario had written, according - to his own statement, a tract of a similar character, he came - to be generally regarded as its author, until Ranke discovered - a notice among the acts of the Inquisition, according to which - the heretical jewel was to be assigned to a monk of San Severino - in Naples, a disciple of Juan Valdez, and afterwards Benrath - succeeded in proving his name to be Don Benedetto of Mantŏva. - The conciliatory spirit of these friends of moderate reform - gave grounds for large expectation, all the more that Paul III. - seemed all through his life to favour the movement. He nominated - Contarini, Sadolet, Pole, and Caraffa cardinals, instituted - in A.D. 1536 a _congregatio præparatoria_, and made Contarini - the representative of the curia at the religious Conference of - Regensburg in A.D. 1541 (§ 135, 3), which sought to bring about - the conciliation of the German Protestants. But just about this - time, probably not without the co-operation of the Jesuit order - founded in A.D. 1540, a split occurred which utterly blasted all - these grand expectations. The zeal of Caraffa set himself at the - head of the opposition, and Paul III., in accordance with his - proposal in his bull _Licet ab initio_ of A.D. 1542, reorganized - the defunct Roman Inquisition after the Spanish model as the - central institution for the uprooting of the Protestant heresy. - This “Holy Office” henceforth pursued its violent career under - the pontificate of Caraffa himself, who mounted the papal - throne in A.D. 1555 as Paul IV. Subsequently, too, under the - obstinate, fanatical, and hence canonized monkish pope Pius V., - from A.D. 1566 every suspicion of Protestantism was rigorously - and mercilessly punished with imprisonment, torture, the - galleys, the scaffold, and the stake. So energetically was the - persecution carried out against the adherents and the patrons - of the Reformation, that by the end of the century no trace of - its presence was any longer to be found within the bounds of - Italy. One of the last victims of this persecution was Aonio - Paleario. After he had been for three years in the prisons of - the Inquisition, he was strangled and then burnt. A similar - fate had previously befallen Carnesecchi. How thoroughgoing - and successful the Holy Office was in the suppression of - books suspected of a heretical taint appears from the war of - extermination carried on against that _liber perniciosissimus_, - “On the Benefit of Christ’s Death.” In spite of the hundred - thousand copies of the book that had been in circulation, the - Inquisition so carefully and consistently pursued its task - of extirpation, that thirty years after its appearance it was - no longer to be found in the original and after a hundred no - translation even was supposed to exist. In Rome alone a pile - of copies were burnt which reached to the height of a house. In - A.D. 1853 a copy of the original was found in Cambridge, and was - published in London, 1855, with an English translation made by - the Duke of Devonshire in A.D. 1548.[399] - - § 139.24. Among the Italian reformers who shook themselves - entirely free from the papacy, and only by flight into foreign - lands escaped prison, torture, and the stake, the following are - the most important. - - 1. =Bernardino Ochino=, from A.D. 1538 general of the - Capuchins, became by his glowing eloquence one of the - most popular of Italian preachers. The study of the Bible - had led him to accept the doctrine of justification when, - in A.D. 1536, he was called to Naples as Lenten preacher. - He was there brought into close contact with Juan Valdez, - who confirmed him in his evangelical tendencies, and made - him acquainted with the writings of the German reformers. - In order to escape arrest and the Inquisition, he fled - in A.D. 1542 to Geneva, and wrought successively at Basel, - Augsburg, Strassburg, and London. After the death of - Edward VI. he was obliged to make his escape from England, - went as preacher to Zürich, adopted Socinian views, - and even justified polygamy. He was consequently deposed - from his office, fled to Poland, and died in Moravia in - A.D. 1565.[400] - - 2. =Peter Martyr Vermilius=, an Augustinian monk and popular - preacher. The study of the writings of Erasmus, Zwingli, - and Bucer led him to quit the Catholic church. He fled to - Zürich, became professor in Strassburg, and on Cranmer’s - invitation came to England, where he was made professor - in Oxford. When Mary came to the throne, he returned to - Strassburg, and died as professor at Zürich in A.D. 1562. - - 3. =Peter Paul Vergerius= in A.D. 1530 accompanied Campegius - to the Diet of Augsburg as papal legate (§ 132, 6); was - sent again, in A.D. 1535, to Germany by Paul III., in - order to get the German princes to agree to the holding - of the council at Mantua (§ 134, 1), and on this point he - conferred personally but unsuccessfully with Luther. On - his return home, in A.D. 1536 the pope conferred upon him, - in recognition of his faithful service, the bishopric of - his native city, Capo d’Istria. In A.D. 1540 we find him - again present during the religious conference at Worms - (§ 135, 2), where his conciliatory efforts called down on - him the displeasure of the pope and the suspicion of his - enemies as a secret adherent of Luther. In order to clear - himself of suspicion he studied Luther’s writings with the - intention of controverting them, but had his heart opened - to gospel truths, and was obliged to betake himself to - flight. At Padua the dreadful end of the jurist Speira, - who had abjured his evangelical convictions, and feeling - that he had committed the unpardonable sin died amid the - most fearful agonies of conscience, made an indelible - impression upon him. He now, in A.D. 1548, formally joined - the evangelical church, wrought for a long time in the - country of the Grisons, not as a member of the Reformed but - of the Lutheran church, and died as professor at Tübingen - in A.D. 1565. - - 4. The Piedmontese =Cœlius Secundus Curio= was the youngest - of a family of twenty-three, and was early left an orphan. - He studied at Turin, where an Augustinian monk, Jerome - Niger, made him acquainted with the writings of Luther and - others. Unweariedly devoted to spreading the gospel in the - various cities of Italy, he was repeatedly subjected by - the persecution of the Inquisition to severe imprisonment, - but always managed to escape in almost a miraculous way. - At last he found, in A.D. 1542, on the recommendation of - the Duchess Renata, an asylum in Switzerland, first of all - in Bern; then he taught in Lausanne for four years, and - in Basel for twenty-two. He died at Basel in A.D. 1569. - His latitudinarian theology gave no offence among the - liberal-minded folk of Basel, but he was looked upon - with much displeasure by the theologians of Geneva, whose - prosecutions of heretics he had condemned; and even from - Tübingen, Vergerius, who had been his intimate friend, - brought the charge of Pelagianism against him. - - 5. =Galeazzo Carraccioli=, Marquis of Vico, on his mother’s - side a nephew of Paul IV., was led by intercourse with - Juan Valdez and the preaching of Peter Martyr to abandon - the gay, worldly life of the Neapolitan court for one of - religious earnestness and devotion, and by means of a visit - to Germany in company with the emperor he was confirmed in - his evangelical convictions. In order to be able to live - in the undisturbed profession of his faith, he fled, in - A.D. 1551, to Geneva. Neither the tears nor the curses of - his aged father, who had hurried after him to that place, - nor the promise of indulgence from his papal uncle, nor - the complaining, the tears, and despair of his tenderly - loved wife and children, whom at great risk he had visited - at Vico in A.D. 1558, were able to shake the steadfastness - of his faith. But equally in vain were his incessant - entreaties and tears to induce his wife and children to - come and join him on some neutral territory, where he might - be allowed to follow the evangelical and they the Catholic - confession. On the ground of this obstinate and persistent - refusal, the Genevan consistory, with Calvin at its head, - at last granted him the divorce that he claimed, and in - A.D. 1560 Carraccioli entered into a second marriage. Down - to his death, in A.D. 1586, by his active and industrious - life he afforded a pattern, and by his successful labours - he proved a powerful support to the Italian congregation - in Geneva, whose pastor, Balbani, raised to him a well - deserved memorial in the history of his life, which he - published in Geneva in A.D. 1587. - - 6. To the sketch of these noble reformers we may now add the - name of a woman who is well deserving of a place alongside - of them for her singular classical culture, her rich poetic - endowment, and her noble and beautiful life. Fulvia Olympia - Morata, of Ferrara, in her sixteenth year began to deliver - public lectures in her native city, where she enjoyed the - friendship and favour of the Duchess Renata. She married - a German physician, Andrew Grunthler, went with him to - his home at Schweinfurt, and there attached herself to - the Protestant church. When that city was plundered by - the Margrave Albert in A.D. 1553 (§ 137, 4), they lost all - their property. She died in A.D. 1555 at Heidelberg, where - Grunthler had been appointed professor of medicine.[401] - - § 139.25. =The Protestantizing of the Waldensians= - (§ 108, 10).--The news of the Reformation caused great - excitement among the Waldensians. Even as early as A.D. 1520 - the Piedmontese _barba_, or minister, Martin of Lucerne, - undertook a journey to Germany, and brought back with him - several works of the reformers. In A.D. 1530 the French - Waldensians sent two delegates, George Morel and Peter Masson, - who conferred verbally and in writing with Œcolampadius at - Basel, and with Bucer and Capito at Strassburg. The result - was, that in A.D. 1532 a synod was held in the Piedmontese - village of Chauvoran, in the valley of Angrogna, at which - the two Genevan theologians Farel and Saunier were present. A - number of narrow-minded prejudices that prevailed among the old - Waldensians were now abandoned, such as the prohibition against - taking oaths, the holding of magisterial offices, the taking of - interest, etc.; and several Catholic notions to which they had - formerly adhered, such as auricular confession, the reckoning - of the sacraments as seven, the injunction of fasts, compulsory - celibacy, the doctrine of merits, etc., were abandoned as - unevangelical, while the Reformed doctrine of predestination - was adopted. On this foundation the complete Protestantizing - of the whole Waldensian community now made rapid progress, but - called down upon them from every side bloody persecutions. In - Provence and Dauphiné there were, in A.D. 1545, four thousand - murdered, and twenty-two districts devastated with fire. Their - remnants got mixed up with the French Reformed. When the - Waldensian colonies in Calabria were told of the Protestantizing - of their Piedmontese brethren, they sent, in A.D. 1559, - a delegate to seek a pastor for them from Geneva. Ludovico - Pascale, by birth a Piedmontese Catholic, who had studied - theology at Geneva, was selected for this mission; but soon - after his arrival he was thrown into prison at Naples, and - from thence carried off to Rome, where in A.D. 1560 he went - with all the martyr’s joy and faith to the stake erected for - him by the Inquisition. In the trials of this man Rome for - the first time came to understand the significance and the - attitude of the Calabrian colonies, and now the grand-inquisitor, - Alexandrini, with some Dominicans, was sent for their conversion - or extermination. The flourishing churches were in A.D. 1561 - completely rooted out, amid scenes of almost incredible - atrocity. The men who escaped the stake were made to toil - in the Spanish galleys, while their wives and children were - sold as slaves. In Piedmont, the duke, after vain military - expeditions for their conversion, which the Waldensians, driven - to arms had successfully withstood, was obliged to allow them, - in the Peace of Cavour of A.D. 1561, a restricted measure of - religious liberty. But when the violent attempts to secure - conversions did not cease, they bound themselves together, in - A.D. 1571, in the so-called “Union of the Valleys,” by which - they undertook to defend one another in the exercise of their - evangelical worship.--Continuation, § 153, 5. - - § 139.26. =Attempt at Protestantizing the Eastern Church.=--The - opposition to the Roman papacy, which was common to them and the - eastern church, led the Protestants of the West to long for and - strive after a union with those who were thus far agreed with - them. A young Cretan, =Jacob Basilicus=, whom Heraclides, prince - of Samos and Paros, had adopted, on his travels through Germany, - Denmark, and Sweden had come into friendly relations with - Melanchthon and others of the reformed party, and attempted, - after he entered upon the government of his two islands in - A.D. 1561, to introduce a reformation of the local church - according to evangelical principles. But he was murdered in - A.D. 1563, and with him every trace of his movement passed - away.--In A.D. 1559 a deacon from Constantinople, =Demetrius - Mysos=, spent some months with Melanchthon at Wittenburg - [Wittenberg], and took with him a Greek translation of the - Augsburg Confession, of which, however, no result ever came. - At a later period, in A.D. 1573, the Tübingen theologians, - Andreä, Luc. Osiander, and others, reopened negotiations with - the patriarch Jeremiah II. (§ 73, 4), through a Lutheran pastor, - Stephen Gerbach, who went to Constantinople in the suite of - a zealous Protestant nobleman, David of Ungnad, ambassador - of Maximilian II. The Tübingen divines sent with him a Greek - translation of the Augsburg Confession, composed by Mart. - Crusius, with a request for his judgment upon it. The patriarch, - in his reply in A.D. 1576, expressed himself candidly in regard - to the errors of the book. The doctors of Tübingen wrote in - vindication of their formula, and in a second answer, in - A.D. 1579, the patriarch reiterated the objections stated in - the first. After a third interchange of letters he declined all - further discussion, and allowed a fourth epistle, in A.D. 1581, - to remain unanswered.--Continuation, § 152, 2. - - - - - II. The Churches of the Reformation. - - - § 140. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE - LUTHERAN CHURCH.[402] - - In the Lutheran Church, that specifically German type of Christianity -which from the days of Charlemagne was ever panting after independent -expression reached its maturity and full development. The sacred -treasure of true catholicity, which the church of early times had -nurtured in the form of Greek-Roman culture, is taken over freed from -excrescences, and enriched by those acquisitions of the Middle Ages -that had stood the proof. Its vocation was to set forth the “happy -mean” between the antagonistic ecclesiastical movements and struggles -of the West, and to give its strength mainly to the development of -sound doctrine. And if it has not exerted an equal influence in all -departments, paying most attention to the worship and least to matters -of constitution, it cannot, on the other hand, be denied that even -in those directions an effort has been made to modify the violent -contradiction of extremes (§ 142, 1, 2). - - =The Mediate and Mediating Attitude of the Lutheran Church= - shows itself in its fundamental conception of the essence of - Christianity as the union of the Divine and human, of which the - prototype is found in the Person of Christ, and illustrations of - it in the Scriptures, the church, the sacraments, the Christian - life, etc. In the varied ways in which this union is conceived - of lies the deepest and most inward ground of the divergence - that exists between the three western churches. The Catholic - church wishes to _see_ the union of the Divine and human; - the Lutheran, wishes to _believe_ it; the Reformed, wishes to - _understand_ it. The tendency prevails in the Catholic church - to confound these two, the Divine and the human, and that indeed - in such a way that the human loses its human character, and its - union with the Divine is regarded as constituting identity. The - Reformed church, again, is prone to separate the two, to look - upon the Divine by itself and the human by itself, and to regard - the union as a placing of the one alongside of the other, as - having not an objective but a merely subjective, not a real but - a merely ideal, connection. But the Lutheran church, guarding - itself against any confusion as well as any separation of the - two elements, had sought to view the union as the most vital, - rich, and inward communion, interpenetration, and reciprocity. - In the view of the Catholic church the human and earthly, which - is so often a very imperfect vehicle of the Divine, in which the - Divine often attained to a very incomplete development, is to be - regarded as in and by itself already the Divine. So is it in the - idea of the church, and hence the doctrine of a merely external - and visible church, which as such is only the channel of - salvation. So is it in the historical development of the church, - and hence the absolute authority of tradition and the reversal - of the true relations between Scripture and tradition. So too - is it with the doctrine of the sacraments, and hence the idea - of an _opus operatum_ and of transubstantiation. So in regard - to the priesthood, hence hierarchism; so in regard to the idea - of sanctification, and hence semipelagianism and the doctrine - of merits. Thoroughly antagonistic to all this was the view of - the Reformed church. It was inclined rather to sever completely - the Divine in Christianity from its earthly, visible vehicle, - and to think of the operation of the Divine upon man as merely - spiritual and communicated only through subjective faith. - It renounced all tradition, and thereby broke off from all - historical development, whether normal or abnormal. In its - doctrine of Scripture, the literal significance of the word - was often exalted above the spirit; in its doctrine of the - church, the significance of the visible church over that of the - invisible. In its doctrine of the Person of Christ, the human - nature of the glorified Saviour was excluded from a personal - full share in all the attributes of His divinity. In the - doctrine of the sacraments, supernatural grace and the earthly - elements were separated from one another; and in the doctrine - of predestination the Divine foreknowledge of man’s volitions - was isolated, etc. The Lutheran church, on the other hand, had - at least made the effort to steer between those two extremes, - and to bind into a living unity the truth that lies at the - foundation of both. In the Scripture it wishes as little to - see the spirit without the word, as the word without the spirit; - in history it recognises the rule and operation of the Spirit - of God within the human and ecclesiastical developments; and it - rejects only the false tradition which has not had its growth - organically from Holy Scripture, but rather contradicts it. - In its doctrine of the church it holds with equal tenacity to - the importance of the visible church and that of the invisible. - In its doctrine of the Person of Christ it affirms the perfect - humanity and the perfect divinity in the living union and richly - communicating reciprocity of the two natures. In its doctrine - of the sacraments it gives full weight as well to the objective - Divine fact which heavenly grace presents in earthly elements - as to the subjective condition of the man, to whom the sacrament - will prove saving or condemning according as he is a believer - or an unbeliever. And, finally, it expresses the belief that - in the Divine decree the apparent contradiction between God’s - foreknowledge and man’s self-determination is solved, while it - regards predestination as conditioned by the foreknowledge of - God; whereas Calvinism reverses that relation. - - - § 141. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE - LUTHERAN CHURCH.[403] - - Even during Luther’s lifetime, but much more after his death, -various doctrinal controversies broke out in the Lutheran church. -They arose for the most part upon the borderlands either of Calvinism -or of Catholicism, and were generally occasioned by offence taken at -the attitude of the more stiff and dogged of Luther’s adherents by -those of the Melanchthonian or Philippist school, who had irenical -and unionistic feelings in regard to both sides. The scene of these -conflicts was partly in the electorate of Albertine Saxony and in the -duchy of Ernestine Saxony. Wittenberg and Leipzig were the headquarters -of the Philippists, and Weimar and Jena of the strict Lutherans. -There was no lack on either side of rancour and bitterness. But if -the Gnesio-Lutherans went far beyond the Melanchthonians in stiffnecked -irreconcilableness, slanderous denunciation, and outrageous abuse, they -yet showed a most praiseworthy strength of conviction, steadfastness, -and martyrlike devotion; whereas their opponents not infrequently laid -themselves open to the charge, on the one hand, of a pusillanimous and -mischievous pliability, and, on the other hand, of using unworthy means -and covert, deceitful ways. Their controversies reached a conclusion -after various alternations of victory and defeat, with often very -tragic consequences to the worsted party, in the composition of a new -confessional document, the so called _Formula Concordiæ_. - - § 141.1. =The Antinomian Controversy=, A.D. 1537-1541, - which turned upon the place and significance of the law under - the Christian dispensation, lay outside the range of the - Philippist wranglings. =John Agricola=, for a time pastor - in his native town of Eisleben, and so often called Master - Eisleben, in A.D. 1527 took offence at Melanchthon for having - in his visitation articles (§ 127, 1) urged the pastors so - earnestly to enjoin upon their people the observance of the - law. He professed, indeed, for the time to be satisfied with - Melanchthon’s answer, which had also the approval of Luther, - but soon after he had, in A.D. 1536, become a colleague of both - in Wittenberg, he renewed his opposition by publishing adverse - theses. He did not contest the pedagogical and civil-political - use of the law outside of the church, but starting from the - principle that an enjoined morality could not help man, he - maintained that the law has no more significance or authority - for the Christian, and that the gospel, which by the power - of Divine love works repentance, is alone to be preached. - Melanchthon and Luther, on the contrary, held that anguish - and sorrow for sin are the fruits of the law, while the saving - resolution to reform is the effect of the gospel, and insisted - upon a continued preaching of the law, because from the - incompleteness of the believer’s sanctification in this world - a daily renewing of repentance is necessary. After several years - of oral and written discussion, Agricola took his departure from - Wittenberg in A.D. 1540, charging Luther with having offered him - a personal insult, and was made court preacher at Berlin, where, - in A.D. 1541, having discovered his error, he repudiated it in - a conciliatory exposition. The reputation in which he was held - at the court of Brandenburg led to his being at a subsequent - period made a _collaborateur_ in drawing up the hated Augsburg - Interim (§ 136, 5). As his antinomianism every now and again - cropped up afresh, the _Formula Concordiæ_ at last settled - the controversy by the statement that we must ascribe to - the law, not only a _usus politicus_ and _usus elenchticus_ - for terrorizing and arresting the sinner, but also a _usus - didacticus_ for the sanctifying of the Christian life. - - § 141.2. =The Osiander Controversy, A.D. 1549-1556.=--Luther - had, in opposition to the Romish doctrine of merits, defined - justification as purely an act of God, whose fruit can be - appropriated by man only by the exercise of faith. But he - distinguished from justification as an act of God _for_ man, - sanctification as the operation of God _in_ man. The former - consists in this, that Christ once for all has offered Himself - up on the cross for the sins of the whole world, and that - now God ascribes the merit of the sacrificial death of Christ - for every individual as though it had been his own, _i.e._ - juridically; the believer is thus declared, but not made - righteous. The believer, on the ground of his having been - declared righteous, is made righteous by means of a sanctifying - process penetrating the whole earthly life and constantly - advancing, but in this world never absolutely perfect, which - is effected by the communication of the new life which Christ - has created and brought to light. =Andrew Osiander= proposed - a theory that diverged from this doctrine, and inclined - toward that set forth in the Tridentine Council (§ 136, 4), - but distinguished from the Romish view by decided attachment - to the Protestant principle of justification by faith alone. - He had been from A.D. 1522 pastor and reformer at Nuremberg, - and had proclaimed his ideas without thereby giving offence. - This first happened when, after his expulsion from Nuremberg - on account of the interim, he had begun to announce his - peculiar doctrine in the newly founded University of Königsberg, - where he had been appointed professor by Duke Albert of - Prussia in A.D. 1549 (§ 126, 4). Confounding sanctification - with justification, he wished to define the latter, not - as a declaring righteous but as a making righteous, not as - a juridical but as a medicinal act, wrought by an infusion, - _i.e._ a continuous influx of the righteousness of Christ. - The sacrificial death of Christ is for him only the negative - condition of justification, its positive condition rests upon - the incarnation of Christ, the reproduction of which in the - believer is justification, which is therefore to be referred not - to the human but rather to the Divine nature in Christ. Along - with this, he also held by the conviction that the incarnation - of God in Christ would have taken place in order to complete - the creation of the image of God in man even had the fall - never happened. The main point of his opposition was grounded - upon this: that he believed the juridical theory to have - overlooked the religious subjective element, which, however, is - still present in faith as the subjective condition of declaring - righteous. The keen and bitter controversy over these questions - spread from the university among the clergy, and thence to the - citizens and families, and soon came to be carried on on both - sides with great passionateness and heat. The favour publicly - shown to Osiander by the duke, who set him as Bishop of Samland - at the head of the Prussian clergy, increased the bitterness - felt toward him by his opponents. Among these was Martin - Chemnitz, a scholar of Melanchthon, and from A.D. 1548 rector - of the High School at Königsberg. Also Professor Joachim Mörlin, - a favourite pupil of Luther, Francis Staphylus, who afterwards - went back to the Romish church (§ 137, 8), and Francis Stancarus - of Mantua, a man who bears a very bad reputation for his - fomenting of quarrels, were among Osiander’s most inveterate - foes. Stancarus carried his opposition to Osiander so far - as to maintain that Christ has become our righteousness only - in respect of His human nature. The opinions received from - abroad were for the inmost part against Osiander. John Brenz, - of Württemburg [Württemberg], however, clined rather to favour - Osiander’s view than that of his opponents, while Melanchthon, - in giving utterance to the Wittenberg opinion, endeavoured by - removing misunderstandings to reconcile the opposing parties, - but on the main point decided against him. Even Osiander’s death - in A.D. 1552 did not put an end to the controversy. At the head - of his party now appeared the court preacher, John Funck, who, - standing equally high in favour with the duke, filled all - positions with his own followers. In his overweening conceit - he mixed himself up in political affairs, and put himself in - antagonism with the nobles and men of importance in the State. - A commission of investigation on the Polish sovereignty at - their instigation found him guilty of high treason, and had - him beheaded in A.D. 1566. The other Osiandrianists were deposed - and exiled. Mörlin, from A.D. 1533 general superintendent of - Brunswick, was now honourably recalled as Bishop of Samland, - reorganized the Prussian church, and in conjunction with - Chemnitz, who had been from A.D. 1554 preacher in Brunswick, - where he died in A.D. 1586 as general superintendent, composed - for Prussia a new doctrinal standard in the _Corpus doctrinæ - Pruthenicum_ of A.D. 1567.[404] - - § 141.3. Of much less importance was the =Æpinus Controversy= - about Christ’s descent into hell, which John Æpinus, first - Lutheran superintendent at Hamburg, in his exposition of the - 16th Psalm, in A.D. 1542, interpreted, after the manner of the - Reformed theologians, of His state of humiliation, and as the - completion of the passive obedience of Christ in the endurance - of the pains of hell; whereas the usual Lutheran understanding - of it was, that it referred to Christ’s triumphing over the - powers of hell and death in His state of exaltation. An opinion - sent from Wittenberg, in A.D. 1550, left the matter undetermined, - and even the Formula of Concord was satisfied with teaching - that Christ in His full personality descended into hell in - order to deliver men from death and the power of the devil.--An - equally peaceful settlement was brought about in the =Kargian - Controversy=, A.D. 1563-1570, about the significance of the - active obedience of Christ, which the pastor of Anspach, George - Karg or Parsimonius, for a long time made a subject of dispute; - but afterwards he retracted, being convinced of his error by the - Wittenberg theologians. - - § 141.4. =The Philippists and their Opponents.=--Not long after - the Augsburg Confession had been accepted as the common standard - of the Lutheran church two parties arose, in which tendencies of - a thoroughly diversant character were gradually developed. The - real basis of this opposition lay in the diverse intellectual - disposition and development of the two great leaders of the - Reformation, which the scholars of both inherited in a very - exaggerated form. Melanchthon’s disciples, the so-called - Philippists, strove in accordance with their master’s example - to make as much as possible of what they had in common, on the - one hand, with the Reformed and, on the other hand, with the - Catholics, and to maintain a conciliatory attitude that might - aid toward effecting union. The personal friends, scholars, - and adherents of Luther, on the contrary, for the most part - more Lutheran than Luther himself, emulating the rugged decision - of their great leader and carrying it out in a one-sided manner, - were anxious rather to emphasise and widen as far as possible - the gulf that lay between them and their opponents, Reformed - and Catholics alike, and thus to make any reconciliation and - union by way of compromise impossible. Luther attached himself - to neither of these parties, but tried to restrain both from - rushing to extremes, and to maintain as far as he could the - peace between them.--The modification of strict Augustinianism - which Melanchthon’s further study led him to adopt in the - editions of his _Loci_ later than A.D. 1535 was denounced by - the strict Lutherans as Catholicizing, but still more strongly - did they object to the modification of the tenth article of the - Augsburg Confession which he introduced into a new rendering - of it, the so-called _Variata_, in A.D. 1540. In its original - form it stood thus: _Docent, quod corpus et sanguis Domini - vere adsint et distribuantur vescentibus in cœna Domini et - improbant secus docentes_. For these words he now substituted - the following: _Quod cum pane et vino vere exhibeantur corpus - et sanguis Christi vescentibus in cœna Domini_. This statement - was indeed by no means Calvinistic, for instead of _vescentibus_ - the Calvinists would have said _credentibus_. Yet the arbitrary - and in any case Calvinizing change amazed the strict Lutherans, - and Luther himself bade its author remember that the book - was not his but the church’s creed. After Luther’s death the - Philippist party, in the Leipzig Interim of A.D. 1519, made - several other very important concessions to the Catholics - (§ 136, 7), and this led their opponents to denounce them as - open traitors to their church. Magdeburg, which stubbornly - refused to acknowledge the interim, became the city of refuge - for all zealous Lutherans; while in opposition to the Philippist - Wittenberg, the University of Jena, founded in A.D. 1548 by the - sons of the ex-elector John Frederick according to his desire, - became the stronghold of strict Lutheranism. The leaders on - the Philippist side were Paul Eber, George Major, Justus Menius, - John Pfeffinger, Caspar Cruciger, Victorin Strigel, etc. At - the head of the strict Lutheran party stood Nicholas Amsdorf - and Matthias Flacius. The former lived, after his expulsion - from Naumburg (§ 135, 5), an “exul Christi,” along with the - young dukes at Weimar. On account of his violent opposition to - the interim, he was obliged, in A.D. 1548, to flee to Magdeburg, - and after the surrender of the city he was placed by his ducal - patrons in Eisenach, where he died in A.D. 1565. The latter, - a native of Istria, and hence known as Illyricus, was appointed - professor of the Hebrew language in Wittenberg in A.D. 1544, - fled to Magdeburg in A.D. 1549, from whence he went to Weimar - in A.D. 1556, and was called to Jena in A.D. 1557. - - § 141.5. =The Adiaphorist Controversy=, A.D. 1548-1555, as - to the permissibility of Catholic forms in constitution and - worship, was connected with the drawing up of the Leipzig - Interim. That document described most of the Catholic forms - of worship as _adiaphora_, or matters of indifference, which, - in order to avoid more serious dangers, might be treated - as allowable or unessential. The Lutherans, on the contrary, - maintained that even a matter in itself unessential under - circumstances like the present could not be treated as - permissible. From Magdeburg there was poured out a flood - of violent controversial and abusive literature against the - Wittenberg renegades and the Saxon apostates. The altered - position of the latter from A.D. 1551 hushed up in some measure - the wrath of the zealots, and the religious Peace of Augsburg - removed all occasion for the continuance of the strife. - - § 141.6. =The Majorist Controversy, A.D. 1551-1562.=--The - strict Lutherans from the passing of the interim showed toward - the Philippist party unqualified disfavour and regarded them - with deep suspicion. When in A.D. 1551, George Major, at that - time superintendent at Eisleben, in essential agreement with - the interim, one of whose authors he was, and with Melanchthon’s - later doctrinal views, maintained the position, that good - works are necessary to salvation, and refused to retract - the statement, though he somewhat modified his expressions - by saying that it was not a _necessitas meriti_, but only - a _necessitas conjunctionis s. consequentiæ_; and when also - Justus Menius, the reformer of Thuringia, superintendent - at Gotha, vindicated him in two tractates,--Amsdorf in the - heat of the controversy set up in opposition the extreme - and objectionable thesis, that good works are injurious to - salvation, and even in A.D. 1559 justified it as “a truly - Christian proposition preached by St. Paul and Luther.” - Notwithstanding all the passionate bitterness that had mixed - itself up with the discussion, the more sensible friends of - Amsdorf, including even Flacius, saw that the ambiguity and - indefiniteness of the expression was leading to error on both - sides. They acknowledged, on the one hand, that only faith, - not good works in themselves, is necessary to salvation, but - that good works are the inevitable fruit and necessary evidence - of true, saving faith; and, on the other hand, that not good - works in themselves, but only trusting to them instead of - the merits of Christ alone, can be regarded as injurious to - salvation. Major for the sake of peace recalled his statement - in A.D. 1562. - - § 141.7. =The Synergistic Controversy, - A.D. 1555-1567.=--Luther in his controversy with Erasmus - (§ 125, 3), as well as Melanchthon in the first edition of his - _Loci_, in A.D. 1521, had unconditionally denied the capacity - of human nature for independently laying hold upon salvation, - and taught an absolute sovereignty of Divine grace in conversion. - In his later edition of the _Loci_, from A.D. 1535, and in - the Augsburg Confession of A.D. 1540, however, Melanchthon - had admitted a certain co-operation or synergism of a remnant - of freewill in conversion, and more exactly defined this in - the edition of the _Loci_ of A.D. 1548 as the ability to lay - hold by its own impulse of the offered salvation, _facultas se - applicandi ad gratiam_; and though even in the Leipzig Interim - of A.D. 1549 the Lutheran shibboleth _solê_ was constantly - recurring, it was simply with the object of thoroughly excluding - any claim of merit on man’s part in conversion. Luther with - indulgent tolerance had borne with the change in Melanchthon’s - convictions, and only objected to the incorporation of it - in the creed of the church. But from the date of the interim - the suspicion and opposition of the strict Lutherans increased - from day to day, and burst forth in a violent controversy when - John Pfeffinger, superintendent at Leipzig, also one of the - authors of the detested interim, published, in A.D. 1555, his - _Propositiones de libero arbitrio_, in defence of Melanchthon’s - synergism. The leaders of the Gnesio-Lutherans, Arnsdorf in - Eisenach, Flacius in Jena, and Musacus in Weimar, felt that - they durst not remain silent, and so they maintained, as alone - the genuine Lutheran doctrine, that the natural man cannot - co-operate with the workings of Divine grace upon him, but - can only oppose them. By order of the Duke John Frederick - they prepared at Weimar, in A.D. 1559, as a new manifesto of - the restored Lutheranism, a treatise containing a refutation - of all the heresies that had hitherto cropped up within the - Lutheran church. One of those invited to take part in the work, - Victorin Strigel, professor at Jena, was made to suffer for - the sympathy which he evinced for synergism by enduring close - and severe imprisonment. The duke, however, soon again became - more favourable to Strigel, who in A.D. 1560 vindicated himself - at a public disputation in Weimar against Flacius, and was soon - afterwards called to Leipzig. When in A.D. 1561 the duke set up - a consistory in Weimar, and transferred to it the right hitherto - exclusively exercised in Jena of ecclesiastical excommunication - and the censorship of theological books, and the Flacian party - opposed this “Cæsaro-papism” with unmeasured violence, all the - adherents of the party were driven out of Jena and out of the - whole territory, and their places filled with Melanchthonians. - This victory of Philippism, however, was of but short duration. - In order to regain the lost electoral rank, the duke allowed - himself to be beguiled into taking part in the so-called - Grumbach affair. He was cast into the imperial prison, and - his brother John William, who now assumed the government, - hastened, in A.D. 1567, to restore the overthrown theological - party. Even in electoral Saxony interest in the Catholicizing - synergism, at least, after Melanchthon’s death, in A.D. 1560, - was gradually lost sight of in proportion as the controversy - about the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord’s Supper gradually - gained prominence. - - § 141.8. =The Flacian Controversy about Original Sin=, - A.D. 1560-1575.--In the heat of the controversy with Strigel - at the conference at Weimar, in A.D. 1560, Flacius had - committed himself to the statement that original sin in man - is not something accidental, but something substantial. His - own friends now urged him to retract this proposition, which - his opponents had branded as Manichæan. Its author had not - indeed intended it in the bad sense which it might be supposed - to bear. Flacius, however, was of a character too dogged and - obstinate to agree to recall what he had uttered. Expelled - with the rest of the Lutherans in A.D. 1562, and not recalled - with them in A.D. 1567, he wandered without any fixed place of - abode, driven away from almost every place that he entered, until - shortly before his death he recalled his overhasty expression. - He died in the hospital at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, in A.D. 1575. - In him a powerful character and an amazing wealth of learning - were utterly lost in consequence of unpropitious circumstances, - which were partly his fault and partly his misfortune. - - § 141.9. =The Lutheran Doctrine of the Lord’s Supper.=--The - union effected by the Wittenberg Concord of A.D. 1536 (§ 133, 8) - with the South German cities, which originally favoured Zwinglian - views, had been in many cases threatening to dissolve again, - and the attacks of the men of Zürich obliged Luther in A.D. 1544 - to compose his last “Confession of the Holy Sacrament against - the Fanatics.” The breach with the Zwinglians was now seen - to be irreparable, but it appeared as if it were yet possible - to come to an understanding with the more profound theory - of the Lord’s Supper set forth by Calvin. To carry out this - union was a thought very dear to the heart of Melanchthon. He - had the conviction, not indeed that the Lutheran doctrine of - the real presence of the body and blood in the bread and wine - is erroneous, but rather that by the Calvinistic doctrine of - a spiritual enjoyment of the body and blood of Christ in the - supper by means of faith no essential element of religious truth - was lost, and so he sought thereby to get over the difference - in confession and doctrine. But with this explanation the - strict Lutherans were by no means satisfied, and long continued - and extremely passionate discussions were carried on in the - various Lutheran countries, especially in Lower Saxony, in - the Palatinate, and in the electorate. But the controversy - was not restricted to the question of the supper; it rather - went back upon a deeper foundation. Luther, carrying out the - principles of the third and fourth œcumenical councils, had - taught that the personal connection of the two natures in Christ - implies a communication of the attributes of the one to the - other, _communicatio idiomatum_, that therefore Christ, since - He has by His ascension entered again upon the full exercise - of His attributes, is, as God-Man, even in respect of His body, - omnipresent, _ubiquitas corporis Christi_, and refused to allow - himself to be perplexed by the incomprehensibility for the human - understanding of an omnipresent body. It is here that we come - upon the radical distinction between Luther’s view and that of - Zwingli and Calvin, according to which the body of Christ cannot - be at one and the same time in heaven at God’s right hand and - on the earth in bread and wine. But Calvin, as well as Zwingli, - from his very intellectual constitution, could only regard - the Lutheran doctrine of the ubiquity of the glorified body - of Christ as an utter absurdity, and so, repudiating the - _communicatio idiomatum_, he taught that the glorification - of Christ’s body is restricted to its transfiguration, and - that now in heaven, as before upon the earth, it can be present - only in one place. A necessary consequence of this view was the - rejection of His corporeal presence in the supper, and at the - very most the admission of a communication in the sacrament to - believers of a spiritual influence from the glorified body of - Christ.--The ablest vindicator of the Lutheran doctrine of the - supper in this aspect of its development was the Württemberg - reformer John Brenz (§ 133, 3). In the _Syngramma Suevicum_ - of A.D. 1525 (§ 131, 1), he has taken his place most decidedly - on the side of Luther, and this he had also done again, - in A.D. 1529, at the Marburg Conference (§ 132, 4). Then - in A.D. 1559, as provost in Stuttgart, in consequence of the - doubtful attitude of a Swabian pastor on the question of the - supper, he summoned a synod at Stuttgart, before which he laid - a confession which expressed the doctrine of the supper and the - ubiquity in strict accordance with Lutheran views. In defence - of the idea of ubiquity he quoted Ephesians iv. 10, as affording - sufficient Scripture support. The synod unanimously adopted - it, and the duke gave approval to this _Confessio et doctr. - theologor. et ministror. Verbi Dei in Ducatu Wirtb. de vera - præsentia Corp. et sang, J. Chr. in Cœna Domini_, by ordering - that all preachers should adopt it, and that it should - have symbolic authority throughout the Württemberg church. - Melanchthon, who had hitherto been on particularly intimate - terms with Brenz, was very indignant at this “unseasonable” - creed-making in “barbarous Latin.” Brenz, however, would not - be deterred from giving more adequate expression and development - to the objectionable dogma, and for this purpose published, - in A.D. 1560, his book, _De personali unione duarum natur. - in Christo_. - - § 141.10. =Cryptocalvinism in its First Stage, - A.D. 1552-1574.