diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-05 10:00:24 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-05 10:00:24 -0800 |
| commit | a6bcd66346b75dcc4e820d8624a3125b02cd6c92 (patch) | |
| tree | d3a053d460da20a370778744c9cb3a9326e16d6e | |
| parent | 4ae24490a199d2e4f5d721d67069da3b9778155c (diff) | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-8.txt | 4457 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-8.zip | bin | 89779 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h.zip | bin | 1051865 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/51382-h.htm | 5057 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/1.jpg | bin | 131771 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/2.jpg | bin | 61084 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/3.jpg | bin | 87358 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/4.jpg | bin | 99455 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/5.jpg | bin | 94959 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/6.jpg | bin | 108533 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/7.jpg | bin | 110391 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/8.jpg | bin | 202551 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51382-h/images/img-cover.jpg | bin | 76906 -> 0 bytes |
16 files changed, 17 insertions, 9514 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..538a2fd --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51382 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51382) diff --git a/old/51382-8.txt b/old/51382-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a693597..0000000 --- a/old/51382-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4457 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 2, May, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 2, May, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: March 6, 2016 [EBook #51382] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG., MAY 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -Vol. II. No. 2. - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - - - - -PUBLISHED BY THE - -NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -WASHINGTON, D. C. - - -Price 50 Cents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - -The Rivers of Northern New Jersey, with notes on the classification of - rivers in general: William Morris Davis - (With seven illustrations.) - -A Critical Review of Bering's First Expedition, 1725-30, together with - a translation of his original Report upon it: Dr. Wm. H. Dall - (Illustrated by one map.) - -Supplementary note on the alleged observation of a Lunar Eclipse by - Bering in 1728-9: Marcus Baker - - Published May, 1890. - - - - -PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN. - - - - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - -Vol. II. 1890. No. 2. - - - - -THE RIVERS OF NORTHERN NEW JERSEY, WITH NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF -RIVERS IN GENERAL. - -BY WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS. - -OUTLINE.--Rivers of different kinds: consequent, antecedent, -superimposed, subsequent, adjusted.--Topography of Northern New -Jersey.--Revived and superimposed rivers in New Jersey.--Drainage of -the Watchung crescent.--Re-arrangement of superimposed rivers by the -growth of subsequent streams.--Application of this principle to the -Green river in the Uinta mountains: Powell's and Emmons' theories.--The -Green river probably superimposed and its branches re-arranged by the -growth of subsequent streams.--Anaclinal and reversed rivers in New -Jersey. - - -Northern New Jersey is drained by several streams which rise in the -Archean Highlands, flow southeastward across the central Triassic plain -and reach the sea near the inland margin of the Cretaceous formation. - -What kinds of rivers are these? Such a question can hardly be answered -until we have examined rivers in many parts of the world, gaining -material for a general history of rivers by induction from as large as -possible a variety of examples; and until we have deduced from our -generalizations a series of critical features sufficient to serve for -the detection of rivers of different kinds wherever found. - -The generalizations here referred to may be presented in the form of a -classification, following the ideas of Powell, Gilbert, Heim, Löwl and -others, as follows: - -_Consequent rivers_.--Those that have in their birth, at the time of -their original establishment on the country which they drain, selected -courses in accordance with the constructional slopes of the surface; -for example, the Red River of the North and such of its branches as -flow on the even surface of the lacustrine plain of Lake Agassiz; the -several streams that drain the broken lava blocks of Southern Oregon; -certain streams and rivers of the Jura that drain the synclinal troughs -of those mountains. Consequent streams may be divided into definite and -indefinite groups. Definite consequent streams are those that follow -well defined constructional channels, such as the axial line of a -synclinal trough, or the lowest point of an anticlinal arch between two -synclinal basins; they are defined in location as well as in direction. -Indefinite consequent streams are those that flow down constructional -slopes, such as the flanks of an anticline, but whose precise location -depends on those minor inequalities of surface that we term accidental; -they are defined in direction but not in location; and they are as a -rule branches of definite consequent streams. - -_Antecedent rivers_.--Those that during and for a time after a -disturbance of their drainage area maintain the courses that they had -taken before the disturbance. In Powell's original definition of this -class of rivers, he said that the valleys of the Uinta mountains are -occupied by "drainage that was established antecedent to the -corrugation or displacement of the beds by faulting or folding."