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diff --git a/old/51472-0.txt b/old/51472-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 86a4a2a..0000000 --- a/old/51472-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12443 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The East India Vade-Mecum, Volume 2 (of 2), by -Thomas Williamson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The East India Vade-Mecum, Volume 2 (of 2) - or, complete guide to gentlemen intended for the civil, - military, or naval service of the East India Company. - -Author: Thomas Williamson - -Release Date: March 16, 2016 [EBook #51472] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, deaurider and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note: - -This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. -Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. - -Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please -see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding -the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation. - -The cover image has been modified to include the title, author and -publication date, and is, so modified, added to the public domain. - - THE - - _EAST INDIA_ - - VADE-MECUM. - - THE - _EAST INDIA_ - VADE-MECUM; - - OR, - - =Complete Guide= - - TO - - GENTLEMEN INTENDED FOR THE - - _CIVIL, MILITARY, OR NAVAL SERVICE_ - - OF THE - - HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY. - - ------- - - BY - - CAPTAIN THOMAS WILLIAMSON, - - _Author of ‘The Wild Sports of the East.’_ - - - IN TWO VOLUMES. - - _VOL. II._ - - ------------------------------------ - - _LONDON_: - - PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY, - - Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company, - - 7, - - LEADENHALL-STREET. - - --- - - 1810. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - CONTENTS - OF - VOL. II. - - PAGES - - _Great Heats, modes of refrigeration, general plan 1 - 16 - of building, various kinds of lime and cement, - tarras floors_ - - Pucka _and_ Cutcha _houses, ancient buildings, 17 - 53 - white-ants, sleeping in the open air, floors on - pots, north-westers, bungalows and out-offices, - mats of sorts, satrinjes, cheeks, glass windows, - talc as a substitute, Chalk-Hills, purdahs_ - - _Various kinds of timber, modes of floating them, 54 - 84 - prices, and uses, mango-fruit, and plantations_ - - _Bamboos, mode of fitting-out trading-boats, 84 - 106 - toddy-tree, coir rigging, cocoa-nuts, oil from - them,_ meemii-ke-tale, _writing on cocoa-tree - leaves, hot winds_ - - _State of society among Europeans, sitting-up, 107 - 149 - meals, wines, malt liquors. Invalid - Establishment, levees, sugar-candy, bread, - camp-ovens, milk, ghee-butter, meats, buffaloes_ - - - _Spirits, wines, fish, poultry, table apparatus, 150 - 198 - furniture, china-bazar, Europe-shops, wax and - candles, insects, snakes of sorts, antidotes to - their poison, musquitoes, and curtains to repel - them, cock-roaches, scorpions, centipedes, - wasps, hornets_ - - _Shampoing, amusements, theatres, races, gaming, 198 - 223 - music, balls,—Churches, schools, Fort-William, - military establishments_ - - _False ideas of Indian prosperity, anecdote, 223 - 267 - depreciation of specie, the bore, brackish - waters, preservation of rain-water. The several - great rivers, physical properties, fossile - alkali, streams impregnated with minerals, - inundations, Hindu corpses, plague not known in - India_ - - _Tanks and jeels, eleemosynary alligators, 268 - 325 - seraies, gunjes, durgaws, Hill people, bunds, - quicksands, wells on great roads, hot-wells, - sol-lunar influence on fevers, huckeems, state - of medicine, refrigerating principle, state of - learning, Koits, Láláhs, Gooroos, good books_ - - _Posts, and conveyance of parcels, &c., travelling 325 - 366 - in a palanquin, rice, mode of expelling weevils, - meal from barley, wheat, &c., travelling by - water, the Soonderbund Passage, water in jars, - fire-wood, New Harbour, entrances of the Hoogly - River. Opinions regarding_ Gour, _and the great - Delta of the Ganges_ - - _Salt manufacture_ 366 - 368 - - _Hire of budjrows, rates and distances, 368 - 420 - precautions, contraband trade, trading and - baggage-boats, tracking, Decoits, or pirates, - guards requisite, Coolies, Chokeydars, and - Dowraws, expert thieves, anecdotes, leger de - main, puppet-shows, gymnastic feats, Nuts, or - Indian gypsies, curious comparison of their - language_ - - - _Slavery, how far tolerated, Indian 420 - 429 - Lock-Hospitals, summary punishment of adultery, - curious incident, dancing-girls_ - - _Elephants, their points, qualities, prices, &c., 430 - 467 - camels, the appropriate soils, conveying them - over rivers, bullocks, the Company’s - regulations, tattoos, or indigenous breed of - horses, tanians, tazees, serissahs, horses - imported from Persia, the Punjab, &c., stables_ - - _Tanning, artificers, great improvements made in 468 - 473 - most professions, newspapers, Persian Akbars, - paper_ - - _The Mocurrery (or perpetual) System of Revenue. 474 - 497 - The periods for collection, stations of - collectors, judges, commercial residents, custom - masters, and diplomatic characters_ - - _Security afforded to private property, inland 498 - 506 - traders, agency-houses, rates of commission and - remittance, trade and situation of Calcutta. - Conclusion_ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE - - EAST INDIA - - VADE-MECUM. - - -For some months, generally during the latter part of the rains, the -weather is so close and sultry, that universal exudation takes place, -even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I remarked in the outset of -this subject, have, from experience, adopted a very different mode from -that we should have expected to find in use, under such a latitude. We -should, no doubt, have been prepared to see airy habitations, through -which the wind could pass freely in every direction. But it is far -otherwise; and Europeans have, at length, become convinced, that the -most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects; -or, in other words, from the reflection of surfaces intensely acted upon -by a vertical sun. - -Some conception may be formed of that intensity, from the fact of meat -having been broiled on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of -Fort-William! We, therefore, must coincide with the habits of the -natives, to a certain extent, if we mean to retain health, or to acquire -comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every country, be held in view: for, -however absurd many practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily -result that necessity was their parent. I do not mean to say that we -should imitate, much less adopt, without discrimination, all we see; but -it may be considered an axiom, that, by taking the general outline of -indigenous customs for our guide, if we err, it will be on the safe -side. Nothing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of -gentlemen on their first arrival in India; meaning, thereby, to -ridicule, or to despise, what they consider effeminacy, or luxury. Thus, -several may be seen annually walking about without _chattahs_, (_i.e._ -umbrellas,) during the greatest heats; they affect to be ashamed of -requiring aid, and endeavor to uphold, by such a display of -indifference, the great reliance placed on strength of constitution. -This unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds a few days; at the end of that -time, sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known the period to be much -shorter,) we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the -self-deluded victim! The first attack is generally announced by cold -shiverings, and bilious vomiting; delirium speedily ensues, when -putrefaction advances with such hasty strides, as often to render -interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected. - -The glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun, at -some seasons: but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and -sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, during a Midsummer’s day; when, -perhaps, not a breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems to repose, -and every bird, saving the vulture, the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the -kite, retires to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray. At such times, -the peaceful Hindu confines himself to an apartment, from which light is -generally excluded: there he sits among his family, enjoying his pipe, -refreshing himself occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure beverage -afforded by some adjacent spring or well; and, in general, avoiding to -eat, except of ripe fruits, especially the _turbooz_, or water-melon, -until the cool of the evening. In the meanwhile, however, he perspires -copiously, even though in a state of inactivity, unless when refreshed -by a _punkah_, or fan, moved either by his own hand, or by that of some -menial. - -The instinct of the birds above named, to wit, the argeelah, the -vulture, and the kite, all of which are extremely numerous throughout -India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air, by carrying -off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful! -About mid-day, when the sun’s beams strike with incredible force upon -the earth’s surface, these feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the -height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that the largest of them, -(the argeelah) is scarcely discernible: there they soar beyond the reach -of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the freshness of a cooler -atmosphere, and descending only when allured by the scent of prey. Their -sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute; for we see them, especially -the vultures, flying for miles, and from all quarters, towards some -carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down the stream, or stranded -upon some shelving bank; but so situated as to render it perfectly -certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the -discovery. - -Few of the natives have _tatties_ applied to their doors, or windows; -though by no means insensible to the gratification they afford; but -penury, or, to say the least, close and parsimonious economy, prompt to -the denial of such a comfort; a comfort without which any constitution, -not inured to the climate, would speedily give way. It is really curious -to observe what may be effected by habit! When we understand how fatally -the sun’s rays act upon our European frames, even while under the shade -of a thick painted umbrella, and although our diet may be nearly similar -to that of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must appear -wonderful, that children, of whatever age, whose rapid circulation, and -sable color, should, according to the estimates we form of temperament, -be highly unfavorable to such exposure, run about at all seasons, -bare-headed, and perfectly nude; seeming to set the sun, the wind, and -the rain, alike at defiance. We see the same individuals making long -journies, in the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar -circumstances; nay, they even carry _bangies_, containing, on an -average, full a _maund_, (82lb. avoirdupoise,) sixteen, eighteen, twenty -miles, or even more, under such an oppressive heat as would kill an -European outright; and this, too, for a few pence. If, in considering -this point, we urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we urge that -which often does not exist; since many, who practise the above, may be -ranked among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus, devouring fish, -flesh, and fowl, highly spiced, whenever their purses, or the bounty of -others, may afford them so welcome a regale. When we see the several -shop-keepers, in every city and town, serving their customers, or, in -their absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their little _boutiques_, -exposed to the glare, and to the burning winds; when we see these -persons, with parched skins, and their eyes violently irritated, and -clogged, by the clouds of dust which range along the streets, and which, -occasionally taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their reach; we -may then fairly admire the force of habit, and congratulate ourselves on -the blessings of a more temperate climate! - -In the same situations, we see two classes of persons, both natives of -the soil, acting in diametric opposition to each other; and exhibiting -that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence, or -rather by aboriginal habitude, against that which never fails to consign -our countrymen to the grave. The former class confine themselves, as -much as their avocations may permit, within gloomy, but cool, chambers; -living most abstemiously, yet, at certain times, exposing themselves in -the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats: the other, perfectly -inattentive to the dictates of prudence, yet performing what we may -fairly term wonders, in opposition to their destructive locality. When -the English first visited India, they adopted a mode of building by no -means consistent with common sense, and displaying a total ignorance of -the most simple of nature’s laws. We accordingly find, that all the old -buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty -years, were, like the celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more like -ovens, than like the habitations of enlightened beings. The doors were -very small, the windows still less, in proportion, while the roofs were -carried up many feet above both. Those roofs were in themselves -calculated to retain heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras, at -least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon immense timbers, chiefly of -teak, or of saul wood. Again, when they built _bungalows_, (_i.e._ -thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only, the utmost care was taken -to close up all the intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on -which it rested; so as to exclude the external air, as well as the dust: -a practice religiously observed even to the present date. The obvious -consequence of this latter construction is, that, whatever air is -retained between the thatch, (which, in the course of the day, becomes -very, very warm,) and the upper lines of the windows must be highly -rarefied. - -Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards sun-set, when the inhabitants -quit the inner hall, &c., either to sit out on _chabootahs_, (_i.e._ -large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the -area, and abundantly watered for the occasion; or when they remove to -the windward _veranda_ (or balcony); on either of these occasions, the -interior becomes intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air being -drawn down by that current inevitably attendant upon the removal of all -the _tatties_; and, by the throwing open of all the doors and windows. - -In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the French generally acted upon -more philosophical principles; they making their doors and windows -remarkably high: but, there yet remains a very important improvement to -be made; namely, the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted -near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact, that, during many months -in the year, the houses built by most Europeans, and especially their -_bungalows_, are so extremely heated, as to render it absolutely -impossible to sleep in their interior, without the intervention of some -artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper -temperature. - -However faulty the first European builders in India might have been, the -moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose -experience would have led them to adopt. Whether from economy, or from -more attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce a house is now built -with such spacious, lofty, and substantial _verandas_, as are to be seen -on the south side of almost every old mansion. Some of these antiquated -edifices had _verandas_ on several sides, and a few might be quoted -having them all around; as seen in the officers’ quarters at Berhampore, -and Dinapore. It can scarcely be doubted, that such _verandas_ are, in -every respect, admirably suited to the climate; since they prevent the -sun from striking on the main wall; which, in exposed situations, have -been known to give from 8° to 10° difference on the thermometer; under -circumstances in every other respect similar. - -It is peculiar, that, until within the last twenty-five years, the -ground floors, that is, the whole of the basements, of those fine large -houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta, and in various parts of -the interior, were consigned to the reception of palanquins, gigs, -water-stores, or to be _wine-godowns_, (or cellars,) _butler-connahs_, -(or pantries,) and even, in some instances, stables! In those days, the -whole of the family resided in, and confined themselves to, the first -floor; which was then the summit of the habitation: leaving to their -luggage, cattle, and menials, that part which has lately been discovered -to be, in every respect, most suitable to the accommodation of the -European population. In houses of agency, &c., we now see the basement -converted partly into offices, and but rarely any portion of it -appropriated as above described; while, the generality of new houses are -built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change, by giving -sufficient height to the lower apartments; thereby adapting them to -every purpose, and occasioning a considerable reduction of the ground -plan, in consequence of the accommodations thus gained. - -The practice of building houses without _verandas_, certainly cannot be -approved; whereas, the old mode of building them on pillars, was highly -ornamental, and, at some seasons, not less appropriate: but, the great -art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence of the hot-winds, -rests entirely on shutting them out, except at some few apertures -supplied with _tatties_; which, being kept constantly moist, or, indeed, -dripping wet, produce such an immense evaporation, as to cool the -interior completely: of course, a suitable draught must be preserved, by -opening some window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly effected by -means of Venetians; which allow the air to pass, but debar the access of -glare. Without adverting to the expence, it should seem that a -_close-veranda_ is by far preferable to an open one; and, were it not -for the immense additional charges, we can hardly doubt that the -European inhabitants of Calcutta would, in imitation of the generality -of _bungalow_-residents, have their apartments surrounded by a -_veranda_, of full fourteen feet in width; with apertures, of a good -size, in the exterior wall, corresponding with those of the interior. -This arrangement renders the generality of _bungalows_ remarkably -pleasant; but, it must be noticed, that there is a very wide difference -in the expence incurred in rendering them so: their roofs being of -thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt bricks, plastered with mud and -chaff, offer a great contrast in the out-lay, both as relating to the -labor, and to the materials, in a house constructed of burnt bricks, and -good lime, whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers of great price -are every where used. Accordingly, we find, that, in almost every part -of India, an excellent _bungalow_ may be built for about five thousand -rupees, completely fitted with glass doors, and windows, and with all -the necessary out-offices duly tiled, or thatched, according to their -purposes; while, a house suited to the accommodation of the same family, -in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than ten times that sum. - -The bricks form a very, very small portion of the disbursements incident -to building in India: so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the -made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts, are formed by laying -broken, or even whole, bricks regularly; giving the centre two or three -layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and then covering them with -a coat of rubbish, or, which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads are -extremely firm, and far more durable, than those we make with gravel, -flint, lime-stone, &c. But great allowance must be made for the heavy -machines used among us, and carrying such tremendous burthens; whereas, -an Indian _hackery_ can rarely weigh five cwt., nor can its load be -averaged at more than fifteen cwt., being altogether only a ton. We well -know, that our common narrow-wheeled waggons weigh from fifteen to -twenty-five cwt.; and, that, except where weigh-bridges limit their -burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a -half, up to four, tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to average -about seventy cwt.; yet, are often drawn by three horses through the -streets of London. - -The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down from the _Morungs_, and their -vicinity, in large boats, being previously slaked; though it is -sometimes imported in its quick state, or as nearly so as accident may -permit. It may readily be concluded, that, after a passage of from three -to four hundred miles, this article is rather deteriorated; especially -as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month. The -prices of this kind of lime, made from a very firm stone, called -_gutty_, abundant in some parts, vary much according to the season, and -to the demand: it has been sold as low as six or seven rupees per -hundred maunds, but, at other times, has reached to twenty and -twenty-five. - -At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of Coromandel, as well as on -some parts of the Malabar border, an excellent kind of lime is made from -sea shells. This nearly equals what is made in Italy, from the refuse of -marble, and receives an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even -with that of polished glass; at the same time that it is incomparably -firm, and durable. When laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of a -finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept working, and rubbing, -until nearly dry; thereby to prevent the surface from cracking, as it -would be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day: when -nearly dry, it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a -beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous. A few -houses at Calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed -from Madras by shipping; but the expence, being very considerable, has -occasioned the common _Morung_ lime to be generally employed, both for -cement, and for white-washing. - -In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country, -a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called -_kunkur_, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints, -slightly coated with soil. The experiments made upon these alkaline -concretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in -some places, prove extremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially -to the horticulturist, give the following result: calcareous earth, 41, -cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40. _Kunkur_ is not -easily reduced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary -to burn the harder kinds of _gutty_; it is, likewise, less durable and -tenacious as a cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call -fawn, is a strong indication. - -Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that the -_kunkur_ is so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a -large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued. These -insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a _dainky_, or -foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner very -scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &c., remaining at -the bottom of the kiln, after the _kunkur_ has been taken out; on the -contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can -with the calx; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably -deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly called _cutcha_, (_i.e._ -weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds. - -In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive -plan; their kilns being rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor -above that much in height: consequently, they have not sufficient -accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the -stones properly; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently -small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or -economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which are, for -the most part, of a pyramidal form; the raw bricks being laid -intermediately with the fuel, and the exterior being plastered over, -perhaps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw -in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public -works to carry on. He first built the whole of the walls of a _bungalow_ -he required, with sun-burnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well -filled in; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such -way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior -was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda -walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and a -complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked -uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of -resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. The -_bungalow_ proved remarkably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in -a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c., were all set at defiance; -it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance: the -greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious -particles, was nearly vitrified. - -Thirty years ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same -kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs: this -was made of _chunam_, (_i.e._ white-lime,) one third; _soorky_, (_i.e._ -brick-dust,) one third; and sand, one third; these, being mixed duly -with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short -hair not to be procured on any terms,) together with some _jaggery_, or -refuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a -house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a -strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind -every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially -remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing -wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing -colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their -appearance, and left a motley kind of work. - -The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of -engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and -Portugueze finery, they substituting, in their public works, a plaster -composed of river sand, saturated with a solution of white lime, of the -consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp, -gave this simple compound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much -additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance; especially when -the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the -cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly -finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian -windows, invariably painted green: some prefer all verdigris; others, a -deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several -leaves, or valves. - -Almost every house has folding Venetians to each window, or outward -door; these are sustained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold, -or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie back flat upon the exterior -wall: in that position the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by -means of hooks; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where -this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the -European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the -right, the other to the left; each opening inwardly, and lying within -the thickness of the wall, or nearly so. - -In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a -house than in India; and that not without necessity, the rains being so -very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action, either -above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termed -_cutcha_, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either -plastered with the same, or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or -the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem with danger. The rain -which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the -walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose -substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may -annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of -drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to -such buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in under the plaster, -damps the mud cement, and brings down the heavy roofs with a most -sonorous crash. Few of these _cutcha_ houses are now to be seen with -tarras roofs; such as are so built for the sake of cheapness, being, -almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what -we term _bungalows_. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half -and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I -have seen some, of a small description, built with _cutcha_ (or -sun-dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior of the wall was -made of _pucka_ (or burnt) bricks; from whose interstices the mortar was -carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed; for the purpose of -causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to -retain its position firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity -of such a system, when properly conducted, I lament, that, in almost -every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was -disgraced, by the house either falling _in toto_, or by shedding its -coat of mail. - -There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients, -or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better -materials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement: of this, -many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate -within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions -made by shots, of 24 and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its -western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in -the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant; the brave admiral might -have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year -1779, when the Company’s cloth _godown_ took fire, the third regiment of -European infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William, marched out with -engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction; yet were they utterly unable -to get the iron bars loose from the masonry; though provided with -tackles, crows, axes, &c. This _godown_, which occupied a large part of -the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into -offices; but with incredible labor! The masonry was as hard as rock! -When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty -years; whereas, we find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings -which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion! The -greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept -up at an inordinate expence; while such of them as have given up the -ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish. - -Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls: many of -these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have -scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although -the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how -many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been -constructed according to the Syrian principle, we should have had less -cause to admire their solidity, and toughness; but, such has never been -the case with any I have seen; and which, though certainly of no -considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small -calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may, -perhaps, be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs are -constructed in India: I mean such as are now under consideration. The -beams are rarely more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally, may -have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in -width; sometimes, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of -science, cambered to the extent of three or four inches; according to -the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall, -having their ends previously well charred; and, in some cases, smeared -with _petroleum_; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’ This is done to -deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood; which, in -time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of -the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches -all the way round, and at their bases: in order that the timber may be -removed, in case of decay, without damaging the wall; the interval is, -however, filled up afterwards with _cutcha_ work; which, not being -liable to adhere firmly to the _pucka_ wall, may be easily removed when -the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears -uniform. - -In some parts of the country, but especially in the upper provinces, the -natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very -firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires -some care, but is found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be -substantial, as should also the joists; and the surface of the clay -should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into -proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being -damped. - -Without this precaution, the heavy falls of rain, which may be -constantly expected during three months in the year, would speedily -dissolve such tenements, with nearly as much facility as though they -were made of lump-sugar. But when due care is taken, both to prevent, -and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible, than objectionable; -especially in the vicinity of _bazars_, (or markets,) and lines, in -which fires are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted the plan, some -wholly, others partially, in their _bungalows_, and find little or no -cause to regret their having done so. - -It is, however, expedient to send up a man now and then, to lute any -cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats; but, after a -season or two, the clay becomes extremely firm, nearly equal to -mortar-tarras, resisting the various changes of temperature, and -appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The greatest -inconvenience it produces, is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably -obnoxious insect, the _white-ant_. - -This little depredator rarely fails to take advantage of whatever -opportunity is offered for the exhibition of its powers. Assembling by -the ten thousand, in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of a deal -box, perhaps an inch in thickness, or render it a mere honeycomb. Of -fir, they are remarkably fond, as also of mango-wood. - -It seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to woods -abounding so highly, as these both do, in turpentine; while the presence -of a few drops of _petroleum_, which is imported from Pegu, Ava, and the -Arvean coast, under the name of _mutty ke tale_, (earth-oil,) seems to -be a perfect preventive. Few things come amiss to these obnoxious -visitants, which every where abound, and destroy wood, leather, cottons, -woollens, &c. Nay, a story is current, that, some years back, they were -absolutely accused of having devoured some thousands of dollars! -Fortunately, _on deeper research_, it was discovered, that they had only -ate away the bottom of the treasure-chest; and, like misers, had buried -the hard cash some feet under ground. - -As ceilings are not in use in India, each joist is neatly finished, -having its lower edges rounded off with a beading-plane. At right angles -with the joists, smaller battens, called _burgahs_, are laid; three or -four inches wide, by about two or three deep, or _vice versâ_; these are -nailed down upon the joists at such parallel distances, in general about -seven or eight inches, as may allow a large kind of tile to be laid on -them. Over the tiles they lay rubbish, rather dry, about four or five -inches deep, patting it down gently, by the continual operation of some -dozens of men, women, and children, who, squatting, like monkies, on -their haunches, and having batons of about a cubit in length, something -of a trowel shape, though not so obtuse, continually beat the materials -until they become perfectly compact. The better method, which is in more -general adoption, is, instead of such rubbish, to put on a coarser kind -of mortar, well worked up, but not very moist; which is beat in the mode -above described. After this has been duly compacted, but before it is -quite dry, another coating of two or three inches, but of finer -materials, is put on, and beat in like manner; then a third, perhaps -only an inch deep, of still finer materials; and, ultimately, the whole -is coated, for about half an inch in depth, with the finest ingredients, -mixed, after being sifted through a coarse cloth, with _jaggree_, and by -some with peas-meal; which the natives consider to be peculiarly -valuable in cement. This last coat is laid on with a trowel, very firmly -pressed, in order to compact it the more, and to prevent cracking; which -will, nevertheless, always take place, more or less, according as more -or less pressure and beating have been used; or, as the great body of -the tarras may be made of good or bad materials. - -All the partition-walls, dividing off the several apartments, are -necessarily of masonry; both because the pressure from above is -enormous; and, that wood cannot be trusted, where the white-ants could -honeycomb its interior, without being much, if at all, noticed on its -surface. These partition-walls are carried up about six inches above the -tarras roof; whereby the latter appears to be divided into chequers, -corresponding with the several apartments. Small channels are cut, to -allow the water to pass into the spouts, or drains; from which jars, of -about a hogshead in measurement, are filled with water intended for -table use. Some spouts are made to extend full a yard from the wall, -and, in some instances, have canvas hoses attached, for the purpose of -leading the water into the jars; but the more modern practice is to -build pipes of pottery within the wall, or to clamp them to it with -iron, until their lower ends, which are crooked for the purpose, form a -proper debouchure. The latter mode, however, in very heavy rains, -subjects the walls to be damped, in consequence of the fall of water -being greater than the pipes can instantly carry off. This may give some -idea of those deluges which at times take place, almost instantaneously. - -The tops of houses are invariably enclosed with breast-parapets, or with -balustrades; which give a very finished appearance to these superb -buildings. With the exception of those ridges formed by the continuation -of the partition-walls, the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain -seasons: some of them command most interesting views. During the very -hot weather, probably from the end of April to the setting in of the -rains in the first or second week of June, many gentlemen have their -cots, (as the bed, with all its apparatus, is usually called,) carried -to the tops of their houses, and sleep there during the night. This may -appear a very hazardous proceeding; but, when it is considered, that no -dew, worthy of notice, falls at that season, and, that the cots have -generally curtains, which would receive, and absorb, what little might -fall, we may, on the whole, pronounce it to be less dangerous than -should at first be supposed. If, indeed, this were to be done more to -the southward, near the mouth of the Hoogly river, where the immense -marshes, the ouze left by the returning tides, and the jungles, which -every where abound, produce the most deleterious exhalations, we should -then be correct in exclaiming against the practice: but few, very few, -instances could be adduced of any serious indisposition having attended -it; while, on the other hand, it is confessed by all who have adopted -it, that the greatest refreshment ever resulted; enabling them to rise -early, divested of that most distressing lassitude attendant upon -sleeping in an apartment absolutely communicating a febrile sensation, -and peculiarly oppressive to the lungs. - -I believe all those fatal, or injurious effects, which have been so -often adduced, by way of caution to persons impatient of heat, have been -produced not by sleeping in an open exposure, but in a current of air. -This I cannot recommend; on the contrary, I must vehemently censure such -a custom, as being highly dangerous: I could quote several most -melancholy cases, arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct! -Mr. Johnson, who appears to have been about two years in India, during -which time he was surgeon of a frigate, has published a volume, in which -there are occasionally to be found interesting details, and sensible -observations. I shall offer to my readers some remarks he has made, at -page 269, that bear closely on the subject under discussion. He says; -‘Europeans, in general, on their first arrival in India, are -prepossessed with the idea, that sleeping at night in the open air must -be a very dangerous practice; but, in the course of a short residence on -shore, they get rid of this prejudice, by observing most of the natives, -and many of the Europeans, sleeping on open terraces, and in _verandas_, -not only with impunity, but as a preservative against the debilitating -effects of a hot climate. But on board-ships, where they have not an -opportunity of seeing, or of reflecting on, these circumstances, they -frequently adhere, for a considerable time after their arrival on the -station, to the established regulations, of making every man sleep in -his proper berth: and suffering none to lie about upon the decks; a -system, in my opinion, very prejudicial to the health of ships’ -companies in India. At sea, indeed, it is not of so much consequence, -where the watch on deck always gives sufficient room to those below; but -it is in harbours, and road-steds, where the air is much hotter than at -sea, the impolicy of the measure becomes manifest.’—And again, page 270, -‘We will suppose, that every man, when he turns into his hammock, falls -fast asleep in a few minutes; which, by the by, is not always the case. -About eleven o’clock, however, I will venture to say, he wakes in a -deluge of perspiration, panting with the heat and rarefied air; upon -which he turns out, and goes upon deck, for the purpose, as he terms it, -of getting a mouthful of fresh air; anathematizing, as he ascends, the -infernal heat of the climate! Under pretence of going to the head, he -gets upon the forecastle; when the cool breeze from the shore -immediately chills him, and gives a sudden check to his perspiration.’ -All this I have personally experienced, both on board-ship and on shore; -and I make no scruple of saying, that, in lieu of being injured by -sleeping out on a _chabootah_, in a well-covered cot, my whole frame has -been braced, my rest has been sound and refreshing, and I have avoided -all the miseries inseparably attendant upon seeking repose in a close, -muggy atmosphere; where thirst and irritation create perpetual -restlessness, banish sleep, and cause that relaxation and debility which -render each subsequent day burthensome as its preceding night has been -distressing! - -In a former page, I observed, that boarded floors were almost unknown in -India: various reasons have, doubtless, combined to explode them; -firstly, the depredations of the white-ant; secondly, the perpetual -danger of their warping; and, thirdly, the difficulty of rendering the -sounds of foot-steps less audible. This last may appear trivial; but, -where so many menials, &c., are ever moving about in various parts of a -house, and that, too, with little ceremony, though, it is true, they are -all bare-footed, it would prove extremely inconvenient at those times -when the family might retire to rest during the heat of the day. About -twenty-five or thirty years back, all the stairs were of masonry; but, -of late years, wooden ones have been introduced. These, being made to -rest on strong beams, obvious in every part, save where they enter the -walls, may be considered as tolerably safe from the white-ants; -certainly they are much neater, and more easily kept in order. All the -joists, in every house, are either painted, or tarred; the latter has a -very unpleasant, indeed, a mean appearance; and is not often practised: -for the most part, white, with a very slight cast of blue, to preserve -it from fading, is adopted. - -Some paint the beaded, or moulded, edges of the door pannels, also the -rounded corners of the joists, with some delicate color; such as a very -light sky-blue, a very light verdigris-green, or a lilac; and, by way of -conformity, ornament the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar -tints. In the upper provinces, it is a very prevalent fashion to color -the pannels with some native ochres, of beautiful hues, leaving the -mouldings, cornices, &c. white. These mouldings, &c. are all done by -means of trowels shaped for the purpose, and not by moulds, or stamps; -of course, what with want of device, and want of activity, such -ornaments may be reckoned among that variety of tedious labors of which -_Blacky_ is extremely enamoured. Yet, in the execution of such matters, -he will display great ingenuity, consummate patience, and, often, great -delicacy: but, with respect to design, taste, composition, perspective, -consistency, and harmony; in all these, whether in drawing, sculpture, -or in any mode of representation, he will prove himself to be completely -_ignoramus_. Let the former apology be pleaded; namely, that, in every -branch, the Indian mechanic is called upon, after, perhaps, only a few -days of observation, or, at least, with so little practice as would, -among us, be considered rather an objection than a qualification, to -perform that which we judge to be unattainable, except by the -application of several years, closely attached to one individual -intention. Therefore, in lieu of condemning their operations, we should -rather regard them with admiration; for, I will venture to assert, that -we should not fail to wonder at one of our own countrymen, who, perhaps -at rather an advanced age, without previous education, without the -possibility of reference to books, or to public institutions, should -undertake to do that with a hatchet, or any other gross implement, which -persons regularly brought up in the respective profession should assert -to be impracticable, unless duly provided with benches, vices, and -tools, of exquisite formation, out of number. The Asiatic has the bare -soil for his bench, his toes are his vice, and his implements usually -amount to no more than a small adze, a saw, with, perhaps, a chisel, and -a pair of uncouth pincers! - -The same operations which I have described to be necessary for the -construction of a tarras roof, are equally so for the floors in every -part of the house; but, unless the basement stands very high, so as to -allow of water houses, &c. underneath the ground-floor, it is usual to -have the latter flued, by means of narrow channels, or air-conduits, of -about four inches deep, and as many wide; so as to be covered with -bricks of an ordinary size: these flues are made in parallel lines, at, -perhaps, a foot or more asunder, and pass entirely under the house, in -both directions, having their several apertures covered by small iron -grates, for the purpose of keeping out rats, snakes, &c.; which would -else find admirable asylums within these intersecting channels. The -lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry by the flues, which, of -course, give ventilation to every part under the floor. Where bricks are -scarce, which is often the case, on account of their never being made -for general sale, except at public stations and great cities, and then -of a very small size, it is common to build the ground tarras upon -inverted pots; each being capable of containing about three pecks, or a -bushel. These pots may be had, in any quantity, all over the country; -generally at the low rate of a farthing, or, at the utmost, a halfpenny, -each. - -The pots are ranged upon the ground, within the area formed by the -walls, side by side, but not quite in contact, each resting on its -mouth, which consists generally of a rim, projecting about three or four -inches from the body of the vessel, which is nearly spherical. The -loosest sand that can be had, or, in its absence, any dry rubbish, is -then thrown in, so as to fill up all the intervals, and to cover the -pots, about four inches in depth. This surface being levelled, another -stratum of pots is added, if judged necessary; the whole process of -filling up is similar in both, and the tarras is laid in the usual -manner on the levelled surface. - -By far the greater portion of the subsoil throughout Bengal, at least, -in that wide expanse reaching from Gogra to Dacca, on the north-east, -and from the Soane, along the plains at the foot of the hills, to the -debouchure of the Hoogly, (which, together, form the limits of our -richest, and most populous, _purgunnahs_, or districts,) is a loose, -gritty sand, very like what farmers term a _lush_; which, in a few -places, receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous mountains, every -where to be seen along either boundary. This extreme looseness of the -subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity for securing the foundations -of weighty buildings, by every possible means; and, in the sinking of -wells, is often found to present the most formidable obstacles. - -Under such circumstances, it must appear self-evident, that those large -mansions forming the bulk of Calcutta, by which I mean that portion -raised, and inhabited, by Europeans; together with the several -garden-houses, and the numerous edifices on a large scale erected by the -natives, especially their places of worship, which are most ponderously -constructed; all these necessarily require to be very firmly founded: -nor can too much attention be paid to carrying off the water, which -pours down from the tops of the houses; lest the bases should be sapped, -and very serious injury be entailed. - -With this intention, almost every _compound_, or enclosed area, is -either laid with pan-tiles, or is well coated with _soorky_, in the same -manner as the roads; while, in many instances, the junction of the wall -with the level of the area is concealed, and secured, by a _talus_, -blending with the building, at about a foot or more above that level. - -With respect to _bungalows_, or any other buildings coming under the -designation of ‘temporary,’ their foundations are usually very shallow. -These are, for the most part, raised a foot or two from the surrounding -level; and, as their inner walls, that often run from sixteen to twenty -feet in height, are well secured by the _verandas_, which likewise -preserve the precinct, for full twelve or fourteen feet, from being -softened by the rains, very shallow foundations are deemed sufficient. -The surrounding parapet which limits, while it raises, the _veranda_, is -usually of burnt-brick, cemented with good mortar, and plastered over -with the same; but the whole of the residue of bricklayers’ work is such -as has been already explained. The _verandas_ of _bungalows_ are -sustained either by strong wooden posts, or by pillars of masonry; their -intervals are filled up with _jaumps_, before described, which may be -raised at pleasure, to any angle, including about 10°, or 15°, above the -horizontal; or they may be suffered to hang perpendicularly against the -exterior faces of the pillars. In tempestuous weather, and especially -during those violent squalls called ‘_north-westers_,’ in consequence of -their usually either commencing on, or veering round to, that quarter, -it will be found necessary to place the bamboo props, whereby the -_jaumps_ are usually elevated, against their exterior sides; by which -means the _jaump_ is pressed to the pillar, and becomes greatly exempted -from the danger of being blown away; which, nevertheless, frequently is -its fate, although its weight may be full a cwt. and a half, or even two -cwt. - -The force of these _north-westers_ is next to incredible! I recollect -one in particular, which, in November 1787, tore up an immense tree, -called the ‘Barrackpore Beacon,’ on account of its being situated at a -point where it could be seen from Duckansore, along a beautiful reach of -the Hoogly river. This fine piece of timber measured nearly twenty feet -in girth, and branched out in the most luxuriant manner, reaching to -full seventy or eighty feet in height: it was torn up by its roots, -though some of the ramifications were much thicker than my own body, -leaving an excavation of not less than 15,000 cubic feet. - -When stationed at _Hazary-Bang_, in the Ramghur district, my _bungalow_ -was, I firmly believe, saved from falling by mere accident. It had -become fashionable to construct fire places in our halls, running up the -chimnies, so as to pierce the thatches immediately below the summit of -that wall in which the fire-place was made, and which served as the -front face of the chimney. Cutting through the wall, to make a proper -opening wherein to set the grate, I found that, in lieu of being firm, -as it should have been, the whole cut like so much butter. In -consequence of this discovery, I hastened the finishing of the stove, -which, in a short time, aired the room, and completely dried the walls; -but, not before they began to display very unequivocal tokens of what -would have taken place, but for my very fortunate adoption of the whim -then in vogue. - -It is remarkable, that the _bungalow_ stood on a gentle declivity, from -which the superficial water was well drained; but, the soil was -proverbially spongy, and retained every shower, much the same as chalk, -but without its good qualities: thus, notwithstanding the floors, (or -tarrases,) were full two feet above the surrounding level, my habitation -would, I am well convinced, have subsided; burying every inhabitant -under its ruins! Probably, that fatal moment would have accorded with -the height of some _north-wester_; to whose fury the catastrophe would, -though erroneously, have been imputed. - -The _verandas_ of _bungalows_ are generally allotted to the -accommodation of servants of all descriptions; and, except where, as in -Calcutta, a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for the home of -whatever _cahars_, or bearers, may be employed. These have each their -mat, on which they sleep, forming a pillow of any _g’hettry_, or bundle -of cloaths, and covering themselves with their quilts, &c.: blankets -being but very little in use among domestics of any description. When a -gentleman has company, the side-board is usually set out in the -_veranda_, where also the several guests’ _hookahs_ are prepared; and, -in rainy weather, their water cooled. All servants come upon being -called only; there being no bells hung in any part of the country, and -very, very few even of hand-bells to be seen. The common call, _Qui hi_? -(meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew, -though it is occasionally repeated, with some vociferation too, before -one will stir. Although to many _bungalows_ there are abundance of -out-offices, some of which may have been built for the reception of -palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called a _buggy_,) few -persons allow either their _mahanahs_, or their _boçhahs_, to be kept in -such places, as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes, -whereby their interior especially would often be soiled: this objection -acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining -the gig, as well as the palanquin, within the _veranda_; the latter is -easily lifted in and out by the bearers, but the former requires that a -_ramp_, or slope, should be made, up and down which the _syce_ (or -groom) draws it with facility. All conveyances, when housed, are covered -with a double cloth, usually made of _karwah_. - -Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled, and have, generally, -handsome brass mountings, with mortice locks; the windows are well -glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are laid with superb carpets, -either of European, Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two latter -are generally made of silk; exhibiting not only rich patterns, but the -most brilliant colors, at least equal to any made at our manufactories. -The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases, are almost -invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush, which -possesses considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after being duly -cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up into bundles, about a cubit in -length, and nearly the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked: -from these bundles the mat-makers, who are usually of the _Cunjoor_ -tribe, weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly -concealed by the rushes. Some of these mats are made plain; while others -are in various stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture a room of -any size may be fitted; the work being either done on the spot, or at -the houses of the persons employed; the color is generally that of faded -straw; though, sometimes, red or black rushes, dyed for the purpose, are -introduced. For the accommodation of persons residing in parts where -they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats, long strips, of about a -yard wide, and four or five yards long, are sold in almost every great -_bazar_ (or market). These require to be sewed side by side, the same as -our Scotch carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage, are not so -eligible; both because they are less carefully made, and that, in almost -every instance, they are manufactured from refuse materials. - -In the upper provinces, where the _kudjoor_ (or date-tree) abounds, a -very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this is -not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even, as that sort just -described; owing to the coarseness of the materials, it is rather -subject to catch the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of fire -from _hookahs_, &c.: all these circumstances limit the use of the -_kudjoor_ mats to very ordinary purposes; or, at the least, to laying -down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted. - -Mats are likewise made, in every part of the country, from green -bamboos; which, being split into very thin laths, of about half an inch, -or less, in width, answer the same purpose as the foregoing; these are, -however, very uncomfortable, and harbour centipedes by the hundred: the -_kudjoor_ mats partake of that objection, but not to the same extent. -Mats, if we may so call them, are likewise made by laying down rattans, -and stringing them together with strips of their own bark, the same as -is done in making the _seerky_ used in thatching; but this species is -very rare: indeed, I believe only a few were ever seen in Calcutta, and -they were said to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca, whence -great numbers of rattans are yearly imported. The price of the best -rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that of the -mats in strips at from four annas (8½ _d._) to eight annas (17_d._); but -the _kudjoor_, and bamboo kinds, can only be computed by the demand for -materials, and the prices of labor, locally: probably, taking all things -into consideration, we may estimate a square yard of either at two -annas, or about 4¼_d._ A very beautiful species of mat is made in some -parts of the country, but especially in the south-eastern districts, -about Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy grass, of which the -rind, being pared off very thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an -inch in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding seven or eight feet -in length, by about four feet in width. These are peculiarly slippery, -whence they are designated ‘_seekul-putty_,’ (_i.e._ polished sheets); -their color resembles that of common horn, and their prices are -generally from two to six rupees per piece; according to their fineness, -and to the state of the markets. The principal uses of the -_seekul-putty_, are, to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby -to keep the body cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree by -this device, by its remarkably slippery surface: some few pillows for -couches are likewise covered therewith, and I have seen it employed in -making covers for mahogany tables; to which it is well adapted, on -account of its repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have all the -joinings well taped, and to be lined with blanket, or with _karwah_, &c. -properly quilted. - -Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned, and which are very high -priced, a manufacture of _satrinjes_ is carried on at Mirzapore, and in -many other parts. These serve all the purposes of carpets, but have no -plush; being in that particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting, -but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect to pattern. The -_satrinje_ is nothing more than a very large colored sheet, in which, -except for about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole is divided into -bars, or stripes, usually from two to six inches wide, proportioned to -the extent of the fabric. The principal colors in these carpets are -crimson for a ground, with bars of deep, or light red; or blue grounds, -with white, yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with deeper, or -lighter green, or crimson, or orange bars; or any of these, _vice -versâ_. The common price of a woollen _satrinje_, may be from twelve -annas (_i.e._ 3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per square yard; according -to fineness, substance, color, demand, &c. - -Of cotton _satrinjes_, the price rarely exceeds a rupee, or a rupee and -a quarter, for the same extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is no -uncommon thing to see a _satrinje_ of full twenty by thirty feet; and -this, too, made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which the -work gradually collects, as the threads are crossed, by passing the -warp-lines, alternately over and under the woof-lines, in regular -changes! - -_Cheeks_, or screens, to keep out the glare, are made in a similar -manner. These simple, yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian -habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I may use the term,) from -four to six feet in length, and about the thickness of a very large -knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A thin, clean-worked -lath, of the same material, is put at the top and bottom. - -Many _cheeks_ are made of bamboo wires, previously painted either green, -or reddish brown, but generally the former. These require no particular -care, further than keeping them separate, as they dry; which is usually -effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or against a wall, or -upon scattered straw, when the weather is calm. When _cheeks_ are -intended to represent any pattern, such as birds on branches, or Indian -deities, &c., the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends -on two boards, over which two others are placed perfectly parallel, and -even, so as to press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their being -easily displaced. A pattern, being cut out on paper of the required -size, is fastened down upon the wires, and its outline every where -distinctly marked upon them; after which it is worked in on the former -ground, say a green, with brown for branches, a deeper green for the -leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds: the whole is then left to -dry. When ready for use, the _cheek-wallah_ (or maker) fixes his -apparatus close to the top, and, taking each wire in succession, fastens -it down in its proper place, being guided by two lateral lines, as they -are handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more than three or four -years of age! In this way the representation is preserved. - -The neatest patterned _cheeks_ come from China; but the Bengallee artist -is getting fast forward, and bids fair to put a stop to the importation: -it is usual to have the whole _cheek_ bound, all around, either with a -light cotton tape, of about three or four inches broad, or with red, or -blue, _karwah_. At the top of each _cheek_, generally, a piece of -circular leather is attached, two being sewed together, though on -different sides of the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually white, -or red and white, or blue and white, about an inch in circumference, and -each a full yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie up the -_cheek_, when rolled towards the door-plate, at such times as it is not -wanted. Each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on, -for the cords by which the _cheek_ is to be suspended. - -It is understood, that white _cheeks_ are preferable; both because they -keep out the glare much better, and as they render the interior less -distinguishable to any spectator from without: consequently, they -contribute most to coolness, and to privacy. - -I believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an -European of respectability, in any part of Calcutta, which should prove -to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled wood, or of windows, at -least, furnished with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether for -appearance, convenience, or real utility, certainly there cannot be any -thing equal to glass, the use of which is now become so general, that -almost every _bungalow_ in the upper provinces, unless merely built as a -shelter for a few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps, only -partially, but a great majority throughout. Were it not that this most -agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very -moderate terms, the great number of serious drawbacks it has to -encounter, would assuredly cause its exportation to the East to be very -limitted. The principal objections to its use, are, 1stly, the -difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of -even the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause the panes to fly; -3dly, the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all; -especially of the larger sizes. - -As a balance to this, we find, that this brittle commodity, after -undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping, and landing, -together with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional rough -usage after being consigned to the up-country trader, can usually be -sold at Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant about a thousand -miles, by water, from Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8 by -11 inches, at about twenty rupees per _coorge_, (or score,); 10 by 14, -at about twenty-six rupees; of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15 by -20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about fifty; and of 20 by 30, at -about sixty rupees. These prices give little more than cent. per cent. -upon the wholesale prices of London. What with the necessity for making -those panes and sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm, as well -as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article, we -generally see, in the upper provinces, the panes laid transversely, -instead of upright; and only one row of such panes in each frame; the -wood-work being made very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The -light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to every common purpose; -the atmosphere being, for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly -clear; and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment -of that blessing: besides, that great exposure to an unclouded sky, -which may in England be deemed highly advantageous, would, in India, -prove objectionable; by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more -uneasiness than pleasure. - -When glass either cannot be had; or, that, owing to some speculator -having monopolized, the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon -to see windows furnished with plates of _talc_; which may be obtained, -in almost any quantity, at the several cities, especially towards the -frontiers; very extensive dealings being carried on in this article, by -persons resident chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and Patna, who import it -from Thibet, and the countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik -territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern loaf. The principal -intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder, used in -the Hindu holiday, called _hooly_, which may generally be viewed as the -carnival of that sect. - -The masses of _talc_ commonly sell for about a rupee and a half, or even -up to two rupees per seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when good, -it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily, either a yellowish, -or a faint blue cast: by means of proper tools, this mineral may be -split into very thin leaves, which often present smooth surfaces, but -are apt to have little scaly blisters, that greatly deteriorate their -value. However, a seer of _talc_, that splits well, will sometimes yield -a dozen or more panes, of about 12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and -thus, according to the form of the lump; which can only be split in the -direction of its laminæ. These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow -ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably -distinct; and, of course, present an excellent substitute for glass. - -I am surprized that the very simple process whereby _talc_ may be -vitrified, has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a -manufactory for that purpose. When combined with alkaline salt, (every -where attainable in India,) it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a -transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If equal portions of -_talc_ and of chalk be melted together, with one-fourth part of borax, -(the _soohaugah_, or tincal, so abundant throughout the East,) the -mixture will produce a fine pellucid, greenish glass, of considerable -lustre and hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not brought into -use, are supposed to abound in some parts of Bahar, and of the upper -provinces,) may be advantageously substituted for chalk, whence the -result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow glass, of equal brightness and -durability. - -Speaking of chalk, I must remark, that very large quantities are -occasionally sent to India, notwithstanding some of the hills at the -back of Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood, many years ago, from -an old friend, who was quarter-master of a regiment stationed at -Monghyr, distant about forty miles from the former place, that, in -consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints, he had sent people to the -Chalk Hills of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load that -answered admirably. In reply to my questions regarding the chalk, he -informed me it was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving it in -a large quantity of water, and allowing the rubbish to sink, the finer -particles would be for a while suspended; and, on being poured off, -would, after repeated washings in this manner, yield the purest whiting. -It really appears surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain -unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners should neglect to take -advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses -of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel of the Ganges! That the -Company should ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the expence -of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints, when they possess -such a quarry, (of which the extent is not known,) appears highly -inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied. If it be -argued, that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to -provide themselves with flints; the answer is very easy; for the -gun-smiths of _Monghyr_ are fully apprized of the whole process. But, -surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency! To -say the least, government might, with great advantage, cause all the -lime required for their own works to be made from it; imposing a price -upon all that might be dug by merchants, or others; as they do at their -stone quarries, near _Chunar-Ghur_, &c. My readers will, at all events, -discover that a very useful glass might be made in India, the duty on -which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits -accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known fact, that the -captains of Indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making -up a general assortment, than from any great advantage arising from its -sale to the European shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace they are -invariably undersold by foreign traders; who carry out glass of an -inferior quality, which sells to a certain extent; and is often rather -sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish hue, which is found to -soften the light considerably; especially in exposed situations. - -The natives do, occasionally, make a weak, greenish, and blistered glass -into _caraboys_, or great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones, -such as the _gundies_, or itinerant perfumers, use; but this is on a -very small scale, and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers, shades, -&c., of European manufacture. There are persons at Patna, who have men -constantly employed in purchasing broken glass, of every description, -from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting such fragments as may -be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish. - -It must occasionally happen, that neither glass, nor _talc_, can be -readily obtained; in which case, the best mode is to make light frames, -and to pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly nailed on. This is -an admirable substitute, not only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but, -in the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms, yet admitting -sufficient light for ordinary purposes: I have very frequently resorted -to this expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all I had to -regret was, that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad. To a person -just arrived from Europe, such would appear a most distressing -privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons behind _tatties_, -without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day, and that for -months together, such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of -notice: so true it is, that we gradually become habituated to the loss -of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even of civil and religious -liberty!!! - -Although _bungalows_ have not any ceilings of plaster, they are rendered -inconceivably neat within, by means of a double sheet, made of very -coarse cotton cloth, called _guzzy_; of which tents are usually -constructed. These sheets are fitted to the several apartments -respectively, are bound with strong tape around, and have, besides, -various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs, or rays, all -meeting in the centre. As the cornices commonly project near a foot, -abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet (called the _chandny_,) -to battens, nailed to pegs built in the wall: these battens being firmly -secured all the way round, about an inch above the cornice, admit the -sheet to be strained very tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in -the centre. Some white-wash their _chandnies_, and take so much pains in -establishing a firm appearance, as to render them very similar to well -made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation, music has no -effect in a _bungalow_; indeed, at the best, the most powerful -instrument is heard under very great disadvantages, owing to the number -of apertures, the _satringes_, mats, couch and table covers, &c., all -which deaden the tones considerably. - -Those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture, -&c., have their _verandas_ lined in the same manner as their apartments, -giving them a finished appearance; but, in such exposed situations the -cloths are apt to collect considerable quantities of dust, which is -perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon -by the wind: on this account _seerky_ appears to me far preferable as a -lining for _verandas_. - -The usual expedient, when doors of any description are not made, is to -provide _purdahs_, made of _karwah_, (or _guzzy_,) or both mixed in -perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each: some, especially -those who are stationary, make their _purdahs_ of shalloon, perpet, or -very coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner. The cloth is made into -two sheets of equal dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having strong -tapes, perhaps five or seven in number, inserted cross-wise between -them: these tapes are double. The whole circumference of the _purdah_ is -then sewed very neatly, and bound with tape, corresponding with the -color of the cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of -leather, covered with the same materials. Between every pair of tapes, a -bamboo, of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced; or, perhaps, a -stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths, -serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when the _purdah_ is -suspended, much in the same manner as has been explained for the -mounting of a _cheek_, lie horizontally; thus preventing the wind from -blowing in the _purdah_. - -It is observed as a general rule, always to make a _purdah_ full a foot -wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry it -a foot above the door plate, and to have a portion, about a foot in -depth, without any lath, at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the -ground. Those _purdahs_ which are made of _karwah_, or other cotton -stuff, are generally quilted with cotton, or are composed of many folds, -or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings. The last is -by far the most effectual, most neat, and most durable mode of -construction; but, at the best, _purdahs_ are a very indifferent -make-shift; and, though often, from necessity, applied to windows, are -by no means answerable to their intention. Their best use is certainly -to deaden sounds; hence, they are advantageously suspended outside the -doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments; when, by closing the -doors, privacy and quiet may usually be effected. The presence of a -_purdah_ usually indicates the exclusion of males; and that the -apartments, within that entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of -ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as has been explained in regard -to _cheeks_. - -The best timber for building, in whatever branch, is the _sygwam_, or -_teak_; but its dearness prevents its general use, especially since -naval architecture has been so much an object of speculation at -Calcutta. However, it can generally be purchased at about a rupee, or a -rupee and a quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about three -shillings and three-pence. Those who build houses of the first class, -rarely fail to lay all their tarrases upon _teak_ joists; both because -they possess superior strength, and that they are far less likely to be -attacked by the white-ants. This has been attributed to the quantity of -tannin contained in _teak_-wood, which some have asserted to be a -perfect preventive, or antidote; but, after having seen those noxious -insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale, I can never bring myself -to accord with such an opinion. There is, in _teak_-wood, evidently some -property, hitherto occult, that repels the white-ant, at least for some -years, but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as we -find that very old _teak_-timbers become rather more subject to -depredation, than new ones. The greater part of the _teak_ used in -Bengal, and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu coast, in immense -beams, and in spars, planks, &c., of all sizes. It is by no means -unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty, to fifty, feet -in length, and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here -is food for our dock-yards! - -It would certainly be attended with considerable benefit to the public, -if that occult principle, or matter, which apparently exists in the -_teak_-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant, and the -river-worm, could be ascertained; it might be possible to impregnate, or -to saturate, other timber in a similar manner. This is the more -essential, because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not -deter those voracious insects, which are found at times even upon the -lignum vitæ! But the principal object, so far as relates to naval -purposes, is, that the _teak_-wood certainly is, in a great measure, -devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or, if such is present, it -assuredly must be in a very limitted portion; since the nails driven -into _teak_-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood, -and to liberate it from confinement. To this decay, called -‘iron-sickness,’ are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to have -foundered at sea, in consequence of planks starting; which must often -happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid, or by -the action of salt water upon the iron. In repairing ships built of oak, -many nails are found perfectly insulated, by the wood having been -rotted, and fallen away; which has never been the case with vessels -built of _teak_. - -The generality of apartments being large, the halls measuring perhaps -from thirty to forty feet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four in -width, and other rooms in proportion, it is evident that very -substantial, as well as long, timbers must be requisite to support their -flat roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are not in use. The -mode introduced by Mr. Lyon, the Company’s architect, at Berhampore, -certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a -roof, but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should -be perfectly sound. That gentleman, whose professional skill, and -excellent social qualities, demand an ample tribute, exploded _burgahs_, -(or smaller battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and, in their -stead, threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other -timber; so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance -grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This, however, was barely -distinguishable, the arches being very elliptic; rarely, indeed, -including more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle having full ten -feet of radius. - -Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were tolerably close, but their -diameters admitted of considerable reduction, on account of the -continuity of such a series of arches, which gave great solidity; and, -by their mutual pressure, admitted that a joist should be freely -removed, without in the least affecting the roof. - -The houses built and inhabited by the natives, invariably have flat -roofs. In these the apartments are, for the most part, extremely narrow, -and dark. The _verandas_, where any are made, consist of arcaded fronts, -invariably indented gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal, or -of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals, while the arch may be -seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues up -to _baisez-mur_, (or _bassimere_, as our architects vulgarly call it,) -and divides the upper part into various compartments, all of which are -ornamented with a profusion of carved work. In almost every Hindostanee -building, of this description, there will be seen an odd number of -arches, to which others in the main part of the edifice generally -correspond. The chambers, if so we may call them, are taken off from the -ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of which, as well as those -of the exterior, is furnished with a _purdah_. These narrow slips have -no windows, or, at the best, only small loop holes. The intention of -such oven-like recesses would perplex an European unacquainted with -Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in the cold season, such -are peculiarly warm, and that, during those months in which the glare is -obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as admit more light. Almost -every house is furnished with some means of ascending to the _chut_, (or -flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives often pass the evening, causing -the heat to be first abated, by means of several pots of water, which -throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras -had arrived. The natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in -general; though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the -possession of _doomaulahs_, that is, of houses having a second floor: it -seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of -ground floors, whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen from the -level of their _compounds_ (or enclosed areas). The stairs, where any -exist, (for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that -intention,) are narrow, steep, and unsafe: these are almost always built -of solid masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing place,) after -which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime -mortar, supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper angle, and -resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor. In every Hindostanee -house, the doors are very low, and often are made to open into a long -arcaded _veranda_, running the whole length of the interior, much the -same as in our inns; while, in the front, or towards the road, a hanging -balcony is sometimes made, supported on continuations of the joists, of -which the extremities are carved into grotesque forms; such as the heads -of alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not infrequently of -little human figures, whose size and squat position strongly put us in -mind of a _f[oe]tus in utero_. - -_Saul-wood_ is used to an immense extent, both in buildings, and in the -construction of ships, but is not to be compared, either for toughness, -strength, resistance against insects, or durability, with _teak_. Its -price is much in favor of general service, to which its great size, and -admirable straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations; -but it is extremely apt to crack, though not to snap; especially when -exposed to the weather. There is something very peculiar in _saul-wood_; -since it is seen to warp, even after having been employed in bulk for -many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally: the white-ants -also devour it with avidity. Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was -building the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused an immense copper -trough to be made, in which he boiled the beams intended for that -edifice: some were boiled in pure water, others with tannin, and some -with arsenic; under the hope both of seasoning the timber, and of giving -it a repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious, and highly -praise-worthy experiment, was by no means successful; for, although, in -the first instance, the timbers seemed to defy the white-ant, especially -those boiled in the solution of arsenic, still they were not completely -secured from depredation; while, on the other hand, nine in ten rived so -dangerously as to demand immediate props, and ultimate removal. - -Many authors have recommended the boiling of timber, planks, &c., with a -view to extract the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but they -have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results. Now, I have -ever held it necessary, that medical practitioners should keep a -register of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent department, in -order that we may know how to _avoid_ certain systems; which, doubtless, -for want of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly resorted to -by various medical characters, who, insensible of those fatal effects -that had attended former experiments, thus consign many patients to -their graves! So should all experiments, such as that above recorded, be -fully laid before the public, and their results be candidly detailed. It -is evident, that where we see only the suggestion, without the proofs of -its failure, we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most -pernicious tendency. - -_Saul_ timber, when used in buildings, ought always to have its ends -completely open to inspection; both to prevent the white-ant from -preying upon it under cover, and to insure its being duly aerated; -without which, however charred and tarred it may be, rottenness will -speedily take place. This arises from being bedded in masonry, which, -during the rainy season, even under the best roofs, will absord a large -portion of moisture, that will, infallibly, in time, penetrate into the -timber. It must be recollected, that not one in hundreds of the houses -in Calcutta, or that are built on their plan, contains a fire-place: -hence, during some months in the year, the walls will exhibit various -indications of moisture, even to their very cornices; though this will -often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the -plaster. It is now well known, though not long since discovered, that -all sand, taken up within the flowing of the tides, is strongly -impregnated with salt, which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed -eternally subject to damps; notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued, -or be founded upon pots. I have known several, otherwise highly -eligible, houses rendered untenable, merely by this incautious use of -river sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets, were laid down, -to be speedily rotted. The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of -the river, whence it was suspected the damps were received; but it was -ascertained, that such tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of -pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious a defect. -Nevertheless, the greater part of the buildings, in and about Calcutta, -receive a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within the reach of -brackish water: while this practice is allowed, the walls and tarrases -will remain subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily see in that -city, the plastering will blister, or, indeed, become mottled, and -obviously unsound. - -_Saul-timbers_ are found in all the forests, ranging under the hills, -branching our possessions from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more -abundant in some parts than in others, but no where scarce. Many of -these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon the -_saul_, _sissoo_, and other useful timbers grow spontaneously; offering -to us an inexhaustible depôt! The only consideration is, that -water-carriage should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller, who pays not -more than sixpence, or a shilling, for each tree he may choose, and -which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber, -considers it a bad speculation, if some river be not within a stone’s -throw of the selected wood: his object is to lop and bark as fast as he -can, and then to launch the tree into the river, there to be fastened to -others, intended to form a raft, or float, which, being secured to a -boat, may glide down with the current to some established market. His -expences are very trifling; for, with the exception of some duties, most -injudiciously imposed, his adventure will not cost more than two-pence -per foot, when arrived at the place of destination; where it may -commonly be sold, without risk or delay, for full three times that sum. -Few _saul-timbers_ measuring a ton, or even a load, (_i.e._ forty, or -fifty, cubic feet,) stand the owner in more than three rupees when -landed at Patna; where such always meet with a very ready sale, in whole -rafts, at nine, ten, and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick, (or -timber;) and this, notwithstanding the number of competitors in the -trade. Those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other, while -they render great service to the public, by preventing the whole trade -from falling into a few hands. Thus, the prices of _saul-timber_ are not -only kept down, but, in general, owing to occasional gluts, seasoned -timbers may be, to any amount, purchased at the several _ghauts_, or -wharfs. - -The mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use -with us, I offer a description of it, under the hope of its affording at -least some variety, if not some useful information. A common _pulwar_, -(or _paunchway_,) of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven in -width, is equipped with two sticks of _saul_, say forty feet long, and -two feet in girth: these are placed across her gunwales, at right angles -with her length, and about six feet from her centre, and very firmly -lashed down. The boat, being in about three feet water, has a tree -brought up to each of her sides, where they are respectively lashed to -the cross timbers, and thus, in succession, until she is judged -incapable of receiving more burthen. In the centre of the boat, a small -cabin is generally made, either of thatch, or of arched bamboo laths, -covered with _durmah_ mats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It -is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at -the fullest, or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest -channels, as it must do in great floods, on account of the waters -finding, for a while, passages along hollows among the inland parts; -that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons. When a float of timber -once gets over the river’s bank, it must be the result of great good -fortune, if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when the waters are -falling, it is common to see very large pinnaces, _budjrows_, and boats -of burthen, left upon some sand, on which they had struck, but which the -rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting! In such cases, -some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year, when the floods lift -them; others are unladen, and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds -of villagers, are pushed along the sands to the deep water; while those -which appear unequal to such a severe operation, are generally broken -up, and sold for various purposes. - -When a float of timber becomes thus situated, the best way is to cut the -ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side, and so to -lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a depth suited to -receiving them again: but this operation, which, on paper, appears very -simple, requires great exertion, and no less despatch; as the strength -of the current, which often runs six or seven miles within the hour, -renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs; especially -as they are very apt to sink into the sands. We commonly see several -floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches are straight, and the -waters deep, with great regularity; the boatmen, in such situations, -having little to do, sit smoking their _nereauls_, with great composure: -sometimes a sail is hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed -expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the progress. Almost -every float, or, at least, every company of floats, has a canoe attached -to it; which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs the men in -charge of the respective vessels, who, by means of _luggies_, (or -bamboo-poles, from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off the -floats from banks, or guide them along the deep water: without such -pilotage, they would be in perpetual danger of grounding, the -inconveniences of which are, as above shewn, by no means inconsiderable. - -Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor, except in very still -water; hence, they are usually brought-to under steep banks, where there -is great depth; and where, in case the river should fall during the -night, they would not be left high and dry. - -The greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed, is that of -running upon a sunken tree, which, having been washed away, by the bank -whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents, is hurled away -into deep water, where it probably lies exposed to view for the first -year. During the hot season, when the waters are low, the boughs are -often cut away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps, they are torn -off by the succeeding rains, so far as to cause their being concealed a -foot or two under the surface. When thus situated, they throw up a deal -of water, so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance; -but, owing to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand, they -frequently are not discovered by the boatmen, until it becomes -impossible to avoid them. - -If the _pulwar_, _i.e._ the supporting boat, strikes upon one of the -branches, her bottom will infallibly be staved in; and, in all -probability, the immense body of water bearing upon the timbers, will -either tear them away from the _pulwar_, or carry off her upper works, -leaving her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation of the -boatmen becomes highly critical; but, as they generally are expert -swimmers, (though, strange to say, some _dandies_, have, like Falstaff, -‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’) few are drowned on such occasions. -The timbers, however, rarely fail to find the bottom, so soon as their -buoyant companion is wrecked. - -The great number of trees thus immersed, some of which equal our largest -oaks, render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during -the night: in some strong waters, such impediments are numerous, and -render the navigation very hazardous, even during the day time; -especially should a _goon_, or track rope, give way just after getting a -boat above them; when this misfortune happens, the chances of escape are -comparatively small indeed. - -When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree, they sometimes go to -pieces, in consequence of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled -as to be pierced in several parts, they very generally remain entire, -presenting, as the waters subside, the very curious spectacle of a -vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds, sitting, as -it were, among the boughs, often ten or twelve feet above the surface of -the stream. It is by no means unusual, in the course of a week’s -travelling, to see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations; more -especially about the month of October. The misfortune is, that, though -the cargo may, perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature, such as -sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the vessel, however expeditiously -emptied, can never be got off; consequently, she must be broken up. - -With respect to the prices of _saul_ timbers, we generally find them to -be nearly the same, year after year, at the same places; provided a -sufficient number, but not a great glut, should arrive within the proper -season. On an average, near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about -sixpence, at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at Calcutta, about two -shillings, or even half-a-crown. An extra price is, of course, put on -timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller kinds, called -_bautties_, which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet, are, in an -opposite degree, depreciated. The _saul_ is a very solid wood, at least -equally so as elm, but has not its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to -split: its grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise heavy, yet -by no means so ponderous as _teak_: both, like many of our firmer woods, -sink in fresh water. - -In the upper provinces, some very fine oak timbers are occasionally to -be seen: these are chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching to -chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut up, and, consequently, very -heavy: this last characteristic gives them the name of _seesah_, or, -lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which generally measure about the -same as the _saul_, from the same forests, (namely, from the -neighbourhood of _Peelabeet_,) rather exceed those of the latter -description; and would probably be greatly enhanced, if the natives -stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings, -or manufactures. The fact is, that the carpenters generally endeavor to -dissuade their employers from purchasing oak, by representing it as -subject to many defects; though the true reason is, that its hardness -infallibly causes more grinding of, than working with, their tools; -which are almost always either too much, or too little tempered. At -Futty-Ghur, _saul_ timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the -foot, and oaks for about two shillings. I recollect buying some of the -former, that measured thirty feet in length, with an average squaring of -fourteen inches, for twenty-eight rupees each; and oaks of the same -dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but wood was then extremely -scarce, and at full twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates. - -The great aptness of _saul_-wood to warp, we should suppose, might have -favored the importation of oak, notwithstanding the outcry against its -flinty hardness: and such would doubtless have been the case, had not -another kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and rather -handsomely veined, been abundant. This, which is called the _sissoo_, -grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with the _saul_; but, in -lieu of towering up with a straight stem, seems partial to crooked -forms, such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships, and for such -parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve. This wood is -extremely hard, and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint -when polished; after being properly seasoned, it rarely cracks, or -warps; nor is it so subject as _saul_ to be destroyed by either -white-ants, or river-worms. The domestic uses of _sissoo_ are chiefly -confined to the construction of furniture, especially chairs, tables, -tepoys, (or tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c. &c. for all -which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate, with the exception of its -being very ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced by -its great durability, and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons, -dovetails, &c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker, or joiner. -_Sissoo_ is, of late, more employed than formerly for the frame, ribs, -knees, &c. of ships, especially those of great burthen: for such, it is -found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak. When timbers -can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it is often applied -for bends, and, indeed, for a portion of the planking, or casing; but it -is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve. -Though admirably suited for stern and head-work, it is neither long -enough for keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter -for the supply of stern-posts. Some _sissoo-trees_ grow to a great -weight; but, unluckily, the devious directions of their boughs render it -necessary to lop them away for minor purposes: if, instead of dividing -into several large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the -ground, one large stem were to rise, however crooked, to double that -height, there would be a great encrease of substance; as it is, however, -we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton (_i.e._ -forty cubic feet). - -This inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which -trees are felled throughout India. There, it is common to see the axe -(for no saws are used on such occasions) laid to the stem often at a -yard or more from the soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in -depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as to penetrate into the -heart: this creates considerable loss, which is frequently rendered -still greater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in -the act of quitting the root, or stool. If this wood were more scarce, -probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length; as -it is, we see, that, even those ship-builders who occasionally send -their agents into the _Morungs_, or great forests to the north of -_Bahar_ and _Purneah_, allow the same loss to take place; thus -disqualifying the timbers from more general, as well as more important, -adaptation. The price of _sissoo_, for the most part, runs about -twenty-five, or even to forty per cent. above that of _saul_; but, in -many places, up the country especially, where naval architecture is not -in view, their values are generally about equal. In such situations, it -is less an object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed, -and, in a great variety of instances, superseded, by the _baubool_, (a -species of _mimosa_, generally growing wild,) whose crooked billets are -deservedly in great estimation, and whose bark is considered to be, if -any thing, superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use. - -I should have remarked, that, in some parts of the country, especially -along the western frontier, a small kind of _saul_ grows wild: this -rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is commonly used entire, in -lieu of bamboos, for enclosures, rafters of _bungalows_, &c. It is very -peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any length of time, even -under a thatch; it being subject to the depredations of a very small -insect, called the _g’hoon_, which perforates it in a thousand places, -depositing its eggs, which are very numerous, and absolutely rendering -the rafter a mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous little -devils are commonly quiet, but, after night-fall, when all else is -still, may be heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed to the -sounds, would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on -the thatch. In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes in much -less, the rafters will be found to give way; on examination, they appear -as though pierced with large awls; and, when struck forcibly with a -hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish powder, resulting no doubt from the -labors of the multitude of inhabitants. The _g’hoon_, which rarely -exceeds the sixth of an inch in length, is of a chocolate color, very -hard about the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings, and -terminates abruptly behind, giving the exact appearance of its rump -having been burnt off. Those timbers which are used immediately after -being felled, as usually happens, are certainly the first to be attacked -by the _g’hoon_; but, so far as my own observations went, and according -to the experience of two years, in a quarter where we used scarcely any -other kind of wood for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not afford -security against, though it obviously retarded, their attacks. Possibly, -if all of this description of _saul_ trees intended for rafters, were to -be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding -in their vicinity, and of which a great majority are strongly -impregnated with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and sulphur, the -_g’hoons_ might be altogether repelled: the immersion should continue -for a year or two; the trees being previously allowed to season -standing, by cutting away a circle of bark, about six inches wide, near -the ground, that the flow of sap might be discontinued. We find no mode -to answer so well as this for our climate; in India, the advantages -would be still more extensive, in consequence of the regularity, and -particular effects of the three great seasons, into which the year is -there naturally divided. It is curious, but true, that the _g’hoon_ acts -less upon such timbers as have been squared, than on such as have only -been deprived of their bark; and, that in the large species of _saul_, -that is, such as is used in most parts of the country for great -buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not disposed, to burrow. - -Intermixed with the smaller species of _saul_, though by no means -abundant, we find another tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the -designation of _seesah_; and that, too, owing to the great specific -gravity of its wood: this, however, does not grow to any size, but -appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum -vitæ, and ebony, are now used. - -In the same jungles with the foregoing, a most remarkable tree is -sometimes found, of which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly -approaching to black: hence, the natives call it the ‘_cowah_’ (or -‘crow-tree’); but, from the hardness of its wood, it certainly might, -with propriety, be termed the ‘_iron-tree_.’ The carpenters seem to view -it much in the same light with the black-oak of _Peelabeet_; and, -doubtless, tremble for their tools, whenever the _cowah_ is to become -subject to their labors. - -Although such _bungalows_ as are built with a view to duration, are -sometimes built of the best materials, and have every part of their -roofs sustained by rafters of the best _saul_, by far the majority of -such buildings, and nearly all at the military stations, are constructed -on a much cheaper scale, having only _mango-wood_ rafters, door-plates, -&c. The great abundance of _mango_ trees, added to their being easily -worked, and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to -furnish beams, of perhaps two feet square, and from fifteen to thirty -feet long, give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood -brought from any distance. Formerly, a gentleman could send out his -servant, with wood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever trees might -be found suitable to his intentions, without any questions being asked; -but of late, and especially since the introduction of the _Mocurrery_ -settlement, (which will be hereafter explained,) the _zemindars_, (or -land-holders,) and the _raiuts_, (or peasants,) have set a value upon -every twig that grows, and invariably demand from one to four rupees, -for such _mango_ trees as may be felled for the use of any European; -especially in the military. As to a Company’s civil servant, either the -hope of his favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is found to -seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil; who even is -assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this -description. I must caution my readers against entertaining any -sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the adulation in -question results entirely from that servile, abject, and crafty -disposition, for which the _zemindars_ are notorious where their -interests are any way implicated. They judge of our collectors, -magistrates, &c., as they would of their own; at least, so far as to -suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will; but, they are, at the -same time, thoroughly sensible, that in all public, as well as in all -private, intercourse, the Company’s servants act with the most -conscientious propriety, and with the most undeviating attention to -justice. It matters not that this character may be repugnant to some -proofs existing of former rapacity, and extortion; which may now be -deemed obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to such extent as must -be expected under every form of government, and among every race of -people, in spite of the utmost vigilance. - -The wood of the _mango_ is much like that of the _plane-tree_, but -rather more tough, and its fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in -very general use for rafters, door and wall-plates, frames for windows -and doors, especially of out-offices, pannelled and plain doors, -floorings of factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine chests, -indigo boxes, roofs of _budjrows_, and a thousand other purposes, both -of individual convenience, and of mercantile service. It is, however, -particularly subject to the _white-ant_; and, unless carefully preserved -from damp, will speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to work, -are points much in its favor. Though we consider a _mango-plank_ to be -at least at par, when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in width, -yet great numbers may be had, by research, of double that breadth. My -carpenters once felled a tree, which proved too large for any saw I -could obtain in that quarter. - -Sometimes we see very old tables made of _mango-wood_, which exhibit -some beautiful veins, and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can -only attend a very careful choice of planks, which must likewise be -seasoned, and be worked to great advantage: otherwise, a _mango-wood_ -table will appear singularly coarse and mean. - -As to the tree itself, much may be said in its favor, though, owing to -the stiffness of the leaves, it cannot be termed graceful: its deep -green, contrasted with the white spindling blossoms, (much resembling -those of the horse-chesnut,) and its abundant foliage, give it a -richness, and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye; especially as -it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season, -when the grass begins to parch, and the surface of the soil changes from -that agreeable verdure produced by the rains, and, in some degree, -cherished by the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre russet! The -fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set; -though, sometimes, severe blights occur, which render the whole -abortive; when about the size of a very large gooseberry, the young -_mangoes_ make excellent pies; not unlike those containing apples, but -with a certain terebinthinic flavor, which does not always please in the -first instance, but soon becomes palatable. When about half grown, that -is, beyond the size of a large walnut, they are in good order for -pickling. This fruit is also preserved in common _mosaul-oil_; in this -instance, they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar -pickle, before they are immersed in the oil. Many persons are very -partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my humble opinion, nothing can -be more rank; especially when the rinds are not pared off. _Mangoes_ -likewise make a very rich preserve, provided they are prepared before -the stones are suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous, and -cut with peculiar harshness. With respect to the ripe fruit, it is -impossible to describe the flavor; since, even on the same tree, various -kinds will often be found. A stranger would conclude, on seeing -_mangoes_ of different colors, different scents, and different shapes, -ripening on the same tree, that they had been grafted; but such is not -the fact: there seems to be some very peculiar property, that causes it -to shoot out with such different bearings, which remain on distinct -boughs; as though the tree were composed of various twigs, all -proceeding from the same stem. What can be said of a fruit varying in -flavor, from the finest apricot, down to a very bad carrot? Such, -however, is known to be common: it is true, that, for the most part, the -whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar, both in shape, and flavor; -but such is not always the case. As for the produce of trees resulting -from the kernels of the same kind of _mango_, that is quite a lottery; -for, like potatoes raised from seed, there will generally be found a -great variety. - -The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration in _mangoes_, by a -very simple process. They select some healthy branches on a good tree, -and, having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl, surround the part -with a lump of wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means of a piece -of canvas, bound lightly with hempen bands. Above each part thus -treated, a large pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom a small -hole; which, being partially stopped with a piece of rag, allows the -water to drip, whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In about three -months, small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark; which, on the -branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed, strike into the -soil, and become roots. It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by -branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy, while the stone diminishes -considerably; it being more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the -common _mango_. By persevering in the operation, that is, by repeating -it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated, for some generations, the -kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable, while the skin -also loses much of that highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance -of turpentine it contains. - -_Mangoes_ are peculiarly stimulant, rarely failing to cause those who -eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size, and -often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely necessary to treat -these as critical abscesses; for, were any repellent to be applied, -serious consequences would inevitably follow. Persons lately arrived in -the country, often devour this luscious fruit, until checked either by a -dozen or two of these most distressing companions, or, perhaps, in -consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot -climates, and which, though generally not very difficult to remedy when -properly treated in its first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying -off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably -sound. When eaten in moderation, _mangoes_ are gently aperient; but if, -notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects, the rind should be -incautiously swallowed, the stomach will be considerably disordered. The -_gland_, or kernel, which in shape is something like a very large, flat, -Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the palate, its flavor being very similar -to that of the acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes, which often -take shelter, during the season, in _topes_, or forests, of wild -_mangoes_, eat the entire fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great -avidity, and thrive amazingly. - -The generality of _mango-topes_ owe their origin to religious -institutions, or to bequests, or to charitable donations. To plant one, -it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple; when, -the trees being set out, perhaps thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, -so as to form regular square intervals, the whole are fenced by means of -a deep ditch; from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and -either planted with _baubool_, (_mimosa_,) or sown with that tall kind -of grass which bears a very large tassel, and is known by the name of -_surput_: of this grass notice has already been taken in describing the -_seerky_ used in thatching _bungalows_. Some _topes_ are endowed with -small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom a -_comfortable_ residence, and a substantial _durgaw_, (or temple,) are -erected. The sale of the fruit, (which generally proves a full crop in -four or five years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown -walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking a well, cased with masonry. -But it is more common for the person who causes the _tope_ to be -planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate the marriage of the -former with the latter, in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On -such occasions, the well, being supposed to possess the fecundatory -powers, is considered the husband; the _tope_ being typified as -feminine, by the fruit it produces. However much we may be disposed to -smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony, and expence, we -cannot but admire its effects; which, in a tropical climate, are highly -beneficial, both to the weary traveller, and to the thirsty soil. Hence, -the sight of a _mango-tope_ is generally attended with the most pleasing -anticipations! - -Although _mango-topes_ abound in every part of the lower provinces, -their wood, except in _bungalows_, is rarely employed in European -architecture; nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber: large -quantities are every year cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very -ordinary purposes, where great strength and durability are not -essentials. The immense quantities of fine bamboos, which ordinarily -grow very straight to the height of sixty feet, or more, though rarely -measuring more than five inches diameter near the root, and gradually -tapering off as they ascend, supply the contented native with rafters, -joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a great variety of et ceteras, all -tending either to his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary price -of these invaluable reeds (for they are of the _arundo_ tribe) may be -from three-pence to five-pence each; that is, generally from seven to -twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand. Millions of them are -annually brought to Calcutta, both by water, and on _hackeries_; in the -former instance, they, being remarkably buoyant, are floated in clumps, -or, perhaps, are made into rafts, on which _boossah_, (or chaff,) and -even corn, are laden; or they are tied to the sides of very large boats, -which also carry from five hundred, to as many thousands, as a cargo. -The buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells, -as by the lightness of its wood. These cells, in a common sized bamboo, -may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that -are near the roots; where the wood is far more solid and compact than in -the upper parts, towards which the cells become gradually wider, and the -joints longer; thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very -considerably, as we find to be the case with reeds in general. This -variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience, their -allotment being made according as the work may require more or less -substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be split, like whale-bone, from -top to bottom, without much exertion, scope is afforded for applying it, -with great promptness, to an infinite variety of purposes. - -In their whole state, bamboos are used, not only for rafters in the -construction of _bungalows_, but as yards for the sails of the common -country craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for -top-gallant studding-sail booms, in vessels not exceeding four or five -hundred tons: their immense strength qualifying them admirably for that -situation. The smaller open boats, throughout the East, are generally -fitted with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part of the reed, the -upper being more suited, by its lightness, to be employed as yards: -thus, for three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons may be -furnished, from the same bamboo, with both mast and yard. In vessels of -greater burthen, two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos, are lashed -together around a stout piece of wood, which, passing through the -thatch, fits into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well secured by -chocks and lashings in various places. This stick, which serves as the -base of the mast, may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten inches -diameter: it is commonly left in a very rough state, that the bamboos -which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places. In -this manner the mast is run up, probably to the height of forty or fifty -feet, according to the vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet -is bound by cords made of white hemp. The position of this -awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable; many of which, -being allowed to point forward, before the line of the mast’s -perpendicular, obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably. The -strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail; sometimes one -well-selected bamboo may suffice, but in vessels of great bulk, say from -sixty to ninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos are found -requisite. - -The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas, constructed of -a very indifferent kind of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and -known by the name of _gunny_: each piece may measure six or seven feet -by thirty inches; consequently, the innumerable joinings made in a large -sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s escape. _Blacky_ is not -very particular in this respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as -a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters. - -It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable tackling in use?’ The -reasons are, _firstly_, because the native owner of a vessel will not go -to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary, -however clumsy, or subject to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to -have her, as he thinks, ready for departure. _Secondly_, the materials -are probably of his own growth, or he deals in them, or, which is often -the sole motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by far cheaper -than more substantial materials; and, _thirdly_, even if other materials -of a better quality, and in every instance more appropriate, were to be -had for the same money, he would not very readily deviate from the -customs of his ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European principles -to be wrecked, the whole family would impute the accident to the sin -engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination -by even the lowest _casts_, (or sects,) throughout the country. -Nevertheless, we sometimes see the _manjy_ and _dandies_ grievously put -out of their way, by some shrewd native, who resolutely breaks through -the general prejudice, and imitates that which his faculties convince -him is founded upon science. Not that he will understand the how, and -the wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good, and he adopts it: -whereas, if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance -with our system, in that, or in any other particular, we should -assuredly witness his receding, if possible, from every idea of -improvement; or, if under the necessity of conforming, that his whole -deportment would betray the reluctance, and antipathy, he felt on the -occasion. - -May not this trait in the character of Asiatics in general, serve as a -hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of Christianity? -May it not shew that much may be done by _suaviter in modo_, provided we -temper the _fortiter in re_?—Certainly! - -Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have an ample resource for rafters, -as well as for posts and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows, it -may be said wild, throughout those parts within reach either of the -sea-water, or of the sea-air. Not that it is absolutely confined to such -situations; but, in proportion as those are removed, so does the natural -growth of this tree gradually diminish; giving way to the _taul_, (or -fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous, and, in many instances, -less useful, attains a great height, and furnishes a much larger -quantity of wood. In general, few _Bengallees_ will cut down a -_nereaul_, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which supplies them with so many -requisites. Thus, the outer coating, which often weighs from one to two -pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes those fibres called -_coir_, whereof both small rigging and cables are made. This kind of -rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant; floating on the surface of -the sea, to any extent; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the -current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity of -_coir_; having previously fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its -end: by this device, the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the -ship’s stern. - -I should think, that, were a _coir_ hawser kept on board every ship in -the British marine, a great number of lives would be saved. It is, -however, peculiar, that fresh water rots _coir_ in a very short time; -corroding it in a most unaccountable manner; whereas salt water -absolutely invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity. This -shews that _coir_ is by no means fit to be used in running rigging, nor -as shroud-hawsers, &c., especially for vessels subject to approach low -latitudes; it being easily snapped in frosty weather. - -Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her -cables are of _coir_: as the surges approach the bows, the vessel -gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable yielding to their force; -but, so soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel -gently back to her first position. The lightness of the material -doubtless adds to this pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were -not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down. It is to be -remarked, that a hempen-cable always makes a curve _downwards_, between -the vessel and the anchor, but a _coir_ cable makes a curve _upwards_: -therefore, if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to the ring -of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic -spindle; of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments, or -nearly so. - -A very considerable trade is carried on, from all parts of India, with -the Maldivies, and Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands near -the west coast of the peninsula,) for _coir_ and _cowries_; the latter -being used for inferior currency, while the former is greatly -appreciated, on account of the fibres being much larger, and firmer, -than those grown upon the continent. Not only the islands above named, -but all within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut tree; which, -in many of them, stand absolutely in the water. These owe their origin -to the growth of such nuts as, having been blown down, or dropped, when -ripe, are buried in the sands; above which their acrospires soon appear, -when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors. -It is said, that, about a hundred and fifty years back, the _Sechelles_ -and _Maldivies_ were known only as concealed sands, highly dangerous to -the navigator; and that, after they had, by the action of the sea, -accumulated so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts -was wrecked upon one of these banks, which speedily threw up whole -forests of that tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished: others -attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the -Malabar coast. Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts; but -the former appears by far the most probable. Be it one way or the other, -we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense -forests of cocoas, but, that they are inhabited by a people, governed -much in the same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such we may call -these, as well as Johanna, Comora, Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial -relations may be said to consist of _coir_ and _cowries_, bartered with -their neighbours of the peninsula, and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for -cotton-cloths, rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may have been -owing, the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles; for, -notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their -former state of immersion, yet their cocoa forests, which generally -tower to the height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the -distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain his locality with -correctness, and to avoid the numerous shoals, by a due attention to the -bearings and soundings. The natives are said to be extremely well -acquainted with their archipelago, and to pilot vessels of great burthen -with perfect security and precision. - -The next consideration with the native, respecting the cocoa-nut, is its -water, by us called cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained -within the shell, and, in general, may amount to three quarters of a -pint. It is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the -husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy -turnip; at which time, very little coagulum adheres to the interior of -the shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely turned by rennet. -Gradually, the water becomes rather turbid, and acquires a stronger -taste; while the coagulum encreases to about the third, or even the -half, of an inch in thickness; hardening, and becoming tough, but easily -snapped into pieces. When arrived at this state, it abounds in oil, -which, at first is remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor, and is -much used by the native Portugueze, in lieu of _ghee_, in their culinary -operations. - -The mode of extracting the oil is very simple: a piece of wood, say two -feet in length, six inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at one -of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in by means of a spike: this -stem must be stout, and should measure about ten inches; but, towards -its summit, spreading into the form of an inverted crescent, somewhat -concave, and deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as usual, on -the ground, the operator keeps the baton from tilting, by placing one of -his feet firmly upon it: in that position he takes the nuts, commonly -broken into two or more pieces, by a forcible stroke of some heavy -implement, or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping the interior -of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron, causes the coagulum -to fall, in form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed below to -receive it. To effect this with more facility, the stem slants obliquely -from the baton; allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately -under the crescent. The raspings are now put into hot water, in which -they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon; by this -means the oil is separated; it is drawn off by opening a little hole -near its surface, as it floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how -much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes; but, both from its own -nature, and the mode of extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid; -a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthy -_Signors_, who, as well as the Hindus in general, are partial to it as -an unguent for the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this powerful -finish to the charms of an Indian Venus is highly objectionable: of all -the stinks of which India can boast, it certainly is the worst. But, as -before observed, if used immediately after extraction, nothing can be -sweeter: it also burns remarkably well; therefore is in general use for -lamps among all the European inhabitants. The residuum, after separating -the oil, fattens poultry better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon -cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by all who have visited -the Andamans and Nicobars. Considering the coagulum as a food for -mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to recommend it; though it -is certain that the natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me, -that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and that, when ate as a -meal, much inconvenience, if not indisposition, will generally follow. -Nor can I recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels -are not of the strongest; it being aperient, and, when used beyond a -certain quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery: the amount of a -nut-ful may, perhaps, be drank with perfect safety. During very hot -weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered to remain for a -while in cold water, it is not very easy to withstand the temptation. - -The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to -ripen upon the tree; it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark -chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a rich dun, or clay, or -perhaps striated with those tints: they then take a good polish, and -may, when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental to the -sideboard. But, it is to be observed, that they are rather a brittle -ware, compared with their solid appearance; and, that it requires a -great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent, -reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil, of that peculiar -and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping, and -especially by exposure to the air. - -Previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls, passages, &c., in -the houses of Europeans, cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about -three-pence, or four-pence, per _seer_ (_i.e._ the measurement of a -_seer_, which comes very nearly to the English quart; in some places -exceeding it, but in others falling short). Since that practice has -obtained, in consequence of candles having been doubled in price, the -oil has likewise been enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and -a half, or four _seers_ per rupee; which accords with seven-pence -halfpenny of our currency per quart. No kind of animal oil is in use -among the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories; if, -indeed, we except that most curious production, the _meemii-ke-tale_, or -oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors; who, being well fed for a -month, or more, previous to execution, for the purpose of encreasing -their fat, have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet, and -metal vessels placed to receive the drippings. That this practice has -heretofore obtained, under the government of the native princes, does -not, I believe, admit of a doubt; but, that it is now obsolete, is -equally certain. Still _meemii-ke-tale_ (_i.e._ human oil) may be had at -many places; though not genuine, but composed of whatever materials may -form a mass resembling that originally in use. I have seen several of -these masses, which were of a dark, opaque brown, appearing something -like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become hard by -exposure to the sun, or by inspissation: its smell was intolerably -offensive. On the whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed to -cure all contractions, and stiffness of the joints, is a subject of -astonishment, when we consider it to be in use among a people so very -peculiar in their tenets, and professing so much humanity, not only -towards their brethren, but towards all animated nature. Had Shakespeare -been acquainted with the existence of the _meemii_, he certainly would -have given it a place in Hecate’s stir-about! - -If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils, the greatest -abundance could be commanded; porpoises, turtles, alligators, -dog-fishes, and sharks, all of which contain large quantities, exist in -every part where the water is brackish; some of them, indeed, become -even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases. Whales, -likewise, are occasionally seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique -Channel are extremely common. But, to persons habituated from their -infancy to the use of high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be -insipid: such people want a _haut-goût_ in their sauces; yet it must be -confessed, they certainly manage to render even their strongest -preparations extremely palatable; but, to relish them properly, the -culinary operations must not always be witnessed. _Babachees_, or cooks, -in the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely filthy; far more so -than when dressing their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing in -the use of water on such occasions, even though it should be brought -from some distance; yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are -sometimes content to use water from a pool, comparable only with that -into which Ariel ushered the surly Caliban. - -The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers, when the central pith -is scooped out, for canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be into -slips of any width, forms excellent rafters: if applied to that purpose, -all the soft part is taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior -case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic, about three inches in -thickness. A trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into -five staves, each about seven inches wide: such should be placed -edgeways on the walls, that their scantlings may be in a proper -direction. Rafters thus made, provided they be not more than twenty -feet, or thereabouts, in length, and not too heavily laden, will stand -for generations, without shewing the smallest symptom of decay. In -saying this, I am to be understood as alluding to their being under -cover; otherwise, they will not exhibit such durability, although they -may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers. - -The reader is to understand, that, excepting where merely temporary, -that is to say, intended for a few weeks, or months, _bungalows_ are -always built with pavilion thatches; by which construction they resist -the weather far better, while the quantity of brick-work is considerably -less than where gables are run up. The proximity of the thatches in the -_veranda_ parts, renders them far less cool, in the hot months, than the -interior, in which the thatch is so much further removed: the latter -would be rendered much cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for -the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as already suggested. -Cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts, for the purpose of -being made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made on each side, -about half an inch from the edge, and a stick is passed through, serving -as a handle; much the same as we see in the _jets_ used by brewers for -taking liquor out of their vats. When sawed into two equal parts, across -the grain of the _coir_ coating, cocoa-nuts make excellent table -brushes, causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their -friction. As this operation requires some strength, it is proper to be -careful that the edges of the shell, if left in, (as is sometimes, -though improperly, done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once -rendered so, they will never scratch, however forcibly the brush may be -applied. A very good mode is, to strip off the _coir_, and, after -soaking it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the -pieces become a little pliant, when they should be firmly bound together -with an iron ring: their ends being then levelled, the implement is fit -for use. A little bees’-wax rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly -to the lustre of the furniture, without being clammy. - -The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa, but -grows to a much greater height, and is put to the same purposes. On -first seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose that a strong -wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots; which consist of -innumerable small fibres, that penetrate but a very little way, -comparatively, into the soil. When one of these trees is laid prostrate -by the wind, a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a cubic -yard. The leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa: the former -being rather spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length, by perhaps -two inches at their broadest part, and attached to each side of the rib, -which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang gracefully on -every side of the trunk; covering the nuts, which grow on very short, -stiff stems, close under the place where the leaves start from it in all -directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller, branches, grow with rather a -vertical tendency. - -The _toddy-palm_ has, on the contrary, about ten or a dozen large -leaves, radiated from their stems, arranged in folds very similar to a -lady’s fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented considerably: -the leaves form each about three-fourths of a circle, but not very -regularly so; some more, some less. These are made into _punkahs_, or -fans, of various sizes; or, when torn into strips of about two inches -wide, which may be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve the -natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of the accounts kept by -Bengallees are written on these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed -instrument, which, marking through the glossy rind, or coating, on -either side of the leaf, remains, ever after, perfectly distinct and -legible. Those who wish to have the letters still more so, rub the -leaves, after filled with writings, with _kaujool_, or lamp-black; which -sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument, but easily -wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced. -Some hundreds of these leaves may be seen, secured together at one end -by a twine passed through each, like waste paper in a grocer’s shop; -thus forming a voluminous collection. The fruit of the _taul_ consists -of two, or sometimes three, _lobes_, or pods, somewhat similar to those -in a horse-chesnut, and, like them, concealed in a pithy, spherical -coating, but with a smooth exterior. Each _lobe_ is hollow, and contains -a small quantity of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very slight -degree, of the flavor of rose-water; the _lobes_ themselves are about -the size of a Chelsea-bun, are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous -substance, and pleasant to the palate: their exterior is covered with a -very thin, brown rind, like that of an almond; rather astringent, but by -no means acrid. - -The liquor, called _toddy_, is obtained by making an incision under the -head of the tree, when, a thin wedge being introduced, the _toddy_ will -gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it. This liquor is -very pleasing when fresh drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh -flavor, ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating. It answers admirably -as leaven, making very light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly -done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a most unpleasant tartness -to the bread. Groves of _toddy-trees_, in some parts of the country, -yield a very handsome revenue, and great profit to the renters. Like the -cocoa-nut tree, they have within their summits a substance very like a -cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them, with -the view of carrying that part to sea; where it will, if left within its -rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of this vegetable, but did not -feel much gratified, though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it seemed -to require much boiling. - -The stem of the _toddy-palm_ is annulated, but not very deeply: of this -the _toddy_-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending -again to the plain, with wondrous agility. This is effected by a piece -of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop -of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends -of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces -the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself -from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of -the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining -himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a -second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as -much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively -stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the -summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his -weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending, -and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be -allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons, -following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the -highest _palmira_; by which name the _toddy-palm_ is most generally -known to Europeans. The natives designate it the _taul_ (or -_taul-gautch_). - -I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever -come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though, in -some few situations, the _soondry_ and _jarrool_ are employed for the -minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who -hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and -to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. The _soondry_ is -a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while the _jarrool_, though -rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our -indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next -to the _teak_, hence, many of the _donies_, (or coasting vessels,) -measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally -built therewith. When _teak_ is scarce, we occasionally see the -ship-wrights apply _jarrool_ in their repairs of the upper works of -large vessels. - -Having said thus much of the manner in which houses, and _bungalows_, -are constructed, I have only to observe, that, of late years, the -European architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to -appearance. Those old houses built at a time when _punkahs_, _tatties_, -glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly evince that attention was -paid to coolness, but without disregarding convenience. Now, although -building is full fifty per cent. cheaper than it was thirty years ago, -we see the walls much less substantial, and, on the whole, a want of -local fitness in the arrangement of the several apartments. I must -caution the reader, that what would appear an admirable plan for a -residence in our climate, would be found totally inconsistent with the -temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in India, and with the -several practices, and operations, peremptorily necessary towards -meeting those changes. It must never be forgotten, that, at some -seasons, and at some hours in all seasons, every door and window is -usually thrown open; likewise, that, during the continuance of the hot -winds, such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool, by _tatties_ -applied to some apertures on that floor, whence the current of -refrigerated air may find admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at -night in particular, will glow like ovens. - -The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun, blowing at first very gently, -but encreasing gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after which, -it subsides into a perfect calm. This is its ordinary course, but some -days remain calm throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows a -hurricane the whole night through. I have, indeed, known it to continue, -with very little change of temperature, or variation of force, for full -ten days; during which period, the nights were, if any thing, hotter -than the days; so that extra _b’heesties_ were retained to water the -_tatties_ during the night. That was, to be sure, a very singular -season, carrying with it a prodigious mortality; great numbers dying -suddenly. It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled apoplexy, -attacked all ages alike, and paid no deference to the abstemious and -temperate, any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes. - -In describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives, I -explained, that their chief attention was paid to privacy, and to the -exclusion of the glare. The superior ranks are not less intent upon the -same objects; though many of their state apartments do not indicate, -that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration. -Some of the _Durbars_ are uncommonly exposed; and, in consequence of the -crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and the constant succession of -entrances and exits, form a most uncomfortable _tout ensemble_. Yet, it -appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their -system, not only within the time we have been acquainted with them, but, -if we examine their ancient structures, not for centuries before a -British foot was placed upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the -same aspect given to all their buildings, especially to their places of -worship: _nimauzes_, (or open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the -habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are made to front the -west; under the idea of their facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error -may be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches -always at the east end, with the view to their standing towards the -place of our Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with their heads -to the west, on the same account. - -Having detailed what relates to the domestic habits, and to the -architecture of the country, I shall now proceed to describe the manner -of living among Europeans in India; observing, that there are two very -distinct classes, though perfectly on a footing; namely, the residents -of Calcutta, and those among the civil and military, who are subject to -be detached from the Presidency. Formerly, only such gentlemen as held -offices of considerable emolument, or those who were married, supported -a regular table: such might be said to keep open-house; at least, far -the greater number usually laid several spare covers, especially at -supper-time, under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake -of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner hour being known, (for -almost every family then dined between two and three o’clock,) it was -rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for -repairing to the hospitable board. Little or no ceremony was required; -the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of -a young friend, as the latter was to find a welcome among the most -opulent and respectable portion of the European community. - -Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter, confine itself within the -limits of economical saving: it was generally found, that such as became -habitually inmates of this description, were recommended to the notice -of Government, or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s service,) -as afforded the immediate means of maintenance, or eventually led to -lucrative speculations. A variety of instances could be adduced, of -young gentlemen having, from the foregoing admission within the domestic -circle of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant situation, -namely, a want of respectable friends; these, as Shakespeare properly -remarks, ‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such _was_ the state of -society when I first arrived in India, [1778] and such _was_ the fair -expectation, with which not only young gentlemen, but many ‘far advanced -upon time’s list,’ landed on the shores of the Ganges. In fact, it -required that some very substantial objection should personally exist, -to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly -reception. Still, however, it must be acknowledged, that a certain -distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent in favor of those who -came with appointments to the Company’s service; especially in the civil -line. To a certain extent, such might have been considered reasonable, -when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be -expected; but, the matter was doubtless carried too far; it being -distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value -upon its object, the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed -inferior; thus, causing the former to preponderate in society in a -multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking from one scale to put -into the other, occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion -of three to one. - -The gradual encrease of commercial transactions, and of intercourse, -with several parts of that extensive territory, which ultimately has -come under the influence, if not the control, of the British government, -served as invitations to many adventurers, who quitted Europe under -assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations were generally -confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country; -whereby a complete change took place, as to the estimation in which -free-merchants, as they are generally termed, were held. - -Among this class, there have, within a few years, appeared numbers, -whose industry, and extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous; and -it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict, that, in the course of a -few years, the success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an -encrease of private traders, as cannot fail to give birth to events of -great national importance. - -It would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work, -but it may be permitted, without trespassing the bounds I have marked -out to myself, to anticipate, that the commercial society of India will, -in time, grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some -thirty years ago. We have, at the same time, to lament, that, owing to -such an augmentation of all ranks, it has been found necessary to drop -many customs suited only to a limitted society, and to adopt a certain -reserve, which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine -ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of -Oriental hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace -with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce. There will, -however, even at this day, be found much to approve; and the mind endued -with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility, very nearly -akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for -many a grateful acknowledgment. - -Morning visits are not, generally speaking, so uncommon as they were: -formerly, few went to pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon; for, -the dinner-hour being early, there was little time for such unsocial -compliments; whereas, now, that it is generally delayed until about -sun-set, that is to say, to perhaps five, or six, or even to seven -o’clock, the forenoon is more applicable to the reception of visitors; -who, if on any terms of intimacy, do not hesitate to join the family at -a little _avant-diner_ commonly called a _tiffing_, and known among us -by the name of _lunch_. This kind of refreshment (for it is not -considered a repast) usually takes place between one and two o’clock, -and consists of grilled fowls, mutton chops, cold meats, and sometimes -of _curry_ and rice. Being conducted without ceremony, and in a very -desultory style, the dropping in of friends never occasions the -slightest discontinuance, any more than the accidental arrival among an -English party here, of an intimate, while partaking of a slice of cake -and a glass of wine. The various formalities are, however, now -transferred from P. M. to A. M. and it is usual to see the town of -Calcutta thronged with _palanquins_ during the whole of what is called -the forenoon; but which commonly is made to extend to three o’clock; -about which time, especially during nine months in the year, most -persons are at home, divested of their usual dresses, and reclining, in -some cool apartment, on a bed, or a couch, for the purpose of repose, -and to prepare for that change of linen, and for those ablutions, not -forgetting the bath, which are both comfortable, and essential, in so -very sultry a climate. - -Gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies, commonly repair to their -houses between eight and nine o’clock in the evening; ordinarily under -the expectation of being invited to stay and sup: an invitation that is -rarely declined. - -Among ladies who are intimately acquainted, morning visits are common, -but all who wish to preserve etiquette, or merely return the compliment -by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance, confine them to the -evening; when, attended by one or more gentlemen, they proceed, in their -_palanquins_, on a tour devoted entirely to this cold exchange of what -is called civility. - -Among the several justly-exploded ceremonies, we may reckon that, which -existed until within the last twenty years, of ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was -called: we must, at the same time, do the ci-devant inhabitants of -Calcutta the justice to remark, that the practice was evidently founded -on good-will and hospitality; although it bore so strong a resemblance -to the exhibition of a cargo of slaves, as to occasion many a -caricature, and many a satirical expenditure of ink. This ‘SITTING UP,’ -as it was termed, generally took place at the house of some lady of -rank, or fortune, who, for three successive nights, threw open her -mansion towards the evening, for the purpose of receiving all, both -ladies and gentlemen, who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as -might have recently arrived in the country. The fair damsels were thus -at once introduced to the whole settlement, and not unfrequently -obtained a variety of offers from men of the first consequence. Many -matches have, indeed, been concluded even before the third night of -exhibition. If we consider the fatigue attendant upon the return of -these numerous visits, (for the slightest omission would have been an -unpardonable offence,) and that the novelty of riding in a _boçhah_, (or -chair-_palanquin_,) would not be agreeable to all, we may form some idea -of what many a delicate female, melting with the heat, tight-laced, and -tormented with musquito-bites, must have undergone during the -performance of this ceremony. To the gentlemen of the settlement, it -might have been abundantly pleasing; they had nothing to do but to post -about in their _palanquins_ from one sitting up to another, and there -either to admire, or to quiz, the fair sufferers, according as their -taste, or caprice, might dictate. The throng has, in some _lovely_ -instances, been so very great, that even a fourth night has been -required for the benefit of bachelors from the interior! - -The great encrease, not only of inhabitants, but of houses, some of -which are situated at an inconvenient distance, has rendered the custom -of ‘sitting up’ nearly obsolete. The modern instances of its -continuance, are, indeed, so very few, and those few so modified, as -barely to leave room for saying that it is at all in use. In these days, -a lady is received on landing by her friends, who, generally, after a -few days of repose, and of preparation, invite their acquaintances, to -be introduced to their fair companion, who, in the course of a week, -usually returns their visits. This is merely a partial shew, compared -with what formerly took place, and is no more than would be practised in -England on a similar occasion: it is true, that, where superlative -attractions exist, many, who probably are not in the habit of visiting -the family, will often avail themselves of the opportunity to _chaperon_ -some acquaintance, merely with the intention of gaining a peep at the -goddess. - -The company rarely sit long at table after dinner, unless among those -convivial souls who deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance. -Such were formerly very numerous, but of late, the society of the sex -has been more duly appreciated, and we see the gentlemen quitting the -bottle to retire to the _chabootah_, (or terrace,) there to enjoy the -cool air of the evening, and to take a cup of tea, or to smoke their -_hookahs_; after which, those who have business to attend, proceed to -their offices, &c., while the larger portion separate to partake of a -family supper with some of their female acquaintances. Very little -ceremony is used on such occasions; the gentlemen leaving their hats in -their _palanquins_, and ordering their servants to proceed, as a matter -of course, to the houses whither their _palanquins_ are to be conveyed. -In many instances, these evening visits are paid in a very airy manner: -coats being often dispensed with; the gentlemen wearing only an upper -and an under waistcoat, both of white linen, and the former having -sleeves. Such would appear an extraordinary freedom, were it not -established by custom; though, it generally happens, that gentlemen -newly arrived from Europe, especially the officers of his Majesty’s -regiments, wear their coats, and prefer undergoing a kind of warm bath -of the most distressing description, both to themselves, and to their -neighbours; but, in the course of time, they fall in with the local -usages, and, though they may enter the room in that cumbrous habit, -rarely fail to divest themselves of it, so soon as the first ceremonies -are over, in favor of an upper waistcoat, which a servant has in -readiness. - -Supper, though enumerated among the ordinary meals of a family residing -at the Presidency, seems rather to be the means of concentrating the -party, than partaken of with that keenness we often witness in our -colder climate. Few do more than take a glass or two of wine, generally -Claret, with, perhaps, a crust, and a morsel of cheese: the appetite at -this hour, say ten, being by no means keen. After supper, the _hookah_ -is again produced, and, after sitting awhile in conversation, the lady -of the house retires: few remain long after that has taken place. On the -whole, it may be said, that at least four in five are in bed before -twelve; or, perhaps, before eleven o’clock. From this, I exempt all -concerned in card-parties, especially if the stakes run high: for such, -no measure, or calculation, exists; the whole night being occasionally -passed at tradrille, which is the favorite game, or at whist, &c. Such -exceptions fortunately are not very numerous; it would certainly be -difficult to find any city, wherein celibacy among the males is so -prevalent, as at Calcutta, that can boast of so few excesses of any -description. The European inhabitants of respectability certainly live -well; that is, they keep as good tables as the seasons may enable them -to furnish; and they drink none but the best of wines: Claret, Madeira, -and Port, are in general use. - -Of the former, there are two kinds; one called ‘English Claret,’ which -is the best wine that France produces, manufactured after its arrival in -England, with an addition of Brandy, &c., to enable its standing the hot -climate of India, and with other liquids, to give it a richer body. Such -wine generally sells at Calcutta for about thirty rupees per dozen, -equal to six shillings and threepence per bottle. - -The other kind of Claret, which is the purest that can be obtained from -the most valuable vineyards near Bourdeaux, the Coté-Roti, Chateau -Margeau, &c., can rarely be obtained, except in times of peace, when -sixteen rupees per dozen, equal to about three shillings and four-pence -per bottle, may be considered a fair price. This wine, however well -packed, and carefully treated, will not keep long: at the end of six or -seven months after arrival, it will be found rather sharp, and then -becomes extremely pernicious to the bowels. When fresh, it is remarkably -fine, and delicate, and being far lighter than the ‘English Claret,’ is -certainly best adapted to the climate. Occasionally, a few chests of -Claret are imported at Serampore, a Danish settlement, about sixteen -miles above Calcutta, but experience has proved, that, in regard to -wholesomeness, as well as to flavor, it is far inferior to either of the -former: the severe bowel-complaints its free use often occasions, are -attributed to the litharge with which it is said to be fined; hence, -what is called ‘Danish Claret’ is rarely found at any gentleman’s table. - -About thirty years back, a large quantity of Madeira used to be imported -at Calcutta, by the Company, in pipes of extra-measurement, for the use -of their servants. Sometimes nearly a thousand pipes arrived during the -course of the season; being of prime quality, and laid in by the -Company’s agents at Fonchall, it always sold well at the annual -auctions: six hundred rupees was a common average. For some time past, -the Company have, generally speaking, declined this trade, which was of -extensive convenience to the residents at Bengal, and must be supposed -to have paid them amply for their outward tonnage, while the returning -tonnage was always at liberty to receive investments for the Europe -market. The cause of this relinquishment has been attributed to various -circumstances; but, I believe, is to be found in that immense supply -which, at the close of the war in 1782, glutted the markets for some -seasons. Until that date, the Company had nearly monopolized the trade, -there being no competitors of consequence, though the speculation was -open to all; but its excellence, which seemed to offer full seventy -pounds for every pipe, that cost perhaps only twenty-five, or thirty, on -the Island of Madeira, induced the French, Portugueze, and some English -speculators, to embark on vessels under Imperial colors, and to become -rivals in a trade which could not bear extension beyond certain narrow -limits. All could not be supplied at Fonchall; therefore Teneriffe, and -other inferior wines, were substituted; whereby the depreciation even of -the best genuine Madeira was enhanced, and it fell, in consequence, full -fifty per cent. Of late years, very little of the latter has found its -way to India; the produce of the island being almost wholly required for -the Europe market; but the merchants in that quarter have found out the -way to _doctor_ the inferior wines of the neighbouring isles, so as to -sell them at a good price, under the captivating titles of ‘London -Particular,’ ‘London Choice _Particular_ Particular,’ &c. &c. - -The low price to which Madeira fell, (for, in 1781-2 it had been so high -as two thousand rupees per pipe,) made a great change in the affairs of -some adventurers, who had anticipated the golden harvest with which they -were to return to Europe. The general effects were highly beneficial, as -the greater portion of persons settled in Calcutta, &c., were enabled to -purchase large quantities; which, being kept in _godowns_, (warehouses -and cellars,) gradually improved in that hot climate, and, after a few -years, became highly valuable. Many gentlemen availed themselves of the -low state of the markets to supply themselves abundantly; some purchased -from forty to sixty pipes, and thus secured to themselves a supply of -capital wine, for many years consumption, at a certain price. - -It is no uncommon thing to see Madeira, which has been in a gentleman’s -_godown_ ten years in the wood: many have much older wine in their -possession; a few can, indeed, boast of some, which, though -inconceivably mild, and rich in flavor, is extremely potent. None will -attempt to produce, at their tables, Madeira that has not been two or -three years in the country; for the new wine is neither pleasant nor -wholesome, and may be readily distinguished from the old, -notwithstanding some venders are well skilled in the art of adding, in -the course of a few _hours_, many _years_ of age to the liquor. Among -the military, it is found best to purchase wine that is known to be of -good quality, and of a certain age; which is easily done, through the -several agency-houses; all of which have generally large quantities, of -every description, either on commission, or at command. This mode is far -preferable to the otherwise general practice of buying several pipes, -with a view to filling up the ullage, (say of four, from a fifth,) as -the contents decrease. By such management, any person settled at -Calcutta, or elsewhere, may, in the course of five or six years, become -possessed of a stock of excellent Madeira; observing, however, that, in -that time, every fifth pipe will have been drawn off, to fill up its -neighbours: therefore, in computing the value of such remaining pipes, -that of the pipe thus expended must be included. - -Nothing can injure a cargo of Madeira more than the presence of a cask -of coal-tar: it communicates to the wine a most nauseous flavor, and -scent; rendering it totally unfit for use. I recollect, about seventeen -years ago, dining with a General Officer, who had inadvertently allowed -his Madeira pipes to be smeared with coal-tar, for the purpose of -preserving them. Whether it had that effect on the wood I never took the -trouble to enquire, but it certainly _preserved the wine_; which, I -doubt not, may be in existence to this day; for it was really too -potent, even for parasitical stomachs! - -The price of good Madeira wine that has been three or four years in the -country, may be generally stated at about four hundred rupees, equal to -£50. The pipes are not so large as formerly, but will commonly run about -forty dozens; which brings the price per dozen nearly to twenty-five -shillings, or little more than two shillings per bottle. Wine of the -first quality may be about fifty, or even sixty, per cent. dearer. - -The Port-wine used in India is generally of a light kind, not unlike -what we term ‘Southampton Port:’ about ten years ago, when Claret began -to be scarce, a large quantity was sent out, and was bought up with -readiness; but, on account of its astringent, and, consequently, -heating, quality, it fell into disrepute. It is, nevertheless, highly -esteemed as a restorative, especially in a convalescent state after -obstinate bowel-complaints, and in cases of debility not proceeding from -obstructions. - -Such exceptions are, indeed, rare; for, I believe, very few of the local -diseases are exempted from such connections with obstruction: in fact, -almost every ague, which is a very common complaint in many parts of the -country, and is generally designated the ‘Hill,’ or ‘the Jungle-fever,’ -according to the situation in which it is engendered, either originates -from, or resolves into, confirmed hepatitis. - -Porter, pale-ale, and table-beer of great strength, are often drank -after meals: all these are found in the utmost perfection, for -indifferent malt-liquors do not stand the voyage; and, even should they -arrive in a sound state, would meet no sale. A temporary beverage, -suited to the very hot weather, and called ‘country-beer,’ is in rather -general use, though water, artificially cooled, is commonly drank during -the repasts: in truth, nothing can be more gratifying at such a time, -but especially after eating _curry_. Country-beer is made of about -one-fifth part porter, or beer, with a wine glass full of _toddy_, (or -_palm-wine_, which is the general substitute for yeast,) a small -quantity of brown sugar, and a little grated ginger, or the dried peel -of Seville oranges, or of limes; which are a small kind of lemon, -abounding in citric acid, and to be had very cheap. - -The great cheapness and abundance of the materials, added to the -frequent and great thirst to which Europeans are subject while resident -in India, should appear to be strong inducements toward the free use of -punch, lemonade, sangaree, negus, &c. The reverse is the case; for, I -believe, with the exception of the lowest classes, all such beverages -are totally discarded: they are deleterious; rarely failing, in the -first instance, to injure, and ultimately disgracing all who yield to -the temptation. Fortunately, that temptation is not very strong; as -liquors of a superior quality are found to be more wholesome, more -pleasant, and, in the long run, not much dearer. Besides, there is a -certain odium attaches in that quarter to all who are in the habit of -drinking spirits, whether raw or diluted. In a climate so ungenial to -European constitutions, and where, as above said, thirst is often very -distressing, the frequent recourse to ‘_brandy shrob pauny_’ (brandy and -water) never fails to produce that sottishness at all times despicable, -but peculiarly unsuited to Oriental society, in which at least the -better half are men of very liberal education, and all are gentlemen. - -In saying thus much, I barely do justice to the persons of whom mention -is made; for it may be said, without fear of refutation, that fewer -deviations from propriety are to be found in our Indian settlements, -than in one-tenth the number of inhabitants of the same classes in any -other country, whose manners and properties, either personal -observation, or respectable authors, have enabled me to estimate. - -This results, not simply from the advantage almost every individual in -the Company’s service, and in the mercantile branches, possesses, of -having been brought up in the most respectable seminaries, &c., and of -being early initiated in the walks of decorum and integrity among their -respective friends in Europe; it proceeds partially from the nature of -the climate, and from that mode of association which the duties -attendant upon each profession, as well as certain localities, seem, -imperiously indeed, to inculcate. - -I have before shewn that taverns, punch-houses, &c., are by no means -places of resort, as in Europe: there is no such thing as a coffee-room, -merely as such; unless we so consider the few mansions of certain French -and English _traiteurs_ and _restaurateurs_, who occasionally have to -accommodate committees of shipping, or town meetings, &c., and who send -out dinners to any part of the town, or its vicinity, on terms -advantageous to both parties. Therefore, under such exceptions, which -are rare, and setting apart the _civic_ operations of the beef-steak -clubs, &c., it may properly be said, that coffee-house association is -unknown in Calcutta, at least among the respectable members of the -community. Neither does any corps in the Company’s service keep a mess: -all the officers dine either at home, or in small parties, according as -their several fancies, or occasion, may lead them. It is common to hear -one or two of a party, before they retire from table, which is always -done without the least ceremony, enquire, who will dine with them the -next day? Thus, it is extremely easy to avoid any obnoxious person, be -the objection to him what it may; and as the omission of any individual, -from the ordinary course of invitations of such a description, soon -produces explanation, it is impossible that a person of unpleasant -manners, or of an indifferent character, can, for any length of time, -stand his ground; the whole circle, by degrees, drop his acquaintance, -while, in lieu of that friendly and familiar salutation which denotes -approbation, the shunned offender experiences the most distant, and most -forbidding reserve. Being once condemned, something more than ordinary -must appear to produce his re-admission: for the most part, especially -if habitual inebriation be in question, the unhappy man pursues his -career, either until the grave may receive his dropsical remains, or the -Invalid Establishment affords him an asylum against the mortifying -neglect of his late associates. - -This kind of retirement, of course, can only apply to military -characters, and certainly does infinite credit to the humanity of those -who tolerate the measure. It may, probably, be urged, that such an -institution should not be open to persons retiring merely in consequence -of indulgence in depravity; or because they are no longer acceptable -among their former associates: it may be asserted, that the admission of -such men within so honorable a pale, must be injurious both to the -character of the corps, and to the feeling of those meritorious -individuals who are compelled by wounds, &c., to accept the benefits of -that establishment. This is undeniable; but when we consider, that, -perhaps, after long service in an oppressive climate, the best of us may -be brought to that kind of conduct which disqualifies from military -service, it may not be too much to assert, that the concession and -indulgence thus granted, are at least charitable, and often -incontrovertibly merited. - -Among the gentlemen of the civil service, the society is far less -diversified than with us in Europe; therefore, much facility is afforded -towards the evasion of intercourse with persons in any way unacceptable. -It must at the same time be remarked, that, in this instance, the most -liberal consideration is very generally exhibited; and, that so long as -any hope of reform may remain, there will rarely be found a disposition -to exile a man from that converse with his countrymen, without which he -can neither preserve the appearance of respectability among the natives, -nor, in all probability, receive the approbation of Government. Hence, -what we commonly call a ‘black-sheep,’ is a most marked, and equally -forlorn character, throughout the East; and, consequently, is very -scarce. - -Many years ago, when it was customary for the Governor-General, and some -of the leading gentlemen, such as the Members of Council, &c., to have -public breakfasts weekly, persons of all characters mixed promiscuously -at table; good and bad were to be seen around the same tea-pot. This -occasioned a native of some consequence to remark, that, ‘among -Europeans, all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen.’ The sarcasm -was not, however, quite applicable; for, the breakfast being considered -merely the preface to a levee, it was to be expected that, on such -occasions, persons of every description would be seen, who, having -public business to transact at the levee, naturally availed themselves -of the opportunity, without reference to the opinions of others -regarding their private conduct. After the arrival of Marquis -Cornwallis, these public breakfasts were discontinued, and open levees -substituted. This was certainly pleasanter for both the Governor and the -governed. However, there are, to this day, I believe, some remains of -the former ceremony preserved, among a few of the principal gentry; who, -on certain days, expect to see their friends, and such others as may -wish to consult them. Some have two levees, if we may so designate them, -weekly; one for Europeans, and one for natives; but such cannot be -considered official. - -A breakfast in India bears a strong resemblance to the same meal in -Scotland, with the exception of whiskey; the introduction of which, (if -to be had,) or of any other spirits, would be considered both nauseous -and vulgar. The general bill of fare, at this time, consists of tea, -coffee, toast, bread, butter, eggs, rice, salt-fish, _kitchery_, (a kind -of olio,) various sweetmeats prepared in the country, especially -preserved ginger, and orange marmalade, honey, &c.; and, after hunting -or shooting, occasionally cold meat, with proper accompaniments. - -During a great portion of the year, breakfast may be considered rather a -substantial meal. The generality of European gentlemen rise about -day-break, and either proceed to the parade, to their field diversions, -or to ride on horseback, or on elephants; thus enjoying the cool air of -the morning. From the middle of March to the middle of October, the sun -is very powerful, even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds of -great density. This induces all who ride for health, or for pleasure, to -avoid violent exercise; they proceeding, generally in small parties, -each gentleman being attended by his _syce_, who carries a whisk made of -horse-hair, fastened to a short lacquered stick, for the purpose of -driving away the flies, which are generally very troublesome both to the -horses and to their riders. It is not uncommon to see the backs of the -latter covered with these noxious parasites, which, by their buzzing, -and their attempts to alight on the face, produce extreme irritation. -During some part of the year, when scarce a leaf is in motion, and the -clouds hang very low, exercise, even so early in the morning, is often -found more injurious than refreshing: at such seasons, nothing but the -abundant perspiration which then relaxes the whole frame, and absolutely -oozes through the light cloathing in common use, could prevent the -occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory. Many feel so uneasy, in -consequence of this unpleasant exudation, as to be induced to change -their linen three or four times within the day; but, however refreshing -such a change may prove, it is by no means to be commended; experience -proving that considerable prostration of strength is the inseparable -consequence of so ill-judged an indulgence. The best plan is, to have -night apparel, and to ride out in the linen worn during the preceding -evening; changing for a clean suit on returning, so as to sit down to -breakfast in comfort. - -Those who are subject to bile cannot be too cautious in regard to their -diet; which should be rather sparing, and confined to viands dressed in -a simple manner. Many gentlemen of the faculty, in England, entertain an -opinion, that eggs, moderately boiled, are rather beneficial, than -otherwise, in bilious cases: the idea they entertain is, that the yolk -assimilates with the bile, and carries it off. But practice is better -than theory; and it is to be wished, that such as maintain the above -hypothesis could view the number of patients who may be said to owe -their pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eating eggs for -breakfast. In this climate, to a person possessing a robust -constitution, and whose stomach might vie with that of an ostrich, eggs -may be innocent; but, in the East, where relaxation weakens the powers -of digestion, they are by no means a proper article of diet. If, as -physicians assert, assimilation takes place, it assuredly is on the -wrong side of the question; for I believe all oriental practitioners -will allow, that the bile is considerably augmented, but not carried -off, by eggs. - -However grateful many of the other items, such as salt-fish, &c., may -be, they certainly cannot tend much to the preservation of health; -therefore, should be discarded from the breakfast table. I speak -feelingly; for, although I did not possess sufficient resolution to -withstand what then appeared a very alluring temptation, I have now the -candor to confess, that thirst, heat, and uneasiness were generally -attendant upon my imprudence, and no doubt occasioned me to swallow many -a nauseous dose, which might have been avoided by a moderate share of -discretion. Therefore, let me strongly recommend to those of my juvenile -readers who may be about to proceed to India, not to indulge in -breakfasts such as I have described. - -The tea used in India is generally what we call green, or hyson; very -little bohea being drank. It is very rarely that either kind can be -obtained good; indeed, the climate speedily renders tea unfit for use, -if at all exposed to the air: on this account, leaden catties of various -sizes, but generally containing from four to ten pounds, are employed -for preserving it. These catties fit in pairs, or, if large, singly, -into neat boxes provided with locks. But little tea being sold retail, -it is usual for a few friends, perhaps three or four, to club, and buy a -chest; which may be had for about 150, or even so high as 200 rupees -(£25). This, however, is not the price of the best teas, which -occasionally sell for nearly double the latter sum, unless there may be -a very large supply at market; when, as it is a very perishable -commodity, the prices sometimes fall even below prime cost. To say the -truth, it rarely matters much whether the tea be good, or bad; for it is -always made at a side-table by some menial who knows nothing of the -matter, and who never tastes it himself: hence, a cup of good tea is -really a rarity; which must appear extraordinary, when it is recollected -that many vessels import at Calcutta in five or six weeks only from -China. - -The Arabs now convey immense quantities of fine coffee from Mocha to -every part of India; but they sell it at a high price, generally from -forty to sixty rupees, or even more, per maund of 82lb.; which brings -it, at the latter rate, to 3_s._ 9_d._ per lb. in its raw state. Bourbon -and the Mauritius raise coffee, but of an inferior quality; and, within -these few years, considerable plantations have been formed at -Chittagong; but the produce, though abundant, cannot compare with even -the French coffee. - -I have often had coffee that tasted very salt, and rather bitter, the -cause of which was then unknown to me; but a gentleman, who was ‘up to -the trick,’ assured me it was occasioned by the _frazils_ (or baskets) -being immersed in seawater, in order to give the berries that greenish, -horny appearance, which is supposed to be the indication of a superior -quality. - -Sugar-candy is always used for making tea, coffee, and, indeed, for all -such purposes: it is to be had of various degrees of purity, and either -of indigenous manufacture, or imported from China. The former kind is -sold by the maund, and may be estimated at from twenty to forty rupees; -the latter in tubs made of thin deal, and other light wood, in which the -candy is packed among dried bamboo-leaves. The price of a tub is usually -about twenty rupees, (more or less, as the markets may stand,) for which -about sixty pounds weight are obtained. - -Although the sugar-cane is, by many, supposed to be indigenous in India, -yet it has only been within the last fifty years that it has been -cultivated to any great extent: since the failure which took place some -twenty years back in the West Indies, it has become a most important -article of commerce. Strange to say, the only sugar-candy used until -that time was received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen -have speculated deeply in the manufacture, and, by serving themselves -richly, have rescued the country from a very impolitic branch of -imposition. We now see sugar-candy, of the first quality, manufactured -in various parts of Bengal, and, I believe it is at length admitted, -that the raw sugars from that quarter are pre-eminently good. I have -lately had occasion to purchase some of a very superior fineness, called -_Soonamooky_, from a place of that name in the Burdwan district, which -was as high as eleven-pence per pound. - -About thirty-two years ago, the common raw sugar, known by the name of -_g’hoor_, was to be had at three rupees per maund of 96lb. in the upper -provinces: this was about three farthings per pound; for a _Sonaut_ or -_Tersooly_ rupee then was exchanged at about two shillings, or even so -low as one shilling and ten-pence. In consequence of the great demand -for the article, it rose gradually, but in comparatively a very short -time, to eight rupees the maund of 72lb.; and it has been so high as -twelve rupees, but not, I believe, for any length of time: partial -instances could be quoted, of even fourteen rupees being given. - -The superior kind, which may often be had nearly white, at least of a -dove color, perfectly dry, and sharp grained, under the name of -_cheeny_, was formerly about seven, or eight, rupees per maund (of -96lb.); of late, it has risen to full fifteen; and has been up to -twenty. - -The sugar-candy made in India, where it is known by the name of -_miscery_, bears a price suited to its quality: some may be had at -twenty, and some up as high as forty, rupees per maund (82lb). It is -usually made in small conical pots, whence it concretes into masses, -weighing from three to six pounds each. - -For further information, I must refer my readers to Mr. Colebrooke’s -excellent Essay on the Husbandry of Bengal. - -Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of the wheat, which is very -fine, ground into what is called _soojy_; a kind of meal, so far from -being pulverized, as to bear a strong resemblance to rather coarse sand. -_Soojy_ is kneaded the same as is done with flour, but there being no -yeast in the country, (I mean such as we know by that name,) it is -leavened by means of _toddy_; which is the juice obtained by making -incisions into the _taul_, (or palm-tree,) already described. In many -parts of India, _taul_ trees are very scarce, and are carefully -preserved for the sake of the _toddy_, which is sold to the _nonbaies_, -(or bakers,) at a high price. In Bahar these trees are peculiarly -abundant: there we often see groves, of hundreds upon hundreds, let out -to the _kulwars_, or distillers, to great advantage. These venders of -misery have the art of rendering the _toddy_ peculiarly potent, by -causing it to work upon the kernels of the _datura_, that grows wild in -every part of India, and possesses in every part, whether the stem, -root, leaf, or nut, a most deleterious property. _Toddy_, that has been -strongly impregnated with _datura_, (which is the name it bears in the -East,) acts very rapidly on the brain; producing mania, and, not -unfrequently, apoplexy, when drank to excess. - -The bread is usually made into small loaves, weighing about a pound -each; these are called ‘single-loaves’ and may generally sell from -fifteen, to twenty, for a rupee; which brings the bread to about three -half-pence, to two-pence, per pound. ‘Double loaves’ include double the -weight, and sell in proportion. A large portion, of both sizes, is baked -in tin moulds, of a brick form; these are generally preferred, on -account of their rarely scorching, and not requiring to be rasped, as -all the other bread, baked in the form of heavy cakes, generally does. - -_Soojy_, (the basis of the bread,) is frequently boiled into -‘stir-about’ for breakfast; and eaten with milk, salt, and butter; -though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten with porter; a -curious medley, by no means to my taste! Nor is much to be said of its -qualities; as few stomachs are suited to its reception. - -The camp-oven in common use, consists merely of a very large _naud_, or -pot, capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of rather a -conical form. This vessel is prepared for the purpose, by having a hole -punched through its bottom, large enough to admit a man’s arm; it is -then placed, mouth downwards, over a corresponding cavity, dug out of -the soil, so as to fit close every way; but, in order to allow a proper -draught of air, two, or more, sloping apertures are left, passing under -the circumference of the _naud_. The vessel is next well covered with -turf, &c., and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat, -long enough to bake small bread. The interior being filled with chips of -wood, charcoal, _gutties_, (_i.e._ dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of -fuel that may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it, until the -_naud_ appears to be nearly at a red heat. The hole, which served for a -chimney, is then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn, the bread is -introduced upon pieces of iron plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, -&c., &c. - -I should here remark, that the natives invariably eat unleavened bread, -generally made of wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made into a -good dough, is flattened into cakes, called _chow-patties_, between the -hands, with very great dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the -edges of the heated _choolah_, or fire-place, or they are baked upon a -convex plate of iron, circular, and about ten inches, or a foot, in -diameter. This plate, called a _towah_, is precisely the same as the -_girdle_ made in Scotland for baking their oaten bread, and is used in -the same manner. - -Milk is to be had in abundance throughout India, especially among the -Hindus, who venerate the cow, and follow all occupations relating to the -dairy; but, owing to the general custom of smoking the insides of -whatever vessels are allotted to its reception, will not be obtainable -in such a state as suits the palate of an European, unless a clean -pitcher, &c., be sent to the _gwallah_, or cow-keeper, that the cow may -be milked into it. - -That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is perfectly palatable, and -perhaps agreeable, to the natives; who assign, as the reason for smoking -their vessels, that it prevents the milk from turning. It, however, -becomes a question, whether or not the operation of scalding, always -performed when practicable, while the milk is warm, be not the true -preventive against acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is very -rarely found in India, although, for full half the year, the thermometer -is generally up between 75°, and 95°, in the shade; and, in a Bengallee -hut, frequently rising to 110°, or more! - -The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from -cows; yet, the butter produced from the former is very inferior, -generally white, and brittle: it, however, possesses qualities suiting -it admirably to the climate, and occasioning the natives to give it the -preference. After being warmed to a certain degree, so as to become -rather liquified, it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long -time; whereby it loses its aqueous particles, and is rendered fit for -keeping. When thus treated, it is called _ghee_. Others deviate from -this tedious process, and, by exposing it to a greater heat, keeping it -simmering for some time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not -without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving it a certain -empyreumatic flavor. Few of the natives will touch cow-butter, to which -they attribute many bad effects, though they will drink _ghee_ by the -quart, and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so -luscious an enjoyment. The uncontrolled expenditure of this article, -among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence, though it -may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain, cannot but -contribute greatly to the generation of those bilious diseases which so -often attack the more opulent natives. _Ghee_ and idleness may be said -to give birth to half their ailings. As an article of commerce, _ghee_ -possesses some claim to importance; many thousands of maunds being sent -every season from some of the grazing districts, such as _Purneah_, and -_Sircar-sarun_, to the more cultivated parts, and especially to the -western provinces. The _ghee_ is generally conveyed in _dubbahs_, or -bottles made of green hide, which, being freed from the hair, and worked -up while in a pliant state, into the form of a _caraboy_, such as we use -for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for a long time, -provided the mouth of the vessel be well closed. In this manner it is -conveyed by water in _dubbahs_, often measuring nearly a hogshead; but a -smaller kind, containing, perhaps, from fifteen to twenty gallons each, -are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks, by -which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable -streams. The price of _ghee_ varies according to the demand, and to its -quality: generally, from six to eight seers of 2lb. each may be had for -a rupee in favorable situations; otherwise, it will be from thirty to -fifty per cent. dearer. It may be supposed that buffaloes’ milk must -possess a very considerable portion of cream, when it is stated, that -milk is considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for a rupee, and -that five seers of _ghee_, equal to one-sixth of the mass of milk, may -be had for the same sum, in almost any part of the country. According to -this proportion, we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to -butter; whereas, in this country, a cow, yielding twenty gallons of milk -within the week, will rarely produce ten pounds of butter; which is -equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk: it must, indeed, be a -good cow that will produce that quantity. - -The _d’hoob_ grass, which grows wild in almost every part of the -country, is peculiarly nutritious; but the food of cattle, of all -descriptions, throughout India, is more dry and solid than is offered to -cows in England. Hence, though the quantity of milk yielded by a -buffalo, may not be equal to that of an English cow of equal weight, the -produce in butter, from an equal quantity of milk, will be in favor of -the former. - -I have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste -of smoke; this arises from the cause already described, and is encreased -by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in India, which -are, with few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger than the -generality of yearlings, or steers, bred in England. In some grazing -districts they thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in height, -and weighing, when fit for the butcher, from four to five hundred -weight: but such are merely local, and not very numerous. Butter -produced from cows’ milk is very indifferent, unless carefully made from -such as are well fed. The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is -extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for all India: they certainly -obtain excellent butter, but that sold by the _muckun-wallahs_, (_i.e._ -the butter-men,) would appear, to a stranger, not to be made from the -same species of animals. Considering the price of a cow, which may be -averaged at from four rupees to eight, (_i.e._ from ten to twenty -shillings,) it is remarkably dear, as is usually the case with articles -of inferior quality: thus, we consider three pounds for a rupee to be a -fair rate, though sometimes four may be had; but such can only happen -where cattle are very abundant; for, as I have already said, buffaloes, -and not cows, are almost invariably kept by the natives for their milk, -on account of their greater produce, and because the _ghee_ made from -their butter is more appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the pound -of cow-butter at nine-pence; whereas, _ghee_ rarely sells for more than -three-pence: a strange disproportion; to be attributed, in some measure, -to the demand for the former being confined to the Europeans. - -In speaking of the _berriarah_, or shepherd, I have already noticed, -that, for the supply of their tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few -goats, which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality, and are herded in -company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the -fatting stock. The kids produced, generally twice in the year, by each -milch-goat, (mostly twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four, at -a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the flock, besides yielding -occasionally a most delicate viand for the table. I know not of any meat -more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother -at pleasure: it is as white, and, in proportion, as fat as any veal. -Being in general request, and admirably suited to making rich _curries_, -as also roasting remarkably well, kid-meat may be had of any butcher; -the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in proportion for -halves and quarters. When of a good size, and duly fatted, an entire one -may weigh about six pounds; which brings the meat to five-pence per -pound. - -By the word butcher, we are not to understand the individual to be a -shop-keeper, exposing the several joints of various animals for sale, in -that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets. On the -contrary, a fat _kussee_ (_i.e._ cut-goat,) or two, and two or three -kids, daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox during the cold -months, may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this -profession in full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the cleaver! -The greater part of the profit arising to this class, is derived from -slaughtering oxen, calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families; for -which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas, (or two-pences,) -according to the size of the animal: in most instances they take the -skin, pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite. - -It is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in -India; nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most -cantonments, and among fixed residents. At some of the principal -military and civil stations, those gentlemen who keep a regular table, -usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some of these -are fed full two years, with that intent, on _gram_; and, exclusive of -being burthened with fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh -absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts. -Sometimes, the officers of a regiment club to fatten four or five head, -the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence, -or drawn for by lot: this supplies fresh beef during the winter season; -very few bullocks being killed at any other time, on account of the -extreme difficulty of curing the meat. To persons inexperienced as to -the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this forbearance from -beef, for so large a portion of the year, might appear unnecessary; but -the fact is, that, during the close weather, prevalent throughout the -rains, and for a certain part of the hot season, meat, though killed -only about midnight, will often become absolutely putrid long before the -time at which it ought to be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of -every precaution! - -The markets at Calcutta are open at daybreak; when very fine meat, of -every kind, together with various sorts of choice fish, fruits, -vegetables, &c., may be had on very reasonable terms. There, indeed, -beef may sometimes be seen in the hottest weather; because, being cut up -into small joints, a bullock may be readily sold off among so many -customers; but, in general, the prime pieces, together with all the best -fish, &c., will have been bought up by sunrise: the refuse joints are -generally taken by the Portugueze, (who are the only customers for -_bazar_-pork,) and by Europeans of the lower classes, or by persons who -supply the shipping. The whole of the non-commissioned and privates, in -the several regiments of Europeans, are served with meat, rice, spirits, -and fire-wood, by contract; receiving their several quotas early in the -morning, under the inspection of their commissioned officers, who make -their reports regarding any deficiencies, either in quantity, or of -quality. - -Those gentlemen who produce pork at their tables, are extremely -particular as to the manner in which their pigs are fed. Many are so -extremely fastidious, as not to allow any to be served up unless -_educated_, as it is called, in their own sties; the very circumstance -of being _born_ elsewhere, absolutely disqualifying, and rendering of no -avail, all that change of bulk, and all that purification, derived from -perhaps a whole year of confinement to a clean stye; in which nothing -but the best corn (_gram_) is given to the grunting inhabitant. This, -certainly, is carrying daintiness to an extreme; but it must be -confessed, that swine are so offensively greedy in the indulgence of -their appetites in that part of the world, as to give occasion for many -very reasonable scruples regarding the use of _bazar_-pork; which is -indiscriminately killed from the fattest of those wanderers that -sometimes absolutely interrupt the operations of the multitude, who -resort, generally at dusk, and at day-break, to lay their offerings at -the shrine of a certain deity! - -This calls to mind a very laughable circumstance which happened at -Berhampore, in 1803. An officer, who had been many years at Gibraltar, -where a joint of meat, of any kind, was probably snapped up without any -questions being asked as to its _education_, produced at his table a -very fine corned leg of pork, of which all his guests ate with great -avidity. One of them, when the repast was over, begged leave to enquire -how the gentleman kept his pigs; what had been then on table, being of -so superior a flavor, that he presumed it was _educated_ in some very -particular manner. ‘Oh no,’ answered the host, ‘I never trouble my head -about sties; my man bought a whole side of it this morning of Neeloo the -butcher, for eight annas’ (15_d._) This untimely disclosure operated not -only like magic, but like emetic tartar; the whole company were taken -with violent sickness, and retired to give vent, both to the pork, and -to their feelings, on so dreadful an occasion. However, none died in -consequence of having been thus poisoned; but the whole station received -the tale with horror, and resolved, to a man, never to accept another -invitation from the unfortunate hero of the rock! - -Whether it be owing to the foregoing cause, or, that the time necessary -for the completion of a pig’s ‘_education_,’ be too protracted to allow -of persons, subject to removal, engaging in that branch of domestic -economy, may be difficult to determine, but certain it is, that very few -officers have piggeries; they commonly content themselves with hams and -cheeks imported to them from England. The grossness of the viand is, -however, so very inappropriate to the climate, that, even after the most -delicate course of management, pork is by no means considered a choice -dish: sucking pigs are more generally approved. - -Veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the market, of a quality fit to -be brought to table, that it is customary for four or five friends to -subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for their own expenditure; -each taking a share of every calf that is slaughtered. The best, and -most economical plan, is to agree with some butcher, through whose means -alone it can in general be effected, to receive of him a cow and calf, -the latter being newly born, and to return him the mother, after the -calf may have been killed, together with four rupees (10_s._) By this -mode, the calf will thrive admirably, provided the cow be well fed; but -it is usual, and I have practised it with great success, to give the -little one as much scalded milk as it can drink, three times daily; -drenching it with either a horn, or a quart-bottle: from three to four -quarts, in each of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up, will -commonly produce the desired effect, rendering the meat very fine by the -end of a month; the usual age at which they are slaughtered. What with -the keep of the mother, the milk and eggs given to the calf, and the -necessary attendance, a gold-mohur, (£2.,) will generally be expended -upon each calf, unless several be kept together as a successive supply -for the table; in which case, about twelve rupees will be found the -average expence. In this, I reckon the out-lay upon a calf that will now -and then, perhaps one in five, prove a bad subject; and, notwithstanding -every precaution, either scour or pine. - -It is a great misfortune that, on account of the extreme antipathy the -horned cattle of India always exhibit towards Europeans, no possibility -exists for remedying many bad practices, and neglects, to which these -animals are subject, when under the care of the native servants. An -Indian ox, or cow, when at liberty, is always shunned very carefully, -lest it should indulge its savage disposition. On first entering that -country, the cattle would be supposed to be wild, instead of -domesticated; for not one in a thousand will admit the approach of an -European; nor are they always less gentle towards strangers of any -description. As to what are called _tame_ buffaloes, they are commonly -more fierce than any British bull, and, when they have calves at their -sides, make no scruple of attacking man and horse, with unbounded -ferocity. Hence, it is extremely proper to be very cautious of -approaching herds, or single cattle of either kind, even when tolerably -mounted. Sometimes, in riding through the country, and especially where -_jeels_ (lakes) are to be forded, or pools to be passed, the unwary -traveller may find himself, on a sudden, within a few yards of a whole -herd of buffaloes, which, to avoid the heat of mid-day, wallow in the -muddy water, so deep as to have, in general, only their noses and eyes -above the surface. Being, perhaps, among rushes, &c. even those parts -are not discernible, or, if in an open expanse, may be easily mistaken -for clods of mud; for the horns lie back towards the false ribs. On a -sudden, the whole herd sometimes rise, and at the least frighten the -horse, whatever the rider’s heart may be made of: such a surprize, and -from animals that, according to the old saying, ‘give but a word and a -blow, and the blow comes first,’ is far from pleasant. In such -situations, all depends on the conduct of the leading bull; if he -snorts, shakes his horns, and advances, the danger is imminent. But it -frequently happens, that, whether owing to lassitude, or the absence of -any object particularly irritating to buffaloes, of which a red coat may -be considered the extreme, the herd content themselves with rising from -their reclined postures, and, after those who rouzed them may have -passed on, again sink into the friendly pool. - -The British settlers in India are extremely indebted to the Dutch for -many essential improvements. The small town of Chinsurah, situate about -twenty-eight miles north of Calcutta, on the banks of the Hoogly river, -has, in this instance, proved serviceable to India at large. The Dutch, -to whom that place appertained before the war, were the first to -introduce the culture of that invaluable esculent, the potatoe; which -was received from their settlement at the Cape of Good Hope: they -likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition towards horticulture. -From them the British received, annually, the seeds of every kind of -vegetable useful at the table, as well as several plants of which there -appeared much need, especially various kinds of pot-herbs. They likewise -supplied us with vines, from which innumerable cuttings have been -dispensed to every part of Bengal and its upper dependencies. The whole -of the lower provinces, at least, those parts skirting the ranges of -hills that bound them, produce immense quantities of wild vines, which, -during the rains, may be seen partially to bear grapes of a red color, -and about the size of a pistol-ball. These vines tower over the high -_saul_ trees, or creep along the rocky masses, throughout the Ramghur -district especially, in all the majesty of wild luxuriance. - -Here is a field for speculation! Let us suppose, that the wines which -should be raised might not prove of the best quality, still we might -derive the most important advantages from the brandy and vinegar to -which they might be converted. As to wood for the staves, and iron for -the hoops, they are both to be had on the spot; and, in regard to -distillation, abundance of men, sufficiently skilled, may be found among -the natives. Fuel is every where abundant, indeed, a perfect nuisance. -The only impediment I could ever discover, is, that the neighbouring -streams are not generally navigable, or, perhaps, only for a few months -in the year: they might, however, be easily rendered adequate to every -purpose, there being lime-stone in various adjacent hills, while, among -the convicts, who are in a state of idleness for the most part, many -persons might be selected fully capable of constructing whatever -masonry, or timber-work, should be found necessary. - -Some years ago, I had the honor of submitting this suggestion to the -Court of Directors. The India minister of that day was forcibly struck -with the facility obviously afforded of founding an immense national -concern: and, had he remained in office, would probably have taken means -to ascertain every point contained in my memoir, with the utmost -exactitude: the result must have been perfectly satisfactory. - -When we consider, that the Company pay two lacs of rupees (£25,000.) -yearly for spirits, of a very inferior quality, for the use of the -European soldiery; and, that good vinegar cannot be had under two rupees -per gallon, (5_s._) it should seem an object, even in that limitted -view, to cultivate the vine for their own use; but, if we extend the -prospect, and shew that any quantity of brandy, if not of wine, might be -imported from Bengal, the benefits will be found so great, as to claim -every encouragement on the part of the legislature. It appears highly -probable, that full a million sterling would be annually saved to the -nation, by its adoption of this speculation; which might be began at -little or no expence, and be progressively extended, by giving -employment to the whole body of convicts, who now are a heavy burthen on -the revenue, without doing a thousandth part of the service of which -they are physically capable. If my information be correct, there are now -sold at Calcutta near four thousand pipes of Madeira, Teneriffe, &c., -annually, and about as many chests of Claret, including French and -English; the quantity of Brandy imported at that settlement is full -10,000 gallons, besides Hollands, Rum, and other liquors, of which I -shall make no account. The licences granted for the retail of spirits -are amply abundant; and the number of shops where _Toddy_, _Mowah_, -_Pariah Arrack_, &c., are served out, absolutely incalculable. - -From the best computation I have been enabled to make, full 10,000,000 -gallons of spirits are made and sold in Bengal and its dependant -provinces, the average of which may be taken at one rupee per gallon, as -it comes from the still; the retail prices will, no doubt, double that -sum; making no less than 20,000,000 of rupees, equal to £2,500,000 -expended annually by debauchees, and by the regular consumption among -the soldiery, &c. If the foregoing items be put together, they must make -a tremendous total; while we shall see, that a most ruinous intercourse -prevails, throwing money into the pockets of our rivals, and enabling -them to carry home investments in exchange for their own produce. We -shall further see, that, supposing a duty of only 25 per cent. were -imposed on all spirits sold, exclusive of the amount of licences, which -are very trivial, no less than £625,000. would annually flow into the -treasury. This may appear a very large sum, but, when it is recollected -that the manufacture of salt, monopolized by the Company, yields, on the -average of several years, the sum of £1,500,000., (after deducting about -£525,000. for the expences of boiling, &c.,) we may fairly consider the -above computation to be far within the bounds of probability. - -Rum is made in Bengal from refuse sugar, the same as in the West Indies; -its quality is by no means inferior, though it sells, when new, at the -very cheap rate of about a rupee the gallon. It is to be had, of a good -age, of the several great distillers and merchants, at a proportionate -advance. I have known it, after being six years in the _godown_, -(warehouse,) to be compared with Jamaica Rum, warranted ten years old; -when the preference was given decidedly in favor of the former. With -respect to arrack, which is in a manner peculiar to the East; the native -distillers produce excellent alcohol, which, after being properly -rectified, and kept for some years, proves an admirable spirit, supposed -to be far more wholesome than rum. - -Though, on the whole, the fish brought to the Calcutta markets, cannot -be compared with such as we see at Billingsgate, &c., there are, -nevertheless, some kinds, which might please the most dainty epicure. -The _hilsah_, (or sable fish,) which seems to be mid-way between a -mackarel and a salmon, whether for form, general appearance, or flavor, -is, perhaps, the richest fish with which any cook is acquainted. It -abounds so with fat, that most persons, after being served with a -portion, immerse it in boiling water, brought in a soup-plate; thereby -causing a large quantity of grease to float. When baked in vinegar, or -preserved in tamarinds, the _hilsah_ is remarkably fine. - -Like the salmon, these run up to the very spring-heads, seeming to -abound more and more in proportion as they approximate thereto; though -certainly they grow to the largest size, immediately within the tide’s -reach: getting beyond that, they dart up as far as possible during the -season, returning, after spawning, to the sea. They are in perfection -towards the latter end of the rains. - -The _bickty_, (or cockup,) very strongly resembles the jack, and grows -to an enormous size. I have seen one measuring more than eight feet in -length, and various others that weighed full a maund (82lb.) The average -size at which they are brought to market, may be from eighteen, to -thirty, inches in length; and their weight from two to ten, or twelve, -pounds. They flake like cod, to which also their flavor greatly -assimilates. - -_Soles_, of a diminutive size, are sometimes to be had at Calcutta: the -natives call them _kookoor jibbys_, (_i.e._ dogs’ tongues,) in allusion -to their shape. These are sometimes caught in the brackish waters, among -the _bicktys_, or cockups, or in the flat sands about Diamond-Harbour, -&c. _Prawns_ of a very good size, and very small crayfish, are to be -found in most parts of the country, as also a kind of eel, called -_baum_; which, however, bears more resemblance to the gar, or -guard-fish, of which millions may be taken in most of the fresh-water -_jeels_, (lakes,) though rarely exceeding a foot in length. - -The _rooy_, or _r’hooee_, is a species of the carp, as is also the -_meergah_. They are both abundant in the great rivers, and in all the -waters connected with them, though the former are most numerous, and -thrive greatly in ponds. The latter are of a browner color, and rarely -exceed ten pounds in weight, whereas, the former are often found of -fifty lb., and sometimes up to a maund. - -The _cutlah_ is a species of the perch, though some consider it to be of -the bream-kind: it is only found in the great rivers, is generally of a -dark color, approaching to black, and commonly weighs from ten to sixty -lbs. - -The whole of the above, viz. The _r’hooee_, the _meergah_, and the -_cutlah_, may be taken by angling; as may also the _soly_, a species of -the jack, and nearly as voracious. - -_Trouts_, about as large as smelts, are sometimes to be seen in those -small streams that have their rise among mountains, but they are not so -distinctly spotted as we see them in Europe: they are, indeed, very -scarce, and generally bear a small red, or gold, or black, spot on each -scale: the adipous fin, by which all the salmon tribe are distinguished, -is scarcely elevated above the loins. - -The fresh-water anchovy, called by the natives _çhelwar_, is to be found -in shoals on every flat sand throughout the great rivers: these are -generally scared, so as to precipitate themselves on the beach, by two -men, who, wading in the water up to their knees, gradually draw a line -of fifty or sixty feet in length, every where laden with small, colored -rags, in such manner as to enclose the _çhelwahs_ in a crescent, and -ultimately to drive them ashore. Occasionally, _mullets_, of a small -size, are found among the booty: they are remarkably sweet and firm. -Nothing can be more common than to see shoals of them struggling against -the current, especially in the cold months, with their eyes out of the -water. Their motions are very nimble, but it is not uncommon to see -several killed by a round of small shot, from a common fowling-piece: -they are not to be taken by angling. As to the _tingrah_, a kind of -freshwater gurnet, it is extremely voracious, and grows to a good size; -often weighing eight or nine lbs.; though the average may be from two to -four. They are very strong, and afford ample amusement when hooked. The -_skait_ grows to full twelve or fourteen lbs., and is common in all the -great rivers; but, it must be handled with caution, on account of its -having a dreadful spine about the centre of its tail. These two -last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table; nor is the _buallee_, -which is rather flat, and has a continued abdominal fin, the same as -eels. This fish is extremely coarse, but desperately rapacious; seizing -almost any bait with avidity, but affording little sport when hooked. - -The _puftah_ is of the same description, but, in lieu of weighing, as -the _buallee_ often does, from ten to fifteen lbs., seldom amounts to so -many ounces. Its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet, but, when hooked, -it is as little disposed as the former to resist. The most esteemed fish -is, that called by the natives _tupsey_, but by us ‘_mango-fish_,’ on -account of its appearing about the time that _mangoes_ first come into -season: it comes up with the tide. In appearance, it is not unlike the -smelt, though rather deeper, and with reddish fins. The flesh of this -fish is fine, but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious. An -immense quantity are cured, by being slightly salted, and sun-dried; -after which, they are smoked for a short time over a fire made of chaff, -&c. - -Turtle, of about a cwt., are to be found in almost every river and -creek, as also in some of the large _jeels_; though they are very rarely -seen in standing waters, and then, perhaps, only in a state of -migration. The flesh of these is peculiarly unwholesome; and, so far -from being, like the sea-turtles, composed of parts resembling fish, -flesh, and fowl, may be aptly compared with bacon of the coarsest -description, with some tendency to rancidity. The _batchwah_, or -‘freshwater herring,’ (though it has no scales,) is one of the best -fishes the Indian rivers produce; but a general prejudice is -entertained, with much justice too, against its selection of food. The -most appropriate baits for most fishes are the _goorgoory_, (or _gryllus -monstrosus_,) and the _cockroach_ (or _blatta_). It would be endless to -recount all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams and lakes of -India; but it may justly be stated, that, in some parts, their numbers -are so great as absolutely to corrupt the waters. With respect to the -minor species of fish, occasionally served at table, they are very -numerous, and, in most places, abundant: every creek and _jeel_ is -replete with them, and every village in their vicinity contains persons -provided with some kind of apparatus suited to catching an ample supply. -On the larger pieces of water, there are usually either canoes or -_dingies_, which, together with their owners, are subservient to the -_jemmadars_, or head-boroughs, and may also be set in motion for a very -trivial present, made ostensibly to the laborer, but commonly -transferred privately to that proud, imperious, and avaricious officer. - -POULTRY next come under consideration: of this, great variety is to be -found. Fowls, capons, ducks, geese, turkies, and pigeons, are for sale -in every city, or great station, at very moderate prices. In general, -taking an average of all places, fine chickens, called _chujahs_, may be -had at ten for a rupee (_i.e._ 3_d._ each); middle-sized, or -_meem-kabobbies_, (small roasters,) at seven or eight for a rupee (about -4_d._ each); and good-sized roasters, or _kabobbies_, at five for a -rupee (about 6_d._ each). - -Capons are only to be had in particular parts of the country; generally -they are white, and so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee; -though I have purchased no less than twenty-nine for that sum, (_i.e._ -1_d._ each,) in the Tomar district, where they are produced in immense -numbers by the _Pahariahs_, or Hill people, of that mountainous -district. These people are more immediately distinguished by the -designation of _Dangahs_: they are of a small stature, very, very poor, -rather squalid, but capable of undergoing great fatigue: they are -wonderfully adroit in the exercise of the bow; and, after performing the -little labor needful for the cultivation of the vallies, generally -repair, at certain seasons, to the military and civil stations in the -neighbouring districts of Ramghur, &c., where they serve as bearers; -especially on the new-road, which is much frequented by gentlemen -travelling _dawk_, (post,) in _palanquins_, to or from the upper -stations. - -Ducks are of various prices, but may be considered at an average of four -or five for a rupee (about 7½_d._ or 6_d._ each); and geese at a rupee -each. These thrive prodigiously throughout India; but it is far -otherwise with turkies, which are extremely tender, and cannot endure -the great heats of summer, unless allowed to graze upon a plot well -watered, and generally sheltered from the sun. It is not uncommon to see -them crowding to some little verdant spot under the shade of the -lee-side, where a current of air, refrigerated by the _tatties_, passes -out from the _bungalow_, &c. Without some such restorative, they would, -to a certainty, pine away, and speedily disappoint the hopes of their -owner. Among the grass on the plots generally preserved near the -dwelling, it is common to see immense numbers of ants, of all -descriptions, which resort thither both for coolness, and for the -collection of the seeds that are perpetually falling. It is very -strange, but true, that these little depredators are not easily -deterred, by the water being laid on occasionally, from forming their -nest in such plots of grass, though they generally prefer some dry, hard -walk, or level area, along which they form little paths, by laying the -gravel, &c., aside; so that their progress is not obstructed when -robbing some store. Many of these paths may be traced for fifty or sixty -yards; occasionally, they are double; one being appropriated for the -egressors, the other for those returning laden with the booty. When the -turkies light upon such a line of march, they fall to with a famous -appetite; seeming to rival our pheasants in that particular, and -exhibiting the satisfaction they feel on receiving a supply of their -favorite food. In thus devouring the ants, they do great service; for, I -know not of any more unpleasant companions than the little tormentors in -question, whose bite is extremely keen, producing considerable -irritation. Some of these ants grow to full three-quarters of an inch in -length, and are capable of causing great pain. Many prevent their being -destroyed, under the opinion that they feed upon white-ants: this I -never could establish, though I believe they are ready enough to march -off with the body of a dead white-ant, the same as they would with any -other morsel of animal substance. - -The difficulty of rearing turkies, renders them extremely scarce; hence, -it is not uncommon to pay a gold mohur (£2.) for a well-grown, fat, -turkey-cock: few, either cocks or hens, are to be had in any part of the -country, for less than half that sum; and then chiefly from Portugueze -families, that make a livelihood by rearing them. About Bandel, a -Portugueze town, some thirty miles above Calcutta, great numbers are -reared; as are also ducks, and geese, in abundance. At all the great -stations, both civil and military; some persons of that description -generally reside, through whose industry families are supplied. Fowls -are reared by the same persons; though less an object to them, as almost -every Mahomedan family maintains a few, mostly for its own use, but -sometimes for sale. As to the Hindus, nothing could be more criminal -than such a speculation: the very touch of a fowl being considered the -acmé of pollution. From this we may judge how necessary it is to be -guarded in making changes in the dress of our native soldiers; whose -zeal and fidelity are unquestionable, but who instantly revolt at any -invasion, however slight, of their religious tenets, or of their vulgar -prejudices. Those who affect to consider such to be easily overruled, -or, who vainly talk of _coercing_ so many millions to adopt our faith, -would do well to take a trip to Bengal, and to insist on any Hindu -menials, or others, under their authority, wearing a feather in their -turban. - -As to the numerous species of wild game, such as antelopes, hog-deer, -hogs, geese, ducks, teal, snipes, ortolans, quails, partridges, -florikens, (or bustards,) pigeons of sorts, wild and tame, hares, &c., -they are generally to be had in abundance; those of my readers who wish -for a more detailed account, will find it in my ‘WILD SPORTS OF THE -EAST,’ published in folio, with colored plates, as also in quarto royal, -and imperial octavo, by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond-street, and by Messrs. -Black and Co. Leadenhall-street. In that superb work, the details of -every branch of hunting, shooting, &c., will be found. - -There are no wild rabbits in India, but great numbers of tame ones are -to be had at Calcutta, and at some of the subordinate stations. The -prices vary according to demand, age, and condition; but we may take the -average at four for a rupee when half grown, and at double that rate -when fit for the table. It is, however, extremely difficult to preserve -them in safety from their numerous enemies the dogs, jackals, foxes, -cats, rats, bats, snakes, hawks, crows, &c. - -Having, I believe, generally discussed what relates to the supply of the -table, I shall proceed to the description of other matters relating to -the convenience and service of gentlemen resident in the East. - -The dinner table is invariably laid with two cloths; one of the usual -size, the other about large enough to cover the surface only: this last -is removed when the meat is taken off; so that the dessert is laid upon -the lower one, which has, in the mean while, been preserved by it from -stains, grease, crumbs, &c. A napkin is laid with every cover, together -with a tumbler or rummer, a long glass for Claret, and an ordinary-sized -one for Madeira. Each glass is provided with a cover, which may be -lifted off by means of a stud in its centre. In opulent families, these -covers are usually made of silver, otherwise of turned wood. It is -remarkable, that some of the common indigenous woods have the peculiar -property, when used for this purpose, of imparting a most offensive -smell, attended with a similar flavor, to water, &c., if left for a few -minutes. - -The knives and forks are all of European manufacture, though, within -these few years, some excellent imitations have appeared. I doubt if -_Blacky_ can, as yet, bring his work so low as our artizans, though he -certainly has the advantage of them in cheapness of living, and in being -generally exempt from the operation of a variety of taxes. This -deficiency on the part of the natives, proceeds from their being obliged -to perform all those operations by hand, which we both accelerate and -perfect by means of machinery. The greater part of the plate, used -throughout the country, is made by native smiths, who, in some -instances, may be seen to tread very close on the heels of our -jewellers, not only in the graceful form of the articles manufactured, -but in the patterns, whether carved or embossed. Such specimens of -perfection are, however, rare, and are produced chiefly under the -superintendence of European masters; though I have seen some pieces, -made by _sonaars_, (goldsmiths,) totally independent of such aid, or -instruction, which displayed much skill and some taste. Speaking, -however, of the common workmanship of this class, it must be put out of -all comparison with British plate, on account of its being indifferently -shaped, and rudely ornamented. Hence, such plate as is sent from this -country, as well as what is made up by Europeans settled in India, very -generally sells for full 25, or even for 50 per cent. more than what is -manufactured by the native artizans. - -The whole of the glass-ware used in India, is furnished from England, -and commonly sells at full two, if not three, hundred per cent. on the -prime cost: this is not unreasonable, when we consider how brittle the -commodity is, and that the extent of sale is not so considerable as to -render it, individually, an object of adventure. - -Table cloths and napkins are manufactured in several parts of the -country, especially at Patna, Tondah, and most of those cities where -piece-goods are made. The beauty of some fabrics of this description is -very striking; nor is their durability less conspicuous. I have by me, -at this moment, some that have been in constant use for full twelve -years, and my stock, at no time, exceeded a dozen and a half of table -cloths. The prices of such may be supposed to vary according to quality; -but a very superior bird’s eye may be generally had for about two rupees -per square yard; observing, that the cost will necessarily be somewhat -encreased in proportion to the greater extent of the piece. Others, of a -coarser texture, and of a plain diaper, are to be had extremely cheap; -perhaps as low as eight annas (15_d._) per square yard. Such are, -however, extremely flimsy, and never appear creditable. Towels are also -manufactured at various prices; some reaching so high as two rupees -(5_s._) each, while others may be obtained by the dozen for the same -money. The best for common use may be rated at about five or six rupees -per dozen. A kind, generally of mixed colored borders, wove in, is made -at Chittagong: these are rough, like what we call huckaback, and are -peculiarly well calculated for drying and cleaning the skin after -washing; but they are not so durable as the plain diapers. - -Great quantities of furniture are sent from Europe, being first taken to -pieces, and packed within a very small space. Of this description, -mahogany tables and chairs form by far the greater portion; few other -articles being shipped, though now and then we see a few bureaus, -secretaires, ecritoires, &c., among a cargo from Europe. All such -commodities would bear even a higher price than is now charged for them, -were it not that, among the natives, as well as among the European -carpenters, and joiners, settled in Calcutta, the British mechanics -experience considerable, and very successful, rivalship. - -The excellent woods, of different kinds, produced in almost every part -of India, and the facility with which they may be brought to market, -present the most favorable aids to the Indian artizans; but, owing to -the want of capital among the natives, the work done by them is rarely -found to answer: it warps dreadfully, and sometimes rives from one, to -the other, end. This is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning; -for we find, that whenever a gentleman is at the pains, and has the -opportunity, to saw up his own wood, and to season it properly, it will -commonly be found to answer his expectations fully; both in respect to -durability, and to the polish it may take. Although there is, in some -instances, an obvious cheapness in employing a native carpenter, it may -safely be asserted, that, on the long run, what with delay, impositions, -imperfections, &c., it is frequently found to be a very round-about way -of saving a trifle. I strongly recommend to all persons arriving in -India, to visit the several depôts of furniture to be seen at every -auction-warehouse, and generally at the _godowns_ (warehouses) of the -European shopkeepers. There is, besides, a whole street, called the -‘_china-bazar_,’ as well as various scattered boutiques, appropriated -entirely to the display of European articles, and of china-ware, of -every description; all which are sold for ready money only, by a tribe -of Hindu speculators, who, from attending at auctions, are enabled to -make cheap purchases, and become perfectly acquainted with the qualities -of every article; or, at least, with such points as give a preference in -the eye of an European. In this _bazar_, (or market,) almost every thing -an European can require, for common purposes, may be obtained: he may, -indeed, purchase an ample library, either of new, or of second-hand -books; and, generally speaking, may equip himself in such a manner as -may enable him to keep house at full thirty per cent. cheaper than among -the European shop-keepers. - -Though we may find a few trades, such as coach-making, jewellery, -cutlery, armoury, &c., perfectly distinct, and unconnected with any -other speculation, we are not to suppose that commodities, in general, -are separately classed, and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them. -On the contrary, what we call an ‘Europe-Shop,’ affords a rich display -of that heterogeneous kind of cargo imported in every merchant-ship -proceeding to that quarter. Consequently, each shop offers an -astonishing variety of wares. Liquors of all kinds, guns, pistols, glass -ware, tin and copper ware, crockery, stationary, shoes and boots, -hosiery, woollens, linens, ironmongery, hats, cheese, grocery, and an -infinity of articles of the most opposite natures, may be found in the -spacious rooms, and _godowns_, allotted to the exhibition of the -miscellaneous profusion! - -Though it is not common to see European goods, especially those which -are not immediately perishable, selling for less than thirty or forty -per cent. advance upon the _salt-water_ invoices, it sometimes happens, -that an immense importation of some few particular articles may lower -them to full fifty per cent. under prime cost. This is easily accounted -for: for instance, should hats, shoes, and boots, bear a great price at -the time a fleet is about to be despatched for Europe, all the -commanders and officers note it down, for the purpose of making those -articles bear a large proportion in their next outward-bound cargoes. -Thus, each unwittingly becomes the dupe of his own avarice; and, on the -return of those ships to India, experiences the lamentable effects of -having allowed himself to be guided by former prices. I recollect -hearing an officer on board one of the Company’s ships declare, that he -made it a rule always to lay in a good stock of those articles which -were cheap at the time he quitted India: for, that he was certain the -lowness of the prices would influence the others of his class to avoid -purchasing them for the India markets, which, by the time of his return, -he invariably found to have regained their former level. By holding back -a little while, until the Europe shop-keepers found that he was the -sole, or, at least, the principal, importer of those goods, he had never -failed to make a very profitable bargain. - -However much we, in Europe, may admire genuine china-ware, our -countrymen in the East seem, for the most part, indifferent to its -beauties; they preferring our ornamented Staffordshire ware; which, -owing to its bulk, and brittleness, necessarily sells at a very high -price in every quarter of India. What is called ‘a long set,’ by which -we mean a service equal to a table for at least thirty persons, often -sells for 500 sicca rupees, equal to £65.; and ‘short sets’ in -proportion. The disadvantage attendant upon the use of this ware, in so -remote a situation, is, that, when, owing to the numerous accidents to -which all such articles are subject, even under especial vigilance, but -particularly under the auspices of native menials, the set may be much -reduced, it is utterly impracticable to fill up the vacancies thus -occasioned. With china ware, it is very different; for it is not so easy -to distinguish between two complex patterns, if tolerably similar; and, -as there is always a very large stock on hand, among the retailers in -the _china-bazar_, a very great chance, if not a certainty, exists, of -being furnished with any number of plates, dishes, &c., that may be -required to restore the set to its complement, or even to augment it, if -necessary. It may be a proper precaution, however, not to buy a set of -china ware of any very particular pattern; but to select one from those -numerous rich patterns every where common, and annually imported. This -seems to prove, that, unless under particular orders, the Chinese -deviate but little from their established fashions; as may be further -seen in their constant manufacture of that kind of crockery we generally -term ‘dragon-china,’ which appears to have been in use among them for -centuries. - -A very expensive article of general consumption is wax-candle. The price -of wax, some years back, was about sixteen rupees per maund, (equal to -6_d._ per lb.,) but, of late years, it has more than trebled, in -consequence of the encreased demand. Here we see that want of system -which too often tends to annihilate what might, under due regulation, be -made a most advantageous concern. It is necessary to be understood, that -honey is of little value in India, the natives considering it -unwholesome, and the Hindus being particularly averse to destroying so -many lives, for the purpose of robbing their combs. These circumstances -tend to diminish the collection of wax, which, in some districts, hangs -for years neglected upon the briars in the jungles; and, added to the -jealousy of the _zemindars_, (or land-holders,) who rarely omit to exact -a very smart duty upon whatever is taken from their soil, deters those -who possess a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in wax. I have -not a doubt but that half a million of maunds might be annually -collected, if proper encouragement were held out, and a sale insured to -the adventurers, at any particular towns in the several districts where -bees are abundant. Within the last twenty years, a few Europeans have -established manufactories of wax-candles, which often sell for eighty -rupees per maund (82lb). This, though an excessive price, compared with -that formerly prevalent, comes to rather less than 2_s._ 6_d._ per lb.; -and, as the wax is always pure, it should seem, that, as an article of -commerce, much profit might be derived from importation. At present, -wax-candles are prohibited, although the price of raw bees’-wax is here -up to near 4_s._, and tallow at a very exorbitant height. I am greatly -mistaken, if the benefits this branch of business is capable of -yielding, both to the nation, and to individuals, are properly -understood. - -To place this in a proper point of view will require but little detail; -for, if we say that wax candles, of the first quality, can be offered -for sale at Calcutta for £13. per cwt., and that raw wax sells with us -at 3_s._ 6_d._ per lb., or £19. 12_s._ per cwt., it is obvious that the -manufactured article might be imported to us at full 50 per cent. -cheaper than the raw material can be obtained on our own soil. Let us -compute this on the large scale; comparing the manufactured articles, -and making allowances for the fair value of the raw materials in either -country. - - £ - - A ton of wax candles of Indian manufacture, even - at the high price of 80 rupees (_i.e._ £10.) per - maund of 82lb. would be 260 - - Freight, shipping, charges, and insurance, per ton 25 - - Wharfage, &c., on landing, per ton 5 - - —— - - Total 290 - - A ton of wax candles of European manufacture, at - £28. per cwt., equal to 5s. per lb. 560 - - —— - - Difference in favor of the Indian candles, per ton £270 - - —— - - Raw wax may be had at Calcutta for about forty - rupees per maund, or rather under £7. per cwt. - which brings the ton to 140 - - Freight, &c., as above 30 - - —— - - 170 - - Whereas, the raw wax produced, in England, - generally sells for about 3s. 6d. per lb. or - £19. 12s. per cwt., or, per ton 392 - - —— - - Giving a balance in favor of Indian wax, of, per - ton £222 - -I have not made any allowance for duties; but it will be seen from the -above very simple calculation, that a very heavy impost might be laid on -either the raw material, or the manufactured article, without reducing -the profit so low as to leave no encouragement to the speculator. Let -us, however, set it down at £60. per ton, which is an enormous sum, and -say, that, in consequence of the great importation, wax should fall -one-third in price. This fall would reduce the ton of candles to £380., -from which deduct the £60. duty, and there would be left £320.; so that, -after paying the £290. of cost and incidental charges, no less than £30. -would remain as the net profit on each ton. If we, in like manner, take -one third, say £132. from the £392. to result from the sale of the raw -material, and £40. more for duties, we reduce the net profits from £222. -to £50. In either way the speculation is highly interesting, and -requires only to be thoroughly examined to insure attention. I am not, -at this moment, prepared to say what may be the amount of duties -collected on wax, or of the excise on the manufacture of candles, but -apprehend that it must fall very short of what might be realized if wax -candles were more generally used in the houses of opulent persons. Some -forty years ago, when wax candles sold for three shillings per pound, -they were in great request. If, however, we calculate for the -importation of 3,000 tons of wax annually, in its raw state, paying a -duty of £40. per ton, we should find a result of no less than £120,000. - -The foregoing estimate stands entirely on the present high prices of wax -in India, but which might, by proper regulations, be reduced to -one-third. Thus, if it were stipulated that the rents of certain -districts should be payable, to a particular extent, in crude wax, at a -fixed valuation, the quantity brought to market might, I am fully -confident, be equal to what I have already stated, viz. 500,000 maunds, -or 18,750 tons, which, taken at £200. only per ton, when landed, would -give a national benefit equal to £3,750,000! and a revenue of £650,000. -arising from the duty, at £40. per ton on the raw material! - -When it is recollected how dependent we have been on other nations for a -supply of tallow; and that, on an average of peace and war, we pay -nearly £80. per ton for foreign tallow; also, that one wax candle of -equal weight will burn out two of tallow; it should seem evident, that -the importation of wax from our settlements abroad, as well as from -various Indian islands, in which it is abundantly produced, should -become an object of national consideration. The very unpleasant scent -attendant upon the use of tallow, and its great aptitude to gutter in so -hot a climate, occasion its use to be confined to those Europeans whose -circumstances may not permit them to use wax. This occasions all who -return from India, after long residence there, to be extremely -incommoded by the smell of mould candles; the smoke of which is, to -them, peculiarly offensive, and strongly calls to mind the _cheraugs_, -or oil-lamps, in common employ among the natives, and in the _zenanahs_ -of Europeans. - -The whole of the doors and windows being thrown open, during the -evenings especially, it would be impossible to prevent the current of -air, passing through every part of the interior, from extinguishing the -several lights, were it not that large glass covers, called shades, were -applied by way of preventives. Some of these shades are made to stand on -pillars, or pedestals, generally of wood, with brass ferules, and having -broad plinths, either square or circular, to prevent their being easily -overset. - -The other kind of table-shade is by no means so convenient as that just -described, it being an irregular tube, standing on its base, or broader -extremity; and, though spreading in the centre, drawing narrower toward -the upper part. This kind requires to be much longer, so as to shelter -the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick, which should not, -properly, be more than six inches in height. The inconveniences by which -this shade is attended are self-evident; as it cannot be carried about, -or lifted, _in toto_, as the pedestal shade may be. Those lights which -are affixed to the walls, either on sconces, or brackets, or that are -suspended from hooks, are generally on the same principle; with this -necessary difference, that oil is chiefly burnt in such, by means of a -small glass tumbler half filled with water, on which the oil floats, and -supports a very slight tin tube with four tin wings, to each of which a -piece of cork is affixed. During the rainy season, when insects of every -description are beyond credibility numerous, it is often absolutely -necessary to remove all lights from the supper table; otherwise moths, -flies, bugs, &c., would be attracted in such numbers as to extinguish -them altogether, but, at all events, to prove extremely obnoxious. When -the lights are retained on the table, it is customary to place the -candlesticks in soup plates, &c., filled with water: by this means, such -insects, especially the stinking-bugs, which fly with great force, are -often precipitated and drowned: it is not unusual to catch whole -platefuls in this manner, which would otherwise continue to torment the -company. Nothing can exceed the irritation produced by these bugs when -they get into the hair, or between the linen and the body! Nor are they -in themselves innocent; for, though they neither bite nor sting, such is -the acrimony they possess, that, if bruised in such manner as to leave -any moisture on the skin, great heat, and sometimes blisters, followed -by excoriations that do not quickly heal, may take place. The same -effect is produced by the urine of lizards, which frequent the interior -of houses, and may often be seen in great numbers crawling about the -walls, or on the ceiling, (if we may so term the roofs already -described,) in pursuit of the smaller and more delicate insects, which -they snap up with great dexterity and greediness. It is really amusing -to observe with what sagacity and care they approach their prey, and -with what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues armed with gluten. -With respect to frogs, toads, and, occasionally, snakes, patrolling -about the skirts of the apartments, even of the best houses in the -country, they must be put up with as matters of course; as must also the -alighting of cock-roaches on the face while at table, or at cards, &c.: -nor, indeed, must the resident in India be very squeamish in regard to -bats, which freely indulge in aëriel circuits over the heads of the -company, on which, too, they now and then find it convenient to halt -awhile, without undergoing the previous ceremony of obtaining -permission. These all appear terrible drawbacks, but are scarcely -noticed after awhile: so strong is the power of habit. Certainly a very -considerable portion of the enjoyments, which might otherwise be -indulged in, are, in a manner, proscribed by these nuisances; but, -whether it be owing to that _ennui_ generally prevalent, or to that kind -of reconciliation which takes place between the pest and its sufferer, -may be difficult to determine; we, however, see all the old residents -treat insects, frogs, toads, &c., with great indifference; though, to be -sure, when a snake, of whatever class, makes his entrée, an astonishing -degree of activity, far beyond what the former lethargic symptoms could -indicate, suddenly prevails. - -I have several times seen large snakes coiled, or rather twined, among -the Venetians of _bungalow_ windows, and have observed that the -grass-snake, which is of a beautiful green, with a reddish head, is -partial to secreting itself under the leaves of tables, and, in -situations of that description, where it may be easily dislodged, or -touched, by accident. Such a propensity is peculiarly obnoxious in a -serpent whose bite is generally fatal. This snake may occasionally be -seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees, whence, if disturbed, it -drops with great readiness, and proceeds along the tops of the grass -with admirable celerity, and, owing to the similarity of its color, -scarcely allowing the dazzled eye to follow its course. - -The _Cunjoors_ carry a great variety of serpents about the country, -which they are in the habit of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle. -Some, such as the _adjghur_ or _boa-constrictor_, which has been known -to reach the immense length of thirty feet, destroy by the extent of -their bite, or by compression; while the lesser species seem to be -provided with poison to make up for their deficiency of bulk. The -skeleton of an _adjghur_ was found near Chittagong, about forty years -ago, having in its fauces the skeleton of a full-grown deer; the horns -of which, it was supposed, had occasioned the suffocation of its -unwieldy devourer. I have seen one of this kind that required eight men -to lift him into his basket! An operation to which, either from habit, -or fatigue, it submitted with great resignation. The _covra capella_, is -the same as the hooded-snake of America, thus designated from a peculiar -spreading of the throat when in a state of irritation, so as to give it -much resemblance to a flounder, but with a curious figure extremely -similar to a pair of spectacles, which, being under the throat, is fully -exhibited as the snake rises, as he is wont to do, nearly half his -length, before he darts upon the object of resentment. These snakes are -peculiarly venomous, and, though averaging from three to five feet, are -seen to attain a larger size. I have shot four in one day, namely, two -males, of a black, or deep bottle green; and two females, ordinarily of -a clay color; which measured from six to nine feet. A few years ago, I -saw one exhibited by the _Cunjoors_, or _Saumpareahs_, (_i.e._ -snake-men,) which actually measured about thirteen feet! The _daumeen_ -grows to a large size, perhaps eight to twelve feet, but has no venomous -teeth, or fangs. He lashes with his tail, coiling into a bow, and -awaiting the approach of dogs, men, &c., before he lashes; which he does -with such severity as often to cut the integuments very deeply. The -natives entertain an opinion that the tail of this snake is venomous; -and it might be supposed, from the almost certainly fatal effects -produced by its operation, that it were so; but I have always attributed -the mischief occasioned thereby, to that laceration produced by a very -rough scaly body, such as the tail is, proceeding with great force over -parts well known to be peculiarly irritable; occasioning a strong -tendency to that most horrible affection the _tetanus_, or locked-jaw, -from which not one in a thousand recovers. The _covra manilla_ rarely -grows to more than fifteen or eighteen inches, and is of a mottled -appearance, very indicative of its deleterious property: if I err not, -its bite is invariably fatal. The double-headed snake receives that name -from its body being nearly cylindrical, the tail terminating in a short -cone, resembling a second head. This snake is chiefly seen in hilly -countries, but is occasionally washed down by the annual floods, to the -plains, where it is found in drains and hollows, from which it does not -appear to be over-well qualified to escape. Its average length may be -from two to three feet, and its thickness, or circumference, from four -to six inches. - -It may be acceptable to my readers, while upon this subject, to be -informed of the antidote; viz. the volatile alkali, or eau de luce. A -few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine glass full of water, if -taken in time, and repeated every two or three hours, or even more -frequently, has been known to counteract the venom after its effects had -been so fully ascertained as to leave but little chance of recovery. I -never went out shooting without a small bottle of this, closed by a -ground stopper, in my tin box of apparatus. Fortunately, although I have -been repeatedly in imminent danger, and had snakes dancing the hayes all -around me, no occasion ever presented itself for having recourse to my -precautionary bottle! - -The following extracts, from a very interesting communication made by W. -Boag, Esq. to the Asiatic Society, will set this matter in a proper -form, and qualify any person to judge of the danger, from the several -symptoms prevalent, in ordinary cases, when the venom takes effect. It -may be proper to premise, that many who have been bitten by snakes of -the worst description have not been affected; merely owing to the -thickness of their cloathing, by which the noxious fluid has been -absorbed. - -Mr. Boag informs us, that ‘The symptoms which arise from the bite of a -serpent, are, commonly, pain, swelling, and redness in the part bitten; -great faintness, with sickness at stomach, and sometimes vomiting, -succeed; the breath becomes short and laborious; the pulse low, quick, -and interrupted: the wound, which was at first red, becomes livid, -black, and gangrenous; the skin of the wounded limb, and sometimes of -the whole body, assumes a yellowish hue; cold sweats and convulsions -come on, and the patient sinks, sometimes in a few hours, but commonly -at the end of two, three, or four days. - -‘This is the usual progress when the disease terminates fatally; but, -happily, the patient will most commonly recover; a reflection which -should moderate the fears of those who happen to be bitten by snakes, -and which, at any rate, should, as much as possible, be resisted; as the -depressing passion of fear will, in all cases, assist the operation of -the poison. - -‘The volatile alkali is the remedy mostly employed by physicians, both -in India and in Europe; but the belief which formerly prevailed, that it -possessed some specific power, which corrected the poison, seems to be -now very generally relinquished; and it is now acknowledged to have no -other action than that ascribed to it by Mr. Williams, (of Benares,) of -stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous exertion. - -‘The calces, or, as they are more properly called, the oxyds of some -metals, as arsenic, mercury, and silver, have been made use of; the -efficacy of which, as remedies in this disease, merit a more attentive -consideration. - -‘We are indebted to FONTAUA for any knowledge we possess regarding the -use of the lunar-caustic; which is a preparation of silver in the -nitrous acid; and, considering the length of time that has elapsed since -his publication, and the advantages resulting from its use, it is -wonderful it has not excited more general attention. - -‘He first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic, applied this mixture -to a wound, and found that the venom was rendered entirely innocent, -while the corroding power of the caustic was diminished. He next wounded -a variety of animals, with venomous teeth, scarified the wounds, and -washed them with a solution of lunar-caustic in water: by this means, -the lives of the greatest number of the animals were saved, though they -were such as he knew to be most easily killed by the poison, and the -death of others was retarded. He also tried a weak solution, of the same -remedy, internally, with remarkable success, and, upon the whole, he -congratulates himself in seeing his labors at length rewarded, by the -discovery of a true specific remedy for the bites of serpents. - -‘A ligature should, as soon as possible, be made above the part bitten, -so as to impede, but not entirely to stop, the circulation of the blood; -for the bite of a serpent is, for the most part, superficial, and the -poison is carried into circulation by the smaller vessels on the -surface; the wound should then be scarified, and washed in a solution -(rather weak) of the lunar-caustic in water.’ - -Mr. Boag recommends a warm bath for the limb bitten, and thinks the -addition of a small quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent -effects. He speaks of it only as a suggestion, and, where time may -admit, and the means be at hand, there certainly ought to be a fair -trial made of so promising a theory: the misfortune is, that, owing to -the great heat of the climate, and the dread ever entertained of the -result, all the symptoms proceed with rapidity. That gentleman speaks of -several hours elapsing between the accident, and the fatal termination; -but my own experience satisfies me, that not one in ten of those bitten -during the hot months, and especially when at work, or heated with -travelling, &c., survive more than one hour: I have, indeed, seen -various cases, in which half that time was the utmost; and could adduce -some instances of persons dying within the _quarter_ of an hour. - -Though snakes certainly, for the most part, endeavor to avoid the human -race, they have been known to come very fiercely to the attack. No -doubt, when this has happened, some previous irritation has occurred, or -they have been pursued by the ichneumon; (_i.e._ the _benjy_, _bissy_, -or _neoule_,) which is to be seen wild in every part of India, and may, -at times, be found contending with snakes of great bulk. This active -little animal, the natural enemy of all serpents, as well as of the -smaller kinds of vermin, worries his opponent by incessant feints, as -though he were about to seize its throat, and, in time, so fatigues, as -to render it unable to resist with its primary celerity and caution. -When the snake is in that state, the ichneumon rushes forward, and, by -seizing its throat, or the back of its head, soon lays the envenomed -reptile lifeless at its command. It sometimes happens that the ichneumon -receives a bite, when he immediately relinquishes his object, and seeks -among the neighbouring verdure for some root, of which he eats, and, -after rolling himself in the soil, returns to the charge with unabated -keenness. Should the snake have retired, the little quadruped speedily -scents him out, and rarely fails to revenge himself for his past danger. -What it is the animal has recourse to, never has been ascertained; of -course, remains among our other important desiderata. The ichneumon is -not only domesticated with facility, if obtained at an early age, but -becomes extremely affectionate. Neither rats nor snakes will enter a -house in which a tame ichneumon is retained, and allowed, as is usual, -to range about at pleasure. The _Saumpareahs_, or snake-men, keep one, -or more, for the purpose of exhibiting their feats in the attack of -snakes. - -It is wonderful how accurately a _Saumpareah_ will ascertain, merely by -smelling at a hole in a wall, &c., whether a snake be within. If such -should be the case, the reptile’s fate may be considered as decided; -for, what with the music of a rude species of oboe, and the allurement -of various drugs, in which _dunneah_, a species of coriander, among -which snakes delight to bask, are prevalent, he soon comes forth, and is -either taken in a bag, or by an assistant snatching hold of his tail -with one hand, and sliding the other with great rapidity up to its -throat; which, being constricted by the grasp, occasions the fangs to be -exposed: these being extracted, the captive is added to the stock of -innocents. - -Though diminutive, in regard to corporeal extent, the musquito may be -considered a most formidable enemy to the repose of almost every thing -possessing animation, but especially to Europeans; whose manner of -living generally gives a considerable tendency to general, as well as to -local, inflammation. In this I speak relatively; for, when we compare -the habits of our countrymen with those of the natives, we shall find -that a very great difference prevails, and that, what we might in Europe -call moderation, may, in Asia, very properly be construed into excess. -This difference is so great, that, in ordinary cases, the physicians’ -first care is to lower the temperament of his British patient, thereby -to repress the usual tendency towards inflammation; especially in -persons of a plethoric habit, or lately arrived from Europe; while, on -the contrary, it generally requires some effort to keep the frugal -native from sinking under that _typhus_ to which he is most subject. - -Musquitoes generally remain inactive during the day, retiring to the -borders of some muddy pool, or stinking drain, where they deposit their -_ova_, which, in a few days, produce a noxious million, that may be seen -in their several stages, at most times of the year, and especially -during the hot season, when such puddles are often both replete with, -and covered by, young musquitoes. - -These unpleasant companions not only make a very disagreeable humming, -but thrust their trunks, the same as the common knat does his proboscis, -between the threads of a stocking, &c.; and, while sucking the blood of -their victim, cause a very smarting sensation, which does not -immediately cease; if scratched, a musquito-bite will usually rise into -a small white, hard lump; which, on further provocation, proceeds to -suppurate; frequently degenerating into very obstinate sores. Instances -have occurred of very serious consequences being entailed, by an -unguarded indulgence granted to the nails at the moment of irritation. - -Every bed, (commonly called a _cot_,) is furnished with a set of inner -curtains, made of gauze, manufactured for that purpose in several parts -of Bengal, and known by the name of _koppradool_. These curtains, being -very thin, and generally of a green color, serve not only to debar -access to the musquitoes, but, without much obstruction to the air, -offer a pleasant medium between the eye, and any glare which may either -enter directly from the exterior, or be reflected by the walls; which, -in most houses, are white, as already explained in describing the -European architecture of the East. - -It is always expedient to have these curtains put up before it is dark; -otherwise musquitoes, being then on the wing, will, if possible, find -their way to the interior; whence it is not very easy to fan them out. -Besides, by this easy precaution, it is not very practicable for snakes, -or rats, to get under the pillows, or into the bed; situations in which -they have occasionally been found. The rats are often induced to burrow -into the pillows, which are usually stuffed with the silky-cotton called -_seemul_, wherein the seeds are left, and, by their oily nature, attract -this description of vermin in particular. The females sometimes resort -to it when about to bring forth their young: hence, it is not uncommon -to find the old lady in possession of a pillow, or bolster, or, -eventually, of the mattress; especially if no person has slept on them -for a few nights. On board _budjrows_, rats are often very troublesome, -destroying boots, shoes, &c., without mercy: I have frequently felt -them, during the night, attacking the powder and pomatum at the back of -my head. Of this the cock-roach also is very fond, but the sensation it -produces is nothing more than a tickling, as though the fingers of -another person were introduced among the hair; whereas, a rat makes a -more desperate attack, often giving a strong pull, or, occasionally, -knawing at the accumulated grease, which adheres to the head itself. -Though I made it a rule always to have my bed-cloaths stripped off, and -my pillows turned over, before I got into bed, nothing of the serpent -kind was ever discovered, though many rats and mice were at times -dislodged. Other persons have not been so fortunate; my own experience -has made me acquainted with various instances of snakes being found in -beds whereon gentlemen were about to repose. A very curious circumstance -happened many years back, of a lady being called by her servant to see a -snake that lay very contentedly between two of her infants, which slept -on a small cot. It may be readily supposed their perilous situation -produced the most dreadful anxiety. With great fortitude, and presence -of mind, she directed the menial to go to one side of the bed, and to -seize one of the children by a leg and an arm, while she did the same -with the other; and thus to snatch them away. This was a bold measure, -and possibly saved the little ones from injury; but, had the mother -caused a chaffing dish to be brought into the apartment, and set thereon -some milk to boil, the smell of it would instantly have caused the snake -to creep out, for the purpose of partaking of his favorite food. Though -all snakes are peculiarly fond of a certain warm temperature, inclining -to summer heat, they will, in general, take to the water very freely, -especially when pursued. Many persons pretend to distinguish such as are -venomous, by their aversion thereto; but such is very fallacious. I have -repeatedly seen _covra capellas_ dart into puddles, and ponds, with -seeming eagerness. It is extremely dangerous to proceed along path-ways, -leading through grass covers, or _jungles_, at night; as, at that time, -numbers of snakes will quit the heavy grass for the purpose of lying in -the current of air, which necessarily proceeds along those paths whose -sides are confined, perhaps to the height of several feet, by grass and -underwood, and cause them to resemble the vistas cut through coppices, -&c. - -From what has been said above, many may be led to suppose, that, in -India, every step is attended with danger; and, that neither the day, -nor the night, offers security. This certainly is not always the case; -but I should strongly advise every person to act throughout with -caution; and to suppose these dangers I have described to be imminent. -This, though it may not be comfortable, will generally insure safety. -With regard to scorpions, centipedes, &c., too much circumspection -cannot be used. In some parts of the country they are very numerous, -capable of inflicting great pain, and of producing very severe local -inflammation. Instances have been known of serious indisposition having -been induced by the stings of scorpions in particular. The young ones -are generally of a yellowish, or dun, or clay color; as they advance in -growth, they gradually become darker, until they acquire a bottle color. -Though very rare, I have seen a few of these which measured nearly eight -inches from the mouth to the point of the sting, which much resembles a -large dark-colored thorn from a rose-bush. There are, however, two kinds -of scorpions, of which that species above described is certainly the -most formidable; fortunately, it is seldom to be seen in places much -frequented: the other kind may often be seen by dozens in the folds of a -tent, &c., laid by in a dark place among old rubbish; and, not -unfrequently, in the cracks of old mud walls. Many a poor servant, in -walking about a house at night, or in rummaging among old stores, gets -stung by the _beeçhu_ (scorpion). The part affected generally swells, -and smarts, or, rather aches, considerably: but the remedy is easy; a -rag moistened with vinegar affording speedy relief. The same application -is equally proper in case of being bitten by a _centipede_, called by -the natives _kaungoojer_; from the opinion entertained that it is apt to -creep into the ear. That such _may_ have taken place, cannot be denied; -but it would, I believe, prove extremely difficult to produce a -well-authenticated instance. The centipede is by no means calculated for -such an insinuation; he being of some breadth, and growing, rather -quickly, to such a size as must preclude the possibility of his getting -into the ear: I have seen several measuring nine and ten inches in -length; and as broad, though not above a third so thick, as a man’s -finger: we may consider half those dimensions to constitute the ordinary -bulk. - -Wasps and hornets are every where abundant during the whole year: the -latter commonly nestle in the ground, or in the hollow of a tree, or -perhaps form a small cell in some corner, or under a thatch, and there -deposit their larvæ. The former are sometimes seen in such numbers as to -occasion considerable uneasiness; they not only make their nests within -the walls of _bungalows_, if, by means of cracks, or of distances -between wood-work, they should find the opportunity, but boldly -construct their combs within the apartments; sometimes attached to a -cornice, but most generally in one of the upper corners of a window -frame, so as to have ready means of retiring. The destruction of these -intruders is not always practicable, without considerable danger. The -best mode is to cover a man well up in a blanket, and to place on his -head a pot of embers, on which a lump of sulphur is laid; so that, by -standing under the comb, the fumes may stupify, or at least expel, the -wasps; after which the comb may be removed without difficulty. The -greatest danger is when the wasps take possession of some spot very near -to the thatch; for instance, if they attach their dwelling to one of the -rafters. When it is considered, that half the thatches are extremely -decayed, and take fire like tinder, it must be obvious how delicately -the operation should be managed: in such case, a slow match, made to -contain a large portion of sulphur, and fastened to the end of a pole, -is, perhaps, the most secure device; for, if a single spark were to fly -into the thatch, it probably would, like Doctor Slop’s wig, be ‘nearly -consumed before it were well kindled!’ - -Bees are by no means so bold as wasps and hornets, but they frequently -take possession of some bush, or even of several parts of a hedge around -a garden, especially one well stocked with flowers; rendering it unsafe -to approach that quarter. The combs are sometimes large, but may, -perhaps, on the average, when full, weigh from four to ten pounds. No -bees are domesticated in India; at least I never heard of an apiary of -any description; though, from the great abundance of food to be had at -all seasons, it might prove very easy to maintain them properly. The -truth is, that wild honey is so cheap and abundant as to preclude the -necessity for taking any further pains to obtain it, than merely cutting -the combs away from their thorny defences. - -Bugs, such as infest our beds in Europe, are beyond imagination numerous -throughout the East. Every _charpoy_, (or bedstead,) of whatever size, -or description, in use among the natives, swarms with them! Hence, it is -next to impossible to prevent their getting among the furniture, and -especially into the boxes, drawers, &c., in which cloaths are kept; and -the most careful, cleanly person, may sometimes find a stray bug -crawling upon his linen, or lying concealed among the plaits. Musquito -curtains are, on this account also, very useful; but they should be -searched daily, lest any stragglers, &c., be on them. Perhaps the best -defence against these nasty tormentors, is that in general use as a -preventive against the visits of ants, centipedes, &c.; viz. causing the -four posts of a bed to stand each upon a stone, perhaps a foot in -diameter, and five or six inches deep, wherein a deep trough is cut, -which, being kept full of water, insulates each post. Some use metal -pans, which certainly have a neater appearance, and secure the carpet, -mat, &c., from being injured by the damp; which sometimes will find its -way, more or less, through stone, however hard. - -The natives rarely have posts to their bedsteads; though a few, -occasionally, affix a kind of tester, by means of a staple, at the head; -those who could afford the best furniture, and every convenience, are -more pleased when attended by a slave, or menial, who, with a small -_punkah_, (or fan,) gently agitates the air, and keeps off flies and -musquitoes. It scarcely need be pointed out how offensive such a -practice may occasionally prove, and that when the servant drops asleep -while performing his tedious office, the master generally will be -awaked. Some, of the natives especially, cannot go to sleep without -being lulled thereto, by means of an operation called by Europeans -_shampoing_. This consists in a gentle pressure of the feet and legs, as -also of the arms and hand, or, occasionally, of the body also, between -the hands of the operator, who passes either slowly, or rather rapidly, -according to the fancy of his, or her, master, from one part to another. -That considerable relief is obtained from _shampoing_, cannot be -doubted; I have repeatedly been restored surprizingly from severe -fatigue, as well as from a certain langor and watchfulness, common in -hot climates, and no doubt proceeding from indigestion, or from a -nervous affection, merely by having my feet gently pressed in this -manner. It is curious, that Captain Cook should have found this custom -to be prevalent in the Island of Tongataboo, where it is called -‘_toogey-toogey_,’ in allusion to the beating of a drum with the fists. -Now, the common small drums used in India, which are suspended in front -of the body, are called ‘_doog-doogies_,’ and, in some places, the -natives of India, _shampo_, by beating with the fists, calling the -operation, not by the common term _debounah_, (or pressing,) but -_doogaunah_. It is a question whether the latter term be a corruption, -or a derivative from the _doog-doogy_. A similar practice obtains in -Egypt, and, indeed, throughout the Turkish empire; especially at the -baths, where _shampoing_ is considered a matter of course. If my memory -be correct, Captain Cook was relieved from a severe rheumatic complaint -by an operation of this description; with this difference, that, in lieu -of soothing pressure, the parts affected were not beat gently, but -squeezed forcibly, between the hands. I have somewhere read, that -_gouty_ pains were in like manner removed; but should conclude, that -such could only be flying pains; for the tenderness of parts locally -attacked by the gout, could not, I apprehend, be invaded, without -subjecting the party to excruciating torture. - -Setting apart the benefits which may occasionally be derived from -_shampoing_, we may consider it as one of those luxuries which, like the -_hookah_, the snuff-box, the brandy-bottle, &c., become so habitual as -to plunge us into indescribable uneasiness whenever they may be out of -our reach; of course, it is prudent to avoid being _shampoed_, except -when a kind of restlessness, or watchfulness, is induced by excess, of -any description. In such case, immediate relief is often of great -importance; but it may be proper not to have recourse to the indulgence -except on emergency, since its effects are gradually lessened by -repetition, and the want of a menial to perform the operation may cause -much irritation and disquietude. - -The greatest attention is requisite to aërate every apartment in a -proper manner daily; without that precaution, all the aids of -_champoing_, of musquito-curtains, water-pots, bathing, &c., will be of -little avail, as fevers and obstructions of the liver invariably follow, -whenever the atmosphere within a chamber is allowed to become foul: I -know not, indeed, any thing more weakening, or more destructive to the -constitution, than sleeping in one that is deficient in point of -ventilation; and to continue in such, after being, in any degree, -indisposed, is little less than absolute insanity! Nothing will be found -to contribute more to health than sleeping cool; adverting, at the same -time, to the precautions already laid down, not to place the cot so that -any forcible current of air should pass over it, lest perspiration be -obstructed, and the worst consequences be induced. The winter months -will often dictate the use of one, or perhaps two, good thick blankets; -while the summer heats will cause the rejection of all bed-cloathing -above the body; occasioning the general use of long drawers, which, for -the most part, are made of thin silk, or of fine calico: some have them -made with feet, thereby effectually preventing musquitoes from biting in -that quarter, but, to me, such were always extremely unpleasant. - -During the hottest part of the year, many dispense with their shirts, -but retain their _banians_, or under-shirts, the skirts of which are -confined by the long drawers, which are usually fastened by a drawing -cord of silk. Early rising is particularly to be recommended, for the -purpose of taking exercise before breakfast. Among military persons this -salutary practice is generally inculcated _malgré lui_; and, among -civilians, ought to be so, by the additional motive of having the -forenoon devoted to office attendance, or to whatever duties may demand -notice. - -The amusements offered to Europeans in India are by no means numerous, -nor are they of any continuance; the climate, the localities, and the -occupations, of all, rendering it impossible to partake of such variety, -or in such comfort, as we enjoy in Europe. Calcutta can boast of a very -tolerable theatre, centrically situated, and spacious enough to contain -as many spectators as are generally to be found within the town. This -was built about fifty years ago, by subscription, in shares of one -thousand rupees each; but, owing to the very heavy expences incurred in -getting up plays, which formerly depended entirely on the _penchant_ of -gentlemen, who performed all the characters, both male and female, the -debts became so very heavy, that the concern fell into disrepute, and -the shares were sold for half their original value. - -It may seem strange, that, while no performers of any description were -employed, the house should get into debt; and, that since hirelings have -been engaged, it should have been in a more flourishing state. The -enigma is, however, easy of solution. Gentlemen of property, fashion, -and consequence, were not easily controlled; they would have new dresses -for every character, and were to be kept in humour by good suppers after -each rehearsal, some tickets for their friends, &c., &c., &c.; so that, -when all was reckoned up, the receipts were invariably less than the -disbursements. It is true that a gold-mohur (2 guineas) was the price of -a box admission, that the pit was half a mohur, and the gallery a -quarter of a mohur; but the house was rarely full, and there were rarely -more than ten pieces performed during the whole year, and those -generally in December, January, and February. The house had cost a lac -of rupees (_i.e._ 100,000, equal to £12,500.) in building, and fitting -up; therefore, there was a constant demand for interest, _at twelve per -cent._, equal to £1,500. yearly; that, however, was commuted into silver -tickets, which necessarily diminished the receipts; causing the shares -to sink from money speculations into mere family conveniences. - -The heavy incumbrances brought on by the above inconsiderate measures, -occasioned a necessity for letting out the theatre to any person who -would conduct the amusements in such manner as might prevent matters -from growing worse. This accordingly was done, and a spirit of -enterprize was created in the manager thus appointed by a majority of -the proprietors, whereby a great encrease took place in the -performances, which became chiefly dependant on professional persons -engaged at liberal salaries; while, at the same time, few gentlemen in -the Company’s service contributed the aid of their talents. This -secession was occasioned by the marked displeasure evinced by Marquis -Cornwallis towards all who took parts in the dramas: it threatened to -close the doors of the theatre. A competition arising about the same -time, produced an effect which accidentally sustained the speculation, -by causing an interest, indeed, a spirited party, to be formed, in favor -of the old house, which, in a very short time, triumphed, and caused the -opposition to give up. - -With respect to the merits of the gentlemen performers, much may be -said: there certainly were among them some who might have appeared -before a London audience without any fear of disapprobation. The names -of Fleetwood, Messink, Norfor, Golding, Bigger, Call, Keasberry, -Robinson, &c., &c., will long be remembered by the lovers of the drama; -nor will they be easily effaced from the memory of those in whose hearts -their merits, as members of society, were deeply impressed. The scenery -was originally furnished from England, under the auspices of Garrick, -who sent out Mr. Messink for the purpose of regulating the theatre at -its out-set. Since that time, various additions have been made by -different artists of acknowledged ability, among whom, Mr. Battle may be -noticed as possessing superior talents, both in that important branch, -and in the representation of various interesting characters. It is, -however, to be expected, that, notwithstanding the great encrease of the -European population, by whom it is almost wholly supported, the theatre -must be sold off. This, though a severe privation, where every item in -the catalogue of public amusements is highly appreciated, will not fall -heavy on the proprietors. The facility with which the edifice might be -converted into a superb suite of offices, or into a magnificent -dwelling, would insure them the re-payment of their money; especially as -the quantity of land reserved around it, for the accommodation of -_palanquins_, &c., is extremely valuable: indeed, that alone must be -worth full the aggregate amount of the shares at their ordinary value; -which has generally been about forty or fifty per cent. under par. - -The temporary theatres that have at various times been erected at the -several military stations, have always offered considerable -gratification to their several audiences. In these cheap ‘epitomes of -Roman greatness’ many a good play has been performed in an excellent -style, such as put us in mind of the mother-country, and occasioned many -a comparison by no means derogatory to the Asiatic boards. Exclusive of -the exertions of those officers who indulged themselves in this -recreation, many of the noncommissioned and privates of the European -regiments contributed richly to the catalogue of histrionic characters. -Some, though perhaps not gifted with grace, nor enriched by erudition, -nevertheless displayed an accurate discrimination of the authors’ -intentions, and commanded the applause of their audiences; among whom, a -very large portion were competent judges of dramatic excellence. - -The Calcutta race-course is situate about a mile and a half to the -southward of the town; it is by no means duly preserved, being -occasionally much injured by the carriages of gentlemen who frequent it -as a ride. It is true there is a clerk of the course; but he has no -power to enforce the observance of the rules laid down by the -Jockey-Club; he cannot, in fact, prevent the course from being miserably -defaced, and cut up; nor can he, even when the horses are running, keep -it clear from obstructions. This evil arises from a want of disposition -in the majority of those who frequent the place, to join in the sports, -or even to encourage them; hence, a want of courtesy is prevalent, and -the horses run under great disadvantages. It may be said, that, as they -run only during the cold months, when the turf is tolerably firm, little -injury is done by the carriages which travel over it; but, in answer to -this, it may be urged, that a rut, or track, made at that time, speedily -hardens, and becomes dangerous both to the horses and to their riders. -But, where few are interested, few will be considerate. - -Many horses that have started at Calcutta would make no contemptible -figure even at Newmarket: according to the distance, and the time in -which the course has been run over, I have reason to believe, that a -few, which could be mentioned, might competite with the best of the -second class of British racers. Taking into consideration, that such are -entirely the result of chance purchases, and not from any care in -breeding, it may be fairly argued that the horses of India, by which I -mean those brought from Candahar, Lahore, the Maharrattah states, &c., -possess considerable speed. Many, indeed, of that small indigenous -breed, which is usually held in contempt, especially on the turf, have -displayed very great powers, and distanced horses not only of -considerable value, but of high reputation. The race-grounds in other -parts of the country are not better preserved than that at the -Presidency; however, there is ample room for toleration, both because -there are few horses kept for running; the races, in those quarters, -being merely desultory, and the course generally marked out, _pro -tempore_, from some uncultivated spot; which, having a tolerable -surface, may answer the purpose of amusement for two or three days at -Christmas. - -Though there are _tattoo_ (_i.e._ poney) races, at Calcutta, few of that -class are brought forward, except after very full proof of their -qualifications; in fact, the poney-races are often superior to those run -by the best cattle on the clerk’s register. At the out-stations, -matches, or sweepstakes, are made solely with the view to merriment, or -from whim, frolic, or periodical elevation after a hearty regale. Here -we see cause for mirth, and, not unfrequently, find a clumsy-looking -beast, with heavy heels, and a head like a yam, taking the lead of -‘trim-built wherries,’ that seem to challenge competition. I recollect a -curious instance of this: a very shabby, heavy-looking _tattoo_, -belonging to Captain Cæsar Jones, started in this adventitious manner, -and, to the surprize of all, fairly distanced several celebrated steeds. -He was sent to Calcutta, where his uncouth appearance caused him to be -ridiculed, but there was no standing against his speed and bottom. -Hence, he acquired the name of ‘TAKE-IN;’ a designation which the -knowing ones feelingly acknowledged to be highly appropriate! The spirit -for betting at races does not run very high in India; though there have -existed some characters who devoted their whole attention to this -species of gambling: but so little encouragement offers for speculations -on the turf, that, with the exception of a few fat _pigeons_, it may be -said no money has been made by racing: the wagers rarely exceed a few -gold-mohurs. Every horse becoming so thoroughly known to all the -sporting community, little opening is left for deception or contrivance. -The smallest indication of collusion would, in that quarter, prove -instantly fatal to reputation, and cause at least a shyness, if not an -absolute estrangement, on the part of society, towards the offending -individual. In Europe this would not be so much felt, because a man may -change his quarters, and, for a long time, screen himself from public, -or general disapprobation; but, in India, when an individual is _cut_ at -one station, he will rarely experience common civility at any other; his -character generally preceding him by many a day’s journey! - -Gambling was formerly one of the most prominent vices to be seen in -Calcutta; but of late years has considerably diminished. Those who -recollect the institution of Selby’s Club, and who now contemplate the -very small portion of time dissipated, even by the younger classes, at -cards, &c., by way of ‘profit and loss,’ cannot but approve the salutary -reform introduced by Marquis Cornwallis, who, whatever may have been his -foibles, his prejudices, and his errors, in other matters, certainly was -entitled to the approbation of the Company, as well as to the gratitude -of their servants, for having checked so effectually a certain -licentious spirit, which had, till his arrival, been totally -uncontrolled, indeed, unnoticed, in any shape, by his predecessors. - -To expect that any Governor should be able totally to annihilate every -bad practice, would be to consider him as vested with supernatural -powers; but, it is assuredly within the reach of every person bearing -that high office, to chace the abandoned into their secret recesses, and -to render them at least timid, if not innocent. By removing such -characters from office, and by persevering in resolution not to give -employments of emolument to any but the most assiduous, and correct, of -the Company’s servants, much may be, much has been, done. Common sense -points out the impropriety of allowing a gambler to occupy any office in -which either great trust, or particular application, and vigilance, -might be requisite; therefore, as the generality of the posts held under -the Company are of either one or other of those descriptions, or may -perhaps blend both, it stands to reason that a man whose brains are ever -casting the dice, and whose carriage rolls upon the four aces, never can -with safety be trusted. - -Those who are partial to cards, as an amusement, may find abundance of -parties during the evenings, where, for the most part, tradrille and -whist (the favorite games) are played at such low stakes as not to be -productive of regret, or inconvenience. Quadrille is barely known in -India, nor are what we term ‘round-games’ much in use: cribbage is -played in some families, and, occasionally, loo. In all the above games, -the European inhabitants of Calcutta, as well as those dispersed over -the country, are generally proficient; far more so than we find persons -of the same description among us: a large portion are well acquainted -with chess, and back-gammon; and many excellent players at fives, -billiards, &c., are to be found in every quarter. Cricket is not much in -vogue; being confined principally to a club at Calcutta, and to some -occasional Christmas matches at the several army stations. On the whole, -though far less violent, as an exercise, than fives, it is less adapted -to the climate; the alternate successions of exertion, and of -inactivity, rendering the players liable to severe colds, and to -consequent obstructions. - -Music, it might be thought, would prove a great source of gratification -in a country where _ennui_ is so much to be dreaded; but the climate is -unfavorable to instruments of every kind, especially to pianos, and -offers a most formidable bar to the indulgence of a musical ear. No -persons can be more liberal in their purchases of instruments, or of -select music, than the ladies of India; they often giving two hundred -pounds for a good grand-piano; but the incessant apprehension of warps, -and cracks, is a tremendous draw-back on the interest they feel in the -possession of even the best of its kind. Repairs, of every sort, whether -of violins, pianos, flutes, &c., are exorbitantly dear, and, even at -Calcutta, not always practicable; either owing to dissipation, the want -of some essential article, or the quantity of work in hand. Nor is it -easy to obtain the temporary accommodation of an instrument while one is -repairing, unless at such a rate as utterly precludes all of moderate -income from availing themselves of such an opportunity, when it may -chance to offer. - -With respect to what is called ‘preparing an instrument for the -climate,’ much may certainly be done, by taking care that only the best -seasoned wood is employed, and by clamping the case with metal, both -within and without; but all this has little connection with the belly, -or sounding-board; which cannot be much strengthened without -considerably deteriorating the tone, and causing a piano to be in the -first instance condemned, for want of that richness which cannot be -given to one whose vibrations are obstructed. The only chance is, to -keep a piano well covered with blankets during the heats, as also in -very damp weather, and to uncloathe it gradually, when about to be -opened for performance. By such precautions, the instrument may remain -tolerably in tune, and not sustain much injury from the variations of -seasons: after two or three years the danger may be less; but it will be -prudent never to relax in point of prevention, lest the instrument -should suddenly fail. - -With the exception of such little parties as, in a few families, -assemble during the afternoons to enjoy the pleasures arising from the -musical talents of some lady, Calcutta has little to offer in this -captivating branch of amusement. If we cast out of the account some -accidental quartetto parties, or the solitary warblings of some -flute-player, &c., the whole may be deemed a blank. Now and then a -subscription concert, for the benefit of some professor, who lives more -by means of eleemosynary bounty, than by the encouragement of his -abilities, calls the town together, not to listen to the notes, to the -fine melodies, and rich harmonies of Haydn, &c., but to see, and to be -seen, and to talk, and be talked to. In brief, India is not the soil to -which a man of science, or of taste, should repair, under the hope of -being liberally repaid for his trouble and expences; much less of being -cherished for his genius and acquirements. One or two insulated -exceptions are not to be adduced in refutation of my assertion: I am -ready to acknowledge, that, now and then, a professor has been seen -pampering under all the influence of high and boundless patronage; but -the _per contra_ shews a numerous list of those who have lingered -through all the penalties attendant upon humble merit, until the grave -has kindly terminated their ill-fated labors. - -Assemblies, balls, routs, &c., or under whatever name dissipation, -vanity, and luxury, may arrange their concordance, are not very numerous -in India. The Governor-General, and the Members of Council, occasionally -circulate their invitations during the cold months; and, at times, some -spacious public rooms are engaged for the same purpose on speculation; -but I never understood that it proved lucrative. - -It was not until about twenty years back that the British had any -regular church in Bengal, and now they have but one, which was built -partly by private aid, and partly by the profits arising—_from a -lottery_!!! The latter was, I understand, very forcibly opposed by one -or two gentlemen, who considered it as a very unbecoming mode of raising -supplies for so holy a purpose. When we reflect that a Portugueze -merchant built one, for the use of the Catholics, from his own purse; -and that, though he was accounted a rich man, yet his property could not -be compared with what various individuals, of our own nation, resident -in India, can boast; it may be fairly quoted, as a singular instance of -parsimony against our countrymen. Not that impiety or disrespect to -public worship can be urged against the settlement; for no church can be -better attended than that in question: the liberality of the inhabitants -was partially exemplified by the institution of a free-school, where a -number of children, both of Europeans, and of native mothers, are -educated in a very sufficient manner; a circumstance of considerable -moment where education is so dear. - -This dearness should seem unreasonable, if we only take into account the -prices of provisions, which are very low; but we must carry in mind the -enormous rates of house-rent; and that, whatever may be the profession -in which persons proceeding to India engage, the return to Europe with a -comfortable independence is the main consideration. Supposing ten -thousand pounds to be gained in twenty years, by attention to his -pupils, it cannot be denied, that a pedagogue is barely rewarded for so -great a duration of slavery in such a climate, and at such a distance -from all his friends and connections. Whatever may be the merits of the -teachers, nothing could reconcile me to bringing up a child in India. -All so educated, are rendered unfit for the society of gentlemen who -have been brought up in Europe; they know nothing of the world, but, -while imitating the manners and customs of those they term their -countrymen, exercise all that craft which so peculiarly characterizes -the native youths. In a moral point of view, the detention of a child, -particularly a female, in India, is highly culpable; and when treated of -as a matter of economy, will, in the end, be found equally -objectionable. That the disadvantage under which parents labor, in -sending their children to Europe, is considerable, must be fully -admitted; and, it must also be acknowledged, that many may be able to -spare a certain monthly, or annual, sum towards education, which could -not be furnished at once. Such parents are to be pitied; because they -can rarely have a child creditably schooled at Calcutta for less than -fifty rupees (£75.) per mensem, all charges included; whereas, for about -half that sum, say for £40., a much better education could be given at -excellent schools in various parts of Britain. If we suppose £150. to be -expended in transmitting a child to Europe, and that the sum of £35. be -annually saved after arrival here, the difference, both principal and -interest, would be cleared off in about five years; while many important -advantages would be gained, and a thousand very obnoxious habits -avoided. The encrease of population has been followed by an augmentation -in the number of schools; but, if I judge correctly, the latter has been -rather beyond what the former should appear to authorize. The first -school that was set up in the vicinity of Calcutta, started about the -year 1780, under the charge of a Mrs. Hodges, who succeeded beyond the -expectations of her most sanguine patrons; and, in the course of about -twenty years, realized a very handsome fortune, with great credit to -herself; and, if marrying off at an early age be desirable, with great -advantage to numerous young ladies; who, in succession, entrapped the -hearts of sundry gay Lotharios, by whom her dancing-room was much -frequented. It would be cruel, and unjust, in the extreme, to assert -that young women brought up at such a seminary, were, in every respect, -inferior: it must be admitted, that they may dance, play the piano, work -at their needle, read, write, and cast accounts, and perhaps speak -French: all these may be done to admiration; but, alas! these are, -properly speaking, merely mechanical, and, though they may please for -awhile, never can give that zest depending solely on the enlargement of -the mind, and on some knowledge of the world. So true is this, that not -one in fifty of the girls thus brought up can hold conversation in any -way pleasing or interesting; and, which is worse, the other forty-nine -are very apt to be childish, vain, imperious, crafty, vulgar, -and—wanton! But they are, generally, well formed, pretty, active, gay, -and insinuating; therefore we must not wonder at the matches we see take -place, nor at the poverty they generally entail upon their husbands, by -a certain prolific propensity which may be said to characterize the -whole breed. - -The several schools in and about Calcutta, may be considered on nearly -the same footing as in Europe; some dear, others more reasonable; some -good, others highly exceptionable. Most of them are well situated, so -far as relates to convenience and salubrity; but it appears to me, that -more than one of the seminaries for young ladies are subject to overlook -objects by no means suited to female delicacy, and, in a great measure, -derogatory to the judgment of those who selected such sites for their -establishments. Those academies which are about two or three miles out -of town, are certainly preferable in the above respect; while, at the -same time, they are not beyond the common distance to which bearers are -in the habit of conveying their employers on visits during the forenoon. - -In a former part, I cursorily made mention of the old fort, in which -stood the Black-Hole, so famous in history. This fortress is now -converted into public-offices and warehouses, for both which purposes it -is admirably adapted, from the centrical situation it occupies, and from -the great solidity of the walls, &c. The defences are extremely simple, -and might answer well enough for the times in which they were -constructed, as well as for the prowess of the troops by which they were -likely to be attacked: being on the bank of the river Hoogly, a retreat -by water might easily be effected under the cover of shipping; and, by -the same means, supplies could generally be afforded. According to the -present system of warfare, and the probability of being attacked by an -European army, it would be unsafe to place the smallest reliance on the -old fort, further than as an immediate asylum in the event of -insurrection; in which case, many houses that now command the works must -be destroyed: this, owing to the want of cannon on the ramparts, would -not be an easy operation. The town is protected chiefly by Fort-William, -a more modern work, capable of containing at least fifteen thousand men; -the defences, indeed, require near ten thousand to man them properly. -The garrison ordinarily consists of two or three regiments of Europeans, -a battalion of artillery, with a very large establishment of artificers, -&c., attached to the arsenal, where stores of every description are -lodged in bomb-proofs. Provisions, equal to six months’ consumption, are -always kept in the fort. The native corps, intended to aid in the -defence, and of which the amount may be from four to five thousand, are -cantoned at Barrackpore, a station about sixteen miles from Calcutta, on -the banks of the river, and exactly facing the Danish town of Serampore. -Of these troops, about twelve hundred constantly do duty in the fort; -being relieved monthly in regular rotation. Fort-William is the grand -depôt of Bengal, and may be considered as the key to that part of the -Company’s possessions, if not to the whole; for it does not appear -probable that any effectual resistance could be made, if that fortress -were to fall into the hands of the enemy. Such a loss would infallibly -destroy the opinion now held of our prowess, and precipitate us from the -pinnacle of power, into an awful abyss of ruin! - -As Mr. Hastings very properly stated, ‘our power in the East depends -entirely _on opinion_.’ When we consider the immense population over -which we hold control, with comparatively an insignificant force, and, -that that force is composed chiefly of natives, it must immediately -occur to us how necessary it is to satisfy our Asiatic subjects that our -sway is mild, and that, in submitting to us, they rescue themselves from -tyranny and extortion. - -There may arise local circumstances wherein the possession of a strong -hold would be invaluable; and rescue us from the most imminent dangers. -Of this, our affair with Cheyt Sing is a most obvious and undeniable -proof: had not the fortress of Chimar, a place rather of reputed, than -of real, strength, been at hand, our force in that part must have been -annihilated; when the insurrection would infallibly have spread in every -direction. - -Without entering into particulars, I shall give a brief statement of the -Company’s forces at their several presidencies; observing, that the -number of their European regiments has been considerably diminished, -amounting, nearly, to a total reduction, for the purpose of making way -for the introduction of king’s troops. With respect to the European -strength, therefore, it must be understood that no fixed establishment -exists: but the average amount of that branch, independent of the -Company’s battalions of artillery and infantry, may be taken at about -sixteen or eighteen thousand firelocks, including the cavalry. - - —————————————+—————————————————————————————— - Presidencies.|Cavalry, Native, Regiments. - | +—————————————————————————— - | |Infantry, Native, Regiments. - | | +—————————————————————— - | | |Artillery, Battalions, European. - | | | +—————————————————— - | | | |Infantry, Battalion, European. - | | | | +—————————————— - | | | | |Marine, Battalions, Native. - —————————————+———+———+———+———+—————————————————— - Bengal | 8 |27 | 3 | 1 | 0 - Madras | 8 |25 | 2 | 1 | 0 - Bombay | 0 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 - —————————————+———+———+———+———+—————————————————— - -At each presidency, the native regiments are formed into two battalions, -with the same strength of European commissioned officers as are allotted -to one regiment of Europeans. A colonel commands each regiment, and -every battalion has attached to it one lieutenant-colonel, and one -major, together with a proportion of the captains and subaltern -officers. Two serjeants are allowed to each battalion, viz. one acting -as serjeant-major, the other under the quartermaster. The companies are -commanded by European officers, under whom, one _soubadar_, one -_jemmadar_, five _havildars_, five _naicks_, and ninety privates, -(_sepoys_,) are enrolled. The _soubadars_ and _jemmadars_ have -commissions, and are competent to sit on regimental, or line, -courts-martial for the trial of natives, whether in the military -service, or camp followers. The _havildars_ correspond in rank and -duties with our serjeants, and the _naicks_, with our corporals. Each -battalion has two grenadier, and eight battalion companies: no recruit -is taken whose age exceeds twenty-five, or whose stature does not reach -to five feet six inches and a half, or, more generally, to five feet -seven inches; unless on emergency, or when obvious juvenility warrants -the acceptance of an under-sized candidate; who, generally, being well -fed, and taught to stand erect, in the course of drilling over-tops the -standard of admission. - -Reference to the table of pay and allowances in the Directory, will -prove useful to those who may proceed to India, and may serve to guide -those who are not acquainted with the particulars of income in that -quarter. The usual exchange is two shillings and sixpence per _sicca_ -rupee, about five per cent. better than the _sonaut_ rupee, which is the -standard of military payments. In viewing the sum-total of an officer’s -pay, when reduced to English currency, which may be done with tolerable -correctness at the above rate of eight rupees to the pound sterling, -very considerable allowance must be made for the inevitable expences, -&c., incident, not only to military men, but to all residing in India. -This consideration will amount to a very plain, and correct, conclusion, -viz. that though a subaltern officer may live on his pay, provided his -out-set be duly allowed for, yet, that he must have more than ordinary -luck, or possess a bent towards parsimony by no means to be envied, and -rarely attaining its object, to enable his saving a few pounds within -the year. - -This is necessary to be well understood, and, when understood, ought to -be ever carried in mind by those who expect a young man on his arrival, -as a cadet, in India, to support himself without adventitious aids. That -he may do so, by arranging a proper plan with others of his class, -cannot be denied; but to effect this, not only all luxuries, but, what -in India are considered the necessaries of life, must be relinquished. -On receiving a commission, his allowances, of course, are considerably -augmented, but, on the other hand, his expences will be rather greater; -and this unavoidably, and exclusive of his equipment to join his corps. - -Therefore, let no unreasonable expectations be entertained, merely from -observing the gross sum of annual receipts; let not the parent, who can -spare a moderate sum towards his son’s comfort, deny it for the few -first years after the latter may arrive in India. The best mode of -effecting this, in a proper manner, is through some respectable -agency-house, which should have the power to afford seasonable aids, -under the injunction not to encourage, nor to tolerate, extravagance. -Those sanguine ideas too often entertained by persons not in affluent -circumstances, that their sons, brothers, &c., should remit to them, -yearly, a portion of their pay, ought to be peremptorily suppressed; the -illusion should be done away; otherwise, inconvenience at least, if not -ruin, may be entailed! - -To shew how folks, on this side the water, sometimes err, I shall relate -an anecdote which may prove serviceable to many; the circumstance -happened, within my own knowledge, to a brother subaltern with whom I -was very intimate. He had, from the day of his admission to the service, -formed the resolution of amassing a certain sum, which should be devoted -to the comfort of three sisters he had left in Scotland, and who, he -knew, would not, in the meanwhile, be destitute of support. At the end -of about his tenth year of service, his favorite object was effected, -and he remitted to them no less than twelve hundred pounds, _i.e._ four -hundreds to each, with a letter, expressing his satisfaction at being -enabled to provide them the means of improving their diet, &c.; closing -his brotherly epistle with the assurance, that, in so doing, he had -surrendered his all; and that, as it was his intention thenceforward to -lay by every spare rupee for the purpose of retiring from the service, -they were to expect no further aid until his demise. The good souls were -astonished at the receipt of so handsome a present, which they never had -expected; they put their heads together, and, after many a pleasing -_confab._, in which expectation, rather than gratitude, doubtless was -expressed, made up their minds to the full conviction that their brother -was as rich as a Jew, and that there was no occasion for economy in -future. They made their good fortune known, both by words, and by the -encrease of their establishment, &c., &c.; and, for a year or more, made -a very gay appearance on the strength of their brother’s money; but, as -that was rather ‘of a perishable nature,’ and because, as poor Richard -says, ‘going often to the meal-tub, but never putting in, will soon find -the bottom,’ bills, and demands of various kinds, began to accumulate, -and the ladies were reduced to considerable distress. In this awkward -predicament, application was made to the agent through whom the payment -had been paid in London; but he knew nothing whatever of their brother’s -concerns, nor could he venture to make them any advance upon the bills -of exchange they proposed to give him. Reduced to the last extremity by -their own imprudence, they wrote him a most extraordinary letter, which -was submitted to my perusal, wherein, among other matters, they -reproached him as having occasioned their distress ‘_by not having been -punctual in the_ ANNUAL REMITTANCE _he had led them to expect_!’ The -foregoing _fact_, I am thoroughly satisfied could be matched, if many -family occurrences, of which the public do not hear, were exposed to -view. The number of questions I have been obliged to answer, and the -evident disappointments that have resulted from my candid exposition of -the subjects in question, leave not a doubt in my mind, that the most -preposterous expectations are often (as in the above instance) formed -upon very slight grounds, or even without the smallest foundation. - -According to the regulations, every man in the service ought to be paid -monthly; but this is not always done, even in times of peace, on account -of the collections, _i.e._ the revenues, being received only at -particular periods: if nothing particular should occur to occasion the -monies being otherwise appropriated, the deputy pay-masters at the -several stations receive notice, that the amount of pay, due to the -troops attached thereto, may be received; otherwise, it sometimes -happens that two, three, or more months, elapse without any such notice -being given. It is inconceivable to what inconvenience such delays give -birth! No regimental pay-master, no regimental agent, no certain means -of obtaining a supply of cash, in general, exist. Consequently, recourse -must be had to the native money-lenders, of whom I have already made -honorable mention. When a notice arrives at the deputy pay-master’s -office, application is made by him for an escort, generally of a company -of sepoys, under the command of an European officer, which proceeds to -that civil station whence the supplies are to be derived. Sometimes, -however, the escort is detained for many days, or even for weeks; this -is usually owing to sudden calls for remittances having been received, -when, of course, the escort had better wait for fresh receipts than -return empty handed. - -Payments are made in specie, generally in silver; the _sicca_ rupees of -Lucknow, Benares, Patna, &c., being held as _sonauts_, in which the pay -of the whole army is calculated. When much gold is received at a -station, but especially at the Presidency, that coin is instantly -depreciated, to the great loss of every military man. In some instances, -payments are made to troops by means of bills of exchange, payable at -short dates: this answers very well for small sums, in situations not -authorizing the detachment of a party to escort from a considerable -distance, provided the party on whom the bill is given be a responsible -man, which is very generally the case; for, though we do sometimes hear -of a _shroff_ (_i.e._ native banker) stopping payment, very little -apprehension need be entertained as to the punctuality of those on whom -respectable firms draw, as they usually do, at fifty-one days. - -This is done with the view to induce the party who is to receive the -money, to discount with him who is to pay it; thus deriving to the -drawer of the bill a double profit. It happens sometimes, as I once -experienced, that some little pretended informality is not discovered -until the bill becomes due, when it is generally returned to be -rectified: by this device, an additional profit is exacted. I do not -apply these cases to all the _shroffs_, but notice them as being -occasionally within the sphere of an European’s disappointments, and to -caution against a too hasty acceptance of bills from any _shroff_ not -established in character, as well as in property. - -With respect to the recovery of sums advanced on bills of exchange, -extreme difficulty very generally prevails. The bankrupt laws of Britain -do not extend to her colonies, and, if they did, it could be to the -several presidencies only; beyond their immediate sites, the several -courts of judicature have no immediate authority over any but British -subjects. About thirty years back, the Supreme Court at Calcutta made an -attempt to extend its powers into the interior, and to take cognizance -of civil matters between the native inhabitants, but they were -personally opposed, and such serious consequences were apprehended, that -the enterprize was relinquished, and the judges compelled to confine -their operations to the letter of that act by which they had been sent -to India. - -Until within the last ten years, the troops in the upper -provinces received an addition to their pay, under the name of -‘double-full-batta,’ originally given by the Nabob Vizier of Oude to the -officers serving within his dominions, and by the Company to all who -served beyond their own immediate possessions: this has, however, been -abrogated, and full-batta is now the highest pay given on any occasion. -When the above allowance, _i.e._ double-full-batta, was in force, the -upper provinces were considered preferable in point of emolument; but, -on account of the great prices of liquors, and of all articles, -excepting immediate table provision, in demand among European gentlemen, -very little advantage was gained from the receipt of greater pay; except -by those who proceeded upon a plan of determined economy, and retired -from the great circle of society for the express purpose of living -within certain bounds, whatever privations they might endure. Such -persons necessarily acquired property in proportion to their receipts; -an object of great importance where the legal interest is twelve per -cent., and where abundance of government securities at ten per cent. -have been generally for sale at par, or nearly so, in the money market. -Under such favorable circumstances, the first saving was invaluable; it -was sure to accumulate, and commonly was doubled in about seven years. -Since the abolition of ‘double-full-batta,’ the Presidency is considered -the best station, so many opportunities offering of making cheap -purchases at the several daily auctions in Calcutta, only sixteen miles -from the cantonments at Barrackpore. In a gig, the distance may be -easily ran in two hours, the road being remarkably good; in a -_palanquin_, the journey may occupy about four hours, if a relay of -bearers be posted at the half-way _bungalow_. During the rains, and -especially when the tide serves, a well-manned _pulwar_, or a -_paunchway_, or _dingy_, (small boats calculated for expedition,) may -proceed from Barrackpore to Calcutta in little more than an hour; the -return is rarely very quick, except during spring-tides in the -dry-season, before the river rises. Care must be taken to start with the -first of the tide, but not before the _baun_, or _bore_, has past. - -Those who have seen the _bore_ in the Medway, and in the Severn, will at -once comprehend the dangers attendant upon that impetuous rush of the -waters, which, in the Hoogly, begins near Fultah, about forty miles -below Calcutta, and may be felt even so high as Nia-serai, full -thirty-five miles above the capital. In a work entitled ‘The Oriental -Voyager,’ by J. Johnson, Esq., Surgeon in the Royal Navy, at page 80, is -the following passage. Speaking of the Ganges, he says, ‘The tides in -this river, particularly at full and change, are rapid beyond belief, -forming what are called _boars_, or _bores_, when the stream seems -tumbling down a steep descent, doing great mischief among the boats, by -upsetting and running them over each other: ships themselves are -frequently dragged from their anchors, and dashed furiously against each -other, at these periods. They attempt to account for these torrents, by -saying they depend on the other small rivers, that open into the main -one by bars; which, at a certain time of the tide, allow the waters to -rush out, all at once, into the great stream, and thereby so much -encrease its velocity!’ - -Where Mr. Johnson got his information about these bars, I know not; nor -would it be possible, in my humble opinion, for any man to have -disguised, or confused, the fact more completely than is done in the -above paragraph: a circumstance which creates surprize, when we -consider, that the volume in question contains many remarks, inducing us -to expect the absence of so unphilosophical a description, and so -erroneous a conception. The matter lies in a nutshell, as Mr. Johnson -ought to have known: viz. Those rivers whose mouths are much expanded, -and that, after a course of several miles, during which their banks are -nearly parallel, suddenly contract, are subject to _bores_; that is, to -an immense wave which heads the flood tide. This _bore_, which is -described with justice as being very powerful, arises from the -contraction of the channel; which, while it directs the great volume of -water into a narrowed space, necessarily compels it to assume a greater -height. The successive flow drives on the leading wave, which gradually -subsides as it becomes more distant from the propelling power. But the -_bore_ rarely, if ever, occupies the whole breadth of the stream; it -ordinarily runs upon one side, until it comes to a bend, when it crosses -over, and continues its action until another turn of the river causes it -to cross again; and thus until its force is expended. The _bore_ does -not run under Calcutta, but along the opposite bank; it crosses at -Chitpore, about four miles above the fort, and ranges with great -violence past Barnagore, Duckensore, &c. Lesser rivers, whose mouths lie -embayed; as is the case with the Medway, which branches from the Thames, -and the Wye, that falls into the Severn, are subject to _bores_, in -consequence of the tide taking such a course as throws the great body of -water into them. In such small streams, the _bore_ will generally be -tremendous; because so great an expanse is suddenly thrown into so -narrow a channel: hence, the bridge at Chepstow is necessarily raised to -so great a height, and by floating made to yield to the tide’s force. - -I much fear Mr. Johnson was not very successful in his enquiries, nor -over fastidious in his acceptance of vulgar errors; for, I observe, that -at page 113, he has allowed himself to be egregiously duped regarding -_Mannacolly Point_; so called, from the village of _Mannacolly_, which -formerly stood there. Mr. Johnson tells us a long story about a lady -proceeding to India, and finding her husband a corpse at that place: -whence, ‘_Melancholy Point_.’!!! I am well aware, that the same fable -has been retailed to many others, who gaped for information; but that is -no apology for its being upheld as matter of fact: had any respectable -authority been consulted on the occasion, before the volume was -committed to press, so palpable a traditional error would not have been -offered to that public, among whom so many are equal to its refutation. - -What Mr. Johnson states respecting the injuries done to ships by the -_bore_, is at times verified, but they are rarely worthy of notice: if a -vessel be properly secured, the _bore_ will have little effect on her -safety, though the swell may cause her to pitch rather deep for a while. -During the rainy season there is no _bore_; which is to be accounted for -by the tide being so weakened at its entrance into the narrows near -Fultah, as not to be competent to form such a wave as precedes it at -other seasons; but, in exchange for this, a violent eddy, and great -agitation of the waters, takes place between Diamond-Harbour and that -place. It has been several times my lot, when proceeding with the last -of the tide from Barrackpore to Calcutta, to meet the _bore_, generally -near Chitpore; but, as its approach was indicated by the putting off of -all the small craft from that shore, along which it invariably pursued -its course, and to remain near which would be dangerous, my boat-men -always followed the example, and kept along the centre; where, though we -were tossed about famously, no danger existed. Once, indeed, in turning -Sulky Point, in a sailing boat, I was obliged to dash through the -_bore_, which I did not suppose to be so near, notwithstanding the -_dingies_, &c., were putting out. The surf assuredly appeared awful, but -we mounted over it, stem on, without difficulty, and speedily recovered -from a certain pallid complexion which had insensibly crept over our -countenances, as we approached the roaring waters. From what has been -said, it must be evident that the _bore_ travels at the same rate as the -incipient spring-tide, the velocity of which is different in various -parts, but may be taken at an average of full twenty miles within the -hour. Notwithstanding this rapidity, vessels, such as _budjrows_, and -other craft, intended for pleasure, or for burthen, ordinarily ride safe -at anchor; sustaining no injury from the _bore_, though they may perhaps -drag their anchors a few yards. But, to insure this security, care must -be taken that the broadside should not be exposed; else there will be -great danger of over-setting: this danger is not unfrequent, owing to -the _manjies_ and _dandies_ (boatmen) neglecting, especially during the -night, to swing the stern round, either by means of a spring, or a small -hawser, or by _luggies_ (bamboo-poles); so that the vessel’s head may -meet the _bore_ in its direct course. - -Those who are anxious to make the best of their way, should not delay -putting off until the tide may have fairly set in, but ought to be out -in the stream just as the _bore_ is ranging along the bank, so that they -may receive the first impulse, which is prodigiously forcible, and -endeavor, by the exertions of their boatmen, to keep up, as much as may -be practicable, with the leading waters. It is wonderful how great a -difference this sometimes makes in the start from Calcutta! Sometimes a -_budjrow_ may, by this precaution, reach beyond Bandel, and nearly to -the ultimatum of the tide’s way, after which, the current is invariably -in opposition, at various rates, according to the season of the year. -During the dry season, which includes from the end of October to the -middle of June, though sometimes the rains are of greater duration, or -set in earlier, the Hoogly river is nearly in a state of rest above -Nia-serai; but, during the rains, and especially about August and -September, not only the beds of the rivers, but the country around, -present a formidable body of water. Within the banks, the current may -average from four to eight miles an hour, according to localities, but -what is called ‘the inundation,’ rarely exceeds half a mile; and, I -believe, never moves at a full mile within that time. - -In this, due allowance must be made whether the waters are rising, or -falling: in the former instance, they will become nearly stationary -until they may overflow where nearest the sea, and thus obtain a vent; -in the latter case, such parts as may be near to great rivers, then -subsiding within their banks, must be greatly accelerated. - -As the parched soil of Egypt is refreshed by the overflowing of the -Nile, so do the waters of the Ganges, by their annual expansion and -abundance, renew the fertility of many millions of acres, and restore -the blessings of health to those industrious and peaceable peasantry -inhabiting that flat country through which they majestically wind their -course. - -At Calcutta, and Dacca, each of which is about seventy miles from the -sea, not only is the water unpalatable, from its saline impregnation, -but even the sand, taken from the beds of the rivers, is found to retain -so much moisture, notwithstanding the heat of the climate, as to -disqualify it from mixture in the cements used for building, but -especially for making tarrases, known to us here under the designation -of grist floors. - -The great tank at Calcutta, which occupies a space of about ten acres, -is not less than two hundred yards from the river. The soil is generally -a rich sandy loam near the surface, but becomes rather looser, and -inclinable to a fine gravel, after digging about ten feet. The tank may -be sixty feet from the top of its banks, (which are level with the -streets,) to its bottom; and the river is from four to seven fathoms -deep opposite its site. We should conclude that such a distance would -secure the waters of the tank from becoming brackish; but the soil -favors the communication with the river, and, during the hot season, -occasions the tank to be so strongly impregnated as to be unfit for -either culinary purposes, or for washing. What is more remarkable, the -wells in the different out-works of Fort-William, some of which are four -or five hundred yards from the river, partake equally of the moisture: -so much, indeed, as to have caused Government to be at a great expence -in forming an immense reservoir, (to be filled, if required, by rain -water,) occupying the whole of one of the bastions. - -It should be here noticed, that, during the rainy season, the rivers are -full up to their banks, and run with such force, often six or eight -miles in the hour, as to occasion the tide to be little felt, either at -Calcutta, or at Dacca; consequently, the whole of the water, both of the -rivers, and of the tanks and wells, becomes fresh and pure. On the other -hand, during the hot months, viz. March, April, May, and part of June, -when, except during a north-wester, or squall incident to the season, -not a drop of rain is to be expected, the waters are every where -proportionably low; and, as the tides come up with extreme force, we -must conclude the portion of sea-water to be very considerable. Such is -the fact; for those who visit either Calcutta, or Dacca, at that season, -and who drink even of the tank-water, are sure to feel its cathartic -effects, and, eventually, to suffer under a very troublesome kind of -itch. At Dacca, where the air is more saline, all visitors undergo the -penance of a copious eruption: some of the old residents have a return -of it every hot season; although they may be extremely careful never to -touch river water, but, like the inhabitants of Calcutta, allot a -spacious _godown_ to the reception of immense jars of earthen ware, -which, being placed side by side, in close rows, are successively filled -by the _aub-dar_, or servant whose business is confined to the care, and -to the cooling, of water for table expenditure. The water thus preserved -is caught in large vessels, placed under the several spouts that conduct -it thereto, during heavy falls of rain; the quantity varies according to -the consumption, but we may ordinarily compute that of a family at -Calcutta to amount to full sixty or seventy hogsheads within the year. -In the course of a few weeks, each vessel will be found to contain -innumerable larvæ, occasioned by musquitoes, and other insects, and -which would, in a certain time, taint the fluid. It is therefore -customary to strain the whole so soon as the larvæ are discovered, and -afterwards to plunge into each jar an immense mass of iron, made -red-hot; whereby whatever animalculæ may have escaped through the -strainer may be destroyed. This being done, some alum is dissolved in -water, and a sufficient quantity put into each vessel to fine its -contents. Some, and I think the practice should be more generally -adopted, after the foregoing operations, sprinkle a quantity of very -fine sand on the surface of the water in each jar; thereby giving, to -whatever gross particles it may contain, a tendency to precipitation. It -may, at first view, appear that, in the common course of society, -gentlemen must be subject to partake of water which may not have been so -scrupulously purified, and perhaps brought from some neighbouring tank, -or from a river, impregnated by the influx of a brackish tide. Such may, -assuredly, be the case occasionally; but it will be found, on reference -to what has been said of the duties of the _aub-dar_, or water-servant, -that purified water is carried by a bearer, in a _bangy_, or perhaps in -a _soorye_, or earthen jug, to the house at which his master is to dine. -In camp, it is a very general custom for every guest’s servant to supply -his master with water of his own purifying; which is effected either by -means of alum, or of some other astringent producing a similar effect. - -The waters in the great rivers have various sources; but, speaking -generally of the Ganges, which receives almost all the other rivers in -its course from those mountains among which it has its source, to the -Bay of Chittagong, where it empties itself into the sea in an immense -expanse, we may divide its properties according to the countries through -which it passes. Hence the various opinions that have been entertained -of its qualities; which have been generally mentioned in a very loose, -indiscriminate manner, without reference to the various soils whereby -its purity must be affected, in a country where, as in Egypt, annual -inundations prevail; or where, at least, such immense quantities of rain -fall as would astonish a person not habituated to the most impetuous -showers. - -The Ganges takes its rise at the back of the Kammow Hills, beyond -Hurdwar, where it issues forth as a narrow, but rapid stream, from among -broken rocks, and soon spreads to some extent in the fertile plains of -the Rohilcund district, which it divides from the province of Delhi. The -natives of India rarely venture beyond Hurdwar. They have, however, an -opinion that the true _Ganga_, as they term the Ganges, originates at -that spot; and, considering the cow as the greatest blessing given to -mankind, (for the Hindus venerate it with even more fervor than a -Catholic does a supposed relic of our Saviour,) emphatically term it -‘the Cow’s Mouth;’ implying thereby the purity, as well as the value, of -the waters. - -But those mountains which give birth to the Ganges, are likewise the -sources of the Barampooter; a river exceeding even the Ganges in -capacity! These two immense streams deviate at their origin to opposite -quarters; the Ganges proceeding westward, and the Barampooter eastward. -The former, after winding at the back of the Kammow and Nagrocote -Mountains, passes Hurdwar, and, proceeding in a devious track through -the plains of Oude, Allahabad, Benares, Bahar, Jungleterry, Mauldah, -Comercally, Dacca, and other subordinate districts, receives the -Luckyah, as a branch from the Barampooter, and a few miles below Dacca -unites with that river; whence, under the designation of ‘the MEGNA,’ -they pursue their course for about sixty miles to the eastern part of -the Bay of Bengal, forming by their junction a volume of water, -encreasing, from about seven, to twenty miles in width. - -In the upper country, the Ganges receives various inferior streams, such -as the Doojoorah, the Cally-Nuddy, the Goombeerah, the Gunduck, the -Mahanuddy, the Rooee, the Jumma, the Goomty, the Carimnassa, the Gogra, -(or Dewah,) the Soane, the Coosah, and various other streams not vying -in extent with the Ganges, but generally equal to the Thames at London. -The Gogra, the Soane, and the Coosah, are, indeed, rivers of the second -class; as wide as the Thames at Gravesend. - -From Sooty, which is in the Jungleterry district, the Ganges throws off -a considerable branch: this widening in a curious manner, under the name -of the Baug-Retty, passes Moorshadabad, formerly the seat of the -government of Bengal, under Sooraja Dowlah, Meer Jaffiers, and their -ancestors; at length, after a course of about 150 miles, it meets at -Nuddeah, with the Jellinghy, also detached from the Ganges, whence the -two form a large river under the name of the Hoogly, which, flowing -under Hoogly, Bandel, Chinsurah, Chandernagore, Serampore, Calcutta, and -many inferior places, empties itself into the western end of the Bay of -Bengal, having previously received the Roopnariam, and the Dummoodah. - -In its course from Bagwangolah, which stands near to Sooty, the Ganges -sends a great variety of small streams through the Jessore, and -Mahomedpore districts, which, meeting with large inlets from the sea, -form an immense labyrinth of deep waters, intersecting that wild country -called the Sunderbunds, in such various mazes as to require a pilot for -their navigation. - -Having thus detailed the courses of the rivers, I shall account for -their rise and fall; as thereon many physical points of the utmost -importance will be found to depend: the various soils through which they -pass will be described, and enable us to judge more correctly, of the -causes of that variety of character attached to the waters in various -parts. - -The Thibet Mountains, which form the north-east boundary of a long -valley, stretching from Napaul to Sirinaghur, are covered with snow all -the year. Their height must be very great; for, on a clear day, they may -be seen from the Golah at Patna, though distant little less than 300 -miles. From the north-west part of this Alpine range, the Ganges and -Barampooter derive their sources, as before described, back to back from -the same mountains. To the dissolution of a part of the snow which -cloaths their summits, we may, perhaps, safely attribute a slight -encrease that takes place about the middle of May in those rivers: -fluctuating, more or less, at intervals, until the periodical rains set -in; generally about the middle of June. Some have ascribed their rise to -heavy rains in the countries through which the streams pass; but such -cannot be considered as the true cause, for various reasons. Firstly, -those rains must be extremely heavy if they tended to swell the rivers; -the ground being parched, and requiring great moisture to saturate it. -Secondly, the encrease is not attendant with any turbid appearance; as -would indisputably result from such heavy rains, as, after saturating -the thirsty soil, could raise such large rivers, often a foot, or more. -Thirdly, there are other rivers which derive their sources from the -Kammow Hills, and from the Morungs, not so distant from the Thibet Hills -but that they might be expected to receive their share of the rains, and -to shew some encrease, which they do not; the rise being confined to the -Ganges and Barampooter, whose sources lie among the snow-clad mountains. -Fourthly, the encrease happens at the hottest time of the year, and the -water loses the genial warmth imparted by the solar ray, becomes harder, -and, in the upper country, near Annopshier, about sixty miles below the -Cow’s Mouth, is found, at that particular season, to cause acute bowel -complaints, which is not the case at other seasons. Add to this, that, -among the natives of the countries above Hurdwar, the _goiture_, or wen -in the throat, in some measure prevails: a strong symptom of the -dissolution of snow. - -The following may, generally, be considered the soils peculiar to the -several provinces through which the Ganges has its course, after leaving -Hurdwar. The west bank is generally high all the way to Benares, and -consists, with little exception, of lime, concreted into irregular -masses, much like roots of ginger, or Jerusalem artichokes, of various -sizes, some weighing perhaps five or six pounds, others scarcely an -ounce. These are of a ginger, or ash color; though some, being more -mixed with the gravelly part of the soil, are of a yellowish red. This -kind of concretion is known throughout India by the name of _kunkur_, -and, when burnt, yields a very inferior kind of cement, friable, and not -very tenacious in regard to the body whereto it is applied, nor -hardening so as to resist moisture effectually. - -All the rivers, therefore, which issue from the western bank, are, more -or less, impregnated with this kind of lime; while, on the opposite -bank, the waters partake of a strong solution of nitre, with which most -of the plains of Oude, Fyzabad, Gazypore, &c., abound. Such is the -abundance, that the Company are induced to prohibit the salt-petre -manufactured in the Nabob Vizier of Oude’s dominions, from being -imported within their own provinces; otherwise, the cheapness of the -former, which is usually sold at Furruckabad for about two shillings and -sixpence per cwt., would destroy the manufactories at Patna, where it -ordinarily sells for double that price. - -The country lying between the Ganges and the Goomty, (on the eastern -bank,) from Currah to Benares, is replete with alkali in a fossile -state, known by the name of _sudjy_. This is usually found on the -surface, at the close of the rainy season especially, when it begins to -shew itself very obviously, and is pared off with mattocks; rising in -large cellular strata from one to three inches in thickness, and much -resembling thin free-stone, though far more porous. In this state it is -carried to market, where it is purchased by the manufacturers of soap at -Allahabad, Patna, and other places; it is generally combined with oil, -and, when ready, sells at about ten shillings the maund of 80lb. At -Calcutta it is ordinarily sold at about 50 per cent. profit. It is made -in baskets, is of a dark color, and very moist. - -It is curious that the inhabitants of these countries have never turned -their thoughts to the effects produced by these substances. On the -western bank the people are subject to nephritic complaints, which they -generally express under the vague term of _kummer-ka-dook_ (or pains in -the back); while, on the eastern bank, they are troubled with the -_moormoory_, (or gripes,) with which those living inland, especially, -are severely afflicted, owing to their use of tank-water. - -During the rainy season, these powerful agents combine, and give birth -to most alarming and excruciating maladies, which, however, readily -yield to a few gentle cathartics, aided by _congee_, (or rice-water,) by -which the intestines are sheathed. The natives generally have recourse -to opiates; whereby they often fix the disease. In the dry season, that -is, from the end of October to the middle of June, the river water, -having deposited the noxious particles, is remarkably clear and -wholesome; except when the rise takes place, about the middle or end of -May, as before related. The bed of the river being invariably a coarse -sand, occasionally blended with immense sheets of _kunkur_, whereof the -banks are formed for miles in some parts, easily receives the lime and -alkali, leaving the running waters clear, and free from those -substances. - -Europeans never drink of water fresh drawn in any situation; it being -always left to stand for at least one day; during which, a copious -deposit takes place: in the rainy season, perhaps full a fourth of the -contents of the vessel. Some gentlemen are very particular in having -their water boiled. - -The low plains of the Shawabad and Buxar districts, situate on the -western bank of the Ganges, are chiefly cultivated with rice, while the -higher parts are productive of white corn, opium, sugar, &c. The swamps -near Saseram, bordering the range of hills at the western boundary, and -which come round to Chunar, are annually in a state of partial -corruption, sufficient to occasion terribly malignant diseases, about -November; when the sun’s power promotes an astonishing evaporation, -filling the air with miasma, and spreading destruction among all the -living tribes. But those waters are, in themselves, highly dangerous; -both on account of the putrefaction of the vegetables they contain, and -of the powerful coalition of various mineral streams, which, having in -the rainy season exceeded their ordinary limits, stray into the low -country, and mix with the already deleterious mass. Finding a discharge -for their redundancy, by means of the multitude of fissures, or small -channels, every where existing, these blend with the purer torrents, -occasioned by the impetuous rains, and cause a fever to prevail, which, -in addition to the lime and nitre already afloat, perform wonders in the -cause of desolation. - -This assemblage of rivulets forms that great river the Soane, which, for -the short course it has to run, not being more than sixty miles from its -numerous sources in the hills before noticed, presents an uncommon -expanse, being generally from three quarters of a mile to two miles in -breadth; but, in the dry season, contracting its stream to a very narrow -channel, winding in the most fanciful meanders, and causing, by its -waters being so dispersed in a very flat bed, more quicksands than -probably are to be found in any river in the world. It is worthy of -remark here, that several rivers in that part of the world, which have -sandy beds, appear suddenly to be lost; owing to sand banks, that, -during the stream’s violence, have been thrown up, so high as to be -above the waters when the rains have subsided: the current continues -very perceptible, but as the bar prevents the water from going forward, -it passes through the intervals of the very coarse grit which forms that -bar; and, perhaps, at the distance of half a mile lower, re-appears. The -natives, who attribute every thing that can bear the perversion to some -invisible agent, never fail to apply this as a curse upon any village -that may be opposite to such a bar, under the opinion that the waters -ceased to run in its vicinity on account of some impiety, either known, -or concealed, perpetrated by the inhabitants. - -The Gogra, or Dewah, which takes its rise in the hills north of -Gorackpore, dividing Napaul from the Company’s possessions, rolls its -impetuous course through a country nearly desolate, and bounding its -banks with most extensive forests and wildernesses. The soil is not so -impregnated with nitre as in other parts, nor are the streams that form -its volume tainted so strongly with minerals. Perhaps owing to the -length of its course, which may be about 250 miles, or more, the more -weighty particles may be deposited; for it is held that this river -contains less obnoxious mixture than any part of the Ganges. Of lime it -may certainly partake, since it runs through some tracts abounding with -_kunkur_; but its course is chiefly through clay, sand, and a species of -black potters’ marle, of which crockery is made in some parts of north -Bahar, in imitation of our Staffordshire ware; though very inferior as -to form and finish. For this, the neighbourhood of Sewan is famous. - -The province of Bahar abounds in nitre; and every petty rivulet either -takes its rise from some swamp strongly impregnated therewith, or passes -through soils which yield it profusely. Those streams that originate in -the Chittrah, Ramghur, Gyah, and Monghyr Hills, are often so very highly -saturated with deleterious substances, as to betray their bad qualities -even to the eye. The Mahana, the Mutwallah, and various mountain rivers -in that quarter, which rush into the Ganges between Patna and Boglepore, -are frequently tinged with copper, of which some small veins are to be -found. An instance occurred, while the 12th battalion of native infantry -was marching from Patna to the Ramghur station, where the whole corps -were so extremely affected by the water, as scarcely to be able to -ascend from the camp, then at Dungaie, to the summit of the Kanachitty -Pass; such was the state to which it had, by its cupreous solution, -reduced both men and beasts. Fortunately, it was very cold weather, and -the use made of the waters had been very limitted. - -Some officers from the same corps being on a shooting party, during the -next year, happened to encamp at Dungaie. The kettle had been put on; -the water, indeed, was ready for breakfast; but the gentlemen, on -alighting from their horses, as usual, had water brought them to wash; -when the contraction it occasioned in their mouths instantly reminded -them of their former escape, and thereby set them on their guard: on -enquiring, they found, that, either from want of memory, or through -indolence, their servants had taken the water from the rivulet running -at the foot of the pass, in lieu of drawing it from a well in the town, -which was at no great distance. - -Many such streams pour into the Ganges, either singly, or in conjunction -with others. As to chalybeate influence, that cannot be wanting; for the -whole range of hills, in the elevated parts of Ramghur, Rotas, Chittrah, -Tomar, Pachete, Beerboom, Ragonautpore, Midnapore, &c., may be termed -one mass of iron; lying in huge projections exposed to view, and giving -the soil a strong rust color. The natives, in those parts, fuse immense -quantities for sale. - -The country from Benares to Patna is generally fertile in the extreme, -abounding in rich plains, and affording far purer water than is to be -found above that interval. At Gazypore and Buxar the waters receive no -additional adulteration, except from the Caramnassa, which certainly is -an impure stream. Such is the opinion held by the natives regarding this -river, that, on account of its being necessary to cross it between -Saseram and Benares, a road much frequented by pilgrims and devotees; -particularly the immense hordes who repair from the Maharrattah country, -to visit the holy Hindu city of _Kassi_, which is the name they give to -Benares; that a rich man, residing so far off as Poonah, the capital of -the Maharrattah empire, near Bombay, bequeathed a large sum of money for -building a bridge, thereby to obviate the necessity pious travellers -were under of being carried over on the backs of men; who gained a -livelihood by transporting those who, from over-nice scruples, would not -wade through the stream, as they must have done through hundreds of -others, before they got so near their holy object. Unhappily for those -delicate gentry, the bridge did not, when I last saw it, about twelve -years ago, seem likely to perform its office: the soil being sandy, and -the architect understanding but little of his profession, piers had -repeatedly been raised to about seven or eight feet high, but always -gave way; so that I fear the poor itinerants must still pay their pence, -and ride across as before; unless the edifice may be entrusted to -European architects. - -The Coosah comes down from the Morungs, a wild, mountainous country, -replete with impenetrable forests, and containing some few minerals: -however, on that head little is known; the extent of the wilds being -such as to debar the possibility of exploring the supposed riches -contained in the bosom of the mountains. From this quarter, and the -continuance of the forest before described, which stretches eastward to -Assam, and westward to Peelabeet, or further, the whole of the lower -countries are supplied with _saul_ and _sissoo_ timbers, and some firs. - -Such is the country in which the Coosah has its rise; quitting which, -after a foaming course of about forty miles, it enters the extensive -plains of Purneah, through which it passes in a more tranquil state, -though ever rapid, until it joins the Ganges a little below Colgong, -which stands on the opposite bank, and where the Termahony, a small -sluggish river of about eighty or a hundred yards in breadth, blends its -waters with the great river. The Termahony is very deep, and, in the -rainy season, equally impetuous. Like the Coosah, it flows chiefly -through a flat country, during its short course, and as the soils in -this part are sabulous, there does not appear any thing remarkable in -the effects of the waters upon the inhabitants. - -The Ganges may be considered as far more pure between Raje-Mahal, in the -Jungleterry district, and Mauldah, or Bagwangolah, than for some -distance above; during the dry season, it is remarkable for the -clearness and lightness of its waters: after leaving this to proceed -southward, we find them greatly changed during the rainy season, when -the immense inundation which prevails throughout Bengal, properly so -called, and which, moving in general at a rate not exceeding half a mile -in the hour, may be considered as stagnant. - -We now lose the great body of sand that in all the upper country forms -the bed, not only of the Ganges, but of every river whose course -continues uninterrupted during the dry season; though its stream may -become insignificant. Here it should be remarked, that sandy beds -generally produce the finest beverage, and that the water will be found -more pure in proportion as the sand is coarse. Hence, the waters in the -deep parts of such streams are invariably the sweetest; for the coarse -sand will naturally find its way to the greatest depths, precipitating -the impurities with it. On the contrary, the light floating sands, which -with every little motion become agitated, will set the impurities also -in action. Such are generally found on the borders of the stream, whence -most persons derive their supplies, and where it may usually be seen in -an active state; or, if at rest, blended with slime, or fibrous -substances. - -We should ever remember the distinction between the effects of fine and -of coarse sand as strainers. Coarse sand allows heavy, or coarse bodies, -to pass through it freely, provided the particles be not adhesive, or -too gross for filtration: consequently, when such sand is deposited in -the bed of a river, the lesser particles of lime, or of minerals and -their ores, will sink, and remain fixed. Not so with fine sand; which -has a greater tendency to compactness, and which, gradually filling up -the smallest intervals, becomes firm, and resists all admixture with -heterogeneous substances; the latter must, of necessity, remain on their -surface, subject to be taken up with the water. Persons accustomed to -filtration must know, that, owing to this tendency, fine sand is by far -the best medium to filter _through_, while coarse sand is preferable for -the purposes of _precipitation_. - -The inundation which overflows Bengal, especially in the districts of -Nattore, Dacca, Jessore, the southern parts of Rungpore, and a part of -Mahomed-Shi, is, perhaps, one of the most curious of nature’s phenomena! -The wisdom of our Creator is most conspicuously shewn in the -appropriation of sustenance, both for the human and for the brute -species, suited to meet this annual visitation of the waters. However -copious the rains may be in the southern provinces, though they might -become boggy, and be partially inundated where the lands were low, yet, -without the influx of these immense streams, which, owing to the -declivity of the surface, pour down from the upper country, Bengal -would, at such seasons, be but a miry plain, or a shallow morass. The -great inundation does not, generally, take place till a month after the -period when the rains have, according to the phrase in use, ‘set in.’ -The thirsty soils of Oude, Corch, Allahabad, Benares, Gazypore, Patna, -Rungpore, Boglepore, Purneah, and all beyond the 25th degree of -latitude, require much moisture to saturate them, as do also those -parched plains into which they ultimately pour their streams, before any -part of the soil can be covered, indeed, such is the state of the -southern provinces after the cold season, that that rich friable soil in -which they abound is seen cake-dried and cracked by fissures of many -inches in breadth, as though some great convulsion of nature had been -exerted to rend the surface into innumerable divisions. - -Under the circumstances of a flood, which lasts for many months, -fluctuating from the middle or end of July to the beginning of October, -(though the water does not drain off before the middle of December in -low situations,) the inhabitants might be supposed to suffer under all -the miseries of a general ruin and subsequent scarcity. The reverse is, -however, the fact; for, provided the rains do not fall in such torrents -as to wash away their habitations, and to occasion so rapid a rise in -the fluid plain as to overwhelm the growing rice, the more ample the -_bursauty_, (_i.e._ the rains,) the more plentiful the crop, and -generally the less sickly does the season prove. The latter point will -appear self-established, when we consider that amplitude of inundation -serves, not only to divide the septic matter contained in the water, but -likewise to accelerate its action, and cause its proceeding with added -impetus to discharge itself into the bay. At this season, rivers are -only known by the currents, and consequent swells, which appear amidst -this temporary ocean! The navigation, for several months, assumes a new -appearance. Vessels of great burthen, perhaps of two thousand maunds, -(each 80lb.,) equal to nearly one hundred tons, are seen traversing the -country in all directions, principally with the wind, which is then -within a few points on either side of south. Noted cities, exalted -mosques, and populous _gunjes_, or grain-markets, on the river’s bank, -are not objects of attention. The boatman having set his enormous square -sail, proceeds by guess, or, perhaps, guided by experience, through the -fields of rice, which every where raise their tasseled heads, seeming to -invite the reaper to collect the precious grain. As to depth of water, -there is generally from ten to thirty feet, in proportion as the country -may be more or less elevated. - -It is curious to sail among these insulated towns, which, at this -season, appear almost level with the surrounding element, and hemmed in -by their numerous _dingies_, or boats, which, exclusive of the necessity -for preparing against an over-abundant inundation, are requisite for the -purposes of cutting the _paddy_: rice being so called while in the husk. - -So soon as what is considered the final secession of the inundation is -about to commence, the whole of the boats are in motion, and the _paddy_ -is cut with astonishing celerity. It is fortunate, that, owing to the -country on the borders of the sea being higher than the inundated -country, the waters cannot draw off faster than they can find vent, by -means of the rivers which discharge into the Bay of Bengal, else the -growing rice would be subjected to various fluctuations unsuited to its -nature, and occasioning the straw to bend; whereby its growth would be -injured, even if it should recover from its reclined state so as again -to assume a vigorous appearance on the surface. - -The waters of the inundation, it will be seen, are a mixture of all the -streams flowing from every part of the extensive valley formed by the -ranges of mountains stretching from Chittagong to Loll Dong, or Hurdwar, -on the east and north-east, and from Midnapore to Lahore on the west and -north-west, a course of not less than fifteen hundred miles, and -generally from two to four miles in breadth. It may be supposed, that -many impurities must be involved with these contributary streams, as -particularized in the foregoing pages: to this we must add the -offensive, and certainly not salutary, effect, induced by the Hindu -custom of consigning every corpse to the waters of the Ganges, or of any -stream flowing into it. - -The Hindu religion requires that the deceased should be burnt _to -ashes_, on the borders of the Ganges, and that those ashes, with all the -remnants of wood used in the pile, should, together with the small truck -bedstead on which the body was brought from the habitation to the river -side, be wholly committed to the stream. The wholesomeness of such a -practice, in a country where the strides of putrefaction know no bounds, -infection and its effects being prodigiously extensive and rapid, cannot -be disputed; such an ordinance may vie with the acts of any other -legislature, however enlightened. But, either the poverty, the -indolence, or the sordidness, of the people, has, in time, converted -this wholesome precaution into a perfect nuisance. From fifty to a -hundred bodies, in different stages of putrefaction, may be seen -floating past any one spot within the course of the day. These having -been placed on a scanty pile, and that not suffered to do its office, -either on account of hot, cold, or wet, weather, have been pushed, by -means of a bamboo pole, into the stream, to the great annoyance of -water-travellers, and of all persons abiding near those eddies, where -the nuisance may be kept circling for days, until forcibly removed, or -until the _pariah_ dogs swim in, and drag the carcase to the shore: -there it speedily becomes the prey of various carrion birds, and of the -indigenous village curs known by the above designation. - -Under all the circumstances of such a combination of putrid animal and -vegetable substance, of mineral adulteration, and of the miasma -naturally arising from the almost sudden exposure of an immense residuum -of slime, &c.; added to the cessation of the pure sea air, the wind -changing after the rains from the southerly to the northerly points, are -we to wonder at the malignancy of those fevers prevalent throughout the -province of Bengal Proper, from the end of September to the early part -of January, when the swamps are generally brought into narrow limits, -and the air is laden with noxious vapors? - -Although it appears, that the general sickness prevailing throughout -Bengal at the above season, is induced by nearly the same causes that, -according to our best informations, engender the yellow fever in -America, yet no symptom of that alarming complaint has ever been known -in India, nor does the bilious, or putrid fever, of Bengal at all -assimilate in regard to symptoms with the American fatality. Certainly -it is common to see whole villages in a state of jaundice, and in some -years the ravages of the disease are truly formidable; but, though it -may be classed as epidemic, we may, at the same time, annex an endemic -distinction in regard to each village separately. Except in cases of -putrid accession, or of obvious _typhus_, there does not seem any danger -of infection; and it has been proved, that the malady might, by proper -care, be wholly averted. It is a fact, that, at several civil stations, -and at some of the principal military cantonments, which were formerly -considered the emporium of fever, the inhabitants have been preserved in -an ordinary state of health merely by cutting a few drains, or by -banking up such places as formerly proved inlets to inundate plains that -now remain sufficiently free from water to allow of pasturage during the -whole of the rainy season. - -The confinement occasioned by a long term of rain, must necessarily -alter the habit, while the incumbent atmosphere, being laden with -moisture, must, at the same moment, dispose the system to the reception, -or to the generation, of disease. The poor native does not change his -diet, and very probably retains the same damp cloaths for many days. His -temperate system of living seems to be his greatest aid in case of -illness; those medicines that in him effect a great change being found -comparatively feeble when administered either to one of a debauched -conduct, or to Europeans; who, being accustomed to a more substantial -and more stimulant mode of living, are not to be acted upon but by the -more potent of the materia medica. - -It has often been asked, as a matter of surprize, how it happens that -Bengal has never been visited by the plague. The question has been -founded on the supposed affinity between that country and Egypt, in -regard to the annual inundations; and to the narrowness, as well as the -filth, of the streets in the great cities; which would, if the -conjecture were correct, induce pestilence, as the same causes are said -to do in Turkey. - -The case is widely different. In Egypt, although the lands are -inundated, rain is scarcely ever known to fall; the floods coming from -the southerly mountains. Hence, the inhabitants are under all the -disadvantages attendant upon a hot atmosphere, during eight months in -the year, and are, for the remaining four, exposed to the insalubrity -arising from the inundation, especially when it is draining off. - -In regard to the narrowness of the streets, and the filth they contain, -something may be said in alleviation. The houses in Turkey are much -higher, are built of more solid materials, and the inhabitants being -wholly of one religion, viz. followers of Mahomed, but partaking of some -of the bad habits of the neighbouring countries, being also in a more -variable climate, more pointed attention is paid to durability and to -closeness in the edifices, than is commonly shewn in India. In the -latter country, the utmost jealousy subsists between the Mussulmans and -the Hindus, but the latter are most numerous in every place, even in the -cities where Mussulman princes hold their _durbars_, or courts. This -jealousy occasions the Hindus to look upon every vestige of a Mussulman -as a contamination; and, as ablutions are enjoined even more by the -Hindu law than by the Koran, which is the Mussulman’s book of faith, we -may consider the person of a Hindu to be as clean and wholesome as -repeated washings can make it. He wears only a small lock of hair, -growing from a spot about the size of a dollar on the crown of his head. -His cloaths are washed as often as his body, and, on the whole, it -should appear almost impossible for him to carry any disease arising -from, or communicated through, a deficiency of individual cleanliness. - -The houses of the natives throughout India, if we except about one-third -of Benares, about a twentieth of Patna, the same of Moorshadabad, and a -mere trifle of the Black Town of Calcutta, are built of mats, bamboos, -and straw; in the latter, they have been, under late regulations, tiled. -The generality of village-huts are built with mud walls. On the whole, -however, whether owing to cracks in the walls, or intervals between them -and the thatches, windows, &c., the air finds a free course throughout. -Add to this, that the natives do not sleep on feather beds, flock, &c., -but generally on mats made of reeds. This, of itself, may be considered -a preventive against infection. - -The fires kept up in the houses of the natives of Turkey are in fixed -stoves, or under chimnies, which do not answer the purposes of -fumigation. Whereas, the Indian, by means of a moveable stove, -unintentionally fumigates the whole house; making the eyes of all smart -with the smoke. This fuel is not bituminous; but, in every situation, is -either wood, or the dried dung of cattle. Besides, the floor of a -Hindu’s house is, perhaps daily, washed with a thick solution of -cow-dung, whence a freshness is diffused, not perhaps very gratifying, -in point of savour, to an European’s nostrils, but assuredly -anti-septic, and answering various good purposes; especially as the -walls are, to the height of, perhaps, three or four feet, smeared with -the same mixture. The use of tobacco is common to both Turkey and India, -and may be considered as contributary to a resistance against the damps -during the rainy season, as well as against infection. - -With regard to the apprehensions arising from filth, fortunately, they -are not better founded than those just noticed as dependant on the -narrowness of the streets. This lucky evasion of disease is not, -however, to be attributed to any attention on the part of the natives -individually, or to the fostering care of the native governments. Few -towns of any importance but are built on the borders of some navigable -river, of which there are abundance throughout the country. The swarms -of vultures, kites, crows, and of a large kind of butcher bird, standing -at least six feet high, called the _argeelah_, added to the immense -numbers of _pariah_ dogs, generally roving at liberty, and -unacknowledged by any particular owner; together with the multitude of -jackalls, that patrol through the cities, as well as the plains, during -the night, all contribute to remove whatever carrion, or putrescent -matter, may be exposed to their researches. - -It would not, perhaps, be so easy to keep cities in a state of tolerable -cleanliness in such a hot climate, if the inhabitants subsisted on -butchers’ meat. The shambles alone would prove highly offensive: it is -therefore fortunate that the natives make rice and vegetables their -principal food. There being no privies attached to houses in general, is -an additional benefit; though accompanied with some small inconvenience, -it being requisite to walk to the outskirts of the city, or, eventually, -among some ruins, on all occasions. The privies of the higher orders of -natives, and of Europeans in general, are built on a plan which admits -of instantly removing the filth; a practice never neglected by a -servant, whose office consists only in that duty, and in sweeping the -house at various times of the day. - -The _argeelah_, or butcher bird, before mentioned, is to be seen -partially all the year round; but, generally speaking, comes with the -first showers in June, and stays until the cold season is far advanced; -when it retires into the heavy covers on the borders of the large -unfrequented lakes, near the mountains, to breed. This bird has been -fully described in the representation of the Ganges breaking its Banks, -in my work entitled the ‘WILD SPORTS OF INDIA,’ published by Mr. Orme, -of New Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of -Leadenhall-street. It is by some called the bone-eater, from its -peculiarity of digestion; it having the power of swallowing whole -joints, such as a leg of lamb, and of returning the bone after the meat -has been digested: when thus rejected, it appears as clean as though it -had been boiled for a whole day. I cannot give a better idea of the -fitness of this bird to eat of the most putrid substances, than by -stating, that I have frequently rubbed an ounce, or more, of emetic -tartar into a piece of meat, which an _argeelah_ has swallowed, without -shewing symptoms of uneasiness on the occasion, though very closely -watched for hours after. From this, it may be inferred, that ordinary -stimulants do not disagree with the stomach of this unsightly, but -innocent, and useful, animal. - -Inland towns are usually built in the vicinity of some large _jeel_, or -lake, or on some ravine, which, during the rains, forms a rapid water -course. Such as are near to hills, are often, for many days together, -impassable; owing to the torrents which, through their means, find a way -either to some expanse, or to some navigable river, - -The _jeel_, or, for want of one, the tank nearest to the town, usually -becomes the receptacle of every Hindu corpse, and, at the same time, -supplies the inhabitants with water for every purpose. One would think -this intolerable practice were, of itself, sufficient to deter men, who -pretend to the utmost delicacy and purity in all respects, from drinking -at so contaminated and corrupt a reservoir. What then shall we say, when -it is known that the borders of tanks in such situations, become places -of ease, where men, women, and children, perform their duties to the -goddess in colloquial association; and where, having got rid of their -burthens, they free themselves from its remains, by washing with those -very waters whence, probably, another person is baling into his pot, or -leather bag, for culinary purposes, or for beverage. - -Tanks and _jeels_ are, in almost every part of India, full of rushes, -and of the conferva, which, together with duck-weed, docks, &c., both -cover the surface and fill up the deeps. They are, generally, replete -with small fishes of various descriptions, and if of any extent, or -deep, either harbour, or serve as visiting places for alligators, which -infest both the running and the stagnant waters in every part of the -country. These voracious animals travel at night from one _jeel_, or -tank, to another; often announcing their presence by snapping up some -poor unsuspecting Hindu, who wades up to his middle for the purpose of -performing his ablutions, and of offering up the customary prayers on -such occasions. - -In many tanks, alligators are known to exist in numbers; nay, in some -places, they are subsisted by the eleemosynary donations of travellers, -who disburse a trifle in money, or present some provision to a -_faqueer_, (or mendicant priest,) to provide food for the alligators, -which come forth from the waters, on hearing the well-known voice of -their holy purveyor; from whom they seldom fail to receive each a small -cake of meal, or some other provision. This liberality does not, -however, occasion any qualmish scruples of gratitude; it being found, -that alligators thus handsomely treated are not a whit more reserved in -the application of their teeth to bathers, &c., than those which have -never been honored by such liberal consideration. - -The respiration and effluvia proceeding from an animal, perhaps twenty, -or twenty-five, feet in length, and from six to twelve in circumference, -must have an effect upon even a large body of water. Allowing that such -a monster should consume as much air as ten men, which, surely, is not -an unfair calculation, and that twenty gallons of water contain one of -air; as a man, on an average, consumes one gallon of air in a minute, -the alligator must consume twelve hundred gallons, equal to near twenty -hogsheads, in an hour: in twenty-four hours, the quantity of water -contaminated by one alligator would amount to four hundred and eighty -hogsheads! - -From this, we may conceive the effect produced by the presence of, -perhaps, seven or eight alligators in a tank not exceeding two acres in -measurement, and no where above twelve or fourteen feet in depth: we -must likewise take into the account abundance of fishes; for, if that -abundance did not exist, the alligators would speedily decamp. Add to -these two sufficient drawbacks, all that has been said of the impurities -added by the inhabitants, and we shall form such a nauseating and -unwholesome combination as must cause us to wonder how ever one should -be left to tell the fate of his lost friends. - -Amidst the mountains, where, of course, the inundations cannot be of any -duration, and where the waters of every description are limitted as to -extent; the streams being very small, and, excepting a few hollows -between two hills, or, eventually, a valley, in which a pool may exist, -alligators are to be seen. They are generally small, but of a very -savage species, making up, by their rapacity and activity, for the want -of that bulk which renders the alligator of the great rivers more -apparently dangerous. By the term ‘small,’ we must not conclude them to -be diminutive, but, that they rarely exceed twelve or fourteen feet in -length. Such will, however, seize a bullock when wading in a tank, or -_jeel_; stealing upon him with the utmost caution, so as not to disturb -the fluid, and even keeping the dorsal spines depressed until the very -moment of seizure; when, fastening upon the unwary animal’s leg, and -throwing his whole weight backwards; at the same time swinging round, so -forcibly as to raise the greater part of his disgusting frame above the -surface, the alligator, by one violent effort, which appears almost -instantaneous, ordinarily succeeds in dragging the poor animal into a -sufficient depth. Pain, surprize, and the unrelaxing bite of his -devourer, combine to disable him from making any adequate resistance; -being, besides, kept completely immersed by the subtle and experienced -assailant, no more is seen, except that the waters appear for about a -minute violently agitated, by the efforts of both parties: the alligator -is, however, compelled to raise his head above the surface when in the -act of deglutition. This is seen daily, even when a fish becomes the -victim. On these occasions, the stupendous animal rears in the waters, -exposing sometimes so far as his shoulders, and ordinarily biting the -fish in two, when, with the utmost ease, he swallows what would make a -hearty meal for thirty or forty men of keen appetite. I have frequently -seen an alligator thus chuck down a _rooee_, or river carp, weighing -from fifty to sixty pounds: a size by no means uncommon in the great -rivers of Bengal! - -The great use made of water by the natives in every part of India, -occasions an immense number of tanks and wells to be dug, chiefly by -persons of property, under the pretence of aiding the poorer classes, -but, in fact, with the view to become popular, or of transmitting their -names to posterity by affixing them as designations to the tank or well -in question. This takes place equally in regard to plantations, -generally of _mango_ trees; and in the building of _seraies_, for the -accommodation of travellers, such as Europeans generally understand to -be caravan _seraies_; but that term can only apply to those parts of -Arabia, &c., that furnish caravans; which are not known in the great -peninsula of India; where, on account of the extent of sea-coast, -navigation absorbs the chief part of the trade. _Seraies_ are usually -known by the name, or title, of the founder. Thus, _Maraud ka Seray_ -implies that the public accommodation for the reception of travellers -was founded by Maraud; respecting whom the people in attendance either -have some traditional account, or supply a famous history, invented for -the occasion. - -_Seraies_ are now going fast to decay; the power of the native princes -has been so much abridged, and their influence is so little felt, that, -generally speaking, were a rich or exalted character to found a _seray_, -even on the most liberal footing, it is probable his expectation of -immortal fame would not be realized. The rage is now more bent towards -_gunges_, or grain markets; _hauts_, or villages, holding periodical -markets; _maylahs_, or annual fairs; and, in fact, to such -establishments as afford a profit, or which, from becoming notorious in -the way of trade, are more likely to perpetuate the celebrity of the -institution. - -_Durgaws_, (commonly called mosques,) appertain exclusively to those of -the Mahomedan faith, and _mhuts_, which are, properly, places of Hindu -worship, also _madressahs_, or colleges, with endowments for _faqueers_, -or Hindu priests, seem to hold their ground. These, like the abbeys of -Monkish times, are ever to be found in the most beautiful and most -eligible situations: above all things having a command of excellent -water. - -The tanks in the hills, that is to say, such as have resulted from -artificial means, are generally small, full of weeds, and rarely lined -with masonry; their banks are soft, and the waters, being accessible to -cattle on every side, foul and turbid. Sometimes these become nearly dry -during the hot months, affording, if any, a most offensive and -insalubrious beverage. Nevertheless, the indolent native will often -drink thereof, rather than send half a mile to a purer spring. The -generality of these tanks have originally a regular supply from -numberless springs, fed either by a natural syphonic process from higher -lands, or by percolation of the profuse dews that, throughout the -immense jungles on the higher soils, fall during the hottest months; but -the want of proper attention to preserve the tanks from the incursions -of cattle, which, being very wild in their nature, often swim or wade -over to the opposite sides, quickly choak the springs, which, in such -open soils, easily find other vents, and expose the inhabitants to great -suffering from drought. In many instances we see wells dug in the tanks; -thereby causing a great saving of labor; as, when once a spring -discharges into the tank, in such a situation, it is not necessary to -dig the whole area to an equal depth. This is a cheap expedient, adopted -by such as have vanity enough to attract public notice, but not money -enough to do the thing completely, or to a great extent. - -From these causes, we are led to the consideration of those effects -produced in hilly countries, by the waters in common use. Nor are we -deceived in our expectation as to the results naturally arising from so -forcible an agent. We find throughout the hilly country, that, exclusive -of the diminutive features attached, all over the world, to the various -classes of mountaineers, there is an additional tendency to departure -from the ordinary bulk of the natives in the adjacent low lands, -obviously induced by the diet, and most especially by the waters in use. -It is remarkable that in Tomar, the back part of Chittrah, and Ramghur, -where the immense extent of low woods almost debars population, and -where the Hill people, known by the name of _Dhangahs_, subsist -principally on rice, wild fruits, and, occasionally, a little game, and -where they drink of water such as has just been described, collected -either in small pools, or in artificial tanks, the inhabitants are -extremely stinted in their growth, are squalid, troubled with wens, half -devoured with a kind of scurvy, herpetic eruption, and appear even at a -very early age to lose their vigor. They have, besides, a peculiar kind -of opthalmia, partly induced by an excessive passion for liquor, there -distilled in large quantities, and by their exposure to a damp, -impregnated atmosphere; while in their huts, their whole happiness seems -to consist of an intense fumigation, chiefly from green-wood, such as -would wholly suffocate one not habituated from his birth to so admirable -an imitation of the fumes of Tartarus. - -The difference between these haggard objects, and the inhabitants of the -plains from which the mountains take their rise, requires no comment. It -most forcibly arrests the traveller’s attention, causing him to doubt -whether, within the short interval of perhaps six or seven miles, he may -believe his senses, which pourtray to him a change from vigorous and -personable manhood, to a decrepid, hideous, and dwarfish, state: more -resemblant of the Weird Sisters than our imaginations can conceive, or -than our best comedians can represent. - -Some tanks, dug by the more charitable persons of property, are on a -very extensive scale, covering perhaps ten or twelve acres. Many of -these are of great antiquity, and have been very deep, perhaps thirty -feet, but, by the growth of vegetable matter, added to the heavy bodies -of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in the dry season, of which -much falls into the waters, their depth is considerably reduced: in -some, various shoals appear, indicating the accumulation of rubbish, and -in a manner reproaching those who use the element with indolence and -ingratitude. In such places fish abound, and grow to an astonishing -size, sometimes affording excellent angling, but their flavor does not -correspond with their looks; for the most part they are intolerably -muddy. The quantity of weeds, the shoals, and various posts being -generally sunk in different parts of the tank, armed with tenter-hooks, -for the purpose of preventing poachers from robbing the stock, are -insuperable bars to the use of nets. Boats are not in use in such -places, and there seems to be no attention in any respect to any thing -relating to such waters, except that the _shecarries_, or native -sportsmen, exercise much ingenuity and skill in their depredations among -the wild geese, wild ducks, teal, widgeons, &c., with which all the -waters of India are profusely stocked during the winter months; when -every unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl, which often alight -during the dark nights on waters situated in the very hearts of cities, -in which sometimes tanks are seen of such size, as to secure the birds, -when collected near the centre, from the reach of small shot. This, -though not to be classed with daily occurrences, is by no means -singular. - -By far the greater number of tanks, especially those by the road-side, -or contiguous to cities and populous towns, are walled in with masonry. -In such case, they have at one, or more sides, either a long slope, or a -flight of steps of excellent masonry; some, indeed, have both, the -former being intended for the use of cattle, which are either suffered -to drink there, or are employed to carry large leather bags of water for -the use of the inhabitants. Owing to the great force of the periodical -rains, and to the swelling of the soil during the season of excessive -moisture, the masonry is generally burst in various places, and for the -most part either sinks, or is prostrated into the tank. As no credit -would follow the repairs of such breaches, they are left to their fate. - -A due attention to the proper proportion of base, so as to give a -substantial talus both within and without the walls, added to the -precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of the springs, or -the super-abundant fluid, into the tank, would most assuredly counteract -so destructive a weakness as now generally exists. I cannot call to -mind, at this time, any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto, -excepting the great _bund_, or dyke, at Juanpore; which, according to -tradition, was built about fifteen hundred years ago, and having been -made of a very obdurate kind of _kunkur_, found in those parts, blended -with excellent lime, probably burnt from the same stones, appears now a -complete mass of rock, capable of resisting the ravages of all time to -come. This _bund_, which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was -originally thrown up to limit the Goomty; a fine river that rises in the -Peelabeet country, and, washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes -through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty bridge, built on strong -piers, terminating in gothic arches. The want of due breadth in the -arches occasions the waters to rise during the rainy season to an -immense height, creating a fall of which that at London Bridge, at its -worst, is indeed but a poor epitome! The distance between the top of the -bridge and the water below it, in the dry season, is something less than -sixty feet; yet it is on record, and in the memory of many inhabitants -of Juanpore, that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge, -which is flat from one end to the other, lying level between two high -banks, distant about three hundred and twenty yards. - -Formerly, when the waters were high, they used, according to the -tradition alluded to, to over-run the country on the left bank; forming -an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of Juanpore, and -extending down towards the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hollow, or -low land, by which they penetrated, was about two miles in width; -therefore the _bund_ was built to a suitable extent: it is now about two -miles and a half long; in most parts, about thirty feet broad at the -top, and double that width at the base. Its height varies from ten to -twenty feet. The record states it to have proved effectual in resisting -the inundation, which, however, on account of the _bund_ being at right -angles with the river, so as to occupy a favorable position, and cut off -the torrent, continued to flow annually as far as its base. In time, the -sediment deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant, filled up the -hollow, raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river’s -boundary, and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now chiefly occupied -by indigo planters. The insalubrity occasioned by the many swamps left -by the inundation, was at the same time averted, and the dread -entertained that the Goomty would, in time, force a new channel for the -entire body of its stream, removed. Large tracts, before of little -value, acquired a deep staple of soil, which, at this date, yields -sugar, indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and perfection. - -The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend, in a certain measure, -subsided; for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now -prevalent, which must have actuated to such immense works, rendered -useless by their too great number, or carried to an excess in regard to -their measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficult to ascribe to any -other motive than that of unparalleled vanity, why a man should have dug -near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a plain not many miles -distant from the military station of Burragong, in the district of -Sircar Sarung, situate between the Gunduc and the Gogra. The population -did not require more than one tank; especially as a stream of tolerably -good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these -offsprings of ostentation. The inhabitants tell various stories as to -the person who lavished his money in this empty manner; and, (which -would, no doubt, vex the real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern -narrators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual! - -With respect to _seraies_, we may, at least, praise the convenience they -afford, without bestowing much admiration on the charity of their -founders. Some of these are very extensive, covering, perhaps, six or -eight acres. They generally consist of a quadrangle, built across the -road, which passes under two lofty arched gateways, having battlements, -or turrets, over them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to allow -any laden elephant, however stupendous, to pass freely. They are made of -strong wood, well bound with iron, and studded with iron spikes, of -which the points are on the outside; for the purpose of preventing -elephants from forcing them by pressure. The surrounding walls of the -quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height, and from two to -four in thickness, according either to the antiquity of the building, or -to the parsimony of the builder. They are lined all around with a shed, -built on pillars, and divided by mats, &c., into various apartments, all -sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors, &c., of bamboos, -mats, grass, &c., as the country may afford; or, eventually, a part is -built up with thin brick, or with mud. - -In the central parts of the _seray_ there are generally some shops, -ranged on each side of the road, and one building appropriated to the -_cutwal_, or superintendant of the place; whose office is, properly, to -regulate all matters, and to see that travellers are duty accommodated; -that the _bytearahs_, or cooks, dress their victuals, and that the -_chokey-dars_ take due charge of the goods consigned to their care. All -this, however, is done in a slovenly way; the greatest impositions are -often practised; and the itinerant journies on from one scene of -thievish combination to another. - -Although a _seray_ may be built near to a river, or to some sufficient -stream, yet there is invariably a well, ordinarily lined with circular -tiles, or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn from such wells, for -the most part, by means of a truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs -of a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having a wooden pin through -it as an axle. Each person draws his own water, and for that purpose -carries a line, generally about twenty feet long. Few indeed travel, -even on foot, without a _lootah_, or brass water-vessel; of which there -are various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; a _tully_, or flat -brass plate, with a border about an inch high, nearly perpendicular; and -a _cuttorah_, or metal cup. Some even carry their _daikçhees_, or metal -boilers; though, in general, they purchase for a farthing, or, at the -utmost, for a halfpenny, a new earthen pot, capable of holding perhaps -three quarts, or a gallon, with a lid of the same, in which, if they do -not intend to employ the people of the _seray_, they dress their own -victuals; leaving the crockery, which no one else will use, it being -considered as polluted. - -The water of wells in the _seraies_, or in populous towns, is certainly -far fresher and better than is to be had, in general, from small rivers. -But much will depend on the soil, the lining of the well, its depth, -and, indeed, on its width. A quick draught necessarily insures a -plentiful flow, and prevents corruption from any impurity that may -casually fall in from above. At a certain depth there is usually found a -stratum of sand; this is remarkably fine, and, in some places, retains -such a large portion of fluid as to become a perfect quicksand. In many -parts, and especially in the Ramghur district, which, on an average, may -be a thousand feet or more above the level country, this sub-stratum -presents a most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells. - -Of this I experienced two instances in my own practice, which gave me -much trouble. Having to sink a well in the corner of a garden, and -wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant on masonry, I cut a -square shaft, and went on admirably until I came to a tremulous body of -sand. Never having met with a quicksand at such a depth, then about -twenty-four feet from the surface, and on so elevated a table land, -there being no hills nearer than two miles, and those being separated by -deep vallies, in which were running streams, I was somewhat -disconcerted. I felt the whole of the difficulty, but necessity urged me -to proceed. The well was to be lined with logs of about seven feet long, -and about eight inches diameter; they were notched at each end, so that -two, being placed parallel at five feet distance, and two others being -laid over their ends, the four made a quadrangle, which, by means of the -notches, came nearly to a level, and locked very firmly into each other. -Having prepared abundance of these logs, I commenced my operations, by -affixing a pulley over the well for the purpose of lowering them down to -a laborer who stood on a board slung from four stakes at the brink of -the shaft; for he could not stand on the sand, which, when the surface -was broken, instantly became loose and liquid. The four first logs were -scarcely placed before their own weight began to sink them, scarcely -allowing time to put on four others before they disappeared. I perceived -my error, and immediately had the other logs all wrapped round with -straw-rope of about an inch in diameter; whereby they became more -buoyant, and resisted the liquescence of the sand more powerfully, by -their encrease of diameter. As a foundation, I pinned the four first, -forming the primary layer, strongly at their several corners; so that -they made a fixed frame. The work now went on merrily, but it was with -the utmost difficulty I could supply the logs fast enough, the sand -removed by their admission rose so very rapidly. Being determined to -overcome the difficulty, I let down full twenty rounds of logs, equal to -about seventeen feet, when I had the pleasure to see no more would sink: -the sand was excavated, and I found, that, although in one or two places -intervals of two or three inches had taken place, yet, on the whole, I -was able to boast of better success than I expected. By degrees, I got -the logs settled in their places, (a work of serious labor,) and always -had water enough for every culinary purpose, but not for a large garden, -which required ample irrigation daily during the hot season; further, a -quantity was indispensably requisite for wetting the _tatties_, or -frames applied during that season to the doors and windows, to keep my -house cool. - -My well appeared full of water up to the top of the quicksand, but it -was a perfect deception: the sand filled up the shaft in the course of -three or four days, though emptied to the very bottom, which was a hard -red clay. - -Finding that more expence was incurred by the perpetual necessity for -sending men down to empty out the sand, I resolved to adopt the old -custom of lining the well with masonry; and having got all clear to the -bed of clay, into which I sunk a stout frame, near a foot and a half -deep, I went on with spirit for a whole day, in which near two yards of -wall were built up: but, during the night, the balers went to sleep, and -I found the whole immersed in the morning. As the sand and water were -emptied, the draft was so great as to wash the lime from between the -bricks, and I was compelled to take all out again. It then occurred to -me to have bricks made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid, so as to -fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a half in diameter internally, -and of four feet externally. These were laid on the frame, which I now -buried a full yard in the clay: between the bricks I put abundance of -dry lime, rubbing them close together, and, with the clay, all the -interval between the masonry and the wooden frame was filled up. Two -workmen were employed all night; one in the well, who ladled the water -from the four corners into a bucket, which the other raised to the -surface: none worthy of notice got within the circular masonry, and I -had the satisfaction, in about a week, to see the whole completed. -Sufficient water found its way through the crevices, to keep me -supplied, and the sand gave so little trouble, that, during a whole year -that I occupied the premises, no clearance was necessary. - -This digression may appear irrelevant to the subject; but I could not -forbear giving the fact a place here, as it possibly may prove an useful -guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages. It is curious, -that a very large well, of about twelve feet diameter, was commenced at -the same time by a brother officer, within a hundred yards of mine, -which went on admirably, and was finished in a very short time. He had -no quicksand opposed to his labors; on the contrary, his great -difficulty lay in cutting through two strata of rock, from which only a -few dribblets appeared while the well was lining with masonry; but, so -soon as the rainy season set in, those rocks prevented the descent of -the moisture, which, being by them directed to the well, rushed in such -a violent manner against the masonry, as to force out many stones: -creating a fissure which, in a few weeks, proved fatal to the whole of -the work. A handsome well, with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly -bottom, was thus ruined, and the station was again subjected to much -inconvenience for what we often had in too liberal abundance. - -The natives throughout India have a great respect for such persons as -plant _mango topes_ (or woods). These are, in general, managed with -great care, the trees being set at regular distances each way, forming -parallel vistas both lengthwise and breadthwise: the width of which are -equal each way, and varying from twenty to forty feet. When first -planted, they are well enclosed with a ditch and bank, sufficient to -prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young trees, which are also -watered at intervals during the dry season, generally through the means -of a well, dug at the expence of the planter on one side of the _tope_. -If the proprietor be rich, the well is usually large, lined with -masonry, and furnished with cisterns of the same, or of hewn stone, so -that cattle may be refreshed in numbers; two pillars of masonry, or of -substantial wood, are erected; each supporting the end of a timber, -stretching across the well at about five feet above the brink. On this -timber, a shieve of wood is fixed, with one or more grooves for the -reception of the cord used in drawing water. - -The first-fruits of plantations are, with few exceptions, considered as -appertaining to the tutelary deity of the planter, and are tendered to -him as offerings on the part of the _tope_. The priests who officiate on -these august occasions, commonly find means to save the sacred character -of their invisible patron from any suspicion of gluttony, by taking upon -themselves the troublesome office of proxy, on this and every occasion -wherein mastication is needful. - -On many of the great roads, such as that leading from Benares to the -upper stations, we find very large wells, conveniently situated near -some shelter, though, perhaps, distant from any town: occasionally, a -hut or two may be erected in the vicinity, for the residence of a -_bunneah_, (or kind of chandler,) or for a vender of spirits. Some of -these wells are furnished with various sets of pillars and shieves, very -substantial in their construction; so as to bear the weight of a leather -bag, formed by stitching the edges of a whole hide, trimmed of its -superfluous angles, &c., to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half in -diameter: by means of two arched irons, rivetted at their crossing in -the middle by a swivel and loop, the bag, or _moot_, is managed in the -same way as a bucket in Europe. Many of these _moots_ are capable of -containing, at least, half a hogshead. They retain the water more -steadily in ascending, than any vessel whose sides are fixed and firm; -and, as they are drawn into a cistern, or over a bed made hollow for -their reception, above the brink of the well, no great exertion is -required in emptying them; the waters discharging voluntarily when the -_moot_ is suffered, by the slackening of the rope, to touch the bottom -of the bed, or cistern. - -It may reasonably be inferred, that such a weight of water as may be -contained in an ordinary ox or cow hide, though of small growth, must be -more than manual strength could well manage; especially as the pulley is -extremely small, rarely more than six or seven inches in diameter, -nearly as much in width, and moving on a rude piece of wood for an axis; -of which, probably, nearly half has been lost by the excessive friction -so unfinished, and ill proportioned, a piece of machinery must occasion. -Not one in a thousand ever is lubricated, but the hole in the shieve is -generally adequate to the admission of an axis treble the size of that -in use; whence the pulley must jump from one inequality to another; -creating, at every such transition, a check of some consequence to that -power whence it derives its motion. - -To draw water by means of the _moot_, two men and a pair oxen are -requisite: the size of the _moot_ being proportioned to the bulk of the -cattle, which are yoked in the ordinary manner, drawing by means of the -rope fastened round the centre of the yoke, and passing between them. -The strength of the oxen is aided very considerably, by the path they -follow being on a declivity; so that, in proceeding from the well, as -they draw up the _moot_, they descend a talus, or slope, of which the -angle may vary from fifteen to twenty-five degrees: the driver -frequently seats himself on the yoke, to encrease the weight acting in -opposition to the _moot_. - -The quantity of earth derived from the shaft of the well, rarely -suffices to give the talus sufficient slope, therefore, one half the -length of the bullock’s track (which is regulated by the length of the -rope, and may usually measure about twenty-five yards) is sunk in the -ground, and the height near the well raised with the proceeds of the -excavation. This ensures a sufficient addition to the energies of the -cattle in descending: which they do with great effect, when goaded by -the driver. Arriving at the bottom of the slope, or when the _moot_ is -raised above the surface of the well, the cattle stop, and the man in -attendance at the brink draws the _moot_ over the bed, or cistern, which -is made to project over about one-third of the well. - -Some of the wells seen at the sides of the great roads, measure fifteen -or sixteen feet in diameter, and have slopes cut out of the soil, lined -on each side with masonry, that lead to an opening in the well’s -circumference, near to the ordinary level of the water; which, in the -dry season, is generally within very narrow limits. Near the opening, we -sometimes see an iron ladle fastened by means of a chain. This -convenience is, for the most part, held sacred, and he would, in those -parts, be considered a consummate villain, that would pilfer one from -its place of security. But, from many obvious marks of violence, we must -suppose that there are men so depraved as to steal these chains and -ladles, when necessity may press them to take advantage of a fair -opportunity. - -We should naturally conclude, that wells founded on such a principle, in -a climate where excessive heats prevail for three months, at least, -would be invaluable. But they really are little used; their surfaces -are, in general, covered with duck-weed, and they rarely are deficient -of an ample colony of frogs. Where huts are built near them, their -waters being rather less stagnant, are, of course, more wholesome, as -well as more palatable: the encampment of a regiment in their -neighbourhood soon sweetens them. - -Some are rendered foul by their containing fish. It would be difficult -to account for fish being there, unless they fall with the heavy showers -attendant upon those violent squalls called north-westers, during the -hot season, when multitudes of small fry have been occasionally found, -even on the tops of houses, in various parts of the country. Some assert -that many have been found alive: I have seen some lying dead; once, in -particular, near Allahabad, after a very heavy shower of rain. It does -not appear possible, that, even if sucked up by a water-spout, and -immediately returned with the rain, they could survive the rapidity of -the ascent, and the force with which they fall. - -It is remarkable, that only three kinds of fish are ever seen in wells; -viz. the _solee_, which, in a great measure, resembles our _pike_, and -is equally ravenous; the _gurrye_, or mud-fish, very similar in form to -our _miller’s thumb_; and the _singnee_, or bayonet-fish, so called from -its having three terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins, the -wounds made by which are, generally, very severe. This fish has a -purplish skin, without scales, is thin like a substantial pork knife, -and has a broad flat head. Like the _gurrye_, it is found only among mud -and slime, wherein it works very nimbly. Both species can live a long -while in moist mud; as is proved by their being found in recent puddles, -where water had formerly been dried up. It is remarkable, that both the -_gurrye_ and the _singnee_ are very sweet eating, and are never muddy; -the latter in particular. - -If we except those small streams that come down from mountains -containing ores, which must, of course, impregnate the waters in those -parts, the catalogue of mineral springs, as yet discovered in Bengal, -and the subordinate stations under that presidency, will be found very -confined indeed. Possibly, numbers may exist that are not generally -known; and this I am the more apt to believe, from having myself -discovered one within a few yards of the road on the west bank of the -Mahana, a small river which rises among the hills near the -Catcumsandy-pass in the Ramghur district. The river being much swelled -by heavy rains, I was compelled to wait until it subsided sufficiently -to admit of my being conveyed over on a raft made of pots. - -The mineral water above mentioned would, very probably, have escaped my -notice, had I not been attracted by a nauseous smell, and the black -greasy appearance of the soil whence it issued. The flavor was soapy, -but strongly sulphuric; and a slight scum, which appeared to rise with -the spring, was peculiarly acrid. I do not believe it was ever analyzed, -but should conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed of -sulphur and bitumen; especially as coals are found within that district. - -There is a very remarkable hot-spring at a place call _Seetah-Coon_, -within three miles of the fort of _Monghyr_. This, it appears, has been -known for ages, it is about twelve or fourteen feet square, and may be -from seven to eight feet deep in the middle: that, however, must be -taken as a computation; the sides being of masonry, shelving in greatly, -and the bottom not remarkably clear of weeds, &c. The water is very hot: -it was with great difficulty I could keep my finger immersed during the -time I counted one hundred and five; and that, too, rather hastily, it -being for a wager. My finger, far from being the better for my -curiosity, was slightly blistered. I have seen an egg moderately poached -at this spring, and have heard that one was boiled in it; but, I -apprehend, not to any degree of firmness. - -The most complete proof that a large portion of caloric is contained in -this spring, may be collected from the melancholy fact, of an artillery -soldier, who, in the year 1777, attempting to swim across, was scalded -in such a manner as to expire shortly after being taken out. - -The natives, who judge by appearances, and, probably, are guided in this -particular from the encreased quantity of vapour that appears during the -winter to rise from the spring, affirm, that the water is then -considerably hotter than at any other season. The fallacy of such an -opinion is easily detected, and has, indeed, been proved: several -gentlemen have been at the trouble of keeping a register of its daily -variations, which were found to be extremely small. I could not assert -myself to be correct in stating its average degree of heat, having -mislaid my memoranda on that head; but, to the best of my memory, the -temperature lay between 140° and 160° of Fahrenheit. - -This well, of which the waters are considered remarkably wholesome, -stands on the borders of a small plantation of (I believe mango) trees; -near to three or four other wells, of which the waters are cold, and -have not any distinguishing quality. The redundant water from the hot -well affords a stream, whose section may be equal to thirty square -inches; it passes into a large marsh, of at least twenty acres, close to -the plantation, where it nourishes a great variety of aquatic plants, -that appear to grow with more than ordinary vigor. - -The same negligence in regard to botany and natural history, which -appears to operate throughout India, (if we except the labours of a few -zealous individuals, among whom, Captain T. Hardwicke, of the Bengal -Artillery; Dr. Roxburgh, Superintendant of the Botanic Garden at -Calcutta; Dr. Bruce, formerly Physician to the Nabob of Oude; and Dr. -William Hunter, of the Bengal Medical Department; are the most -conspicuous,) seems to operate against enquiry into various important -matters relating to the mineral waters; which, I doubt not, would be -found in abundance, were either the cost of research so moderate as to -permit active individuals to explore the vast regions whose very -boundaries are, as yet, scarcely known; or, were the Government of India -to defray the expence of a few capable men, whose time should be wholly -devoted to an enquiry into whatever might appertain to botany, -mineralogy, natural history, and the various branches of knowledge on -which chemistry and physic depend. The disbursement could not be felt; -while, not only would the world at large be benefitted, but, possibly, -some new articles of trade, or for manufacture, might be discovered; -whereby even the Company itself would derive those _solid_ advantages to -which, on most occasions, they direct the attention of their servants. - -Such has been the negligence shewn in regard to the hot well at Monghyr, -that, although it stands within two miles of the Ganges, is not more -than three miles from the Fort of Monghyr, (a grand depôt for stores, -garrisoned by upwards of two thousand invalids,) and is in the direct -track from Calcutta to the upper provinces; nay, although the waters of -this well are sent for from all parts of the country, and form, -frequently, a part of the stock of persons, especially ladies, going to -sea; for which purpose it is bottled in very large quantities; yet, -strange to tell, its properties have never been duly analyzed. I have -been in company with various medical men, who differed as to its basis; -some asserting it to be chalybeate, others considering it as impregnated -with soda, while some, I know not why, declared it to possess no -particular impregnation, nor any active principle. - -It must be evident, that, in a country whose soil is subject to be -parched during so many months in the year, heavy fogs and miasma must -abound; consequently, during the four months following the cessation of -the annual rains, it frequently happens that the atmosphere is laden -with mists and vapors until a very late hour in the day. In great -cities, the bad effects of these are not so perceptible, on account of -the general fumigation which takes place during the evenings, when the -bulk of the inhabitants, as if by general consent, kindle fires for the -purpose of cooking their victuals; of which they rarely eat at an -earlier hour than six or seven o’clock; the cold remains of the repast -being put by for the morning’s meal. This fortuitous circumstance tends -to purify the air, and obviates a large portion of those evils to which -the villages, which stand more exposed in the midst of the marshy -tracts, are imminently subject. In such, it is common to find a very -large portion of the inhabitants annually laid up with intermittents of -a very obstinate description, but from which they are rescued by their -moderation in regard to diet, and by a few medicinal simples every where -common, and whose application is sufficiently understood. Great numbers -are, however, swept off by the disease itself, or by the obstructions it -generally creates. Those obstructions are ever to be dreaded, even -though a perfect cure should apparently have taken place. It is by no -means uncommon to see persons, especially Europeans, who have, to -appearance, been cured of Jungle, or Hill-fevers, as they are locally -designated, and which correspond exactly with our Marsh-fever, laid up -at either the full or change of the moon, or, possibly, at both, for -years after. - -Many have affected to doubt the planetary influence on the human -constitution, but, to me, there appears every reason to accredit the -opinion. I have seen so many instances, among my own most intimate -friends, as well as a thousand ordinary cases among soldiers, -camp-followers, villagers, &c., that my mind was fully made up on the -subject long before I had the opportunity of perusing the treatise of -Dr. Francis Balfour, of the Bengal Medical Establishment; from which I -offer to the consideration of my readers the following interesting -extracts. - - OF THE PAROXYSMS OF FEVERS. - -‘In Bengal, there is no reason to doubt that the human frame is affected -by the influence connected with the relative situations of the sun and -moon. In certain states of health and vigor, this influence has not -power to shew itself by any obvious effects; and, in such cases, its -existence is often not acknowledged. But, in certain states of debility -and disease, it is able to manifest itself by exciting _febrile -paroxysms_; and the propensity, or aptitude, of the constitution to be -affected with febrile paroxysms in such cases, may be denominated _the -paroxysmal disposition_.’ - - OF PERFECT TYPES. - -‘Febrile paroxysms universally discover a tendency to appear, and to -disappear, in coincidence with those positions of the sun and moon that -regulate the rising and falling of the tides. The diurnal and nocturnal -encrease of sol-lunar power acting on constitutions, in which the -propensity of the paroxysmal disposition is complete and perfect, -produces paroxysms every twelve hours, in coincidence with the periods -of the tides; and constitute types which, on account of this regular -coincide, I denominate perfect.’ - - OF IMPERFECT TYPES. - -‘The diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar power acting on -constitutions in which the propensity to paroxysm is incomplete, or -imperfect, has power only to produce paroxysms in coincidence with every -second, third, or fourth, period of the tides, or others, more remote; -constituting _types_, which, on account of this irregular coincidence, I -have called _imperfect_.’ - -Doctor Balfour states, in a note, that, ‘In several cases of the plague, -recorded by Dr. Patrick Russell, the febrile paroxysms returned -obviously every four hours, in coincidence with the periods of the -tides; and his predecessor and relation, the author of ’_The Natural -History of Aleppo_,‘ asserts positively, that the generality of the -fevers there, and, indeed, in almost all acute cases, are subject to -exacerbations once or twice in twenty-four hours.’ - -In Cordiner’s Description of Ceylon, I find the following -passage:—‘Medical men have discovered this swelling’ (viz. the -_elephantiasis_) ‘to be an effect of fever, _which returns on the -patients monthly_.’ (Vol. I. page 182.) - -The natives, generally in the first instance, have recourse to the -_bit-noben_ or _kala-neemuk_, (_i.e._ black-salt,) a solution of which, -though certainly very disgusting, on account of its taste, strongly -reminding us of the scent of gun washings, or of rotten eggs, proves an -excellent cathartic, and, if duly persisted in, rarely fails to rid the -patient of an immense quantity of bile. That being effected, a strong -decoction of _cherrettah_, a root about the size of slender birch twigs, -but of a redder color, and possessing some of the properties of Peruvian -bark, is frequently taken. But, the best medicine in the catalogue of -Indian simples certainly is the _lotah_, or _kaut-kullaigee_, which is -the kernel taken from the pod of a creeping kind of cow-itch. This -kernel is extremely bitter, and possesses all the virtues of the bark; -but with this advantage, that, in lieu of binding, it commonly proves -very mildly aperient when taken to the amount of two or three nuts -daily. I have often given it, with great success, during the paroxysms -of an ague; having previously cleared the stomach and intestines by -suitable means, such as ipecacuanha and calomel. - -That we are absolutely in a state of ignorance regarding the medical -properties of various plants, highly appreciated by the natives, cannot -be denied; we must not, however, yield an implicit belief to the many -marvellous stories related throughout Hindostan, of the extraordinary -cures performed by their aid: many disproofs of such fables are publicly -extant, and teach us to view the objects so highly extolled through the -medium of a _minifying_ glass; thereby to reduce their virtues to the -proper standard of estimation. So fully was that learned, and zealous -president of the Asiatic Society, Sir William Jones, impressed with an -opinion of our overlooking many of the most valuable of nature’s -vegetable productions, that, shortly after the formation of that -excellent institution, he expressed a wish, an earnest one, indeed, for -early framing a code of the botany of Hindostan in particular; and, in a -short address to the society, urged, that a ‘Treatise on the Plants of -India’ should be diligently and carefully drawn up. In that address, Sir -William says, ‘Some hundreds of plants which are yet imperfectly known -to European botanists, and, with the virtues of which we are wholly -unacquainted, grow wild on the plains, and in the forests, of India. The -‘_Amarcosh_,’ an excellent vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, -contains, in one chapter, the names of about three hundred medicinal -vegetables; the ‘_Medini_’ may comprize as many more; and the -‘_Dravyabidana_,’ or, ‘Dictionary of Natural Productions,’ includes, I -believe, a far greater number; the properties of which are distinctly -related in medical tracts of approved authority.’ - -Here I must beg leave to enter my protest against the too ready -acceptance of what the books above quoted may tender to our medical -repositories; and that for the following reason; namely, although the -natives may be sufficiently acquainted with certain properties of -certain plants, yet, owing to a total ignorance of pathology, -phisiology, nosology, and especially of the circulation of the blood, -and of chemistry as applicable to analysis and synthesis, it is utterly -impossible they should be able to act except by rote, and according to -their ideas of specifics; whereby the virtues of the medicines in -question are supposed to be applicable to all the stages, not only of -the same, but of various diseases, totally opposite in their natures. It -surely cannot require to be pointed out, how uncertain the results must -be under such circumstances, even when each simple is administered -separately, and with a patient attention to its operation: but, when we -take into account the known fact, that, on most occasions where the -native _Huckeems_, or _Hakeems_, prescribe, they rely greatly upon -compounds of herbs and minerals; each having its virtues recorded in -some popular distich, to dispute which would be considered an open -avowal of consummate ignorance; I say, under such circumstances, we may -fairly, and, in duty to ourselves should, hesitate to receive -information from so impure a source. It is not my intention to -depreciate the merits of many simples in use among the natives: I argue -against their competency to estimate them; but, at the same time, -entertain no doubt that their several books may lead us to the greatest -advantages, by giving hints, which, being properly, but guardedly -followed up, should enrich our catalogue of valuable remedies. This -cannot be done in a few days, nor even in a few years: whenever it may -be effected, I doubt not that the memory of that president, whose life -was devoted to the service, not only of his existing fellow-creatures, -but of posterity also, will be duly venerated. The Botanic Gardens -established at the several Presidencies, under the care of medical -gentlemen, duly qualified, offer the means of putting much assertion to -the tests of chemistry, and of time: the former have not, as yet, been -properly resorted to, and the latter has not run its due course, to -enable the philosophical world to decide with precision. - -In the first volume of the Asiatic Researches, the late Matthew Leslie, -Esq. very sensibly observed, that ‘there are in our Indian provinces -many animals, and many hundreds of medicinal plants, which have either -not been described at all, or, what is worse, ill described, by the -naturalists of Europe.’ In this remark there is much truth; but a -certain portion of the very extensive meaning of Mr. Leslie, who was, -assuredly, a man of considerable abilities, and who had much opportunity -for research, will be received with caution, from the consideration of -his avowed partiality towards native physicians; who, as I have just -stated, are by no means competent to guide us through the mazes of -botanical research. The state of medicine throughout India, (I mean -among the natives,) is not such as to induce the belief that we shall -obtain any valuable information among the _Huckeems_; of whom, full -ninety-nine in the hundred are self-taught, as well as self-sufficient. -What, then, is to be expected among persons thus practising a -profession, to which the old adage of ‘_ars longa, vita brevis_’ so -admirably applies, when we see not even one didactic page to which they -can resort; no public institution where knowledge is either bestowed or -received; no liberal, enlightened, patron, under whose auspices genius -may be enabled to penetrate into the mines of science? This being the -fact, shall we refrain from smiling at those of our countrymen who, -quitting the aid and guidance of their well-informed medical friends, -resort to such quacks, whose reputation they thus unjustly raise among -the gaping crowd, and who have the art to propagate the most unbounded -reliance on their nostrums? That, here and there, a simple of peculiar -efficacy may be in use among such persons, I shall not deny; but must -appeal to our more enlightened medical societies, whether, in the hands -of an ignorant man, brought up in vanity, and regardless of the minutiæ -of physical causes and of physical effects, even the most simple -medicine can be safely entrusted? The greatest part of the burlesque is, -that these highly renowned physicians, to a man, rely upon proper -conjunctions of the planets, lucky hours, &c., not only for the culling, -but for the mixing, and administration of their medicines, without -regard to those critical moments of which our silly disciples of -Hippocrates and Galen are so very watchful! - -We must, however, do the natives the justice to allow, that the -refrigerating principle lately adopted by some of our leading -physicians, owes its origin solely to the ancient practice of the -_Brahmans_, or Hindu priests; of whom the generality affect to be deeply -versed in pharmacy. I believe, that, if taken in time, few fevers would -be found to degenerate into _typhus_, and that very seldom any -determination towards the liver from acute cases would occur, were the -refrigerating course to be adopted. Often have I known my servants, when -attacked with fever, to drink cold water in abundance, and to apply wet -cloths to their heads, with great success; the former has generally -lowered the pulse considerably, by throwing out a strong perspiration, -while the latter has given immediate local relief. - -Were it not that _cast_ (_i.e._ sect) opposes a formidable barrier to -the more extensive practice of European physicians among the natives in -general, the native doctors would speedily be consigned to their merited -contempt: but such are the prejudices arising from religious tenets, -among the Hindus in particular, that, even when at the last extremity, -many would rather die than suffer any medicine prepared, or perhaps of -which the liquid part had been barely touched, by one not of their own -_cast_, to enter their mouths! Where such infatuation prevails, -ignorance will maintain her empire, until, by the gradual abolition of -vulgar errors, the light of science, and of reason, may begin to glimmer -among the people at large. It will not suffice, that a few skilful -European professors should be seen, and be admired, by a grateful few: -that has already happened; but the dread of religious anathema, and of -domestic excommunication, are too forcibly opposed to such weak -demonstrations. Unhappily, we aimed at a reform, in this particular, at -that very point to which it should have had only a remote tendency: we -peremptorily attacked the very existence of full a tenth of the whole -population, that is, of the Brahmans, or Hindu priests; and we excited, -among the people at large, suspicions such as have given scope to our -enemies for inculcating, that we are intent on subjecting their minds, -as well as their bodies. - -From this dilemma, I understand, with pleasure, we are gradually -extricating ourselves; by withdrawing those noxious publications, which, -in a moment of unguarded zeal, we had allowed our clergy to introduce to -the notice of the people of Hindostan. With respect to the motive, that -is out of the question: I am not considering the merits of one religion -opposed to another, but simply the fact, as it relates to our political -connection with the East, and the diffusion of true philosophy over that -vast region. Nor am I here censuring the measure in a religious sense; -though, on reference to history, and to my own experience of the -dispositions of the Hindus, I feel surprized that fanaticism should have -been allowed to meddle with a country over which we, in truth, have not -an efficient control, and among a race whose tenets are by no means -obnoxious to humanity; among whom apostacy is a mortal sin, who disclaim -all interference with the doctrines of other sects, and who have most -amply proved their title, at least to toleration, if not to protection. - -I have said, that we began at the wrong end; and this surely will appear -to be the case when the matter is properly understood. In lieu of -attacking that which carries with it no offence against ourselves, and -instead of endeavoring to force upon them our creed, we should have -studied to render the natives acquainted with whatever could tend to -their worldly comfort, and to the removal of errors often pregnant with -destruction. Let us suppose, for instance, that, in various parts of the -country, the Company were to establish schools, where youths of every -description might be instructed in the mathematics, botany, chemistry, -surgery, pharmacy, agriculture, mechanics, &c.; and that valuable -premiums should, at certain periods, be presented to such as might merit -the distinction. The obvious consequence would be, that, in due time, an -infinity of absurdities would vanish, and that, in proportion as science -should expand among them, the superior circles would begin to estimate -our value as an enlightened people. They would then look up to us as -their superiors; in lieu of rating us, as they now do, very low indeed -on the scale of degradation. Such a system would not only give an -effectual shake to the basis of priest-craft, but cause all the literary -stores, and the natural productions of the soil, to be laid open to our -examination: then, indeed, our medical men might enjoy a high reputation -in every quarter of the East, and the world might be benefitted, both by -the correction of many errors, and by the acquisition of most important -novelties in medicine, and in the various arts on which commerce is -dependant. Then should we have no occasion to goad the Hindus towards -Christianity: they would thirst for knowledge, and pant to be rid of -those fetters imposed upon their minds by their artful clergy. - -I have heard it said ‘the natives have no disposition for the sciences.’ -This is imposing a cruel sentence on a hundred millions of people! Allow -it to be true; and look back to the state of Britain while under the -control, in a certain measure, of the Druids; who are now well -ascertained to have been the same, in their days, as the Brahmans of -Bengal, &c., are at this time. Who can fail to admire the change? Who -could suppose it possible that such a change could have been effected -among a people, who, if we are to give credit to Cæsar, and to other -authorities, were completely barbarous, and ‘who shewed no disposition -for the sciences?’ In opposition to so absurd, and so malicious an -assertion, let me state a few facts. When Mr. Reuben Burrow was in -India, as head of the mathematical department, he was solicited by -several of the natives to instruct them in astronomy, algebra, &c. -Unhappily, although possessing pre-eminent talents, Mr. Burrow was not -exactly calculated to conciliate the good will, nor to excite the -admiration, of persons who did not, like himself, blaze at the spark of -science: in fact, he partook greatly of the character of the celebrated -Doctor Samuel Johnson, and might be termed ‘a mathematical Hottentot!’ - -This important deficiency of suavity caused the natives to quit; indeed, -it tended to disgust those of his countrymen who, being compelled by -their avocations to attend his lectures, were subjected to his caprices -and gross manners. However, one native, of mediocre opulence, was not to -be scared by what appeared a trifle, when compared with the acquirements -he hoped to possess: he bent to the storm, and, by unremitting -application, speedily rendered himself competent to converse with Mr. -Burrow on his usual topic. In time, the student became a favorite, and -was allowed to attend his preceptor when the latter was deputed on a -survey of considerable extent, and to measure a degree of latitude in -the western districts. Such was the progress made by this native under -the auspices of Mr. Burrow, that, in a few years, he qualified himself -to instruct others in the ordinary courses of the higher mathematics. -What became of him I know not; but apprehend that many others must have -derived some little benefit from his learning: unless, indeed, his -priests found a pretext for upholding him as unworthy of imitation, and -threatened to place all who might consider him to be thus ‘_civilized_,’ -or improved, under the bar of ecclesiastical censure. When I say -‘_civilized_,’ it is in deference to a British divine, who has been -pleased to represent the people of Bengal in such terms as might lead -persons who never visited India to set them down for a cruel, barbarous, -ignorant, vindictive, senseless, and sanguinary race; whose -_civilization_ is ‘devoutly to be wished.’ How far they merit such a -character, may be understood from their forbearing to massacre all the -Europeans in India; a work that might be effected by only one in -thousands of their population striking the deadly blow! - -Setting whatever relates to religion apart, and viewing our intercourse -with India as a matter merely of _meum_ and _tuum_, it is self-evident, -that to whatever extent we may instruct the natives to analyze the -produce of their soil, and to present it to us in a marketable shape, so -much must Britain be benefitted by the extension of her commerce, and by -the possession of a territory whose value would be thereby -proportionally raised. This is said with the view to encourage the -researches of our medical men; who, from their general knowledge of -chemistry, and perhaps of botany, are certainly best qualified to pursue -them with national effect. Under the present very limitted establishment -of physicians and surgeons, as well as from the _præter nihil_ benefits -derived from the Botanical Garden, when seen in this point of view, we -are not authorized to be very sanguine in our hopes that any important -advantages will result in that direction. While the Company can barely -afford a surgeon and two assistants to a regiment of 2000 men, it is not -to be supposed they could form such establishments of the above -description, as might give us a thorough command over the mineral and -vegetable productions of their territory, or tend to create a spirit of -enquiry among the natives. - -The want of printed books is, in every country, a great evil; but, in -India, is a drawback of great moment. There, all books, all -proclamations, (except such as we print at Calcutta, &c.,) all -newspapers, &c., &c., are manuscripts. It is not to be imagined how few -volumes are to be seen even of this kind. We should suppose that, where -provisions, lodging, cloathing, fuel, &c., are so remarkably cheap, -learning would become general: the reverse is, however, the case; not -one in five hundred can read, or write, even indifferently. There are -abundance of little day-schools to which children may be sent at a very -trifling expence; but there they learn very little. Generally, a bed of -sand serves for paper, and a finger, or a piece of stick, for pen and -ink; consequently, no traces of any instruction remain for the future -consideration of the pupil. The more affluent, and the more zealous, -ordinarily provide their children with a board, about a foot long, and -nine or ten inches wide, which, being painted black, and varnished, -becomes an admirable tablet, whereon the young folks are enabled to -write their lessons with a reed pen; the ink being generally chalk and -water. To these, though certainly more perfect than the former mode, the -same objection exists; namely, that they want stability, and that the -lesson is no sooner repeated by rote, and written much in the same -manner, than it is forgotten, at least it never again obtrudes on the -eye; since, in order to make way for further instruction, it is -necessarily expunged. - -The _koits_, or scribes, and the _láláhs_, or accountants, (though the -latter often confine their occupations to merely reading or -transcribing,) are nearly the same among the lower classes, especially -where the Naugry character is in question, that the _moonshies_ are -among the superior orders, who, almost invariably, use the Persian -language and character, in all public, as well as in private, matters. -So far, indeed, is this carried, that Persian is held to be both the -language of the Court, and of the Law. - -As those who study the Persian are aided by _moonshies_, so are such -persons as would acquire the Naugry character necessitated to employ -_koits_, or _láláhs_, for that purpose. The wages of these may be from -two to five rupees per month; but, in some families, the servants -contribute to the extent of a few annas, or, eventually, as far as a -rupee, in the aggregate; in consideration of which _douceur_, the -_láláh_ commonly writes letters for them to their friends, and explains -the answers, &c. Such servants as have the charge of money to be -disbursed on master’s account, commonly take care to be on good terms -with this _cullum-burdar_ (_i.e._ quill-driver); who, as has been said -of _compadores_, generally taxes all items he knows to be overcharged, -by a small deduction in his own favor. - -Persons of this class often keep little schools, such as have been -described, and then are designated _gooroos_; a term implying that kind -of respect we entertain for pastors in general. - -If we contemplate the extreme inattention prevalent throughout -Hindostan, respecting literary attainments, and the great cunning -practised by the priesthood, in their sedulous endeavors to prevent the -natives from receiving the least information regarding philosophy in -general, it must appear surprizing that so much has been done by the -artizans of Bengal towards the adaptation of their labors to the -convenience of the British residents. Our admiration of these people -cannot but be heightened, from the circumstance of particular trades -being confined to particular _casts_, or sects; for though we may, -possibly, at first view, consider that to be an advantage, inasmuch as -it should seem to perpetuate knowledge in an hereditary line, those who -have resided in the East fully know that no such heir-loom ability is to -be found: on the other hand, we immediately recognize the bar raised -against genius; which, when to be found within the _cast_, may struggle -for ever under some base, forbidding, and loathsome degradation; or, if -it should start in another sect, cannot adopt its native intention, but -must resign in favor of some other pursuit, perhaps requiring no genius; -or, eventually, one of a very different bent. Once a carpenter, always a -carpenter; once a swine-herd, always a swine-herd! - -The evil effects attendant upon the useful arts in general, from such a -system, are certainly great, but by no means to be compared with the -degradations, and consequent imbecility, inseparable from the total -suppression of every thing tending to excite emulation. When we see an -hereditary priesthood, and that, too, by no means remarkable for the -paucity of its members, we cannot but picture to ourselves the arrogance -thus privileged in the whole of that tribe, and the humiliation which -marks the actions, as well as the sentiments, of all who do not stand -within the hallowed pale. Such a contrast can exist only while one party -can deceive, and while the other deems accusation to be nothing less -than blasphemy; therefore we cannot be mistaken regarding the only means -of correction: to wit, a knowledge of the world, and of its inhabitants; -or what we, in other terms, call learning. Pour but a little of this -into the minds of a certain number; satisfy them that morality in -Europe, and morality in Asia, are the same thing; that ‘whether we do -our duties in a black skin, or in a white one,’ matters not; that men -were born to aid each other, and not to be made the slaves of party, -sect, or color; and, that he who knows most regarding the works of the -Creator, is most likely to have a proper sense of his bounty. Convince -the natives of India, or of any other nation, that such is the truth, -and that you practise, while you teach, the doctrines of Christianity, -and nothing will, in the end, be able to stand against so formidable an -attack. But if we proceed, as has been too rashly done, to attempt a -schism among them by mere declamation, or by means of creeds and -parables in which they have no belief, (merely because they know no -better,) our object will be either mistaken, or designedly -misrepresented; and we shall experience in Asia all those penalties that -formerly awaited the avowal of Lutheranism in Europe! In brief; convince -the natives that their priests are fools and knaves, and that poverty, -disgrace, and even disease, are the consequences of a mistaken bigotry, -and the whole country will prostrate itself at your feet! - -Waving every other objection, and resting solely on the very inadequate -means of instruction afforded by parents to their children, through the -medium of _koits_, _láláhs_, and _gooroos_, it seems probable that, -unless some effectual reform may take place, the natives of India are -likely to remain in darkness, _ad infinitum_. This is the more to be -regretted, when we consider how willing they are to follow such means as -may be offered them, provided those means may not oppose established -principles, nor be contrary to their ideas of sanctity and benevolence. -Nor can we but repine at such infatuations among a race whose -intellectual qualities, whatever may be said by ignorant or designing -men, are at least on a par with those of Europeans. That they are -perverted, will not be denied; but, that they are naturally imperfect, -needs little proof indeed! Set some dozens, or scores, of our youths to -bellow in unison, (with all the _ennui_ attendant upon monotonous rote,) -any particular passages from the Scripture, day after day, and year -after year; and, after some seasons, search among them for Newtons, -Lockes, Blackstones, and Solons! The result need not be told! - -In recommending to those of my readers who may be intent upon acquiring -a knowledge of the language, (by which I mean not only the Bengallee, -and the Hindui, both of which may be considered vernacular, but the -Persian also,) to purchase such translations as may be extant of the -works of Indian authors, I am far from being partial to their contents, -and disclaim the idea of affording any thing more than exercise in -translation when I do so; for there appears to me a great disposition to -trifle, or to the hyperbole, in all I have ever seen. By means of such -translations, the originals may be more readily understood, whereby the -study may be rendered both brief and pleasing; provided proper attention -be paid to all material points, and that, in reading the translation, -the student does not indulge in the erroneous opinion that he is making -himself master of the original. Almost every book written in the East is -the production of some court sycophant: a few have resulted from the -labors of men who, being disposed to meditation, have committed their -reveries to paper; and, a very small portion have displayed such -scintillations of ability, as leave us to regret they were either not -better educated, so as to enlighten their countrymen, or that they were -not born in those parts of the world where their talents might have been -fostered, and duly appreciated. With regard to ethics, numbers have -amused themselves, to all appearance, more from ostentation than from -‘being virtuous over-much.’ The facility with which scraps from the -Koran, (_i.e._ the Bible of the Mahomedans,) may be set forth in glowing -terms, in a language rich in expression, has, no doubt, induced many a -very tolerable lay-man to annoy his neighbours, by the repetition of -page after page of the most tiresome tautologies, whereon his fame has -been built: of this description abundance exist, all alike unworthy of -review. - -I have always thought the poets of India to be particularly happy in -those little tales which convey a moral, though a very worldly one, -under some alluring allegory. From this, however, I exempt the -celebrated HEETOPADES, translated by Mr. Wilkins. This, by general -consent, is allowed to be the store from whence _Pilpay’s Fables_ have -been taken; but the original can never appear in competition with their -offspring; for, while the latter are interesting, and afford a very rich -treat, by their apt application to the affairs of life, the former are -heavy, dull, tedious, and of a most motley character; the subject is -generally forced, and spun out into all the varieties garrulity could -invent! - -The Asiatic student may find, in the several works of Gilchrist, -Baillie, F. Gladwin, Sir. W. Jones, Sir William Ousely, Richardson, and -Wilkins, abundance of instruction in the several languages most current -in Hindostan; the Asiatic Researches will give him a considerable -insight into a number of interesting and important matters relating to -the natural history of the East, the manners, and the climate under -consideration; while, by means of Colebrooke’s Digest of the Hindu Laws, -and Rousseau’s Dictionary of Mahomedan Law, he may become very generally -acquainted with that important branch of knowledge. With respect to the -politics of the country, they have been so much canvassed, that various -treatises on that topic are to be had: unfortunately, all are either -devoted to partial considerations, or written to serve a party! - -In almost every country, whereof the inhabitants are either considered -by their neighbours, or deem themselves to be, civilized, the records of -the state, the several libraries, whether scholastic, traditionary, -scientific, or amusing only, are open to the inspection of persons of -all nations; and, above all, the sacred institutions are subject to -visitation, and even to research. In India, no such recreation or -benefit is ever afforded to the inquisitive traveller, who may remain, -for years, within a stone’s-throw of what, to him, would appear an -invaluable treasure, without his being able to obtain the smallest -indulgence in aid of his pursuits. Whatever may be the complaints -against our continental neighbours on the score of persecution, we must -give them credit for the most ample toleration of the million of -visitors who intrude on their several cabinets, libraries, &c.; some, -from the most laudable motives, others, actuated by the mere desire of -seeing all that is to be seen, without, in the least, regarding those -points by which the philosophic eye is naturally attracted. Though so -heavy a charge lies against the Hindus, on account of their strict -rejection of our countrymen, in general, when application has been made -for information on particular points, it must be allowed, that they -doubtless have, in a few instances, been more explicit, and furnished -information on particular topics, which, to us, has proved extremely -interesting. - -In truth, we have no exclusive right of complaint; for all nations, and -all sects, except their own, have been equally subject to denial; or, -when indulged, have been compelled to perform some ceremonies obnoxious -to their faith, or to their persons. Whether this be absolutely -necessary, or has been devised solely with the intention of deterring -the curious, may not be difficult to determine; thus much we know, that, -in order to obtain admission to a knowledge of certain forms, or to the -perusal of certain records, various operations, amounting nearly to -apostacy, though no recantation be made, must be performed. - -There is room to doubt whether any true accounts of the antiquity of the -Seek College at Benares, and of the migrations of the Hindus from the -countries bordering on Palestine, actually exists: many persons, of -considerable talents, and of great erudition, are disposed to treat the -whole of what has been delivered to us, with so much solemnity, by the -_Pundits_, or learned Brahmans, as a deception, intended to ridicule our -curiosity, and to repress, or at least to divert, it from the true -course. Circumstances may be adduced in support of this hypothesis; and -we cannot but regard the manner in which the _Pundits_ arrogate to -themselves the whole knowledge of their history, which is carefully -concealed from a large portion even of the Brahmans, as a circumstantial -proof of our having been designedly led astray, both by a fictitious -record, and by a well concerted fable, invented for the occasion: this -may be aptly compared to the whale and the tub. Fortunately, no material -point appears to rest on the antiquity, or otherwise, of the Hindu -mythology, or the records of the Seeks, regarding the origin of that -people; though it would perhaps be found, that their true exposition -might tend to afford many proofs in favor of the mission of our Saviour. - -When the immense extent of territory we hold in India is considered, -and, that perhaps no country in the world offers greater facilities, not -only for literary correspondence, but for the researches of naturalists, -the conveyance of gross articles, and the manufacture of raw materials, -which every where abound, we cannot but lament the want of such -institutions as might enable us to turn such important advantages to the -immediate benefit of Great Britain, on the most unbounded scale. We are -absolutely ignorant of a million of facts now included, either directly, -or by affinity, in our endless catalogue of desiderata, which need not -remain in that disgraceful list, provided due means were taken to -correct our errors, and to extend our resources. During the dry season, -or at least for four months in the year, scarce a part of the country -opposes the progress of a traveller; unless through those immense -wildernesses already described. It may, on the whole, be said, that one -half the country is passable at all seasons by land; though the progress -will doubtless be slow, and difficult, during the heavy falls of rain. -Intercourse is never at a stand. The _dawk_, or post, proceeds at all -seasons; and is rarely more than two days longer on its way from -Calcutta to the upper provinces, than at the favorable time of the year. -Bridges and ferries are found on all the great roads; whereby regiments -have occasionally marched on emergency with such despatch, as could -scarcely have been exceeded even during the hot season. - -The communication with Europe, overland, has been established, during -peaceable times, for full twenty years; but it was not until about -twelve years ago, that the public have been permitted to avail -themselves of so essential a means of correspondence at fixed rates, and -under particular regulations. Prior to that period, the Company used to -receive, and to despatch, packets overland, in which occasional -indulgences were granted to favored individuals. I abstract this from -the very old custom of sending intelligence, on sudden occasions, by the -despatch of some confidential person to or from India. The utility of -some permanent and certain conveyance for letters from a quarter daily -becoming more opulent, and more important, cannot be doubted; were it -only for the purpose of transmitting bills of exchange payable after -sight, the notices of bankruptcies, the information of intended -consignments, the state of the markets, &c., such a systematic -communication must be invaluable to the several merchants. To the -Government it is of the highest importance! Many complain of the heavy -rates of postage overland, and others of the severe restrictions; but -such complaints are ill founded: the expence of the posts is very heavy, -and it is indispensably necessary for Government to hold a severe check -over whatever intercourse might lead to mischief. - -The tables of postage, and of _bangy_ carriage, contained in the -Directory, will enable the reader to judge how far the charges are from -being exorbitant: he will not fail to recollect, that the sums paid in -Britain are very trifling, owing to the immense intercourse subsisting -between the several parts of the kingdom, far beyond what exists in any -part of India. Bath is the same distance from London that the -cantonments of Berhampore are from Calcutta, viz. 106 miles: the former -pays 8d. postage, the latter 4 annas, which is about the same sum: the -other charges are considerably cheaper; viz. Allahabad, which is full -five hundred miles from Calcutta, pays only 7 annas (about 13½d.); but -this is on the great road, while the other is scarcely to be considered -a thoroughfare, compared with what it was before the new road was cut -through the Ramghur district to Chunar. - -With the exception of such parts as may be infested by tigers, the post -seldom or never fails of arriving within an hour of its appointed time; -except, as has been observed, when the waters are out; in which case, -many circuitous roads must be followed, whereby the way is considerably -lengthened in the aggregate. Taking the average, a hundred miles per day -may be run over by the _dawk_, or post, in fair weather. Each mail-bag -is conveyed by an _hirkarah_, (or runner,) who is attended by one or two -_doog-doogy-wallahs_, or drummers, who keep up a kind of ‘long-roll,’ as -they pass any suspicious place. Ordinarily, two _mosaulchees_, or -link-bearers, accompany each _dawk_; and, where tigers are known to -commit depredations, one or two _teerin-dauzes_, or archers, are -supplied, under the intention of protecting the party. But such puny aid -is of no avail; for the onset of the tiger is too sudden, and too -discomfiting, to allow any effort of consequence to be timously adopted: -the very act of seizure is a death-blow, from which I never heard of any -recovery; provided the unhappy victim were not so particularly situated -as to prevent it from decidedly taking effect. - -Here it may be needful to explain, that a tiger invariably strikes his -prey with the fore paw, in so forcible a manner as often to fracture the -skull; which, generally, is the object aimed at: many oxen have had -their cheek bones shivered by the contusion. It sometimes happens, that -the marks of one or two claws are to be seen, but they are generally _en -passant_, and by no means the result of primary intention. The wrist of -a tiger being often nearly two feet in circumference, may give some idea -of the violence with which the _coup de grace_ falls on the head of a -human being! The _mosauls_, or _flambeaux_, are intended to intimidate -the tigers, as are also the _doog-doogies_, but experience has shewn -that, when hungry, tigers are not to be restrained by any such device: -indeed, instances have occurred of the _mosaulchees_ themselves being -carried off. It would, nevertheless, be presumptuous to judge from such -partial data, that many tigers are not deterred by the noise and fire -accompanying the letter-carriers; on the contrary, there should rather -seem a probability, that many young tigers, or such grown ones as may -not be hungry, nor be attended by cubs, are frequently intimidated from -those attacks they would make but for these precautions. A residence of -two years at Hazary-Bang, the station for a battalion in the Ramghur -district, enabled me to form a fair estimate of the dangers to which the -_dawk_, and travellers in general, were subject. During some seasons, -the roads were scarcely to be considered passable; day after day, for -nearly a fortnight in succession, some of the _dawk_ people were carried -off, either at Goomeah, Kannachitty, Katcumsandy, or Dungaie; four -passes in that country, all famous for the exploits of these enemies to -the human race! - -So few valuables are ever sent by the post, that thieves never attempt -any depredations on the letter-bags. _Hoondiés_ (_i.e._ banker’s drafts) -would be of no use whatever to them; and as bank notes are not in -general currency, no object is held out for enterprize of that -description. Nor do the _dawk-bangies_, or parcel-dawks, offer any -substantial inducement; for, even if any plate, or watches, or trinkets, -were to be sent by such a conveyance, the want of a market, and the -impossibility of confiding in any village jeweller, would render the act -both hazardous and unavailing. Hence, the _dawk_ generally proceeds in -perfect safety, throughout every part of the country; while the -_bangies_ maybe considered equally secure; except, indeed, in some parts -of the dominions of the Nabob Vizier of Oude, where a lawless -uncontrolled banditti subject every passenger to contribution: this evil -is fortunately on the decline, in consequence of our having assumed the -reins of government. - -It has frequently been asked why, in a country so completely under our -control, we did not establish mails, similar to those in use throughout -England. Before this can be effected, an immense revolution must take -place, not only in the minds of the natives, but in the features of the -country. At present, there appears no desire on the part of the -inhabitants to communicate by land, farther than may be necessary for -the purpose of attending _hauts_, (markets,) _maylahs_, (fairs,) or for -the resort to certain places of worship, &c. For such purposes, a -pedestrian trip suffices; or, at the utmost, a poney, worth only a few -shillings, is either borrowed or hired. The contact of various _casts_, -or sects, being considered a pollution, it is not to be supposed that a -Hindu would like to be pent up, for hours together, with a Mahomedan, -who makes no scruple of killing and eating a cow: or that the Mussulman -would, in his turn, feel comfortable under similar circumstances, with a -British _kaufur_, (unbeliever,) who, besides his condemnation of the -prophet, makes no scruple of devouring ham and bacon wholesale! -Admitting that all parties should be agreed to associate within the body -of a stage-coach, still there would not exist intercourse sufficient to -support the expences, in a quarter where horses are so dear, and where -the necessary repairs could not, in case of accident, be promptly -effected. Then, again, the roads must be suitably made, at an enormous -expence, and be afterwards supported by heavy disbursements, or by a -contribution of labor on the part of the land-holders, by no means -agreeable to their feelings. All this may, in time, pass under a -complete metamorphosis: the produce of the country will be more -generally estimable; the people will relax greatly from the vigorous -attention now paid to religious tenets; and, as their prejudices may -give way to their true interests, will extend their speculations without -fear or restriction. Those who may then inhabit India, will see roads, -mails, and inns; whereas, at present, there are only pathways and -runners, but no inns. There are, to be sure, _seraies_ and _choultries_, -for the accommodation of travellers, but these are mostly going fast to -decay; and, at the best, can be viewed only as shelter for men and -cattle; goods being usually left exposed to the weather. The -_bytearens_, or female cooks, who ply, in more than one capacity, at -such places, and who, on receiving money before-hand, buy and cook such -victuals as may be ordered, or the place may afford, cannot be -considered otherwise than as menials, and not to be classed with our -inn-keepers; no, nor even with the poorest village retailer, ‘_Lysunst -to del in T, Koffy, and Tibaky_!’ - -There is, however, a wide field for practical improvement; as may be -fully understood from the following statement. The _dawk_ rarely travels -at a less expence than twenty-five rupees per month, for each stage of -eight miles (four cosses) on the average. This sum is absorbed by a -_moonshy_ at each _chokey_, or relief at the end of a stage, who -pretends to be very scrupulous in regard to ascertaining that all the -parcels are right, but who, as I have repeatedly witnessed, is more -intent on receiving little presents of _ottah_, (meal,) spices, &c., -sent to him from the neighbouring villages, in return for letters -conveyed by the _dawk-hirkarahs_, who are sometimes laden pretty heavily -with such contributions. I speak from what I have been an eye-witness to -repeatedly; as to hear-say, much more might be asserted. It appears to -me that the above sum would carry on the system with double the speed, -and double the efficiency. In lieu of sending off four, five, and six, -men with the _dawks_, let a horseman convey the bags for about twelve -miles, on an allowance of fifteen rupees per month for man and horse; -and, during the rainy season, when the roads are deep, let a fresh horse -be allowed for the several returns, instead of causing the same man and -horse to return with the _counter-dawks_. On the above allowance a very -good steed might be kept, the celerity of the _dawk_ would be greatly -encreased, and there would be no occasion for _moonshies_, except at -such _chokies_ as might be upon diverging roads, where it would be -necessary to have the proper parcels sorted out, and delivered to the -various _branch-dawks_. - -Travelling in a _palanquin_ by _dawk_, (_i.e._ post,) is effected much -in the same manner as the despatch of the _dawks_. Bearers are stationed -at the several stages, for the purpose of relief; each station, in -general, supplying eight bearers, and a _bangy_, in all nine men, -together with one or two _mosaulchies_ for night stages. The expence of -travelling in this manner will depend greatly on the distance: if only a -short journey is to be made, such as may be compassed within eight or -ten hours, nothing more is needful than to send on a set, or two, of -bearers, who then receive their daily hire of four annas (8d.) each, -while out from home; or, if there should exist the means of so doing, a -_hirkarah_, (or messenger,) may be despatched to collect bearers at the -several stages. In this manner, the relays may be properly supplied, and -the cost will not amount to more than a rupee for three miles; equal to -ten-pence a mile; whereas, in the ordinary mode of having bearers laid -by the post-master, each mile will cost full one rupee, (_i.e._ 2_s._ -6_d._,) besides various little disbursements by way of _buxees_, or -presents, to every set of bearers in the journey: these may be fairly -estimated at two rupees for every set, or relief, which, if the -distances run by each should average ten miles, will be about twenty -rupees (£2. 10_s._) for every hundred miles. The ordinary rate of this -kind of conveyance may be rated at four miles per hour during the cold -season, three and a half during the hot season, and from two to three -during the rains, provided the waters are not much out: otherwise, no -estimate can be formed. The above includes stops. - -The establishment of _dawk-bangies_ for the conveyance of parcels, at -rates in proportion to their weights respectively, has produced -considerable convenience to those who reside at a distance from the -Presidency. Until this plan was adopted, few could send small articles, -such as trinkets, &c., to the Presidency, but under favor of some -individual who might perchance be travelling thither, and who might -possibly be some months on the way: the same inconvenience attended the -return; so that it was not uncommon for a gentleman whose watch required -inspection, to be four or five months deprived of its use. This is now -done away, and a watch, &c. may be sent from Cawnpore to Calcutta, there -undergo repair, and be returned with ease, in the course of a month, or -less. - -The same kind of convenience is, of course, afforded regarding books, -and all other articles too bulky, or too heavy, to proceed by the -_dawk_, but not of sufficient importance to induce the employment of a -boat, or of a _bangy_, to convey them: nor, indeed, could a single -bearer travel with a _bangy_ more than twenty miles within the -twenty-four hours; so that he would be full a month in going from -Calcutta to Cawnpore; whereas, the _dawk-bangies_ travel by relays of -bearers, therefore can almost keep up with the _dawk-hirkarahs_, who -carry the mail-bags suspended at the end of a stick over their -shoulders. - -The communication by water between Calcutta and the several subordinate -stations, whether civil or military, is much resorted to; during the -rainy season in particular. At that time, few are inaccessible to craft -of some description, though but for a while: those immense falls of rain -which cause the ravines to fill, and every little creek to become -navigable for boats of ten or fifteen tons, swell the Ganges, and the -other great rivers, to an astonishing height; causing them to run with -awful velocity. The rivers generally rise in May, but a few inches only, -in June, they often approach the summits of their banks, between which -they fluctuate, rising and falling until the great swell, which takes -place in August. Sometimes the river rises twice, sometimes thrice, or, -even four times, during the season; but, in general, one ample -inundation serves all the purposes of agriculture, provided the rains do -not afterwards abate too suddenly in September, before the rice is cut. -When such an untimely cessation takes place, it is attended with great -mortality: the immense expanse of slime, suddenly exposed to the -influence of the sun, then on the equinoctial, throws forth the most -destructive miasma, whereby epidemics, of the most dangerous -description, are propagated. - -The swelling of the great rivers is a matter of great uncertainty; -sometimes they rise very early, before the quantity of rain that falls -in the lower provinces could lead to the expectation of their doing so: -when this is the case, it is not uncommon to see the Cossimbazar river, -commonly called the _Baugrutty_, nearly dry at night, and full twenty -feet, or more, deep the next morning. In other seasons the waters are -very tardy; a matter of serious moment to the husbandman, who is -naturally anxious to plant his crop of rice in due time, so that it may -be securely attached to the soil before the great inundation comes on. -The growth of the rice stalk is certainly one of the most curious proofs -of nature’s adaptation of that plant to the situation in which it is -cultivated; namely, in the water: it will not thrive unless the stem be -immersed for several inches; and, owing to the formation of its stalk, -which draws out like the concentric tubes of a pocket telescope, it can -put forth many feet in the course of a few hours, so as, apparently, to -grow as fast as the water may rise, and to keep its pannicle from being -overflowed. It is by no means rare for the rice stalks to shoot forth -from five to six feet during the twenty-four hours: I have _seen_ it do -much more! - -In parts subject to the regular annual inundation, all the villages are -built on rising grounds: many stand on artificial mounds, formed by -excavations around their bases, so that they are surrounded nearly by -moats, in which their _dingies_, or small boats, are immersed during the -dry season, and affording admirable refreshment to their buffaloes -during the summer heats. But it sometimes happens, that the waters rise -to so great a height as to endanger even these elevated villages; some -of which are then completely inundated. To avoid this, most of the -houses are built upon piles, or stakes, thereby to raise their floors -from four to six feet above the ground, and open enough to permit the -waters to pass through with freedom. In the dry time of the year, the -cattle are occasionally kept within the areas thus enclosed under the -floors; but, while the inundation is at its height, so as to insulate a -village completely, all the live stock are kept in boats moored around -it, where they are fed by a species of the _doob_, or _doop-grass_, -dragged up from the bottom of the waters by means of split bamboos, made -to serve as forks: but for so providential a supply, the cattle must be -led scores of miles to some part of the country, whose elevation exempts -it from inundation. - -The mention of a country being so completely under water, cannot but -cause considerable surprize. The fact is, however, too well known to be -disputed. Even at Berhampore, which is not considered within the -ordinary verge of inundation, it is common to see boats of great -burthen, perhaps fifty tons, sailing over the plains, as through a -boundless sea. As to the country lying between the mouth of the -Jellinghy and the debouchures of the Ganges, that is always overflowed -for full three months, perhaps to the average depth of ten or twelve -feet. I have sailed over it full a hundred miles by the compass; aided, -indeed, by some remarkable villages, mosques, banks, &c., well known to -the boatmen, who, probably from their earliest days, had traversed the -same expanse during every rainy season. - -Were it not for the water being strongly colored, and the strength of -the current, it would not be easy in many places to distinguish the -great rivers which are crossed in steering through this fresh-water -ocean: the water of the inundation is generally of a bluish tinge, -derived from the quantity of vegetable matter at the bottom, of which a -certain quantity decays, and partially taints the fluid. A large portion -is concealed by the _d’haun_, (or rice,) which rises above its surface. -This, in the first instance, bears the appearance of a long grass, of a -rich green, rising above the surface, so as to be mistaken at a little -distance for _terra firma_: gradually, the pannicles shoot forth, of a -pale-dun color, turning, as they ripen, to a deep dun, or light clay. - -The grains of rice, which are called by Europeans ‘_paddy_,’ retain the -name of _d’haun_ so long as in their coats; as we often see a few grains -among the rice imported to us: these coats are peculiarly harsh to the -feel, and are fluted longitudinally, so that no water can lodge upon -them. Each grain is fastened to a short stalk, joining to a main stem, -and furnishing a very pleasing bunch of grain, not very dissimilar to an -ear of oats, but far richer, both in color, and in quantity. Rice has no -husk or chaff; therefore is easily separated from the straw, which is -eaten by cattle when no other provender can be had, and makes excellent -litter, it being very long and soft. Where the inundation prevails, the -straw is of little use: the grain being cut in boats, and the straw -settling at the bottom as the waters subside; thereby adding to the -natural fertility of the soil. In the more elevated parts, the straw is -cut the same as in the _rubbee_, or corn crops, and bundled for domestic -purposes: there, its length rarely exceeds two feet, whereas, among the -inundations, it is often seen from fifteen to eighteen feet in length. -The head, or pannicle, generally bears from a hundred and fifty, to -three hundred, grains of rice. - -Two modes of clearing rice from the shell are in use; the one performed -by the very simple process of scalding, which occasions the rice to -swell, and to burst the shell, so that the latter is removed with very -little trouble; the other is, by putting the _d’haun_ into an immense -wooden mortar, called an _ookly_, and beating it by the application of -two or more beetles, called _moosuls_, of about four feet in length, by -three inches in diameter, shod at the bottom with iron ferules, and -thinned towards their centres, so as to be grasped by the women; each -alternately impelling one, in nearly a perpendicular direction, among -the _d’haun_ in the _ookly_. After the shells have been duly separated, -the rice, now called _choul_, is separated, by winnowing either in a -strong draught of air, or by means of a kind of scoop, made of fine -wicker-work, called a _soop_, wherewith the native women can most -dexterously separate different kinds of corn, and effectually remove all -rubbish. The coat of rice is peculiarly harsh, and not much relished by -cattle: I have seen it mixed with dung for fuel with excellent effect. - -The natives, in general, make little distinction between the rice -separated by scalding, which is called _oosnah_, and that dressed by the -_ookly_, which is called _urwah_; but some of the more fastidious prefer -one or the other, according to particular prejudices handed down in -their families, or supposed to appertain to their respective sects. I -think the scalded rice generally deficient in flavor; the grains are -larger, and less compact; the beaten rice certainly boils with rather -more difficulty, but appears whiter, and drier. The scalded rice does -not immediately separate from the coat, but is usually submitted to the -operation of a machine composed of a stout beam, nearly equipoised by -means of a thorough-pin, on a fork, of wood also, fixed in the ground. - -It is inconceivable what quantities of rice, of a coarse reddish cast, -but peculiarly sweet, and large grained, are prepared, about -Backergunge, near the debouchure of the Megna, for exportation. In that -quarter fuel is cheap, and water conveyance every where at hand; so that -the immense crops raised in the inundated districts find a ready sale. -The average return from a _bigah_ of 1600 square yards, of three -_bigahs_ to our statute acre, sown with about twenty-five seers of -_d’haun_, may be taken at nine maunds. The price of the grain, when -cleared of its coat, may be from thirty to forty seers of fine rice, and -from sixty even to _a hundred and twenty seers_ (_i.e._ three maunds) of -coarse, commonly called ‘cargo-rice.’ But the demand always regulates -the value; especially when great consignments are forwarded to the coast -of Coromandel. - -Large quantities of rice are usually cleared by contract, the operator -receiving the grain at the door of the _golah_, or warehouse, where he -sets up his cauldron and machines, and returning twenty-five seers of -clean rice for every maund (forty seers) delivered to him; he finding -the fuel, and reserving the husks. In a country where labor is so very -cheap, it is not so very necessary to have recourse to mechanical -devices for the purpose of diminishing the expence of such operations; -yet it occurs to me, that, were tide wheels to be used at Backergunge -and elsewhere, or a floating mill, like that moored between Blackfriars’ -and London Bridge, to be made out of some condemned hulk, an immense -advantage would be gained in regard to time. By the proper adaptation of -machinery, whereby the rice might be hoisted in, or lowered down, either -by the force of water, or of steam, and the beetles be properly worked, -the grain might certainly be prepared for market in less time, and -infinitely less charge for _cooly_ hire, in landing, loading, &c.: -should this hint be well received by any speculating European, it might -tend to lower the prices of rice at those times, when, either from want -of laborers, or from the expediency of shipping off with as little delay -as possible, the saving of a few days might prove an object of -importance. At all events, the work might be done more regularly, more -frugally, and more independently, than by manual process. - -The rice grown in the low countries by no means equals that produced in -the uplands, where it is cultivated with great care, and subjected to -many vicissitudes in regard to the state of moisture in which its roots -are retained. In many parts of the most hilly districts _d’haun_ is to -be seen in every little narrow valley, winding among the bases of those -stupendous eminences from which the torrents of rain supply a -superabundant flow of moisture at one time, while, at others, only the -little rills proceeding from boggy springs seem to feed the artificial -pools in which the growing plants are kept in a state of semi-immersion, -by means of small embankments made of mud. In every instance the -_d’haun_ is to be kept duly watered; else it withers, and becomes -unproductive. In order to preserve the water as much as possible, the -bed, or level, nearest to the springs, is raised as high as can be -afforded, and its exterior border banked up, to about a foot and a half, -with soil: the next level may be from a foot to a yard lower, and -receives the overflow; which is again passed on to the next lower bed; -and thus, in succession, for perhaps a mile or more; the ends of the -beds requiring no embankment, on account of the land rising on either -side. Such situations afford a certain crop in ordinary seasons; and, if -the rains should fail, the dews falling on the adjacent hills, generally -covered with jungle of some kind, ordinarily afford moisture enough to -keep up the springs, thus causing sufficient dampness to prevent the -rice from perishing, before some ample showers may again float the whole -of the irrigated cultivation. Rice thus produced is commonly small in -grain, rather long and wiry, but remarkably white, and admirably suited -to the table. The natives, though they admire its appearance, are not -partial to it; they generally preferring the larger-bodied grain, with a -reddish inner rind, which does not readily separate, when new, from the -rice: this kind, as I have before expressed, is assuredly the sweetest, -and is, on that account, preferred by those who distil arrack. - -Remoteness from the sea air is said to be the reason why the up-country -rice possesses less saccharine matter than that grown near the -sea-coast, and among the inundation; but this appears an erroneous -judgment. There is, no doubt, a great encrease of saccharine matter in -plants (of the same genus) cultivated on spots well manured: now, few, -if any, of the places devoted to the cultivation of rice in the upper -country, receive much aid from manure; nor are they, in general, subject -to the reception of nutritious particles, such as are either floated -down, or are engendered and deposited by, the inundation, which may be -viewed as the grand depôt of whatever can enrich the soil. When we look -to the large tracts of plain, not subject to such an immense flow of -feculous moisture, but seeming merely as reservoirs for the retention of -local rains, we shall then see, that the superior sweetness of the rice -produced about Backergunge, Dacca, Hajygunge, Luricool, Mahomedpore, -Comercolly, Jessore, &c., is to be attributed solely to the superior -fatness of the soil, on which the most luxuriant crops of cotton, and of -esculents, are raised during the dry season. When the soil is fresh -turned up for the second crop, it is generally very offensive, and, -doubtless, by no means favorable to the health of the cultivators, who, -at that season, (commonly in November, December, and January,) are -subjected to very obstinate agues. - -Rice is very subject to the weevil, which often multiplies among it so -fast, as to threaten destruction to the whole depôt. The natives have -recourse to a very simple preventive; viz. by placing one or two live -cray-fish within the heap: their effluvia quickly expel the predatory -tribe. Here we have a question for naturalists and philosophers; a -question pregnant with interest to the agricultural world, namely, -‘Whether there is any particular, and what, property in a live -cray-fish, that produces this effect upon insects under such -circumstances?’ Whatever may be the cause, the effect is well known; -therefore the enquiry is so far forwarded as to furnish data, or at -least hints, respecting those results which might be expected both from -marine productions, and from other living bodies. The inhabitants of the -lower provinces are chiefly Hindus; therefore, owing to religious -tenets, by which they are led to consider almost every animal as -unclean, few experiments could be expected to take place among them; -otherwise, we might probably have found that any living animal, such as -a rat, a frog, &c., if confined in a small box, and placed within a heap -of rice infested by weevils, would produce a similar effect. Rice is by -no means subject to this species of depredation when in the coat, that -is, in the state called _d’haun_, but the natives are averse to -retaining it in that form, because the grains shrink considerably, and, -when beat out for sale, do not occupy so much space as when exposed to -the air. Hence, it is an object with the rice-merchants to dispose of -their crops before the month of March, unless the markets may be so -glutted as to cause that grain to sell, as it has in some years done, at -such low prices as could not fail to ruin the farmer. It has been known -so cheap as seven and eight maunds (equal to seven cwt.) for a rupee! -When this happens, such merchants as have the command of money rarely -fail to make immense fortunes. Many have been known to possess four or -five lacs of maunds! - -Rice is the most common article of food among the natives, whether -Hindus or Mussulmans, throughout the lower provinces, where it is to be -found in far greater abundance than corn of any description. The -inhabitants of the upper provinces, where wheat and barley are -cultivated to such an extent as to be sold in the retail for about a -rupee and a quarter, and a rupee, respectively, subsist chiefly on the -meals of those grains; which, being well kneaded with water, are made -into _chow-patties_, or _bannocks_, are baked at the common _choolahs_, -and are both palatable and nourishing. The natives hold an opinion that -rice is very injurious to the sight; but, I believe, whatever injury may -arise from its use proceeds entirely from eating it too hot, and in such -quantities at one meal, generally about sun-set, as can scarcely fail to -injure the stomach. Barley-meal is considered, and with great justice, -to be very nourishing, but heating; therefore most of those who prefer -_ottah_ (meal) to rice, use that made from wheat. Large quantities of -rice are carried upwards, towards the Nabob Vizier’s dominions, where it -sells to great advantage; while, on the other hand, immense consignments -of corn, chiefly wheat, barley, and _r’hur_, are made from those parts -towards the lower districts; where they are consumed by all classes of -persons. While the _Baugrutty_, (_i.e._ the Cossimbazar river,) and the -_Jellinghy_, both of which branch from the Ganges, and, uniting at -Nuddeah, form the Hoogly, which passes Calcutta, are open, boats of all -kinds proceed that way; but chiefly through the former channel, on which -Moorshadabad, Berhampore, Cossimbazar, and Jungypore, are situate. This -is the shortest line of communication by water between the Presidency -and the upper provinces; but, unfortunately, it is open only for about -six months in the year; it rarely having water before the middle of -June, and being commonly reduced to a very low ebb by the middle of -December; though, in some years, it remains navigable for small boats -for a month or six weeks longer. It may, indeed, be passed in such all -the year through, provided they be dragged over the shallows, which, -often for a mile or more, oppose the progress of whatever may draw more -than a few inches of water: in such case, the bottom of a boat should be -good, otherwise she may be strained by the immense exertions of perhaps -fifty men, who, ranging along either side, and dragging by means of -ropes, as well as by pushing and lifting behind, force her along the -shallows, and thus pass her over all the more prominent obstacles. I -have, more than once, had a very small _pulwar-budjrow_ navigated, if I -may so call it, down the _Baugrutty_, from Mohanahpore, at the mouth of -that river, as far as Berhampore; which, by land, is full forty miles, -and, by water, cannot be less than seventy. But there are so many bars, -or shoals, between Berhampore and Augah-Deep, about thirty-five miles by -land, lower down, as to render that part absolutely impassable, except -when the river has an average depth of two feet, or two feet and a half. - -During the dry months, the whole of the commodities transmitted from the -upper provinces to the Presidency, with the exception of some few -articles of small compass, which may be landed at Bagwangolah, and -proceed to Augah-Deep overland, are sent down the Ganges for the purpose -of proceeding through the _Soonderbunds_. This highly interesting, but -difficult navigation, reaches from the Megna to Calcutta, near to which -a canal offers to adventurers a safe and easy communication between the -Hoogly and the Salt-Water Lake, which lies at the back of Calcutta. The -generality of trading and passage vessels proceed by this cut, paying a -moderate toll, either on the tonnage of the former, or the number of -oars of the latter. But the salt vessels despatched from Joynaghur, &c., -with the produce of the different pans in that quarter, commonly take -the lower passages near _Chingree-Cauly_, and _Culpee_, which are by far -the most dangerous, though rather more direct. - -The _Soonderbunds_, or _Sunderbunds_, consist of an immense wilderness, -full fifty miles in depth, and in length about a hundred and eighty -miles. This wilderness, which borders the coast to the water’s edge, -forming a strong natural barrier in that quarter, occupies the whole of -what is called the Delta of the Ganges; every where intersected by great -rivers, and innumerable creeks, in which the tides are so intermixed, -that a pilot is absolutely necessary, both to thread the intricacies of -the passage, and to point out at what particular parts the currents -will, at certain times, be favorable in proceeding either to the -eastward or to the westward. In many places there is scarcely breadth -for the passing of a single boat, and even then the boughs of the -immense trees, and of the subordinate jungle, frequently are found so to -hang over, as nearly to debar the progress of ordinary trading vessels. -Fortunately, these narrow creeks are short, or, at least, have in -various parts such little bays as enable boats to pass: one or two are, -however, so limitted throughout in point of width, as to render it -expedient that musquets should be discharged before a boat proceeds, in -order that others may not enter at the opposite end of the narrow: but -for such a precaution, one of them would be compelled to put back. The -water being brackish, or rather absolutely salt, throughout the -_Sunderbunds_, it is necessary for all who navigate this passage, to -take a good stock; calculating for at least a fortnight’s service. Even -the villages, which here and there are to be found on the banks of the -great rivers, are sometimes supplied from a great distance; especially -during the dry season, when the tides are very powerful. - -The regular trading vessels, which pass through the Sunderbunds, perhaps -every month, or two, are usually provided with very large _nauds_, or -_gounlahs_, made in the form of a rather flat turnep, of a black earth -which bakes very hard. Casks are never used in India for water; all the -ships in the country trade have one or more tanks made of _teak_ wood, -rendered perfectly water tight, and containing from twenty to fifty -butts. The water is thus carried in a small compass, and remains sweet -much longer than when in casks. Even if no other reason could be -assigned, it must be obvious, that, in a tank, the surface of wood -necessary to contain fifty butts of water, will not exceed six hundred -and fifty square feet; whereas, each of the fifty butts would present a -surface of more than forty feet, whence the whole must amount to two -thousand square feet. - -Where a ship is navigated by lascars, many rules and ceremonies are -adopted for the preservation of the water from impure contact. When -native troops are on board, only particular persons are allowed to lay -it in, or to serve it out, and even under such precaution, many of the -more fastidious shew great aversion to using the tank water; often -undergoing great sufferings, both from hunger and from thirst, rather -than drink of it, or even taste of viands prepared therewith. But this -prejudice has, of late years, subsided considerably, in consequence of -the frequent occasions the British government have had to send native -troops on distant expeditions by sea. - -Casks would certainly prove obnoxious to servants, and others, -proceeding through the Soonderbunds, owing to a general opinion among -them, that we convey spirits, meat, &c., in such vessels; which, having -been once used for such a purpose, could never be viewed by them as -receptacles for beverage, without disgust and execration. - -The town of Calcutta is supplied with firewood by persons who resort to -the woods, about twenty-five miles from Calcutta, where they cut the -smaller kinds of _serress_, _jarrool_, _soondry_, _g’hob_, &c., into -junks about four feet in length, which are rived into two or four -pieces, according to their diameter, and carried to market, where such -billets are usually retailed at from twelve to fourteen rupees per -hundred maunds, delivered at the door. This is the only kind of fuel -used in the kitchens of Europeans, and forms the supply of nine-tenths -of the native population also: the remainder use the _gutties_ made of -dung. - -It is to be lamented that Government have never adopted a plan I long -ago offered, of employing the convicts in clearing away a sufficient -tract around Diamond Harbour, which is now peculiarly unhealthy, and is -the grave of full one-fourth of the crews of the India Company’s, and -other ships, that generally are moored there for months. - -I am aware that objections have been stated in regard to clearing away -the forests in the Soonderbunds, on account of their being considered a -natural defence in that quarter; but, without entering upon the policy, -or otherwise, of such a retention of that ‘wilderness of all -wildernesses,’ there does not appear to me any sound reason for -suffering the principal naval station to be backed and flanked by woods -and swamps, from which disease is poured forth amidst our unfortunate -countrymen. - -I have been assured, that, taking one year with another, full three -hundred European sailors die of diseases incident to the laying up of -ships for a while in the river, of whom, the larger portion are taken -ill at, or below, Diamond Harbour. - -Those who have occasion to pass through the Sunderbunds, which can be -done by water only, ought to be extremely careful not to venture ashore, -unless at some of the little towns, whose vicinity may afford some -security against the attacks of tigers, by the jungle having been -partially cleared away. The romantic scenery, every where inviting the -eye, should not be permitted to allure the traveller from his state of -safety; nor should the abundance of game, especially of deer, lead him -among those coverts in which danger equally abounds. - -Nor are the waters less devoid of mischief: sharks, of an uncommon size, -are every where numerous and greedy; while their competitors, the -alligators, not only infest the streams, but often lie among the grass -and low jungle, waiting for a prey, with which, so soon as seized, they -plunge into the water. - -Instances have been know, both of tigers swimming off to board boats, -and of alligators striking the _dandies_ (boatmen) out of the boats, -with their tails, and snapping their victims up with a nimbleness fully -proving the falsehood of that doctrine, which teaches to escape from the -crocodile by running out of the right line, ‘_because the animal cannot -turn to follow_!’ - -If those who either gave, or believed in, such advice, were to see with -what facility an alligator can turn about, or with what agility he can -pursue, _and catch_, the large fishes that abound in the great rivers of -India, the folly would be so self evident, as to cause an immediate -dereliction of so preposterous an opinion. - -Besides, the _koomeer_, or bull-headed alligator, which, generally -speaking, is the only kind to be seen in brackish waters, is peculiarly -fierce and active; far more so than could be supposed, at first sight, -of an amphibious animal of the _lacerta_ tribe, (for it is nothing more -than an immense lizard, or guana,) whose length has been thirty feet, -and whose girth has equalled twelve feet. - -Such is the ravenous disposition of the _koomeer_, that it will not -hesitate to seize cattle that proceed to drink of the river water where -it is fresh; but this does not often happen; the places where cattle -proceed to slake their thirst, being, for the most part, rather shallow, -so that an alligator, sufficiently formidable for such an attack, could -not lie concealed. It has fallen within my way to see some oxen that had -been seized by the head, or by the fore leg, but which had either been -rescued by their drovers, or had succeeded in escaping from their -merciless enemy: they were all so lacerated as to be completely -disfigured! - -The size of a boat may make much difference regarding the time required -to make the Soonderbund-passage: generally from ten to twelve days will -elapse in making the shortest cut in a _budjrow_ of from twelve to -sixteen oars; while a light _pulwar_, that can pass through the lesser -creeks, and make way against the tides, which are extremely intricate, -on account of the numerous channels that wind in every direction, may -perhaps get through in seven or eight days. Much will depend on the -route: if Dacca, or any part of the Megna, be the destination, full ten -days will be requisite, but if the Comercolly track, which opens into -the Ganges nearly opposite to Nattore, be followed, the great body of -the wilderness will be avoided, and the fertile districts of Jessore, -Mahomedpore, and Comercolly, will be passed through with facility and -gratification. - -It does not appear that any accurate survey has been taken of the -Soonderbunds, further than to ascertain the several channels, and to lay -down the bearings of particular shoals, which run for many miles off the -coast, presenting, on the whole, a most intricate and dangerous approach -to vessels even of small burthen; though, with proper care, ships of -great size may be carried into the Rogmungul, the Hooringattah, and the -Mutwallah rivers, where they may ride in perfect safety. - -Mr. Benjamin Lacarn, many years back, explored the passage at the back -of Saugur Island, and presented to the Government in India very accurate -draughts of the soundings and bearings; from which he enabled the Board -to judge of the practicability of resorting to that passage, with more -safety and convenience than now exists, in respect to those channels -that lie to the westward of Saugur. - -The spot selected for the reception of vessels was called New Harbour, -and the stream leading to it from Culpee was designated Channel Creek. -It is to be presumed, that, notwithstanding the plan has not been -carried into effect, although occasionally resorted to, the merits of -the suggestion must have been considerable, as the Company have thought -it but just to remunerate that gentleman’s abilities and research, by an -annuity of £600., which has been lately raised to £1000. - -Several objections have been urged against the adoption of New Harbour, -of which some may be cogent; but, from all I have ever heard on the -subject, it appears to me, that the reasons given for rejection exist at -least as formidably in the western channels, where some of the -advantages offered by New Harbour are totally wanting. - -The time will probably arrive, when Saugur Island, instead of being a -desolate waste, inhabited by various wild animals, may present a rich -expanse of agriculture, destined for the support of an industrious -population, inhabiting those shores so favorably situated for extensive -commerce, and so highly protected by nature against foreign incursion. -The channels leading past it, on either side, are narrow, and certainly -might be defended by a very small force against a powerful fleet. - -Many opinions, and some bold assertions, have been offered regarding the -Soonderbunds. Some consider the immense wilderness that borders the -coast, to be of no great antiquity, and pretend, that probably one -hundred years would be too much to allow for the duration of that soil, -whereon such stupendous forests of noble trees are now to be seen. - -That the whole of the country south of the Ganges, from Bogwangolah to -Saugur, and in the other direction to Luckypore, &c., was formerly -covered by the ocean, may be readily believed, both from the nature of -the soil in general, and from the various marine productions to be found -occasionally, when wells are dug to any considerable depth. - -The ancient city of GOUR, of which only an immense assemblage of ruins, -covering full thirty square miles, are to be seen, stood not very far -from Mauldah. - -That able geographer, Major Rennell, states it to have been the capital -of Bengal 730 years before Christ, and that it was deserted in -consequence of a pestilence; that it formerly stood on the banks of the -Ganges, from which it is now distant nearly five miles; the river -having, as is very common in that quarter, changed its course: the -Mahanuddy, which passes within two miles of it, is navigable throughout -the year. Many parts of GOUR are now full twelve miles from the Ganges. - -The following extract from Major Rennell’s Memoirs, pages 55-6, may -serve to illustrate the position I have to assume regarding the -Soonderbunds: he says, ‘Taking the extent of the ruins of GOUR at the -most reasonable calculation, it is not less than fifteen miles in -length, (extending along the old bank of the Ganges,) and from two to -three in breadth. Several villages stand on part of its site: the -remainder is either covered with thick forests, the habitations of -tigers, and other beasts of prey, or is become arable land, whose soil -is chiefly composed of brick-dust. - -‘The principal ruins are a mosque, lined with black marble, elaborately -wrought, and two gates of the citadel, which are strikingly grand and -lofty. These fabrics, and some few others, appear to owe their duration -to the nature of their materials, which are less marketable, and more -difficult to separate, than those of the ordinary brick buildings; and -are transported to Moorshadabad, Mauldah, and other places, for the -purpose of building. These bricks are of the most solid texture of any I -ever saw; and have preserved the sharpness of their edges, and the -smoothness of their surfaces, through a series of ages. - -‘The situation of Gour was highly convenient for the capital of Bengal -and Bahar, as united under one government; being nearly centrical with -respect to the populous parts of those provinces, and near the junction -of the principal rivers that compose that extraordinary inland -navigation for which those provinces are formed; and, moreover, secured -by the Ganges, and other rivers, on the only quarter from which Bengal -has any cause for apprehension.’ - -Here I feel at a loss; for the author has evidently been deficient in -that perspicuity which characterizes his work; it does not appear to me -what quarter is meant in this instance; the greater part of Bengal being -divided from GOUR by that same river, the Ganges, which is here -described as a protection to GOUR against incursions from Bahar. If this -be not the Major’s meaning, I can find no other; at all events, the -passage is incongruous. - -Setting, however, that matter at rest, as being irrelevant on this -occasion, I shall proceed to observe, that throughout the Delta of the -Ganges, which forms an area of full twenty thousand square miles, (it -being nearly a right-angled triangle, whose sides average about two -hundred miles,) we have not one vestige of remote date! - -It has, no doubt, been asserted by some travellers, and I have heard -several of the natives declare, that, in some parts of the Soonderbunds, -ruins of great extent are to be seen. These are said to be the remains -of cities which formerly flourished on the borders of the ocean, but -were abandoned in consequence of the depredations of the _Burmans_, or -_Muggs_, who inhabited the country lying south of Chittagong, and who -have, within the last fifteen years, called to our memory that such a -nation was still in existence. - -Admitting the existence of such reputed ruins, we have no right to place -them to the account of the earlier ages; we have no records of their -existence; the whole of the details that have hitherto been offered to -the world, either by native traditionists, or European surveyors, give -no account of any such fragments; while, on the other hand, every -presumption is in favor of the whole Delta being comparatively modern. - -Major Rennell, at page 347 of his Memoirs, observes in a note, that ‘a -glass of water taken out of the Ganges, when at its height, yields about -one part in four of mud. No wonder then that the subsiding waters should -quickly form a stratum of earth; or that the Delta should encroach upon -the sea.’ If we estimate the course of the Ganges, (setting apart the -Barampooter,) at fifteen hundred miles, and take its mean width at half -a mile; which is, indeed, reducing that magnificent flow of water to a -mere stream, we have then a surface of seven hundred and fifty square -miles, of which, one fourth is said to be mud, or matter light enough to -be kept suspended by the violence of the current. This should give -nearly two hundred square miles of soil. - -The foregoing computation proves the Delta to contain twenty thousand -square miles; therefore, if Major Rennell’s hypothesis be correct, the -whole of the Delta might have been formed in one hundred years; taking -the depth of the river, when at its highest, to be equal to the depth of -the soil. But, if we recollect that probably many fathoms of sea were -filled up by the encroachment that thus took place, we may be correct in -allowing ten times that period, _i.e._ a thousand years, for the -completion, or, rather, for the gradual accumulation, of so extensive an -addition to the _terra firma_ of Asia. - -At page 348, Major Rennell argues very strongly, though unintentionally, -perhaps, in support of my hypothesis, that GOUR formerly stood on the -borders of the ocean, and was, probably the Tyre of Hindostan. He says, -‘As a strong presumptive proof of _the wandering of the Ganges_, from -the one side of the Delta to the other, I must observe, that there is no -appearance of _virgin_ earth, between the Tipperah Hills on the east, -and the province of Burdwan on the west; nor on the north _till we -arrive at Dacca and Bauleah_.’ - -Uniting all these points, and agreeing with Major Rennell that the -Ganges discharges, on a medium, 180,000 cubic feet of water in a second, -we may easily imagine that the present Delta has been formed by the -sedimentary portion propelled forward in constant succession, until it -gained the highest level to which the annual inundation could raise it; -after which, the black mould on the surface must have been produced by -the constant accumulation of vegetable matter that rotted thereon. - -It is a curious, but well known, fact, that from Sooty to that part of -the Cossimbazar Island which lies nearest to the tide’s way, the whole -is obliged to be preserved from inundation by an embankment, called the -_poolbundy_, maintained at a very great and regular expence; an obvious -demonstration that the present course of the Hooghly has not been -settled many centuries; for almost all rivers, long subject to such -overflows as those we witness in Bengal, ultimately raise their banks, -by an annual deposit of matter, to such a height as afterwards prevents -their streams from passing over into the adjacent country. - -There can be little doubt, that the city of Gour stood on a spot which, -in very ancient times, was washed by the sea; and we may, without being -accused of credulity in the extreme, admit the great probability of the -Ganges having then debouched into the _sinus_, or bay, at that same -spot. - -Nor should we doubt, that those sands, which are, at this day, so -dangerous to navigation, from Balasore to Chittagong, will, at some -remote period, be encreased and raised, so as to become, in the first -instance, islands; and, ultimately, parts of the continent; the present -channels serving for the courses of future rivers, which, in so loose a -soil, may, like the Ganges in our times, be subject to changes of -locality, whenever the floods may prove so impetuous as to open new -beds, and cause the streams to be diverted into them. - -The Sunderbunds, whatever may be their date or origin, present, at this -day, a most inhospitable aspect, and give, exteriorly, a feature to the -country which by no means corresponds with the interior: they are, in -truth, a hideous belt of the most unpromising description, such as could -not fail to cause any stranger who might be wrecked on that coast, and -who should not proceed beyond the reach of the tide, to pronounce it ‘_a -country fit for the residence of neither man nor beast_.’ - -When Major Rennell remarked, ‘that they furnish an inexhaustible supply -of wood for boat building;’ he might have added, ‘of timber for ship -building.’ Many very large vessels have been launched from this quarter, -but, no pains having been taken to season the timber, it was not to be -expected they should prove so durable as they might have been rendered -by due precautions in that particular. Nor is the wood itself of the -best quality for naval architecture; for, though it is very strong, and -to be bent with facility to any necessary form, it, being extremely -subject to be worm-eaten, proves a great draw-back on its being brought -into more general use, unless for such vessels as are intended to be -coppered: for such, the _jarrool_ may answer, as may also the _soondry_; -both which abound in every part of the Sunderbunds. - -The whole coast, from Balasore to Chittagong, has at times been occupied -by a class of natives called _Molungies_, who manufacture salt from the -sea-water. The produce of the several _chokies_, or manufactories, is -immensely valuable, as has already been shewn, and suffices for the -consumption of the whole population of all the Company’s dominions, -besides what is exported into those of the Nabob Vizier, &c. About -thirty-five years ago, salt used to be sold at a rupee, or a rupee and a -half, per factory maund of 72lb.; which might average about one -half-penny per lb.; but, since the Company monopolized the manufacture, -and imposed a heavy duty, the price of salt has gradually risen to about -four rupees per maund. - -The importation of salt, by sea, is prohibited, except under partial or -temporary licences; but it is brought from the mines to the northward of -Delhi in large quantities, though not of so good a quality, it being -generally very bitter, especially the _Salumbah_, or more opaque -rock-salt, which is far less serviceable for curing meat than the -_Samber_; both these kinds are brought in small prismatic masses, and, -though in common use among the natives of the upper provinces, are -never, except from necessity, allowed to appear at the tables of -Europeans, though employed in their culinary preparations. - -Salt is also obtained, but not of a prime quality, by piling up large -quantities of the sand forming the beds of rivers, after the waters have -subsided into very narrow channels. On these heaps water is poured in -abundance, and, being afterwards drained into reservoirs, the salt -either chrystalizes by solar heat, or by being boiled in large iron -pans, similar to those used for chrystalizing sugar from the expressed -juice of the cane. - -In travelling by water, many points, totally unheeded by European -tourists, are necessarily to be attended to previous to departure. I -have already warned my readers, that no furnished house, no lodgings, no -public vehicles, no inns, and, in short, no preparation for the lodgment -or convenience of temporary sojourners, are to be expected in any part -of India; with the exception of the taverns and punch-houses already -described. Therefore, when an excursion is to be made by water, a -_budjrow_ must be hired, which may commonly be effected either by what -is called ‘_teekah_,’ or so much for the trip, according to the -distance, with some allowance for demurrage; or the vessel may be hired -at a certain monthly sum; generally taken at ten rupees per oar. -Sometimes return-_budjrows_ are to be had at a cheaper rate: whichever -way the bargain may be made, the person hiring has nothing to do with -the pay, or provision, of the several men employed in navigating the -vessel. - -The following Table of Allowances granted by the Company to officers, -and others, proceeding, according to orders, from one station to -another, will be both useful to those who may be proceeding to the East, -and serve to give a general idea of the periods required, in ordinary -seasons, taking the year round, for a boat’s reaching her destination, -and returning to the place she quitted. The allowance likewise includes -whatever may be intended for not only the _budjrow_, but for an -attendant baggage-boat, and a cook-boat. - - TABLE OF ALLOWANCE - FOR - BUDJROWS AND BOATS. - - - Sonaut Rupees - per Month. - - To a Colonel 930 - - To a Lieutenant-Colonel, Physician, General, or 630 - Chief Surgeon - - To a Major and Head Surgeon 360 - - To a Captain, Pay-Master, Deputy Pay-Master, and 180 - Regimental Surgeon - - To a Subaltern, Hospital, or Regimental Mate 100 - - To a Cadet 80 - - To a Conductor 50 - - -Officers are entitled to the allowance for _budjrows_ and boats only in -the following instances: viz. - -When posted to corps on their first joining the army. - -When ordered to proceed, by water, upon any duty. - -When removed, _without their own application_, to supply vacancies in -the corps to which they are removed. - -When water conveyance is not practicable, the difference of _batta_ is -to be drawn, calculating from the day of appointment, and allowing ten -miles for daily progress. - -Where no ascertained rate is given, officers are to draw at the rate of -ten miles against, and fourteen with, the current, for each day’s -progress. The following may be considered the general standard; by which -extraordinary cases are likewise governed. - - - From Calcutta to Berhampore is allowed for 1 - as - - Ditto to Monghyr 1½ - - Ditto to Patna, or Dinapore 2 - - Ditto to Buxar 2¼ - - Ditto to Chunar or Benares 2½ - - Ditto to Allahabad 3 - - Ditto to Cawnpore 3½ - - Ditto to Futty-Ghur 4 - - Ditto to Dacca 1 - - Ditto to Chittagong 2 - - Ditto to Midnapore ½ - - -It is proper to remark in this place, that a boat may, at most seasons -of the year, proceed to Berhampore, (provided the river be open,) in -about seven or eight days. The distance by water is nearly double that -by land, owing to the winding course of the river, which formerly could -competite with that passing under Lucknow; which, owing to the mazes of -its course, received the name of ‘_Goomty_,’ or winding. - -Within the last twelve or fifteen years, many of the narrow isthmuses -have been cut through, whereby the distance from Moorshadabad to -Calcutta has been reduced full twenty miles; some yet require the aid of -art, to perfect what the hand of time seems preparing for the still -further abbreviating the passage by water: probably, in the course of -twenty years, the river may be brought into a tolerable line; but, how -long it will remain so, is another consideration; as the soil is every -where, except about Rangamatty, (_i.e._ the red soil,) a few miles below -Berhampore, so loose as to be totally unqualified to restrain the -violent current which prevails in every part during four months in the -year. - -The passage to Chittagong can rarely be performed in a common _budjrow_, -a great part of it being across the mouth of the Megna, indeed, in an -open sea, subject, at least, to very heavy swells, if not to squalls, -such as give much trouble even to those who are on board substantial -sloops, and other vessels coming under the description of _sea-boats_. -However, during the cold months, an adventurous _manjy_ will sometimes -make the trip with his _budjrow_, provided a handsome gratuity be -offered on such a hazardous occasion. - -The best mode is to embark at Calcutta on board one of the Chittagong -traders, of which some are commonly on the point of sailing, and to make -a sea trip at once, in a secure, and tolerably pleasant manner. It is -true, this mode does not offer all the conveniences of a good large -_budjrow_; but that is balanced by the safety and celerity with which -the voyage is made. A _budjrow_ will rarely complete the trip to -Chittagong under three weeks; whereas, a coasting sloop will commonly -perform it in as many days, after quitting the pilot, either in the -northerly or southerly monsoon; the coast being east, with a very little -southing. - -After a _budjrow_ has been offered for hire, it will be but common -prudence to send a carpenter on board to search her bottom, and to place -a servant on board for a day and a night, to ascertain how much water -she may take in during that time. Some of the best, in appearance, are -extremely rotten, and can only be kept afloat by constant baling, in -consequence either of the depredations of worms, or of the number of -years they may have been built. Some are neat and clean, others are -filthy in the extreme; some are supplied with good Venetians, lockers, -curtains outside the windows, &c., &c.; while not a few, though not -totally destitute of such conveniences, offer them in a most miserable -state of wretchedness and of inutility. The roofs of nine in ten do not -keep out water. - -It will, on every occasion, be indispensably necessary to make memoranda -of the terms on which the _budjrow_, &c., may be taken; and to obtain -from the _manjy_ a written agreement; the want of which may prove -unpleasant, either in consequence of any misunderstanding, or from any -attempt that may be made to impose upon such Europeans as may not be -supposed to have sufficient knowledge of the ordinary routine of such -affairs, to secure them from depredation. - -The masts, sails, rigging, &c., of the vessel should be carefully -over-hauled; and, in particular, great care should be taken that one or -two good _ghoons_, or track ropes, of sufficient length, be on board; -since a defect in this branch of equipment will inevitably produce great -delay, and, in strong currents, subject the boat to imminent danger. - -Let it be remembered, that, whatever the number of oars paid for may be, -so many actual boatmen there ought to be, exclusive of the _manjy_, or -steersman, and the _goleah_, or bowman: it is a very common deception to -count the latter in among the rowers, because he sometimes sits to an -oar fitted out for him on the very prow of the vessel, when there is no -occasion for his standing to throw the _luggy_, or bamboo-pole, whereby -the boat is kept clear of banks, shoals, stumps, &c. - -When an engagement is made of the _teekah_, or job-kind, the _manjy_ -will, for his own sake, endeavor to get away as speedily as possible, -and will ordinarily make sure of a good crew, in order that his money -may be the sooner earned; but, when paid by the month, there will be no -end to excuses, delays, and evasions: the _dandies_ will generally be -wanting in number, and their quality be very indifferent. - -The best mode, on such occasions, is to apply to the police, which, -under proper circumstances of established criminality, will put a _peon_ -(or messenger) on board, at the expence of the delinquent, and make such -a change in the posture of affairs as cannot fail to please the -employer. This is a safe and efficacious mode of proceeding; whereas, -when justice is taken into the hands of the person hiring the boat, and -that abuse and blows are dealt out, under the hope of gaining the point, -the grounds of complaint are laid, and the _dandies_, so far from doing -their duty, will either abscond wholly, or secrete themselves in such -manner as effectually to impose an embargo. - -I do not mean to say, that sometimes a recourse to the _manual_ may not -be advisable, or even peremptorily necessary; but such must be adopted -with extreme caution, and with such a mixture of resolution and -conciliation, as may produce the desired effect, without establishing a -character for brutality, or unnecessary harshness. If, during the trip, -occasion for complaint should arise, it is best to refer the matter to -any persons in office, whether native or European, who may be within a -suitable distance. The _manjies_ have an insuperable antipathy to this -mode of proceeding, because it deprives them of all grounds for -justification, or representation; the want of which, in the hearing of -an European magistrate, speedily induces to their corporal punishment; -while, in the estimation of a _cutwal_, or chief of a village, it is -sure to subject them to some pecuniary loss, whether by fine, by -deduction from the sum to be paid as hire, or by having to maintain one -or more _peons_, according to the nature of the offence. - -Most _budjrows_ have two apartments, exclusive of an open _veranda_ in -front; the latter is on a level with the dining apartment, but the -chamber, which is more towards the stern, rises one or two steps above -their level, in consequence of the form of the vessel’s stern: beyond -all there is usually a small privy, which, being still more elevated, is -ascended by other steps. - -As the chamber contracts considerably towards the after-part of its -floor, it will be necessary to ascertain whether a small cot (_i.e._ a -bedstead) can stand in that part of the _budjrow_, without -inconvenience; as also whether the height, between the floor and the -roof, may admit of the bed-posts being erected. If the space should not -allow them to be elevated, they must be unshipped, either by taking off -their hinges, or by drawing them forth from their sockets, and the -curtains must be suspended from hooks, nails, &c., driven for that -purpose into the beams that support the roof. - -Though floating on a large river, whose waters are celebrated for their -virtues and purity by the whole population of Hindostan, it will, -nevertheless, be indispensably necessary to take on board a good large -_g’oulah_, or jar, which may be lashed to the mast, and be used as a -depot for such water as may be intended for culinary purposes, or for -beverage. In a few hours it will have settled thoroughly, and should -then be drawn off as required into smaller vessels, called -_kedjeree-pots_ by Europeans, but by the natives _gurrahs_. - -Whence the former designation originated I never could learn, but -conclude it resulted either from the supplies of crockery furnished to -our shipping at _Kedjeree_, or from the very common circumstance of that -preparation of rice, split peas, &c., called _kitchurry_, which may -often be seen boiling, wholesale, in vessels of this description, for -the supply of a dozen, or more, of _dandies_, &c. - -The forepart of every _budjrow_ is decked, and furnished with two -hatchways, with appropriate coverings: the whole of the part under the -deck, which reaches from the _veranda_ to the stern, is generally -considered by the _manjy_ as a privilege, of which he rarely fails to -avail himself, when it is possible to render the trip a trading voyage. -Against this too much precaution cannot be adopted; for not only will -the _budjrow_ be so heavily laden as to draw more water, (an object of -considerable importance,) but to track with far greater difficulty, and -to leak very abundantly. - -If any contraband trade can be carried on with tolerable safety, it is -usually in this manner; because, owing to the general deference paid by -the custom-house officers, and _chokey-peons_, in every part of the -country, to European gentlemen, and to their equipages, few, or none, -will attempt to search a _budjrow_ under hire: the facility with which -goods can be landed, is such as to obviate, almost totally, any danger -to be apprehended in the performance of that part of the adventure. - -Government has, it is true, placed a number of checks on this kind of -fraud; but, unhappily, it is out of its power to go so far into the -remedy as would put a total stop to illicit commerce, without subjecting -their own servants, of whatever rank, to the intrusive, and ultimately -insolent, researches of those natives by whom they should, on every -occasion, be treated with the utmost respect and consideration. It is -inconceivable with what secresy, and caution, the manjies act on such -occasions. An instance is within my knowledge, of a gentleman hiring a -_budjrow_ at Patna, to proceed to the Presidency, but it was in vain -that he importuned the _manjy_, day after day, and hour after hour, to -complete his crew, and to have all in readiness for embarkation: at -length, all was adjusted, and the vessel proceeded in high style. - -The gentleman was unaccountably drowsy, and often wondered at the -rapidity with which he seemed to be making his passage, but was not -displeased to find himself so speedily floated towards the place of -destination: it was in vain that he endeavored to prevent the _manjy_ -from stopping at Chandernagore, a French settlement, about twenty-two -miles from Calcutta; when, to his great surprize, he saw several boxes -of opium, which had been concealed in various parts of the _budjrow_, -and particularly under the floors, handed out to some _sircars_ who were -at the _g’haut_, or landing-place, anxiously awaiting her arrival. - -However unpleasant the above-mentioned cargo might have proved, it -cannot be compared with the truly offensive practice common among all -the boat-men of Hindostan, of cutting such fish as they may purchase, -catch, or steal, into slices, and hanging them over the quarters to -become sun-dried. This custom should never be tolerated on any account; -not only because the effluvia are cruelly distressing, but, that, -wherever it is allowed to obtain, all the rats are sure to be attracted -from whatever boats, or banks, may come in contact with the _budjrow_: -once in, Old Nick cannot get them out; except by emptying the vessel -completely, and fumigating her with sulphur; or by sinking her for a -while, so as to drown the vermin, of all descriptions, that harbour in -the numberless recesses, chinks, &c., to be found in every quarter of an -old _budjrow_. - -When a single gentleman is intent on proceeding on the most economical -and expeditious plan, he will find it best not to have even a cook-boat -in his suite; but should confine himself entirely to whatever -convenience his _budjrow_ may afford. If this plan is acted upon, the -several boxes, &c., may be arranged within the cabins, or, at the -utmost, under the deck; taking care, however, to debar the _dandies_ -from visiting that part of the vessel, by placing stout battens, or -bamboo-laths, across, by way of confining them to the fore hatchway, -down which they ordinarily keep their cloaths, fire-wood, &c., &c., and, -occasionally, make a _choolah_, or hearth and fire-place, of mud, -whereon to cook the victuals of the crew; an operation performed by one -of the _dandies_, who, on that account, is exempted from all ordinary -duties, and who is generally capable of serving up an admirably -well-savored curry. - -The after-part of the hold is commonly spacious enough to hold a tent of -ordinary dimensions; but it may become a question how far it would be -prudent to put camp equipage in the way of the rats, which would, -probably, for the sake of shelter in the vicinity of the culinary -operations, soon burrow into the hearts of the packages, and do -inconceivable damage. If, however, no other place can be allotted for -the reception of a tent, and the weather be such as not to warrant its -being stowed upon the poop, no alternative is left, and the risk of -destruction, or, at least, of very serious injury, must be met with -resignation. - -Though not indispensably necessary, a tent of some kind will be found -extremely convenient, when proceeding by water to any distant station, -especially during the hot season. As the boat-men usually come to about -sun-set, or, perhaps, a little earlier, if any favorable situation, or -the proximity of some large town, should invite, a small tent may easily -be taken ashore, and pitched on the elevated bank, where the freshness -of the air, and the wide range of prospect, prove a most comfortable -relief to a person who, during the day, may have been obliged to remain -under the heated roof of a cabin, whereof the windows were closed to -keep out the sun, hot winds, and flying sand. - -Many gentlemen have one small boat employed chiefly in going forward -with such a convenience, and which, after the bed, &c. may be shipped at -day-break on board the _budjrow_, that no delay may arise in departing, -waits to receive the baggage left on the spot, with which it proceeds at -such a rate as soon makes up for the detention: a boat of this kind is -extremely useful in many instances, but especially in procuring supplies -from an opposite bank, for going to or from shore in shoal water, for -towing a _budjrow_ in strong waters, for carrying out an anchor, or -rope, to warp by, &c., &c. - -Where only a _budjrow_ and such a small boat are employed, the latter -generally has a _choolah_, or hearth, &c., prepared within it under a -small thatch. She commonly has to carry the proper supply of dry -fire-wood; that obtained on the way being, with few exceptions, green, -and causing the viands to acquire a very smoky, unpleasant flavor. The -poultry are also usually conveyed on the thatch of the cook-boat, in -small _tappahs_, or cages, made of split bamboos: this part of the stock -may consist of a dozen of fowls, with a few ducks, and a goose or two; -and, occasionally, is accompanied by one or two milch goats, which, -being supplied with foliage cut for that purpose, during the day, and -being sent to some verdant spot when the boat comes to in the evening, -rarely fail to furnish milk enough, of a very superior quality, for the -morning and evening tea. - -The traveller must not expect to be supplied with beef, mutton, or veal, -as he may proceed, in any part of the country, except at military or -civil stations: there he may, perhaps, be enabled to purchase a -sufficient supply of meat to make some variety in his diet as he passes -from one station to another; but, unless in some very particular -situations, he must content himself with poultry of various kinds, but -chiefly chickens, and with kids, of which the meat is excellent. He may, -at some of the principal towns where Mussulmans reside, here and there -fall in with a butcher, who can furnish a joint of _kussy_ (_i.e._ -cut-goat); or he may perchance pick up a tolerable sheep, which may, at -all events, serve for gravy, and supply his pointers and spaniels with -two or three days’ substantial provision. - -The mention of cutting up a sheep for such purposes, may appear -extraordinary to the European reader, but it must be recollected, that -such sheep are rarely worth more than two shillings, that in some parts -the country swarms with them, and that their wool is not valuable, owing -to its being lank, coarse, harsh, and not of a strong fibre: it is, -indeed, more like that hair which grows upon many horses that are turned -out during the winter, and comes off by handfuls as the spring advances. - -The boats employed for carrying baggage are of two kinds; _woolachs_ and -_patellies_: the former are built in the lower provinces, with round -bottoms, and often draw much water; the latter are chiefly of up-country -build, have flat bottoms, and are clinkered; this construction suits -them admirably to the shallows, which, after the rainy season, abound in -all the rivers beyond the tide’s way, and especially at a distance from -the sea. - -Some of the _woolachs_ used by the more opulent native merchants are -capable of bearing from fifteen hundred to three thousand maunds, -(_i.e._ from eighty to a hundred and twenty tons,) but their medium may -be taken at from four to eight hundred maunds, which is also the general -measurement of _patellies_ in the common employ of grain-merchants, &c.: -many are to be seen of full two thousand maunds, but such are calculated -for the great rivers only; not but that in the channels abundant depth -of water may be found, so deep, indeed, that several ships, of five -hundred tons burthen, have been built at Patna, which is, by water, six -hundred miles from the sea; but those channels are so crooked, and the -currents so strong, as to render it very difficult for the ordinary -number of _dandies_, proportioned to the tonnage, to navigate such -unwieldy boats with safety and expertness, - -The best size for a baggage-boat to attend upon a _budjrow_, especially -in proceeding against the stream, may be from three hundred to five -hundred maunds: observing, that the _patelly_ is by far better -calculated for shallow water, and for the conveyance of horses, than a -_woolach_; but, being so low in the water, the former is rather subject -to be swamped in rough water, and, owing to its construction, is very -apt to become hog-backed, and, ultimately, to give way in the middle; an -accident which seldom or never happens to the latter. - -When horses are to be carried in boats, as is very commonly done, it -becomes necessary to make a platform, at about a foot from the bottom of -the boat, consisting of brush-wood, mats, and soil: the thwarts being -rarely a yard asunder, one must be taken out to make a stall of -sufficient width; therefore, if three or four horses are put on board -the same boat, a corresponding number of thwarts must be withdrawn. When -the animals are about to be embarked, the thatch opposite the stall must -be raised high enough to allow a horse to leap in without danger, from -the bank. - -This operation is often attended with considerable difficulty; for some -horses are extremely averse to enter upon the solid platform of a large -substantial ferry-boat, such as that at Ghyretty, even when placed on a -level therewith, by means of a fixed, or moveable pier. When, therefore, -it is considered how many obstacles seem to oppose the admission of a -horse into a covered boat, when, probably, he is standing above his -knees in water, and has to rise, under every disadvantage, over the -boat’s gunwhale, it will not appear surprizing that many hold out for -hours, notwithstanding every effort on the part of the _syces_, (or -grooms,) and that a large portion are severely lamed in the attempt. - -It is curious to observe how very quiet and temperate horses become -after embarkation! In such a situation, they seem to forget that -wonderful propensity they invariably display when on shore, to attack -each other, even when at a considerable distance; but, though parted by -only a few feet, they become so tractable while in a boat, that their -natures seem to undergo a complete change. - -Notwithstanding this periodical, or, rather, local, timidity, it will be -proper to secure that part of the boat’s side against which a horse may -be able to kick; many instances having occurred of fiery steeds driving -their hooves through the planks, which are not always very sound, and, -even if undecayed, are generally by far too thin to resist so severe an -operation: more than one _patelly_ has foundered outright, with all the -contents, in consequence of such an accident; the best mode of -preventing which, is, by fastening a quantity of _jow_ (an aquatic -species of fern,) to the inside, as a lining, whereby the planks may be -secured from injury. - -When a vessel is tracked against the stream, it is usual for the -_dandies_, or boatmen, to go ashore, each furnished with a club of -bamboo, about two feet in length, to which a piece of strong cord is -fastened at one end; at the same time, the _ghoon_, or track-rope, is -veered out from a pulley in the mast head, or from a block lashed -thereto, to as great a length as the situation may demand; commonly, -from about seventy to a hundred and fifty yards may suffice, though, in -very shoal water, mixed with deeps, or, where the ground is foul, even a -greater length may be requisite. - -The _ghoon_ is about two inches round, and is made of white rope well -laid: if made of tarred rope, it would prove too heavy, and oppose great -resistance, by its want of elasticity, to the exertions of the -_dandies_, each of whom, fixing the end of his cord to it, and resting -the bamboo club over his shoulder, so that it may act, in some measure, -as a lever, proceeds at an easy pace, his body leaning well forward, -each following at about four feet behind the other. The foremost at the -track-rope has a great advantage over his followers; he not being -subject to the numerous checks and vibrations occasioned by the frequent -impediments, whether bushes, banks, masts of other vessels, &c., which -operate very forcibly on those whose cords are attached to that part of -the rope in his rear. - -The number of _dandies_ at a track-rope may be too many, as well as too -few; except when a boat can keep close to the shore, and the _ghoon_ -makes but a very small angle from the line of her progress: then, all -the power that can be given certainly proves efficient; but, when the -angle between the boat’s direction and the rope becomes considerable, it -is evident the whole labor falls on a very few of the leading _dandies_; -in fact, all but those few are then compelled to liberate their cords -from the _ghoon_, otherwise they must be inevitably dragged out into the -stream, unless those cords were many fathoms, instead of only four or -five feet, in length. - -The greater part of the trading boats use a different apparatus for -tracking; in them, each _dandy_ is supplied with a fine cord, about as -thick as a swan’s quill, made of a fine kind of long grass called -_moonje_, which, when wetted, and twisted into this kind of tackle, -becomes firm and elastic; though it will not answer for cordage in -general. Each _dandy_ has about seventy yards of line, the inner end of -which fastens to a stout rope, reeved, the same as the _ghoon_, at the -mast-head, and long enough to be let out amply where requisite. - -The other end of the line is coiled up by each _dandy_ respectively, who -fastens his bamboo club by its cord, at such part of the _moonje_ line -as may be let out; generally a small quantity of coil being reserved, -which hangs down either over each _dandy’s_ breast or shoulder. By this -means, each man tracks separately, and cannot be idle without the -_manjy_ instantly detecting him; the several lines form so many rays -from the mast-head, and are capable, when equally strained, to bear an -immense burthen. - -Nothing can be more unpleasant than having to pass a _ghaut_ where -numbers of boats are lying: on such an occasion, a man is sent up to the -mast-head of each, in succession, for the purpose of passing the -_ghoon_; which, when liberated from one, swings on to another, causing a -severe shock to the hinder _dandy_ of the tracking party. Some use a -very simple device for passing the _ghoon_ over their mast-heads: this -consists merely of a kind of fork, made by tying the end of the _ghoon_, -of each vessel respectively, then at rest, to a long bamboo, about a -quarter of the length down. The _ghoon_ being pulled, the bamboo is -raised, and carries with it that of the boat in motion: a man then slips -the latter over the mast-head with great facility. - -It is not always that the people on board boats, laying at _ghauts_, -will turn out to pass the _ghoon_; on which occasions, words are rarely -of much avail. I always found that a _pellet-bow_, which sends -clay-balls to about a hundred yards distance with considerable force, -produced an instantaneous effect; the first shot rattling against the -matted sides of a vessel’s interior, rarely failing to cause wondrous -activity on the part of her crew; though, now and then, it has been -necessary to repeat the operation, before the desired effect could be -produced. - -I strongly recommend to all gentlemen travelling by water, that they -insist on the _manjies_ of their several boats carrying a small flag, of -some obvious distinction, at their mast-heads: this prevents them from -lying to, and concealing their vessels amidst a forest of masts, as they -are very apt to do, when intent upon a clandestine trading voyage. -Besides, as in the course of a day’s tracking, and especially when -sailing, it is very common for a _budjrow_ to get many miles a-head, -such a device then becomes a guide as to the propriety of coming to for -the night, or, intermediately, for dinner, &c. - -The number of miles which can be run over in the course of a day in a -_budjrow_, will necessarily vary according to circumstances, guided by -the quantity of water in the river, the direction and force of the wind, -and the competency of the crew. I cannot do better, in this place, than -offer the words of Major Rennell. At page 360 of his Memoirs, he says, -‘From the beginning of November, to the middle, or latter end of May, -the usual rate of going _with_ the stream, is forty miles in a day of -twelve hours; and, during the rest of the year, from fifty to seventy -miles. The current is strongest while the waters of the inundation are -draining off; which happens, in part, in August and September.’ - -In a former part, I remarked that the rivers generally rise a few inches -in May; which is to be attributed to the melting of the snow on those -hills where the Ganges and Barampooter have their source. Both those -rivers, which have their rise at the base, but on opposite sides, of the -same mountain, and, after separating to full twelve hundred miles -asunder, unite, and form that immense volume of water called the Megna, -receive a supply from the same quarter, and at the same time: we cannot, -however, expect the force of their currents to be encreased much before -the rains are fairly set in, which may be, generally, about the 10th of -June, when their waters do, indeed, roll impetuously; so much, that many -a boat has proceeded from Patna to Monghyr, a distance of one hundred -measured miles by land, and full one hundred and twenty by water, -between day-break and sun-set. - -Major Rennell adds, ‘Seventeen to twenty miles a day, according to the -ground, and the number of impediments, is the greatest distance that a -large _budjrow_ can be towed against the stream, during the fair season; -and, to accomplish this, the boat must be drawn through the water, at -the rate of four miles and a half per hour, for twelve hours. When the -waters are high, a greater progress will be made, notwithstanding the -encreased velocity of the current; because, the filling of the river-bed -gives many opportunities of cutting off angles and turnings; and, -sometimes, even large windings, by going through creeks. As the wind, at -this season, blows upwards,’ (_i.e._ against the current,) ‘in most of -the rivers, opportunities of using the sail frequently occur.’ - -It must not be supposed, from the foregoing, that the boat actually -makes a progress of four miles and a half within the hour: far from it, -the _dandies_ rarely walk more than two miles in that time, but the -velocity of the current being taken into account, would shew, that, if a -log were to be heaved, the difference between the log and the boat’s -advance would give the result alluded to by the Major, whose general -correctness cannot be too much admired. - -In using the sail, infinite changes take place; sometimes it is full, -then again close-hauled, and, perhaps, ultimately, lowered on a sudden, -according as the course of the river may change; and this some twenty or -thirty times within the day. But when the reaches lie tolerably fair, -that opportunity offers, as sometimes happens for a whole day together, -and that the wind is brisk in favor, a _budjrow_ will run off from four -to six miles within the hour. The river is often so low as to render the -navigation very tedious, even under all the above favorable -circumstances, by forcing the _manjy_ to abide by the strong deep -waters, and to wind in among the sands, which cause the channel to -change its direction very frequently. - -During the rains, and especially in the cold months, travelling by water -is extremely pleasant with the stream; but, whatever facilities may be -afforded, in any shape, I cannot say that any trip upwards, at whatever -season, afforded me the smallest gratification. What with tracking, -getting aground, remaining long among eddies, in which human carcases -were floating in all the various stages of putrefaction, the dust -flying, &c., &c., nothing but _ennui_, or impatience, can reasonably be -expected. - -Here and there a walk may be taken; but he who ventures ashore must be -watchful to embark before the _budjrow_ may be obliged to put far out -for the purpose of passing some endless shallow; otherwise, he may have -to walk under a vertical sun, through bushes, or over ploughed, or -muddy, lands, and among ravines, for many an hour, before the -opportunity many offer for getting on board: to crown the whole, he may, -perhaps, come to some _nullah_, or small stream, over which no -conveyance is to be had, either by bridge or boat! - -My zeal for bringing home a few birds, or a hare, has often decoyed me -into scrapes of this kind, and caused me to utter many an imprecation -against the river, for winding, the _manjy_, for going on, and my own -folly, for subjecting myself to such unpleasant circumstances. I must -freely confess, that, in this respect, ‘experience did _not_ give -wisdom;’ for, after full a thousand and one such disappointments, I -felt, at the last, just as eager as ever, to silence such _chuckores_ (a -species of grouse) as had the insolence to crow within my hearing! - -The navigation of the large rivers is rather more hazardous than among -those of less breadth. When it is considered, that the Ganges runs for -upwards of a thousand miles through a country nearly level, and whose -undulations are scarcely perceptible, except in a few places where the -hills come down to the water’s edge, as at Sickregully, Pointee, -Colgong, Chunar, &c., it must appear obvious that but little shelter can -be expected from these squalls, called ‘north-westers,’ which, from the -end of February until the setting in of the rains, occur almost daily, -and blow with considerable violence. Even when under a high bank, it -will require much care, and good tackle, to prevent a _budjrow_ from -being blown out into the middle, where, if she is top-heavy, as is too -often the case, and the proper means be not taken to keep her head to -the wind, she will stand a chance of being overset. - -Fortunately, the approach of a squall is always strongly indicated by -the black appearance above the horizon, and by the distant lightnings: -when such are sufficiently characterized to leave little doubt of the -storm’s passing that way, shelter should be sought in some creek, or -under some high bank, of firm appearance, where the _budjrow_ should be -well secured by hawsers, carried out, and made fast to, substantial -stakes driven into the ground by means of large malls, with all which -every boat should be amply provided. _Luggies_, (or bamboo-poles,) ought -to be carried out on the lee-side, for the purpose of resisting the -wind, and causing the upper parts of the vessel to bear up duly against -the severe gusts which commonly usher in the gale. - -If the vessel is on a lee-shore, the _luggies_ must, of course, be -between her and the bank, to prevent her from bumping against it, and -the anchor should be carried out to windward, into deep water, to keep -her from being forced ashore: a danger particularly to be apprehended on -long shelving sands; where many a well-conditioned boat has had her -bottom beat out, by the force with which the surges, coming across an -expanse of perhaps a mile, or more, have dashed her against the hard -sand. - -Such situations are peculiarly hazardous, and ought to be avoided most -carefully: the misfortune is, that, from eagerness to get forward, and -from the hope that a north-wester may be either moderate, or pass -another way, folks, in general, keep pushing on, and allow many a secure -asylum to be passed very imprudently! Those who have experienced the -effects of a violent squall about Sheerness, may be proper judges of -what is to be expected from a most furious gale, which often continues -for an hour, or more, in a river which may be said generally to flow -between banks full two miles asunder, and which are, in most parts, from -three to five, in some, full seven, miles apart! - -About Bengal, especially in the Sunderbund-passages, _decoits_, or -water-robbers, are sometimes numerous. These often assemble in fleets, -composed of long narrow boats, rowing from twelve to thirty oars, or -paddles, at pleasure, and carrying from thirty to sixty, or seventy, -men. Sometimes their fleets have been so formidable, and have so -effectually put a stop to all commerce, as to call the attention of -government, and to demand the presence of a strong establishment, backed -by liberal offers of rewards, before the rivers could be resorted to in -safety. Between Dacca and Backergunge, among the islands formed by the -several minor branches of the Ganges, and by the innumerable creeks, -with which the banditti are perfectly familiar, it has often been -impossible for any boat to make its way, even for a few miles, without -being boarded by these _decoits_. - -As to rewards, little good is to be expected from them; the system -adopted by the marauders is such as to render abortive any lures of that -description. Where all participate, all will be found faithful to the -cause, whether virtue or vice be the leader; and, where localities are -such as to afford perfect security from the common run of pursuers, and -where numbers render the association too formidable to admit any hope of -success on the part of small detachments; in such instances, rewards can -rarely produce the smallest benefit. - -Wherever a boat, or even a fleet, may come to for the night, it will be -indispensably necessary to keep a sharp look-out against thieves, who, -appertaining to the several villages in the neighbourhood, rarely fail -to assemble, during the night, under some bold chief, and to make an -attempt to plunder by main force. It is scarcely to be credited to what -a height this daring species of robbery has been, at times, carried. -Were no other occasion existing, this would amount to ample cause for -obtaining, if possible, a guard of sepoys, for the purpose of protecting -the boats; but, strange to say, it is sometimes necessary to compel the -villagers to sell their poultry, &c., to passengers, both by land and by -water, although not simply a liberal, but an exorbitant remuneration is -offered. - -This does not proceed from unwillingness to make money, nor to sell the -article in question, but merely from a spirit of opposition which -pervades a large portion of the native population, who are often too -adverse to contribute to the comfort, or, more properly, to the -existence, of Europeans. It must seem curious that our countrymen are -allowed to reside among a people of such a disposition, so far -out-numbering, and possessed of such easy means of extirpating, us, with -very little previous arrangement. - -In saying this, I do not mean to accuse the natives of India of being so -debased, so immoral, or so vindictive, as they have been represented by -many gentlemen, especially some divines who have lately returned from -the East, and whose opinions breathe by no means the spirit of that -sublime religion they would coerce the natives to adopt. Taking all -points into consideration, and viewing the nature of the country -conjointly with the nature of their laws, and of their former -government, I think we have by far more to admire than to censure, in a -race of people, who, notwithstanding some highly remarkable instances of -depravity, may be classed among the most innocent, and most industrious, -of worldly inhabitants!!! - -This is saying much, but not _too_ much, of a nation whose government -absolutely tolerates thieving as a regular profession, and which has -been known to make a very free use of the talents of its subjects for -the purposes of obtaining plunder, or of gratifying its pique and -resentment. I much fear, that, if such were the case with us, and that, -if, instead of being ruled by a virtuous king, we were placed under a -buccaneering monarch, we should by no means find so many pleas of -extenuation as the natives of Hindostan can justly boast! - -The truth of this position, in itself so reasonable, is made more fully -evident by the obvious difference subsisting between the Company’s and -the Vizier’s dominions. In the former, the depredations committed are -always nocturnal, and of that description to be expected under the -foregoing circumstances; in the latter, the speculation is infinitely -more open, more systematic, and more extensive. - -That considerable amelioration must have taken place under our -government, is to be proved, from the safety with which travellers may -proceed by land throughout the country, when compared with the extreme -danger attendant upon a journey through any part of the Vizier’s -territory; wherein almost every well presents the horrid spectacle of -the mangled bodies of those who become victims to the sanguinary hordes -of robbers that infest every part of that prince’s dominions. - -On this account, every gentleman proceeding by land, from one to another -station, should make a point of obtaining a small guard of a naik and -four, or even of two, sepoys, whose presence will generally prove a -considerable check on the adventurous disposition of the villagers in -that quarter. This precaution will not, however, alone be sufficient; -application should be made to the _jemmadar_, or head-borough, of each -village where the party may encamp, for a certain number of -_chokey-dars_, (watchmen,) proportioned to the number of tents, horses, -&c., and the whole of the property of every description should be -nominally put under the charge of the men thus furnished, observing, -that the regular pay, which may be from four to six pice, or halfpence, -for each, should be punctually paid to the _jemmadar_ when the camp -breaks up the next morning, and that every item is found to be in a -state of safety. - -When _coolies_ (_i.e._ porters) are wanted, to carry the beds, tables, -&c, of a party, application should be made, in like manner, to the -_jemmadar_; and when, after arrival at the next stage, they may be -discharged, it will be proper to be attentive to the regular payment of -every individual thus furnished; otherwise, the servants to whom it may -be entrusted to discharge them, will generally withhold a large portion, -or even the whole, of what may have been ordered. - -By thus regularly attending to matters of this description, the -villagers will come forward with more alacrity; though, it must be -confessed, they are generally very unwilling to engage as _coolies_; -which is not to be wondered at, since the _jemmadars_ generally extort -from them at least half their earnings on such occasions: the evil being -incurable, as matters now stand, must be borne as gracefully as our -feelings may allow; and we must remain content with the reflection of -doing justice ourselves, though we know for certain that our liberality, -in the end, flows into a wrong channel. - -When practicable, it is highly expedient to obtain from the European -collector’s office, or even from any of the natives under his immediate -authority, who may be deputed to, or resident at, such places as lie -near the road, a _rhahwaunah_, or pass-port, wherein it should be set -forth, that, whatever necessaries, or _coolies_, or _chokey-dars_, or -_dowraws_, (guides,) may be requisite, should be furnished by such -_jemmadars_ of villages as should be called upon for supplies of the -above description. This always ensures respect and attention, and causes -the whole of the persons, to whom it is addressed, to be vigilant in the -discharge of their duties, lest complaints should be preferred to the -collector, who would speedily summon them to his court, and punish them -in a suitable manner. - -However audacious the thieves, whether house-breakers, or collectors on -the highways, may be, they very rarely make an immediate attack on -Europeans. This, no doubt, proceeds from the sense they entertain of the -importance we attach to the safety of our countrymen, the murderer of -whom would be assuredly detected, and suffer the full sentence of the -law. Besides, all the people of Hindostan know, that, with the exception -of watches, which, for want of pawn-brokers, and accomplices skilled in -the melting of metals, are of no use to the predatory tribe, Europeans -never carry about with them any thing valuable. No gentleman ever has -money about him; though his servants sometimes have, in their waists, a -few rupees, intended for such disbursements as cannot be delayed without -inconvenience. - -Hence, the boxes, &c., of gentlemen, are generally aimed at, because the -cash and valuables are contained in them; for the same reason, the most -confidential servants are most commonly selected as objects of attack. -Your true Hindostanee robber is, in general, very active, robust, and -capable of great deception: he will patrole about a tent, during a dark -night, in the manner of a dog, or of a jackal; the howl of which he can, -perhaps, imitate so well as to deceive the sentries, and throw them -completely off their guard. - -If allowed to approach a tent, he will select that side where several -servants are asleep under the fly, or awning, and gradually insinuate -himself into the interior, either by passing under the walls, or between -the overlaps; if such cannot be easily effected, he draws his _choory_, -(knife,) which is sharpened for the occasion, and makes a slit in the -cloth, or canvas, large enough to pass his body through, when, in the -most cautious manner, and retaining his breath as much as possible, he -gropes about for those articles which, during the day-time, he had seen -deposited in some particular part of the tent, and, after making an -opening large enough for his purpose, or by opening one of the doors, he -watches the opportunity for escaping with his booty. - -The attempt to seize a thief under such circumstances, is extremely -hazardous, and ought to be strongly reprehended. Being perfectly naked, -and having the body highly lubricated with oil, it is impossible to -grasp him in any part; while, on the other hand, he must be expected to -use his knife very freely, under the determination of escaping. - -I recollect a curious circumstance that happened in 1783, at Bankypore, -when the tent of a staff-officer was entered, during the night, by a -fellow of this description, who, it being moon-light, and one part of -the tent only closed by a _cheek_, was discovered by the gentleman as he -lay in bed. Seeing his property on the move, he sprang up to disengage a -hog-spear that was tied up to that pole of the _marquee_ which was -nearest the bed; but the thief got the start of him, by seizing the -officer’s sword, which was suspended by a hook that buckled on to the -other pole. The adventurer being thus armed, prevented the gentleman -from getting possession of the spear: after one or two menacing -flourishes, he darted out of the tent, sword in hand, and was speedily -beyond the reach of pursuit. - -Another very ludicrous circumstance occurred some years antecedent to -the above. A gentleman who inhabited a small _bungalow_, on the banks of -a river, and who was very ill of that complaint ‘the liver,’ for which -he was under a course of mercury, perceived, in the dusk of the evening, -a thief prowling about the apartment in which he was sitting. The fellow -was extremely industrious: and threw a number of articles, not even -sparing the bed-linen, out at a window that stood open. The gentleman -affected to take no notice, but resolved, when the thief should follow -his booty, to take him by surprize, while in the act of collecting them -from under the window. - -This was, by no means, an imprudent resolution, as it appeared probable -that the rogue might be secured, at the same time that the property -should be recovered. At length, after having thrown out whatever was -convenient to his purpose, and having peeped out of the window, the -thief made suddenly towards the gentleman, and snatched from his head a -beautiful shawl, with which he skipped out of the window. - -This feat demanded instant action; the gentleman called lustily for his -servants, who, awaking from their slumbers, ran to obey the vociferated -summons, and were just in time to see a small _dingy_ (or boat) pulling -away to the opposite bank, with the goods, the thief, and his -accomplices, on board! - -All who travel by land, should be on their guard never to allow -jugglers, or show-men, of whatever description, to enter their tents; -which they will endeavor to do, under pretence of shewing off their -mummeries, with the intention of ascertaining the posture of whatever -moveables may be within. In this, they are sometimes mistaken; it being -usual to have all boxes, camp-baskets, &c., assembled about the foot of -the tent-pole, at night, and to secure them by means of a chain passing -through their respective handles, &c.; the ends of the chain being -furnished with a padlock. - -In fair weather, the safest mode is to have all the things moved out of -the tent, and placed in a heap, under charge of a sentry, who then need -pay little attention to any other object, as the thieves are most intent -on those trunks, &c., which they suppose to contain money, plate, &c.: -as to articles of apparel, they are of little value, and would, -probably, lead to discovery; the handles of swords, and breast-plates, -of officers, being generally of solid silver, may be placed among the -furtive desiderata, therefore, should be placed in a state of security. - -When I speak of discovery, it is not to be understood that the same -dread is entertained on that head, as prevails among the thieves of this -quarter of the world. In India, whole villages are inhabited by thieves, -who keep the country around in a state of perpetual terror and of -vigilance: hence, when a _jemmadar_ furnishes _chokey-dars_, he often -does it with great reluctance, under the apprehension of a visit from -some neighbouring gang of notoriety, who act with greater confidence, -from the consideration, that the village, at which the robbery may take -place, will be accountable for whatever property may be stolen. - -Hence, a party is always safest when encamped near a village of -professed thieves, who will, ordinarily, forbear to depredate under that -circumstance; conscious that the value put upon the several articles -stolen, must necessarily be, at least, tenfold their value to the -robbers; though not in the least exaggerated by those from whom they -were stolen. - -Here it is to be observed, that, in order to render the claim to -remuneration clear and decisive, it is proper that a requisition should -have been made to the _jemmadar_ for _chokey-dars_; otherwise, it may be -argued, that the property was not under his protection. Sometimes, by -way of cavil, a _jemmadar_, of such a description, will find fault with -the position of an encampment, and use many pleas for the purpose of -raising objections, whenever the losses sustained may be laid before the -collector, or judge of the district. If, however, he should refuse to -grant _chokey-dars_, it will be necessary to keep a very sharp look-out; -it being a strong indication of intended mischief. - -Almost every _jemmadar_ of character will reprobate the indulgence of -that kind of curiosity which leads gentlemen, on their first arrival, to -pay the smallest attention to the performances of mountebanks, jugglers, -puppet-show-men, &c.; all of whom are notorious thieves, and are -attended by numerous confederates, whose business it is to patrole about -under the semblance of country-bumkins, come to view the camp, and to -take advantage of whatever opportunities may arise, in consequence of -servants, &c., quitting their several charges, to witness the -exhibitions of the attractive portion of the gang. - -My memory supplies various instances of the success of this stratagem; a -circumstance not to be wondered at, when we consider the almost -incredible perfection to which _leger-de-main_, the _tour de -passe-passe_, and gymnastic exhibitions, are brought in India. I shall -offer a few of the feats displayed by these people, observing, that, -with regard to drawing yards of thread from the noses and ears of -spectators; cutting their turbans into pieces, and joining them again; -changing eggs to chickens, and mango-stones into growing bushes, bearing -the ripe fruit, making pigeons lay eggs, &c.; all such are considered as -mere common-place deceptions, confined to the lower orders of this class -of vagabonds. - -The passing a sword-blade, of about two feet in length, and two inches -in breadth, down the gullet, so as to be distinctly felt by the -application of a hand to the operator’s stomach, is certainly the most -extraordinary part of the exhibition. In this, there is no deception -whatever; the sword is entire, and firmly fixed to the handle; while its -solidity is such as to remove all doubt regarding pliancy or evasion in -any mode: all we can say of it is, that the practice is adopted at an -early age; and that the implement used is gradually encreased, from a -small rattan to that above described. - -As to vaulting, the number of somersets, and capers, made, with seeming -facility, while bounding over the backs of elephants, or of camels, -placed side-by-side, are truly astonishing! Throwing spears at each -other, and catching them under the arms, while in the act of mission, -mutually, cannot but cause both dread and surprize: the accuracy with -which this is constantly done, seems to preclude all admiration at the -skill of the celebrated William Tell. - -Jumping through a frame that supports several, perhaps a dozen, of -_tulwars_, (cutlasses,) of which the edges are remarkably sharp, and -which appear to preclude the passage of a man’s body through the little -interval left among their points, must be viewed with admiration; as -must also the running bare-foot along a piece of cloth, perhaps ten -yards in length, that is supported, at about a foot from the ground, by -several men, each of whom holds, under the cloth, a sharp _tulwar_, of -which the edge is turned upwards: the astonishing agility with which -this is performed, absolutely requires to be seen ere it can be duly -appreciated! - -Some curious performances in balancing are worthy of notice: of these, -the stringing, and unstringing, of eggs, is, perhaps, the most -extraordinary. A man balances, on his head, a kind of platter, -projecting, perhaps, six inches every way, of rather a conical form, -(inverted,) and furnished all around with draw-loops of, perhaps, a foot -in length, and about two inches asunder: their whole number may amount -to twenty, or more. On his left arm he bears a basket, containing as -many eggs as there are loops attached to the platter. - -Using one foot for a pivot, he keeps moving round by the aid of the -other, so as make about ten revolutions in a minute, and, while in -motion, successively takes the eggs from the basket, and, with his right -hand only, puts each into a loop, drawing it tight, so as to retain the -egg firmly in an equipoised state. - -In this manner he strings all the eggs, and again unstrings and -re-places them in the basket; he always moving the same way. When the -whole are strung, the music quickens its time considerably, and the -operator, conforming to the change, accelerates his pace in proportion, -until the velocity acquired by the eggs is such, as to occasion their -whirling on a level with the platter. - -I consider this to be the most arduous of all the exercises in that -branch which depends, principally, on delicacy and caution. If we -consider how many chances of failure exist, whether from a slip of the -foot, a want of attention to the due elevation of the elbow, the aptness -of the unemployed loops to become entangled, the giddiness to be -apprehended from turning full half an hour, with such speed, always the -same way, and the possibility of allowing a newly-laden loop to fall -into its place too suddenly, and the same in withdrawing it, when about -to take out the egg; all these are certainly points very difficult to -compass, or to avoid, and entitle the artist to unlimitted approbation. - -I observe, in Cordiner’s Description of Ceylon, some feats of the -jugglers in that island noticed as being beyond compare; but I cannot -conceive any thing more dexterous than that operation, so common in -Bengal, of balancing a bamboo ladder, about fifteen feet in length, on a -man’s chin, and allowing a well-grown lad, or a young woman, to ascend -to the summit, by winding in and out between the steps, (which barely -admit the body to pass,) and ultimately to descend, head foremost, in -the same manner, after balancing, horizontally, with extended arms and -legs, on either standard of the ladder. I have often wondered what the -man’s chin could be made of!!! - -Swarming up a stout bamboo pole, of full twenty feet long, balanced on a -man’s hip, or shoulder, and descending again, by first attaching to the -summit by the toes, and measuring a whole length downwards, the back -being against the bamboo; then turning the opposite way, and thus, in -alternate succession; always appeared to me equally dangerous and -astonishing. To perform this, a man must possess unconscionable strength -in his toes and ankles: the first slip would infallibly be the last! - -The puppet-shows, called _kaut-pootlies_, (_i.e._ wooden infants,) are -certainly superior to Mr. Punch and his wife, as exhibited by various -renowned persons throughout England. In India, there is to be seen far -greater variety, both in the subject, and in the several dramatis -personæ: there, something like a regular piece is represented, and it -rarely requires a glossary, or interpreter, to define the several -scenes; an aid, without which our artists, in general, make but little -impression on their spectators, whose imaginations are generally set on -the stretch to divine the meaning of various antics, which, though -abundantly ludicrous, seem to proceed from momentary fancy, rather than -from any regular system. - -The _kaut-pootly-wallah_, or puppet-dancer, does not confine himself to -a small centry-box-like theatre; on the contrary, when he is to display -before any respectable persons, he makes a point of paying his respects -during the day, and of soliciting the loan of either a small tent, a -_konaut_, a _satrinje_, or some such article, for the purpose of -enclosing and covering in the necessary space, so that he and his -co-adjutors may perform their parts in secresy. It is commonly made a -point that the performance should be by candle-light, and at some little -distance from the line of tents. This is almost a _sine quâ non_ with -this tribe, who, being in league with rogues of all descriptions, rarely -fail to profit by the absence of servants from the charge of their -masters’ property, and, while perhaps both master and man are grinning -at the objects presented on the _proscenium_, are employed in removing -from the tents whatever articles, of a portable description, may be -exposed to depredation. - -Sometimes the farce is concluded by a shower of clods, &c., thrown from -a distance, and the whole fly in confusion. This is a device practised -on the liberal, under the representation of the dealer in wood and -wire-work, that some of the _nutkuts_, or frolicksome youths, of the -camp, have battered the whole of the paraphernalia to pieces; in -confirmation of which, some heads and tails of _ci-devant_ kings and -queens are produced. I was once much amused with an imposition of this -kind, that was practised, with admirable address, upon a good-natured -field officer, who actually credited the representation, and, in -addition to the loss of several candle-sticks, and some other small -items, lent to the artists, compounded to pay for various fractures, -simple and compound, sustained by the inanimate heroes! - -Among the itinerant amusements of India, we must class the _nuts_, or -tumblers, a people totally distinct from all the other inhabitants of -the country, and who correspond, in a number of instances, with the -gypsies of Europe. The following extracts from a paper furnished to the -Asiatic Society by Lieutenant-Colonel D. T. Richardson, a gentleman of -acknowledged abilities, and who has been remarkably industrious in -obtaining a very complete acquaintance with the customs and languages of -Hindostan, will display this matter in the best manner, and shew that a -greater connection subsists, or at least has subsisted, between the -_nuts_ of Asia, and the gypsies of Europe, than our literati are in -general aware of. - -At page 473, of the Asiatic Researches, we have the following passage. -‘Both the gypsies, and the _nuts_, are generally a wandering race of -beings, seldom having a fixed habitation. They have each a language -peculiar to themselves. That of the gypsies is, undoubtedly, a specimen -of _Hindostanee_, and so is that of the _nuts_. In Europe, it answers -all the purposes of concealment. Here, a conversion of its syllables -becomes necessary.’ (_i.e._ in India.) - -‘The gypsies have their king; the _nuts_ their _nardar-boutah_; they are -equally formed into companies, and their peculiar employments are -exactly similar; viz. dancing, singing, music, palmistry, quackery, -dancers of monkeys, bears, and snakes. The two latter professions, from -local causes, are peculiar to the _nuts_. They are both considered as -thieves; at least, that division of the _nuts_ whose manners come -nearest those of the gypsies. In matters of religion they appear equally -indifferent; we know that neither the gypsies, nor the _budeea-nuts_, -are very choice on that particular; and, though I have not obtained any -satisfactory proof of their eating human flesh, I do not find it easy to -divest my mind of suspicions on this head. Indeed, one would think the -stomach that could receive, without nausea, a piece of putrid jackal, -could not well retain any qualms in the selection of animal food.’ - -Colonel Richardson furnishes a number of words in use among the gypsies, -which correspond immediately with others in the language of the _nuts_. -I offer a few, which appear to me best adapted to the illustration of -this point; observing, that the orthography used by the author, though -perfectly correct, would not prove satisfactory to a person unversed in -the Oriental pronunciation of the vowels. As a remedy, or rather an aid, -absolutely necessary towards giving the European reader a perfect -conception of the due intonations, I have, in this, followed my ordinary -plan of spelling the Hindostanee words, in such manner as should enable -a person totally ignorant of that language to pronounce them with -propriety. - - - GYPSEY WORDS. HINDOSTANEE SYNONYMES. ENGLISH TRANSLAT. - Apra Ooper Above - Bebee Beebee Aunt, or lady - Pownee Pawnee Water - Devus Dewus Day - Rattee Raut Night - Can Caun Ear - Dad Dada Grandfather - Valashtee Belaist Finger - Mutchee Mutchee Fish - Gur G’hur House - Shing Sing Horn - Ballow Baul Hair - Shunalee Soonaie Hearing - Liecaw Leckap Writing - Dai Dhye Nurse - Mass Mass Food - Tod Dood Milk - Boot Bote Much - Nack Nauk Nose - Booro-panee Burrah-paunee Great water - Doriove Derriow River - Lolo Loll Red - Booro-chairee Burra-choory Great knife - Roop Roopah Silver - Saup Saump Snake - Dicken Deckna To see - Loon Noon Salt - Jaw Jow Go - Kali-coe Kul-ko Yesterday - Tschor Choor Thief - Dori Doory String - Rajah Rajah A lord - Ranee Rannee Princess - Raz Raj Principality - Banduk Baundook Musket - Jammadar Jemmadar An officer - Gour Gor Grave - Mul Mool Wine - Dur Door Jar - Jungustri Angootee Ring - Paka Punk Wing - Schut Kuttah Sour - Ker G’hur House - Sapa Savon Soap - Menghna Maungna To want - Pi Pee Drink - Metchana Putchana To know - Me-dikaka My-deckata I saw - Chabben Chabna To eat - Tober Tobula An axe - Starrie Sitara Star - Rashee Rishee Priest - Bocolee Bookap Hungry - Por Poor Full - Geecoa Jee-oo-ka Life, living. - - -The foregoing will suffice to give much insight into the affinity spoken -of; especially when it is considered that the gypsey words are chiefly -taken from Grellman’s Vocabulary, wherein we are to make considerable -allowances for German intonation, especially regarding the vowel u, and -the dipthong oo, as in _dur_, and _door_; and for _dori_, and _doory_; -the slight differences between which, so far as is connected with -orthography, would probably disappear if the words were spoken by a -German gypsey, and a _nut_, respectively. Add to this, that the natives -of India use the letters L, and N, rather promiscuously: thus, they say -either _leel_, or _neel_, (for _blue_); the capital of Oude is as often -called _Nucklow_, as Lucknow, and the word _noon_, (_salt_,) is very -commonly pronounced _loon_; as in the gypsey language. - -If it is considered that the foregoing comparison did not take place at -a time when Colonel Richardson had the opportunity to examine closely -into the particulars, by having access to European gypsies, whose -familiar conversation, when explained, might have furnished numberless -instances of accordance, which, from his accurate knowledge of the -Hindostanee language, might ever have been such as to enable him to -understand a gypsey colloquy; we must admit that strong probabilities -exist, as to the _nuts_ and the _gypsies_ being branches from the same -stock. Colonel Richardson observes, very properly, ‘Should any real -Hindostanee scholars ever investigate this matter _on the spot in -Europe_, their evidence and observations will probably settle the matter -effectually, one way or other, for ever.’ He likewise remarks, that -‘Grellman, from a want of knowledge of the Hindostanee, lost many -opportunities of producing the proper word, in comparison with the -gypsey one’—and again, he forcibly remarks, that ‘It is not the -accidental coincidence of a few words, but the whole vocabulary he -(Grellman) produces, differs not so much from the common Hindostanee, as -provincial dialects of the same country usually do from each other.’ - -That _cast_, or tribe, of _nuts_, known by the name of _bauzeegurs_, -generally affect to follow the Mahomedan faith, but the _purneah -peeries_, or _budeea_ tribe, follow either that, or the doctrines of -Brahma, just as may suit their purposes, or their locality. Either sect -have so very few religious ceremonies, as to render it doubtful whether -they profess more than may serve to screen them from the imputation of -atheism; a charge which would sink them even lower in the estimation of -every inhabitant of Asia. They inter their relations in a very slovenly -manner, and may often be found lying drunk about the grave: their -marriage forms are extremely simple, the bride and bridegroom mutually -mark each other’s faces with red ochre, after which, they lock their -little fingers together, and avow their union: the ceremony is usually -concluded by a sacrifice to the muddled deity, in which all bear their -parts with great eagerness, and devotion! - -It is a rule among the _nuts_ never to go to law, nor to submit their -differences to any arbitrators, except of their own profession: owing to -the extreme jealousy of the men, and the frequent excesses of both sexes -in the use of _gaunjah_, and other intoxicating draughts, such -differences are by no means rare, and contribute partly to the support -of their rulers, who receive a fourth part of whatever is earned, or -perhaps begged, borrowed, or stolen, by the several _sets_ which ramble -over the country, according to their own fancies, or as they may be -ordered. - -Such regular debauchery, added to the violent exercise undergone during -their early years, reduce the period of life among these people to a -very short compass. Few live beyond the age of forty, and by far the -larger portion fail of attaining their thirtieth year; the women -generally fall victims after having borne four or five children. - -With respect to dancing, which is a part of the duties of a female -_nut_, much encomium cannot be justly bestowed: their style of -performance is vulgar, and they generally study that kind of lewd -display, which renders their performances too indelicate to be -described. Tumbling head-over-heels, walking upon their hands, -Catherine-wheel, &c., &c.; all come within the display afforded for a -trifling gratuity! - -The traveller will sometimes be visited by sets of _nautch-girls_, who -either reside in some of the principal towns, and make a point of -offering their services towards the amusement of _gentlemen_ traversing -the country; or who are itinerants, that pick up a livelihood by -rambling about, chiefly among the villages inhabited by Mahomedans, -whose dispositions are more prompt than those of the Hindus to receive -gratification from voluptuous exhibitions. Besides, the latter are -generally more penurious, and are so rigidly tied down, both by tenet, -and by the vigilance of their neighbours, as to have but little scope -for indulgence in those sensualities, which the followers of the -Prophet, who anxiously look forward to the enjoyment of the _houris_, -are less scrupulous to conceal. - -The greater part of the individuals composing the _taffah_, or set of -female dancers, are either attached by family connections, such as -marriage with the _oostauds_ and _surmaunjahs_, who are the instructors -and musicians; or they are slaves obtained by purchase during times of -scarcity: some, indeed, are kidnapped when very young, on account of -their promising features; these rarely are able to give any account of -their parentage, and do not always know the districts in which they were -born. - -Whatever may be their origin, or their connection, the dancers, who are -likewise vocal performers, are entirely subservient to some person, -whether male or female, who is considered the proprietor of the _set_, -and on whose application to any court of law, or to any _soubah_, or -person in power, any run-away is immediately pursued, and restored to -the _taffah_; whether the obligation be peremptory, such as in the case -of a _baundy_, or actual slave; or merely implied, as in the case of a -_paulah_, or person preserved from famine, &c., and reared in the -capacity of a menial. - -The Mahomedan law barely recognizes actual slavery, but makes a great -distinction in favor of those who purchase, or thus adopt, children that -would otherwise, in all probability, perish from want. The latter are -considered to be the property of the patron, until arrived at their full -growth, which is understood to be about the age of eighteen; but this -affords easy evitation to such proprietors of _taffahs_ as feel an -interest in the detention of any particular girls under their authority. - -To say the truth, very little cause of complaint seems to exist on such -occasions: the girls are usually well cloathed, and well fed; they are -rarely limitted in regard to paramours, and, on the whole, experience as -much comfort as their habits, and those envious traits ever to be seen -among persons of the same profession, admit. Where these _taffahs_ are -found in the vicinity of our camps, and stations, whether civil or -military, it is common to see the dancers attach themselves to some -particular European gentlemen, of whose friendship they make much boast: -the profits of such a speculation cannot be wholly reserved by any one -of the party; they are supposed to be surrendered, without diminution, -to the proprietor, for the general benefit of the _set_. - -That full surrender is not, however, always made; on the contrary, some -contrive to redeem themselves from this species of demi-slavery, by -means of sums accumulated in the course of years, and concealed, with -extreme solicitude, from the scrutinizing eye of the proprietor. When -such a redemption takes place, it is never done overtly, but by the -pretended interference of some gentleman, or opulent native, who, either -from love, or charity, feels disposed to pay the ransom: were the -possession of the property to be acknowledged by the anxious female, it -would instantly be seized as a _droit_, and she would probably undergo -that severest of Hindostanee punishments, the loss of all her _kase_, or -hair! - -It is not uncommon for persons purchasing slaves, or rearing deserted -children, to affix the badge of slavery immediately, and to cause it to -be worn by the unfortunate being, thus devoted to tyrannical authority -during life. This type of dependance consists simply of an iron ring, -similar to those on light fetters, which is worn on either of the -ankles, generally on the left: there it is rivetted in the usual manner, -with the intention of being always seen. To remove the ring, is -considered highly criminal on the part of all concerned, and should the -slave be thereby enabled to abscond, would subject the abettors to -payment of his or her value. - -In every part of India the profession of a prostitute is devoid of that -stigma annexed to it in Europe: persons following it are protected by -law in certain privileges, and their persons are far from being held in -abomination, such as we should suppose must be generated towards so -impure a character among the moralists of the East. This is entirely -owing to the profession being hereditary, the same as other sects, and -not promiscuous, or arising from vicious propensities, as we see daily -the case among us. - -It is true the term _kusbee_ is used as a reproach; but that seems -rather to refer to such as, like our wantons, degenerate in consequence -of their libidinous dispositions, and are not attached to the two great -divisions, the _meerasseens_, and the _puttareahs_, both of which have -claims on the bounty of princes, and to exemptions from certain taxes; -though, to make up for such indulgences, the _cutwals_, and other native -officers, under whose authority they may reside, not only demand their -attendance, whether to sing, dance, or what not, gratis, but impose upon -them heavy assessments, in proportion to their repute and prosperity. - -With the view to prevent the encrease of a certain disorder, which -proceeds with rapid strides in that hot climate, it is customary to -appoint a committee every month, at each great station, for the -inspection of such dulcineas as may be resident within the bounds of the -cantonments: such as appear to be diseased, are instantly confined to a -small hospital, appropriated to their reception: a salutary measure, -which doubtless prevents much mischief, and is superior to our Lock -Institution, which only offers, but does not coerce to, a proper course -of medicine. - -Such women as, being married, or living _under the protection_ of any -person, are found to indulge in variety, are designated _chinauls_, and -are held in far greater disrepute than the professed _kusbee_, or common -prostitute. As predestinarians constantly contradict, by their evasions -of danger, the main principle of their creed, so do the good folks of -Hindostan deviate widely from their system of ethics on this head; for, -although adultery, under any circumstances whatever, is held up as a -mortal sin, to be atoned for by death only; nevertheless, we find the -males of all ages particularly bent on that kind of gallantry which -comes within the letter of the law, and generally produces the contact -of two persons whose _casts_ are thereby respectively polluted. In a -former part, I explained more fully the deceptions practised by native -women retained by European gentlemen; it remains for me to add, that -such is the spirit of intrigue prevalent among the people at large, that -we may at least conclude the ladies in that quarter to keep pace with -_the most enlightened_ of our own population! - -When a native, especially a Hindu, of high _cast_, suspects that his -wife is guilty of infidelity, he generally proceeds to repudiate her in -the most public manner; but it often happens that he is saved that -trouble, either by the intervention of her father, brother, &c., who, -under pretence of conducting her home, leads the offender to some lone -spot, where, with his _tulwar_, he severs her head from her body, and -deliberately leaves both to be devoured by jackals, &c. This office is -likewise occasionally performed by the husband himself; who must, -however, be careful not to betray his intention, lest a powerful dose, -mixed among his _takorry_, (vegetable _curry_,) should prevent the -completion of his design, or, possibly, cause him to fall a sacrifice to -the lover’s resentment. - -A very curious instance of this occurred in 1789, wherein a sepoy, of my -own company, was principally concerned. He had long been in the good -graces of a woman who was married to a _sonaar_, (goldsmith,) then -absent in another part of the country. The lady’s father, who had no -other child, on learning the particulars of the intrigue from one of her -servants, remonstrated, but in vain. He then determined to sacrifice -her, and ordered that she should quit her own home, for the purpose of -being conducted to his house, which was in a village some miles distant. - -Suspecting his intention, the adultress communicated the circumstance to -her lover, who advised her to follow her father, and promised to prevent -his doing her any injury. Accordingly, she allowed her parent to precede -her, as usual, (for no woman ever walks before a man, especially if it -be her husband, or any relative,) until they arrived at a small jungle, -when, as he was about to draw his _tulwar_ to _sauf-kur_ (literally, ‘to -make clean,’ but, in the accepted sense, to kill, or destroy,) her, the -lover darted forth, and, at one blow, took off his head. - -The lady and her lover were both apprehended, and tried before the -_zemindary court_ at Benares, within whose jurisdiction the crime was -perpetrated: against the woman nothing could be urged, she was therefore -acquitted; the man was convicted, and condemned; but the woman, being -next of kin to the deceased, and having the right, according to the law, -of pardoning his murderer, instantly gave him her absolution in open -court, and, to the great surprize and mortification of the whole court, -returned homewards with her paramour, to persevere in the adulterous -intercourse. - -It was in vain that Marquis Cornwallis, on receipt of the intelligence, -used every endeavor to obtain a revision of the proceedings: the Court -were inflexible, and the parties could not, legally, be apprehended. His -Lordship was, therefore, left without that redress he thought due to the -public, and could only cause the sepoy to be dismissed from the -Company’s service, and to be banished from the Company’s dominions. - -Where the law gives so absurd a power, it might be expected that scarce -a husband would be safe; but that is not the case; for they, in general, -act very decidedly, whenever they are made acquainted with the existence -of offences against conjugal propriety. The caution used in conducting -an amour is not always very great, but there is, in fact, only one -difficulty to be overcome, viz. the obtaining admission to the interior -while the husband is absent: that being effected, detection is not very -easy, because, the immured state in which women are kept, offers the -best screen against the curiosity of prying neighbours. - -What with the dark color of the mud walls, the sombre complexion of the -people themselves, and the shade commonly cast by heavy foliages, -standing in the vicinity of villages in general, as well as by the -over-hanging thatches, &c., it is not very easy, even for a neighbour, -to ascertain, after night-fall, whether a person, having a cloth on the -head, entering the sacred enclosure, be male or female. - -About the year 1786, a laughable story was current, regarding a young -officer who had a very pretty Hindoo girl in keeping, but who, being of -a very salacious disposition, always endeavored to prevail with such -young women as came to vend fruits, or to sell _choories_, &c., to be -his inmate. One of these daily visitors held out against every -temptation, which so roused the youth’s passions, that he resolved to -obtain that by force which money could not purchase. The struggle made a -terrible discovery; the supposed damsel proving to be a young Portugueze -drummer!!! - -The ordinary mode of conveyance adopted by the generality of -_nautch-taffahs_, is the common _hackery_, called a _g’horry_, which has -two wheels, with a square body, as has been already described; in one of -these, four or five crowd together, sitting almost back to back, and -allowing their legs to hang down on every side. The generality are of -very decent behavior, but, when they get a little _majoom_ (a sweatmeat -prepared with _b’haug_) into their noddles, it is not uncommon to see -them proceed in high style, singing away in full chorus, and, -occasionally, exhibiting specimens of their profession, by attitudes -corresponding with the words of songs purely Cyprian! - -The baggage, if any, is commonly carried on some hired bullock, or in a -_hackery_; some _sets_ are, however, so opulent, as to be able to keep -one or two camels, and to purchase a tolerably good Hindostanee tent, -that is, without walls, and supported by two bamboo poles, each about -eight or nine feet long. - -The baggage of Europeans is, ordinarily carried on elephants, camels, -bullocks, _hackeries_, or _coolies_: of late years, a great improvement -has been made, by taking off the body of a gig, with its shafts, and -substituting a frame, made on such a plan as may serve to contain -several trunks and liquor chests below, while a cot, with all the -necessary bedding, having over them a painted canvas canopy, covers the -whole, and keeps every part compact and dry. Such a conveyance, with a -tolerably stout horse, is found to get on far more expeditiously than -any of the others. - -With respect to elephants, it may be said, that they are either the -best, or the worst, carriage: in the low countries, where the soil is -often soft for the greater part of the year, the elephant is certainly a -most useful animal; his feet being broad, and his power so great as to -enable his acting with decision and energy at the moment of difficulty, -qualify him, almost exclusively, for the transportation of tents, and -heavy baggage, in such parts of the country as remain heavy or swampy -during the more settled part of the year. - -Though we may suppose, that, previous to the plains of Bengal being -cultivated, they were over-ran with elephants, the same as other parts -of India, of which that animal is a native, still it should seem, that -their principal haunts must have been along that hilly wilderness in -which they are now found in a gregarious state. It is well known that -the elephant thrives best near the sea, that in its vicinity he attains -his greatest bulk, and is exempt from various diseases, especially the -opthalmia and the dropsy, both of which attack at least four in five of -such as are removed to dry soils. This circumstance, as well as the -peculiar formation and substance of the foot, appear to render the -elephant peculiarly appropriate to the use of such persons as have -occasion for carriage-cattle (_i.e._ cattle that bear burthens) in the -lower provinces. - -Endued with wonderful sagacity, the elephant will only proceed on soils -which bear him up to a certain extent: so soon as he feels a peculiar -vibration, that indicates a want of firmness below, he instantly -declines further progress, and, turning round, or receding, with more -activity than his clumsy form may indicate, hastens to quit the -apprehended danger; and, without regard to things or persons, makes the -best of his way to _terra firma_. - -Sometimes, however, this majestic animal gets bogged, and, -notwithstanding his immense strength, becomes completely incapable of -self-extrication. On such an occasion, nothing more is necessary than to -supply him with abundance of straw, or cut grass, tied in bundles; these -he forces down with his proboscis, till they are under his feet -respectively; and, by their accumulated resistance, afford the means of -gradually bearing up, and of raising him to the surface. His egress is -ensured by an ample stock of the same materials, together with faggots, -&c., thrown before him, in number sufficient to form a kind of path-way, -along which the elephant moves with wondrous caution: on such an -occasion, he should, like a mule on a mountain, be left to himself, as -he will manage with perfect prudence; whereas, if actuated by a -_mohout_, (or driver,) he might be again plunged into difficulty. - -The stature of elephants, in general, may be rated between seven and -nine feet: the former is the standard at which they are admitted upon -the Company’s establishment, at the value of five hundred sicca rupees -each (£65). Provided the animals be stout, and competent to carry a -proper burthen, such blemishes as would depreciate them considerably -among the natives, who entertain many prejudices in this particular, are -not considered. - -The principal defects, in the eye of a native merchant, are, - -1. A broken tail; or a deficiency of the forked hair at its termination. -The former arises from the habit the elephants are in, of laying hold of -their opponent’s tails with their trunks, and of twisting them so, that, -occasionally, they are absolutely snapped, or, perhaps, tumefy, and, in -the end, sphacelate. - -2d. An uneven number of claws to the feet: there should be five on each -fore, and four on each hind foot. - -3d. Bad tusks; that is, such as are decayed, or, having been broken in -contests, cannot be rendered ornamental: an elephant born with only one -tooth, or tusk, is highly prized, as being sure to overwhelm its owner -with good fortune. - -4th. Having a black, or spotted palate; either of which is supposed to -be an indication of bad health, as well as of misfortune. - -5th. Bad eyes; though sometimes we see very serviceable elephants -totally deprived of sight, which travel admirably with burthens, but are -unfit for the _howdah_; these are extremely careful to put their trunks -forward as they proceed, whereby they are warned of any hollows, &c. -Blind elephants are peculiarly attentive to the words of command given -by their drivers. - -6th. The want of hair on the forehead, lean jaws, small jagged ears, -narrow feet, thin legs, short bodies, and a contracted barrel, or -carcase, are all objectionable, and become serious objects of attention -in the purchase of this animal. An European, not accustomed to view -elephants critically, would conclude that little variety, in the above -respects, would be found; but there are certainly as many estimable, or -agreeable, points in a fine elephant, as in a fine horse; though we -rarely look so narrowly into the perfections of the former, on account -of being less in the habits of cherishing, or of driving, them in -person. - -According to the regulations, an elephant ought to be able to carry -twenty-five maunds, which is within a twenty-sixth part of being a ton; -but, although the several contractors stipulate, without hesitation, -that their elephants should be able to carry that weight at all times, -not one in a hundred of those in the service, or in the possession of -individuals, could bear it even for one day’s ordinary march, which -should not exceed eight _coss_, (sixteen miles,) all beyond that being -considered a forced march. - -The elephant is furnished with two pads, of which the under one, called -a _guddaylah_, is commonly made of red _karwah_, stuffed to the -thickness of an inch and a half with cotton, and well quilted. The upper -pad, called a _guddy_, is made of _tawt_, which is a narrow kind of very -coarse canvas, and is stuffed very hard with straw to about the -thickness of six inches. These are put on, the one over the other, and -firmly secured to the body by means of stout ropes passing round the -whole, as well as under the tail, by way of crupper. - -Such a thickness may appear too great; but it is to be considered that -an elephant ought, by the contract, to carry either four common -marquees, each weighing, when dry, 425lb., and, when wet, 597lb.; or six -private tents, each weighing, when dry, 275lb., and, when wet, 426lb. -Therefore, when I take the medium at twenty-five maunds, it is but -striking a fair balance. - -An ordinary elephant requires two servants; namely, a _mohout_, or -driver, who sits upon his back, and guides, by means of a crooked -instrument of iron, called a _haunkus_, aided by words of command, and -the application of his toes behind the animal’s ears. The other servant, -called a _cooly_, or grass-cutter, performs all the more menial offices, -such as taking the elephant out for _charrah_, _i.e._ fodder, of which -it can carry as much as will suffice for two, or, if well laden, for -three days. - -The feet of an elephant require considerable care; they being extremely -apt to chafe, and wear away, at the soles, so as to render him -completely unserviceable for a time. This generally happens where the -soil is dry and harsh, as throughout the upper country, but may be, in a -great measure, prevented by _paying_ them with astringent applications, -so that the skin may be rendered harder, and the foot, in general, -somewhat callous. - -When an elephant is chafed on the back, the part is usually rubbed with -_ghee_ and turmeric, and the pad cushioned so as to raise the spot under -which the excoriation may be: if suffered to continue in a state of -irritation, the smallest sore will speedily assume a most formidable -appearance, owing to the peculiarly cellular formation of an elephant’s -flesh. - -The mode of catching elephants for the public service is very simple, -requiring more perseverance than skill, yet attended with a heavy -expence. In those wildernesses near Chittagong, Tipperah, &c., along the -eastern boundary, some hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of villagers are -assembled, who form a circle around those herds they may find, and -gradually frighten them into a kind of trap, called a _keddah_, of which -the entrance is of a crescent form, leading to a large area, properly -enclosed by an immense trench, and by large piles well bound together. -After a while, the animals are driven, or induced, into a smaller area, -from which they are taken into a narrow passage, for the purpose of -being secured, and led away to the stands, at which they remain until -completely tamed. - -It was formerly the practice to break their spirit by privations and -severity; but, of late years, it has been found preferable to sooth as -much as possible; a change which has been attended with the most happy -results. So far has this plan succeeded, that many elephants are now -better reconciled in one month than they formerly were in four or five; -while, at the same time, many inconveniences, especially those severe -ligatures, which invariably made desperate sores about the ankles, &c., -are almost wholly avoided. - -The practice of decoying the large single males, which separate from the -herds, and are called _sauns_, or _goondahs_, is extremely curious: two -or three females are generally sent out for the purpose of inveigling -the ferocious males thus ranging about. Such female elephants, which are -called _k’hoomkies_, are highly valuable, especially if they be large, -and attached to their _mohouts_, whom they will protect to the last -moment, if accidentally discovered by their intended prize while passing -the ropes around his legs. For a particular account of this, which can -scarcely be rendered distinct but by the aid of plates, I refer my -readers to ‘THE WILD SPORTS OF THE EAST,’ published from my designs and -memoirs by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond Street, and Messrs. Black, Parry, -and Kingsbury, of Leadenhall Street. - -Contrary to the opinion formerly current, it has been ascertained that -elephants copulate in the same manner as other quadrupeds. This has been -certified by Mr. John Corse, the resident Surgeon at Tipperah, who -established a breed of elephants at that place; whereby much insight has -been obtained regarding the natural history of this noble animal. When -Mr. Corse transmitted that account which may be seen in the third volume -of the Asiatic Researches, he had not the opportunity of ascertaining -the period of gestation, which has since been found to give an average -of about twenty-two months. - -That less time could not be required, was evident from the incipient -portion of that gentleman’s researches; as a female elephant, taken in -January, 1788, did not produce her calf, which was thirty-five inches -high at his birth, and grew four inches in as many months, until the -16th of October, 1789. - -Elephants are invariably measured at the shoulder, and not on the arch -of the back, the want of which is to be considered as indicative of age. - -Elephants are to be found along the whole extent of frontier, ranging -from the Chittagong district, to the very borders of Thibet. They become -more scarce, and are, besides, less robust, and of smaller stature, in -proportion as they recede from the sea coasts. Those sent yearly, by way -of compliment, or of tribute, from the Rajah of Napaul, are by no means -to be compared with the _coomaeeahs_, and _mooknahs_ of Tipperah, and -Chittagong, whose form and bulk certainly entitle them to superior -estimation. Some of these are, occasionally, sold for immense sums to -the native princes in the upper parts of Hindostan. Two thousand rupees -are held to be but a low price for a male of nine feet in height, -provided his teeth are large, even, and of regular curves: sometimes -elephants, of extraordinary bulk, and of remarkably fine points, have -reached to eight or ten thousand rupees. - -The expence of keeping an elephant will vary according to the situation, -and to the general services wherein it is employed: in the Dacca -district but little expence is incurred, unless hard labour is to be -performed, there being abundance of _d’hul_, (grass,) and of foliage, of -which the animal can always obtain an ample supply gratis. There, a -_mohout_ rarely receives more than three rupees monthly, and a -grass-cutter more than two. I have shewn, in describing the servants -necessary to be retained in a gentleman’s suite, that the wages of these -menials are generally much higher; which, when added to the average -charges for food, chiefly _badjra_, or millet stems, which must be paid -for, and rice, or barley, perhaps to the extent of 30lb. daily, will -cause the expence of maintaining an elephant in the upper provinces, to -amount to full thirty, or thirty-five, rupees per mensem; and that, too, -exclusive of the wear and tear of gear of all kinds. On the whole, we -may compute that an elephant, well kept, will cost full forty rupees -(£5.) monthly. When we consider that, in England, few gentlemen keep -their horses for much less, and that an elephant performs so much -essential drudgery, indeed, equal to a team of three stout cart horses, -also that the value of money in India is not half so great as with us, -we may deem the above aggregate to be very moderate: the misfortune is, -that an elephant is not, like a horse, promptly or generally useful; and -that, owing to the nature of the climate, as well as of the soil, months -often elapse before the proprietor of the former may be able to avail -himself of the valuable powers of his sable property. - -Camels are very generally kept by the officers of the army throughout -the upper provinces, that is to say, above the Delta of the Ganges, -where the soil is more appropriate to their form, than those muddy, -slippery, tracts, in which these animals are extremely subject to fall. -When such an accident happens, it is a great chance but the animal is -rendered useless; as, owing to the great length of the hind legs, and to -the want of any membranes, or muscles, calculated to prevent their easy -divergence in diametrically opposite directions, the pelvis is extremely -apt to split, and the power of extrication, or even of support itself, -is entirely lost to this very valuable quadruped. - -Though we generally attach the term ‘_camel_’ to that species of the -_camelus_ found in India, where great numbers are bred by persons who -make a very large profit from their labors, the animal under -consideration, having but one hump, or bunch, on its back, should, -properly, be called a ‘_dromedary_.’ Whatever may be the true -designation, the utility of the animal in a climate, and on a soil, to -which it is so admirably suited by nature, is indisputable; but, with -regard to its powers, as described by naturalists, or by travellers, I -must beg leave to enter a partial dissent. - -I have now before me a very respectable publication, wherein it is said, -that ‘a camel will carry a weight of 1,200lb., and will perform a -journey of three hundred leagues in eight days.’ Now, my own experience -convinces me very fully that few camels will carry more than eight -maunds, when making, on an average, stages of from fourteen, to sixteen, -or, at the very utmost, twenty miles within the day, for two months; -allowing a weekly halt. - -So sensible are the Government of India of the inability of a camel to -perform any thing like the service above described, that, in all their -contracts, in which it must have been seen they take care so to -proportion the burthens, that none but the choicest of cattle could move -under them, it is especially detailed that such camels as may be -admitted upon the Company’s establishment of carriage-cattle, should be -rated in the proportion of three camels to one elephant; which, in other -words, assigns to each a burthen composed of two private tents, the -weight of each, when dry, being 275lb., and, when wet, 426lb.; including -poles, pins, mallets, bags, &c. - -Taking the medium as a standard, _i.e._ one wet, and one dry tent, the -average burthen would be only 701lb., which will be found a greater load -than any camels, setting apart perhaps one or two of extraordinary -powers, which have come within my observation, could carry in a proper -manner, so as to answer general purposes, when marching with a regiment. - -The value of a camel varies according to size, form, age, condition, and -disposition: supposing all those points to be mediocrity, from eighty, -to a hundred and twenty, rupees may be taken as a standard; observing, -that, where no military movement is in question, the prices are often -lower, and that, in cases of emergency, they have been known to rise -even so high as to four, five, and six, hundred rupees: but such, -fortunately, is very rarely the case. - -Most gentlemen keep two or three camels, for the purpose of carrying -their tent, liquors, and cot. If on a moderate scale, two will generally -prove competent to the work, but if the tent be large, the liquors and -linen abundant, and the cot extensive, or on a heavy construction, a -third camel will be necessary. In fact, I know not of worse policy, than -that we too often see adopted, of burthening an animal with as much as -it can stand under. When the moment of difficulty comes, as it rarely -fails to do, infinite vexation, and an enormous encrease of expence, -invariably follow. Hence, it will be found advisable, though the primary -expence may be encreased, and the subsequent monthly charges be a trifle -greater, always to retain three, in preference to two camels; unless the -intended burthens be very compact, and not subject to accumulate a great -addition of weight in wet weather. - -The difference shewn to exist between tents, when wet, and when dry, -according to the Company’s standard, ascertained by actual experiments, -should prove a guide to all persons about to proceed on a march, so to -proportion the loads imposed on their cattle as not to endanger their -total failure. It should never be forgotten, that excoriations, however -trivial in the first instance, speedily rankle into wounds, not simply -painful, but generally trenching deeply on the immediate powers, as well -as on the condition, of those useful dumb animals, which submit to the -last moment to the will of their heedless employers. - -Camels, as well as elephants, lie down, so as to bring their stomachs to -the ground, while receiving or discharging their burthens. At such -moments, the former are extremely irritable; snarling, and watching the -opportunity for biting. To say the best of these animals, they are never -to be trusted, their dispositions being, for the most part, sanguinary -and treacherous, although they are not carnivorous, being fed chiefly on -_gram_, and chaff of various kinds: a camel, like the bull-dog, rarely -lets go his hold. - -The expence of maintaining a camel may be averaged at about four or five -rupees monthly, exclusive of its portion of the _surwan’s_ (_i.e._ the -driver’s) wages: the large crook saddle, with its _jolah_, or canvas -trappings, and its _saleetah_, or canvas sheet made of _tawt_, for the -purpose of lading tents, and especially for bringing in chaff, may be -averaged, for wear and tear, at about a rupee monthly. From this it will -be seen, that if a _surwan_, attending three camels, should receive six -rupees for pay, and that each of the camels should cost six more, the -whole expence, amounting to twenty-four rupees per mensem, would fall -far short of that incurred by one elephant. - -The advantages attendant upon an elephant, are, that the load is all -carried compact and entire; that he can travel in swampy districts, -where no other animal could proceed at all; and that he is serviceable -to ride upon, and to join in the line to beat hogs, and other game, out -of heavy covers. On the other hand, a camel will travel on those dry -soils which destroy an elephant’s feet, without sustaining the smallest -injury; he is more patient under heat, and the absence both of fodder -and of water; his prime cost is considerably less; his maintenance -cheaper; and, where a division of carriage becomes necessary, one camel -may be sent off, while the others are retained. But camels rarely thrive -if exposed during the rains; hence, it is customary to build sheds for -their reception during that season: this, however, is done at a very -trifling expence, and might, doubtless, be dispensed with altogether, at -least in the upper provinces, if young animals were to be purchased that -had never been so domesticated. Few gentlemen retain their camels while -serving near the Presidency, where fodder is at a most enormous price, -and where the mange commonly attacks within a few weeks after arrival. - -The heavy, awkward, and apparently slow, gait of the camel, generally -induces to a belief that its rate of travelling is disadvantageous, -inasmuch as it may denote inability to keeping up with the generality of -elephants. This, however, is a great mistake, for it is very common to -see the latter, when in the least over-burthened, or when the weather is -hot, or the road sandy, very late in arriving at their destination; -whereas, the camel, under an appropriate load, will move on at a regular -pace, generally making a distance of seven feet, as I have repeatedly -ascertained, from the centre of that spot whence it lifts a foot, to -where it again sets it down: few elephants do so much; they walk -quicker, but their strides are rarely so extensive. - -The propensity of a camel to stale, so soon as eased of his burthen, -renders it indispensably necessary to drive him to a distance so soon as -the tent is off his back; otherwise, the urinous stench attached to the -spot would render it very unpleasant, or, rather, insupportable. The -native chemists extract large quantities of ammonia from those stands -where camels have been kept for many weeks. - -The greatest inconvenience attached to a camel is his utter inability to -swim across a river, such as any other animal would consider no -impediment. It is true, that, occasionally, camels may have been seen to -swim for a few yards, but, in general, they turn upon the side, and, -unless instantly rescued, would infallibly be drowned. Perhaps this -arises from the general roundness of their bodies, which are very easily -acted upon by the super-incumbent weight of the neck and head, that -become levers, not sufficiently opposed by their almost fleshless limbs. -Some camels enter with readiness into ferry-boats, even of the rudest -construction, while others require to be urged by the display of fire in -their rear, or even by the actual cautery! When once on board, they are -generally quiet, but do not seem to entertain such a dread of their -insulated situation as horses do. - -In this particular, the elephant has a most decided superiority: he -enters the water with alacrity, and, guided by the _mohout_, who -preserves his seat on the animal’s neck, until the latter may, by way of -frolic, descend to walk on the bottom, keeping, at the same time, the -end of his proboscis above water, makes his way to the opposite bank, -though perhaps a mile distant. If there be occasional shallows, whereon -he can refresh himself, two or three miles are passed with equal -facility. - -In their wild state, elephants cross very large rivers in herds; the -young ones swimming by the sides of their mothers, which, occasionally, -support their gigantic calves by means of their trunks, either passed -under the body, or slightly hooked in with the young one’s proboscis. -When domesticated, elephants lose much of their natural energy in every -instance; and, in lieu of viewing a tiger without fear, gradually become -so timid, as to be dreadfully agitated at the sight, or smell, even of a -dead one: hence, in tiger-hunting, those elephants which are more -recently taken from the _keddahs_, provided they be sufficiently trained -to be safe in other respects, are usually best suited to the sport, and -afford their riders a better chance of success. - -Those who cannot afford, or who consider it unnecessary, to retain -either an elephant, or camels, usually purchase, or hire, bullocks, when -about to march to any station not very remote. Some, indeed, prefer them -altogether; but, after having given them more than one trial, both from -necessity, and from the persuasions of others, my mind is made up to the -full conviction, that, although rarely costing more than sixteen or -twenty rupees each, (that is, from forty to fifty shillings,) they are -the most tardy, the most troublesome, and the most expensive, of all the -beasts of burthen in question! - -Knowing, from dear-bought experience, that a bullock which can carry -five maunds is a _rara avis_ of its kind, I was much surprized to find, -in Mr. Colebrooke’s little treatise on the Husbandry of Bengal, an -assertion, that the enormous ‘load of 500lb. of cotton is generally -carried from Nagpore to Mirzapore, a distance which, by the shortest -route, exceeds four hundred miles, in journies of eight or ten miles -daily.’ That some remarkably fine cattle are bred in the Nagpore -district is well known; but I should have greatly doubted, under any -other than the highly respectable authority alluded to, whether it would -be possible to select, in all Bengal, a sufficient number of bullocks, -bred in the country, to carry on the extensive trade between Nagpore and -Mirzapore, under the circumstance of carrying 500lb. as an ordinary -load. - -I have possessed very fine bullocks, such as could not, generally, be -obtained for less than a hundred rupees the pair, and I have had -occasion to rely on their services; but found, that, whenever they were -laden beyond four maunds, (320lb.,) they became restive, and required -many extra hours to perform a march of twelve or fourteen miles, even on -excellent roads, and when in far better plight than _mahajuny_ (trading) -bullocks are commonly seen. - -But let us refer to the regulations of the Company respecting cattle to -be admitted upon their establishment; we shall there find, that one -Mirzapore bullock nearly equals three of them. ‘The standard of cattle -to be retained for, or received into, the service, is not to be less -than fifty inches for the draft-bullocks, and forty-eight inches for the -carriage-bullocks. Each carriage-bullock shall be competent to carry a -burthen of _one hundred and eighty pounds_ weight, exclusive of his -pad.’ - -Now, it is well known the Company employ excellent cattle, and take care -to have justice done them; as, indeed, they are fully entitled to -expect, when they allow no less than thirty sicca rupees for each -bullock purchased on their account; especially, as any distance beyond -sixteen miles, or when laden for more than nine hours within the -twenty-four, or when carrying more than 180lb., come under the -denomination of a forced march, and subject the Company to all risks. - -I should rather apprehend that an error has crept into Mr. Colebrooke’s -otherwise most accurate calculations, owing to a _cutcha-maund_ of five -_paseeries_, (of 10lb. each,) being in general use in that part of the -country. Five of these maunds, of 50lb. each, make a _tungy_, which is -the common load for cattle carrying iron, and other dead weights. -Therefore, if we estimate the general burthen to be in _cutcha_ (_i.e._ -small) maunds, we shall find the result to be nearer the ordinary -result, than when we take 500lb. for the amount of a load. It is a -well-known truth, that a private tent, with its poles, pins, mallets, -and bags, is an ample load for any bullock, even in its dry state, and -that, when wet, it must be a choice animal that is competent to bear it -for even a very few miles. - -In some of the very stony parts, it is usual to shoe the bullocks, the -same as is practised in many parts of England; but, in general, that is -not found necessary. The saddles and pads must be properly attended to, -and the loads should be well strapped on; otherwise, owing to the -skittishness of the cattle in India, and their disposition to lie down, -very frequently, in a day’s journey, considerable injury must be -sustained, by such articles of lading as may be subject to breakage, -from such a practice. - -However great a drawback such a propensity may appear, it is found, that -liquors may be safely trusted to be conveyed by bullocks; but, in order -to ensure the bottles from breaking, it is found necessary to pack every -one of them separate, wrapping round it a small loose band, of that soft -kind of hemp known by the name of _paut_, and stitching the several -rounds together in the same manner as Florence oil flasks, &c., are -enveloped by small bands of fine straw. - -The _paut_, above mentioned, is grown in every part of the country, but -chiefly in Bengal, where it attains to a considerable diameter, perhaps -an inch and a half in diameter, and often grows eleven or twelve feet -high. About three years ago, I presented a specimen of _paut_ to the -Bath Society, measuring more than ten feet in length: it was the -remainder of a quantity in which I had packed some bottles when quitting -Bengal, and had never been so much as put to the hackle. - -Nothing is so effectual as this material towards preserving bottles from -fracture; when properly wolded, they may either be packed in boxes, &c., -without any addition of straw, &c., or they may be advantageously put -into strong bags of _tawt_, and thus, with seeming negligence, be -carried on either side the bullock. I have several times adopted this -mode, and found it by far the safest, as well as the least expensive, -and best suited to the animal. By it, the necessity for boxes was -obviated, and a good bullock could easily carry five dozens of wine for -any length of time, and for any number of miles, a regiment would -commonly march. - -When tents are carried on oxen, it is necessary to divide the load as -equally as may be practicable; observing, that those which have to carry -the two _flies_, ought not to be encumbered with mallets, pins, &c., as -it is a great desideratum to make sure, as much as practicable, that the -flies, the pole, and a certain portion of pins, together with a mallet -or two, should arrive early; it being of less consequence if the -bullocks bearing the walls, _satrinjes_, &c., be somewhat later; since -the main part of the operation of pitching the tent, consisting of -raising the _flies_, may be performed, and shelter afforded, without the -walls, &c., being present. - -Although a very large stout bullock may, here and there, be found -capable of carrying a pair of cloaths-trunks, with a small cot above -them, such must not be generally expected. The trunks will, if properly -constructed, sit close, as they do on a camel; but the cot will -assuredly swag, so as to cause great unsteadiness of gait, and subject -the animal to chafe under the pad: besides, the disposition of most -bullocks is such, as by no means to warrant the lading them with any -article subject to great injury from a fall. - -I have already said the bullock is the worst kind of carriage used in -the army, but for draught it is essentially serviceable; in fact, -without this animal, I know not how the service could proceed in India. -A great deal, however, depends on breed; and no less on due feeding and -proper exercise. Only certain parts of the country, such as the Purneah -and Sircar-Sarun districts, are found to produce oxen of a standard and -frame suited to the ordnance department; in which, on the Bengal -Establishment alone, full five thousand head of cattle are employed, -exclusive of a large establishment of elephants and camels, allotted to -the conveyance of camp equipage. - -The proportion of bullocks allowed for the draught of field-pieces of -various calibres, with which they are expected to keep pace with the -ordinary rate at which troops march, are as follow:— - - To a 24 Pounder 24 Bullocks. - 18 Ditto 18 Ditto. - 12 Ditto 12 Ditto. - 6 Ditto 6 Ditto. - 3 Ditto 4 Ditto. - 8 Inch Howitzer 14 Ditto. - 5½ Ditto 10 Ditto. - 4⅖ Ditto 6 Ditto. - Artificer’s Cart 10 Ditto. - Tumbrel 6 Ditto. - -It may surprize those who are personally unacquainted with India, to -learn that horses are very little employed in carriages. I have already -shewn, that, with the exception of the _r’hunts_ let out for hire about -Calcutta, of which some are drawn by one, or by two _tattoos_, all the -vehicles in use among the natives, and all the laborious part of -whatever may relate to building, trade, and agriculture, are consigned -to oxen; of which the prices are, in some places, so low, that a small -pair, fit to be worked at a well in a gentleman’s garden, may usually be -had for about ten rupees (_i.e._ 25_s._); while the generality of -husbandmen rarely pay more than six rupees (15_s._) for a pair, such as -are adequate to the very insignificant tillage bestowed on the soil. - -The indigenous breed of horses, if Bengal can boast of any such, is -remarkably small, hardy, and vicious: to me, however, it has ever been a -doubt, whether this breed, called _tattoos_, be not a degenerate race -from some supply obtained, at a very remote date, from Durbungah, and -the districts ranging under the northerly frontier. That breed, -generally distinguished by the appellation of _serissahs_, is again -questionable, and may, in all probability, be traced to the _tazees_, -bred in the Maharrattah country, and in every part of the _Punjab_. - -Considering the great strength and perseverance of _tattoos_ in general, -it is rather surprizing that they are not put to more purposes, than -merely serving to carry a load on a march, or to convey some infirm, or -rather affluent, traveller, when moving from one part to another. As few -castrations take place among the males, and the sexes are allowed to -intermix without restraint, the species would multiply rapidly, were it -not that little care is taken of the pregnant mares, and less of the -progeny; which usually has to shift for itself, and to cut its own grass -wherever a scanty meal may be obtainable. If a selection were made of -the _tattoos_, male and female, fitted for breeding from, there might be -established a supply of cattle, far more useful to the peasant, than -those miserably defective oxen which, in spite of the professed -veneration of all Hindus towards those sacred animals, are often kept -toiling at the plough until nature interposes in behalf of the worn-out -deity, and compels the reluctant peasant to allow the hour of -dissolution to pass on in peace. - -The Company, with a view to obtain a certain, regular, and efficient, -supply of horses for their cavalry regiments, have, for about seventeen -years past, maintained an establishment for breeding from select mares -in North Bahar: the liberality with which this has been supported, and -the admirable selection made of persons for the management of every -branch, should give the most favorable result; especially as the spot -chosen for its site is peculiarly eligible in point of grazing. - -But it does not appear that the expected benefits have been produced. I -recollect seeing a splendid calculation, made about the year 1794, which -went so far as to demonstrate, that, by the end of the twelfth year, -full fifteen hundred horses would annually be supplied from the stud. -Seeing that an agency still exists for the purchase of cavalry horses, -and knowing that the whole strength of the light regiments of cavalry do -not exceed six thousand horses, even including the body-guard, we may -reasonably conclude, that the stud is by no means competent to furnish -one-fourth of that number within the year! - -The _tattoos_ of Bengal rarely grow to the height of twelve hands; they -are slight limbed, and cat-hammed; but carry immense burthens during a -day’s march, and are no sooner turned off, having their fore-feet -tethered, than a general war seems to be proclaimed among all of the -tribe that may be within sight or hearing. Kicking, biting, and -gallantry, are the order of the day; and woe betide the incautious wight -who should, at such a time, approach within reach of their heels! - -Few _tattoos_ ever have the _bursautty_; a peculiar breaking out about -the legs, (by no means resembling the grease,) to which horses, in -general, are extremely subject throughout the low countries; especially -if their standing be not remarkably dry, and exercise given in -proportion to their allowance of _gram_; which is a species of pulse, -growing on a low plant of the tare kind, and commonly sold at about a -rupee per maund. - -Of this _gram_, a horse will eat from three to six seers, (of 2lb. -each,) according to his size or appetite; half in the morning, and half -at night. When high fed, and but little rode, the most valuable horses, -in particular, become victims to the _bursautty_; which, though it -disappears in the spring and summer, invariably returns, generally, too, -with encreased force, during every rainy season. As yet, no cure has -been discovered for this ruinous disease, though numbers of gentlemen, -of eminent abilities, have devoted their attention towards its -eradication: its abatement has, in some instances, been effected; but, -notwithstanding the utmost skill and perseverance, the blotches have -returned, in sufficient force to satisfy all medical men, that no -decided mode of treatment, and no general specific, has, hitherto, been -established. - -The exemption of _tattoos_, for the most part, from so formidable a -distemper, seems to indicate their peculiar fitness for the climate: it -matters not whether nature first planted them on the soil, or whether, -by long continuance, they have become habituated to it, so completely as -to defy that virulence with which the climate attacks strange animals. -Wandering among all the puddles and jungles at every season; and -subsisting on the remains of temporary verdure; ultimately, indeed, -browsing, or devouring, the withered remains of long grass; these useful -animals contract no disease, save what may be engendered by such -absolute scarcity as would go nigh to starve a donkey! - -The next breed of horses, in point of strength and hardiness, is the -_tanian_, a small kind, obviously distinct from all the other breeds of -India, and peculiar to the Thibet and Bootan countries, that lie at the -back of our eastern and northern frontier, all the way from Assam to -Sirinagur: allowing for the intervention of the Nepaul Rajah’s -dominions. These horses are, with few exceptions, piebald; though a few -are seen entirely of one color. The breed may be characterized in a few -words, viz. that they are remarkably stout, hog-maned, have short bushy -tails, very short necks, and large heads. - -The Bootan merchants, who come down yearly with various articles of -manufacture, such as mats, cloths, &c., of a very peculiar kind, by no -means displeasing in their patterns, commonly lade their goods upon -_tanians_, which they dispose of ultimately for a small sum, perhaps -from twenty-five to sixty rupees each; reserving, however, a few, -whereon to transport the British woollens, and other articles they -obtain from the produce of their sales. - -Great numbers of the natives of Bengal, who are in good circumstances, -or are obliged to attend daily at particular offices, &c., ride on -_tanians_; which, though not to be termed quiet, are far more so than -_tattoos_ in general. These good folks abominate a _trot_, as being -uneasy and heating; and not one of them would so far demean himself as -to be seen gallopping! This has given rise to the general adoption of -that unnatural, but very easy, pace called the ‘amble,’ in which a horse -moves the fore and hinder feet of the same side at one time. It is -singular, that this mode of going should be so pleasant in a horse, -when, in the elephant, whose natural mode of gait it is, there should -result from it the only inconvenience with which the motion of that -animal is attended. - -_Tanians_ rarely exceed thirteen hands in height, but their powers are -wonderfully great; they are capable of enduring great fatigue, and, -though by no means sightly in a chariot, will perform journies equal to -what might be expected from larger animals. In general, they are rather -fiery, but, by gentle usage, shew sufficient coolness and temper for -most purposes. Like most mountain-bred horses, they are sure-footed, -and, when left to themselves, pick the best road with great -circumspection; proceeding at an easy pace, which they will keep up for -many hours. I know not of any breed better qualified for drawing a light -small chaise, where great speed is not wanted; but figure must be out of -the question. - -The _Serissah_, or _Durbungah-tazee_, derives its name from the places -where great numbers are bred. These horses are generally of a light -make, and, when young, promise to turn out well; but, as they approach -their full standard, lose many good points, and, for the most part, -become rather vicious. They are, however, extremely serviceable as -hacks, and generally make good hog-hunters: occasionally, valuable -horses are found among them; and it is to be hoped, that, as the -Company’s stalions are let out at low rates, to cover such good mares as -may be tendered at their stud, there will soon be effected an immense -improvement in the general stock of North Bahar. - -This, in fact, seems to be one of the prominent features in the -establishment of the stud, and promises to become very conspicuously -successful; though it is to be lamented, that the native breeders, owing -to a want of liberal ideas, and of expanded views, are too apt to adopt -that narrow policy, which prompts to the doing that badly for sixpence, -which may be well done for a penny more! Time will probably overcome -such an absurd system, and convince them that the payment of a few -rupees, or the subscribing to certain regulations, adopted for the -general improvement of property, so far from being detrimental, are the -surest means of obtaining a substantial profit, in the most speedy -manner. - -There are annual fairs, called _maylahs_, in various parts of the -country, where the horses of this breed (_i.e._ _serissahs_,) are -exhibited in immense numbers. The greater part of them are exposed -annually at Buxar, and are purchased by the natives, either for their -own use, or for re-sale in various parts. It is curious, but true, that, -some years ago, a great number of horses that had been taken from -Durbungah into the Maharrattah country, were purchased there for the -supply of the Company’s regiments. Formerly, the immense body of cavalry -paid by the Nabob Vizier of Oude, used to be mounted by horses from -North Bahar, but, since that worthless gang have been sent ‘to the right -about,’ the demand created by that establishment has been almost wholly -done away. Still, however, the prices have not, so far as I can learn, -fallen: they probably are upheld by our encreased strength of cavalry -regiments. - -The price of a _serissah_ is not to be easily defined; a very large -portion of them sell for less than one hundred, while some reach as high -as six hundred, rupees: at a medium, we may affix a hundred and fifty -rupees at a fair standard, if the purchase be made at a fair, but, if -second-hand, from a horse-dealer, from fifty to a hundred per cent, may -be added. I have known very handsome sets, of four and six, purchased at -Buxar, averaging fifteen hands and a half, that were purchased for about -two hundred rupees each, and re-sold, _to friends_, for five and six -hundred, a few weeks after! - -The horses in highest estimation are chiefly imported from the Punjab, -and from Persia, by regular dealers, who come down to our north-west -frontier annually, after the rains, accompanied by many camels, -generally of an excellent breed, which, besides conveying the tents, -&c., of the party, bear heavy burthens of shawls, dried fruits, and, -occasionally, cats of the most beautiful description. Such gentlemen as -wish for horses of great strength, ordinarily purchase _toorkies_; -which, being extremely stout, and phlegmatic, answer well for persons of -great weight, and of timid disposition. - -The Persian horses have generally a finer shoulder, and attain a better -standard, than the _toorky_, which rarely measures fifteen hands, and, -in general, may be about fourteen: both kinds are remarkable for heavy, -lob-ears, and are always well advanced in years before they are brought -for sale. Even under that great drawback, they commonly sell for eight -hundred, or a thousand, rupees, and, when of a handsome color, well -formed, and of a good size, will produce from fifteen hundred, to three -thousand, rupees. - -The _jungle-tazee_, which is bred in the Punjab, or Seik country, is, in -general, handsome, and spirited. These come at an earlier age, as does -the _majennis_, which is bred in the same quarter, and is usually the -offspring of a _jungle-tazee_ horse, with a Persian or _toorky_ mare; or -_vice versâ_. Both these kinds may be rated as rising to full fifteen -hands; and their prices are usually on a par with the _toorky_. - -It is highly necessary, when purchasing of a native dealer, to look very -accurately into every matter relating to soundness, and quietness. Those -gentry are admirable jockies, and commonly administer such doses of -opium to their vicious cattle, as cause them for a while to appear -pre-eminently passive; a circumstance easily detected, by insisting on -the animal being left under charge of the purchaser’s own _syce_, -(_i.e._ groom,) for a day or two, before the money is paid. - -When making bargains with European gentlemen, the whole of the -transactions are generally overt, and free from disguise, but, when -native is opposed to native, the affair is conducted with much assumed -mystery. A cloth is laid over the knees of the seller and purchaser, as -they squat _vis a vis_ on the ground close together; the _hookah_ is -introduced, and resorted to, whenever any little difference takes place: -at other times, the parties have each one hand, generally the right, -under the cloth, when, by means of pressures on the palms, which denote -hundreds, and of the fingers, which denote, in their due order, 20, 40, -60, and 80, speedily understand each other very fully. This affectation -is carried to such an extent, that I have seen nearly a whole day passed -in keeping up the farce, though afterwards it was divulged to me, as a -great secret, that the bargain had been made during the first five -minutes; but the seller was desirous to uphold a character for being -very tenacious of the sum originally demanded! - -Almost every light-colored horse, such as a grey, or a dun, has its tail -stained for many inches near the tip with _mindy_, (_i.e._ _hinna_,) as -used by the ladies of Hindostan: generally, a ring of the same is added -about two inches above, and of about two inches in depth. On account of -the inconvenience and heat attendant upon the retention of full manes, -which are considered indispensable towards the beauty of a horse, it is -usual to braid them with silk, or thread ties, of various colors, -chiefly red, or yellow: the practice certainly has the intended effect, -but causes a large portion of the mane to fall off. The hair of the tail -is never cut by a native, and but rarely by an European; on account of -the millions of gad-flies, which, but for such a defence, would irritate -the animal greatly, and occasion him to fall off, both from his -condition, and his food. - -The stables for horses should be amply spacious, and covered with -thatch, in preference to tiles, which throw too great heat into the -interior. The head-ropes, which commonly branch out from the head-stall -in different directions angularly forward, ought to be substantial, and -rather long than limitted. The heel-ropes ought to be full twenty feet -in length, and kept a little off the ground, by a small bar, or prop, to -prevent their being rotted by the wet. One end of each heel-rope is -furnished with a loop of rather thinner and softer rope, plaited flat, -so as not to injure the pastern, round which it loops on. But for such -preventives, the _syces_ dare not rub down their cattle; which would, -besides, fight desperately, unless thus restrained. - -Stalls of plank are by no means suited to the climate, nor would they -offer any defence against the horses of India, very few of which are -castrated. The best, but, at the same time, very insufficient, device, -is the placing of swinging bars between the horses severally; even these -are no restraint, further than limitting a horse in case he should get -loose; a circumstance instantly announced by the tremendous uproar -occasioned by such an accident, which but rarely occurs. - -On account of the extreme danger to which horses are subjected by the -frequency of fires, it is advisable that every stable, especially if -thatched, should have a range of water-pots placed along the ridge. -These should always be kept full of water, to be at the disposal of men -sent up to sprinkle the thatch, and to extinguish whatever flakes may -fall upon it; but, in case the thatch itself should accidentally take -fire, before any person can mount to distribute the water, then the pots -should be broken, by means of clods, poles, or whatever means may offer -under such emergency. - -The horse-dealers from the Punjab, and from Persia, may be said to lay -the Company’s provinces under annual contribution; since it is -ascertained, that, one year with another, they take back bills, cash, or -goods, (generally the former,) to the full amount of four lacs of rupees -(£50,000). For this they deliver from five to six hundred horses, of -which nine in ten are aged, some dried fruits, Persian cats, and shawls, -the whole intrinsic value of which, or at least the prime cost and -duties payable on the way, cannot exceed one-fourth of that sum. In -truth, the duties, which are rigorously exacted by various petty -princes, &c., through whose territories they must pass, form the greater -portion even of that share of the booty. Yet do the venerable dealers in -horse-flesh always plead poverty, and that they have made so very bad a -trip, that, on their return home, their affairs must go to ruin: -however, they make a shift to come down, year after year, though buying -and selling to so much loss! - -In selling horses, it is customary to describe their several _casts_, -the same as those of the people of India; thus, an auctioneer advertises -a _toorky_, or a _majennis_ ‘of high _cast_,’ to be sold on such a day. -The term may, however, be considered as rather technical, and at least -as arbitrary in its meaning, as when our British knights of the hammer -puff off some hovel, crammed into a corner, where no one would have -dreamt of seeing an edifice, as ‘a capital mansion, undeniably -situated!’ It must, at the same time, be acknowledged, that Asiatic -advertisements do not require to be so cautiously accepted, _cum grano -salis_, as those catch-penny notices, which not only attract the eye -directly, but are literally supported by insidious puffs interspersed -among the news of the day. - -The extravagant price to which all articles of horse furniture have at -times risen in India, operated as a considerable injury to the European -manufacturer, who rarely makes much profit on goods intended for -exportation. Within the last thirty years, numbers of persons, both -European and native, have established themselves as saddlers and -harness-makers. At first they were not much encouraged, owing to a -belief very generally prevalent, that leather tanned in India was -inferior to that exported from this country. - -That objection did not stand its ground; for it was soon ascertained -that the bark of the _baubool_ (_mimoza_) was at least equal to that of -the oak; and that the leather prepared therewith by several Europeans, -who had constructed tan-pits, on a large scale, was both equal to, and -full fifty per cent. cheaper than, what the ships conveyed to India. -Thenceforward, all the leather-work of the carriages built in India, -some of which might vie with any to be seen in Europe, was done with -country hides. Shoe-makers, both European and native, resorted to the -same means of supply, and offered both boots and shoes of the best -prepared leather, the want of which had, for a long time, caused the -very neat shoes made for about a shilling the pair, by the latter class, -to be held in little estimation. - -Saddlers and harness-makers have appeared, whose labors have proved -eminently valuable; their materials, and their work, being alike -excellent. I must here be understood to confine my approbation to the -articles manufactured from leather tanned in a regular manner, and not -that paltry brown-paper-like rubbish manufactured in pots and pans by -indigent natives, who often work up a skin within the third or fourth -day after its being stripped from some starved sheep, or goat; but which -leather may always be distinguished by a narrow streak of white, that -is, of raw hide, remaining in the middle of its thickness. - -Saddles made of such crude materials, but in every other respect by no -means to be condemned, may be had at Monghyr, where also bits and -bridles are made with singular neatness, for about ten rupees (25 -shillings); but those of superior materials, and made under the -inspection of an European, will cost full as much, or perhaps more, then -the sums ordinarily paid in London for saddles, &c., of prime quality, -and high finish. - -The climate is extremely adverse to the tanner, inasmuch as there is -great difficulty in obtaining an ample stock of raw hides; owing to the -consumption of beef and mutton being confined to the European, and to -the Mahomedan parts of the population; and to the great difficulty of -conveying the skins to the pits before incipient fermentation may become -obvious, and disqualify them for the purpose. - -That leather might, with great advantage to both countries, be sent from -India to Europe, cannot be doubted: the great difficulty would be to -furnish such a quantity as might render the trade an object. According -to the present high prices, it would almost be worth while to buy cattle -in India, for the purpose of sending their hides and tallow to market in -England. As to the benefits to arise to the state, they are too obvious -to require pointing out. - -A person who might have quitted India about thirty years ago, when the -generality of articles of almost every description in use among -Europeans, were sent from England; and when only one or two European -tailors were to be seen in all Bengal; when, also, a news-paper was -scarcely in existence, would now, on landing in that country, be -astonished at the improvements made in various branches of manufacture: -he would contemplate the advance made in the mechanical arts as the -certain fore-runner of independence; and he would view the columns of -the several news-papers published at Calcutta, in all fourteen, (besides -magazines, &c.,) whose columns teem with advertisements on a large -scale: these he would view as the paramount results of great enterprize, -founded upon extensive capitals, and backed by an almost unlimitted -credit. - -The news-papers are generally published once or twice weekly, at about a -rupee each; most days of the week bring forth two papers, in which the -price of advertising is generally eight annas, (_i.e._ half a rupee, or -15_d._,) for each line: as the type is rather large, the expence of -advertisements must, in some great houses, prove a conspicuous item -among the disbursements. - -In this particular, the Hindostanee, or rather the Persian, news-papers -are miserably deficient; as, indeed, they are in whatever should be the -contents of a publication devoted to the important purposes of -mercantile, or of political, intelligence. Far from containing a single -advertisement, or from communicating any matter relative to the arts, -these bulletins, for I can call them nothing better, are penned by -persons about the several native courts, according to the whim of a -sycophant, or to the mere tattle in the suburbs of a city; nay, they are -often manufactured hundreds of miles from the places whence they are -supposed to emanate, and contain accounts of battles and sieges, -capitulations and defeats, halts and marches, known to the fabricators -only; who, in whatever relates to invention, contradiction, and -re-contradiction, absolutely surpass those industrious wights that -supply our British news-mongers with paragraphs of the highest -importance, accidents, murders, &c., &c., at the cheap rate of ten -shillings per dozen! - -There being no presses in use among the natives, every communication, -whether private or public, must be manuscript; hence, the profession of -scribe is, in some places, no bad livelihood; especially at Delhi, -which, being the ancient seat of government, and the immediate residence -of a nominal king, commonly called ‘The Great Mogul,’ supplies every -quarter of India with _Akbars_, (_i.e._ news-papers,) written in the -Persian language and character, on long narrow slips of a paper -manufactured in India, either from bamboos, reeds, or cotton-wool. These -slips are rolled up to about an inch in width, and, being enclosed in a -small cover pasted together, are despatched, with the shew of great -importance, to the several quarters of Hindostan, under the pompous idea -of their being every where in high estimation. - -The only paper published by authority in Bengal, is the Calcutta -Gazette, which is usually replete with advertisements for the sale of -lands, printed in English, Persian, and Bengalese: as to news, or useful -essays, &c., it is uncommonly sterile. Private advertisements in this -paper are extravagantly dear, in consequence of the obligation imposed -on all collectors, &c., to take it in; whereby one copy at least is -received at every civil station, however small. - -The advertisements for the sale of lands, above alluded to, have sprung -from the adoption of what is called the _Mocurrery_ system, which -originated with Mr. Thomas Law, formerly collector of Bahar, and now -settled in America. That plan certainly wore a very specious appearance; -because it purported to be a perpetual adjustment of the rents, which -were before subject to augmentation, and held out to the land-holders -the comforting assurance of being considered on a footing with -proprietors in fee-simple, so long as they should pay the rents as -settled by the _Mocurrery_ agreement. - -While the plan was in agitation, and under the consideration of Marquis -Cornwallis, by whom it was adopted, the Board of Revenue, to which it -was, _pro forma_, submitted, made several very sensible and cogent -remarks, which, however, had not the effect of causing it to be -abandoned. Time has fully justified the objections stated by that Board, -at which the present Lord Teignmouth, then Mr. Shore, presided; and we -find, after many years of experiment, that, without reaping the smallest -advantage themselves, the Company appear bound to perpetuate a -resignation of their rights as proprietors of the soil, and of their -interests as a body rationally entitled to derive an augmentation of -rent, in proportion as the produce of the soil may become more valuable, -and more abundant. - -This discussion has led me to the consideration of a most important -topic; viz. the _Revenue of Bengal_, of which, and its manner of -collection, I shall endeavor to give a summary; first presenting my -readers with a copy of the _Mocurrery_, or permanent system. - - - BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. - - ---------- - -=Proclamation.= - -_To the_ Zemindars, Independent Talookdars, _and other_ actual - Proprietors of Land, _paying Revenue to Government, in the Provinces - of_ Bengal, Bahar, _and_ Orissa. - - - ARTICLE I. - - -In the original regulations for the decennial settlement of the Public -Revenues of _Bengal_, _Bahar_, and _Orissa_, passed for these provinces -respectively, on the 18th day of September, 1789, the 25th day of -November, 1789, and the 10th day of February, 1790, it was notified to -the _proprietors of land_ with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement might -be concluded, that the jumma assessed upon their lands under those -regulations, would be continued after the expiration of the ten years, -and remain unalterable for ever, provided such continuance should meet -with the approbation of the Honorable Court of Directors for the affairs -of the East India Company, and not otherwise. - - - ARTICLE II. - - -The Marquis Cornwallis, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, -Governor-General in Council, now notifies to all Zemindars, Talookdars, -and other actual proprietors of land, paying revenue to Government, in -the provinces of _Bengal_, _Bahar_, and _Orissa_, that he has been -empowered by the Honorable Court of Directors, for the affairs of the -East India Company, to declare the jumma which has been, or may be, -assessed upon their lands, under the regulations above mentioned, FIXED -FOR EVER. - - - ARTICLE III. - - -The Governor-General in Council accordingly declares to the Zemindars, -&c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been concluded under -the regulations above mentioned, that, at the expiration of the term of -the settlement, no alteration will be made in the assessment which they -have respectively engaged to pay; but that they, and their heirs, and -lawful successors, will be allowed to hold their estates at such an -assessment, FOR EVER. - - - ARTICLE IV. - - -The lands of some Zemindars, &c., having been held _k’has_,[A] or let in -farm, in consequence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of -them, under the regulations above mentioned, the Governor-General in -Council now notifies to the Zemindars, &c., whose lands are held -_k’has_, that they shall be restored to the management of their lands, -upon their agreeing to the payment of the assessment, which has been, or -may be, required of them, in conformity to the regulations above -mentioned, and that no alteration shall hereafter be made in that -assessment, but that they, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall -be permitted to hold their respective estates at such an assessment FOR -EVER: and he declares to the Zemindars, &c., whose lands have been let -in farm, that they shall not regain possession of their lands before the -expiration of the period for which they have been farmed, (unless the -farmers shall voluntarily consent to make over to them the remaining -term of their lease, and the Governor-General in Council shall approve -of the transfer,) but, that, at the expiration of that period, upon -their agreeing to the payment of the assessment which may be required of -them, they shall be re-instated, and that no alteration shall afterwards -be made in the assessment; but that they, and their heirs, and lawful -successors, shall be allowed to hold their respective estates at such an -assessment FOR EVER. - - -Footnote A: - - In hand, or in trust. - - ARTICLE V. - - -In the event of the proprietary right in lands that are, or may, become -the property of Government, being transferred to individuals, such -individuals, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall be permitted -to hold the lands, at the assessment at which they maybe transferred, -FOR EVER. - - - ARTICLE VI. - - -It is well known to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to the inhabitants of -_Bengal_, _Bahar_, and _Orissa_, in general, that, from the earliest -times to the present period, the public assessment upon the lands has -never been fixed; but, that, according to established rule and custom, -the rulers of these provinces have, from time to time, demanded an -encrease of assessment from the proprietors of land; and, that, for the -purpose of obtaining this encrease, not only frequent investigations -have been made, to ascertain the actual produce of their estates, but -that it has been the practice to deprive them of the management of their -lands, and either to let them in farm, or to appoint officers on the -part of Government, to collect the assessments immediately from the -Ryots. The Honorable Court of Directors, considering these usages and -measures to be detrimental to the prosperity of the country, have, with -a view to promote the future ease and happiness of the people, -authorized the foregoing declaration; and the Zemindars, independent -Talookdars, and other actual proprietors of land, with, or on behalf of, -whom a settlement has been made, or may be concluded, are to consider -these orders, fixing the amount of the assessments, as IRREVOCABLE, and -not liable to alteration by any persons whom the Court of Directors may -hereafter appoint to the administration of their affairs in this -country. - -The Governor-General in Council trusts that the proprietors of lands, -sensible of the benefits conferred upon them, by the public assessments -being fixed FOR EVER, will exert themselves in the cultivation of their -lands, under the certainty that they will enjoy exclusively the fruits -of their own good management and industry, and that no demand will ever -be made upon them, their heirs, or successors, by the present, or any -future, Government, for an augmentation of the public assessment, in -consequence of the improvement of their respective estates. - -To discharge the revenues at the stipulated periods, without delay or -evasion, and to conduct themselves with good faith and moderation -towards their dependant Talookdars, and Ryots, are duties at all times -indispensably required from the proprietors of land; and a strict -observance of those duties is now, more than ever, incumbent upon them, -in return for the benefits which they themselves will derive from the -orders now issued. - -The Governor-General in Council therefore expects that the proprietors -of land will not only act in this manner themselves, towards their -dependant Talookdars, but also enjoin the strictest adherence to the -same principles, in the persons whom they may appoint to collect the -rents for them. He further expects they will regularly discharge the -revenue in all seasons, and he accordingly notifies to them, that, in -future, no claims, or applications, for suspensions, or remissions, on -account of drought, inundation, or other calamity of season, will be -attended to; but, that, in the event of any Zemindar, &c., with, or on -behalf of, whom a settlement has been made, or may be concluded, on his -or her heirs, or successors, failing in the punctual discharge of the -public revenue, which has been, or may be, assessed upon their lands, -under the above-mentioned regulations, a sale of the whole of the lands -of the defaulter, or such portion of them as may be sufficient to make -good the means, will positively and invariably take place. - - - ARTICLE VII. - - -To prevent any misconstruction of the foregoing Articles, the -Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary to make the following -declarations to the Zemindars, &c. - -_First._ It being the duty of the ruling power to protect all classes of -people, and more particularly those who, from situation, are most -helpless, the Governor-General in Council will, whenever he may deem it -proper, enact such regulations as he may think necessary for the -protection and welfare of the dependant Talookdars, Ryots, and other -cultivators of the soil; and no Zemindar, &c. shall be entitled, on this -account, to make any objection to the discharge of the fixed assessment -which they have respectively agreed to pay. - -_Second._ The Governor-General in Council having, on the 28th day of -July, 1790, directed the Sayer Collections to be abolished, a full -compensation was granted to the proprietors of land, for the loss of -revenue sustained by them in consequence of that abolition; and he now -declares, that, if he should hereafter think it proper to re-establish -the Sayer Collections, or any other internal duties, and to appoint -officers on the part of Government to collect them, no proprietor of -land will be admitted to any participation thereof, or be entitled to -make any claim for remissions on that account. - -_Third._ The Governor-General in Council will impose such assessments as -he may deem equitable, on all lands at present alienated, and paying no -public revenue, which have been, or may be, proved to be held under -illegal, or invalid titles. The assessment so imposed will belong to -Government, and no proprietor of land will be entitled to any part of -it. - -_Fourth._ The jumma of those Zemindars, &c., which is declared -fixed, in the foregoing articles, is to be considered unconnected -with, and exclusive of, any allowances which have been made to them -in the adjustment of their jumma for keeping up tannahs, or -police-establishments, and also of the produce of any lands which -they may have been permitted to appropriate for the same purpose: -and the Governor-General in Council reserves to himself the option -of resuming the whole, or part, of such allowances, or produce of -such lands, according as he may think proper, in consequence of his -having exonerated the proprietors of land from the charge of keeping -the peace, and appointed officers, on the part of Government, to -superintend the police of the country. - -The Governor-General in Council, however, declares that the allowances, -or the produce of lands, which may be so resumed, will be appropriated -to no other purpose but that of defraying the expence of the police, and -that instructions will be sent to the collectors not to add such -allowance, nor the produce of such lands, to the jumma of the -proprietors of land, but to collect the amount from them separately. - -_Fifth._ Nothing contained in this Proclamation shall be construed to -render the lands of the several descriptions of disqualified -proprietors, specified in the first article of the regulations, -regarding disqualified land-holders, passed on the 15th day of July, -1791, liable to sale for any arrears which may accrue on the fixed jumma -that has been, or may be, assessed upon their lands under the above -mentioned regulations for the decennial settlement, provided that such -arrears have accrued, or may accrue, during the time that they have -been, or may be, dispossessed of the management of their lands under the -said regulations of July the 15th, 1791. - -It is to be understood, however, that, whenever all, or any, of the -descriptions of disqualified land-holders specified in the first article -of the last mentioned regulations, shall be permitted to assume, or to -retain, the management of their lands, in consequence of the ground of -their disqualification no longer existing, or of the Governor-General in -Council dispensing with, altering, or abolishing, those regulations, the -lands of such proprietors will be held responsible for the payment of -the fixed jumma that has been, or may be, assessed thereon, from the -time that the management may devolve upon them, in the same manner as -the lands of all actual proprietors of land who are declared qualified -for the management of their estates; and also of all actual proprietors -who are unqualified for such management, by natural, or other, -disabilities, but do not come within the description of unqualified -land-holders specified in the first article of the regulations of July -the 15th, 1791, are, and will be, held answerable for any arrears that -are, or may become, due from them on the fixed jumma, which they, or any -persons on their behalf, have engaged, or may engage, to pay under the -above mentioned regulations, for the decennial settlement. - - - ARTICLE VIII. - - -That no doubt may be entertained whether proprietors of land are -entitled, under the existing regulations, to dispose of their estates, -without the previous sanction of Government, the Governor-General in -Council notifies to the Zemindars, &c., that they are privileged to -transfer to whomsoever they may think proper, by sale, gift, or -otherwise, their proprietary rights in the whole, or any portion, of -their respective estates, without applying to Government for its -sanction to the transfer; and, that all such transfers will be held -valid, provided they be conformable to the Mahomedan, or to the Hindu, -Laws, [according as the religious persuasions of the parties to each -transaction may render the validity of it determinable by the former, or -the latter, code,] and that they be not repugnant to any regulations now -in force, which may have been passed by the British administration, or -to any regulations that they may enact hereafter.[B] - - -Footnote B: - - Here appears a wide field for innovation! - - ARTICLE IX. - - -From the limitation of the public demand upon the lands, the net income, -and, consequently, the value (independent of encrease obtainable by -improvements) of any landed property, for the assessments on which a -distinct engagement has been, or may be, entered into between Government -and the proprietor, or that may be separately assessed, although -included in one engagement with other estates belonging to the same -proprietor, and which may be offered for public or private sale entire, -will always be ascertainable by a comparison of the amount of the fixed -jumma assessed upon it, (which, agreeably to the foregoing declarations, -is to remain unalterable FOR EVER, to whomsoever the property may be -transferred,) with the whole of its produce, allowing for the charges of -management. - -But it is also essential, that a notification should be made of the -principles upon which the fixed assessment charged upon any such estate -will be apportioned on the several divisions of it, in the event of the -whole of it being transferred, by public or private sale, or otherwise, -in two or more lots, or of a portion of it being transferred, in one, or -two, or more lots, or of its being joint property, and a division of it -being made amongst the proprietors; otherwise, from the want of a -declared rule for estimating the proportion of the fixed jumma, with -which the several shares would be chargeable in such cases, the real -value of each share would be uncertain, and, consequently, the benefits -expected to result, from fixing the public assessment upon the lands, -would be but partially obtained. - -The Governor-General in Council has, accordingly, prescribed the -following rules for apportioning the fixed assessment in the several -cases above mentioned; but, as Government might sustain a considerable -loss of revenue by disproportionate lots of the assessment, were the -apportioning of it, in any of the cases above specified, left to the -proprietors, he requires, that all such transfers, or divisions, as may -be made by the private act of the parties themselves, be notified to the -collector of the revenue of that zillah in which the lands may be -situated, or to such other officer as Government may, in future, -prescribe, in order that the fixed jumma assessed upon the whole estate -maybe apportioned on the several shares, in the manner hereafter -directed; and that the names of the proprietors of each share, and the -jumma charged thereon, may be entered upon the public registers; and -that separate engagements, for the payment of the jumma assessed upon -each share, may be executed by the proprietors, who will thenceforward -be considered as actual proprietors of land. - -And the Governor-General in Council declares, that, if the parties to -such transfers or divisions shall omit to notify them to the collector -of the revenue of the zillah, or such other officer as may be hereafter -prescribed, for the purposes before mentioned, the whole of such estate -will be held responsible to Government for the discharge of the fixed -jumma assessed upon it, in the same manner as if no such transfer or -division had taken place. - -The Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary further to notify, -in elucidation of the declarations contained in this article, (which are -conformable to the principles of the existing regulations,) that if any -Zemindar, &c., shall dispose of a portion of his, or her, lands, as a -dependent Talook, the jumma which may be stipulated to be paid by the -dependent Talook, will not be entered upon the records of Government, -nor will the transfer exempt such lands from being answerable, in common -with the remainder of the estate, for the payment of the public revenue -assessed upon the whole of it, in the event of the proprietor, or his, -or her, successors, falling in arrear from any cause whatever; nor will -it be allowed, in any case, to affect the rights, or claims, of -Government, any more than if it had never taken place. - -_First._ In the event of the whole of the lands of a Zemindar, &c., -with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been, or may be, concluded -under the regulations above mentioned, being exposed to public sale, by -the order of the Governor-General in Council, for the discharge of -arrears of assessment, or in consequence of the decision of a court of -justice, in two or more lots, the assessment upon each lot shall be -fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual -produce, as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands sold may -bear to their actual produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the -mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or such -other regulations as the Governor-General in Council may, hereafter, -adopt; and the purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands, and his, or -their, heirs, and lawful successors, shall hold them at the jumma at -which they may be so purchased, FOR EVER. - -_Second._ When a portion of the lands of a Zemindar, &c., with, or on -behalf of, whom a settlement has been, or may be, concluded under the -above regulations, shall be exposed to public sale, by order of the -Governor-General in Council, for the liquidation of arrears of -assessment, or pursuant to the decision of a court of justice, the -assessment upon such lands, if disposed of in one lot, shall be fixed at -an amount which shall bear the same proportion to their actual produce, -as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands of such proprietors, -including those disposed of, may bear to the whole of their actual -produce. - -If the lands sold shall be disposed of in two, or more, lots, the -assessment upon each lot shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear -the same proportion to its actual produce, as the fixed assessment upon -the whole of the lands of such proprietor, including those sold, may -bear to the amount of their actual produce. The actual produce of the -whole of the lands of such proprietor, whether the portion of them which -may be sold be disposed of in one, or in two, or in more, lots, shall be -ascertained in the mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing -regulations, or such other regulations as the Governor-General in -Council may hereafter enact, and the purchaser, or purchasers, of such -lands, and his, or her, or their, heirs, and successors, will be allowed -to hold them at the jumma at which they may be so purchased, FOR EVER; -and the remainder of the public jumma, which will consequently be -payable by the former proprietor of the whole estate, on account of the -portion of it that may be left in his, or her, possession, will continue -unalterable FOR EVER. - -_Third._ When a Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement -has, or may be, made, shall transfer the whole of his, or her, estate, -in two, or more, distinct portions, to two, or more, persons, or a -portion thereof to one person, or to two, or more, persons in joint -property, by private sale, gift, or otherwise, the assessment upon each -distinct portion of such estate, so transferred, shall be fixed at an -amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce, as -the assessment on the whole estate of the transferring proprietor, of -which the whole, or a portion, nay be so transferred, may bear to the -whole of its actual produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the -mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or such -other regulations as Government may hereafter adopt; and the person, or -persons, to whom such lands may be transferred, and his, or her, or -their, heirs, and lawful successors, shall hold them at the jumma at -which they were so transferred, FOR EVER; and (where only a portion of -such estate shall be transferred) the remainder of the public jumma, -which will consequently be payable by the former proprietor of the whole -estate, on account of the lands that may remain in his, or her, -possession, shall be continued unalterable FOR EVER. - -_Fourth._ Whenever a division shall be made of lands, the settlement of -which has been, or may be, concluded with, or on behalf of, the -proprietor, or proprietors, and that are, or may become, the joint -property of two, or more, persons, the assessment upon each share shall -be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual -produce, as the fixed jumma, assessed upon the whole of the estate -divided, may bear to the whole of its actual produce. This produce shall -be ascertained in the mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the -existing regulations, or such other regulations as the Governor-General -in Council may hereafter adopt; and the sharers, and their heirs, and -lawful successors, shall hold their respective shares, at the jumma at -which they may be assessed, FOR EVER. - - - ARTICLE X. - - -The following rules are prescribed respecting the adjustment of the -assessment on the lands of Zemindars, &c., whose farms are, or may be, -held _k’has_, or let in farm, in the event of their being disposed of by -public sale, or transferred by any private act of the proprietor, or of -their being joint property, and a division of them taking place among -the proprietors. - -_First._ If the whole, or a portion, of the lands of a Zemindar, &c., -who may not have agreed to the assessment proposed to him, or her, under -the regulations above mentioned, and whose lands are, or may be, held -_k’has_, or let in farm, shall be exposed to public sale, in one, or -two, or more, lots, pursuant to the decree of a court of justice, such -lands, if _k’has_, shall be disposed of at whatever assessment the -Governor-General in Council may deem equitable, and the purchaser, or -purchasers, of such lands, and his, or her, or their, lawful successors, -or heirs, shall hold the land at the assessment at which they may be so -purchased, FOR EVER. - -If the lands, at the time of their being exposed for sale, shall be held -in farm, and shall be put up in one, or two, or more, lots, they shall -be disposed of under the following conditions. The purchaser, or -purchasers, shall receive during the unexpired part of the term of the -lease of the farmer, whatever such proprietor shall have been entitled -to receive in virtue of his, or her, proprietary rights, on account of -the lands so purchased, and such purchaser, or purchasers, shall engage -to pay, at the expiration of the lease of the farmers, such assessment -on account of the lands as Government may deem equitable. The sum to be -received by the purchaser, or purchasers, during the unexpired part of -the term of the lease of the farmer, and the jumma to be paid by such -purchaser, or purchasers, after the expiration of the lease, shall be -specified at the time of sale, and such purchaser, or purchasers, and -his, or her, or their, heirs, and lawful successors, shall be allowed to -hold the lands, at the assessment at which they may be so purchased, FOR -EVER. - -_Second._ If a Zemindar, &c., whose lands are, or may be, held _k’has_, -or let in farm, shall transfer by private sale, gift, or otherwise, the -whole, or a portion, of his, or her, lands, in one, or two, or more, -lots, the person, or persons, to whom the lands may be so transferred, -shall be entitled to receive from Government, (if the lands are held -_k’has_,) or from the farmer, (if the lands are let in farm,) the -mali-connah to which the former proprietor was entitled, on account of -the lands so transferred. The purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands -will stand in the same predicament as the Zemindars, &c., mentioned in -the fourth article, whose lands are held _k’has_, or have been let in -farm, in consequence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of -them under the before mentioned regulations for the decennial -settlement, and the declarations contained in that article are to be -held applicable to them. - -_Third._ In the event of a division being made in lands that are, or may -become, the joint property of two, or more, persons, and which are, or -may be, held _k’has_, or be let in farm, the proprietors of the several -shares will stand in the same predicament, with regard to their -respective shares, as the Zemindars, &c., specified in the fourth -article, whose lands have been let in farm, or are held _k’has_, in -consequence of their having refused to pay the assessment required of -them under the before mentioned regulations of the decennial settlement, -and the declarations contained in that article are to be considered -applicable to them. - - - ARTICLE XI. - - -The Governor-General in Council avails himself of this opportunity to -notify to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to all other description of -persons, that it is his intention forthwith to establish Courts of -Justice throughout the country, upon such principles as will put it out -of the power of individuals to injure each other with impunity, and -prevent the officers of Government from infringing the rights and -property of any of the inhabitants of these provinces, by ensuring a -speedy and impartial administration of justice in all cases whatever. - -_Dated at Fort-William, the 22nd day of March, 1793, corresponding with - the 12th day of Cheyte, 1199, of the Bengal Æra, and the 9th day of - Shabaun, 1207, Higeree._ - - -In order to comprehend the foregoing more fully, it is proper to state, -that when the _mocurrery_ (or perpetual) system of revenue was -originally proposed, the Governor-General in Council (Marquis -Cornwallis) notified, that it would be tried, in the first instance, for -ten years only; whence the term ‘_decennial settlement_.’ But, whether -from an early conviction of its excellence, or that the Marquis felt -anxious to ensure to the natives, and, as he apprehended, to the Company -also, those immense benefits attendant upon a final adjustment of so -momentous, and so extensive a concern, we see that, previous to his -return to Europe, he rendered the settlement as permanent as human -ability could effect. If report be true, the satisfaction he -experienced, on concluding the settlement, was afterwards greatly -diminished, when, on his re-appointment to India, he found that a -thousand deceptions had been practised by the natives, notwithstanding -every endeavor to frustrate such litigious or deceptive intentions; that -the Company’s finances had been fettered very imprudently by that -restriction which precluded Government from availing itself of growing -resources; and that the ‘Zemindars, independent Talookdars, and other -actual proprietors of land,’ so far from considering themselves to be -under any obligation to the Company, raised their heads with no little -insolence, and, in many instances, even complained that enough had not -been conceded to them. - -The most mortifying fact was, that full one-third of the landed property -within the Company’s provinces had actually been under the hammer. This -was an evil which spoke for itself, and which no gloss, no colors, could -conceal. That, under such a government, property, to the amount of -millions upon millions, should become thus exposed to transfer, was a -reflection that could not fail to rankle in the mind of him, who had -expected to see content, prosperity, and loyalty, teeming in every -quarter! Never was the vanity of man more conspicuously displayed, or -the mortification of disappointed zeal more grievously felt. - -The abrogation of that incertitude, which not only subjected the -land-holder to imposition, but the revenue to much defalcation, was -assuredly a most serious consideration; but, in adopting those measures -which might seem to have the most desirable tendency, it was necessary -to have a full idea of the views and dispositions of the persons on whom -the most essential benefits were to be conferred. A deficiency of -experience, or of insight into their true character, could alone have -led the Marquis into an error, from which the mode of extrication is, I -believe, among the most pressing desiderata of the British government. - -Much pains have been taken to prove, that the _zemindars_, &c., were the -legitimate proprietors of the soil; but a very slight inspection of the -forms of ancient grants, made by the Emperors of Hindostan, must satisfy -the most scrupulous, that no person whatever occupied the soil, except -by tolerance of that power under which it was protected. Until our -acquisition of the _Dewany_, (_i.e._ of the government of the provinces -of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa,) no fixed tenure, beyond the will of the -ruling despot, was known, or even claimed; to have asserted such a -right, would have been to provoke immediate castigation, and removal -from the lands. - -Even in the times of our own governors, no hesitation was made -respecting the banishment (for it virtually was one) of those who either -assumed a decided claim to the property, or who, from whatever cause, -whether rebellion, mis-management, or unwillingness to pay their rents, -fell in arrears. Such men were always displaced, and others were -appointed in their stead, as a mere matter of course. ‘_Saheb ke -koossy_,’ (its master’s pleasure,) was the patient response of the -offender; who, whatever might be his feelings, or his opinions, felt the -expediency of being perfectly passive on such an occasion. - -I believe the records will prove, that Mr. Hastings, during the ten -years he was in the chair, made a very free use of this well-understood -authority; yet, so far were the natives from thinking him unjust, or -over severe, that, when the intelligence of his being acquitted by -parliament, was received in India, such was the pleasure felt by all -classes, that addresses of congratulation were poured in from every part -of the country! This was a compliment that never had been paid by the -natives to any of our governors, even when about to return to Europe; a -period, at which it might be expected some adulatory addresses might, by -great influence, be obtained: no, it was the spontaneous flow of -gratitude, pity, and admiration; such as never would have been -forth-coming, if the ejectment of a _zemindar_ from his soil had been -considered as the expulsion from an hereditary or established right, -rather than as the removal of tenants-at-will. - -It certainly must appear curious, that we receive eleven-sixteenths of -the produce of the soil _from its proprietors_! Such is, indeed, the -case, taking all upon an average. The peasantry, in a number of -instances, pay more; especially where middle-men (a class of people by -no means scarce in India) are concerned. These are the same harpies all -over the world; never failing to reduce the industrious to distress, and -to seize upon the all of those most unfortunate beings, whom want of -experience, or of interest, may place at their mercy! - -The old system of farming out the country to particular persons, many of -whom rented of the Company to the amount of fifty lacs, (upwards of -£600,000.,) was productive of the greatest evils with which an -industrious, but indigent, population could have to contend! Under that -mode, it was impossible for Government to make certain of its rents, -which were generally remitted in part to the great farmers, lest they -should, in bad seasons, oppress the Ryots, and drive them either to -despair, or out of the country. This was intended as an act of -generosity on the part of Government, which had not the means of -enforcing arrears, otherwise than by the sale of a farmer-general’s -property, whence but a small portion could be expected to result; but, -unhappily, no alleviation of consequence was extended to the real -agriculturist; who, being subject to a very summary process, was often -compelled to embrace ruin, rather than to suffer all the penalties -inflicted by an avaricious and obdurate creditor. - -That such should have been the case under the immediate eye of -Government, may excite much surprize; but it must be considered, that, -under the farming system, the least interference would have instantly -been the signal for universal clamor, and that it would have proved -beyond the power of all the civil servants, throughout the Company’s -territories, to have even registered, much less to have heard, and -settled, all the references which would have been made. - -This difficulty could not fail to be greatly augmented, by the extreme -deficiency then existing of Company’s servants in every part of India; -for, in each of the _zillahs_, or districts, only a collector, with an -assistant, perhaps, was stationed. In one instance, I recollect passing -by a civil station, when marching from one province to another, when the -resident-surgeon was under the necessity of requesting an officer of our -corps to aid him in examining the accounts of the factory, which he had -been obliged to make out; the president and his assistant being both -absent on public business. This occurrence afforded not only much -amusement, but a wide scope for observation regarding the paucity of -Europeans employed at the out-stations. - -In those days, the collector had abundance of duty to perform; for he -was not simply to settle all accounts respecting the revenue, and, in -some instances, of manufactures provided for the Company’s homeward -cargoes, but the whole of the criminal, as well as of the civil, code of -justice, were under his control: whatever petty offences were committed, -or whatever disputes arose among the inhabitants, became equally his -province to enquire into. Fortunately, the _banian_, or _dewan_, -employed, used to take a very considerable portion of such toil off -master’s hands, and to prevent, by a kind of petty _adaulut_, or -tribunal, held in some corner of the office, or perhaps at his own -house, thousands of references to his principal. The chief renter of the -_zillah_ being often employed as _banian_ to the collector, it is easy -to imagine to which side justice, as it was called, used to incline. - -Within the last twenty years, the number of servants employed by the -Company has been greatly augmented; not only on account of their -extension of territory, but, in consequence of the separation, very -judiciously made, of two offices, incompatible to be held by the same -individual. The collector is now, except in a very few _zillahs_ of less -note, confined to the collection of the revenues, having under him one -or more assistants, according to the extent of his district. - -The whole of the judicial proceedings are under cognizance of a judge, -who, aided by his register, decides civil causes between parties -residing within his jurisdiction; while the criminal catalogue is handed -over to a court composed of natives versed in the Mahomedan and Hindu -laws, though the former are, generally, the guide. These native judges -are superintended in their proceedings by three of the Company’s -servants of long standing, having likewise under them a secretary, or -register. - -Such tribunals are established in various parts of the country, -particularly at Calcutta, Moorshadabad, Dacca, Patna, Benares, and in -the Ceded Provinces, under the designation of Provincial Courts of -Appeal and Circuit. There are, besides, judges, each having a register -and an assistant, stationed at Benares, Moorshadabad, Patna, and Dacca, -for the especial purpose of administering justice, and for the -correction of abuses within those cities respectively. - -The stations of the _zillah_ courts, and of the collectors, are as -follow:— - - - Agra, │Dacca, │Nuddeah, - - Allahabad, │Dinapore, │Purneah, - - Ally-Ghur, │Etayah, │Rajeshaye, - - Backergunge, │Furruckabad, │Ramghur, - - Bareilly, │Gorackpore, │Rungpore, - - Bahar, │Hoogly, │Sahacunpore, - - Benares, │Jessore, │Sarun, - - Beerboom, │Juanpore, │Shahabad, - - Boglepore, │Meerat, │Sylhet, - - Burdwan, │Mirzapore, │Tipperah, - - Cawnpore, │Momensing, │Tirhoot, - - Chittagong, │Moorshadabad, │Twenty-four - │ │ Pergunnahs. - - Cuttack, │Moradabad, │ - - -The stations of the commercial residents, whose duty is entirely -confined to the providing of investments for the Company’s shipping, -are, - - - Bareilly, │Goruckpore, │Mauldah, - - Bauleah, │Hurial, │Midnapore, - - Commercolly, │Hurripaul, │Patna, - - Cossimbazar, │Jungipore, │Radnagore, - - Dacca, │Keerpoy, │Rungpore, - - Etayah, │Luckypore and │Santipore, - │ Chittagong, │ - - Golagore, │ │Soonamooky. - - -Collectors of government customs, most of whom are also collectors of -town duties, are stationed at - - - Benares, │Dacca, │Moorshadabad, - Calcutta, │Furruckabad, │ and Patna. - Cawnpore, │Hoogly, │ - - -The diplomatic residents are as follow:—at - - - _Delhi._ The Court of the Emperor. - - _Hyderabad._ The Court of the Nizam. - - _Lucknow._ The Court of the Nabob Vizier of Oude. - - _Mysore._ The Court of the Rajah, (late Tippoo’s - country.) - - _Nagpore._ The Court of the Berar Maharrattahs. - - _Poonah._ The Court of the Peishwa, and with - Dowlut Row Scindeah, one of the Chiefs - of the Maharrattah League. - - -The difference that has been made by the conduct of the British -government, in the suppression of an immense number of farmers on the -large scale, and of middle-men that again stood between those farmers -and the peasants, has been immense. In many places, the lands are now in -the possession of an industrious population, holding them from the -renters, or, if I may use the term, from the proprietors of villages and -small _talooks_, consisting of, perhaps, three or four thousand -_bigahs_: the revenues are thus rendered far more easy of collection, -and, consequently, more certain; because it is now the interest of every -honest renter to be forth-coming with his rents at the office of the -collector, at the several periods when they should be paid. - -Those periods are not equi-distant, as in England; but are generally -settled in such manner as may be convenient to the tenants, according as -their several crops may be reasonably expected to become marketable. The -division is by a certain number of annas, or sixteenths, in each rupee, -being payable at particular seasons; allowance being made for the -different species of grain, &c., cultivated. There being no harvest of -grain from the beginning of November to the beginning of March, the -collections generally fall light in the intermediate months, but, about -April and May, a large portion usually becomes payable, and again, in -Bengal, after the rice is harvested: but, on the whole, the rent may be -commonly taken at four instalments, two of which are considerable, and -two of smaller portions of the rupee. - -The heavy _kists_, or collections, of Bengal, are from August to -January, in the proportion of two-thirds of the whole rent; the great -crops in that quarter being cut after the rains. The gruff _kists_, -which include the _rubbee_, or small harvest of white-corn, sugar, &c., -come in between January and the beginning of May. The fruits, fish, &c., -from April to July. In Bengal, the year begins in April; in Bahar, it -begins in September. All the collections are made in money. Mr. Grant, -formerly collector of Bhauglepore, has published a small tract on the -subject of the revenues, which I strongly recommend to my readers: the -work is, I believe, rarely to be obtained; therefore, a new edition -seems to be loudly demanded. - -It is to be feared, that, however beneficial the existing system may be, -and, however equitable the arrangements made under the _Mocurrery_ -settlement have proved themselves, still the Company are not likely to -be benefitted in proportion to the assiduity they have displayed, or to -the tenderness with which the rights of their subjects have been -regarded. - -This, however, is to be said; that, according as the enterprize of -individuals may, by degrees, give additional value to the soil, by an -immense encrease of exportation, from various parts of the country, of a -million of commodities, which, until latterly, were either unknown, or -unheeded, so will the duties collected at the several _chokies_, -(custom-house stations,) and at the several ports, together with the -demand for British manufactures, be proportionally augmented. - -It should be very generally made known, that the Company receive into -their treasury all the realized property of persons demising in India, -under letters of administration, or under the acts of executors, duly -acknowledged and certified by the supreme courts of justice at the -several presidencies. This effectually secures the interest persons in -Europe may have in the estates of friends, &c., dying in India: so -rigidly is this observed, that the relatives of any private soldier may -fully ascertain how his property, if any, has been disposed of, and -receive whatever sums may be forth-coming from the sale of his effects, -&c. - -Such a measure fully guards the principal of any sum left in the -Company’s treasury; while, at the same time, the most pleasing facility -is given to individuals, to enable them, or their attornies, to receive -the interest, either at the presidency, or in the _moofussul_, (that is, -from the collectors,) according as may be convenient: but such can only -be done under a specific power of attorney. - -The generality of traders, who resort to distant inland markets, near -which to reside, or who, in favorable situations, become conspicuous as -manufacturers, whether of indigo, cloth, sugar, &c., have invariably -some connection with one or more agency-houses at the presidency; on -these they draw their bills, generally for hypothecated cargoes, sent -from the manufactory, either to be sold by them, or to be shipped for -Europe. This, under a pure agency, is unexceptionable, provided the firm -rests on the broad basis of absolute property, and does not play with -the cash belonging to its less speculative constituents: such may be -said to be merely the bankers of those whose consignments they receive, -and pass on to this country without participating in the adventure; and -confining themselves to a stipulated per centage on the amounts of -invoices, according to the scale in common use. - -Agency-houses are not confined to British subjects; the Portugueze, the -Armenians, the Greeks, and others, form a portion of several firms of -great respectability; or, at least, of those companies which, under -different designations, insure the greater part of those vessels, which -either sail from India to Europe direct, or that traverse the Indian -seas, according to the state of the monsoons; carrying on a lucrative -trade among the several Asiatic ports. - -It must not be supposed, that persons devoting their whole attention to -the concern of others, in such a climate, where the expences are very -great, and from which it is an object with most adventurers, and -speculators, to retire with such a competency as should afford some -enjoyments during the decline of life, are to be remunerated in the same -manner as though they had merely to attend their counting-houses in -London for a very few hours daily. The Indian agent must keep a large -establishment of _sircars_, _podars_, &c., and must maintain extensive -connections in various parts of the country: nay, he is often expected -to have an apartment, or two, in his dwelling, devoted to the -accommodation of such of his country correspondents as may occasionally -visit the presidency. - -Combining all these circumstances, it will be evident, that his charges -for commission must be such as, among us, would appear extravagantly -high. The same causes operate towards raising the expences of a suit in -the supreme court of judicature equally above those of the British -courts; though the latter are certainly full high enough! - -The terms of receiving, or paying, money, in exchange with Europe, -China, or other parts, are completely arbitrary; being governed solely -by the value of money to any particular firm at the time of negociating: -I have known instances of some firms declining to offer more than two -shillings and sixpence for a sicca rupee, bills being given payable at -six months after sight in Europe, while others, whose stability appeared -equally solid, offered two shillings and nine-pence for the same -accommodation. - -In point of commerce, Calcutta may, perhaps, be properly classed with -Bristol; making this allowance, that what the former wants in the number -of vessels employed, is made up by their average tonnage being -considerable, and the value of their cargoes far superior. The length of -the voyage must likewise be taken into consideration: a vessel may, -during times of profound peace, make three voyages within twelve months, -from Bristol to America, or the West Indies, and back again, and the -same either to the Baltic, or to the Levant; whereas, few Indiamen make -more than one return to their moorings in the Thames under fifteen -months; the majority are out from fifteen to twenty months. - -Hence, all our British ports appear more crowded, taking the year round, -than Calcutta, which, from July to November, or even to January, often -presents a forest of masts; while, on the other hand, during the rest of -the year, only such vessels as may be under repair, or that have lost -their season, or that beat up the bay against the _monsoon_, are to be -seen in the river. - -I have already explained, that, during half the year, that is, from -about the middle of March to the middle of September, the wind is -southerly, but then gradually changes to the northward, from which -quarter it blows regularly for about five months, when it again -gradually veers about to the southward. This gives name to the -‘northerly and southerly _monsoons_;’ which all navigators study to take -advantage of: the difference in going with, or against the _monsoon_, -from Calcutta to Madras, or _vice versâ_, often makes the difference of -full five or six weeks, sometimes more: the trip being very commonly -made in a week with the _monsoon_; but, against it, sometimes occupying -no less than three months! - -Few ships make more than one trip between Malabar and China, within the -year, on account of the _monsoon_; but, between the intermediate ports -from Bombay to Calcutta, two trips may be considered the average. During -the wars with Hyder, and his son Tippoo, vessels have made four trips -within the year, from Bengal to Madras; but such must not be considered -a fair standard, three being considered a great exertion. - -The town of Calcutta, which is estimated at a population of a hundred -thousand souls, whereof not more than one thousand are British, is -situated very advantageously for commerce. The Hoogly, which is -navigable for ships of a thousand tons, at least thirty-five miles above -Calcutta, communicates with the Ganges, by means of the Cossimbazar -river, and has communications with the whole of the Sunderbund Passages, -either through Tolley’s Canal, the creek called Chingrah Nullah, or the -southern passage, through Channel Creek, which is adopted by the greater -part of the vessels conveying rice and salt from the Soonderbunds: these -are of a very stout construction, suited to those wide expanses of water -they have to cross in that very hazardous line of navigation. - -The average depth of water, within a stone’s throw of the eastern bank, -on which Calcutta ranges for several miles, (including the suburbs up to -the Maharrattah Ditch,) may be from six to eight fathoms when the tide -is out. At particular places, the water deepens very suddenly, but, in -most parts, a shelf, abounding with mud, runs out for sixty or seventy -yards, down to low water mark, where the bank falls off, so that ships -of any burthen may moor within a very few yards. The great front thus -given to the town, affords innumerable facilities to those concerned in -the shipping; especially as the custom-house, which is on the quay -belonging to the old fort, stands nearly centrical, in respect to the -European population. - -The _donies_, which are small craft intended for the coasting trade -carried on principally by native merchants, commonly lie higher up, -opposite the Chitpore _m’hut_, or temple; there, in tiers, much the same -as the shipping in the Thames, these _pariah_ vessels present a contrast -with the superb edifices under British management, and at once -characterize not only the ignorance, but the narrow minds of their -owners. - -Few _donies_ measure more than a hundred and fifty tons, or have more -than two masts; sloops are by far most common, and the generality are -equipped with _coir_ cordage, as well as with country-made canvas. - -The greater portion of these vessels return either in ballast, after -delivering their cargoes of rice, at various ports in the Northern -Sircars, or perhaps in the Carnatic; or they import with light cargoes, -composed chiefly of _coir_ and _cowries_, from the Sechelles and -Maldivies; to which they likewise, now and then, make a bold voyage, at -favorable seasons, with small invoices of coarse cottons, fit for the -use of those islanders. - -Here, and there, we see a _doney_ with some European on board to -navigate her; but, in general, only natives are employed; and the -Europe-ships, which arrive with crews from their respective country, are -often compelled to take a portion of lascars on board, for the purpose -of aiding those who survive the pestilential miasma, to which they are -so inconsiderately, or, more properly, inhumanly, subjected, while lying -at Diamond-Harbour, &c. Those who escape with their lives, are usually -much weakened by severe attacks of the ague, of which they rarely get -quit, until relieved by an alterative course of mercury, in conjunction -with the change of air experienced by getting out to sea. - -I shall, for the present, take leave of my readers; observing, that I am -now preparing for the press a work intended to give a full, but compact, -‘DESCRIPTION OF INDIA IN GENERAL.’ In that work, it will be my study so -to combine and arrange the several important matters coming under -consideration, as to render the whole of whatever may relate to that -interesting quarter, fully intelligible, and equally familiar. - - FINIS. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - - 1810. - - A LIST OF BOOKS ON - - =Oriental Literature,= - - _&c._ - - That will be found useful to - - _Writers, Cadets, and Gentlemen going to the East Indies_, - - SOLD BY - - BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY, - - _Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company_, - - Stationers, Map, and Chart Sellers, - - 7, LEADENHALL-STREET. - - ---------- - - _Oriental Language, &c._ - - _The following valuable Works are by J. BORTHWICK GILCHRIST, Esq. - LL. D. late Professor of Hindoostanee, at the College, - Fort-William, Calcutta._ - - £. _s._ _d._ - - Bagho Buhar, or the Entertaining Story of the Four - Friars, in Hindoostanee prose 1 0 0 - - British Indian Monitor, or the Anti-jargonist - Strangers’ Guide, and Oriental Linguist, 2 vol. 4 4 0 - - Dialogues, English and Hindoostanee, on Domestic, - Military, and Medical Subjects, &c. 0 10 0 - - Gooli Buchawalee, a celebrated Eastern Romance 0 16 0 - - Hidayet ool Islam, in Hindoostanee and Arabic, or - the Moosulman’s Common Prayer Book, vol. 1. 0 15 0 - - Hindee Arabic Mirror, or Improved Tabular View of - Arabic Words in the Hindoostanee Language 0 5 0 - - Hindee Moral Preceptor, or Persian Scholar’s - Shortest Road to the Hindoostanee Language, _et - vice versâ_ 1 0 0 - - Hindee Roman Alphabetical Prospectus 0 2 6 - - . . . . . . 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Movements, &c. of Infantry, 8vo. bds. 0 7 6 - - Smirke’s Review of a Battalion of Infantry, 8vo. 0 7 0 - - Struensee’s Fortification, 8vo. bds. 0 7 6 - - BIBLES—PRAYER BOOKS—STATIONARY, &c. - - _Where may be had, the most Esteemed Works and Modern Publications, - also the latest and most accurate Atlasses, Maps, Charts, &c._ - - - Printed by Turner and Harwood, - St. John’s Square, London. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note - -At the top of p. 175, the line ‘Brought forward 170’ represents a -continuation of table begun on the previous page. That page break being -moot here, the line has been removed as redundant. - -The following issues should be noted, along with the resolutions. There -are frequent characters, particularly punctuation, which were not -visible in the copy upon which this text is based. Where the missing -character is obvious, it has been restored, as noted. - -Keeping in mind the vintage of the text, spelling has generally been -followed. Where obvious printer’s errors occur, they have been -corrected, as noted below. - -The city ‘Allahabad’ is printed twice, incorrectly, as ‘Allahahad’ on p. -257 and p. 327. It appears correctly elsewhere. These two instances have -been corrected. - - - p. vi brackis[h] waters Restored. - - p. 11 regularl[y] Restored. - - p. 13 compet[it]ing Corrected. - - p. 14 harder kinds of _gutty_[;] Restored. (Most - probably.) - - p. 15 in with sufficient[missing word?] to _Sic._ - heat - - p. 42 wo[o]llen Added. - - p. 47 as large as a quartern l[ao/oa]f Transposed. - - p. 93 rem[ar]kably sweet Restored. - - p. 202 The enig[n/m]a Corrected. - - p. 218 th[er/re]e Transposed. - - p. 239 is [c]onfined to the care Restored. - - p. 243 Moorshada[ba]bad Redundant. - Removed. - - p. 257 Allaha[h/b]ad Corrected. - - p. 261 either o[n] account of Restored. - - p. 263 c[o/a]ntonments Corrected. - - p. 272 ordinar[il]y Added. - - p. 277 atmosphere[;] while Restored. - - p. 288 succombed _Sic._ - - p. 328 Allaha[h/b]ad Corrected. - - p. 333 less expence tha[t/n] twenty-five rupees Corrected. - - p. 358 lie to the wes[t]ward of Saugur Added. - - p. 385 notwithstandi[n]g Added. - - [a/i]t will be proper Corrected. - - p. 395 ea[r]gerness Removed. - - p. 405 ascertain[in]g Added. - - [s]hould be placed Restored. - - p. 412 _sine [qûa/quâ] non_ Corrected. - - p. 415 Colonel Richar[sd/ds]on Transposed. - - p. 420 encomiu[n/m] Corrected. - - p. 461 the Company’s [stalions] _Sic._ - - p. 468 sad[d]lers Added. - - p. 484 pursuant to the [desicion/decision] Corrected. - - p. 496 Hyd[e]rabad Added. - - p. 505 but, in [in ]general, Line break - duplication. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The East India Vade-Mecum, Volume 2 -(of 2), by Thomas Williamson - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, VOL 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 51472-0.txt or 51472-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/4/7/51472/ - -Produced by KD Weeks, deaurider and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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