=--The struggle of the Gnesio-Lutherans - against Calvin’s doctrine of the supper, and the secret favour - shown toward it by several Lutheran theologians, was begun in - A.D. 1552 by Joachim Westphal, pastor in Hamburg. Calvin and - Bullinger were not slow in giving him a sharp rejoinder. In - a yet more violent form the dispute broke out in Bremen, where - the cathedral preacher Hardenberg, and in Heidelberg, where the - deacon Klebitz, entered the lists against the Lutheran dogma. - In both cases the struggle ended in the defeat of Lutheranism - (§ 144, 1, 2). In Wittenberg, too, the Philippists George Major, - Paul Eber, Paul Crell, etc., supported by the very influential - court physician of the electoral court of Saxony, Caspar Peucer, - Melanchthon’s son-in-law, from A.D. 1559 successfully advanced - the interests of Cryptocalvinism. Melanchthon himself, however, - was not to live to see the troubles that arose over this, - a truly gracious dispensation of Providence on behalf of a - man already sorely borne down and trembling with hypochondriac - fears, to have him thus delivered _a rabie theologicorum_. - He died on 19th April, A.D. 1560. While the Elector Augustus, - A.D. 1553-1586, intended that his Wittenberg should always be - the main stronghold of strict Lutheranism, the Philippists were - always coming forward with more and more boldness, and sought - to prepare the way for themselves by getting all places filled - with members of their party. They persuaded the elector to give - a nominative authority throughout Saxony to a collection of - Melanchthonian doctrinal and confessional documents compiled - by them, _Corpus doctrinæ Philippicum s. Misnicum,_ 1560. - The Wittenberg Catechism, _Catechesis, etc., ad usum scholar. - puerilium_, 1571, set forth a doctrine of the sacraments - and the person of Christ so manifestly Calvinistic, that - even the elector was obliged to give way on account of the - strong objections brought against it. The Philippists, however, - succeeded in satisfying him by the _Consensus Dresdensis_, - of 10th Oct., A.D. 1571, to this extent, that after the death - of Duke John William, in the exercise of his authority as regent, - he was induced to expel the Lutheran zealots Wigand and Hesshus - from Jena, and in A.D. 1573 had more than a hundred clergymen - of the duchy of Saxony deposed. In Breslau their interests were - also zealously advanced by the influential imperial physician, - John Krafft, to whom the Emperor Maximilian II. had granted - a patent of nobility in A.D. 1568, with the new name of Crato - von Crafftheim. Another Silesian physician, Joachim Curæus, - also a scholar of Melanchthon, published in A.D. 1574, without - any indication of author’s name, place of publication, or date - of issue, his _Exegesis perspicua controversiæ de cœna_, which - represented Melanchthon’s doctrine of the Lord’s Supper as the - only tenable one, controverted that of the Lutherans as popish, - eulogized that of the Reformed church as one most honouring to - God, and urgently counselled union with the Calvinists. The warm - recommendation of this treatise on the part of the Wittenberg - Philippists, however, rather contributed to its failure. For - now, at last, even the elector had become convinced of the - danger that threatened Lutheranism through hints given him by - the princes, and information obtained from intercepted letters. - The Philippists were banished, their chiefs thrown into prison, - Peucer being confined for twelve years, A.D. 1574-1586. A - thanksgiving service in all the churches and memorial medal - celebrated the rooting out in A.D. 1574 of Calvinism, and the - final victory of restored Lutheranism.--In Denmark, Nicholas - Hemming, pastor and professor at Copenhagen, distinguished - alike by adequate scholarship and rich literary activity, - and by mildness and temperateness of character, and hence - designated the Preceptor of Denmark, was the recognised - head of the Melanchthonian school. As a decided opponent - of the doctrine of ubiquity, though otherwise on all points, - and especially in his doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, a - good Lutheran, he fell under the suspicion of the German - Gnesio-Lutherans as a Cryptocalvinist, and was accordingly - opposed by them. In A.D. 1579, by order of the Elector Augustus, - his brother-in-law, the King of Denmark removed him from his - offices in Copenhagen, appointing him to a canonry in the - cathedral at Roeskilde, where in A.D. 1600 he died. - - § 141.11. =The Frankfort Compact, A.D. 1558, and the Naumburg - Assembly of Princes, A.D. 1561.=--After the disgraceful issue - of the Worms Conference of A.D. 1557 (§ 137, 6), the Protestant - princes, the electors Augustus of Saxony, Joachim of Brandenburg, - and Ottheinrich of the Palatinate, with Philip of Hesse, - Christopher of Württemberg, and the Count-palatine Wolfgang, - who were gathered together about the Emperor Ferdinand, - consulted as to the means which they should employ to insure - and confirm the threatened unity of the evangelical church - of Germany. The result of their deliberations was, that they - agreed to sign a statement drawn up by Melanchthon and known - by the name of the =Frankfort Compact=, in which they declared - anew their unanimous attachment to the doctrine set forth in - the _Augustana_, the _Variata_, and the _Saxonica_ (§ 136, 8), - and in regard to controversial questions that had been discussed - within the church expressed themselves in moderate terms as - inclined to the views of Melanchthon. The Flacian party in - Jena hastened to set forth their opposing sentiments in the - manifesto of A.D. 1559, already referred to, in which the strict - Gnesio-Lutheranism was laid down in the hardest and boldest - manner possible.--The divisions that arose within the Lutheran - church after Melanchthon’s death and the imminent reassembling - of the Tridentine Council led the evangelical princes of Germany, - who, with the exception of Philip of Hesse, all belonged to a - new generation, once more to put forth every effort to restore - unity by adoption of a common evangelical confession. At the - =Assembly of Princes= appointed to meet for this purpose at - =Naumburg= in A.D. 1561, most of them appeared personally. - There was no thought of preparing a new confession, because - it was feared that in those times of agitation it might be - impossible to draw up such a document, or that, even if they - succeeded in doing so, it might not close the breach, but - rather widen it. Thus the only alternative remaining was - to attempt the healing of the schism by reverting to the - standpoint of the Augsburg Confession. But then the question - arose whether the original form of statement of A.D. 1530, - or its later elaboration of A.D. 1540, should be taken as the - basis of union negotiations.--This at least was to be said in - favour of the latter, that it had been unanimously adopted as - the common confession of all the evangelicals of Germany at the - peace Conference of Worms in A.D. 1540, where even Calvin had - signed it, and at Regensburg in A.D. 1541 (§ 135, 2, 3); and - now Philip of Hesse and Frederick III. of the Palatinate came - forward decidedly in its favour. But all the more persistently - did the Duke John Frederick of Saxony oppose it, and make every - endeavour to get the rest of the princes to give their votes - in favour of the Augsburg Confession of A.D. 1530. But the - duke’s further wish to have added to it the Schmalcald Articles - found very little favour. Finally a compromise was effected, in - accordance with which, in a newly drawn up preface, the Apology - of the _Augustana_, as well as the edition of A.D. 1540, was - acknowledged, while the Schmalcald Articles, as well as the - _Confessio Saxonica_ (§ 136, 8) and the Frankfort Compact, were - passed over in silence. John Frederick now demanded the adoption - of an express condemnation of the Calvinising Sacramentarians. - This led to a hot discussion between him and his father-in-law, - the elector-palatine. He took his departure on the following - day without having received his dismissal, leaving behind him - a sharply worded protest. Ulrich of Mecklenburg also refused - to subscribe, but allowed himself at last to be persuaded into - doing so. At the sixteenth session two papal legates personally - delivered to the princes a brief inviting them to attend the - council. This latter, however, was returned unopened when they - discovered in the address the usual but artfully concealed - formula “_dilecto filio_.” Also the demand of the imperial - embassy accompanying the legates to take part in the council - was determinedly rejected, because that would mean not revision - but simply a continuation of the previous sessions of the - council, at which the evangelical doctrine had already been - definitely condemned. - - § 141.12. =The Formula of Concord, A.D. 1577.=--Already for - a long time had the learned chancellor Jac. Andreä of Tübingen - wrought unweariedly for the restoration of peace among the - theologians of the Lutheran church. In order also to win over - the general membership in favour of peace, he attempted in - six popular discourses, delivered in A.D. 1573, to instruct - them in reference to the points in dispute and proper means - for overcoming these differences. He was so successful in his - efforts, that he soon ventured to propose that these lectures - should be made the basis of further negotiations. But when - Martin Chemnitz, the most distinguished theologian of his - age, pronounced them unsuitable for that purpose, Andreä - wrought them up anew in accordance with Chemnitz’s critical - suggestions into the so called “Swabian Concord.” But even - in this form they did not satisfy the theologians of Lower - Saxony. The Swabian theologians, however, in their criticisms - and emendations, had answered various statements in it, and - in A.D. 1576 they produced a new union scheme, drafted by - Luc. Osiander, called the “_Maulbronn Formula_.” The Elector - Augustus of Saxony then summoned a theological convention - at Torgau, at which, besides Andreä and Chemnitz, there were - also present Chytræus from Rostock, as well as Körner and - Andr. Musculus from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. They wrought up - the material thus accumulated before them into the “Book - of Torgau,” of A.D. 1576. In regard to this book also the - evangelical princes delivered numerous opinions, and now - at last, in obedience to the order of the princes, Andreä, - Chemnitz, Selnecker (§ 142, 4), Chytræus, Musculus, and Körner - retired into the cloister of Berg at Magdeburg in order to make - a final revision of all that was before them. Thus originated, - in A.D. 1577, the Book of Berg or the =Formula of Concord=, in - two different forms, first in the most compressed style possible - in what is known as the _Epitome_, and then more completely - in the document known as the _Solida declaratio_. This document - dealt with all the controverted questions that had been agitated - since A.D. 1530 in twelve articles. It set forth the doctrine - of the Person of Christ, giving prominence to the theory of - ubiquity, as the basis of the doctrine of the supper, leaving - it, however, undetermined in accordance with the teaching of - Brenz, whether the ubiquity is to be regarded as an absolute - or as a relative one, if only it be maintained that Christ - in respect of His human nature, therefore in respect of His - body, is present “_ubicunque velit_,” more particularly in - the holy supper. An opportunity was also found in treating - of the synergistic questions to set forth the doctrine of - predestination, although within the Lutheran church no real - controversy on this subject had ever arisen. Luther, who at - first (§ 125, 3) had himself given expression to a particularist - doctrine of election, had gradually receded from that position. - It was so too with Melanchthon, only with this important - difference, that whereas Luther, afterwards as well as before, - excluded every sort of co-operation of man in conversion, - Melanchthon felt himself obliged to admit a certain degree - of co-operation, which even the censure of Calvin himself could - not lead him to repudiate. When now the Formula of Concord, - rejecting synergism in the most decided manner, affirmed that - since the fall there was in men not even a spark remaining, - _ne scintillula quidem_, of spiritual power for the independent - free appropriation of offered grace, it had gone over from the - platform of Melanchthon to that which Calvin, following the - course of hard, logical consistency, had been driven to adopt, - in the assertion of a doctrine of absolute predestination. The - formula was thus in the main in agreement with the speculation - of Calvin. But it declined to accept the conclusions arrived - at in Calvinism by declaring that while man indeed of himself - wanted the power to lay hold upon Divine grace and co-operate - with it in any way, he was yet able to withstand it and refuse - to accept it. In this way it was able to hold by the express - statements of Scripture which represent God as willing that - all men should be saved, and salvation as an absolute work of - grace, but condemnation as the consequence of man’s own guilt. - It regards the salvation of men as the only object of Divine - predestination, condemnation as merely an object of the Divine - foreknowledge.--At a later period an attempt was made to set - at rest the scruples that prevailed here and there by securing - at Berg, in February, A.D. 1580, the adoption of an addition - to it in the form of a _Præfatio_ drawn up by Andreä as a final - determination of the controversy. The character of this new - symbolical document, in accordance with its occasion and its - aim, was not so much that of a popular exposition for the church, - but rather that of a scientific theological treatise. For that - period of excitement and controversy it is quite remarkable - and worthy of high praise for its good sense, moderation, and - circumspection, as well as for the accuracy and clearness with - which it performed its task. The fact that nine thousand of the - teachers of the church subscribed it affords sufficient proof - of it having fulfilled the end contemplated. Denmark and Sweden, - Holstein, Pomerania, Hesse, and Anhalt, besides eight cities, - Magdeburg, Dantzig, Nuremberg, Strassburg, etc., refused to - sign from various and often conflicting motives. In A.D. 1581 - Frederick II. of Denmark is said indeed to have thrown it - into the fire. Yet in later years it was adopted in not a - few of these regions, _e.g._ in Sweden, Holstein, Pommerania - [Pomerania], etc. The Elector Augustus of Saxony, in the Book - of Concord, brought out a collection of all general Lutheran - confessional writings which, signed by fifty-one princes and - thirty-five cities, was solemnly promulgated on the anniversary - of the Augsburg Confession, 25th June, A.D. 1580. By this means - the whole Lutheran church of Germany obtained a common _corpus - doctrinæ_, and the numerous collections of confessional and - doctrinal documents acknowledged by the church, which hitherto - separate national churches had drawn up for this purpose, - henceforth lost their authority. - - § 141.13. =Second Stage of Cryptocalvinism, A.D. 1586-1592.=--Yet - once more the Calvinising endeavours of the Philippists were - renewed in the electorate of Saxony under Augustus’ successor - Christian I., who had obtained this position in A.D. 1586, - through his relationship with the family of the count-palatine. - His chancellor Nicholas Crell filled the offices of pastors - and teachers with men of his own views, abolished exorcism at - baptism, and had even begun the publication of a Bible with - a Calvinising commentary when Christian died, in A.D. 1591. - The Duke Frederick William of Altenburg, as regent during the - minority, immediately re-introduced strict Lutheranism, and, - preparatory to a church visitation, had a new anti-Calvinistic - standard of doctrine compiled in the so called =Articles of - Visitation= of A.D. 1592, which all civil and ecclesiastical - officers in Saxony were required to accept. In short, clear, - and well defined theses and antitheses the doctrinal differences - on the supper, the Person of Christ, baptism, and election were - there set forth. In reference to baptism, the anti-Calvinistic - doctrine was promulgated, that regeneration takes place through - baptism, and that therefore every baptized person is regenerate. - The most important among the compilers of these Articles - of Visitation was Ægidius Hunnius, shortly before called to - Wittenberg, after having, from A.D. 1576 to 1592, as professor - at Marburg, laboured with all his might in opposition to - the Calvinising of Hesse. He had also, by his defence of the - doctrine of ubiquity, in his “Confession of the Doctrine of - the Person of Christ” in German, in A.D. 1577, and his Latin - treatise, “_Libelli IV. de pers. Chr. ejusque ad dexteram - sedentes divina majestate_,” in A.D. 1585, shown himself - an energetic champion of strict Lutheranism. He died in - A.D. 1603.--The unfortunate chancellor Crell, however, who - had made himself hateful to the Lutherans as the promoter and - chief instigator of all the Calvinising measures of the deceased - elector, and yet more so by his energetic interference with - the usurpations of the nobles, suffered an imprisonment of ten - years in the fortress of Königstein, and was then, after a trial - conducted in the most arbitrary manner, declared to be a traitor - and an enemy of the public peace, and executed in A.D. 1601. - - § 141.14. =The Huber Controversy, A.D. 1588-1595.=--Samuel - Huber, reformed pastor in the Canton Bern, became involved - in a controversy with Wolfgang Musculus over the doctrine of - election. Going even beyond the Lutheran doctrine, he affirmed - that all men are predestinated to salvation, although through - their own fault not all are saved. Banished from Bern in - A.D. 1588, after a disputation with Beza, he entered the - Lutheran church and became pastor at Württemberg. Here he - charged the Professor Gerlach with Cryptocalvinism, because - he taught that only believers are predestinated to salvation. - The controversy was broken off by his call to Wittenberg. - But even his Wittenberg colleagues, Polic. Leyser and Ægidius - Hunnius, fell under the suspicion of Cryptocalvinism, and were - accordingly opposed by him. When all disputation and conferences - had failed to get him to abandon his doctrine, and parties - began to be formed among the students, he was, in A.D. 1594, - removed from Wittenberg. With increasing rancour he continued - the controversy, and wandered about Germany for many years in - order to secure a following for his theory, but without success. - He died in A.D. 1624. - - § 141.15. =The Hofmann Controversy in Helmstadt, - A.D. 1598.=--The great influence which the study of the - Aristotelian philosophy in connection with that of humanism - obtained in the Julius University founded at Helmstadt in - A.D. 1576, seemed to its theological professor, Daniel Hofmann, - to threaten injury to theological study, and to be prejudicial - to pure Lutheran doctrine. He therefore attached himself to - the Romists (§ 143, 6), and took advantage of the occasion - of the conferring of doctor’s degrees to deliver a violent - invective against the incursions of reason and philosophy into - the region of religion and revelation. In consequence of this - his philosophical colleagues complained of him to the senate as - a reproacher of reason, and as one injurious to their faculty. - That court obliged him to retract and apologise, and then - deprived him of his office as professor of theology. - - - § 142. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, LIFE, AND SCIENCE IN THE - LUTHERAN CHURCH. - - In reference also to the ecclesiastical constitution, by holding -firmly to the standpoint and to the working out of the system which it -had sketched out in its confession and doctrinal teaching, the Lutheran -church sought to mediate between extremes, although, amid the storms -from without and from within by which it was threatened, it was just -at this point that it was least successful. It reflected its character -more clearly and decidedly in its order of worship than in its -constitution.--The Reformation at last relaxed that hierarchical ban -which for centuries had put an absolute restraint upon congregational -singing, and had excluded the use of the vernacular in the services -of the church. Even within the limits of the Reformation era, the -German church song attained unto such a wonderful degree of excellence, -as affords the most convincing evidence of the fulness, power, and -spirituality, the genuine elevation and fresh enthusiasm, of the -spiritual life of that age. The sacred poetry of the church is the -confession of the Lutheran people, and has accomplished even more -than preaching for extending and deepening the Christian life of the -evangelical church. No sooner had a sacred song of this sort burst -forth from the poet’s heart, than it was everywhere taken up by the -Christian people of the land, and became familiar to every lip. It -found entrance into all houses and churches, was sung before the doors, -in the workshops, in the market-places, streets, and fields, and won -at a single blow whole cities to the evangelical faith.--The Christian -life of the people in the Lutheran church combined deep, penitential -earnestness and a joyfully confident consciousness of justification by -faith with the most nobly steadfast cheerfulness and heartiness natural -to the German citizen. Faithful attention to the spiritual interests -of their people, vigorous ethical preaching, and zealous efforts to -promote the instruction of the young on the part of their pastors, -created among them a healthy and hearty fear of God, without the -application of any very severe system of church discipline, a thorough -and genuine attachment to the church, strict morality in domestic -life, and loyal submission to civil authority.--Theological science -flourished especially at the universities of Wittenberg, Tübingen, -Strassburg, Marburg, and Jena. - - § 142.1. =The Ecclesiastical Constitution.=--As a mean between - hierarchism and Cæsaro-papism, between the intrusion of the - State into the province of the church, and the intrusion of - the church into the province of the State, the ecclesiastical - constitution of the Lutheran church was theoretically right - in the main, though in practice and even in theory many defects - might be pointed out. It presented at least a protest against - all commingling or subordinating of one or the other in these - two spheres. Owing to the urgent needs of the church, the - princes and magistrates, in the character of emergency-bishops, - undertook the supreme administration and management of - ecclesiastical affairs, and transferred the exercise of these - rights and duties to special boards called consistories, made - up of lay and clerical members, which were to have jurisdiction - over the clergy, the administration of discipline, and the - arranging and enforcing of the marriage laws. What had been - introduced simply as a necessity in the troubled condition of - the church in those times came gradually to be claimed as a - prescriptive right. According to the _Episcopal System_, the - territorial lord as such claimed to rank and act as _summus - episcopus_. After introducing some cautious modifications that - were absolutely indispensable, the canon law actually left - the foundation of jurisprudence untouched. The restoration of - the biblical idea of a universal priesthood of all believers - would not tolerate the retaining of the theory of an essential - distinction between the clergy and the laity. The clergy were - properly designated the servants, _ministri_, of the church, - of the word, of the altar, and all restrictions that had been - imposed upon the clergy, and distinguished them as an order, - were removed. Hierarchical distinctions among the clergy - were renounced, as opposed to the spirit of Christianity; - but the advantage of a superordination and subordination - in respect of merely human rights, in the institution of - such offices as those of superintendents, provosts, etc., - was recognised.--Ecclesiastical property was in many cases - diverted from the church and arbitrarily appropriated by the - greed and rapacity of princes and nobles, but still in great - part, especially in Germany, it continued in the possession - of the church, except in so far as it was applied to the - endowment of schools, universities, and charitable institutions. - The monasteries fell under a doom which by reason of their - corruptions they had richly deserved. A restoration of such - establishments in an evangelical spirit was not to be thought - of during a period of convulsion and revolution.--Continuation, - § 165, 5. - - § 142.2. =Public Worship and Art.=--While the Roman Catholic - order of worship was dominated almost wholly by fancy and - feeling, and that of the reformed church chiefly by the reason, - the Lutheran church sought to combine these two features in - her services. In Romish worship all appealed to the senses, - and in that of the Calvinistic churches all appealed to the - understanding; but in the Lutheran worship both sides of human - nature were fully recognised, and a proportionate place assigned - to each. The unity of the church was not regarded as lying in - the rigid uniformity of forms of worship, but in the unity of - the confession. Altars ornamented with candles and crucifixes, - as well as all the images that might be in churches, were - allowed to remain, not as objects of worship, but rather to - aid in exciting and deepening devotion. The liturgy was closely - modelled upon the Romish ritual of the mass, with the exclusion - of all unevangelical elements. The preaching of the word was - made the central point of the whole public service. Luther’s - style of preaching, the noble and powerful popularity of - which has probably never since been equalled, certainly - never surpassed, was the model and pattern which the other - Lutheran preachers set before themselves. Among these, - the most celebrated were Ant. Corvin, Justus Jonas, George - Spalatin, Bugenhagen, Jerome Weller, John Brenz, Veit Dietrich, - J. Mathesius, Martin Chemnitz. It was laid down as absolutely - essential to the idea of public worship, that the congregation - should take part in it, and that the common language of the - people should be exclusively employed. The adoration of the - sacrament on the altar, as well as the Romish service of the - mass, were set aside as unevangelical, and the sacrament of - the supper was to be administered to the whole congregation in - both kinds. On the other hand, it was admitted that baptism was - necessary, and might and should be administered in case of need - by laymen. The customary formulary of exorcism in baptism was - at first continued without dispute, and though Luther himself - attached no great importance to it, yet every attempt to secure - its discontinuance was resisted by the later Gnesio-Lutherans as - savouring of Cryptocalvinism. Yet it should be remembered that - such orthodox representatives of Lutheranism as Hesshus, Ægidius - Hunnius, and Martin Chemnitz, as well as afterwards John Gerhard, - Quenstedt, and Hollaz, were only in favour of its being allowed, - but not of its being regarded as necessary. Spener again - declared himself decidedly in favour of its being removed, - and in the eighteenth century it passed without any serious - opposition into disuse throughout almost the whole of the - Lutheran church, until re-introduced in the nineteenth century - by the Old Lutherans (§ 176, 2).--The church festivals were - restricted to celebrations of the facts of redemption; only - such of the feasts of Mary and the saints were retained as had - legitimate ground in the Bible history; _e.g._ the days of the - apostles, the annunciation of Mary, Michael’s Day, St. John’s - Day, etc. Art was held by Luther in high esteem, especially - music. Lucas Cranach, who died in A.D. 1553, Hans Holbein, - father and son, and Albert Dürer, who died in A.D. 1528, placed - their art as painters at the service of the gospel, and adorned - the churches with beautiful and thoughtful pictures. - - § 142.3. =Church Song.=--The character common to the sacred - songs of the Lutheran church of the sixteenth century is - that they are thoroughly suited for congregational purposes, - and are truly popular. They are songs of faith and the creed, - with a clear impress of objectivity. The writers of them do - not describe their subjective feelings, nor their individual - experiences, but they let the church herself by their mouths - express her faith, her comfort, her thanksgiving, and adoration. - But they are also genuinely songs of the people; true, simple, - hearty, bright, and bold in expression, rapid in movement, - no standing still and looking back, no elaborate painting - and describing, no subtle demonstrating and teaching. Even in - outward form they closely resemble the old German epics and - the popular historical ballad, and were intended above all - not merely to be read, but to be sung, and that by the whole - congregation. The ecclesiastical authorities began to introduce - hymn-books into the several provinces toward the end of the - seventeenth century. Previously there had only been private - collections of sacred songs, and the hymns were distinguished - only by the words of the opening line; and so widely known were - they, that the mentioning of them was sufficient to secure the - hymn so designated being sung by the congregation present at the - public service.--The sacred songs of the Reformation age possess - all these characteristics in remarkable degree. Among all the - sacred poets of that time =Luther= stands forth pre-eminent. - His thirty-six hymns or sacred poems belong to five different - classes. - - 1. There are free translations of Latin hymns: “Praised be - Thou, O Jesus Christ;” “Thou who art Three in unity;” - “In our true God we all believe;” “Lord God, we praise - do Thee;” “In the midst of life we are aye in death’s - embraces;” “Come God, Creator, Holy Ghost,” etc. - - 2. There are reproductions of original German songs: “Death - held our Lord in prison;” “Now pray we to the Holy Ghost;” - “God the Father with us be;” “Let God be praised, blessed, - and uplifted.” - - 3. We have also paraphrastic renderings of certain psalms: - “Ah, God in heaven, look down anew” (Ps. xii.); “Although - the mouth say of the unwise” (Ps. xiv.); “Our God, He - is a castle strong” (Ps. xlvi.); “God, unto us right - gracious be” (Ps. lxvii.); “Had God not been with us - this time” (Ps. cxxiv.); “From trouble deep I cry to - Thee” (Ps. cxxx.), etc. - - 4. We have also songs composed on particular Scripture themes: - “There are the holy ten commands;” “To Isaiah the prophet - this was given” (Isa. vi.); “From heaven on high I come to - you” (Luke ii.); “To Jordan, where our Lord has gone,” etc. - - 5. There are, finally, poems original in form and contents: - “Dear Christians, let us now rejoice;” “Jesus Christ, our - Saviour true;” “Lord, keep us by Thy word in hope.”[405] - - After Luther, the most celebrated hymn-writers in the Lutheran - church of the sixteenth century are =Paul Speratus=, reformer - in Prussia, who died in A.D. 1554; =Nicholas Decius=, first - a monk, then evangelical pastor at Stettin about A.D. 1524. - =Paul Eber=, professor and superintendent in Wittenberg, who - died in A.D. 1569, author of the hymns, “When in the hour of - utmost need;” “Lord Jesus Christ, true Man and God;” and one of - which our well-known “Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness,” is a - paraphrase.[406] Hans Sachs, shoemaker in Nuremberg, who died in - A.D. 1567, wrote during the famine in that city in A.D. 1552 the - hymn, “Why art thou thus cast down, my heart?” =John Schneesing=, - pastor in Gothaschen, who died in A.D. 1567, wrote “Lord Jesus - Christ, in Thee alone.” =John Mathesius=, rector and deacon - in Joachimsthal, who also delivered sermons on Luther’s life, - died in A.D. 1565, wrote a beautiful morning hymn, and other - sweet sacred pieces. =Nicholas Hermann=, who died in A.D. 1561, - precentor at Joachimsthal, wrote out Mathesius’ sermons in hymns, - “The happy sunshine all is gone,” the burial hymn, “Now hush - your cries, and shed no tear,” etc. =Michael Weisse= closes the - series of hymn-writers of the Reformation age. He was a German - pastor in Bohemia, translator and editor of the sacred songs of - the Bohemian Hussites, and died in A.D. 1540. He wrote “Christ - the Lord is risen again,” and the burial hymn to which Luther - added a verse, “Now lay we calmly in the grave.”[407] - - § 142.4. In the period immediately following, from A.D. 1560 - to A.D. 1618, we meet with many poetasters who write on sacred - themes in doggerel rhymes. Even those who are poets by natural - endowment, and inspired with Divine grace, are much too prolific; - but they have bequeathed to us a genuine wealth of beautiful - church songs, characterized by healthful objectivity, childlike - simplicity, and a singular power of appealing to the hearts of - the great masses of the people. But a tendency already begins to - manifest itself in the direction of that excessive subjectivity - which was the vice of hymn-writers in the succeeding period; - the doctrinal element too becomes more and more prominent, - as well as application to particular circumstances and occasions - in life; but the objective confession of faith is always still - predominant. Among the sacred poets of this period the most - important are =Bartholmaus Ringwaldt=, pastor in Brandenburg, - who died in A.D. 1597, author of “’Tis sure that awful time will - come;” =Nicholas Selnecker=, at last superintendent in Leipzig, - who died in A.D. 1592, as Melanchthon’s scholar suspected at - one time of Cryptocalvinism, but, after he had taken part in - the composition of the Formula of Concord, the object of the - most bitter hatred and constant persecution on the part of the - Cryptocalvinists of Saxony: he wrote, “O Lord my God, I cry to - Thee;” =Martin Schalling=, pastor at Regensburg and Nuremberg, - who died in A.D. 1608, wrote, “Lord, all my heart is fixed on - Thee;” =Martin Böhme= or Behemb, pastor in Lusatia, who died in - A.D. 1621, author of “Lord Jesus Christ, my Life, my Light.” The - series closes with =Philip Nicolai=, a violent and determined - opponent of Calvinism, who was latterly pastor in Hamburg, and - died in A.D. 1608. His vigorous and rhythmical poetry, with its - deep undertone of sweetness, is to some extent modelled on the - Song of Songs. He wrote “Awake, awake, for night is flying;” the - chorale in Mendelssohn’s “St. Paul,” “Sleepers, wake, a voice is - calling,” is a rendering of the same piece.--Continuation, - § 159, 3. - - § 142.5. =Chorale Singing.=--The congregational singing, which - the Reformation made an integral part of evangelical worship, - was essentially a reproduction of the Ambrosian mode (§ 59, 5) - in a purer form and with richer fulness. It was distinguished - from the Gregorian style preeminently by this, that it - was not the singing of a choir of priests, but the popular - singing of the whole congregation. The name chorale singing, - however, was still continued, and has come to be the - technical and appropriate designation of the new mode. It is - further distinguished from the Gregorian mode by this other - characteristic, that instead of singing in a uniform monotone - of simple notes of equal length, it introduces a richer rhythm - with more lively modulation. And, finally, it is characterized - by the introduction of harmony in place of the customary unison. - But, on the other hand, the chorale singing may be regarded as - a renewal of the old _cantus firmus_, while at the same time - it sets aside the secular music style and the artificialities - of counterpoint and the elaborate ornamentation with which the - false taste of the Middle Ages had overlaid it. The congregation - sang the _cantus firmus_ or melody in unison, the singers in the - choir gave it the accompaniment of a harmony. The organ during - the Reformation age was used for support, and accompanied only - in elaborate, high-class music. But the melody was pitched in - a medium key, which as the leading voice was called _Tenor_. - The melodies for the new church hymns were obtained, partly by - adaptation of the old tunes for the Latin hymns and sequences, - partly by appropriation of popular mediæval airs, especially - among the Bohemian Brethren, partly also and mainly by the - free use of the popular song tunes of the day, to which no one - made any objection, since indeed the spiritual songs were often - parodies of the popular songs whose airs were laid hold upon - for church use. The few original melodies of this age were for - the most part composed by the authors of the hymns themselves - or by the singers, and were the outflow of the same inspiration - as had called forth the poems. They have therefore been rarely - equalled in impressiveness, spiritual glow, and power by any - of the more artistic productions of later times. Acquaintance - with the new melodies was spread among the people by itinerant - singers, chorister boys in the streets, and the city cornet - players. From the singers or those who adapted the melodies are - to be distinguished the composers, who as technical musicians - arranged the harmony and set it in a form suitable for church - use. =George Rhaw=, precentor in Leipzig, afterwards printer in - Wittenberg, and =Hans Walter=, choirmaster to the elector, both - intimate friends of Luther, were amongst the most celebrated - composers of their day. The evangelical church music reaches - its highest point of excellence toward the end of the sixteenth - century. The great musical composer, =John Eccart=, who was - latterly choirmaster in Berlin, and died in A.D. 1611, was - the most active agent in securing this perfection of his art. - In order to make the melody clearer and more distinctly heard, - it was transferred from the middle voice, the tenor, to the - higher voice or treble. The other voices now came in as simple - concords alongside of the melody, and the organ, which had now - been almost perfected by the introduction of many important - improvements, now came into general use with its pure, rich, - and accurate full harmony, as a support and accompaniment of - the congregational singing. The distinction too between singers - and composers passed more and more out of view. The skilled - artistic singing was thus brought into closer relations with - the congregational singing, and the creative power, out of which - an abundant supply of original melodies was produced, grew and - developed from year to year. - - § 142.6. =Theological Science.=--Inasmuch as the Reformation had - its origin in the word of God, and supported itself upon that - foundation alone the theologians of the Reformation were obliged - to give special attention to biblical studies. John Förster, who - died in A.D. 1556, and John Avenarius, who died in A.D. 1576, - both of Wittenberg, compiled Hebrew lexicons, which embodied - the results of independent investigations. =Matthias Flacius=, - in his _Clavis Scr. s._, provided what for that time was a - very serviceable aid to the study of Scripture. The first part - gives in alphabetical order an explanation of Scripture words - and forms of speech, the second forms a system of biblical - hermeneutics. Exegesis proper found numerous representatives. - Luther himself beyond dispute holds the front rank in this - department. After him the most important Lutheran exegetes - of that age are for the New Testament, Melanchthon; Victorin - Strigel, who wrote _Hyponm. in Novum Testamentum_; Flacius, - with his _Glossa compendiaria in Novum Testamentum_; Joachim - Camerarius, with his _Notationes in Nov. Testamentum_; =Martin - Chemnitz=, with his _Harmonia IV. Evangeliorum_, continued by - Polic. Leyser, and completed at last by John Gerhard: for the - Old Testament, especially =John Brenz=, whose commentaries are - still worthy of being consulted. Of less consequence are the - numerous commentaries of the comprehensive order, compiled by - the once scarcely less influential David Chytræus of Rostock, - who died in A.D. 1600. The series of Lutheran dogmatists - opens with =Melanchthon=, who published his _Loci communes_ - in A.D. 1521. =Martin Chemnitz=, in his _Loci theologici_, - contributed an admirable commentary to Melanchthon’s work, - and it soon became the recognised standard dogmatic treatise - in the Lutheran church. In A.D. 1562 he published his _Examen - Conc. Trident._, in which he combated the Romish doctrine - with as much learning and thoroughness as good sense, mildness, - and moderation. Polemical theology was engaged upon with - great vigour amid the many internal and external controversies, - conducted often with intense passion and bitterness. In the - department of church history we have the gigantic work of - the Magdeburg centuriators, the result of the bold scheme of - =Matthias Flacius=. By his _Catalogus testium veritatis_ he - had previously advanced evidence to show that at no point in - her history had the church been without enlightened and pious - heroes of faith, who had carried on the uninterrupted historical - continuity of evangelical truth, and so secured an unbroken - succession from the early apostolic church till that of the - sixteenth century.--Continuation, § 159, 4. - - § 142.7. =German National Literature.=--The Reformation occurred - at a time when the poetry and national literature of Germany was - in a condition of profound prostration, if not utter collapse. - But it brought with it a reawakening of creative powers in - the national and intellectual life of the people. Under the - influence and stimulus of Luther’s own example there arose - a new prose literature, inspired by a broad, liberal spirit, - as the expression of a new view of the world, which led the - Germans both to think and teach in German. It was mainly the - intellectual friction from the contact of one fresh mind with - another in regard to questions agitated in the Reformation - movement that gave to the satirical writings of the age that - brilliancy, point, and popularity which in the history of German - literature was not attained before and never has been reached - since. In innumerable fugitive sheets, in the most diverse forms - of style and language, in poetry and prose, in Latin and German, - these satires poured forth contempt and scorn against and in - favour of the Reformation. As we have on the Catholic side - Thomas Murner (§ 125, 4), and on the Reformed side Nicholas - Manuel (§ 130, 4), so we have on the Lutheran side =John - Fischart=, far excelling the former two, and indeed the greatest - satirist that Germany has yet produced. To him we are mainly - indebted for the almost incessant stream of anonymous satires - of the sixteenth century. He belonged, like Sebastian Brandt and - Thomas Murner, to Strassburg, was for a long time advocate at - the royal court of justice at Spires, and died in A.D. 1589. His - satirical vein was exercised first of all upon ecclesiastical - matters: “The Night Raven (_Rabe_) and the Hooded Crow,” against - a certain J. Rabe, who had become a Roman Catholic. “On the - Pretty Life of St. Dominic and St. Francis,” an abusive effusion - against the Dominicans and Francisans [Franciscan]. “The Beehive - of the Romish Swarm,” the best known of all his satires, an - independent and original working up of the theme of the book - bearing the same name by Philip von Marnix (§ 139, 12). “The - Four-horned Bat of the Jesuits,” in rhyme, the most stinging, - witty, and scathing satire which has ever been written against - the Jesuits. Then he turned his attention to secular subjects. - His “Beehive” may be regarded as a companion piece to Murner’s - “Lutheran Buffoon;” but excelling this passionately severe - production in spirit, wit, and bright, laughing sarcasm, it is - as certain to win the pre-eminence and be awarded the victory. - Among the secular poets of that century the shoemaker of - Nuremberg, =Hans Sachs=, who died in A.D. 1576, an admirable - specimen of the Lutheran burgher, holds the first rank. - As a minstrel he is almost as unimportant as any of his - contemporaries, but conspicuously excelling in the poetic - rendering of many tales, legends, and traditions by his naïve - drollery, honest good-heartedness, and fresh, lively vigour - and style. He left behind him 208 comedies and tragedies, - 1,700 humorous tales, 4,200 lays and ballads. He gave a bright - and cheery greeting to the Reformation in A.D. 1523 in his poem, - “The Wittenberg Nightingale,” and by this he also contributed - very much to further and recommend the introduction of the - teachings of the Reformation among his fellow citizens. - - § 142.8. For =Missions to the Heathen= very little was done - during this period. The reason of this indeed is not far to - seek. The Lutheran church felt that home affairs had the first - and in the meantime an all-engrossing claim upon her attention - and energies. She had not the call which the Roman Catholic - church had, in consequence of political and mercantile relations - with distant countries, to prosecute missions in heathen - lands, nor had she the means for conducting such enterprises - as those on which the monkish orders were engaged. Yet we - find the beginnings of a Lutheran mission even in this early - period, for Gustavus Vasa of Sweden founded, in A.D. 1559, - an association for carrying the gospel to the neglected and - benighted Lapps.[408] - - - § 143. THE INNER DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFORMED CHURCH. - - The close connection which all Lutheran national churches had obtained -in their possession of one common confession was wanting to the Reformed -church, inasmuch as there each national church had drawn up its own -confession. The victory of Calvinistic dogmatic over the Zwinglian in -the Swiss mother church (§ 138, 7) was not without influence upon the -other Reformed national churches; and Calvinism, partly in its entire -stringency and severity, partly in a form more or less modified, without -expressing itself in one common symbol, formed henceforth a bond of -union and a common standard for attacks on Lutheran dogmatics. Quite -similar was the origin of the divergence that arose between Zwinglianism -and Calvinism in the department of the ecclesiastical constitution. In -this case also the victory was with the Calvinistic organization. Its -ideal embraced the restoration of the primitive apostolic presbyterial -and synodal constitution, together with the church’s unconditional -independence of the State. This proved much more acceptable than the -theory which, under Zwingli’s auspices, had been adopted in German -Switzerland, according to which church government and the administration -of discipline were put in the hands of the Christian civil magistrates. -A rigid system of ecclesiastical penitential discipline, however, was on -all sides applied to the public and private lives of all church members. -Under such discipline the community came generally to present a picture -of singularly pure and correct morality, and not infrequently we see -exhibited a remarkable development of high moral character. It fostered -the noble confidence of the martyr spirit, which indeed only too often -ran out into extremes and made an unjustifiable use of Old Testament -precedents and patterns.--In reference to worship, the Reformed church, -with its simplest possible form of service, stripped of all pomp and -ceremony, presents the most thorough and marked contrast to the gorgeous -and richly ceremonial worship of the Roman Catholic church.--Yet the -episcopal Anglican national church (§ 139, 6), in almost all particulars -relating to constitution, worship, discipline, and customs, completely -severed its connection with the distinctive characteristics of the -Reformed church, and allied itself to the traditional forms and -ceremonies of the Roman Catholic church. On the other hand, in reference -to dogma it approaches in its mediating attitude nearer in several -respects to the view of the Lutheran church. But all the more rigidly -and exclusively did the Puritans who separated themselves from the -Anglican church, as well as the strict Presbyterian church of Scotland, -appropriate, and even carry out to further extremes, the rigorism of -the Genevan model in regard both to worship and to doctrine. - - § 143.1. =The Ecclesiastical Constitution.=--Just as in the - Lutheran church, the ecclesiastical leaders had been driven - by necessity to submit to the so-called _super-episcopate_ - of the princes, it also happened here in German Switzerland - that, under pressure of circumstances, this power, as well as - church discipline and infliction of ecclesiastical censures, - was put in the hands of the magistrates. By order of Zwingli - and Œcolampadius there were founded in Zürich, in A.D. 1528, - and in Basel in A.D. 1530, synods to be held yearly for church - visitation. These were to be attended by all the pastors of - the city and district, and one or more honourable men should - be appointed from each congregation, in order to take up - and dispose of any complaints that might be made against the - life and doctrine of their pastors. But the intention of both - reformers to give this institution a controlling influence - in church government and ecclesiastical organization was - thwarted in consequence of the jealousy with which the ruling - magistrates clung to the authority that had been assigned - them in ecclesiastical matters. In Geneva, on the contrary, - Calvin’s unbending energy succeeded, after long and painful - contendings (§ 138, 3, 4), in transferring from the magistrates - the government of the church, together with church discipline - and the imposition of censures, to which here also they laid - claim, to a consistory founded by him, composed of six pastors - and twelve lay elders or presbyters, which was supreme in its - own domain, and free from all interference on the part of the - civil authorities, while the magistrates were bound to execute - civil penalties upon those excommunicated by the ecclesiastical - tribunal. The introduction of this presbyterial constitution - into Reformed national churches of large extent must have - contributed to their further extension and to the maintenance - of the national church unity. At the head of each congregation - now stood a presbytery, called in French _consistoire_, composed - of pastor and elders, the latter having been chosen either - directly by the congregation, or by the local magistrate in - accordance with the votes of the congregation, subsequently they - were also allowed to add to their own number. Then, again, the - presbyters of a particular circuit were grouped into so-called - _classes_, with a moderator chosen for the occasion; and then, - also, an annual classical synod, consisting of one pastor - and one lay elder chosen from each of the presbyteries. In a - similar way, at longer intervals, or just as necessity called - for it, provincial synods were convened, composed of deputies - from several classical synods; and from its members were - chosen representatives to the general or national synod, which - constituted the highest legislative authority for the whole - national church.[409] - - § 143.2. =Public Worship.=--Zwingli wished at first to do - away with church bells, organ playing, and church psalmody, - and even Calvin would not tolerate altars, crucifixes, images, - and candles in the churches. These he regarded as contrary - to the Divine law revealed in the decalogue, inasmuch as - the commandment that properly stood second as a distinct and - separate statute, though it had slipped out of the enumeration - usual among the Catholics and Lutherans, was understood to - forbid the use of images. The churches were reduced to bare and - unadorned places for prayer and assembly rooms for preaching, - and simple communion tables took the place of altars. Kneeling, - as savouring of ceremonialism, was discountenanced; the breaking - of bread was again introduced in the administration of the - Lord’s Supper as forming an important part of the symbolism; - private confession was abolished; exorcism at baptism, as well - as baptism in emergencies as a necessary thing, was discontinued; - the liturgy was reduced to simple prayers spoken, not sung, - and from a literalist purism the usual _Vater unser_ was changed - into _Unser Vater_. The festivals were reduced to the smallest - number possible, and only the principal Christian feasts were - celebrated, Christmas, Easter, Pentecost; while the Sunday - festival was observed with almost the Old Testament strictness - of Sabbath keeping.--In securing the introduction of psalmody - into the worship of the German Reformed church, John Zwick, - pastor at Constance, who died in A.D. 1542, was particularly - active. In A.D. 1536 he published a small psalmody, with some - Bible psalms set to Lutheran melodies. At Calvin’s request, - Clement Marot set a good number of the Psalms to popular French - airs in A.D. 1541-1543; Beza completed it, and then Calvin - introduced this French psalter into the church of Geneva. Claude - Goudimel (§ 149, 15) in A.D. 1562 published sixteen of these - psalms with four-part harmonies. He was murdered in the massacre - of St. Bartholomew at Lyons, in A.D. 1572. A professor of law at - Königsberg, Ambrose Lobwasser, in A.D. 1573 made an arrangement - of the Psalter in the German language after the style of - Marot. This psalter, notwithstanding its poetical deficiencies, - continued in use for a long time in Germany and Switzerland. - Zwingli’s aversion to congregational singing was given effect - to only in Zürich, but even there the service of praise was - introduced by a decree of the council in A.D. 1598. In the other - German Swiss cantons they did not confine themselves to the use - of the Psalms, but adopted unhesitatingly spiritual songs by - both Reformed and Lutheran poets. Among the former, who neither - in number nor in ability could approach the latter, the most - important were John Zwick and Ambrose Blaurer (§ 133, 3). It - was only in the seventeenth century that the Lutheran sister - church abandoned her rigid adherence to the exclusive use of - Lobwasser’s psalms in congregational singing, when the rise of - Pietism, and afterwards the spread of rationalism, overcame this - narrow-mindedness.[410] - - § 143.3. =The English Puritans.=--The Reformation under - Elizabeth (§ 139, 6), with its Lutheranizing doctrinal - standpoint and Catholicizing forms of constitution and worship, - had been sanctioned in A.D. 1559 by the Act of Uniformity - in the exercise of the royal supremacy that was claimed over - the whole ecclesiastical institutions of the country. But - the Protestants who had fled from the persecutions of Bloody - Mary and had returned in vast troops when Elizabeth ascended - the throne brought with them from their foreign resorts, - in Switzerland from Geneva, Zürich, Basel, in Germany from - Strassburg, Frankfort, Emden, entirely different notions about - the nature of genuine evangelical Christianity; and now with - all the assumption of confessors they sought to have these ideas - realized in their native land. Inspired for the most part with - the rigorist spirit of the Genevan Reformation, they desired, - instead of the royal supremacy, to have the independence - of the church proclaimed, and instead of the hierarchical - episcopal system a presbyterial constitution with strict church - discipline, arranged in accordance with the Genevan model. - They also gave a one-sided prominence to the formal principle - of the Holy Scripture, adhered rigidly to the doctrinal theory - of Calvin and to a mode of worship as bare as possible, stripped - of every vestige of popish superstition, such as priestly dress, - altars, candles, crucifixes, sign of the cross, forms of prayer, - godfathers, confirmation, kneeling at the sacrament, bowing the - head at the mention of the name of Jesus, bells, organs, etc. - On account of their opposition to the Act of Uniformity, these - were designated Nonconformists or Dissenters. They were also - called =Puritans=, because they insisted upon an organization - of the church purified from every human invention, and ordered - strictly in accordance with the word of God. Their principles, - which were enunciated first of all in private conventicles, - found a very wide acceptance amongst ministers and people. - This movement proved too strong to be suppressed, even by the - frequent deprivation and banishment of the ministers, or the - fining and imprisonment of their adherents. Amid the severity - of persecution and oppression Puritanism continued to grow, - and in A.D. 1572 numerous separatist congregations provided - themselves with a presbyterial and synodal constitution; - the former for the management of the affairs of particular - congregations, the latter for the settlement of questions - affecting the whole church. Specially offensive to the - queen, and therefore strictly forbidden by her and rigorously - suppressed, were the prophesyings introduced into many English - churches after the pattern of the prophesyings of the church - of Zürich. These were week-day meetings of the congregation, - at which the Sunday sermons were further explained and - illustrated from Scripture by the preachers, and applied to - the circumstances and needs of the church of that day.[411] - - § 143.4. Even before the sixteenth century had come to an end - an ultra-puritan tendency had been developed, the adherents - of which were called Brownists, from their leader Robert Brown. - As chaplain of the Duke of Norfolk, he was brought into contact - at Norwich with Dutch Anabaptist refugees; and stirred up by - them, he began a violent and bitter polemic, not only against - the Cæsaro-papism and episcopacy of the State church, but also - against the aristocratic element in the presbyterial and synodal - constitution. He taught that church and congregation were to be - completely identified; that every separate congregation, because - subject to no other authority than that of Christ and His word, - has the right of independently arranging and administering its - own affairs according to the decisions of the majority. Having - been cast into prison, but again liberated through the powerful - influence of his friends, he retired in A.D. 1581 to Holland, - and founded a small congregation there at Middleburg in Zealand. - When this soon became reduced to a mere handful, he returned - to England in A.D. 1589, and there renewed his agitation; but - afterwards submitted to the hierarchical State church, and - died in A.D. 1630 in the enjoyment of a rich living. After his - apostasy, the jurist Henry Barrow took his place as leader of - the Brownists, who still numbered many thousands, and were now - called after him Barrowists. Persecuted by the government and - harassed by severe measures from A.D. 1594, whole troops of them - retreated to the Netherlands, where in several of the principal - cities they formed considerable congregations, and issued, in - A.D. 1598, their first symbolical document, “The Confession of - Faith of certain English People exiled.”--The second founder of - the party, a more trustworthy leader and more vigorous apologist, - was the pastor John Robinson, who, in A.D. 1608, with his - Norwich congregation settled at Amsterdam, and in A.D. 1610 - moved to Leyden. He died in A.D. 1625. The fundamental points - in the constitution under his leadership were these: - - 1. Complete equality of all the members of the church among - themselves, and consequently the setting aside of all - clerical prerogatives; - - 2. Thorough subordination of the college of presbyters to - the will of the majority of the congregation, from which - circumstance they obtained the name of =Congregationalists=; - and - - 3. The perfect autonomy of separate congregations and their - independence alike of every civil authority and of every - synodal judicature, from which characteristic they obtained - the name of =Independents=. - - Synodal assemblies were allowed merely for the purpose of mutual - consultation and advice, and when so restricted were regarded - as beneficial. With this end in view a _Congregational board_ - was appointed to sit in London, which formed a common centre - of union. And as in constitution, so also in worship there was - a complete breach made with all the traditions and developments - of church history. With the exception of Sunday all feast - days were abolished. In the assemblies for public worship each - individual had the right of free speech for the edification - of the congregation. All liturgical formularies and prescribed - prayers, even the Lord’s Prayer not excepted, were set aside, as - hindering the mission of the Holy Spirit in the congregation.--In - order to preserve for their descendants the sacred heritage of - their faith, and their native English language and nationality, - and in order to save them from the moral dangers to which they - were exposed in large cities, but to an equal extent at least - inspired by the wish to break new ground for the kingdom of God - in the New World, many of their families set out, in A.D. 1620, - from Holland for North America, and there, as “Pilgrim Fathers,” - amid indescribable hardships, established a colony in the wastes - of Massachusetts, and laid the foundations of that Congregational - denomination which has now grown into so powerful and influential - a church.[412] - - § 143.5. =Theological Science.=--In A.D. 1523, the grand - council at Zürich set up the peculiar institution of prophesying - (1 Cor. xiv. 29) or biblical conferences. Pastors along with - students, as well as certain scholars specially called for - the purpose, were required to meet together every morning, - with the exception of Sundays and Fridays, in the choir of the - cathedral, where, after a short opening prayer, public exegetical - expositions of the Old Testament were given in the regular order - of books and chapters, with a strict and detailed comparison - of the Vulgate, the LXX. and the original text; and then at the - close one of the professors stated the results of the conference - in a practical discourse for the edification of the congregation. - At a later period theological studies flourished at Geneva and - Basel, in the French church at the academy of Saumur and the - theological seminaries of Montauban, Sedan, and Montpellier. - =Sebastian Münster=, formerly at Heidelberg, afterwards at Basel, - issued, in A.D. 1523, a complete Hebrew lexicon. The Zürich - theologians, Leo Judä and others, in A.D. 1524-1529 translated - Luther’s Bible into the Swiss dialect, making, however, an - independent revision in accordance with the original text. At - the instigation of the Waldensians, =Robert Olivetan= of Geneva - (§ 138, 1) undertook, in A.D. 1535, a translation of the Holy - Scriptures from the original into the French language; but in - so far as the New Testament is concerned he followed almost - literally the translation of Faber (§ 120, 8). In subsequent - editions it was in various particulars greatly improved, - although even to this day it remains very unsatisfactory. - =Theodore Beza= gave an improved recension of the New Testament - text and a new Latin translation of it. Sebastian Münster edited - the Old Testament text with an independent Latin translation. - Also =Leo Judä= in Zürich undertook a similar work, for which - he was well qualified by a competent knowledge of languages. - =Sebastian Castellio= in Geneva endeavoured to make the prophets - and apostles speak in classical Latin and in full Ciceronian - periods. Most successful was the Latin translation of the - Old Testament which =Immanuel Tremellius= at Heidelberg, in - connection with his son-in-law =Francis Junius=, produced. - =John Piscator=, dismissed from Heidelberg under the Elector - Louis VI. (§ 144, 1), from A.D. 1584 professor in the academy - founded at Herborn during that same year, published a new - German translation of the Bible, which was authoritatively - introduced into the churches at Bern and in other Reformed - communities. Commentators on Holy Scripture were also numerous - during this age. Besides =Calvin=, who far outstrips them - all (§ 138, 5), the following were distinguished for their - exegetical performances: Zwingli, Œcolampadius, Conrad Pellican - (§ 120, 4 footnote), Theodore Beza, Francis Junius, John - Piscator, John Mercer, and the Frenchman Marloratus.--As - a dogmatist =Calvin=, again beyond all question occupies the - very front rank. In speculative power and thorough mastery - of his materials he excels all his contemporaries. Leo Judä’s - catechisms, two in German and one in Latin, in which the - scholar puts the question and the teacher gives the answer and - explanation, continued long in use in the Zürich church. Among - the German Reformed theologians =Andrew Hyperius= of Marburg, - who died in A.D. 1564, takes an honourable place as an exegete - by his expositions of the Pauline epistles, as a dogmatist by - his _Methodus theologiæ_, as a homilist by his _De formandis - concionibus s._, and as the first founder of theological - encyclopædia by his _De recte formando theolog. studio_.--The - pietistic efforts of the English Puritan party found a fit - nursery in the University of Cambridge, where =William Whitaker=, - who died in A.D. 1598, the author of _Catechismus s. institutio - pietatis_, and especially =William Perkins=, who died in - A.D. 1602, author of _De casibus conscientiæ_, besides many - other English works of edification, laboured unweariedly in - endeavouring to infuse a pious spirit into the theological - studies. Both were also eager and enthusiastic supporters of - the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination; but the attempt, - through the “Nine Lambeth Articles,” laid before Archbishop - Whitgift in his palace in A.D. 1598, and accepted and approved - by him, to make this doctrine an absolute doctrinal test for - the university was frustrated by the decided veto of Queen - Elizabeth.--Continuation, § 160, 6. - - § 143.6. =Philosophy.=--For the formal scientific construction - of systematic theology the Aristotelian dialectic, as the - heritage bequeathed by the mediæval scholasticism, continued - to exercise upon the occupants of the Reformed professorial - chairs, as well as in Lutheran seminaries, a dominating - influence far down into the seventeenth century. To emancipate - philosophy, and with it also in the same degree theology, - from these fetters, which hindered every free movement, and - inaugurate a simpler scientific method, was an attempt made - first of all by =Peter Ramus=, who from A.D. 1551 was professor - of dialectic and rhetoric in Paris, distinguished also as - a polyhistor, humanist, and mathematician, and diligent in - disseminating his views from the platform and by the press. - As he had openly declared himself a Calvinist, he had repeatedly - to seek refuge in flight. After a long residence in Switzerland - and Germany, where he gained many adherents, who were known - by the name of Ramists, he thought that after the Peace of - St. Germain (§ 139, 15), in A.D. 1571, he might with safety - return to Paris; but there, in A.D. 1572, he fell a victim to - Romish fanaticism on the night of St. Bartholomew.--Continuation, - § 163, 1. - - § 143.7. The Reformed church made =one missionary= attempt in - A.D. 1557. A French adventurer, Villegagnon, laid before Admiral - Coligny a plan for the colonization of the persecuted Huguenots - in Brazil. With this proposal there was linked a scheme for - conducting a mission among the heathen aborigines. He sailed - under Coligny’s patronage in A.D. 1555 with a number of Huguenot - artisans, and founded Fort Coligny at Rio de Janeiro. At - his request Calvin sent him two Geneva pastors in A.D. 1557. - The intolerable tyranny which Villegagnon exercised over the - unprotected colonists, the failure of their efforts among the - natives, famine, and want impelled them in the following year - to seek again their native shores, which they reached after - a most disastrous voyage. All were not able to secure a place - in the returning ships, and even of those who started several - died of starvation on the way.--Continuation, § 161, 7.[413] - - - § 144. CALVINIZING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN NATIONAL CHURCHES. - - The Cryptocalvinist controversies conducted with such party violence -proved indeed in vain so far as winning over to Philippist Calvinism -the Lutheran church as a whole was concerned (§ 141, 10, 13); but -they did not succeed in hindering, but rather fostered and advanced, -the public adoption of the Reformed Confession on the part of several -national churches in Germany or their being driven by force to -accept the Calvinistic constitution and creed. The first instance -of a procedure of this sort is to be found in the Palatinate. It was -followed by Bremen, Anhalt, and in the beginning of the next century -by Hesse Cassel and the electoral dynasty of Brandenburg (§ 154, 3). - - § 144.1. =The Palatinate, A.D. 1560.=--Tilemann Hesshus, - formerly the scholar and devoted admirer of Melanchthon, had - been banished by the magistrates as a disturber of the peace - from Goslar, and then from Rostock, on account of his reckless - and severe administration of church discipline. At Melanchthon’s - recommendation, the Elector Ottheinrich of the Palatinate called - him as professor and general superintendent to Heidelberg, in - A.D. 1558. Here he came into collision with his deacon William - Klebitz. The latter had produced, on the occasion of his - receiving his bachelor’s degree, a thesis in which he vindicated - a Calvinizing theory of the Lord’s Supper, whereupon Hesshus - condemned and suspended him, in A.D. 1559. But Klebitz would not - move. Passion on both sides developed into senseless fury, which - found expression in the pulpit and at the altar. The new elector, - Frederick III. the Pious, A.D. 1559-1576, sent both into exile, - and obtained an opinion from Melanchthon, which advised him to - hold by the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians x. 16, “the bread is - the communion of the body of Christ.” The elector, who had long - been favourably inclined to the Reformed doctrine and worship, - now introduced, in A.D. 1560, into all the churches of his - domains a Reformed order of service, had altars, baptismal - fonts, images, and even organs removed from the churches, - filled the professors’ chairs with foreign Calvinistic teachers, - and in A.D. 1562 had the “Heidelberg Catechism” composed by two - Heidelberg professors, Zach. Ursinus and Gaspar Olevianus, for - use in the schools throughout his territories.[414] In respect - of that simplicity which befits a popular manual, in power - and spirituality, it is not to be compared to Luther’s “Short - Catechism,” but it is certainly distinguished by learning, - theological genius, Christian fervour, and moderate, peaceful - spirit, and deserves in an eminent degree the acceptance which - it has found, not only among the German, but also among the - foreign Reformed churches. Calvin’s doctrine of predestination - is avoided, and his theory of the Lord’s Supper is taught in a - form approaching as near as possible to the Lutheran view, but - the Roman Catholic mass is characterized as execrable idolatry. - The introduction of this catechism, however, completed the - severance of the Palatinate from the Lutheran church. Brenz - in Stuttgart attacked its doctrine of the supper; Bullinger - in Zürich and Beza in Geneva defended it with passionate - eagerness; and the conference arranged by the elector to - be held at Maulbronn, in A.D. 1564, between the theologians - of the Palatinate and of Württemberg, during its six days’ - discussions increased the bitterness of parties, and made - the split perpetual. The Lutheran German states, irritated - by the secession of the elector, complained of him to the Diet - of Augsburg, in A.D. 1564, that he had broken the religious - Peace of Augsburg by the forcible introduction of Calvinism. He - answered in defence, that he had not himself read Calvin’s works, - and was therefore not in a position to know what Calvinism was; - that at Naumburg, in A.D. 1561 (§ 141, 11), he had subscribed - the _Augustana_, more correctly the _Variata_, and still adhered - to the confession he then made. The diet then did not venture to - interfere with him, and was satisfied with a simple expression - of disapproval. By the introduction of presbyteries by the order - of the elector, in A.D. 1570, for the administration of church - discipline, Olevianus embroiled himself in controversy with the - electoral councillor and professor of medicine at Heidelberg, - Thomas Erastus (§ 117, 4), who would much rather have the Zürich - church order introduced (§ 143) than the Zwinglian theory of - the supper. This idea he very persistently pressed, but without - success. Although himself a member of the ecclesiastical council, - he yet fell under its ban, along with Neuser and Sylvanus - (§ 148, 3) as suspected of unitarianism, but this charge has - never been proved against him. In A.D. 1510 he settled in Basel, - and died there, in A.D. 1583, as professor of moral philosophy. - His controversial treatise, “_Explicatio gravissimæ quæstionis, - utrum excommunicatio mandato nitatur divino, an excogitata - sit ab hominibus_,” was published after his death. Beza - answered in two dissertations: “_De presbyteriis_” and “_De - excommunicatione_.” Notice of his theory was now taken in - England and Scotland, and among the names of sects in these - countries during the seventeenth century we find that of - Erastians. At this very day all subordinating of church - government under the authority of the State is commonly styled - Erastianism.[415]--The reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1576-1583, - a zealous friend of the Formula of Concord, was of too short - duration to secure the complete restoration of Lutheranism - throughout his dominions. The count-palatine, John Casimir, - who conducted the government as regent during the minority, - systematically drove out all Lutheran pastors and trained up - his ward Frederick IV. in Calvinism.--Continuation, § 153, 3. - - § 144.2. =Bremen, A.D. 1562.=--In Bremen the cathedral - preacher, Albert Rizæus von Hardenberg, long lay under - suspicion of favouring the Zwinglian theory of the sacraments. - He publicly repudiated the Lutheran doctrine of the ubiquity of - the body of Christ, which his colleague John Timann had defended - in his treatise, “_Farrago sententiarum ... de cœna Domini_,” - of A.D. 1555. Upon this there began a lively controversy between - them. All the pastors took Timann’s side, but Hardenberg had - a powerful supporter in the burgomaster Daniel van Büren, and - an opinion obtained from Melanchthon in A.D. 1557 also favoured - him by counselling concession. Through his refusal to subscribe - a confession of faith in reference to the supper submitted - to him by the council, the excitement in Bremen was increased, - and spread from thence over all the provinces of Lower Saxony. - Timann died in A.D. 1557. His place as champion of the Lutheran - doctrine of the supper was taken by Hesshus, who had been driven - out of Heidelberg in A.D. 1559, and had almost immediately - afterward been called to Bremen. He challenged Hardenberg to - a public disputation, which, however, did not come off, because - the new Archbishop of Bremen, Duke George of Brunswick-Lüneberg - [Lüneburg], forbade Hardenberg to take part in it, and instead - of this brought the matter before the league of the cities of - Lower Saxony. The league held a provincial diet at Brunswick, - in A.D. 1561, where Hardenberg was removed from his office, yet - without detracting from his honour. He went now to Oldenburg, - and died in A.D. 1574 as pastor at Emden. Hesshus had left - Bremen in A.D. 1560, having accepted a call to Magdeburg, - and from thence continued his controversy with Hardenberg. His - successor in Bremen, Simon Musæus, no less passionately than he - insisted upon the expulsion of all adherents of Hardenberg, and - had indeed managed to get the council to agree to the proposal - when things took a turn in an altogether different direction. - Büren, in spite of all opposition, became the chief burgomaster - in A.D. 1562. Musæus and other twelve pastors were now expelled, - and also the councillors who were in favour of Lutheranism felt - that they could do nothing else than quit the city. By foreign - mediation an understanding was come to in A.D. 1568, by which - those who had been driven out were allowed to return to the city, - but not to their offices. All the churches of Bremen, with the - exception of the cathedral, which obtained a Lutheran pastor - again in A.D. 1568, continued in the possession of the Reformed - party.--But Hesshus was in A.D. 1562 expelled also from - Magdeburg, as well as afterwards from his position as court - preacher in Neuburg, in A.D. 1569, and from his professorship - at Jena in A.D. 1573 (§ 141, 10), on account of his passionate - and violent polemics. He was also expelled from his bishopric - of Samland, in A.D. 1577, as a teacher of error, because he had - ascribed omnipotence, etc., to the human nature of Christ _etiam - in abstracto_. He died in A.D. 1588 as professor in Helmstadt. - - § 144.3. =Anhalt, A.D. 1597.=--After the death of Prince - Joachim Ernest four Anhalt dynasties were formed by his sons, - Dessau, Bemburg, Köthen, Zerbst. John George, first head of - the family of Anhalt-Dessau, reigned on behalf of his brothers, - who had not yet come of age, from A.D. 1587 till A.D. 1603, - and married a daughter of John Casimir, the count-palatine. - After having refused to sign the Formula of Concord, he began - the Calvinization of the land in A.D. 1589 by striking out - the exorcism, and then, in A.D. 1596, he put the Reformed - church order in place of the Lutheran. Soon after this Luther’s - catechism was set aside, and in A.D. 1597 a document was - produced, consisting of twenty-eight Calvinistic articles with - a modified doctrine of predestination, which all the pastors - under pain of banishment from the country, were required to - subscribe. The most active agents in this movement were Caspar - Peucer (§ 141, 10), who had been expelled from Wittenberg, - and the superintendent Wolfgang Amling of Zerbst. In A.D. 1644, - however, Anhalt-Zerbst returned to the old Lutheran Confession, - under Prince John, who had been trained up by his mother in the - Lutheran faith. - - - - - III. THE DEFORMATION. - - - § 145. CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. - - That in a spiritual movement so powerful as that which the Reformation -called forth enthusiasts and extremists of various sorts should seek to -push forward their fancies and vagaries is nothing more than might have -been expected. But that such excrescences are not to be charged against -the Reformation, as constituting an essential part of it, may be shown -from the way in which the Reformation and the Deformation are constantly -put in antagonism with one another. The starting point is clearly -the same in the one case as in the other; namely, opposition to and -revolt against the debased condition of the church of the age. But the -Reformation distinguishes itself completely from the very first from -the Deformation, often joins its forces even with those of Catholicism -in order to secure the overthrow of what it regarded as a false and -dangerous development; and so generally we find the champions of that -movement manifesting as bitter a hatred toward the Protestant reformers -as toward the Romanists. Its origin is to be explained by the tendency -inherent in human nature, when once embarked on a course of opposition, -to rush to the extreme of radicalism, which showed itself in this case -partly in the form of rationalism, partly in the form of mysticism. The -Reformation recognised the word of God in Holy Scripture as the only -rule and standard in matters of religion, and as a judge and arbiter -over tradition. The rationalistic spirit in the deformatory movement, -on the other hand, subordinates Holy Scripture to reason, and estimates -revealed truth in accordance with the supposed requirement of logical -thought. The Reformation offers opposition to the Catholic deification -of the church, but the Deformation goes the length of contesting the -divinity of Christ (Antitrinitarians and Unitarians). On the other -hand, the mystical side of the Deformation, which not infrequently -amounts to a more or less clearly expressed pantheism, may be regarded -as an extreme and exaggerated statement of the reformers’ demand for -a more spiritual conception of the religious life in opposition to the -externalism of Romanism. It places alongside of the word as expressed -in Holy Scripture what it calls an inner illumination by the Holy -Spirit as an equally high or even a higher kind of revelation, despises -the sacraments, as well as all public or external forms of Divine -worship. A third deformatory tendency, and that indeed which during -the Reformation era was most powerful, is represented by Anabaptism. -The ultra-reformatory endeavours of the movement aimed, not only -at directing the private and ecclesiastical life of the individual -Christian, but also at reconstructing, according to what it regarded -as the apostolic standard, the whole fabric of the social and civil -life. It derived its name from the demand for rebaptism which was made -as a consequence of the denial of the usefulness and validity of infant -baptism. This was, indeed, the one common term of its confession, in -which its members, giving way in many directions to individualistic -subjective peculiarities, were required to agree. Adult baptism was -thus made the characteristic note of their community as a distinct sect. - - The Catholic notions prevailing during the Middle Ages as to - the manner in which heretics ought to be treated were so firmly - held by the Protestants, that even Calvin without hesitation, - in A.D. 1553, delivered over one who denied the doctrine of - the Trinity (§ 148, 2) to be punished by the civil authorities. - Their sentence of death by fire at the stake was carried out - under his sanction and that of almost all the notable reformers - of the day, Bullinger and Farel, Beza and Viret, Œcolampadius, - Bucer, and Peter Martyr, even Melanchthon and Urbanus Rhegius. - At an earlier period indeed Luther had occasionally, roused to - indignation by what he beheld of the horrors of the Inquisition, - opposed the idea that heretics as such should be punished with - torture and death, and gradually he secured the victory in - Protestant theory and practice for the view that heretics as - such should neither be compelled to retract nor be put to death, - but rather should be brought to a better mind and put out of the - way of doing harm by imprisonment or banishment. - - - § 146. MYSTICISM AND PANTHEISM. - - Besides the true evangelical mysticism within the church, which -Luther throughout his whole life esteemed very highly as a deepening -of the Christian religious life, and which the Lutheran church had -never ruled out of its pale, an unevangelical as well as thoroughly -anti-ecclesiastical mysticism broke out at a very early period in -quite a multitude of different forms. In the case of Schwenkfeld this -tendency, though characterized by very decided hostility to the church, -occupied an advantageous position, as well by the attitude which it -assumed to theology as from the quiet and sober manner in which it -conducted its propaganda. Agrippa and Paracelsus are representatives -of a mysticism with a basis in natural philosophy, which was wrought -out into fantastic forms by Valentine Weigel in his theosophy. -Sebastian Franck drew his mysticism from the fountains of Eckhart’s -and Tauler’s writings; and Giordano Bruno, by his wild, almost -delirious mysticism, culminating in the boldest pantheism, won for -himself the fiery stake. The French _Libertins spirituels_ embraced -a sublime antinomian pantheism, while the Familists, who appeared at -a later period in England, were banded together in the service of an -apotheosis of love like the members of one family. - - § 146.1. =Schwenkfeld and his Followers.=--Among the mystics of - the Reformation period hostile to the church, Caspar Schwenkfeld, - a Silesian nobleman of an old family, of the line of Ossingk, - holds a prominent and honourable place as a man of deep and - genuine piety. At first he attached himself with enthusiasm - to the Wittenberg Reformation; but as it advanced his heart, - which was exclusively set upon an inward, mystical Christianity, - became dissatisfied. In A.D. 1525 he met personally with Luther - at Wittenberg. The friendly relations that were maintained - there, notwithstanding all the divergences that became apparent - on fundamental matters and in the way of looking at things, - soon gave place on Schwenkfeld’s side to open antagonism. He - expressed himself strongly in reference to his dissatisfaction - with the Wittenberg reformers, saying that he would rather - join the papists than the Lutherans. Even in A.D. 1528 he had - been expelled from his native land, and now began operations - at Strassburg, where Bucer opposed him; and then, in A.D. 1534, - in Swabia, where he encountered the vigorous opposition - of Jac. Andreä. In every place he set himself in direct - antagonism, not only to the German, but also to the Swiss - reformers, and engaged in incessant controversies with the - theologians, working steadily in the interests of a reformation - in accordance with his own peculiar views. He died in A.D. 1561 - at Ulm, and left behind him in Swabia and Silesia a handful of - followers, who, in A.D. 1563, issued a complete edition of the - “Christian Orthodox Books and Writings of the Noble and Faithful - Man, Caspar Schwenkfeld,” in four folio volumes. Expelled from - Silesia in A.D. 1728, many of them fled into the neighbouring - state of Lausitz, others to Pennsylvania in North America, where - they found some small communities. What Schwenkfeld so keenly - objected to in the Lutheran Reformation was nothing else than - its firm biblico-ecclesiastical objectivity. Luther’s adherence - to the unconditional authority of the word of God he declared - to be a worship of the letter. He himself gave to the inner word - of God’s Spirit in men a place superior to the outward word of - God in Scripture. All external institutions of the church met - with his most uncompromising opposition. In a manner similar - to that of Osiander (§ 141, 2), he identified justification and - sanctification, and explained it as an incarnation of Christ - in the believer. Rejecting the doctrine of the _communicatio - idiomatum_, he taught a thorough “deifying of the flesh of - Christ,” having its foundation in the birth by the Virgin Mary, - regenerated in faith and completed by suffering, death, and - resurrection; so that in His state of exaltation His Divine - and human natures are perfectly combined into one. Infant - baptism he condemned, and affirmed that a regenerate person - can live without sin. In the Lord’s Supper according to him - everything depended upon the inward operation of the Spirit. - The bread in the sacrament is only a symbol of the spiritual - truth that Christ is the true bread for the soul. He laid - special emphasis on John vi. 51, and regarded the τοῦτο of the - words of institution not as the subject but as the predicate: - “My body is this;” _i.e._ is bread unto eternal life.[416] - - § 146.2. =Agrippa, Paracelsus, and Weigel.=--=Agrippa von - Nettesheim=, who died in A.D. 1535, a man of extensive and - varied scholarship, who boasted of his knowledge of secret - things, led an exceedingly changeful and adventurous career - as a statesman and soldier, taught medicine, theology, and - jurisprudence, lashed the monks with his biting satires, - so that they had him persecuted as a heretic, contended against - the belief in witchcraft, exposed mercilessly in his treatise - _De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum_ the weak points of - the dominant scholasticism, and in opposition to it wrought - out in his book _De occulta philosophia_ his own system of - cabbalistic mystical philosophy.--A man of a quite similar - type was the learned Swiss physician Philip Aureolus - Theophrastus Bombastus =Paracelsus= of Hohenheim, who - died in A.D. 1541; a man of genius and a profound thinker, but - with an ill-regulated imagination and an over-luxuriant fancy, - which led him to profess that he had found the solution of all - the mysteries of the Divine nature, as well as of terrestrial - and super-terrestrial nature, and that he had discovered - the philosopher’s stone. These two continued to retain their - position within the limits of the Catholic church.--=Valentine - Weigel=, on the contrary, who died in A.D. 1588, was a Lutheran - pastor at Schopau in Saxony, universally respected for his - consistent, godly character and his earnest, devoted labours. - His mystico-theosophical tendency, influenced by Tauler and - Paracelsus, came to be fully understood only long after his - death by the publication of his practical works, “Church and - House Postils on the Gospels,” “A Book on Prayer,” “A Directory - for Attaining the Knowledge of all things without Error,” etc.; - and down to the nineteenth century he had many followers among - the quiet and contemplative throughout the land. While utterly - depreciating as well the theology of the church as all sorts - of external forms in worship, he placed all the more weight - upon the inner light and the anointing with the Spirit of God, - without which all teaching and prayer will be vain. In man he - sees a microcosmus of the universe, and man’s growth in holiness - he regarded as a continuation of the incarnation of God in him. - He still allowed a place to the doctrine of the church as an - allegorical shell for the knowledge of the soul to God and - the world, and from this it may be explained how he was able - unhesitatingly to subscribe the Formula of Concord. Bened. - Biedermann, who was for a long time his deacon, and then - his successor in the pastoral office, sympathised with his - master’s views, and subsequently made vigorous attempts to - disseminate them in his writings. On this account he was deposed - in A.D. 1660.[417] - - § 146.3. =Franck, Thamer, and Bruno.=--=Sebastian Franck= of - Donauwört, in Swabia, a learned printer and voluminous writer - in German and Latin, for some time also a soap-boiler, had - attached himself enthusiastically to the Reformation, which for - several years he served as an evangelical pastor. Subsequently, - however, he broke off from it, condemned and abused with sharp - criticism and biting satire all the theological movements of - his age, demanded unrestricted religious liberty, defended the - Anabaptists against the intolerance of the theologians, and - sought satisfaction for himself in a mysticism tending toward - pantheism constructed out of Erigena, Eckhart, and Tauler. - Among his theologico-philosophical writings, the most important - are the “Golden Ark, or Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil,” - and especially the 280 spirited “Paradoxa, _i.e._ Wonderful - Words out of Holy Scripture.” Against what he regarded as - the idolatrous worship of the letter in Luther’s theology he - directed “The Book sealed with Seven Seals.” In unreconciled - contradictions collected in this tract out of Scripture he - thinks to be able to prove that God Himself wished to warn us - against the deifying of the letter. The letter is the devil’s - seat, the sword of antichrist; he has the letter on his side, - the spirit against him. With the letter the old Pharisees - slew Christ, and their modern representatives are doing the - same to-day. The letter killeth, the spirit alone giveth life. - He also attached very little importance to the sacrament and - external ordinances. He makes no distinction, or at most only - one of degree, between God and nature. God, God’s Word, God’s - Son, the Holy Spirit, and nature are with him only various - aspects or manifestations of the same power, which is all - in all; and his theory of evil inclines strongly to dualism. - On the other side, he deserves the heartiest recognition as - a German prose writer in respect of the purity, copiousness, - and refinement of his style, and as the author of the first - text books of history and geography in the German language. - After a changeful and eventful life in several cities of South - Germany, having been expelled successively from Nuremberg, - Strassburg, and Ulm, he died at Basel in A.D. 1542.--A career - in every point resembling his was that of =Theobald Thamer=, of - Alsace. After having sat at the feet of Luther in Wittenberg as - an enthusiastic disciple, he took up an attitude of opposition - to the Reformation by giving absolute determining authority to - the subjective principle of conscience, and by the rejection of - the Lutheran doctrine of justification. He went over ultimately - to the Roman Catholic church in A.D. 1557, to seek there - the peace of soul that he had lost, and died as professor - of theology at Freiburg, in A.D. 1569.--A far more powerful - thinker than either of these two was the Italian Dominican monk, - =Giordano Bruno= of Nola. His violent and abusive invectives - against monkery, transubstantiation, and the immaculate - conception obliged him, in A.D. 1580, to flee to Geneva. - From thence he betook himself to Paris, where he delivered - lectures on the _ars magna_ of Lullus (§ 103, 7); afterwards - spent several years in London engaged in literary work, from - A.D. 1586 to A.D. 1588 taught at Wittenberg, and on leaving - that place delivered an impassioned eulogy on Luther. After - a further continued life of adventure during some years - in Germany, he returned to Italy, and was burnt in Rome in - A.D. 1600 as a heretic. A complete edition of his numerous - writings in the Italian language does not exist. These are - partly allegorico-satirical, partly metaphysical, on the idea - of the Divine unity and universality, in which the poetical - and philosophical are blended together. He adopted the doctrine - of God set forth by Nicholas of Cusa (§ 113, 6), representing - the deity as at once the maximum and the minimum, and carried - out this idea to its logical conclusion in pantheism. Bruno - deserves special recognition as a consistent protester against - the geocentric theories of ecclesiastical scholastic science, - and for this merits a place among the first apologists of the - Copernican system.[418] - - § 146.4. =The Pantheistic Libertine Sects of the Spirituals= - in France, reminding us in theory and practice of the mediæval - Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit (§ 116, 5), had their - origin in the Walloon provinces of the Netherlands. As early as - A.D. 1529 a certain Coppin preached their gospel in his native - city of Lille or Ryssel. Quintin and Pocquet, both from the - province of Hennegau, transplanted it to France in A.D. 1530. - At the court of the liberal-minded and talented Queen Margaret - of Navarre (§ 120, 8), they found at first a hearty welcome, and - from this centre carried on secretly a successful propaganda, - until Calvin’s influence over the queen, as well as his - energetic polemic, “Against the Fantastic and Mad Sect of the - Libertines, who call themselves Spirituals, A.D. 1545,” put - a stop to their further progress. The contemporary =Libertines - of Geneva= (§ 138, 3, 4), who rose up against the rigoristic - church discipline of Calvin, are not to be confounded with these - Netherland-French Libertines, although their apostle Pocquet - also lived and laboured for a long time in Geneva. The impudent - immorality of the Genevan Libertines was quite different - from the moral levity of the _Spirituels_, which had always a - spiritualistic-pantheistic significance, their characteristics - consisting rather in a broad denial of and contempt for - Christian doctrines and the facts of gospel history. - - § 146.5. Under the name of =Familists=, _Familia charitatis_, - Henry Nicolai or Nicholas of Münster, who had previously - been closely related to David Joris (§ 148, 1), founded a - new mystical sect in England during the reign of Elizabeth. - They were distinguished from the Anabaptists by treating with - indifference the question of infant baptism. Nicholas appeared - as the apostle of love in and through which the mystical - deification of man is accomplished. Although uneducated, he - composed several works, and in one of these designated himself - as “endowed with God in the spirit of His love.” His followers - have been charged with immoral practices, and the doctrine has - been ascribed to them that Christ is nothing more than a Divine - condition communicating itself to all the saints.[419] - - - § 147. ANABAPTISM.[420] - - The fanatical ultra-reforming tendencies which characterize the later -so called Anabaptism, first made their appearance within the area of the -Saxon reformation. They now broke forth in wild revolutionary tumults, -and were fundamentally the same as the earlier Wittenberg exhibitions -(§ 124). In this instance, too, passionate opposition was shown to -the continuance of infant baptism, without, however, proceeding so far -as decidedly to insist upon rebaptism, and making that a common bond -and badge to distinguish and hold together separate communities of -their own, inspired by that fundamental tendency. This was done first -in A.D. 1525 among the representatives of ultra-reform movements, who -soon secured a position for themselves on Swiss soil. And thus, while -in central Germany this movement was being utterly crushed in the -Peasant War, Switzerland became the nursery and hotbed of Anabaptism. -Its leaders when driven out spread through southern and south-eastern -Germany as far as the Tyrol and Moravia, and founded communities in all -the larger and in many of the smaller towns. And although in A.D. 1531 -the Anabaptists, with the exception of some very small and insignificant -remnants, were rooted out of Switzerland, yet in A.D. 1540 they were -able to send out a new colony to settle in Venice, in order to carry on -the work of proselytising in Italy.--Chiefly through the instrumentality -of the south German apostles, Anabaptist communities and conventicles -were sown broadcast over the whole of the north-west as far as the -Baltic and the North Sea. And even as early as the beginning of -A.D. 1530 there issued from the Netherlands an independent movement -of a peculiarly violent, fanatical, and revolutionary character, which -spread far and wide. In A.D. 1534, John of Leyden set up his Anabaptist -kingdom in Münster with endless glitter and display, and sent out -messengers over all the world to gather the “people of God” together -into the “new Zion.” The unfortunate termination of his short reign, -however, had a sobering influence upon the excited enthusiasts, so that -they resolved to abandon those revolutionary and socialistic tendencies, -to which their brethren in south and east Germany had never given way, -or, if at all, only in isolated cases where they had been carried away -by chiliastic expectations. Yet were they in the north as well as in -the south, afterwards as well as before, mercilessly persecuted on -all hands, almost as severely by the Protestant as by the Catholic -governments, and often imprisoned in crowds, banished, scourged, -drowned, hanged, beheaded, burnt. Under all these tribulations they -developed a truly wonderful persistency of belief, and exhibited a -heroic martyr spirit. To collect their scattered remnants, and to save -them from destruction by a calm and sensible reformation, was the work -to which from A.D. 1536 Menno Simons unweariedly applied himself. - - § 147.1. =The Anabaptist Movement in General.=--The name of - Anabaptists has always been repudiated by those so designated as - a calumnious nickname and term of reproach. And, in fact, it is - clearly inadequate, inasmuch as it does not characterize either - the regulating principle or the essential core and nature of - the aim of the party, which had been already fully developed - before rebaptism had been set up as a term of membership. - Within their own constituted congregations no second baptism - found place, but only one baptism of adults on the ground of - a personal profession of faith. Nevertheless, the rejected - designation had, at the time at which it had originated, this - justification, that then all the members of this community - actually were rebaptizers or had been rebaptized; and the - introduction of a second baptism, as it was the result and - consequence of their fundamental principle, became also the - occasion, means, and basis for their incorporation into an - independent denomination.--The representatives of the Anabaptist - movement showed their ultra-reforming character by this, that - while at one with Luther and Zwingli in seeking the overthrow - of all views and practices of the Roman Catholic church regarded - by them as unevangelical, they characterized the position of the - reformers as a halting half way, and so denounced them as still - deeply rooted in the antichristian errors of the papacy. And - because the reformers firmly repudiated them, and vigorously - opposed and refused to countenance those radical demands and - fanatical chiliastic expectations of theirs that went so much - further, they turned upon them and their reformed institutions - often with a fury and bitterness even more intense than they - manifested to their Romish opponents. Most offensive to them - was the attitude of the reformers toward the civil authorities. - They were especially indignant at the reformers for not - rejecting with scorn the help of magistrates in carrying out - the Reformation movement, for recognising, not only the right, - but the duty of civil rulers to co-operate in the reconstruction - of the church, to exercise control over the ecclesiastical and - religious life of the community as well as of each individual, - to see to the maintenance of church order, and to visit the - refractory with civil penalties. Then their innermost principle - was the endeavour to make a complete and thorough distinction - between the kingdom of nature and the kingdom of grace, the - kingdom of God and the kingdom of the world, of the converted - and the unconverted, so as to restore a visible kingdom of - saints by gathering together all true believers from all - sections of the utterly corrupted church into a new holy - communion of the regenerate. Thus they would prepare the way - for the promised millennium, when the saints shall rule the - world. The State, with its penalties and punishments, belongs - essentially to the domain of evil, and is to be endured only so - long as there are unbelievers and unconverted people, who alone - are under its jurisdiction. The community of true Christians, - on the other hand, is in no need of any secular magistracy, for - this law, which the civil power administers, concerns only the - unrighteous and evildoers. But in matters of religion and the - inner man, the civil authority can have no manner of right to - interfere; as, on the other hand, believers ought not to accept - any sort of magisterial office or civic rank. Freedom in matters - of conscience, religion, worship, and doctrine is a fundamental - axiom, which forms the primary privilege of every religious - denomination, and the only admissible punishment in connection - with religious questions is exclusion from the particular - community. The only unconditionally valid legislative code for - Christians is the Bible. To the law of the State, however, he is - not to submit at all in spiritual things, and even in temporal - things only in so far as Holy Scripture and his own conscience, - enlightened by the Spirit of God, do not enter a protest; but - where the injunction of a magistrate oversteps the limit, he - must offer strenuous resistance, and contend even to blood - and death.--With respect to the mode of life and activity - within the ranks of the community, the peculiarly high claims - which they put forth to be regarded as a congregation of chosen - saints demanded that they should insist upon the actual personal - conversion and regeneration of each individual member, the - exclusion of everything sinful and worldly by means of a rigidly - strict discipline, and where necessary by expulsion from church - fellowship, as well as the avoiding of all needless intercourse - with the unconverted and unbelieving, and the exercise of - true and perfect brotherly love toward one another, which also, - so far as present circumstances might admit, should evidence - itself in the voluntary sharing of goods. As a condition of - the admission of any individual into the community proof had - to be given of repentance and faith, and as an authenticating - seal on the one side of the entrance being granted, and on - the other side of the obligation being undertaken, baptism was - administered, which now, as infant baptism was denounced as an - invention of the devil, was understood simply of adult baptism, - for the most part administered in the usual way by sprinkling. - The ecclesiastical constitution of the regularly formed - congregations was modelled after what they regarded as the - apostolic type. Their congregational worship was extremely - simple, quite free of any ornament or ceremony. Their doctrinal - system, owing to the prominence given to the practical and the - ethical, was but poorly developed, and was therefore never set - forth in a confession of faith obligatory on all the communities. - Upon the whole, they inclined more to the Zwinglian than to - the Lutheran type of doctrine, especially in their views of - baptism and the Lord’s Supper. The grand Reformation dogma of - justification by faith alone was rejected, as also the idea that - even the regenerate may not in this world attain unto perfect - sinlessness. Here and there, too, antitrinitarian views found - entrance, but the majority firmly adhered to the œcumenical - faith of the church, or at least soon returned to it. Chiliastic - theories and expectations were widely spread, but the attempts - to realize them in the present by means of revolutionary - movements were soon recognised and denounced as mischievous, - and so, too, the fanatical, pseudo-prophetic craze by which many - of the leaders of the movement were carried away came by-and-by - to be discredited. - - § 147.2. Keller, in his _Reformation und die ält. - Reformparteien_ of 1885, has undertaken to give a historical - basis to a view of the origin and character of the Anabaptist - movement diverging in several important respects from the - one that has hitherto been generally accepted. He sees in the - tendency of the Swiss Anabaptist to go beyond the position - taken up by Luther and Zwingli not merely, as several earlier - investigators had already done, a revival of certain mediæval - endeavours at reform, but an actual, uninterrupted continuation - of these, involving, not only a relationship, whether conscious - or unconscious, but also a close historico-genetic and - personal connection with “those old evangelical brotherhoods, - which through many centuries, under many names,” in spite of - persecutions that raged against them, still survived in secret - remnants down into the 16th century. Of these brotherhoods, - during the 12th century, the Waldensians formed the heart and - core. Their precursors were the Petrubrusians [Petrobrusians], - the Apostolic Brothers, the Arnoldists, the Humiliati, etc.; - their successors and spiritual kinsmen were the heretical - Beghards and Lollards, the Spirituals together with Marsilius - of Padua and King Louis of Bavaria, the German mystics, - the Friends of God and Winkelers, the Dutch Brethren of - the Common Life, and, in specially close association with - the German Waldensians, the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren; - of like character, too, were John Staupitz, the Zucker family - of Nuremberg, Albert Dürer, and a great number of other notables - belonging to the first decades of the 16th century. And these - all, as belonging to one and the same spiritual family, and - forming an unbroken chain, link joined to link, when church - and State raged against them with fire and sword, found always - nurseries and places of refuge in those “noble corporations - of builders and masons,” whose tried organization was made by - them the basis of the church constitution, and has thus been - handed down to modern times. Luther, who, moved by Staupitz - and the study of Tauler and the “Deutsche Theologie,” was at - first inclined to throw himself into the spiritual current, - from A.D. 1521 more and more withdrew himself from it, and even - Zwingli detached himself from it on account of some proceedings - which he did not approve. The origin of the so called Anabaptism - is thus, not merely traced back to these two great reformers, - but rather is conditioned by the firm maintenance of a primitive - evangelical tendency, from which those two turned aside. In the - one case we have “new evangelicals,” founding a new communion; - in the other, “old evangelicals,” conserving and continuing - the old communion. And not Zürich, where the Anabaptist - movement began to get a footing in A.D. 1524, but Basel, - was its true birthplace. There in A.D. 1515 the liberal-minded - printers Frobenius, Curio, and Cratander, who first printed - the reformatory writings of the Middle Ages, repeatedly gathered - the secret representatives and friends of those old brotherhoods - from their hidings in the mountains of Switzerland and Savoy, as - well as from the south of France and Germany, in their “chapter - sessions,” held there in order to consult about the founding - of new brotherhoods; and from thence the opposition to infant - baptism was first transplanted to Zürich.--But these “chapter - sessions” served quite another purpose than the fostering - of Waldensian and Anabaptist societies, and were rather - devoted to advancing the interests of liberalistic humanism - and scholarship. And the embracing together of all the - above-named sects as representing one and the same spiritual - current, though supported by a great many combinations, guesses, - suppositions, and deductions, which from their very boldness and - the confidence with which they are stated are often startling, - seems to be utterly untenable, and to proceed not so much from - an unbiassed study of original sources as from a prejudiced - judgment manipulating the facts with great art and skill. - In conclusion, then, Keller proceeds to deal with the later - actors in the Anabaptist movement, and finds them not only in - the Mennonites and Puritans, but also in the freemason lodges, - the Rosicrucians, and Pietists. Even the spiritual tendencies - of Lessing, Kant, to a certain extent also of Schiller, also - of Schleiermacher, through his connection with the Brethren - of Herrnhut, seem to him determined and dominated by this same - fundamental principle! The baselessness of Keller’s arguments - has been thoroughly exposed by Kolde and Carl Müller, yet he - continues unweariedly to repeat and set them forth. - - § 147.3. =The Swiss Anabaptists.=--Even in German Switzerland, - although the reformers of that country had proceeded much - further than the Saxon reformers in the direction of removing - every vestige of Roman Catholicism in constitution, doctrine, - worship, and discipline, ultra-reforming tendencies soon made - their appearance among those who thought that such changes - were not radical and thorough enough. Here, too, the refusal - to recognise infant baptism was made specially prominent. Indeed - even Zwingli himself at first pronounced against its necessity - and serviceableness. According to him, baptism was not, as with - Luther, a means of grace, but analogous to the circumcision - of the Old Testament--a sign of obligation, by means of which - the subject of baptism accepted the Christian faith and life as - binding upon him. Thus he was inclined for a time to depreciate - infant baptism, without however declaring it absolutely - unallowable. But when subsequently it became apparent that - the radical opposition to it on the part of its former friends, - and their insisting upon the obligation to observe only adult - baptism, proceeded from an ultra-reforming tendency, which - threatened with ruin much that was necessary to ecclesiastical - and civil order, and tended to make the extremest consequences - of these views the very foundation of their system, he expressed - himself all the more decidedly in favour of having infant - baptism obligatorily retained.--The most zealous leaders of - the Anabaptist movement in Switzerland were Conrad Grebel, - a cultured humanist, son of a distinguished Zürich senator, - already designated by Zwingli as “the coryphæus of the Baptists;” - Felix Manz, also a humanist, and famous as an earnest promoter - of Hebrew studies, but drowned in A.D. 1527 by order of the - Zürich council; George Jacobs, a monk of Chur in the Grison - country, commonly called Blaurock, on account of his dress; - Louis Hätzer of Thurgau, etc. Besides these native Swiss, the - following also wrought with equal enthusiasm for the promotion - of the Anabaptist cause: William Röubli, a priest banished - from Rottenburg on the Neckar on account of his evangelical - zeal; Simon Stumpf, who had migrated from Franconia, and Michael - Sattler from Breisgau; but above all the famous Balthazar - Hubmeier, a scholar of John Eck, distinguished as a popular - preacher and an indefatigable apologist and skilful polemical - writer on the side of the Anabaptists. He was, in A.D. 1512, - professor of theology at Ingolstadt, in A.D. 1516 pastor of - the cathedral church of Regensburg; from whence, in A.D. 1522, - already powerfully influenced in favour of evangelical truth - by Luther’s writings, he removed to Waldshut, and there entered - on the work of the Reformation, but afterwards decided against - the continuance of infant baptism and in favour of Anabaptism. - The Austrian government, under whose protectorate Waldshut was, - demanded that he should be delivered up, which the governor - steadfastly refused to do. But when, in Dec., 1525, Waldshut - was obliged to surrender at discretion, he fled to Zürich, was - there taken prisoner, and was driven, through fear of being - delivered up to Austria, to make a public recantation. He then - left Zürich and passed over into Moravia.--The original home - of the Anabaptist movement in Switzerland was Zürich and its - neighbourhood. At Wyticon and Zollicon, Röubli publicly preached - in A.D. 1524 against infant baptism, and persuaded several - parents to refuse to have their young children baptized. When, - in Jan., 1525, the Zürich council voted for the expulsion of - all ultra-reform agitators, these assembled together on the - evening preceding their departure for mutual edification and - establishment by prayer and Scripture reading. Then Blaurock - rose, and besought Grebel “for God’s sake to baptize him with - the true Christian baptism into the true faith,” and, when this - was done, imparted it himself to all others present. The same - sort of thing happened soon after at Waldshut, where Hubmeier - on Easter Eve received baptism by the hand of Röubli, and - then on Easter Day conferred it upon 110 and afterwards upon - more than 300 individuals. In this way a thorough break was - made, not only with the old Catholics, but also with the young - reformed Church, and the foundation of an independent Anabaptist - community laid, which now with rapid strides spread over the - whole of reformed Switzerland. Thus originated, _e.g._, the - twelve Anabaptist congregations that existed in Zürich and - neighbourhood as early as A.D. 1527, the twenty-five in the - Zürich highlands, and also the sixteen which in A.D. 1531 were - to be found in the Zürich lowlands. An attempt was next made to - diffuse information among the sectaries and convert them from - their errors by means of discussions and controversial tracts, - Zwingli lending his aid by word and pen; and then resort was had - to fines and imprisonment. In June, 1525, St. Gall, following - the example of Zürich, issued sentence of banishment against - the Baptists. But as the expulsion of the leaders in no degree - contributed to the crushing of the communities, which rather - gathered strength in secret, and as the exiles were now for - the first time fully able to spread over all lands the seeds - of their Anabaptist doctrines, it was finally concluded that - capital punishment was a necessity. The Zürich council, in - March, 1527, issued an edict, according to which all rebaptizers - and rebaptized were without exception to be drowned, and this - example was followed by the other magistrates. In consequence - of the general persecution that followed the Anabaptist - agitation in Switzerland might be regarded as stamped out - in A.D. 1531, although here and there little groups meeting - in remote and hidden corners, under constant threat of prison - and death, dragged out a miserable existence for some twenty - years more.[421] - - § 147.4. =The South German Anabaptists.=--The Anabaptists - expelled from Switzerland in A.D. 1525 spread first of all - over the neighbouring south German provinces. Blaurock, - publicly whipped in Zürich, returned to the Grison country, - and, when again driven out of that refuge, to the Tyrol, where - the Anabaptist views found uncommonly great favour. Röubli and - Sattler retired to Alsace, where Strassburg especially became - one of the chief nurseries of Anabaptism, and from thence - they carried on a successful mission work in Swabia. Louis - Hätzer and John Denck (§ 148, 1) gathered a large following in - Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Strassburg; also in Passau, Regensburg, - and Munich; then pressing eastward along the Inn and the Danube, - their adherents founded Anabaptist communities in Salzburg, - Styria, Linz, Stein, and even in Vienna. They found the greatest - success of all among the industrial classes, and travelling - artisans proved their most zealous apostles. Although, beyond - carrying on an unwearied propaganda on behalf of their own - religious confession, they almost invariably refused to identify - themselves with any other sort of social and political agitation, - they were on all hands most cruelly persecuted; no city, no - country town, no village was beyond the reach of inquisitorial - scrutiny. Their radical extirpation was, by the decision of the - diet at Spires in A.D. 1529, represented as a duty to the empire - resting upon all; for the sixth section of its decrees enjoined - that “each and all of the rebaptizers and rebaptized, both men - and women, come to years of discretion, should be brought to - the stake and block or suchlike death without any trial before - the spiritual judge.” Most blood was indeed shed in lands under - Catholic governments. In the Tyrol and in Görz, for example, it - is said that, even in A.D. 1531, the number executed was over - 1,000, among whom was Blaurock, who was burnt in A.D. 1529. - Sebastian Franck, in A.D. 1530, estimated the number of the - slain at somewhere about 2,000, and the heat of the persecution - only began with that year. Duke William of Bavaria went furthest, - with the atrocious order, “Whoever recants, let him be beheaded; - whoever refuses to recant, let him be burnt alive.” But also - Protestant governments, princes, and magistrates took part - more or less zealously in the work of extermination recommended - in the interests of the empire. Only the Landgrave Philip of - Hesse and the magistrates of Strassburg kept at least their - hands clean from blood, although they also by imprisoning and - banishing did their best to prevent the spread of this heresy - in their domains. - - § 147.5. =The Moravian Anabaptists.=--=Balthazar Hubmeier=, - banished, in A.D. 1526, from Zürich, had found in Nikolsburg in - Moravia a place of refuge. Under the powerful and far-reaching - protection of the lords of Liechtenstein, which he obtained for - his gospel, Moravia became “a delightsome land,” and Nikolsburg - a “New Jerusalem” to the sorely oppressed Anabaptists, who had - been hunted like wild beasts and made homeless wanderers. And - there they remained, notwithstanding severe hostile attacks, - from which they repeatedly suffered, especially between the - years 1536 and 1554. This was followed by “the good time,” - from A.D. 1554 to 1565, and from A.D. 1565 to 1592 by “the - golden age” of the community, now consisting of 15,000 brethren. - With A.D. 1592 began again “the times of tribulation,” until - their church, as well as Protestantism generally throughout the - country, received its deathblow. According to their numerous - “chronicles” and “memoirs,” describing to their posterity the - fortunes of the community, dating from A.D. 1524, the number of - Anabaptists put to death up to A.D. 1581 in Switzerland, South - Germany, and throughout the Austrian States was 2,419. Hubmeier - had already, by the end of A.D. 1527, after Moravia had come - under Austrian rule, been made prisoner in Vienna, along with - his wife; and there, in the spring of A.D. 1528, he went to the - stake with the heroic spirit of a martyr. Three days later his - wife, showing the same bold contempt for death, was drowned in - the Danube. In A.D. 1531 =James Huter=, from the Tyrol, stood at - the head of the Moravian Anabaptists. Owing to the persecution - which from A.D. 1529 raged there against his companions in - the faith, he migrated thence with 150 brethren. He succeeded - in composing the many splits and quarrels which had broken - out in consequence of these migrations among the various - sorts of Anabaptists from Silesia, Bavaria, Swabia, and the - Palatinate, and managed to organize them in one united body - with the earlier settlers. His reputation and influence were - consequently so great that the community took the name from him - of the “Huterian Brethren.” During the persecution which was - directed against them in A.D. 1535 he fled to the Tyrol, but - was there taken prisoner and burnt in March, 1536.--The Moravian - Anabaptists, who had been with perfect propriety designated - “_the quiet of the land_,” were characterized by exemplary - piety, strict discipline, moral earnestness, industrial - diligence, conscientious obedience to the laws, unexampled - patience and gentleness amid all sufferings, but, above all, - by the astonishing courage of their martyrs and fortitude - under torture. In regard to doctrine, with the exception of - a few “false brethren” affected with Socinian views, they - unanimously and from the first acknowledged their adherence - to the œcumenical symbols. Their mode of worship was of an - extremely simple character. As sacraments, _i.e._ as “symbols - of a holy thing,” they recognised - - 1. true Christian baptism, _i.e._ that of grown up people who - professed repentance and faith; - - 2. the Lord’s Supper as a festival, in memory of the sufferings - and death of Christ, as well as a thanksgiving for the grace - of God thereby enjoyed, and as expression of the church’s - faith in it; - - 3. Marriage as a symbol of the espousals of Christ and His - church (Eph. v. 23-32); and in some fashion - - 4. the laying on of the hands of the elders in the ordination - of the clergy. - - Mass, confirmation, extreme unction, confession, and indulgence, - worship of images, saints, and relics, as well as infant baptism, - were utterly rejected by them. They were equally decided in - denying all merit in fasting and observing the feast days, - in repudiating the doctrine of purgatory, and many of the - ceremonies of the Romish church. They also rejected the Lutheran - and Zwinglian doctrine of justification, which they regarded - as a remnant of antichristian Romanism. But as the true and - only communion of saints they regarded themselves as alone - constituting the true church. At the head of their community - stood - - 1. a bishop; and - - 2. next him the ministers of the Lord, divided into apostles - with the missionary calling for the spread of the church, - preachers, and pastors over particular congregations, and - helpers to give assistance to these; - - 3. ministers of benevolence, _i.e._ dispensers to the poor and - administrators of the possessions of the church; and - - 4. the elders, as representatives of the church in conducting - its government. - - A particularly important factor for maintaining the union - of the scattered communities was the synodal constitution - introduced by Hubmeier. The superintendents of the smaller - circuits met together for consultation weekly, and the deputies - from the larger circuits met together once a month; while the - general synods, embracing also the brethren beyond the bounds - of Moravia, were convened for purposes of administration once - a year, when that was possible.--Continuation, § 162, 2. - - § 147.6. =The Venetian Anabaptists.=--Down to the year 1540 - the evangelical reform movement in Italy (§ 139, 22-24) had - an essentially Lutheran orthodox character. But after that an - Anabaptist current set in, coming probably from Switzerland, - and communicated through Italian refugees residing there, which - subsequently took the direction of a unitarian rationalistic - movement. Its main centre was in the domain of Venice, and its - most zealous promoter an Italian, an exile from home on account - of his faith, =Tiziano=, who, with no fixed place of abode, - resided sometimes on this side, sometimes on the other side - of the Alps. Fuller knowledge of him we owe to the confessions - of one of his scholars, Manelfi, recently discovered in the - Venetian archives, which he wrote out voluntarily and penitently - before the Inquisition, first at Bologna and then at Rome, in - Oct. and Nov., 1551. Don =Pietro Manelfi=, priest at San Vito, - was led, in A.D. 1540 or 1541, by the preaching of a Capuchin, - Jerome Spinazola, to the conclusion that the Romish church is - contrary to Holy Scripture, and is a human, yea, a devilish - invention. This same priest also introduced him to Bernardino - Ochino (§ 139, 24), who furnished him with several writings - of Luther and Melanchthon, and taught him that the pope - is antichrist and the mass satanic idolatry. Called by the - “Lutherans” of Padua, he now for two years travelled through - all northern Italy and Istria as Lutheran “minister of the word.” - Then in Florence he made the acquaintance of Tiziano, and after - long resistance yielded at last to be baptized by him. During - a conversation which, in A.D. 1549, Tiziano had with him and - several other friends at Vincenza, the question was raised, - over Deuteronomy xviii. 18, whether Christ is God or man. It - was agreed in order to decide the matter to summon an Anabaptist - council, to meet at Vienna in Sept., 1550. There were somewhere - about sixty deputies who responded, of whom between twenty and - thirty were from Switzerland, mostly Italian refugees, who at - the fortieth session of their secret conclave, “after prayer, - fasting, and reading of Scripture,” laid down the following - doctrinal propositions as binding upon all their congregations: - “Christ is not God, but man, yet a man full of Divine power, - son of Joseph and Mary, who after him bore also other sons and - daughters: There are neither angels nor devil in the proper - sense; but when in Holy Scripture angels appear, they are men - sent by God for special purposes, and where the devil is spoken - of the fleshly mind of man is meant: There is no other hell than - the grave, in which the elect sleep in the Lord till they shall - be awaked at the last day; while the souls of the ungodly, as - well as their bodies, like those of the beasts, perish in death: - To the human seed God has given the capacity of begetting the - spirit as well as the body: The elect will be justified only - by God’s mercy and love, without the merits, the blood, and - the death of Christ: Christ’s death serves merely as a witness - to the righteousness, _i.e._ ‘the mercy and love’ of God.” On - their specifically Anabaptist doctrine, because not the subject - of controversy, there was no deliverance. The denial of the - supernatural birth of Christ, however, led to a limitation - of the fundamental doctrine of the absolute authority of the - Scriptures of the Old and New Testament by the exclusion of - the first chapters of the gospels of Matthew and Luke, which - it was now affirmed had been forged by Jerome at the command - of Pope Damasus. The decrees of the council were adopted by - all the communities, with the exception of that of Citadella, - which in consequence was cast out of the union. Manelfi, elected - bishop, travelled in this capacity during a whole year among the - churches assigned to him, always accompanied by a brother. Then - he became penitent, and cast himself upon the grace of the papal - Inquisition. His confessions, especially as bearing on the names - and whereabouts of his former companions, Lutherans as well as - Anabaptists, were sent from Rome to the Venetian tribunal of - the Inquisition, which now began its work of persecution and - vengeance with such zeal and success, that after some decades - every trace of Lutheranism and Anabaptism was rooted out. Many - escaped imprisonment by opportune flight; many also failed in - courage, and retracted; but the steadfast confessors were burnt - or drowned in great numbers. Meanwhile this fiery tribulation - had proved in most of the communities a purifying fire. The - radical heretic tendency that had prevailed since the council - gave place by degrees to the more moderate views of earlier - days. This change was greatly furthered by the close intimacy - existing between the Italian Anabaptists and the Moravian - Brethren from about the middle of A.D. 1550. The credit of - having effected this alliance, and securing its benefits to - their fellow countrymen, belongs especially to two noble-minded - men, Francesco della Saga, formerly a student of Rovigo, and - Giulio Gherardi, formerly subdeacon at Rome. But the latter, in - A.D. 1561, the former a year later, fell into the hands of the - Venetian Inquisition. After all attempts at conversion proved in - vain, both were thrown by night into the Venice canal, Gherardi - in A.D. 1562, and Saga in A.D. 1565. - - § 147.7. =The older Apostles of Anabaptism in the North-West of - Germany.=--In the north-west no less than in the south and east, - from the lower Rhine as far as Friesland and Holstein, in Jülich, - Cleves, Berg, in Hesse, Westphalia, and Lower Saxony, as well - as in Holland and Brabant, where the Reformation had begun to - gain some footing, Anabaptism also secured an entrance and some - success. Among their older apostles labouring in these regions - the most distinguished were Hoffmann and Ring. - - 1. =Melchior Hoffmann=, a currier from Swabia, had even in - his early home taken part in the religious movements of the - age, and in A.D. 1524, in the prosecution of his handicraft, - went to Livonia, and became the herald of these views in - Wolmar, Dorpat, and Reval. When his followers in Dorpat - broke down the images and attacked the monasteries, he was - obliged to flee, and carried on his operations for some - time in Stockholm (§ 139, 1). Expelled by-and-by from that - city, he next made his appearance in Wittenberg. Luther - took offence at his prophetic-apocalyptic fanaticism, and - pointed him to his handicraft as his legitimate calling. - He now went to Holstein, where King Frederick of Denmark - afforded him a fixed residence at Kiel, with permission - to preach throughout the whole land. By contesting the - Lutheran doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, and representing - the sacrament as of merely symbolical import, and the - partaking as purely spiritual, he caused offence even - here, and was, after a public disputation with Bugenhagen - at Flensburg in A.D. 1529, driven out of the country. He - sought refuge in Strassburg, where Bucer received him with - open arms. There for the first time, under the influence of - the Swiss Anabaptists, was full and clear expression given - to those objections to infant baptism which long before - had been cherished in his heart. He had himself baptized, - and became from this time forth the most zealous apostle of - Anabaptism throughout all North Germany. In this capacity - he wrought unweariedly and successfully, issuing forth from - Emden in East Friesland, where he had settled in A.D. 1529, - and by his travels, preaching, and writings spread his - doctrines far and wide. Besides his heterodox doctrine - of the sacraments and his apocalyptic-fanaticism, which - led him to proclaim that the second coming of Christ would - take place within seven years, and ultimately to announce - that he himself was the prophet Elias foretold in Malachi - iv. 5, 6 as its forerunner, he brought forward his theory - about the incarnation of Christ, according to which the - eternal Word did not assume from Mary flesh and blood - but Himself became flesh and passed through Mary, simply - “as the sun shines through glass,” because otherwise not - Christ’s but Mary’s flesh would have suffered for us. In - other respects he utterly rejected the wild, fantastic - notions of the Anabaptists which were some years later - developed in Münster. In his own life he was thoughtful, - pure, and strictly moral, in disposition mild, benevolent, - and charitable. In A.D. 1533 we find him again at Strassburg, - where his fanatical-prophetical preaching soon produced - such dangerous results that the magistrates felt obliged - to shut him up under bolts and bars, where he could be - out of the way of doing mischief. He was still in prison - in A.D. 1543, and from that time onward nothing more is - known of him. But a sect of Melchiorites, by no means few - in number, held their ground for a long time in Alsace and - Lower Germany. - - 2. According to other accounts =Melchior Ring=, a currier - of Swabia, is represented as having wrought during the - same period and throughout the same places in Sweden, - Livonia, Holstein, and East Friesland, entertaining similar - christological, prophetico-apocalyptic, and Anabaptist - views. The identity of the Christian name, fatherland, - handicraft, doctrinal tenets, date, and spheres of labour - is so striking, that one is almost tempted to identify - him with Melchior Hoffmann, especially as John of Leyden - in his later examination is said to have affirmed that - Melchior Hoffmann had actually borne the name of Ring. - We feel compelled, however, to maintain the distinctness - of their personalities, since, according to Hochbuth’s - researches in the history of the Anabaptists in the Hessian - state, Ring had been actively engaged in Hesse at a time - during which it can be proved that Hoffmann was at work - elsewhere. - - § 147.8. So far in respect of place and time as the influence - of Hoffmann reached,--and it seems down to the time of his - imprisonment to have been widely predominant throughout the - whole of the north-western district,--the life and movement of - the Anabaptists there kept clear of any social revolutionary - tendencies, and in their aberrations from the ways of the - reformers were restricted to the purely religious domain. - In the beginning of the year 1530, however, a movement broke - forth again in =Holland=, in which there was a resurrection of - the spirit of Thomas Münzer, and the demand for a thoroughly - radical and revolutionary reconstruction of social and political - relations was brought into prominence. The most important - representative of this tendency was a baker, =Jan Matthys= - of Haarlem, who, claiming to be a prophet, proclaimed the - introduction of the millennium of glory as the proper and - principal task of the Baptists. For the fulfilment of this - task he insisted upon the overthrow of the present order in - church and State, resistance to their enemies with weapons - in hand, even the destruction of all “the ungodly” from the - face of the earth, in order that “the saints,” as promised in - Scripture, should rule over the world, and lead to completion - the kingdom of God. The doctrine of the new prophets may even - already have taken root in the minds of the Baptists, roused and - excited by continued persecution, without their having clearly - perceived what it would ultimately lead to if successfully - carried out. But when in Münster these fanatical theories were - shown forth as actual realized facts, when John of Leyden set - up his pretentious kingdom in that “New Jerusalem,” and sent - out into all the world his numerous apostles with the demand - for adhesion, in many cases they found a too willing audience. - The miserable collapse of the Münster kingdom was the first - thing that again called people back to their senses, and - rendered their remnants susceptible to the purification of - Anabaptism to which Menno Simons devoted his whole life. - - § 147.9. =The Münster Catastrophe, A.D. 1534, 1535.=--The - preacher Rothmann of Münster had for some time maintained - the Zwinglian theory of the Lord’s Supper, and then he took - a further step in the repudiation of infant baptism. A public - disputation in A.D. 1533 yielded no result, and he refused - to obey an order to retire into exile. He now sought, and - that successfully, to increase his following, by the adoption - of new elements of the Anabaptist creed. On the festival - of the Three Holy Kings in A.D. 1534, =John of Leyden= or John - Bockelssohn made his entrance into the city. An illegitimate - son of a girl in the Münster province, brought up by relatives - in Leyden, whither he returned after several years spent in - travelling about as a journeyman tailor, he was in the autumn - of A.D. 1533 converted by the prophet Matthys, and soon became - his most zealous apostle. In Münster the young man, now in his - twenty-fifth year, handsome in appearance and endowed with rich - intellectual abilities, was favourably received in the house of - a rich and respectable cloth merchant, Bernard Knipperdolling, - who had been long interested in the religious movement, and - married his daughter. In the meantime Jan Matthys also was - called from Amsterdam to Münster. Both now wrought in common - among the inhabitants of the city. Their sermons, delivered - with glowing eloquence, produced a great impression, especially - among the women, and their following grew to such an extent - that they believed they might act in defiance of the council. - In consequence of a riot the magistrates were weak and yielding - enough to enter into an agreement with them by which they - obtained legal recognition. Then from all sides Anabaptist - fanatics crowded into Münster. After some weeks they secured - a majority in the council, and Knipperdolling was made - burgomaster. The prophet Matthys declared it to be God’s - will that all unbelievers should be expelled. This was done - on 27th February, 1534. Seven deacons divided among the - believers the property of those who had been banished. In - May the bishop began the siege of the city. This much at least - resulted from that proceeding, that the epidemic was confined to - Münster. After all images, organs, and books, with the exception - of the Bible, had been destroyed, they introduced the principle - of community of goods. Matthys, who regarded himself as called - to slay the besieging foes, in a sortie fell by their swords. - Bockelssohn took his place. The council in consequence of his - revelations was dissolved, and a theocratical government of - twelve elders, who were ready to receive their inspiration - from the new prophet, was set up. In order that he might marry - Matthys’ beautiful widow, he introduced polygamy. He took - seventeen wives; Rothmann satisfied himself with four. In vain - did the remnants of moral consciousness existing still among - the inhabitants protest. The discontented, who gathered round - the smith Mollenhök, were overcome and all of them were put to - death. Bockelssohn, proclaimed by one of his fellow prophets, - John Dusendschur, king of the whole earth, set up a splendid - court, and perpetrated the most revolting iniquities. He - regarded himself as called to bring in the millennium, sent - out twenty-eight apostles to spread his kingdom, and appointed - twelve dukes to govern the world under him. The besiegers had - meanwhile, in August, 1534, made an utterly unsuccessful attempt - to storm the city. Had they not toward the end of the year - received assistance from Treves, Cleves, Mainz, and Cologne, - they would have been obliged to raise the siege. Even then they - could only think of securing the surrender of the city by famine. - It had already been reduced to sore straits. But on St. John’s - night, 1535, a deserter led the soldiers to the wall. After a - most determined struggle the Anabaptists were utterly overthrown. - Rothmann rushed into the hottest of the battle, and there met - his death. King John and his premier Knipperdolling and his - chancellor Krechting were taken prisoners, and on 22nd January, - 1536, were pinched to death with redhot pincers and then hung - in iron chains from St. Lambert’s tower. Catholicism was finally - restored to absolute and exclusive supremacy. - - § 147.10. =Menno Simons and the Mennonites.=--Menno Simons, - born at Wittmarsum in Friesland in A.D. 1492, from A.D. 1516 - a Catholic priest, had from careful study of Holy Scripture - come to entertain serious doubts as to the Romish doctrine. - The martyr courage of the Baptists called his attention to - the Baptist views of this sect, and soon he came to feel - convinced of their correctness. He resigned his priest’s - office at Wittmarsum in A.D. 1536, and had himself baptized. - Amid indescribable difficulties and with unwearied patience - he laboured on, wandering from place to place, devoting all his - powers to the reorganization of the sect. He gave it a definite - doctrinal formula, “The Fundamental Book of the True Christian - Faith,” in A.D. 1539, which in point of doctrine attached - itself to the Reformed confessions, and was distinguished - from these only by the rejection of infant baptism, and by - an unconditional spiritualization of the idea of the church as - a pure communion of true saints. It distinctly forbade military - and civil service, as well as all taking of oaths, introduced - feet washing in addition to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, - and by severe church discipline maintained a simple manner - of life and strict morality. The quiet, pious demeanour of - the Mennonites soon secured for them in Holland, and later - also in Germany, toleration and religious freedom. Menno - died in A.D. 1559.--Even during Menno’s lifetime his Dutch - followers split up into two parties, called “the Fine” and - “the Coarse.” The former enforced in all its severity Menno’s - strict discipline, and indeed went beyond it by prohibiting - all intercourse with the excommunicated, even should these be - parents or husbands and wives. The latter wished to allow to - the ban only ecclesiastical and not civil disabilities, and to - have it exercised only after repeated exhortations had proved - ineffectual.--Continuation, § 162, 1. - - - § 148. ANTITRINITARIANS AND UNITARIANS.[422] - - The first to contest the doctrine of the Trinity arose from among -the German Anabaptists. The Spaniard Michael Servetus wrought out -his Unitarianism into connection with a system that was fundamentally -pantheistic. The real home of Antitrinitarianism, however, was -Italy, a fruit of the half-pagan humanism that flourished there. -Banished the country, its representatives sought refuge in Switzerland. -Expelled by-and-by from these regions, they betook themselves mostly -to Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania, where they found protection -from the princes and nobles. A thoroughly developed system of doctrine, -elaborated by Lælius and Faustus Socinus, uncle and nephew, was now -accepted by them, and by this means they were consolidated into a -corporate society. - - § 148.1. =Anabaptist Antitrinitarians in Germany.= - - 1. =John Denck= from the Upper Palatinate, was, on - Œcolampadius’ recommendation, whose lectures he had - attended at Basel, made rector of St. Sebald’s school - in Nuremberg in A.D. 1523. On account of his maintaining - views inconsistent with Lutheran orthodoxy, he came into - collision with the reformer of that place, Andrew Osiander, - in A.D. 1524, and on the ground of a written confession - of faith extorted from him he was deposed from his office - and expelled the city. Nor did he find a permanent abode - in Augsburg, to which he went in A.D. 1525; for Urbanus - Rhegius, who at first received him in a friendly manner, - was obliged at last to turn against him on account of - his Anabaptist views and the great scandal he caused - by maintaining the belief that the devil and all the - ungodly would finally repent. He now, in A.D. 1526, went - to Strassburg, where Hätzer induced him, as a zealous - student of Hebrew, to assist him in his translation of - the Old Testament prophets. When here also his influence - assumed dangerous proportions, a disputation was arranged - for between him and Bucer, in consequence of which he was - expelled also from Strassburg. Like treatment awaited him - at Bergzahern and also at Landau. He then went to Worms - along with Hätzer, who had meanwhile been banished from - Strassburg. There they completed their translation of the - prophets, but from this retreat also after three months - they were again driven out. Denck now once again, through - Œcolampadius’ mediation, who unweariedly endeavoured, but - in vain, to win him back from his errors, found a fixed - abode among the more liberal-minded citizens of Basel; - but he died there of the plague in A.D. 1527. Denck was - indeed one of the most talented men of his day. His high - intellectual endowments and his pure and noble moral life - were acknowledged by his most bitterly prejudiced orthodox - opponents. Of his numerous tracts and pamphlets only that - “On the Law of God, how the Law is Abolished and yet must - be Fulfilled,” is still accurately known. It is rich in - deep thoughts cleverly put, as is also the confession of - faith already mentioned, but in direct antagonism to the - Lutheran doctrine on several most vital and cardinal points. - He placed the inner word of God above the outward, taught - that man had a natural inclination toward good, attached - a fundamental importance to the fulfilling of the moral - law for the attainment of salvation, gave the person of - Christ only the significance of a pattern and exhibition - of the Divine love, resolved the doctrine of the Trinity - into pantheistic speculative ideas, and by his rejection - of infant baptism became the acknowledged head of the whole - German Anabaptist movement of his age, so that Bucer could - designate him “the pope of the Baptists.” - - 2. =Louis Hätzer=, from Bischopzell in Thurgau, was priest at - Wädenschwyl, on the Zürich lake. At first an enthusiastic - follower of Zwingli and his fellow labourer, he soon - transcended the Zwinglian reforming tendencies, and with - fanatical radicalism launched out into fierce iconoclasm, - and attached himself to the Anabaptists, residing partly - in Switzerland, in Zürich, Basel, St. Gall, etc., partly - in Germany, in Augsburg, Strassburg, Worms, etc., but - soon driven out of every place, and meanwhile leading - a wandering, unstable life, until at last, in A.D. 1529, - he was beheaded at Constance as a bigamist and adulterer. - From Denck, who far excelled him in originality and depth - of thought, he derived his peculiar views. Among his - literary productions only his German translation of the - Old Testament prophets, which he produced in conjunction - with Denck, is of any importance. It was published at Worms - in A.D. 1527, two years before the Zürich version, and five - years before that of Luther, and passed through several - editions until it was displaced by Luther’s. He also holds - no mean position as a composer of spiritual songs. - - 3. =John Campanus= of Jülich was expelled from Cologne, - where he had studied, and went to Wittenburg [Wittenberg], - as tutor to some young noblemen, in A.D. 1528. He - accompanied the reformers to Marburg, where he sought - to unite different parties by explaining “This is My - body” to mean the body created by Me. But when he began - to spread Anabaptist and Arian views in Wittenberg, and - to calumniate the reformers by speech and writing, he was - obliged, in A.D. 1532, to quit Saxony. He now returned to - Jülich, but after labouring there for a considerable time, - he was arrested on a charge of preaching revolutionary and - chiliastic sermons, and died in prison after twenty years’ - confinement at Cleves about A.D. 1578. His Arian-trinitarian - doctrine of God was just as peculiar as his doctrine of - the supper. He would acknowledge in the Godhead only two - Persons, just as its type marriage is a union of only two - persons. He regarded the Holy Spirit, on the one hand, as - the Divine nature common to both, and, on the other hand, - as the operation of these upon man. - - 4. =David Joris=, a painter on glass in Delft, received - his first impulse from Luther’s writings about A.D. 1524, - but soon plunged into wild excesses of iconoclasm and - anabaptism. After the overthrow of the short-lived rule - of the Münster fanatics (§ 133, 6), he travelled up and - down through the whole of Germany, in order to gather - together the scattered remnants of the Anabaptists, and - to proclaim his revelations. He was not to be deterred - or terrified by imprisonment, scourging, or banishment. - At last he was pronounced an outlaw, and a price was set - upon his head. He went now, in A.D. 1544, to Basel, and - lived there under the assumed name of John of Bruges, - outwardly professing attachment to the Reformed church, - but in secret, by the diligent circulation of letters and - treatises, working for his own ends, till his death in - A.D. 1556. When afterwards his true name was discovered, - the authorities had his bones dug up and burnt by the - public hangman. In theory and practice an antinomian, - he taught in his fantastic production, “T’Wonderboek” - of A.D. 1542, on the ground of the most naked naturalism, - how the perfection of the spiritual life and the true - reconciliation of all things must be brought about. He - conceived of the Trinity as the self-revelation of God - in three different ways. That of the Holy Spirit came to - pass with himself; the end and aim of that dispensation - he represented as consisting in the gathering together of - the people of God, _i.e._ all Anabaptists, who were to take - possession of the whole earth, as before Israel had of the - land of Canaan. - - § 148.2. =Michael Servetus= was born in A.D. 1509 at - Villanueva in Arragon. He was a man of rich speculative ability, - wide knowledge of science, and restless, inquiring spirit. At - Toulouse he devoted himself first of all to the study of law, - but soon after turned his attention with great eagerness to - theological questions. He became convinced that the fundamental - Christian doctrine of the Trinity in its accepted ecclesiastical - form is equally opposed to Scripture and to reason, and that in - this quarter pre-eminently a reformation was needed. At a later - period in Paris he gave himself to the study of medicine, and - is reputed the first discoverer of the circulation of the blood, - and secured for himself an eminent rank as a practical physician - and a writer on medical subjects. He began his polemic against - the prevailing doctrine of the Church at Strassburg in A.D. 1531 - with the treatise _De Trinitatis erroribus, ll. vii._ Next in - order appeared at Hagenau, in A.D. 1532, his palliating and - to some extent retractational _Dialogorum de Trin., ll. ii._ - In A.D. 1553 he issued anonymously at Vienne his radical and - revolutionary principal work, _Christianismi Restitutio_, which - was the means of bringing him to the stake. As he succeeded in - escaping from his prison in Vienne they were able there only - to burn him _in effigie_; but at Geneva he was, at Calvin’s - instigation, arrested again, and on his refusing to make a - recantation was sent to the stake on 27th Oct., A.D. 1553. - The last words heard from the dying man in the flames were, - “Jesus, Thou Son of the eternal God, have mercy upon me.”--The - reformatory aim of Servetus in his doctrinal system was to - raise God as high as possible above the creature. In its very - earliest form it was fundamentally pantheistic, yet even here - God is thought of as the original substance, and everything - existing outside of Him is conceived of as conditioned by - a substantial emanation from His being. Those pantheistic - principles, however, make their appearance in a much more - decided form in the later and more complete developments - of his system which are completely dominated by Neoplatonic - speculations. In particular he regards the Logos as an emanation - of the Divine element of light, which first came into possession - of personal existence in the incarnation of Christ. The gross - matter of His corporeity He received from His mother; the - place of the male seed was taken by the Divine element of - light. In both respects he is ὁμοούσιος, for even the earthly - matter is only a grosser form of the primal light. Son and - Spirit are only different _dispositiones Dei_, the Father alone - is _tota substantia et unus Deus_. And as the Trinity makes its - appearance in connection with the redemption of the world, it - will disappear again when that redemption has been completed. - The polemic of Servetus, however, extended beyond the doctrine - of the Trinity to an attack upon the church doctrine of original - sin, and the repudiation of infant baptism. He also set forth - a spiritualistic theory of the Lord’s Supper, contended against - the Lutheran doctrine of justification and the Calvinistic - doctrine of predestination, sketched out a scheme of chiliastic - expectations, etc. Amid all these vagaries he maintained his - high estimate of Christ as the Logos, become Son of God by the - incarnation, and the centre and end of all history; he also - continued to reverence Holy Scripture as that which from its - first book to its last testifies of Christ. His mystical piety, - too, was deep and sincere. But owing to the immoderate violence - with which he denounced views opposed to his own as doctrines - of devils, among other reproachful terms applying to the church - doctrine of the Trinity the name of “_triceps Cerberus_,” the - three-headed dog of hell, his contemporaries were prevented - from getting even a glimpse of the bright side of his life and - endeavours, so that all the most notable theologians voted for - his death as salutary and necessary (§ 145, 1).[423] - - § 148.3. =Italian and other Antitrinitarians before - Socinus.=--=Claudius of Savoy= in A.D. 1534, at Bern, brought - forward the idea that Christ is to be called God only because - the fulness of the Divine Spirit has been communicated to Him. - He was on this account expelled from that city, and soon after - even from Basel, and was very coldly received at Wittenberg. He - retracted before a synod at Lausanne in A.D. 1537, afterwards - played the part of a popular agitator at Augsburg, and was - regarded in Memmingen down to A.D. 1550 as a prophet. After - that no further trace of him is found.--Closely connected with - the previously named Tiziano, by bonds of friendship and of - spiritual affinity, and subsequently also with Lælius Socinus, - was the Sicilian exile from his native land, =Camillo Renato=. - In A.D. 1545 he obtained at Chiavenna in Veltlin, which then - belonged to the country of the Grisons, a situation as a private - tutor, and soon became highly respected. He by-and-by, however, - involved himself in a violent controversy with the evangelical - pastor there, Agostino Mainardo, about the sacraments, which led - to his being excommunicated by the Grison synod in A.D. 1550. The - central point in his theology is the doctrine of predestination. - Only the elect are by God’s Spirit awakened into life, and - while the children of the Spirit only slumber in death, and - in the resurrection assume a renewed, purely spiritual form - of being, the soul of the non-elect die just like their bodies. - Although a decided opponent of infant baptism, he did not go so - far as to insist upon rebaptism, because he depreciated baptism - generally as a mere outward sign, and therefore not necessary. - And although he carefully avoided any express repudiation of - the doctrine of the Trinity, it can scarcely be doubted that - he and all his friends and followers favoured antitrinitarian - views.--=Matthew Gribaldo=, a jurist of Padua, the physician - =George Blandrata= of Saluzzo in Piedmont, and =Valentine - Gentilis= of Calabria, fugitives from their native lands, took - up a position of hostility to Calvin in Geneva after Servetus’ - death. When Calvin proposed to have them brought before a legal - tribunal Gribaldo and Blandrata retired from Geneva and went to - Poland. Only Gentilis remained, and he subscribed a confession - of faith which Calvin laid before him, but soon declared - that he could not continue to hold by it, and set forth as - consistent with Scripture doctrine the opinion that the Father - as _Essentiator_ is not a person in the Godhead, but the whole - substance of the Godhead, and that the Son as _Essentiatus_ - proceeding from Him, is only the perfect reflex and highest - image of the one deity of the Father. Having been cast into - prison and condemned to death he retracted once again, and then - withdrew also to Poland. Subsequently, however, he returned to - Switzerland, was arrested at Bern, and beheaded as an apostate - in A.D. 1566.[424] Blandrata had meanwhile betaken himself - to Transylvania, was there appointed physician to the prince, - secured the interest of Zapolya II. and many of the nobles - for his Unitarianism, so that public recognition was given to - it as a fourth confessional form of religion. According to the - doctrine set forth by him worship is rendered to Jesus as the - man endowed by God with grace beyond all others and raised to - universal dominion. But in A.D. 1588 he was murdered by his - own nephew, who had remained a Catholic, as he had not patience - to wait for his death in order to secure possession of his - property. Besides Blandrata we may also mention as one of the - chief founders of the Unitarian sect in Transylvania =Franz - Davidis= of Clausenburg. From A.D. 1552 Lutheran pastor, - he became a Calvinist in A.D. 1564, and was made a Reformed - superintendent, and, at Blandrata’s recommendation, Zapolya’s - court preacher. He then openly attached himself by word and - writing to the Unitarians, and became, in A.D. 1571, first - Unitarian superintendent of Transylvania. On account of his - opposing the doctrine of the supernatural conception of Christ - and His right to be worshipped, he was repudiated by Blandrata, - and was, in A.D. 1579, condemned by Prince Christopher Bathori, - as a blasphemer and enemy of Christ, to imprisonment for - life. After three months he died in prison.--The Italian - Antitrinitarians who had fled to =Poland= attached themselves - there to the Reformed church, and secured many followers not - only among the nobles, but also among the Reformed clergy. - At their head in Cracow stood the pastor Gregor Pauli, and - in Princzov George Schomann. At the Synod of Patrikaw, in - A.D. 1562, they first appeared as a close phalanx, making a - regular attempt to have the doctrine of the Trinity set aside. - Their attack, however, was repelled. A royal edict of A.D. 1564 - enacted that all Italian Antitrinitarians should be banished, - and a second synod at Patrikaw, in A.D. 1565, excommunicated - all their followers. A final endeavour to arrive at a mutual - understanding by means of yet another religious conference, - while a diet was summoned in connection with this matter at - Patrikaw, led to no successful result. From this time forth - the Polish Antitrinitarians, who have generally been called - Arians, occupy a distinct position as a separate religious - denomination.--In the Reformed church of the Palatinate, too, - this Unitarian movement ended in an equally tragical scene. The - pastor =Adam Neuser= and the Reformed inspector =John Sylvanus= - took their place about A.D. 1570 along with the Transylvanian - Unitarians. During an investigation into their doctrinal views, - a manuscript written out by Sylvanus in his own hand was found: - “A Confessional Statement against the Tripersonal Idol and - the Two Natures of Christ.” He was beheaded in A.D. 1572 in - the market-place of Heidelberg. Neuser fled to Transylvania, - and at a subsequent period went over to Mohammedanism.--Out - of the Italian infidelity of this age probably also arose - that renewal of an idea that had already appeared during the - Middle Ages (§ 96, 19) in the book _De tribus impostoribus_, - Moses, Jesus, Mohammed. Of a similar tendency is the _Colloquium - Heptaplomeres_ of the French jurist =Jean Bodin= (§ 117, 4), - who died in A.D. 1597. He was one of seven freethinking Venetian - scholars who carried on a discussion upon religion, in which - he maintained that deficiencies and mistakes are inherent in - the same degree in all positive religions. But an ideal deism - is commended as the true religion. - - § 148.4. =The Two Socini and the Socinians.=--=Lælius Socinus=, - member of a celebrated family of lawyers in Siena, and himself - a lawyer, became convinced at an early period that the Romish - system of doctrine was not in accordance with Scripture. In - order to reach an assured and certain knowledge of the truth, - he learnt the original languages in which Scripture was written, - by travelling made the acquaintance of the most celebrated - theologians in Switzerland, Germany, and Poland, and wrought - out for himself a complete and consistent theory of Unitarian - belief. He died in Zürich in A.D. 1562 in his thirty-seventh - year. His nephew, =Faustus Socinus=, born at Siena in A.D. 1539, - was from his early days trained by personal intercourse and - epistolary correspondence with his uncle, and adopted similar - views. He was obliged in A.D. 1559 to make his escape to Lyons, - but returned in A.D. 1562 to Italy, where for twelve years - he was loaded with honours and offices at the court of the - Grand-duke Francis de Medici. In order that he might carry on - his studies undisturbed, he retired in A.D. 1574 to Basel, from - whence in A.D. 1578, at Blandrata’s request, he proceeded to - Transylvania to combat Davidis’ refusal of adoration to Christ. - In the following year he went to Poland in order to unite, if - possible, the various sections of the Unitarians in that country. - At Cracow they insisted that he should allow them to rebaptize - him, and when he firmly refused they declined to admit him to - the communion table. But the decision of his character, his - unwearied endeavours to secure peace and union, as well as the - superiority of his theological scholarship, in the end won for - his ideas a complete victory over the opposing party strifes. - He succeeded gradually in expelling from the ranks of the Polish - Antitrinitarians non-adorationism as well as Anabaptism, and all - their ethical, social, and chiliastic outgrowths, and finally at - the Synod of Racau, in A.D. 1603, he secured recognition for his - own theological views as he had developed them in disputations - and in writings. Persecutions and ill-treatment on the part of - the Catholics were not wanting; as, _e.g.,_ in A.D. 1594 by the - Catholic soldiers, and in A.D. 1598 by the Catholic students - at Cracow, who dragged him from a sick-bed on Ascension Day, - drew him half naked through the city, beat him till the blood - flowed, and would have drowned him had not a Catholic professor - delivered him out of their hands. He died in A.D. 1604.--The - chief symbol of the Socinian denomination is the Racovian - Catechism, published in the Polish language in A.D. 1605. - Socinus himself, in company with several others, compiled - it, mainly from an earlier short treatise, _Relig. christ. - brevissima institutio_. It was subsequently translated into - Latin and also into German.[425]--=The Socinian system of - doctrine= therein set forth is essentially as follows: The - Scriptures are the only source of knowledge of saving truth, - and as God’s word Scripture can contain nothing that is in - contradiction to reason. But the doctrine of the Trinity - contradicts the Bible and reason; God is only one Person. - Jesus was a mere man, but endowed with Divine powers for the - accomplishment of salvation, and as a reward for his perfect - obedience raised to Divine majesty, entrusted with authority - to judge the living and the dead, so that to him also Divine - homage should be paid. The Holy Spirit is only a power or - attribute of God. The image of God in men consisted merely in - dominion over the creatures. Man was by nature mortal, but had - he remained without sin he would by the supernatural operation - of God have entered into eternal life without death. There is - no such thing as original sin, but only hereditary evil and an - inherited inclination toward what is bad, which, however, does - not include in it any guilt. The idea of a Divine foreknowledge - of human action is to be rejected, because it would lead to the - acceptance of the idea of an absolute predestination. Redemption - consists in this, that Christ by life and teaching pointed - out the better way; and God rewards every one who pursues this - better way with the forgiveness of sins and eternal life. The - death of Christ was no atoning sacrifice, but merely attached - a seal to the teaching of Christ and formed for him a pathway - to Divine glory. Conversion must begin by the exercise of one’s - own powers, but can be perfected only through the assistance of - the Holy Spirit. The sacraments are only ceremonies, which may - even be dispensed with, though it is more becoming to retain - them as old and beautiful customs. The immortality of the pious - Christian is conditioned and made possible by the resurrection - of Christ. But the ungodly, along with the devil and his angels, - are annihilated; and because in this their punishment consists, - Holy Scripture designates the annihilation as eternal death - and eternal condemnation. There is no resurrection of the - flesh; the living indeed have their bodies restored in the - resurrection; but these are not fleshly, but, as Paul teaches - in 1 Corinthians xv., spiritual.[426]--Continuation, § 163, 1. - - - - - IV. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. - - - § 149. THE INTERNAL STRENGTHENING AND REVIVAL - OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.[427] - - The strenuous endeavours put forth by the Roman Catholic church to -restrict within the narrowest limits possible the victorious course -of the Reformation, and so far as might be to reconquer lost ground, -bulk so largely in its sixteenth century movement, that we may -review that entire era in its history from the standpoint of the -counter-reformation. This development was carried out, on the one -hand, by means of increased strengthening and revival, and, on -the other hand, by polemics and attack on those without, in this -latter case advanced by missions to the heathen and by violent -persecution and suppression of Protestantism. The Tridentine Council, -A.D. 1545-1547, A.D. 1551, 1552, A.D. 1562, 1563, was devoted to the -realization of these ends. The curialistic side of mediæval scholastic -Catholicism was again presented as the sole representation of the -truth, compacted with iron bands into a rigid system of doctrine, -and declared to be incapable in all time to come of any alteration -or reform; while at the same time it set aside or modified many of -the more flagrant abuses. With two long breaks caused by political -considerations, it had completed its work between 1545 and 1563 in -twenty-five sessions. The first ten sittings were held A.D. 1545-1547, -under Paul III.; the next six in A.D. 1551 and 1552, under Julius III.; -and the last nine in A.D. 1562, 1563, under Pius IV.--The old and -utterly corrupt monkish orders, which had once formed so powerful -a support to the papacy, had not proved capable of surviving the -shock of the Reformation. In their place there now arose a new order, -that of the =Jesuits=, which for centuries formed a buttress to -the severely shaken papacy, and hemmed in on all sides the further -advances of the Protestant movement. Besides this great order there -arose a crowd of others, partly new, partly old ones under reformed -constitutions, mostly of a practical churchly tendency. The strifes -and rivalries that prevailed between the different Protestant sects -stirred up with the Romish Church a new and remarkable activity in -the scientific study of doctrine; and mysticism flourished again in -Spain, and succeeded in reaching there a considerable development. - - § 149.1. =The Popes before the Council.=--=Leo X.= (§ 110, 14) - the accomplished, extravagant, luxurious, and frivolous Medici, - was succeeded by one who was in every respect diametrically - opposed to his predecessor, =Hadrian VI.=, A.D. 1522, 1523, - the only pope who for many centuries before down to the present - day retained his own honourable Christian name when he ascended - the throne of St. Peter. Hadrian Dedel, the son of a poor - ship-carpenter of Utrecht, a pious and learned Dominican, had - raised himself to a theological professorship in the University - of Louvain, when Maximilian I. chose him to be tutor to his - grandson, who afterwards became the Emperor Charles V. He - was thus put in the way for obtaining the highest offices in - the church. He was made Bishop of Tortosa, grand-inquisitor, - cardinal, and viceroy of Spain for Charles during his absence. - When, after Leo’s death, neither the imperial candidate Julius - Medici nor any other of the cardinals present in conclave - secured the necessary votes, the imperial commissioner pointed - to Hadrian, and so out of the voting box came the name of a - new pope whom no one particularly wished. A thoroughly learned, - scholastic commentator on the Lombard, pious and strict in his - morals even to rigorism, in his domestic economy practising - peasant-like simplicity, and saving even to the extent almost - of niggardliness; a zealot for the Thomist system of doctrine, - but holding in abhorrence the Renaissance, with all its glitter - of classical culture, art, and poetry; mourning bitterly over - the worldliness and corruption of the papacy, as well as over - the unfathomable depravity throughout the church, and firmly - resolved to inaugurate a thorough reformation in the head - and members (§ 126, 1),--he seemed in that position and age, - and with those surroundings, a Flemish barbarian, who could - not even understand Italian, and spoke Latin with an accent - intolerable to Roman ears, the greatest anomaly that had ever - yet appeared in the history of the popes. The Roman people hated - him with a deadly hatred, and Pasquino[428] was inexhaustibly - fruitful in stinging epigrams and scurrilous verses on the new - pope and his electors. The German reformers were not inclined - to view him with favour; for he had previously, in his capacity - as grand-inquisitor, condemned, according to Llorente, between - 20,000 and 30,000 men under the Spanish Inquisition, and - had more than 1,600 burnt alive. Two attempts were made by - the Romans to assassinate him by dagger and by poison, but - neither succeeded. He died, however, after a short pontificate - of one and a half years, the last German and indeed the last - non-Italian occupant of the papal throne. But the Romans wrote - on the house door of his physician, “To the deliverer of the - fatherland,” and enjoyed themselves, when the corpse of the - deceased pope was laid between those of Pius I. and Pius II., - by repeating the feeble pleasantry, _“Impius inter Pios.”_ The - jubilation in Rome, however, was extravagant, when by the next - conclave a member of the family of the Medici, the illegitimate - son of the murdered Julius (§ 110, 11), the Cardinal Julius - Medici, who had been rejected on the former occasion, was now - proclaimed under the title of =Clement VII., A.D. 1523-1534=. - The brave Romans did not indeed anticipate that this pope, - in consequence of the shiftiness of his policy and the - faithlessness of his conduct toward the emperor (§ 126, 6), - to whose favour and influence mainly he owed his own elevation, - would reduce their city to a condition of wretchedness and - depression such as had never been witnessed since the days - of Alaric and Genseric (§ 132, 2). The position of a pope like - Clement, who regarded himself as called upon, not only as church - prince to set right the ecclesiastical institutions of the age, - which in every department had been thrown into utter confusion - by the storms of the German Reformation (§ 126, 2), but also as - a temporal prince to deliver Italy and the States of the church - from threatened servitude to Germany and Spain, no less than - from France, was one of peculiar difficulty, so that even a much - more astute politician than Clement would have found it hardly - possible to maintain successfully. - - § 149.2. =The Popes of the Time of the Council.=--After - Clement VII. the papal dignity was conferred upon Alexander - Farnese, who took the name of =Paul III.=, A.D. 1534-1549, a - man of classical culture and extraordinary cunning. He owed - his cardinal’s hat, received some forty years before, to - an adulterous intrigue of his sister Julia Orsini with Pope - Alexander VI. His entrance upon this ecclesiastical dignity, - however, did not lead him to give up his sensual and immoral - course of life, and after his elevation to the papal chair he - practised nepotism after the example of the Borgias and the - Medicis. He was, however, the only pope, at least for a long - time, who seemed to be actually in earnest about coming to an - understanding on doctrinal points with the German Protestants - (§ 139, 23). He at last summoned the =œcumenical council=, - so long in vain demanded by the emperor, to meet at Mantua on - 23rd May, A.D. 1537; but afterwards postponed the opening of - it, on account of the Turkish war, until 1st Nov. of that year, - and then again until 1st May, A.D. 1538. On the latter day it - was to meet at Vicenza, and after this date had elapsed, it - was suspended indefinitely. The emperor’s continued insistence - upon having a final and properly constituted council in a - German city led him to fix upon =Trent=, where a council was - summoned to meet on 1st Nov., A.D. 1542, but the troubles that - meanwhile arose with France gave a welcome excuse for further - postponement. Persistent pressure on the part of the emperor - led to the issuing of a new rescript by the pope on 15th March, - A.D. 1545; there was the usual delay because of the failure to - secure a sufficient number of orthodox and competent bishops - and delegates; and thus at last the council opened at Trent on - =13th Dec., A.D. 1545=. The skilful management of the council - by the Cardinal-legate del Monte, the statement carefully - prepared beforehand of the distinctly anti-protestant basis - upon which they were to proceed (§ 136, 4), and the well - arranged scheme of the legates to secure its adoption by - having the votes reckoned not according to nations, but by - individuals (§ 110, 7), contributed largely during the earlier - sessions to neutralize the conciliatory tendencies of the - emperor as well as to prevent the possibility of Protestants - taking any active share in the proceedings. When the emperor, - who had now reached the very summit of his power, forbade the - promulgating of these arrangements, the pope declared that he - did not think it a convenient and proper thing that the council - should be held in a German city; and so, on the pretext of a - plague having broken out in Trent, he issued an order at the - eighth session that on 11th March, A.D. 1547, it should resume - at Bologna. The emperor’s decided protest obliged the German - bishops to remain behind in Trent, and the bishops who assembled - at Bologna under these circumstances did not venture to continue - their proceedings. As the emperor persistently refused to - recognise the change of seat, and in consequence the bishops - present had one after another left the city, the pope issued - a decree in Sept., A.D. 1547, again postponing the meeting - indefinitely.--Paul was succeeded by the Cardinal-legate del - Monte, who took his place on the papal throne as =Julius III.=, - A.D. 1550-1555. He could indulge in nepotism only to a limited - extent, but he did in that direction what was possible. Driven - to it by necessity, he again opened the Council of Trent on - 1st May, A.D. 1551. Protestant delegates were also to be present - at it. But without regard to them the council continued to - hold firmly by the anti-protestant doctrines (§ 136, 8). The - position of matters was suddenly and unexpectedly changed - by the appearance of the Elector Maurice. On the approach - of his victorious army the council broke up, after it had at - its sixteenth session, on 28th April, A.D. 1552, promulgated - articles condemning all the Protestants, and resolved to - sist further proceedings for two years. After the death of - Julius III., =Marcellus II.= was elected in his stead, one - of the noblest popes of all times, who once exclaimed, that - he could not understand how a pope could be happy in the - strait-jacket of the all-dominating curialism. He occupied - the chair of St. Peter only for twenty-one days. He was - succeeded by John Peter Caraffa (§ 139, 23), as =Paul IV.=, - A.D. 1555-1559. He carried on the operations of the Inquisition, - reintroduced into Rome at his instigation under Paul III. for - the suppression of all Protestant movements, with the most - reckless severity and insistency, was unwearied in searching - out and burning all heretical books, and protested against the - Religious Peace of Augsburg. He also opposed the elevation of - Ferdinand I. to the imperial throne, which led the new emperor - to issue a decree of state, which concluded with the words: - “And every one may from this judge that his holiness, by reason - of age or other causes, is no longer in full possession of - his senses.” This pope also in the bull, _Cum ex apostolatus - officio_ of A.D. 1558, released subjects from the duty of - obedience to heretical princes, and urged orthodox rulers - to undertake the conquest of their territories. But he also - embittered himself among the Roman populace by his inquisitorial - tyranny, so that they upon the report of his death destroyed - all the buildings of the Inquisition, broke in pieces the - papal statues and arms, and under threat of death forced all - the members of the Caraffa family to quit the city.--The mild - disposition of his successor, =Pius IV.=, A.D. 1560-1565, - moderated and reduced, as far as he thought safe, the fanatical - violence and narrowness of the Inquisition, and the reforming - influence which he allowed to his talented nephew Charles - Borromeo over the affairs of the curia bore many excellent - fruits. Without much opposition he again opened the Tridentine - Council on 18th Jan., A.D. 1562, which now it appeared could - be resumed with less danger, beginning with the seventeenth - session and ending with the twenty-fifth on the 3rd or 4th Dec., - A.D. 1563. Of the 255 persons who throughout took part in it - more than two-thirds were Italians. The papal legates domineered - without restraint, and it was an open secret that “the Holy - Ghost came from Rome to Trent in the despatch box.” In the - doctrinal decisions, the mediæval dogmas, with a more decidedly - anti-protestant complexion, but with a careful avoidance of - points at issue between Franciscans and Dominicans (§ 113, 2), - were set forth, together with a formal condemnation of the - opposed doctrines of Protestantism. In the proposals for - reformation, decided improvements were introduced in church - order and church discipline, in so far as this could be - done without prejudice to the interests of the hierarchy. - German, Spanish, and especially French bishops, as well as - the commissioners for Catholic courts urged at first, in the - interests of conciliation and reform, for permission to priests - to marry and the granting of the cup to the laity, the limiting - of the number of fasts and of the worship of saints, relics, and - images, as well as the more extreme hierarchical extravagances. - But the legates knew well how to gain time by wily intrigues, to - disgust their opponents by exciting subtle theological disputes, - and to weary them out with tedious delays; and so when it - came at last to the vote, the compact majority of the Italians - withstood all opposition that could be shown. At the close of - the last session Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine (§ 139, 13), - who from the opposition had passed over to the majority, cried - out, “Anathema to all heretics!” and the prelates answered in - full chorus. The pope confirmed the decrees of the council, - but forbade on pain of excommunication any exposition of - them, as that pertained solely to the papal chair. They found - unhesitating acceptance in Italy, Portugal, and Poland, and - in Spain in so far as they were agreeable to the laws of the - empire. In Germany, Hungary, and France the governments - refused to acknowledge them; but the reforming decrees, which - could really be recognised as improvements, were willingly - accepted, and even the objection to particular conclusions - in matters of faith was soon silenced before the sense of the - importance of having the thing settled, and securing at any - cost the unity of the church.[429] - - § 149.3. =The Popes after the Council.=--=Pius V.=, - A.D. 1566-1572, is the only pope for many centuries before and - down to the present time who has been canonized. This was done - by Clement XI. in A.D. 1712. He was previously a Dominican and - grand-inquisitor, and even as pope continued to live the life of - a monk and an ascetic. He strove hard to raise Roman society out - of its deep moral degradation, condemned strict Augustinianism - in the person of Baius, made more severe the bull _In Cæna - Domini_ (§ 117, 3), and set the Roman Inquisition to work with - a fearful activity never before equalled. He also released all - the subjects of Queen Elizabeth of England from their oaths of - allegiance, threatened the Emperor Maximilian with deposition - should he grant religious freedom to the Protestants, and in - league with Spain and Venice gained a brilliant naval victory - over the Turks at Lepanto in A.D. 1571.[430]--=Gregory XIII.=, - A.D. 1572-1585, celebrated the Bloody Marriage as a glorious - act of faith, produced an improved edition of the _Corpus juris - canonici_, and carried out in A.D. 1582 the calendar reform - that had been already moved for at the Tridentine Council. - The new or Gregorian Calendar, which passed over at a bound - ten days in order to get rid of the divergence that had arisen - between the civil or Julian and the natural year, was only - after considerable opposition adopted even by Catholic states. - The evangelical governments of Germany introduced it only in - A.D. 1700, England in A.D. 1752, and Sweden in A.D. 1753; while - Russia and all the countries under the dominion of the Greek - church continue to this day their adherence to the old Julian - Calendar. Gregory’s successor, =Sixtus V.=, A.D. 1585-1590, - was the greatest and most powerful of all the popes since - the Reformation, not indeed as a spiritual head of the church, - but as a statesman and ruler of the Papal States. Sprung from - a thoroughly impoverished family, Felix Peretti was as a boy - engaged in herding swine. In his tenth year, however, through - the influence of his uncle, a Minorite monk, he obtained - admission and elementary education in his cloister at Montalto - near Ancona. After completing his studies, he distinguished - himself as a pulpit orator by his eloquence, as a teacher and - writer by his learning, as a consulter to the Inquisition by - his zealot devotion to the interests of orthodoxy, as president - of various cloisters by the strictness with which he carried - out moral reforms, and, after he had passed through all the - stages of the monkish hierarchy and risen to be vicar-general - of his order, he was elevated by Pius V. to the rank of bishop - and cardinal. He now took the name of Cardinal Montalto, and - as such obtained great influence in the administration of - the curia. The death of his papal patron and the succession - of Gregory XIII., who from an earlier experience as joint - commissioner with him to Spain entertained a bitter enmity - toward him, condemned him to retirement into private life for - thirteen years. He spent the period of his enforced quiet in - architectural undertakings, laying out of gardens, editing the - works of St. Ambrose, in the exercise of deeds of benevolence, - exhibiting toward every one by the whole course of his conduct - mildness, gentleness, and friendliness, and, notwithstanding - occasional sharp and wicked criticisms about the pope, showing - a conciliatory spirit toward his traducers. Thus the cardinals - became convinced that he would be a gentle, tractable pope, - and so they elected him on Gregory’s death to be his successor. - There is still a story current regarding him as to how, on the - very day of his elevation, he threw away the stick on which, - with all the appearance of the feebleness of age, he had up to - that time been wont to lean; but it is an undoubted fact, that - from that same day he appeared in the guise of an altogether - different man. Cold and reserved, crafty and farseeing in - his schemes, recklessly and unhesitatingly determined even - to the utmost extremes of harshness in carrying out his devices, - greedy and insatiable in amassing treasures, parsimonious - toward his dependants and in his own housekeeping, but lavish - in his expenditure on great buildings for the adornment of the - eternal city and for its public weal. He delivered the States - of the Church from the power of the bandits, who had occasioned - unspeakable confusion and introduced throughout these dominions - a reign of terror. By a series of draconic laws, which were - carried out in the execution of many hundreds without respect - of person, he spread an indescribable fear among all evil-doers, - and secured to the city and the state a security of life - and property that had been hitherto unknown. In theological - controversies he kept himself for the most part neutral, but - in the persecution of heretics at home and abroad there was - no remission of his earlier zeal. In the political movements - of his time he took a most active share, and the fact that the - interests of the Papal States lay nearer to his heart than the - interests of the church had the most important and far reaching - consequences for the future developments of State and church in - Europe. That the Hapsburg universal sovereignty aspired after - by Philip II. of Spain threatened also the independence of the - Papal States and the political significance of the papacy was - perceived by him very distinctly; but he did not perceive, or - at least would not admit, that the success of this scheme would - have been the one certain way to secure the utter extinction - of Protestantism and the restoration of the absolute unity of - the church. This was the reason why he was only half-hearted - in supporting Philip in the war against the Protestant - Elizabeth of England, and also so lukewarm toward the Catholic - league of the Guises in France that wrought in the direction - of Spanish interests. He did indeed succeed in weakening the - Spanish power in Italy and in hindering Spanish aggressions - in France, but at the same time he failed through these very - devices in obtaining a victory over Protestantism in England - and in the Netherlands, while the weakness of the German - Hapsburgs over against the German Protestant princes was - in great part the result of his policy. The Roman populace, - excited against him, not so much by his severity as by - the heavy taxes laid upon them, broke down after his death - the statue which the senate had erected to his memory - in the capitol.[431] The next three popes, who had all - been elected in the Spanish interest, died soon after one - another. =Urban VIII.= had a pontificate of only twelve days; - =Gregory XIV.= reigned for ten months; and =Innocent IX.= - survived only for two months. Then =Clement VIII.=, - A.D. 1592-1605, ascended the papal throne, his pontificate - in respect of civil and ecclesiastical polity, “a weak copy - of that of Sixtus.” His successor, =Leo XI.=, died after he - had occupied the chair for twenty-seven days.--Continuation, - § 155, 1. - - § 149.4. =Papal Infallibility.=--The counter-reformation during - this period exerted itself in bringing again into the foreground - the assertion of the infallibility of the pope, which had - been postponed or set to one side during the previous century - (§ 110, 15). The noble Hadrian VI. indeed had, in his scholastic - work, _Quæstiones de sacramentis_, of A.D. 1516, reissued during - his pontificate, laid it down as beyond all doubt that even - the popes in matters of faith might err and often had erred, - “_plures enim fuerunt pontifices Rom. hæretici_.” On the other - hand, Leo X., in the bull issued against Luther, had distinctly - affirmed that the popes of Rome had never erred in their decrees - and bulls. Gregory XIII. declared in A.D. 1584, that all papal - bulls which contained disciplinary decisions on points of - order were infallible. Sixtus V., in the bull _Æternus ille_, - with which he issued his unfortunate edition of the Vulgate - in A.D. 1589, claimed for the popes the right of infallibly - deciding upon the correctness of the readings of the biblical - text; but he hastened by the recalling or suppressing of the - bull to have the mistake covered in oblivion. Bellarmine taught - that the pope is infallible only when he speaks _ex cathedra_; - _i.e._ defines a dogma and prescribes it for the belief of all - Christendom. But when, in spite of all the efforts of the Jesuit - general Lainez, no final decision was come to at Trent upon the - question as to whether or how far the pope was to be regarded as - infallible, the matter remained undefined and uncertain for more - than three centuries (§ 187, 3). - - § 149.5. =The Prophecy of St. Malachi.=--In his book - “_Lignum Vitæ_,” published at Venice in A.D. 1595, the - Benedictine Wion made public for the first time a prophecy - ascribed to St. Malachi, Archbishop of Armagh, who died in - A.D. 1148, in which all the popes from Cœlestine II., in - A.D. 1143, down to the end of the world, embracing in all - one hundred and eleven, are characterized by short descriptive - sketches. He also issued a paper purporting to be written by - the Dominican Ciaconius, who died in A.D. 1599, the author - of a history of the popes, which, however, in many particulars - does not harmonize with this document. In this additional - fragment we have short and frequent characterizations of the - first seventy-four popes, reaching down to Urban VII., in - A.D. 1590. The devices for the most part correctly represent - the coat of arms, the name, the birthplace, the monkish order, - etc., of the several popes; but these in every case are derived - from the history of the man before he ascended the papal throne. - On the other hand, the devices used to designate the three - succeeding popes down to A.D. 1595 are utterly inapplicable - and arbitrary. The same is true in almost every case of attempts - to characterize the later popes. It can therefore be regarded - as only the result of a chance coincidence, if now and again - there should seem to be some fair measure of correspondence. - Thus No. 83, _Montium custos_, describes Alexander VII., whose - arms show six mountains; No. 100, _De balneis Etruriæ_, answers - to Gregory XVI., who belonged to a Tuscan cloister; and No. 102, - _Lumen in cœlo_, designates Leo XIII., who has a star in his - coat of arms. If after Leo’s death, as Harnack remarks, a - German pope were possible, No. 103, _Ignis ardens_, might be - most exactly realized by the election of the Cardinal Hohenlohe. - Still more striking, though breaking through the principle - that is rigidly followed with respect to the earlier numbers - from 1 to 74, is the way in which under No. 96, _Peregrinus - apostolicus_, ridicule is cast upon the misfortune of Pius VI. - (§ 165, 10, 13); and in No. 101 _Crux de cruce_ is applied to - Pius IX. (§ 184, 2, 3). Upon the whole, there can be no doubt - that the composition of the document belongs to A.D. 1590, and - indeed to the period during which the conclave sat for almost - two months after the death of Urban VII., and that the author, - though unsuccessfully, endeavoured to influence the cardinals - in their election by making it appear that the appointment - of Cardinal Simoncelli of Orvieto, _i.e._ _Urbs vetus_, with - the device, _De antiquitate urbis_, had been thus divinely - indicated. He chose the name of St. Malachi, because his friend - and biographer, St. Bernard, had ascribed to him the gift of - prophecy. His series of popes had, therefore, to begin with a - contemporary of St. Malachi; and since the author must speak of - him as a pope that has yet to be elected, he gives designations - to him, and to all who follow down to his own times, which - point exclusively to characteristics and relations belonging - to them before their election to the papal dignity. Weingarten - thinks that Wion himself is author both of the prophecy and of - its explanatory appendix, but Harnack has given weighty reasons - for questioning this conclusion. - - § 149.6. =Reformation of Old Monkish Orders.= - - 1. The controversies that prevailed within the ranks of the - =Franciscans= (§ 112, 3) were finally put to rest by Pope - Leo X. in A.D. 1517. The Conventuals and Observants were - allowed to choose respectively their own independent - general, and from that time forth maintained on equal - terms a more peaceful relation to one another. The general - of the Observants, however, who were in number, influence, - and reputation greatly the superior, boasted of pre-eminence - over his Conventual colleague. Although all Observants - under him formed a close and thoroughly united society, - there were still distinguished within the same _regular_, - _strict_, and _most strict_ Observants. Among the regulars - the most prominent were the _Cordeliers_ of France, so - called because they were girt merely with a cord; to the - strict belonged the Barefooted monks; and to the most strict - the Alcantarines, founded by Peter of Alcantara in Spain. - The founder of the =Capuchins= was the Italian Observant - Minorite Matth. de Bassi. As he reported that St. Francis - had worn a cowl with long sharp peak or capouch, and soon - thereafter saw the saint himself in a vision dressed in - such a garb, he withdrew from his cloister, went to Rome, - and obtained from Clement VII., in A.D. 1526, the right - of restoring the capouch. Falling out with the Observants - over this, his followers attached themselves, in A.D. 1528, - to the Conventuals as an independent congregation with - their own vicar-general. The unusual style of dress - produced a sensation. Whenever one of the brethren appeared - the gutter children would run after him, crying out in - mockery, _Capucino_. But the name that was given in reproach - they accepted as a title of honour. Their self-denying - benevolence upon the outbreak of the pestilence in Italy in - A.D. 1528 soon won high reputation to the order, and secured - its further spread. In consequence of their vicar-general, - Bernardino Ochino (§ 139, 24), going over to the Reformed - church, the order came for a long time into disrepute. - Thoroughly characteristic of them was their utter deficiency - in scientific culture, which often went the length of a - relapse in utter rudeness and vulgarity, and debased their - preaching into burlesque “_capuchinades_.” - - 2. A reformation of the Carmelites was brought about by - St. Theresa de Jesus in A.D. 1562. The restored order - bore the name of the “Shoeless Carmelites,” and its members - distinguished themselves as teachers of the young and in - works of charity. Alongside of her, as restorer of the male - Carmelites, stood the pious mystic John of the Cross.[432] - - 3. A reformed congregation of =Cistercians= was founded in - A.D. 1586 by Jean de la Barrière, abbot of the monastery of - Feuillans [Feuillants]. The mode of life of these Feuillants - was so severe that fourteen brothers sank under the burden - within a short time, and this led to the modification of - the rules in A.D. 1595. The founder was called by Henry III. - to establish a monastery near Paris. He continued faithful - to the king after he had withdrawn from the league, and thus - drew down upon himself the hatred of the fanatical Catholic - members of the order to such a degree that they deposed and - banished him in A.D. 1592. A later commission of inquiry, - however, under Cardinal Bellarmine pronounced him innocent. - - § 149.7. =New Orders for Home Missions.= - - 1. =The Theatines= had their origin in an association of - pious priests at Theate, which Cajetan, at the advice - of John Peter Caraffa, bishop of that place, afterwards - Pope Paul IV., constituted into an order. In A.D. 1524, - having been organized as _clerici regulares_, they chose to - live not by begging but by depending on Divine providence, - _i.e._ on gifts bestowed without asking, and came to be - of importance as a training school for the higher clergy. - Their statutes expressly required of them to instruct the - people by frequent preaching, to attend to the bodies and - souls of the sick, to seek the spiritual good of criminals, - and to labour for the overthrow of heresy. - - 2. =The Barnabites=, also a society of regular clergy, - founded by Antonio Maria Zaccaria at Milan, and confirmed - by Clement VII. in A.D. 1533. They assigned to themselves - the duty of devoting their whole life to works of mercy, - pastoral care, education of the young, preaching, hearing - confession, and conducting missions. They took the name - Barnabites from the church of St. Barnabas, which was - given over to them. To them was also attached the order - of =Angelicals=, founded by Louisa Torelli, Countess - Guastalla, a rich lady who was widowed for the second - time in her twenty-fifth year, and confirmed by Paul III. - in A.D. 1534. At first they accompanied the Barnabites on - their missions, and wrought for the conversion of women, - while the Barnabites devoted their attention to the men. - Subsequently, however, on account of loose behaviour, - they were obliged to keep within their convents. Each - of the nuns in addition to her own name took that of the - order, Angelica, which was intended to remind her of her - obligation to keep herself pure as the angels. - - 3. The congregation of the =Somaskians=, or regular clergy - of St. Majolus, trace their origin from Jerome Emiliani - of Somascho, a town of Lombardy. While serving as an - officer in the army, a thoroughly careless man of the - world, he happened to be cast into prison. In his gloomy - cell he repented of his past sinful life, and made his - escape, it is said, by the assistance of the blessed - Virgin, in a manner similar to that recorded in Acts v. 19. - Some years after, in A.D. 1518, he entered holy orders, - and now devoted his whole life to a self-denying practice - of benevolence, by founding orphanages and training schools, - asylums for fallen women, etc. In order to secure support, - instruction, and pastoral care for his numerous and varied - dependants, he joined with himself several like-minded - clergymen in A.D. 1532, and formed a benevolent society. - Its richly blessed activity extended over all northern - Italy as far down as Rome, and was not arrested even - by the founder’s early death in A.D. 1537. Pius V. - in A.D. 1568 prescribed to the society the rule of - St. Augustine, and on the ground of this raised it into - an order of St. Majolus, so called from a church gifted - to it at Pavia by St. Charles Borromeo. - - 4. =The Brothers of Charity=, in Spain called Hospitallers, - in France Frères de Charité, were originally a secular - fraternity for giving gratuitous attention to the sick, - which was founded in Granada, in A.D. 1540, by a Portuguese, - Juan Ciudad, poor in goods but rich in love, to whom - his bishop gave the honourable title John of God, Juan - di Dios, and who was canonized by Pope Alexander VIII. - in A.D. 1690.[433] After Pius V. had in A.D. 1572 given - the order the character of a monkish order by putting its - members under the rule of St. Augustine, it soon spread - over Italy, France, Germany, and Poland. Its cloisters - were arranged as well-equipped hospitals for the destitute - sick, without distinction of religious confession, so that - their studies were directed even more to the medical than - to the theological sciences. - - 5. =The Ursuline Nuns=, founded in A.D. 1537 by a pious - virgin, Angela Merici of Brescia, for affording help to - needy sufferers of every sort, but especially for the - education of girls. - - 6. =The Priests of the Oratory=, or the Order of the Holy - Trinity, founded by St. Philip Neri of Florence in - A.D. 1548, a saint of the most profound piety, possessed - at the same time with a bright and genial humour. They - combined works of charity with exercises of common prayer - and Bible study, which they conducted in the oratory of - a hospital erected by them.[434]--Continuation, § 156, 7. - - § 149.8. =The Society of Jesus: Founding of the Order.=--=Ignatius - Loyola=, Don Inigo Lopez de Recalde, born at the castle of Loyola - in A.D. 1491, was descended from a distinguished family of Spanish - knights. Seriously wounded at the siege of Pampeluna by the French - in A.D. 1521, he sought to relieve the tedium of a prolonged - and painful sickness by reading romances of chivalry and, when - he had finished these, the legends of the saints. These last made - a deep impression upon him, and enkindled in him a glowing zeal - for the imitation of the saints in their abandonment of the world, - and their superiority to the world’s thoughts and ways. Nervous - convulsions and appearances of the queen of heaven gave their - Divine consecration to this new tendency. After his recovery - he distributed his goods among the poor, and in beggar’s garb - subjected himself to the most rigorous asceticism. At the age - of thirty-three years he began, in A.D. 1524, sitting among boys, - to learn the first elements of Latin, then studied philosophy - at Complutum and theology at Salamanca and Paris. With iron - determination of will he overcame all difficulties. In Paris, six - like-minded men joined together with him: Peter Favre of Savoy, - who was already a priest; Francis Xavier, belonging to a family - of Spanish grandees; James Lainez, a Castilian; Simon Rodriguez, - a Portuguese; Alphonso Salmeron and Nicholas Bobadilla, both - Spaniards. With glowing enthusiasm they drew out the plan of a new - order, which, by its very name, “Compañia de Jesus,” indicated its - character as that of a spiritual army, and by combining in itself - all those features which separately were found to characterize - the several monkish orders, advanced the bold claim of being - the universal and principal order of the Romish church. But - pre-eminently they put themselves under obligation, in A.D. 1534, - by a solemn vow of absolute poverty and chastity, and promised - to devote themselves to the service of the Catholic faith at the - bidding of the pope. Practising the strictest asceticism they - completed their studies, and obtained ordination as priests. - As insurmountable difficulties, arising from the war carried - on by Venice with the Turks, prevented the accomplishing of - their original intention of a spiritual crusade to the Holy Land, - they travelled to Rome, and after some hesitation Paul III., in - A.D. 1540, confirmed their association as the =Ordo Societatis - Jesu=. Ignatius was its first general. As such he continued to - devote himself with great energy of will to spiritual exercises, - to the care of the sick, to pastoral duties, and to the conflict - with the heretics. He died in A.D. 1556, and was beatified by - Paul V. in A.D. 1609, and canonized by Gregory XV. in A.D. 1622. - A collection of his letters was published in three vols. by the - Jesuits in A.D. 1874.[435]--Among his disciples who emulated their - master in genius, insight, and wide, world-embracing schemes, we - must name the versatile Lainez, the energetic Francis Borgia, a - Spanish grandee, grandson of the murdered Giovanni Borgia, son - of Pope Alexander VI. (§ 110, 12), but above all the Neapolitan - Claudio Aquaviva, A.D. 1581-1615, who in many respects deserves to - be regarded as a new founder of Loyola’s creation. Under these the - order entered upon a career of universal significance in history, - as a new spiritual army for the defence of the papacy. The popes - showed their favour by heaping unheard of privileges upon it, - so that it grew from year to year more and more powerful and - comprehensive. Never has any human society come to understand - better how to prove spirits, and to assign to each individual - a place, and to set him to work for ends for which he is best - suited; and never has a system of watchful espionage been more - consistently and strictly carried out. Everything must be given - up to the interests of the order in unconditional obedience to - the commands of the superior, even that which is to men most dear - and sacred, fatherland, relations, likings and dislikings. One’s - own judgment and conscience count for nothing; the order is all - in all. They have understood how to use everything that the world - affords, science, learning, art, worldly culture, politics, and, - in carrying out their foreign missions, colonization, trade, and - industry, as means for accomplishing their own ends (§ 156, 13). - The order got into its own hands the education of the children of - the higher ranks, and thus secured devoted and powerful patrons. - By preaching, pastoral work, and the founding of numerous - brotherhoods and sisterhoods they wrought upon the people, became - advisers of the princes through the confessional, wormed their way - into connections and into all secrets. And all these innumerable - appliances, all these conspicuous powers and talents, united - under the direction of one will, were unwaveringly directed - to one end: on the positive side, the furthering and spread of - Catholicism; on the negative side, the overthrow and uprooting - of Protestantism. On the death of the founder, in A.D. 1556, - the order already numbered over 1,000 members in thirteen - provinces and 100 colonies; and seventy years later, the number - of provinces had increased to thirty-nine, with 15,493 members - in 803 houses.[436]--Continuation, §§ 151, 1; 165, 9. - - § 149.9. =Constitution of the Jesuit Order.=--Required to yield - obedience and render an account of their doings only to the pope, - exempted from every other kind of ecclesiastical supervision, - and therefore scorning to accept any spiritual dignities and - benefices, such as bishoprics, canonries, pastorates, etc., - this order, thoroughly self-contained, presents a more perfect - and compact organization than any large association on this - earth has ever been able to show. Only those who had good bodily - health and intellectual ability were admitted to the two years’ - novitiate. After this period of probation had been passed - in a satisfactory manner, the novices were released from the - discipline of the novice master and put under the usual three - monkish vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity. They now - either entered immediately as “_secular coadjutors_” on the - duties assigned to such in administrating and taking care of the - outward affairs of the houses of the order, or as “_scholastici - approbati_” for their further intellectual culture were received - into collegiate establishments provided for such under the - direction of a rector. After completing the prescribed studies - and exercises, they proceeded as “_scholastici formati_” to - engage upon their duties as “_spiritual coadjutors_,” who were - required to continue the prosecution of their studies, teach - the young, and perform pastoral work. After many years’ trial, - the most able and active of them were received into the number - of the “_professi_,” who live purely on alms in a distinct and - special kind of institution presided over by a superior. But - among the _professi_, there is a distinction made between those - who adopt three and those who adopt four vows. The latter, who, - in addition to the other usual vows, take also one of obedience - to the pope in regard to any mission among heathens and heretics - which he may please to commission them to undertake, as the - choice spirits of the order, constitute its very core and form - the circle immediately around the general, who with monarchical - absolutism stands at the head of all. Even this autocrat however - is himself watched over by the four assistants associated with - him and by an admonisher, who is at the same time his confessor, - so that he may not commit anything contrary to the rules of the - order and unduly stretch his own prerogatives; and he is also - answerable to the general congregation of all the _professi_, - which is convened every third year. The provincials officiate - as his viceroys in different countries in which the order has a - footing. Alongside of the spiritual superior of every house of - the order stands a procurator, usually of clerical rank, for the - administration of the property and the superintendence of the - secular coadjutors. Like the general all the other superiors are - watched over by the assistants or advisers associated with them, - and by the admonishers or father confessors. The _Constitutiones - Societatis Jesu_ (Rom., 1583), p. vi., c. i. 1, thus describe - the obedience that must be rendered to the superiors: _Quisquis - sibi persuadeat, quod qui sub obedientia vivunt, se ferri ac - regi a divina providentia per superiores suos sinere debent - perinde ac si cadaver essent, quod quoquoversus ferri et - quacunque ratione tractari se sinit: vel similiter atque senis - baculus, qui ubicunque et quacunque in re velit eo uti, qui cum - manu tenet, ei inservit_. By all members of the order, of every - rank of degree, by novices and adepts alike, four weeks were - usually devoted once a year under an exercise master chosen for - that work to _exercitia spiritualia_, in which rigid attention - was given to prayer, meditation, examination of conscience, - mortification, etc., as an effectual means of breaking in - and breaking down the individual will. The first sketch of - a directory for exercises of this sort was made by the founder - himself in his _Exercitia Spiritualia_ (Antwerp, 1638). This - work, annotated, enlarged, and completed, was finally adopted - by the general congregation in A.D. 1594, and issued under - the title _Directorium in exer. sp._--The original rule of the - Jesuits is set forth in the _Constitutiones Societatis Jesu_ - already referred to; their later rule, finally perfected at the - eighteenth general congregation, is given in the _Institutum - Soc. Jesu_ (2 vols., Prag., 1757). The so called _Monita secreta - Soc. Jesu_, first published at Cracow in A.D. 1612, professing - to have been obtained from private instructions communicated - by Aquaviva, the fifth general of the order, only to the - most trustworthy of the very _élite_ of the _professi_, which - gives without the slightest reserve an account of the devices, - often of the most unscrupulous description, to be practised in - order to secure an increase to the order of power, reputation, - influence, and possessions, have been repudiated with horror - by the order as a malevolent calumny, by which probably some - offender who had been ejected sought vent for his revenge. The - author, who at all events betrays a thorough acquaintance with - the internal arrangements of the order, under the fictitious - form of a course of instruction given by the general named, may - have communicated, with considerable exaggerations, an account - of the practices current within the society of his own day.[437] - - § 149.10. =The Doctrinal and Moral System of the Jesuits.=--In - =dogmatics= Loyola himself and his immediate disciples were - firmly attached to the prevailing doctrinal system of Thomas - (§ 113, 2). Gradually, however, it came to be seen, that upon - this ground their conflict with the Protestants in regard - to the fundamental doctrines of sin and grace, justification - and sanctification was in various ways precarious, and this - occasioned an inclination more and more toward the Scotist side. - Their general Aquaviva, in his order of study prescribed in - A.D. 1586, publicly announced this departure from the doctrine - of the _Doctor Angelicus_, restricting it, however, to the - doctrines of grace and of the immaculate conception. On - the other hand, they were the most zealous defenders of the - characteristic doctrines of St. Thomas (§ 96, 23) even in - their extremest form, the papal infallibility, the pope’s - universal episcopate, and his absolute supremacy over every - earthly potentate. In the interests of the papacy they thus - laid the foundations of a theory of the sovereignty of the - people in matters of civil life: Only the papal power is, - according to Matthew xvi. 18, immediately from God, that of - the princes is from the people. The people therefore, if their - prince be a heretic or a tyrant, can rid themselves of him - by deposing, banishing, or even putting him to death; _i.e._ - tyrannicide. Thus taught Bellarmine, who died in A.D. 1621, - speaking for the whole order, in his treatise _De potestate - pontificis in temporalibus_, and still more decidedly and - openly the careful and reliable Spanish historian Juan Mariana, - who died in A.D. 1624, in his “Mirror for Princes,” _De rege - et regis institutione_, which was therefore condemned by the - parliament of Paris to be burnt; while another work of his, - published only after his death, reflecting upon the despotic - proceedings of the general of the order, Aquaviva, and - mercilessly exposing many other offences of the society, was - condemned by Urban VIII. Alongside of the Pelagianizing Jesuit - doctrine of grace there was also developed a lax =doctrine - of morals=, which threatened to sap the very foundations of - morality. This they made familiar to people generally through - the confessional. The following are the principal points upon - which their quibbling casuistry has been exercised in such a - manner as to bring the morality of the Jesuits into thorough - disrepute: - - 1. _Probabilism_, which teaches, that in a case where the - conscience is undecided as to what should be done or borne - in that particular instance, one is not necessarily bound - to the more certain and probable meaning, but may even - take a less certain and less probable view, if this were - supported by weighty reasons, or could be sustained by - the authority of some distinguished theologian, a _doctor - gravis_. - - 2. _Intentionalism_, or the doctrine that any action, even it - be in itself sinful, is to be judged only according to the - intention with which it was performed, pointedly expressed - in the saying, The end justifies the means, “_quia cum finis - est licitus etiam media sunt licita_” (Busembaum). - - 3. The distinction between _philosophical and theological - sin_, according to which only the latter, as a sin - committed with a clear understanding of the sinfulness of - the deed, and with the present consciousness and intention - thereby expressly to break a Divine command, is condemnable - before God. - - 4. The doctrine of the permissibility of a secret reserve, - _reservatio mentalis_, and the use of ambiguous language, - by means of which, if one, upon giving a solemn affirmation - or denial upon oath, has so arranged his words, that besides - the meaning naturally to be taken from them that is contrary - to the truth or the intention, they admit of another that is - in accordance with fact, he is not to be regarded as guilty - of giving false witness, of breach of faith, deceit, or - perjury. - - These and other suchlike moral axioms, not indeed expressed for - the first time by the Jesuit order, but already for the most - part rooted in the mediæval system of casuistry, were certainly - first carried out with reckless consistency in the moral code of - the Society of Jesus. In the most frivolous and lighthearted way - they were applied to the life, and openly and unreservedly set - forth in the confessional, by the most celebrated moralists of - the order. They were laid down as well established principles, - not merely in learned theological discussion, but in the - regularly authorized handbooks of morals, approved by the - congregation of the order, of which some fifty or seventy - treatises, _e.g._ those of Escobar and Busembaum (§ 157, 1), - are still extant. They cannot therefore be repudiated as the - individual opinions of some rash and inconsistent writers. They - will also be found to lie at the foundation of the whole scheme - and procedure of the order in their prosecution of foreign - missions (§§ 150; 156, 12) and in their attempts to proselytise - Protestants (§ 151, 1, 2), to supply the principle underlying - their ecclesiastical and civil policy, their industrial and - commercial activity (§ 156, 13), their pastoral and educational - work. They are also thoroughly illustrative of their well known - motto, _Omnia in majorem Dei gloriam_. It need not, however, - be denied that the order has at all times numbered among its - members many distinguished by deep piety and strict moral - principles, and indeed some among them expressly combated from - Scripture and experience those doctrines so perilous to moral - truth and purity. The most notorious of the Jesuit moralists who - taught and defended these pernicious views were Francis Toletus, - who died in A.D. 1596, Gabriel Vasquez, who died in A.D. 1604, - Thomas Sanchez, who died in A.D. 1610, Francis Suarez, who - died in A.D. 1617, the Westphalian Hermann Busembaum, who died - in A.D. 1668, and the Spaniard Escobar de Mendoza, who died - in A.D. 1699. The name of the last mentioned has obtained an - unenviable notoriety by the adoption of the word _escobarderie_ - into the French language.[438] - - § 149.11. =Jesuit Influence upon Worship and Superstition.=--As - Jesuitism itself may be described as in every respect a - reproduction in an exaggerated form of the Catholicism of the - mediæval papacy, with all its unevangelical and anti-evangelical - deterioration, all this showed itself pre-eminently and - characteristically in reference to worship and superstition. - Above all, this appeared in the mariolatry, in which the - doctrine and practice of the Jesuits far outstripped all the - extravagances of the Middle Ages. In the scheme of worship - recommended and practised by the Jesuits the Divine Trinity - was supplanted by a quaternity, in which Mary was assigned her - place as the adopted daughter of the Father, mother of the Son, - and spouse of the Holy Ghost, and thus her fervent devotees - made her worship overshadow that of the three Persons of the - Godhead. Along with the worship of Mary the order gave a new - impetus to the veneration of St. Ann (§ 57, 2), whom Thomas de - St. Cyrillo in his book, _De laudibus b. Annæ_, celebrated as - “the grandmother of God and mother-in-law of the Holy Ghost.” - In like manner it gave an impulse to worship of saints, images, - and relics, to processions, pilgrimages, and rosary devotions, - as well as to superstitious beliefs about wonder working - scapularies, girdles, medals, amulets, and talismans (§ 186, 2), - Ignatius and Xavier-water, endowed with healing properties - through contact with the relics or models of these saints. - The Jesuits were also making endless discoveries of new miracle - legends and relics previously unknown. They originated the - worship of the heart of Jesus (§ 156, 6), renewed the practice - of flagellation, gave a new vitality to the indulgence nuisance, - and diligently fostered belief in sorcery, demoniacal possession, - apparitions of the devil, and exorcism. They also encouraged - the silly notions of the people about witches, with all their - cruel and horrible consequences (§ 117, 4). The Jesuit Delrio, - with the approval of his order, published, in A.D. 1599, a book - with the title, “Disquisitiones Magicæ,” which, as a worthy - companion volume to the “Hammer for Witches,” branded as heresy - every doubt as to the truth of witchcraft witnessed to by so - many infallible popes, and gave a powerful impetus to witch - persecutions throughout Roman Catholic countries. That two noble - Jesuits, Tanner, who died in A.D. 1632, and Spee, who died in - A.D. 1635, are to be numbered among the first opponents of the - gross delusion, does not in the very least affect the indictment - brought against the order; for Tanner was persecuted on account - of his utterances being contrary to the principles of the - society, and Spee’s “_Cautio Criminalis_” could venture into - the light only anonymously, and be printed only in a Protestant - town (Ruiteln, 1631). - - § 149.12. =Educational Methods and Institutions of the - Jesuits.=--The Jesuit order never interested itself in - elementary and popular education. The pulpit and confessional, - as well as the founding and control of spiritual brotherhoods - and sisterhoods, afforded ample means and opportunities for - impressing their influence upon the lower orders of the people. - On the other hand, the order laboured unweariedly to secure - professorships in gymnasiums, seminaries for priests, and - universities, and that, not merely in the department of theology, - but also in all the other faculties. By these means and by - the founding of regular Jesuit schools they sought to get - into their own hands the education of the higher ranks, so - as to secure from among them as large a number as possible of - members, friends, and protectors. Under the general Aquaviva - this movement obtained an authorized directory and rule in the - _Ratio et institutio studiorum Soc. J._, published in A.D. 1586. - And very remarkable although thoroughly one-sided, and - thus no doubt most effectually realizing the ends desired, - were the results which the order gained in the department of - Catholic education, which had been thrown into deep shade by - the brilliant advances of Protestant scholarship and educational - methods. The study of philology had for its almost sole object - the acquiring of the Latin language with Ciceronian elegance, - but this only produced fluency in writing and speaking. Greek - was studied only by the way; and the knowledge of classical - antiquities, as well as the arts and sciences generally, with - the exception of mathematics, was utterly neglected. But special - attention was devoted to rhetoric, and by means of disputations, - public lectures, and dramatic representations readiness in - speaking and replying was obtained; but freedom of thought and - independent culture were rigorously suppressed. The whole course - of instruction, as well as the method of tuition, had for its - aim the breaking in and subduing of the pupil’s will. Adherence - to rigid order, and unconditional obedience to reasonable - demands, and a mild discipline, with strict control, and a - regular system by which one was set to watch another, were - the means used for arousing to the utmost a spirit of emulation - and giving a sharp spur to ambition. The course of study which - a scholastic of the order had to pass through in the collegiate - establishments was divided into the _studia inferiora_ and - _superiora_. The former, consisting of three classes, embraced - the _Grammatica_ as a preliminary basis for the two higher - classes of the _Humanitas_ and the _Rhetorica_. The _superiora_ - comprised a three years’ course of Aristotelian philosophy, and - a four years’ course of scholastic theology upon the _Sentences_ - of the Lombard and the _Summa_ of St. Thomas, together with - Bible study upon the Vulgate and the original texts, a little - Church history, and, as the crown of the whole curriculum, - casuistic ethics. - - § 149.13. =Theological Controversies.= - - 1. The old controversy about the immaculate conception of - the blessed Virgin had not by any means obtained a final - settlement at Trent. By firmly maintaining the decree on - the universality of original sin the Franciscans hoped, - with the zealous support of the Jesuits Lainez and Salmeron, - to obtain express recognition of the pet doctrine of their - order (§ 104, 7); but, on the other hand, the Dominicans so - vehemently protested, that the council, in order to prevent - a threatened schism, was obliged to leave the point in - dispute undecided, and was satisfied with renewing the - constitution of Sixtus IV., of A.D. 1483 (§ 112, 4), and - thus prohibiting the one party from accusing the other of - heresy.--Continuation, § 156, 5. - - 2. The council for the same reason was just as little able - to set at rest the burning controversy between Thomists - and Scotists on the =doctrine of grace= (§ 113, 2) by - issuing any decisive statement on the subject. When the - pious and learned professor =Michael Baius= of Lyons came - forward in lectures and writings as a zealous defender of - Augustinianism, the Franciscans extracted from his works - seventy-six propositions, which were condemned by Pius V., - A.D. 1567. And when again the Jesuits came forward in - support of the papal verdict, the theological faculty - of Lyons in A.D. 1587, took the field and passed censure - upon thirty-four Pelagianizing propositions of the Jesuits - Leonard Less and John Hamel as opposed to Holy Scripture - and St. Augustine. In the following year the Portuguese - Jesuit =Louis Molina=, in his treatise _Liberi arbitrii - cum gratiæ donis concordia_ of A.D. 1588, set forth a - semi-pelagian modification of the disputed propositions; - the Dominicans, with the learned Dominicus Bañez at their - head, opposed with a bitter polemic. But now the whole - order of the Jesuits stood together as one man on the - side of Molina. Besieged from both sides into complaints - and demands, Clement VIII., in A.D. 1597, appointed a - commission, the so called _congregatio de auxiliis_, to - make a thorough investigation into the matter, and to give - an exhaustive report. After this commission had spent ten - years in vainly endeavouring to construct a formula which - would give satisfaction to both parties, Paul V. dissolved - it in A.D. 1607, promised to make known his decision at - a more suitable time, and then in A.D. 1611 forbade all - further disputings on that question. But after little - more than thirty years the controversy broke out again - at another place in a far more threatening and dangerous - form (§ 156, 5). - - § 149.14. =Theological Literature.=--Various kinds of - expedients were tried in order thoroughly to secure the - establishment of the Tridentine system of belief. Paul IV. - had as early as A.D. 1499 drawn up a list of prohibited books, - which was again ratified at Trent in A.D. 1562, and has been - since then continued and enlarged through some forty editions - as the _Index librorum prohibitorum et expurgandorum_ (with - the note, _donec corrigatur_). Pius V. founded in A.D. 1571 - a special “Congregation of the Index,” for looking after - this business.[439] The _Professio fidei Tridentinæ_ of - A.D. 1564, and the _Catechismus Romanus_ of A.D. 1566, were - issued as authentic statements of the Tridentine doctrine; - and in A.D. 1588 a permanent congregation was instituted for - the explaining of that system in all cases of dispute that - might arise. Also the new _Breviarium Romanum_ of A.D. 1568 - (§ 56, 2), as well as the _Missale Romanum_ of A.D. 1570, served - the same end. In A.D. 1566 Pius V. had appointed a commission, - the so called _Correctores Romani_, for the preparing of a - new edition of the _Corpus juris canonici_, which Gregory XIII. - issued as the only authentic form in A.D. 1582. Sixtus V. - published in A.D. 1589 a new edition of the Vulgate, _Editio - Sixtina_, and, notwithstanding its numerous errata, often - only pasted over or scratched out, pronounced it authentic. - Clement VIII., however, issued a much altered revision, - _Editio Clementina_, in A.D. 1592, and strictly forbade any - alteration of it, but was induced himself to send out next year - a second edition, which was guilty of this very fault. Meanwhile - Roman Catholics and scholars began, in spite of the Tridentine - decree as to the authenticity of the Vulgate, to give diligent - attention to the study of the original text of Holy Scripture. - The Dominican Santes =Pagninus= of Lucca, who died in A.D. 1541, - a pupil of Savonarola, after careful study of all rabbinical - aids, produced a Hebrew lexicon in A.D. 1529, a Hebrew grammar - in A.D. 1528, a literally exact rendering of the Old and the New - Testaments from the original texts, upon which he was engaged - for thirty years, an introduction, with a thorough treatment - of the tropical language of Scripture, and commentaries on the - Pentateuch and Psalms. The literal meaning was with him _palea, - folium, cortex_; the mystical, _triticum, fructus, nucleus - suavissimus_. More importance was attached to the historical - sense by the Dominican =Sixtus of Siena=, by birth a Jew, - who died in A.D. 1569. His _Bibliotheca sancta_ is an - introduction to Holy Scripture extremely credible for that - age. The Roman Inquisition condemned him to death because of - heretical expressions in that work, especially with regard to - the deutero-canonical books of the Old Testament; but Pius V. - pardoned him, after he had prevailed upon him to retract. - The Jesuit Cardinal =Robert Bellarmine=, who died in A.D. 1621, - in his _Ll. IV. de verbo Dei_ controverted the Protestant - principle, _Scriptura scripturæ interpres_. Jerome =Emser= - bitterly inveighed against Luther’s translation of the Bible, - and, in A.D. 1527, set over against it an attempted translation - of his own, which, however, is nothing more than a reprint of - Luther’s, with the changes necessary in consequence of following - the Vulgate and unimportant transpositions and alterations - of words. The same barefaced impudence was practised by John - =Dietenberger= of Mainz, in whose pretended rendering of the - Old Testament of A.D. 1534, the translation of Luther and - Leo Judä is followed almost word for word. John =Eck= of - Ingolstadt produced, in A.D. 1537, a translation of the Bible - from the Vulgate in the most wretched German, without the - least consultation of the original text. On the other hand, - the Augustinian monk =Luis de Leon=, who died in A.D. 1591, - was not only celebrated as a learned and brilliant exegete, - but also distinguished as a poet and prose writer of the first - rank in the national literature of Spain. He was thrown into the - prison of the Spanish Inquisition because of a translation and - exposition of the Song of Songs in the mystico-ecclesiastical - sense, circulated only in manuscript, and because of his - depreciation of the Vulgate; and only after a five years’ - confinement, during which he narrowly escaped the hands of - the hangman, was he set free. The learned Spaniard =Arias - Montanus=, under the patronage of King Philip II., edited - the Antwerp polyglott in eight vols. folio, with learned notes - and excursuses, in A.D. 1569 ff. The number of exegetes who - now gave decided prominence to the literal sense became very - considerable toward the end of the century. The most notable - of these are Arias Montanus, who died in A.D. 1598, having - commented on almost the whole Bible; the Jesuit John Maldonatus, - who died in A.D. 1583, on the four gospels; John Mariana, who - died in A.D. 1624, _Scholia in V. et N.T._; Nich. =Serrarius=, - who died in A.D. 1609, on the Old and New Testaments; and - also William =Estius= of Douay, who died in A.D. 1613, on the - New Testament epistles.--In the department of dogmatics the - old traditional method was still followed by commenting on - the Lombard. The most important schoolman of the age was the - Spanish Jesuit Francis Suarez. In A.D. 1528 Berth. Pirstinger, - Bishop of Chiemsee, under the title “Tewtsche Theologey,” wrote - a complete handbook of theology in the High German dialect, - which had completely emancipated itself from the scholastic - forms (§ 125, 5). John =Eck= also produced a rival work to - Melanchthon’s _Loci_, the _Enchiridion locorum communium_, - which within fifty years passed through forty-six editions. - But of much greater importance are the _Loci theologici_ of - the Spanish Dominican Melch. =Canus=, who died in A.D. 1550, - which were published at Salamanca in A.D. 1563. They consist - not so much of a system of doctrines properly so called, as - rather of comprehensive and learned preliminary investigations - about the sources, principles, method, and fundamental ideas of - dogmatics. He rejects the charge of absolute perversity brought - against scholasticism, but grants that the method should be - simplified, and what is good in it preserved. For instructions - in higher and lower schools the two catechisms of the first - German Jesuit provincial, =Petrus [Peter] Canisius= (§ 161, 1), - _Cat. major_ of A.D. 1554, and _Cat. parvus_ of A.D. 1566, - were epoch-making. They were circulated in numberless editions - and translations,--the Little Catechism being printed more - than 500 times,--and used for two centuries in all the Catholic - schools in Germany; and even yet they are held in high esteem. - Among the Catholic polemical writers, Cardinal Bellarmine - occupies beyond dispute the foremost rank. His _Disputationes - de controversiis chr. fidei adv. hujus temp. hæreticos_, - A.D. 1588-1593, are in many respects unsurpassed even to - this day. Before him William =Lindanus=, Bishop of Ghent, - author of _Panoplia evangelica_ (Colon., A.D. 1563), and the - Jesuit Francis =Coster= of Mechlin, author of _Enchiridion - controversiarum_ (Colon., A.D. 1585), had won a great reputation - among their own party as disputants against Protestantism. The - services rendered to church history by Cardinal =Baronius= have - already been referred to under § 5, 2. - - § 149.15. =Art and Poetry.=--In the second Dutch school - (§ 115, 8) musical taste was thoroughly depraved, and =Church - music= especially became so artificial, florid, and secularized, - that some of the Tridentine fathers in all seriousness proposed - that figured music should be completely banished from the church - services, at least in the performance of mass. It was when - matters had reached this low ebb that =Palestrina=, Giovanni - Pietro Aloisio Sante of Palestrina, appeared as the saviour and - regenerator of sacred musical art. He was a scholar of Goudimel, - who, before he passed over to the Reformed church (§ 143, 2), - had founded a school of music in Rome. As early as A.D. 1560, - in his sacred compositions on Micah vi. 3 ff., which to this - day are performed always on Good Friday in the Sistine Chapel, - Palestrina secured a firm position as an unsurpassed master - of genuine ecclesiastical music. The commission appointed by - Pius IV. for the reformation of church music called upon him - therefore to submit specimens of his compositions. He produced - three masses in A.D. 1565, among which was the celebrated - _Missa Marcelli_, dedicated to his former patron, the deceased - pope Marcellus II. With this masterpiece, which represents the - highest perfection of Catholic church music, and entitled its - author to rank as a prince of musical art, _Musicæ princeps_, - the retention of the figured music in the mass, so keenly - contested in the council, was decided upon.--The immense - success of the =sacred song of= the Protestant church - as a means for spreading the Reformation constrained the - Catholic church, very unwillingly, to seek to counteract this - danger by the translation of Latin hymns and the composition of - songs of praise in German (§ 115, 7), as well as by the liberal - introduction of them into the public services. Between A.D. 1470 - and A.D. 1631 there have been enumerated no fewer than sixty-two - collections of German Catholic church hymns. The most important - are those of Michael Vehe, Provost of Halle, A.D. 1537; of - George Witzel, a renegade Lutheran, A.D. 1550; of John - Leisetritt, dean of the cathedral at Budissin, A.D. 1567; - and Gregory Corner, Abbot of Gottweih, in his “Great Catholic - Hymnbook,” A.D. 1625. Caspar Ulenberg, previously a Lutheran, - in A.D. 1582 rendered the psalms of David into German rhyme; - and Rutzer Eding published in A.D. 1583 a German mass, with - translation of the Latin church hymns. The names of the poets - and translators are for the most part unknown. Many a beautiful - sacred song, too, is met with among these rich materials, an - evidence of what might have been the result if the Catholic - church of Germany, instead of having been opposed or only - half-hearted, had fostered and encouraged this important part - of the Divine service with whole-hearted enthusiasm.--The arts - of architecture and painting continued to be still cultivated - successfully in the Roman Catholic church (§ 115, 13). Besides - Correggio and Titian, and after them, named with the noble - masters of =painting=, are the two Caracci, uncle and nephew, - Domenichino and Guido Reni. Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who - died in A.D. 1564 an old man of ninety years, gave expression - to the most profound Christian ideas in his works of painting - and sculpture. The Renaissance style during the 16th century - gave scope for the further application and development of - ecclesiastical =architecture=. The most magnificent church - building of the century was the rebuilding of St. Peter’s - church at Rome, undertaken by Pope Julius II. in A.D. 1506, - which Bramante began and Michael Angelo after his plan carried - out. As painter and statuary, Angelo had refused slavishly to - follow the traditions of the church in respect of the worship - of Mary and the saints, and so, too, as a poet in glowing - sonnets he only gave expression to deep sorrow for sin, - and his true spiritual faith in the crucified Sin-bearer. - His countryman Torquato Tasso, who died in A.D. 1595, in - his “Jerusalem Delivered,” celebrated the Christian heroic - of mediæval Catholicism. In the history of Spanish poetry, the - Christian lyrics of St. Theresa and Luis de Leon are regarded - even to this day as unsurpassed in excellence. - - § 149.16. =The Spanish Mystics.=--In consequence of the - Reformation, the Roman Catholic church was compelled to have - recourse to the revivification of the mediæval mysticism from - which it had become alienated in life and doctrine, in order - by means of it to give that intensity and inward power to - the religious life which was now felt to be indispensably - necessary without falling away from the church in which alone - salvation can be found, and without making surrender to the - _inanis fiducia hæreticorum_. Thus there arose from about the - middle of the century, first of all in Spanish cloisters, a new - development of mysticism, which, without expressly attacking - the “outer way” of the ecclesiastical practice of piety, - introduced and recommended a second higher and nobler method, - called the “inner way,” because leading to Christian perfection. - This consisted in a regular and deeply spiritual exercise - in prayer and contemplation, with a decided preference for - inward unuttered prayer, with complete mortification of - one’s own self-will and absolute self-surrender to the Divine - guidance, having for its aim and climax the most blessed - rest in fellowship with God. A pious Minorite, =St. Peter - of Alcantara=, gave to this tendency a doctrinal basis by his - treatise, _De oratione et meditatione_, published in A.D. 1545, - in which he manifests a most bitter opposition to Protestantism, - and a zealous readiness to co-operate in all the horrid - cruelties of the Spanish counter-reformation. Its highest - point is reached in the famous Carmelite nun of Avila in Old - Castile, =St. Theresa de Jesus=, who died in A.D. 1582, the - most celebrated saint of the Spanish church. Introduced by - Peter of Alcantara in A.D. 1560 to the profound mysteries of - contemplation, and favoured amid the convulsions of her life - of prayer with frequent visions of Christ, she undertook, in - A.D. 1562, by the founding of a new cloister, to lead her order - back to the strict observance of this old rule. The fame of her - sanctity soon had spread over all Spain, but all the more did - the hatred of the brothers and sisters of her order who favoured - the lax observance increase. They even carried the bitterness so - far as to get the Inquisition to originate a heretic prosecution - against her in A.D. 1579, on the ground of her pretension to - have visions, but this was abandoned by command of the king. - Among her numerous writings, of which Luis de Leon, in A.D. 1583, - issued a complete edition, which have been translated into all - the languages of Europe, the “Castillo interior,” _i.e._ the - City of Mansoul, or the seven Residences of the Soul, is the - one in which her mysticism is most completely developed. It - describes the stages through which the soul must pass in order - to become wholly one with God. Her faithful fellow labourer in - the reforming of the order, =St. John of the Cross=, who died in - A.D. 1591, in regard to mysticism occupied the same ground with - her. His writings, among which the _Subida del Monte Carmel_, - “The Climbing of Mount Carmel,” is the most comprehensive, - are not to be compared with those of St. Theresa in the rare - witchery of an enchanting style, but are distinguished by - solidity and maturity of thought. The brethren of the order - opposed to reform showed toward John a far more severe and - continuous bitterness than they did toward Theresa. Even in - A.D. 1575 he was imprisoned in one of their cloisters, and - cruelly ill used. He made his escape indeed in the following - year by flight, but only in A.D. 1588 did a papal brief, by - a formal establishment of the Congregation of the Barefooted - Carmelites, put an end to all oppressions and persecutions. The - mysticism recommended by him and St. Theresa found entrance now - more and more into the cloisters, not only of the Carmelites, - but also of the other orders, and numbered many adherents - among the higher and lower clergy, as well as among cultured - laymen.--But while on this side the traditional forms and - doctrines usual in the practice of piety in the church sank - indeed into the background, but were never expressly repudiated - or contradicted, there arose upon this same mystical basis - numerous sects designated _enlightened_ “=Alumbrados=,” who went - all the length of pouring abuse and contempt upon every kind - of church form and doctrine, and thus calling forth down to the - 17th century constant persecution from the Inquisition. Theresa - was canonized in A.D. 1622, Peter of Alcantara in A.D. 1669, and - John of the Cross in A.D. 1726.--Continuation, § 156. - - § 149.17. There were also many noble products of the - =practical Christian life= brought forth in that new departure - which Catholicism after the Reformation in the interests of - self-preservation had been obliged to undertake. Evidence of - this practical endeavour was given in the zealous manner in - which home missions were prosecuted. From out of the general - body of Catholicism there sprang up a new series of saints, who - were quite worthy to rank alongside those of the Middle Ages. - Most highly distinguished among these was =Charles Borromeo=, - born A.D. 1538, died A.D. 1584, who, from his position as - nephew of Pope Pius IV., and from his high rank in the church as - cardinal and Archbishop of Milan, exerted a powerful influence - upon the Tridentine Council and the curia, which he used for - the removal of many abuses. His life is the realization of the - perfect ideal of that of a Catholic pastor and prelate. He also - proved himself worthy of being so regarded during the dreadful - pestilence that raged in Milan in A.D. 1576. Paul V. canonized - him in A.D. 1610, and to this day his tall figure in a colossal - statue looks out upon the province of Milan as the patron of the - state.[440]--Along with the intensification of the specifically - Catholic sentiment awakened in the cloisters by means of the - endeavours put forth in the counter-reformation and spreading - out from these into the general Catholic community, we meet - with a revival of the old zeal for monkish =asceticism=. The - Jesuits especially laboured earnestly for the restoration of - the =discipline of the lash=, brought at an early period into - discredit by the extravagances of the Flagellants (§ 116, 3). - And besides these many also of the new and reformed orders - gave themselves to further and advance the counter-reformation. - Cardinal Borromeo, above referred to, took a lively interest - in this mode of spiritual disciplinary exercise. After he had - at a council at Milan, in A.D. 1569, given a new organization to - the flagellant societies of his diocese, and Pope Gregory XIII., - in A.D. 1572, had endowed with a rich indulgence all the - associations of that sort, they in a very short time spread - again over all Italy. In Rome alone they numbered over a - hundred, which, according to their colours, were designated as - white, gray, black, red, green, blue, etc. Especially on Good - Friday they vied with one another in getting up their flagellant - processions on the most magnificent scale. In France they were - patronized by Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, and King Henry III. - was himself a devoted and enthusiastic member of the order. In - Germany, too, the Jesuits brought the flagellants into favour, - wherever they could get a footing, especially in the north - German cities. The learned Jesuit, Jac. Gretson, in Ingolstadt, - in the very beginning of the 17th century, wrote seven elaborate - rhetorical controversial tracts, _De spontanea disciplinarum - s. flagellorum cruce_, etc., against the Protestant opponents - of the flagellant craze. Afterwards, however, the ardour and - zeal for the practice of this discipline cooled down more and - more in most of the monkish orders as well as in general society, - and local flagellant processions, in which there was generally - more of a vain, empty show than of real penitential earnestness, - are to be met with now only as occasional displays in Spain and - Italy, and in the Romish states of America. - - - § 150. FOREIGN MISSIONS. - - The grand discoveries of new continents which had preceded -the Reformation age, and the serious losses sustained in European -countries, revived the interest in missions throughout the Roman -Catholic church. Commercial enterprise and campaigns for the conquest -of the world, which were still almost exclusively in the hands of the -Catholic states, afforded opportunities for the prosecution of mission -work in the New World; and abundant means for carrying it on were -furnished by the numerous monkish orders. - - § 150.1. =Missions to the Heathen: East Indies and China.=--The - Portuguese founded the first bishopric in the =East Indies=, - at Goa on the Malabar Coast, in A.D. 1534. Soon thereafter a - tribunal of the Inquisition was established alongside of it. - The bishop confined his attention to the European immigrants, - and the inquisitors applied themselves mainly to secure the - destruction of the Thomas-Christians settled there. Neither - of them had the remotest idea of doing any properly speaking - mission work among the native races. But it was quite different - when, in A.D. 1542, Loyola’s companion =Francis Xavier=, the - Apostle of the Indians, made his appearance as papal nuncio - in this wide field along with two other Jesuits. Working with - glowing zeal and unparalleled self-denial, he baptized in a - short time a hundred thousand, mostly of the low, despised caste - of pariahs, going forward certainly with a haste which never - allowed him time to make sure that the spiritual fruits should - bear any proportion to the outward successes. His unmeasured - missionary fervour, to which characteristic expression was - given in his saying, _Amplius! amplius!_ impelled him constantly - to go on seeking for new fields of labour. From the East - Indies he moved on to Japan, and only his death, which occurred - in A.D. 1552, hindered him from pushing his way into China. - Numerous successors from Loyola’s order undertook the carrying - on of his work, and so soon as A.D. 1565 the converts of the - East Indies numbered 300,000.[441]--Commerce opened the way for - missions into =China=, where all traces of earlier Christianity - (§§ 72, 1; 93, 15) had already completely vanished, and proud - contempt of everything stood in the way of the introduction - of any western customs or forms of worship. But the Jesuits, - with =Matthew Ricci= of Ancona at their head, by making use - of their knowledge of mathematical, mechanical, and physical - science, secured for themselves access even to the court. Ricci - at first completely nationalized himself, and then began his - missionary enterprise by introducing Christian instructions - into his mathematical and astronomical lectures. In order to - render the Chinese favourable to the adoption of Christianity, - he represented it to be a renewal and restoration of the old - doctrine of Confucius. The confession of faith which the new - converts before baptism were required to make was confined to - an acknowledgment of one God and recognition of the obligation - of the ten commandments. And even in worship he tolerated many - heathen practices and customs. The mathematical and astronomical - writings composed by him in the Chinese language are said to - have extended to 150 volumes. The Chinese artillery also stood - under his immediate supervision. When he died, in A.D. 1610, the - Jesuits had even then formed a network of hundreds of churches - spread over a great part of the land.[442]--Continuation, - § 156, 11, 12. - - § 150.2. =Japan.=--Xavier had here, chiefly on account of his - defective acquaintance with the language, relatively speaking - only a very small measure of success. But other Jesuits followed - in his footsteps, and enjoyed the most brilliant success; so - that in A.D. 1581 there were already more than two hundred - churches and about 150,000 Christians in the land, of whom - many belonged to the old feudal nobility, the daimios, while - some were even imperial princes. This distinguished success - was greatly owing, on the one hand, to the favour of the - then military commander-in-chief Nobunaga, who greeted the - advance of Christianity as a welcome means for undermining the - influence of the Buddhist bonzes, which had become supreme, and, - on the other hand, to the abundance of money put by Portugal and - Spain at the disposal of the Jesuits, which they used as well - in the adorning of the Catholic services as in the bestowing - of liberal gifts upon the converts. It was, however, chiefly - owing to the close and essential relationship between the Romish - ritual and constitution and those of Buddhism, which rendered - the transition from the one to the other by no means very - difficult. Then everything that had gone to secure for Buddhism - in Japan a superiority over the simple old national Sintuism - or ancestor-worship, as well as everything that the Japanese - Buddhists had been wont to regard as indispensable requisites - of worship, the elegance of the temples, altars glittering with - bright colours blending together, theatrical display in the - vestments for their priests, grand solemn processions and masses, - incense, images, statues and rosaries, a hierarchical system, - the tonsure, celibacy, cloisters for monks and nuns, worship of - saints and images, pilgrimages, etc., was given them in even an - exaggerated degree in Jesuit Christianity. The zealous neophytes - from among the daimios effectually backed up the preaching - of the Jesuit fathers by fire and sword. They compelled - the subjects of their provinces to go over to the Christian - religion, banished or put to death those who proved refractory, - and overthrew the Buddhist temples and cloisters. In A.D. 1582 - they sent an embassy of four young noblemen to Europe to - pay homage to the pope. After they had received the most - flattering reception in Madrid from Philip II., and in Rome - from Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V., they returned to their own - home in A.D. 1590, accompanied by seventeen Jesuit priests, - who were soon followed by whole crowds of mendicant friars. By - the close of the century the number of native Christians had - increased to 600,000. But meanwhile the axe was already being - laid at the root of the tree that had thriven so wondrously. - Nobunaga’s successor Hidejoshi found occasion, in A.D. 1587, - to issue a decree banishing from the country all foreign - missionaries. The Jesuits were wise enough to cease at once - all public preaching, but the begging monks treated the decree - with contempt and open defiance. In consequence of this six - Franciscans and seventeen Japanese converts of theirs, and - along with them also three Jesuits, were arrested at Nagasaki - and there crucified (§ 156, 11). Soon afterwards Hidejoshi - died. One of his generals, Ijejasu, to whom he had assigned the - regency during the minority of his six year old son, assumed - the sovereign power to himself. A civil war was the result, and - in A.D. 1600 his opponents, among whom were certain Christian - daimios, were conquered in a bloody battle. Ijejasu persuaded - the mikado to give him the hereditary rank of _shiogun_, _i.e._ - field-marshal of the empire; and his successors down to the - revolution of A.D. 1867 (§ 182, 5), as military vice-emperors - alongside of the really powerless mikado, had all the power of - government in their own hands. Thus were corrupting elements - introduced which led to the complete overthrow of the Japanese - church.[443] - - § 150.3. =America.=--The desire to spread Christ’s kingdom - was not by any means the smallest among the impulses that - contributed to Christopher Columbus’ enthusiasm for the - discovery of new countries; but the greediness, cruelty, and - animosity of the Spanish conquerors, who had less interest in - converting the natives into Christians than in reducing them to - slavery, was a terrible hindrance to the Christianizing of the - New World. The Christian missionaries indeed most emphatically, - but with only a small measure of success, defended the human - rights of the ill-used Indians. The noble Mexican bishop, - =Bartholomew de las Casas=, in particular wrought unweariedly, - devoting his whole life, A.D. 1474 to A.D. 1566, to the sacred - task, not only of instructing the Indians, but also of saving - them from the hands of his greedy and bloodthirsty fellow - countrymen. Six times he journeyed to Spain in order to use - personal influence in high quarters for ameliorating the lot - of his _protégés_, and he was obliged to undertake a seventh - journey in order to justify himself and repel the violent - accusations of his enemies. Even in A.D. 1517 Charles V. had, at - the bishop’s entreaty, granted personal liberty to the Indians, - but at the same time gave permission to the Spanish colonists - to introduce African negro slaves for the laborious work - in the mines and on the plantations. The enslaving of the - natives, however, was still continued, and only in A.D. 1547 - were vigorous measures taken to secure the suppression of - the practice, after many millions of Indians had been already - sacrificed. So far as the Spanish dominion extended Christianity - also spread, and was established by means of the Inquisition.--In - South America the Portuguese held sway in the rich and as yet - little known empire of Brazil. In A.D. 1549 King John III. sent - thither a Jesuit mission, with Emanuel Nobreya at its head. - Amid unspeakable hardships they won over the native cannibals - to Christianity and civilization.[444] - - § 150.4. The newly awakened missionary zeal of the church - made an attempt also upon the =schismatical Churches of the - East=. The enterprise, however, was even moderately successful - only in reference to a portion of the Persian and East Indian - =Nestorians= (§ 72, 1), who in Persia were called Syrian or - Chaldæan Christians, because of the language which they used - in their liturgy, and in India Thomas-Christians, because - they professed to have had the Apostle Thomas as their founder. - They had their origin really, in A.D. 1551, in Mesopotamia, in - consequence of a double episcopal election there. The one party - chose a priest Sulakas, whom Pope Julius III. had consecrated - priest under the name of John, but the other party refused to - acknowledge him. The Archbishop Alexius Menezius also became - involved in these controversies, and succeeded in getting the - former party to recognise the Roman primacy and accept the - Catholic doctrine; while, on the other hand, Rome permitted the - retention of its ancient ritual and form of constitution. These - united Nestorians were now called by way of eminence Chaldæan - Christians. Their chief, chosen by themselves and approved by - the pope, was called Bishop of Babylon, but had his residence - at Mosul in Mesopotamia. The Thomas-Christians of India, however, - proved much more troublesome. But even they were obliged, after - a long, protracted struggle, at a synod at Diampur in A.D. 1599, - to abjure the Nestorian heresy. All Syrian books were burnt, - and a new Malabar liturgy in accordance with the Romish type - was introduced.--The existence of an independent =Jacobite= - Christian church in Abyssinia (§ 64, 1) first became known - in Europe in the beginning of the sixteenth century through - Portuguese commercial and diplomatic missions. The Abyssinian - sultan, David, in A.D. 1514, upon promise of Portuguese help, - of which he stood in need because of the aggressions of the - neighbouring Mohammadan [Mohammedan] states, agreed to receive - the physician Bermudez as Catholic patriarch. But the next - sultan, Claudius, expelled him from his land. In A.D. 1562 - Jesuit missionaries began to settle in the country; but Claudius - denounced them as Arians, and wished the people to have nothing - to do with them. As the result of a friendly communication - from the Coptic patriarch, Paul V., in the beginning of the - 17th century, sent the Jesuit Rodriguez into =Egypt=. The - patriarch accepted the rich presents which the Jesuit brought - with him, and then made him return home without having gained - the object of his mission. - - - § 151. ATTEMPTED REGENERATION OF ROMAN CATHOLICISM. - - Paul III. had in A.D. 1542 erected a new tribunal of the Inquisition -for the suppression of Protestantism, which Paul IV. (§ 149, 2) brought -up to the highest point of its development. And scarcely had the -Catholic church secured for itself a stable position throughout its -own domains by the happy conclusion of the Tridentine Council, than it -directed all its powers with the utmost energy to reconquer as far as -then possible the ground that had been lost. The means used for this end -were mainly of two sorts: the territorial system, legitimated by a law -of the empire (§ 137, 5), which, devised originally in order to save -Protestantism (§ 126, 6), was now employed for its overthrow; and the -Jesuits, who, sometimes openly and sometimes with carefully concealed -plans, sometimes in conjunction with the civil power, sometimes -intriguing against it, spread like swarms over all the countries of -Europe where Protestantism had already struck its roots. The craftiness -of the members of this order, their diplomatic acts, their machinations, -their practice in controversy, succeeded in some cases in fanning the -scarcely glimmering embers of Catholicism into a bright flame, in other -cases in blighting Protestant churches that had been in a flourishing -condition. They hoped thus to be able to destroy these churches root and -branch, or to reduce Protestantism within the narrow limits of a barely -tolerated sect. But above all they were careful to get into their hands -the control of the higher and lower schools, in order to be able to -implant in the hearts of the young and rising generation a bitter hatred -of Protestantism. - - § 151.1. =Attempts at Regeneration in Germany.=--From the - time of the Passau Compact the political convulsions and the - weariness of controversy shown by the princes proved strongly in - favour of Protestantism. In Catholic states, too, the Protestant - religion had made rapid advances. The deputies of provinces, - and especially the nobles, gave unmistakable expression to - their sympathies, and for every grant of territory demanded a - religious concession from the prince. Many prelates or spiritual - princes had more Protestant than Catholic councillors. The - Protestant nobles frequented their courts without constraint. - Their residences were often Protestant cities, and their - revenues not unfrequently in the hands of evangelical superiors. - But for the Jesuits, in spite of territorial influence and - prelatical restrictions (§ 137, 5), in a few decades all Germany - would have fallen into the hands of the evangelical church. - In A.D. 1558 a Venetian observer of the country and the people - could bring back the report that in Germany only a tenth of the - population remained true to the old church; that of the other - nine parts seven had gone over to the Lutherans, and two were - distributed among the various anti-Catholic denominations. Of - all the German cities Ingolstadt was the first, in A.D. 1549, - to be favoured with a visit of the Jesuits, who were brought - there by William IV. of Bavaria as teachers of theology. Next - in order comes Vienna, where, in A.D. 1551, thirteen Jesuits, - under the name of Spanish priests, were introduced by Ferdinand. - Some years later they settled in Prague, as also in Cologne. - From those four capitals they spread out within a few years - over the whole territorially Catholic Germany, and throughout - the Austrian states. In A.D. 1552 Loyola founded at Rome the - _Collegium Germanicum_, which was subsequently extended under - the name of the _Collegium Germ.-Ungaricum_, for the training of - German youths for the conversion of Protestants in their native - land. The first Jesuit provincial for Germany was the Dutchman - Peter Canisius, who, first of all from Vienna, and afterwards, - when Maximilian II. (§ 137, 8) put the Jesuits in Austria under - intolerable restrictions, from Friesburg, had so successfully - carried the regeneration into Switzerland, until his death in - A.D. 1598, that while the Protestants designated him _Canis - Austriacus_ because of his ruthless persecution, the members - of his order honoured him as the second Apostle of the Germans, - and Pius IX., in recognition of his services, beatified him - in A.D. 1864.--The Catholic regeneration began in Bavaria in - A.D. 1564. Duke Albert V., converted into a zealous Catholic - by the opposition of his Protestant members of parliament, - excluded the Protestant nobles from the Bavarian diet, banished - the evangelical pastors, compelled his Protestant subjects - who refused to abandon their faith to emigrate, and obliged all - professors and officials to subscribe the Tridentine _Professio - fidei_. The Jesuits praised him as a second Josiah and - Theodosius, called Munich a second Rome, and the pope invested - him with the ecclesiastico-political privileges of a _summus - episcopus_ throughout his own dominions. When by inheritance - he became Count of the Hague, and also Baden-Baden came under - his rule as regent, Protestantism was there thoroughly rooted - out. Bavaria’s example was followed, though in a more temperate - manner, by the electors of Treves (Jac. von Eltz) and Mainz - (Daniel Brendel). The latter restored Catholicism in A.D. 1574 - into the hitherto thoroughly Protestant city Eichsfelde. In - A.D. 1575 the Abbot of Fulda also, Balth. von Dernbach, who - in all his territory was almost the only Catholic, acted in - a similar manner. In making this attempt Balthasar [Balthazar] - came into collision with his chapter, and was by it and his - knights expelled. The Bishop of Würzburg, Jul. Echter of - Mispelbrunn, who had been aiding them in the revolution, in - A.D. 1576 undertook the administration of the diocese. But in - the beginning of the following year the abbot was restored by - an imperial order, and thus the last vestige of Protestantism - was rooted out. Julius of Würzburg, seriously compromised, - would probably have followed the example of Gebhard of Cologne - (§ 137, 7), though that prelate’s proceedings were dictated by - altogether different considerations; but by A.D. 1584 he worked - himself into power again by completely rooting out Protestantism - from his own territory, which had been almost completely - Protestant. The bishops of Bamberg, Salzburg, Hildesheim, - Münster, Paderborn, etc., pursued a similar policy. At all - points Jesuits were at the front and Jesuits were in the rear. - In the newly constituted nuncio court, at Vienna, in A.D. 1581, - at Cologne, in A.D. 1582, they had the grand centres of - their conspiracies and machinations. Ferdinand II. of Styria, - emperor from A.D. 1619, and Maximilian I. of Bavaria, were - both educated by the Jesuits at Ingolstadt. When in A.D. 1596 - Ferdinand celebrated Easter at Grätz, he was the only one there - who communicated according to the Roman Catholic rite. Two years - later he successfully carried out the counter-reformation, - and his cousin, the Emperor Rudolph II., followed his - example.--Continuation, § 153, 2. - - § 151.2. But the regeneration was not confined to Germany. It - spread out over all =Europe=. The Jesuits pressed into every - country, and were successful in compassing their ends even in - places where there had been very little prospect of success. - The Cardinal Charles Borromeo (§ 149, 17) laboured with peculiar - energy to establish Catholicism, and spread it yet more widely - in the Catholic and mixed cantons of Switzerland. He himself - undertook a journey thither in A.D. 1570; contrived in A.D. 1574 - to get the Jesuits introduced into Lucerne, in A.D. 1586 into - Freiburg; founded at Milan a _Collegium Helveticum_ for the - training of Catholic priests for Switzerland, and secured - the appointment of a permanent nuncio, who had his residence - at Lucerne. In the province of Chablais on Lake Geneva, - under Piedmontese rule, St. Francis de Sales, by the forcible - conversion of 80,000 heretics in A.D. 1596, completely rooted - out Protestantism (§ 156, 1).--In France the bloody civil wars - began in A.D. 1562. The Duke of Alva appeared in the Netherlands - in A.D. 1567. In Poland the Jesuits secured an entrance first - in A.D. 1569, and from thence made their way over into Livonia. - In A.D. 1578 the crafty Jesuit Ant. Possevin gained access to - Sweden, and there converted the king (§ 139, 1). Even in England, - where Elizabeth in A.D. 1582 had threatened every Jesuit with - capital punishment, crowds of them wrought away in secret, - and in hope of better times tended the flickering spark of - Catholicism smouldering under the ashes (§ 153, 6). - - § 151.3. =Russia and the United Greeks.=--The attempts, renewed - from time to time since the meeting of the Florentine Council - (§ 73, 6), to win over the Russian church, had always failed - of the end in view. In A.D. 1581, when the war so disastrous - for Russia between Ivan IV. Wassiljewitch and Stephen Bathori - of Poland afforded to the pope the desired excuse for putting - in an appearance as a peacemaker, Gregory XIII. sent the clever - Jesuit Possevin for this purpose to Poland and Russia. The - tsar gave him a most flattering reception, allowed him to hold - a religious conference, but was not prepared either to attach - himself to Rome or to banish the Lutherans. On the other hand, - Rome scored a victory, inasmuch as in the West Russian province - detached and given to Poland the union was consummated, partly - by force, partly by manœuvre, and obtained ecclesiastical - sanction at the Council of Brest, in A.D. 1596. These “United - Greeks” were obliged to acknowledge the Roman supremacy and the - Romish doctrines, but were allowed to retain their own ancient - ritual.--Continuation, § 203, 2. - - - - - Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. - - - - - FOOTNOTES. - - - [263] Principal authorities for last two sections: - Adam of Bremen, “Gesta Hamburg eccl. Pontificum.” and - Saxo Grammaticus, “Hist. Danica.” - - [264] Snorro Sturleson’s, “Heimskringla, or Chronicle of the - Kings of Norway.” Transl. from the Icelandic by Laing, - 3 vols., London, 1844. - - [265] Cosmas of Prague [† A.D. 1125], “Chronicon Prag.” - - [266] “The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian.” Edited with - Commentary by Col. Yule, 2 vols., London, 1871. - - [267] Michaud, “History of the Crusades.” Transl. by Robson, - 3 vols., London, 1852. - Mill, “History of the Crusades.” 2 vols., London, 1820. - “Chronicles of the Crusades: Contemporary Narratives of - Richard Cœur de Lion, by Richard of Devizes and Geoffrey - de Vinsauf, and of the Crusade of St. Louis, by Lord - John de Joinville.” London (Bohn). - Gibbon, “History of Crusades.” London, 1869. - - [268] _Pulleni dicuntur, vel quia recentes et novi, quasi pulli - respectu Surianorum reputati sunt, vel quia principaliter - de gente Apuliæ matres habuerunt. Cum enim paucas mulieres - adduxissent nostri, qui in terras remanserunt, de regno - Apuliæ, eo quod propius esset aliis regionibus, vocantes - mulieres, cum eis matrimonia contraxerunt._ - - [269] Stubbs, “Chronicle and Memorials of Richard I.” - London, 1864. - - [270] Prescott, “History of Ferdinand and Isabella.” Good edition - by Kirk, in 1 vol., London, 1886. - Geddes, “History of Expulsion of Moriscoes.” In “Miscell. - Tracts.” Vol. i., London, 1714. - McCrie, “Hist. of Prop. and Suppr. of Reformation in Spain.” - London, 1829. - Ranke, “History of Reformation.” Transl. by Mrs. Austin, - vol. iii., London, 1847. - - [271] Milman, “History of the Jews.” Book xxiv. 1, “The Feudal - System.” - - [272] “De sua conversione.” In Carpzov’s edit. of the “Pugio - Fidei” of Raimund Martini, § 103, 9. - - [273] Milman, “History of the Jews.” 3 vols., London, 1863; - bks. xxiv., xxvi. - Prescott, “Ferdinand and Isabella.” Pt. I., ch. xvii. - - [274] Bryce, “The Holy Roman Empire.” London, 1866. - O’Donoghue, “History of Church and Court of Rome, from - Constantine to Present Time.” 2 vols., London, 1846. - Bower’s “History of the Popes.” Vol. v. - - [275] For Lanfranc, see Hook, “Lives of Archbishops of - Canterbury.” Vol. ii., London, 1861. - - [276] Bowden, “Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII.” 2 vols., - London, 1840. - Villemain, “Life of Gregory VII.” Transl. by Brockley, - 2 vols., London, 1874. - Stephen, “Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography.” 2 vols., - London, 1850. - Hallam, “Middle Ages.” Vol. i., London, 1840. - Milman, “Latin Christianity.” Vol. iii., London, 1854. - - [277] Church, “St. Anselm.” London, 1870. - Rule, “Life and Times of St. Anselm.” 2 vols., London, 1883. - Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Canterbury.” Vol. ii., London, - 1879, pp. 169-276. - - [278] “Vita et Epistolæ Thomæ Cantuari.” Edited by Giles, 4 vols., - London, 1846. - Morris, “Life and Martyrdom of Thomas à Becket.” - London, 1859. - Robertson, “Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury.” - London, 1859. - “Materials for Life of Thomas à Becket.” 2 vols., - London, 1875. - Hook, “Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury.” Vol. ii., - London, 1879, pp. 354-507. - Stanley, “Memorials of Canterbury.” London, 1855. - Freeman, “Historical Essays.” First Series, Essay IV. - - [279] On Stephen Langton see - Pearson, “History of England during Early and Middle Ages.” - Vol. ii. - Milman, “History of Latin Christianity.” Vol. iv., - London, 1854. - Hook, “Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury.” Vol. ii., - 4th edition, London, 1879, pp. 657-761. - Maurice, “Lives of English Popular Leaders. 1. Stephen - Langton.” London. - - [280] Kingston, “History of Frederick II., King of the Romans.” - London, 1862. - - [281] Stubbs, “Memorials of St. Dunstan. Collection of six - Biographies.” London, 1875. - Soames, “Anglo-Saxon Church.” London, 1835. - Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Canterbury.” Vol. i., pp. 382-426, - London, 1860. - - [282] Luard, “Roberti Grosseteste, Episcopi quondam Lincolniensis - Epistolæ.” London, 1862. - - [283] According to Giordano of Giano, who himself was there, the - number of brothers present was about 3,000, and the people - of the neighbourhood supplied them so abundantly with food - and drink that they had at last to put a stop to their - bringing. But soon the tradition of the order multiplied - the 3,000 into 5,000, and transformed the quite natural - account of their support into a “_miraculum stupendum_,” - parallel to the feeding of the 5,000 in the wilderness - (Matt. xiv. 15-21). - - [284] Trench, “The Mendicant Orders.” in “Lectures on Mediæval - Church History.” London, 1878. - - [285] Milman, “History of Latin Christianity.” Vol. v. - Wadding, “Annales Minorum Fratrum.” 8 vols., Lugd., 1625. - Stephen, “St. Francis of Assisi.” In “Essays in - Ecclesiastical Biography.” London, 1860. - - [286] “Annales Ordinis Prædicatorum.” Vol. i., Rome, 1746. - - [287] Gieseler, “Ecclesiastical History.” § 72, Edin., 1853, - vol. iii., pp. 268-276. - - [288] Addison, “History of the Knights Templars.” etc., - London, 1842. - - [289] Taafe, “Order of St. John of Jerusalem.” 4 vols., - London, 1852. - - [290] Ueberweg, “History of Philosophy.” Vol. i., pp. 355-377. - Hampden, “The Scholastic Philosophy considered in its - relation to Christian Theology.” Oxford, 1832. - Maurice, “Mediæval Philosophy.” London, 1870. - Harper, “The Metaphysics of the School.” London, 1880 f. - - [291] Kirkpatrick, “The Historically Received Conception of a - University.” London, 1857. - Hagenbach, “Encyclopædia of Theology.” Transl. by Crooks - and Hurst, New York, 1884, § 18, pp. 50, 51. - - [292] Cunningham, “Historical Theology.” Edinburgh, 1870, - vol. i., ch. xv., “The Canon Law.” Pp. 426-438. - - [293] Räbiger, “Theological Encyclopædia.” Vol. i., p. 28, - Edin., 1884. - - [294] Maitland, “The Dark Ages: a Series of Essays, to Illustrate - the State of Religion and Literature in the Ninth, Tenth, - Eleventh, and Twelfth Centuries.” London, 1844. - - [295] The Aelfric Society founded in 1842 has edited his - Anglo-Saxon writings and those of others. The Homilies - were edited by Thorpe in 2 vols., in 1843 and 1846. - “Select Monuments of Doctrine and Worship of Catholic - Church in England before the Norman Conquest, consisting - of Aelfric’s Paschal Homily.” Etc., London, 1875. - On Aelfric and Ethelwold see an admirable sketch, with - full references to and appropriate quotations from - early chronicles, in Hook’s “Lives of the Archbishops - of Canterbury.” Vol. i., pp. 434-455. - - [296] Macpherson on “Anselm’s Theory of the Atonement; its Place - in History.” In _Brit. and For. Evang. Review_ for 1878, - pp. 207-232. - - [297] Church, “St. Anselm.” London, 1870. - Rule, “Life and Times of St. Anselm.” 2 vols., London, 1883. - - [298] On Anselm’s and Abælard’s theories of atonement, see - Ritschl, “History of Christian Doctrine of Justification - and Reconciliation.” Pp. 22-40., Edin., 1872. - - [299] Berington, “History of the Lives of Abælard and Heloise.” - London, 1787. - Ueberweg, “History of Philosophy.” Vol. i., pp. 386-397, - London, 1872. - - [300] Neander, “St. Bernard and his Times.” London, 1843. - Morison, “Life and Times of St. Bernard.” London, 1863. - - [301] Räbiger “Theological Encyclopædia.” Vol. i., p. 27, - Edin., 1884. - - [302] Westcott, “Epistles of St. John.” London, 1883. - Dissertation on “The Gospel of Creation.” Pp. 277-280. - Bruce, “Humiliation of Christ.” Edin., 1876, - pp. 354 ff., 487 f. - - [303] This work is entitled _Contra quatuor labyrinthos Franciæ, - Seu contra novas hæreses, quas Abælardus, Lombardus, - Petrus Pictaviensis, et Gilbertus Porretanus libris - sententiarum acuunt limant, roborant Ll. IV._ - - [304] Ueberweg, “History of Philosophy.” London, 1872, Vol. i., - pp. 405-428. - Ginsburg, “The Kabbalah, its doctrines, development, and - literature.” London, 1865. - Palmer, “Oriental Mysticism.” A treatise on the Suffistic - and Unitarian Theosophy of the Persians, compiled from - native sources, London, 1867. - - [305] Sighart, “Albert the Great: his Life and Scholastic - Labours.” Translated from the French by T. A. Dixon, - London, 1876. - - [306] Hampden, “Life of Thomas Aquinas: a Dissertation of the - Scholastic Philosophy of the Middle Ages.” London, 1848. - Cicognani, “Life of Thomas Aquinas.” London, 1882. - Townsend, “Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages.” London, 1882. - Vaughan, “Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquino.” - 2 vols., London, 1870. - - [307] “Monumenta Franciscana.” in “Chronicles and Memorials of - Great Britain and Ireland.” Edited for the “Master of the - Rolls Series.” By Brewer, London, 1858. - In addition to the _Opus Majus_ referred to above, Brewer - has edited _Fr. Rogeri Bacon Opera quædum inedita_, - vol. i., containing _Opus Tertium_, _Opus Minus_, and - _Compendium Philosophiæ_. - - [308] Neubauer, “Jewish Controversy and the ‘Pugio Fidei.’” In - _Expositor_ for February and March, 1888. - - [309] Hodge, “Systematic Theology.” Vol. iii., pp. 492-497. - - [310] Preuss, “The Romish Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception - traced from its Source.” Edinburgh, 1867. - - [311] Maccall, “Christian Legends of Middle Ages, from German of - von Bulow.” London. - Cox and Jones, “Popular Romances of the Middle Ages.” - London. - Baring Gould, “Curious Myths of the Middle Ages.” - London, 1884. - “The Legend of St. Ursula and the Virgin Martyrs of - Cologne.” London, 1860. - - [312] “Liturgical Poetry of Adam of St. Victor.” With transl. into - English, and notes, by Wrangham, 3 vols., London, 1881. - Bird, “The Latin Hymns of the Church.” In the _Sunday - Magazine_ for 1865, pp. 530 ff., 679 ff., 776 ff. - Trench, “Sacred Latin Poetry.” London, 1849. - Neale, “Mediæval Hymns.” - - [313] “Christus ist erstanden von der Marter Banden.” - - [314] Eastlake, “History of the Gothic Revival.” London, 1872. - Norton, “Historical Studies of Church Building in the - Middle Ages.” New York, 1880. - Didron, “History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages.” - London, 1851. - - [315] Kügler, “Handbook of Painting: Italian Schools.” Translated - by Eastlake, London, 1855. - Warrington, “History of Stained Glass.” London, 1850. - - [316] Kingsley, “The Saint’s Tragedy.” London, 1848. A dramatic - poem founded on the story of St. Elizabeth’s life. - - [317] On Hilarius, an English monk, author of several plays, - see Morley’s “Writers before Chaucer.” London, 1864, - pp. 542-552. - - [318] Delepierre, “History of Flemish Literature from the 12th - Century.” London, 1860. - - [319] Cooper, “Flagellation and the flagellants.” London, 1873. - - [320] Perrin, “History of the Vaudois.” London, 1624. - Muston, “Israel of the Alps.” 2 vols., Glasgow, 1858. - Monastier, “History of the Vaudois Church from its Origin.” - New York, 1849. - Peyran, “Historical Defence of the Waldenses or Vaudois.” - London, 1826. - Todd, “The Waldensian Manuscripts.” London, 1865. - Wylie, “History of the Waldensians.” London, 1880. - Comba, “History of the Waldenses.” London, 1888. - - [321] Sismondi, “History of Crusades against the Albigenses of - the 13th Century.” London, 1826. - - [322] Limborch, “History of the Inquisition.” 2 vols., - London, 1731. - Lea, “History of the Inquisition.” 3 vols., Philad. and - London, 1888. - Baker, “History of Inquisition in Portugal, Spain, Italy.” - Etc., London, 1763. - Prescott, “History of Ferdinand and Isabella.” Pt. i., - ch. vii. - Llorente, “Histoire critique de l’Inquisition d’Espagne.” - Paris, 1818. - Rule, “History of Inquisition.” 2 vols., London, 1874. - - [323] Creighton, “History of the Papacy during the Reformation.” - Vols. i.-iv., A.D. 1378-1518, London, 1882 ff. - Gosselin, “The Power of the Popes during the Middle Ages.” - 2 vols., London, 1853. - Reichel, “See of Rome in the Middle Ages.” London, 1870. - - [324] On Boniface VIII. see a paper in Wiseman’s “Essays on - Various Subjects.” London, 1888. - - [325] Lenfant, “History of the Council of Constance.” 2 vols., - London, 1730. - - [326] Jenkins, “The Last Crusader; or, The Life and Times of - Cardinal Julian of the House of Cesarini.” London, 1861. - Creighton, “History of the Papacy.” Vol. ii., “The Council - of Basel: the Papal Restoration, A.D. 1418-1464.” - - [327] Creighton, “History of the Papacy.” Vols. iii. and iv., - “The Italian Princes, A.D. 1464-1518.” - - [328] Roscoe, “Life and Pontificate of Leo X.” 4 vols., - Liverpool, 1805. - - [329] Salmon, “The Infallibility of the Church.” London, 1888. - - [330] Haye, “Persecution of the Knights Templars.” Edin., 1865. - - [331] Kettlewell, “Thomas à Kempis and the Brothers of the Common - Life.” 2 vols., London, 1882. - - [332] Hook, “Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury.” Vol. iv., - “Bradwardine.” - - [333] Ueberweg, “History of Philosophy.” Vol. i., pp. 460-464. - - [334] Luther’s Catholic opponents said, _Si Lyra non lyrasset, - Lutherus non saltasset_. This saying had an earlier - form: “Si Lyra non lyrasset, nemo Doctorum in Biblia - saltasset;” “Si Lyra non _lyrasset, totus mundus - delirasset_.” - - [335] Dalgairns, “The German Mystics in the 14th Century.” - London, 1850. - Vaughan, “Hours with the Mystics.” 3rd ed., 2 vols., - London, 1888. - - [336] See an admirable account of Eckhart by Dr. Adolf Lasson in - Ueberweg’s “History of Philosophy.” Vol. i., pp. 467-484. - - [337] Winkworth, “Life and Times of Tauler, with Twenty-five - Sermons.” London, 1857. - Herrick, “Some Heretics of Yesterday.” London, 1884. - - [338] Kettlewell, “The Authorship of the ‘Imitation of Christ.’” - London, 1877. - Kettlewell, “Thomas à Kempis and the Brothers of the Common - Life.” 2 vols., London, 1882. - Ullmann, “Reformers before the Reformation.” Vol. ii., - Edin., 1855. - Cruise, “Thomas à Kempis: Notes of a Visit to the Scenes - of his Life.” London, 1887. - - [339] Baring-Gould, “Mediæval Preachers: Some Account - of Celebrated Preachers of the 15th, 16th, and - 17th Centuries.” London, 1865. - - [340] “Biblia Pauperum.” Reproduced in facsimile from MS. in - British Museum, London, 1859. - - [341] Douce, “The Dance of Death.” London, 1833. - - - [342] Symonds, “Renaissance in Italy.” 2 vols., London, 1881. - - [343] Church, “Dante and other Essays.” London, 1888. - Plumptre, “Commedia, etc., of Dante, with Life and Studies.” - 2 vols., London, 1886-1888. - Oliphant, “Dante.” Edinburgh, 1877. - Ozanam, “Dante and the Catholic Philosophy of the - 13th Century.” London, 1854. - Barlow, “Critical, Historical, and Philosophical - Contributions to the Study of the _Divina Commedia_.” - London, 1884. - Botta, “Dante as Philosopher, Patriot, and Poet.” - New York, 1865. - M. F. Rossetti, “A Shadow of Dante.” Boston, 1872. - - [344] Reeve, “Petrarch.” Edinburgh, 1879. - Simpson, article on Petrarch in _Contemporary Review_ - for July, 1874. - - [345] Wratislaw, “Life and Legend of St. John Nepomucen.” - Lon., 1873. - - [346] Gairdner and Spedding, “Studies in English History.” I., - “The Lollards.” - - [347] Baker, “History of the Inquisition in Portugal, Spain, - Italy.” Etc., London, 1763. - Llorente, “History of the Inquisition from its Establishment - to Ferdinand VII.” Philadelphia, 1826. - Mocatta, “Jews in Spain and Portugal, and the Inquisition.” - London, 1877. - - [348] Lewis, “Hist. of Life and Sufferings of John Wiclif.” - Lond., 1720. - Vaughan, “John de Wycliffe. A Monograph.” London, 1853. - Lechler, “John Wiclif and his English Precursors.” 2 vols., - London, 1878. - Buddensieg, “John Wyclif, Patriot and Reformer; his Life - and Writings.” London, 1884. - Burrows, “Wiclif’s Place in History.” London, 1882. - Storrs, “John Wycliffe and the first English Bible.” - New York, 1880. - - [349] Gillet, “Life and Times of John Huss.” Boston, 2 vols., 1870. - Wratislaw, “John Huss.” London, 1882. - - [350] Palacky, “Documenta Mag. J. H., Vitam, Doctrinam, Causam.” - Etc., illust., Prag., 1869. - Gillett, “Life and Times of John Huss.” 2 vols., Boston, 1863. - Loserth, “Wiclif and Huss.” London, 1884. - - [351] On these three consult - Ullmann, “Reformers before the Reformation.” 2 vols., - Edin., 1855. - Brandt, “History of the Reformation in the Low Countries.” - Vol. i., London, 1720. - - [352] Heraud, “Life and Times of Savonarola.” London, 1843. - Villari, “History of Savonarola.” 2 vols., London, 1888. - Madden, “The Life and Martyrdom of Savonarola.” 2 vols., - London, 1854. - MacCrie, “History of Reformation in Italy.” Edin., 1827. - Roscoe, “Lorenzo de Medici.” London, 1796. - See also chapters on Savonarola in Mrs. Oliphant’s “Makers - of Florence.” London, 1881. - Milman, “Savonarola, Erasmus.” Etc., Essays, London, 1870. - - [353] Roscoe, “Leo X.” London, 1805. - - [354] Villari, “Niccolo Macchiavelli, and his Times.” 4 vols., - Lond., 1878. - - [355] Strauss, “Ulrich von Hutten.” Trans. by Mrs. Sturge, - London, 1874. - Hausser, “Period of the Reformation.” 2 vols., London, 1873. - - [356] A young Minorite, =Conrad Pellicanus= of Tübingen, had - as early as A.D. 1501 composed a very creditable guide - to the study of the Hebrew language, under the title _De - modo legendi et intelligendi Hebræum_, which was first - printed in Strassburg in A.D. 1504. Amid inconceivable - difficulties, purely self taught, and with the poorest - literary aids, he had secured a knowledge of the Hebrew - language which he perfected by unwearied application to - study and by intercourse with a baptized Jew. He attained - such proficiency, that he won for himself a place among the - most learned exegetes of the Reformed Church as professor - of theology at Basel in A.D. 1523 and at Zürich from - A.D. 1525 till his death, in A.D. 1556. His chief work - is _Commentaria Bibliorum_, 7 vols. fol., 1532-1539. - - [357] Strauss, “Ulrich von Hutten.” London, 1874, pp. 120-140. - - [358] Erasmus, “Colloquies.” Trans. by Bailey, ed. by Johnson, - Lond., 1877. - “Praise of Folly.” Trans. by Copner, Lond., 1878. - Seebohm, “Oxford Reformers of 1498: Colet, Erasmus, and - More.” Lond., 1869. - Drummond, “Erasmus, His Life and Character.” 2 vols., - Lond., 1873. - Pennington, “Life and Character of Erasmus.” Lond., 1874. - Strauss, “Ulrich von Hutten.” Lond., 1874, pp. 315-346. - Dorner, “Hist. of Prot. Theology.” 2 vols., Edin., 1871, - vol. i., p. 202. - - [359] Seebohm, “Oxford Reformers.” Lond., 1869. - Walter, “Sir Thomas More.” Lond., 1840. - Mackintosh, “Life of Sir Thomas More.” Lond., 1844. - - [360] Beard, “The Reformation of the 16th Cent. in its Relation - to Modern Thought and Knowledge.” Lond., 1883. - Wylie, “History of Protestantism.” 3 vols., Lond., 1875. - Merle d’Aubigné, “History of Reformation in the 16th Cent. - in Switzerland and Germany.” 5 vols., Lond., 1840. - D’Aubigné, “History of Reformation in Times of Calvin.” - 8 vols., Lond., 1863. - Ranke, “History of Reformation in Germany.” 3 vols., - Lond., 1845. - Häusser, “The Period of the Reformation.” 2 vols., - Lond., 1873. - Hagenbach, “History of the Reformation.” 2 vols., - Edinburgh, 1878. - Köstlin, “Life of Martin Luther.” Lond., 1884. - Bayne, “Martin Luther: his Life and Work.” 2 vols., - Lond., 1887. - Rae, “Martin Luther, Student, Monk, Reformer.” Lond., 1884. - Dale, “Protestantism: Its Ultimate Principle.” Lond., 1875. - Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” 2 vols., - Edinburgh, 1871. - Cunningham, “Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation.” - Edinburgh, 1862. - Tulloch, “Leaders of the Reformation.” Edinburgh, 1859. - - [361] Ledderhose, “Life of Melanchthon.” Trans. by Krotel, - Philad., 1855. - - [362] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. i., - pp. 98-113. - “The First Principles of the Reformation Illustrated - in the Ninety-five Theses and Three Primary Works of - Martin Luther.” Edited with historical and theological - introductions by Wace and Bucheim, Lond., 1884. - - [363] Morris, “Luther at the Wartburg and Coburg.” Philad., 1882. - - [364] Weber, “Luther’s Treatise, _De Servo Arbitrio_.” In _Brit. - and For. Evan. Review_, 1878, pp. 799-816. - - [365] Myconius, “Vita Zwinglii.” Basel, 1536. - Hess, “Life of Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer.” London, 1832. - Christoffel, “Zwingli; or, The Rise of the Reformation in - Switzerland.” Edin., 1858. - Blackburn, “Ulrich Zwingli.” London, 1868. - - [366] Blackburn, “William Farel (1487-1531): The Story of the - Swiss Reformation.” Edin., 1867. - - [367] Burrage, “History of the Anabaptists in Switzerland.” - Philad., 1882. - - [368] Cunningham, “Reformers and Theology of the Reformation.” - Edin., 1862, pp. 212-291; “Zwingli and the Doctrine of - the Sacraments.” - - [369] Calvin, “Tracts relating to the Reformation, with Life of - Calvin by Beza.” 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1844-1851. - Henry, “Life of John Calvin.” 2 vols., London, 1849. - Audin (Cath.), “History of Life, Writings, and Doctrines - of Calvin.” 2 vols., London, 1854. - Dyer, “The Life of John Calvin.” London, 1850. - Bungener, “Calvin: his Life, Labours, and Writings.” - Edinburgh, 1863. - - [370] M’Crie, “The Early Years of John Calvin, A.D. 1509-1536.” - Ed. by W. Fergusson, Edinburgh, 1880. - - [371] “English Translation of Calvin’s Works.” By Calvin - Translation Society, in 52 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1853. - For a more sympathetic and true estimate of Calvin as a - commentator, see Farrar, “History of Interpretations.” - London, 1886. - Also papers by Farrar on the “Reformers as Commentators.” - In _Expositor_, Second Series. - - [372] See Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. i., - pp. 384-414, for a much truer outline of Calvin’s - doctrine from another Lutheran pen. - - [373] Cunningham, “Reformers and Theology of the Reformation.” - Essay vii., “Calvin and Beza.” Pp. 345-412, Edin., 1862. - - [374] Butler, “The Reformation in Sweden, its Rise, Progress, and - Crisis, and its Triumph under Charles IX.” New York, 1883. - Geijer, “History of the Swedes.” Trans. from the Swedish by - Turner, Lond., 1847. - - [375] Pontoppidan, “Annales eccles. Dan.” ii., iii., Han., 1741. - Ranke, “History of the Reformation.” Vol. iii. - - [376] The chief documentary authorities for the whole period are - the State Papers edited by Brewer and others. See also - Froude, “History of England from Fall of Wolsey till Death - of Elizabeth.” 12 vols., Lond., 1856-1869. - Burnet, “History of Reformation of Church of England.” - 2 vols., Lond., 1679. - Blunt, “Reformation of the Church of England.” 4th ed., - Lond., 1878. - Strype, “Ecclesiastical Memorials.” 3 vols., Lond., 1721. - “Annals of the Reformation.” 4 vols., 1709-1731. - Foxe, “Acts and Monuments.” (Pub. A.D. 1563), 8 vols., - Lond., 1837-1841. - - [377] Demaus, “Life of William Tyndal.” London, 1868. - Fry, “A Bibliographical Description of the Editions of the - N.T., Tyndale’s Version in English, etc., the notes in - full of the Edition of 1534.” London, 1878. - “Facsimile Edition of Tyndale’s first printed N.T.” Edited - by Arber, London, 1871. - - [378] Gasquet, “Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries.” - 2 vols., London, 1888. - - [379] Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Canterbury.” Vols. vi., vii. - Bayly, “Life and Death of Fisher, Bishop of Rochester.” - London, 1655. - Dixon, “History of Church of England.” London, 1878, - vol. i., “Henry VIII.” - Froude, “History of England.” Vols. i.-iii. - - [380] Heppe, “The Reformers of England and Germany in the - Sixteenth Century; their Intercourse and Correspondence.” - London, 1859. - - [381] Phillip, “History of the Life of Reg. Pole.” 2 vols., - London, 1765. - Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Cant.” Vol. viii. - Lee, “Reginald Pole, Cardinal-Archbishop of Canterbury: - an Historical Sketch.” London, 1888. - - [382] Demaus, “Life of Latimer.” London, 1869. - - [383] Hayward, “Life of Edward VI.” London, 1630. - Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Cant.” Vols. vii. and viii. - Froude, “History of Eng.” Vols. iv. and v. - Strype, “Life of Cranmer.” London, 1694. - Norton, “Life of Archb. Cranmer.” New York, 1863. - Foxe, “Acts and Monuments.” - Maitland, “Essays on the Reformation in England.” - London, 1849. - - [384] Procter, “History of Book of Common Prayer.” Cambr., 1855. - Hole, “The Prayer Book.” London, 1887. - Hardwick, “History of the Articles of Religion.” - Cambr., 1851. - Stephenson, “Book of Common Prayer.” 3 vols., London, 1854. - Burnet, “Exposition of the Thirty-Nine Articles.” - London, 1699. - Browne, “Exposition of Thirty-Nine Articles.” London, 1858. - - [385] Froude, “History of England.” Vols. vi.-xii. - Hook, “Lives of Archb. of Cant.” Vol. ix. - - [386] Killen, “Ecclesiastical History of Ireland from Earliest - to Present Times.” 2 vols., Lond., 1875. - Mant, “Hist. of Church of Ireland from Reformation.” - London, 1839. - Ball, “Hist. of the Church of Ireland.” - - [387] Lorimer, “Patrick Hamilton, First Preacher and Martyr of - the Scottish Reformation.” Edinburgh, 1857. - - [388] It was certainly at St. Andrews that the execution took - place. The best and fullest account of Walter Mill is - given by Mr. Scott, of Arbroath, in his “Martyrs of Angus - and Mearns.” London, 1885, pp. 210-271. - For George Wishart, see same book, pp. 99-209; and - Rogers, “Life of George Wishart.” Edinburgh, 1876. - - [389] Strickland, “Life of Mary Stuart.” 5 vols., Lond., 1875. - Hosack, “Mary Queen of Scots and Her Accusers.” 2 vols., - Lond., 1874. - Schiern, “Life of James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, from the - Danish.” Edin., 1880. - Skelton, “Maitland of Lethington and the Scotland of Mary - Stuart.” 2 vols., Edin., 1887 f. - - [390] “The Works of John Knox.” Collected and edited by David - Laing, 7 vols., Edin., 1846-1864. - M’Crie, “Life of Knox.” 2 vols., Edin., 1811. - Lorimer, “John Knox and the Church of England.” Lond., 1875. - Calderwood, “History of Church of Scotland.” Lond., 1675. - Stuart, “History of Reformation in Scotland.” Lond., 1780. - Cook, “History of Church of Scot. from Ref.” 3 vols., - Edin., 1815. - M’Crie, “Sketches of Scottish Church History.” 2 vols., - Lond., 1841. - Cunningham, “History of the Church of Scotland.” 2 vols., - Edin., 1859. - Lee, “Lectures on History of Church of Scotland from Ref. - to Rev.” 2 vols., Edin., 1860. - General Histories of Scotland: - “Robertson.” 2 vols., Edin., 1759. - “Tytler.” 9 vols., Edin., 1826. - “Burton.” 8 vols., Edin., 1873. - “Mackenzie.” Edin., 1867. - - [391] Brandt, “History of the Reformation in the Low Countries.” - 4 vols., Lond., 1720. - Motley, “Rise of the Dutch Republic.” 3 vols., Lond., 1856. - - [392] Bersier, “Coligny: the Earlier Life of the Great Huguenot.” - Lond., 1884. - White, “The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.” 2 vols., - London, 1868. - Lord Mahon, “Life of Louis, Prince of Condé.” - New York, 1848. - Baird, “History of the Rise of the Huguenots.” 2 vols., - London and New York, 1880. - - [393] The following have been translated into English: - “Treatise on the Church.” London, 1579. - “The Truth of the Christian Religion, partly by - Sir Phil. Sydney.” London, 1587. - “On the Eucharist.” London, 1600. - - [394] De Felice, “History of Protestants in France from Beginning - of Reformation to the Present Time.” London, 1853. - Jervis, “History of the Gallican Church from A.D. 1516 to - the Revolution.” 2 vols., London, 1872. - Baird, “Huguenots and Henry of Navarre.” 2 vols., - New York, 1886. - Ranke, “Civil Wars and Monarchy in France in the 16th and - 17th Centuries.” 2 vols., London, 1852. - Smedley, “History of the Reformation in France.” 3 vols., - London, 1832. - Weiss, “History of the Protestant Reformation in France.” - 2 vols., London and New York, 1854. - “Memoirs of Duke of Sully, Prime Minister to Henry IV.” - 4 vols., London (Bohn). - - [395] Dalton, “John à Lasco: His Earlier Life and Labours.” - London, 1886. - Krasinski, “Historical Sketch of the Rise, Progress, - and Decline of the Reformation in Poland.” 2 vols., - London, 1838. - - [396] “History of Persecutions in Bohemia from A.D. 894 to - A.D. 1632.” London, 1650. - - [397] Bauhoffer, “History of the Protestant Church of Hungary, - from the beginning of the Reformation to 1850, with - Reference also to Transylvania.” Trans. by Dr. Craig of - Hamburg, with introd. by D’Aubigné, Lond., 1854. - - [398] Bochmer, “Spanish Reformers, Lives and Writings.” 2 vols., - Strassburg, 1874. - M’Crie, “History of the Progress and Suppression of - Reformation in Spain.” Edin., 1829. - De Castro, “The Spanish Protestants, and their Persecutions - by Philip II.” Lond., 1852. - Prescott, “History of the Reign of Philip II.” 3 vols., - Boston, 1856. - - [399] M’Crie, “History of the Progress and Suppression of the - Reformation in Italy.” 2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1833. - Wiffen, “Life and Writings of Juan Valdez.” London, 1865. - Young, “Life and Times of Aonio Paleario.” 2 vols., - London, 1860. - - [400] Benrath, “Bernardius Ochino of Siena.” London, 1876. - Gordon, “Bernardius Tommassini (Ochino).” In _Theological - Review_ for October, 1876, pp. 532-561. - - [401] Bonnet, “Life of Olympia Morata: an Episode of the - Renaissance and the Reformation in Italy.” Edin., 1854. - - [402] Krauth, “The Conservative Reformation and its Theology.” - Philadelphia, 1872. - Döllinger, “The Church and the Churches.” Lond., 1862. - - [403] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. i., - pp. 338-383. - - [404] Calvin, “Institutes.” Bk. iii., ch. xi. 5-12. - Ritschl, “History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification - and Reconciliation.” Edin., 1872, pp. 214-233. - - [405] All the hymns of Luther quoted above are translated by - George Macdonald in his “Luther the Singer.” Contributed - to the _Sunday Magazine_ for 1867. - - [406] On Speratus, Decius, and Eber, see an interesting paper by - the late Dr. Fleming Stevenson in _Good Words_ for 1863, - p. 542. - - [407] All the hymns referred to above, as well as those which - are given in the next paragraph, are translations by - Miss Winkworth in “Lyra Germanica.” New edition, - London, 1885. - - [408] Warneck, “Outlines of the History of Protestant Missions - from the Reformation to the Present Time.” Edinburgh, - 1884. - - [409] Hodge, “The Church and its Polity.” Edin., 1879, page 114. - - [410] Morley, “Clement Marot.” London, 1871. - - [411] Lee, “The Church under Queen Elizabeth.” 2 vols., - London, 1880. - M’Crie, “Annals of English Presbytery from the Earliest - Period to the Present Time.” London, 1872. - - [412] Neal, “History of the Puritans.” 4 vols., London, 1731. - Paul, “Life of Whitgift.” London, 1699. - Brook, “Lives of the Puritans.” 3 vols., London, 1813. - Marsden, “The Early Puritans.” London, 1852; “The Later - Puritans.” London, 1853. - Hopkins, “The Puritans.” 3 vols., London, 1860. - Walker, “History of Independency.” 3 vols., London, 1648. - Hanbury, “Memorials relating to the Independents.” 3 vols., - London, 1839. - Fletcher, “History of Independ. in England.” 4 vols., - London, 1862. - Waddington, “Congregational History.” London, 1874. - Dexter, “The Congregationalism of the last Three Hundred - Years, as seen in its Literature.” London, 1880. - Marshall, “History of the Mar-Prelate Controversy.” - London, 1845. - Robinson, “Apologie, or Defence of Christians called - Brownists.” 1604. - Ashton, “Works of John Robinson, Pastor of Pilgrim Fathers, - with Memoir and Annotations.” 3 vols., London, 1851. - Mather, “Ecclesiastical History of New England, from its - Planting in 1620 till 1698.” London, 1702. - Doyle, “The English in America: The Puritan Colonies.” - 2 vols., London, 1888. - Bancroft, “History of the United States.” - - [413] Parkman, “Pioneers of France in the New World.” - London, 1885. - Baird, “Rise of the Huguenots of France.” Vol. i., - p. 291 ff. - - [414] The “Heidelberg Catechism” was translated into English, - and published at Oxford, 1828. - Ursinus’ expositions of the catechism have been translated: - “The Summe of Christian Religion.” Etc., Lond., 1611. - - [415] An English translation of Erastus’ treatise was published - in 1699, and re-issued with a preface by Dr. Rob. Lee, - Edin., 1844. - One of the fullest and ablest statements on “The Erastian - Controversy” is that given in chap. xxvii. of Principal - Cunningham’s “Historical Theology.” (Edin., 1870), - vol. ii., pp. 557-587. - - [416] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. i., - pp. 182-189: “The False Theoretical Mystics: Schwenkfeld.” - Ritschl, “History of the Chr. Doctr. of Justification and - Reconciliation.” Edinburgh, 1872, p. 292. - - [417] Morley, “Life of Agrippa von Nettesheim.” 2 vols., - London, 1856. - - [418] Symmonds, “The Age of the Despots.” - Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. i., - pp. 191-195. - See also two articles in the July and October parts of the - _Scottish Review_ for 1888, pp. 67-107, 244-270: “Giordano - Bruno before the Venetian Inquisition,” and “The Ultimate - Fate of Giordano Bruno.” - - [419] More, “Mystery of Godliness.” Bk. vi., chaps. xii.-xviii. - Also _Enthusiasmus Triumphatus_ in his “Coll. Phil. - Works.” London, 1662. - Rutherford, “A Survey of the Spiritual Antichrist, opening - the Secrets of Familism and Antinomianism.” London, 1648. - - [420] Mosheim, “Ecclesiastical History.” Cent. xvi., sect. iii., - part ii., chap. iii. - Ranke, “History of the Reformation.” Vol. iii., bk. vi., - chap. ix. - Brandt, “History of the Reformation in the Low Countries.” - Vol. i. - - [421] Burrage, “History of the Anabaptists in Switzerland.” - Philadelphia, 1882. - - [422] Wallace, “Antitrinitarian Biography.” 3 vols., London, 1850. - Dorner, “Hist. Dev. of Doctr. of Person of Christ.” - Ritschl, “Hist. of Chr. Doctr. of Justification.” P. 289. - - [423] The sketch of Servetus given above is based upon the - one-sided and wholesale eulogies of his resolute apologist - Tollin. - A thoroughly impartial and objective statement of his - doctrinal system is given by Dorner, “History of Prot. - Theology.” Vol. i., pp. 189-191. - Principal Cunningham, in a very thorough manner, examines - the grounds upon which his enemies seek to fix upon - Calvin the odium of Servetus’ death in “Reformers and - Theology of Reformation.” Essay VI., pp. 314-333. - Rilliet, “Calvin and Servetus.” Trans. by Dr. Tweedie, - Edinburgh, 1846. - Drummond, “Life of Servetus.” London, 1848. - Willis, “Servetus and Calvin.” London, 1876. - - [424] Aretius, “History of Val. Gentilis, the Tritheist, put to - Death at Bern.” London, 1696. - - [425] Toulmin, “Memoirs of the Life, Char., etc., of Faustus - Socinus.” London, 1777. - - [426] Ritschl, “Hist. of Chr. Doctr. of Justification.” - Pp. 298-309. - Cunningham, “Historical Theology.” Chap. xxiii., “The - Socinian Controversy,” pp. 155-236. - Stillingfleet gives an account of the Racovian Catechism - in the preface to his work on “Christ’s Satisfaction.” - 2nd ed., London, 1697. - - [427] Ranke, “History of the Popes.” Bk. ii., “Beginnings of a - Regeneration of Catholicism.” - - [428] Pasquino was a statue which shortly before had been dug up - and placed on the spot where formerly had stood the booth - of a cobbler of that name, dreaded for his pungent wit. - It was used for the posting up of “pasquins” of every - sort, especially about the popes and the curia. - - [429] An admirable paper by Hase on Theiner’s “Acts of the - Council of Trent” has been translated in the _Brit. - and For. Evan. Review_ for 1876, pp. 358-369. - Mendham, “Memoirs of the Council of Trent.” London, 1834. - Father Paul Sarpi’s “History of the Council of Trent.” - 3rd ed. fol., London, 1640. - Bungener, “History of the Council of Trent.” Edin., 1852. - Buckley, “Canons and Decrees of Council of Trent.” - London, 1851. - Buckley, “Catechism of Council of Trent.” London, 1852. - - [430] Mendham, “The Life and Pontificate of Pius V.” London, 1832. - - [431] Hübner, “The Life and Times of Sixtus V.” Trans. by - Jerningham, 2 vols., London, 1872. - - [432] In “Spanish Mystics.” (London, 1886), there is an admirable - sketch of Theresa, pp. 39-86, and of John of the Cross, - pp. 106-113. - - [433] “Spanish Mystics.” P. 7, note. - - [434] “Life of St. Philip Neri, Apostle of Rome, and Founder of - the Congregation of the Oratory.” 2 vols., London, 1847. - - [435] Coleridge, “Life of Ignatius Loyola.” London, 1872. - Ranke, “History of the Popes.” Vol. i. - - [436] Rose, “Ignatius Loyola, and the Early Jesuits.” London, 1870. - Nicolini, “History of the Jesuits.” Edin., 1853. - Sir James Stephens on “The Founders of Jesuitism.” In his - “Essays on Ecclesiastical Biography.” Vol. i., p. 249. - - [437] Cartwright, “The Jesuits, their Constitution and Teaching.” - London, 1876. - - [438] Griesinger, “The Jesuits: from the Foundation of the Order - to the Present Time.” London, 1885. - Pascal, “Provincial Letters.” Translated by Dr. M’Crie, - Edin., 1851. - “The Jesuits’ Morals, collected out of the Jesuit’s own - Books.” London, 1670. - - [439] Gibbings, “An Exact Reprint of the Roman Index - Expurgatorius.” The only Vatican Index of this kind ever - published. Dublin, 1837. - - [440] Butler, “Life of Cardinal Borromeo.” London, 1835. - Martin, “Life of Borromeo.” London, 1847. - - [441] Venn, “Missionary Life and Labours of Xavier.” Lond., 1863. - - [442] Legge, “Christianity in China: Nestorianism, Roman - Catholicism, Protestantism; with the Chinese and - Syriac Texts of the Nestorian Monument of Hsi-an-Fû.” - London, 1888. - - [443] Adams, “History of Japan from the Earliest Period.” - 2 vols., London, 1874. - On the religion of Japan before the introduction of - Christianity, see Ebrard, “Apologetics.” Vol. iii., - pp. 66-73, Edin., 1887. - - [444] Helps, “Life of Barth. de las Casas.” 2nd ed., Lond., 1868. - Prescott, “History of Conquest of Mexico.” London, 1886, - pp. 178-184. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES. - - - The following corrections have been made in the text: - - § 93, 5. - Sentence starting: This catastrophe, and the.... - - ‘§ 166, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 167, 9’ - (overthrow of the colony.--Continuation, § 167, 9.) - - § 94, 3. - Sentence starting: Frederick had already fallen,... - - ‘brillant’ replaced with ‘brilliant’ - (gained a brilliant victory) - - § 96, 1. - Sentence starting: =Sergius III.=, A.D. 904-911,... - - ‘disagraceful’ replaced with ‘disgraceful’ - (starts this disgraceful series.) - - § 96, 3. - Sentence starting: On a pilgrimage to the grave.... - - ‘§ 83, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 93, 13’ - (Adalbert in Gnesen (§ 93, 13)) - - § 96, 23. - Sentence starting: Nicholas I. was, according.... - - ‘§ 100, 15’ replaced with ‘§ 110, 15’ - (developed into the tiara (§ 110, 15)) - - § 97, 3. - Sentence starting: For the exercise of the.... - - ‘archepiscopal’ replaced with ‘archiepiscopal’ - (exercise of the archiepiscopal office) - - § 98, 10. - Sentence starting: Their order spread over.... - - ‘§ 192, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 112, 5’ - (Holy Father (Continuation, § 112, 5)) - - § 101, 1 (5). - Sentence starting: As a theologian he may be.... - - ‘profoundity’ replaced with ‘profundity’ - (of acuteness and profundity) - - § 102, 2. - Sentence starting: Abælard found an asylum.... - - ‘reconcilation’ replaced with ‘reconciliation’ - (effected his reconciliation with Bernard) - - § 103, 1. - Sentence starting: This philosophy, however, from.... - - ‘Badgad’ replaced with ‘Bagdad’ - (of Bagdad and Cordova) - - § 103, 3. - Sentence starting: The Augustinians, too, won.... - - ‘apolegetical’ replaced with ‘apologetical’ - (polemical and apologetical purposes) - - § 104, 4. - Sentence starting: Richard St. Victor held that.... - - ‘§ 61, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 61, 4’ - (pains of purgatory (§ 61, 4)) - - § 104, 13. - Sentence starting: The foundation of the former.... - - ‘§ 173, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 174, 9’ - (completed and consecrated in A.D. 1322 (§ 174, 9)) - - § 110, 2. - Sentence starting: The 15th œcumenical Council.... - - ‘§ 112, 27’ replaced with ‘§ 112, 2’ - (controversies in the Franciscan order (§ 112, 2)) - - § 110, 4. - Sentence starting: Both continued in the possession.... - - ‘§ 164, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 13’ - (the Roman court till A.D. 1791 (§ 165, 13)) - - § 112, 3. - Sentence starting: His greatest feat was the repulse,... - - ‘Mohammad’ replaced with ‘Mohammed’ - (the Turks, under Mohammed II.,) - - § 112, 7. - Sentence starting: Stories also were current.... - - ‘Mohammadanism’ replaced with ‘Mohammedanism’ - (apostasy to Mohammedanism,) - - § 113. - Sentence starting: Moral theology degenerated into.... - - ‘subtlely’ replaced with ‘subtly’ - (abstruse discussion on subtly devised cases) - - § 113, 3. - Sentence starting: He accompanied his general,... - - ‘Cevena’ replaced with ‘Cesena’ - (his general, Michael of Cesena,) - Sentence starting: In accordance with his nominalistic.... - - ‘§ 170, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 171, 10’ - (a precursor of Kant (§ 171, 10)) - - § 114. - Sentence starting: The 14th century was the Augustan.... - - ‘Reichersburg’ replaced with ‘Reichersberg’ - (and the two divines of Reichersberg) - - § 115, 11. - Sentence starting: Among popular preachers John Tauler.... - - ‘Kaisersburg’ replaced with ‘Kaisersberg’ - (Geiler of Kaisersberg distinguished) - - § 119, 9. - Sentence starting: The anonymous writer of Passau,... - - ‘iniquisitorial’ replaced with ‘inquisitorial’ - (the subject of inquisitorial interference) - Sentence starting: On the Waldensians in German.... - - ‘orginal’ replaced with ‘original’ - (drawn from original documents) - Sentence starting: Finally, Wattenbach has made.... - - ‘orginal’ replaced with ‘original’ - (which contains the original reports) - - § 119, 9A. - Sentence starting: This movement originated with.... - - ‘orginated’ replaced with ‘originated’ - (This movement originated with) - - § 123, 9. - Sentence starting: To all this Köstlin has replied.... - - ‘correpondence’ replaced with ‘correspondence’ - (that his correspondence with Tucher) - - § 131, 1. - Sentence starting: Luther first openly appeared.... - - ‘1256’ replaced with ‘1526’ - (the Swiss in A.D. 1526) - - § 136, 4. - Sentence starting: The O.T. Apocrypha.... - - ‘160, 8’ replaced with ‘161, 8’ - (The O.T. Apocrypha (§§ 59, 1; 161, 8)) - - § 139, 11. - Sentence starting: After Elizabeth’s death.... - - ‘§ 154, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 153, 6’ - (the title of James I.[390]--Continuation, § 153, 6.) - - § 142, 1. - Sentence starting: A restoration of such establishments.... - - ‘§ 166, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 5’ - (convulsion and revolution.--Continuation, § 165, 5.) - - § 142, 6. - Sentence starting: By his _Catalogus testium veritatis_.... - - ‘§ 158, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 159, 4’ - (the sixteenth century.--Continuation, § 159, 4.) - - § 144. - Sentence starting: It was followed by Bremen,... - - ‘§ 154A’ replaced with ‘§ 154, 3’ - (electoral dynasty of Brandenburg (§ 154, 3).) - - § 147, 6. - Sentence starting: “Christ is not God,... - - Ending quotation mark added. - (and love’ of God.”) - - § 149, 2. - Sentence starting: After the death of Julius III.... - - added omitted word ‘the’ - (one of the noblest popes) - Sentence starting: At the close of the last session.... - - ‘§ 132, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 13’ - (Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine (§ 139, 13)) - - § 149, 5. - Sentence starting: Still more striking, though.... - - ‘§ 164, 10, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 10, 13’ - (the misfortune of Pius VI. (§ 165, 10, 13)) - - § 149, 7, 6. - Sentence starting: They combined works of charity.... - - ‘§ 155, 7’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 7’ - (erected by them.[434]--Continuation, § 156, 7.) - - § 149, 8. - Sentence starting: They have understood how to.... - - ‘§ 155, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 13’ - (accomplishing their own ends (§ 156, 13)) - Sentence starting: On the death of the founder,... - - ‘164, 9’ replaced with ‘165, 9’ - (in 803 houses.[436]--Continuation, §§ 151, 1; 165, 9.) - - § 149, 10. - Sentence starting: They will also be found.... - - ‘155, 12’ replaced with ‘156, 12’ - (prosecution of foreign missions (§§ 150; 156, 12)) - - ‘§ 155, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 13’ - (and commercial activity (§ 156, 13)) - - § 149, 11. - Sentence starting: In like manner it gave.... - - ‘§ 186, 20’ replaced with ‘§ 186, 2’ - (amulets, and talismans (§ 186, 2)) - Sentence starting: They originated the worship.... - - ‘§ 155, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 6’ - (the heart of Jesus (§ 156, 6)) - - § 149, 13. - Sentence starting: By firmly maintaining the decree.... - - ‘§ 155, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 5’ - (the other of heresy.--Continuation, § 156, 5.) - - § 150, 1. - Sentence starting: - - ‘§ 155, 11, 12’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 11, 12’ - (part of the land.[442]--Continuation, § 156, 11, 12.) - - § 150, 2. - Sentence starting: In consequence of this.... - - ‘§ 186, 16’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 11’ - (and there crucified (§ 156, 11)) - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Church History, Volume 2 (of 3), by J. 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