[1] No -limit is set to the amount of corrugation or displacement or to the -strength of the faulting or folding. It therefore seems advisable to -consider what variations there may be from the strongly marked -antecedent type; one extreme being in those cases where the -displacement was a minimum and the perseverance of the streams a -maximum, the other where the displacement was a maximum and the -successful perseverance of the streams a minimum, or zero. The simplest -examples of antecedent rivers are therefore found in regions that have -been broadly elevated with the gentlest changes of slope, so as to -enter a new cycle of topographic development, all the streams retaining -their previous courses, but gaining ability to deepen their former -channels down to the new baselevel; such streams may be called -"revived." Examples of revived streams are very common; nearly all the -streams of the Highlands of New Jersey are of this kind; all the -streams of central and western Pennsylvania seem to belong in the same -class. From these simple and common examples, we shall some day, when -our knowledge of rivers is better developed, be able to form a complete -series leading to what is generally understood as the typical -antecedent river, which has outlived deformation as well as elevation -without suffering either deflection or ponding. Large rivers of strong -slope, well enclosed in steep-sided valleys, or in other words vigorous -adolescent rivers have the best opportunity to persist across a belt of -rising or writhing country,[2] because a great deformation would be -required to throw them from their courses. Small streams or large ones -of faint slope in an open low country are more easily deflected. From -the typical antecedent river, the series may be continued by examples -in which even the larger streams are less or more ponded or deflected -by the deformation, until at the end of the series there is a complete -extinction of the antecedent drainage and the establishment of an -entirely original consequent drainage. The perfectly typical antecedent -river, in the middle of this series, is certainly of rare occurrence, -and is perhaps unknown. - -[Footnote 1: Colorado river of the West, 163.] - -[Footnote 2: Stur's expression "Gebirgshub oder Gebirgschub" suggested -to me the terms here employed.] - -Consequent streams, whose course is taken on a relatively thin, -unconformably overlying mass, for a time preserve their initial -courses, even though they may be quite out of accord with the -underlying structures on which they have descended. Such streams were -first recognized by Marvine, and afterwards named "superimposed," -"inherited" or "epigenetic" by various authors. A full collection of -examples of this class should begin with streams that depart from true -consequent courses only locally, where they have discovered a small -portion of the underlying formation, like the Merrimack at Manchester -and other water-power towns of New Hampshire, where the stream has sunk -upon rocky ledges beneath the surface drift and sands; or like the -Mississippi and other rivers in Minnesota which have in places cut -through the drift sheet to the underlying crystallines. The series -would conclude with streams that have stripped off the cover on which -they were consequent, and have thus become superimposed on the -underlying formation in their whole length. - -There is a curious intermediate type of drainage lately recognized by -McGee in the southern states, a superimposed drainage that is not -inconsequent upon the buried surface beneath the unconformably -overlying surface layer. It occurs in regions where a well-marked -drainage had been established; a brief submergence then allowed the -deposition of a relatively thin mask of sediments; an elevation brought -the masked surface up again, and as it rose, the streams took -possession of lines essentially identical with the courses of their -ancestors, because the mask of newer deposits had not extinguished the -antecedent topography. McGee proposes to call such streams -"resurrected." - -Rivers of all classes as a rule develop during their adolescence and -more mature growth certain "subsequent" branches that were not in any -way represented in the early youth of the system. Thus the indefinite -members of the consequent drainage of the Jura mountains have developed -subsequent streams on soft beds of monoclinal and anticlinal -structures, where there could not possibly have been any consequent -drainage lines at the birth of this system, unless we admit the -supposed fracturing of the anticlinal crests, which seems unnecessary -to say the least. Even in the simplest style of drainage, growing on a -level surface, many of the branches must be "subsequent," or as McGee -has called them in such cases, "autogenetic." - -Rivers of all classes are subject to spontaneous re-arrangement or -adjustment of their courses to a greater or less extent, in accordance -with the weaker structural lines. This results from the migration of -divides and the consequent abstraction or capture of one stream by -another. The capture is generally made by the headward development of -some subsequent branch. But after this kind of change has advanced to a -certain extent, the divides become stable, and further change ceases. -The rivers may then be said to be maturely adjusted. Under certain -conditions, chiefly great initial altitude of surface, and great -diversity of structure, that is, in mountainous regions, the changes -arising from adjustments of this spontaneous kind are very great, so -that the courses of a river's middle age may have little resemblance to -those of its youth, as Löwl has pointed out and as I have tried to show -in the case of the Pennsylvanian rivers. It may be difficult to -recognize in such cases whether the youthful courses of a river system -were consequent, antecedent or superimposed. Adjustments of this kind -were not discussed by Powell, although he makes brief mention of what I -have called subsequent streams. The first appreciation that I gained of -river adjustments came from the writings of Löwl; but I have since -found that the general principles governing their opportunity were -stated by Gilbert in his monograph on the Henry Mountains of Utah (pp. -141, 149), and by Heim in his Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (i, 272, -etc., ii, 79, 320). - -Where do the rivers of northern New Jersey stand in this general scheme -of river classification? We must again postpone the answer to the -question, while reviewing the history of the general geographical -development of the region.[3] - -[Footnote 3: The more detailed statement of this history may be found -in an essay prepared by the author with the collaboration of Mr. J. W. -Wood, Jr., of the class of 1888 in Harvard College, the study being -undertaken as a joint thesis by instructor and student in a second -course in Physical Geography. The essay is published in the Proceedings -of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1889.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -The topography of northern New Jersey may be briefly described as made -up of valleys and lowlands that have been etched in the now elevated -surface of what may be called the Schooley peneplain on the Cretaceous -baselevel. The topographical atlas of New Jersey should be constantly -referred to, in order to follow such a statement as this; but in order -that the reader may without undue difficulty apprehend the meaning of -my descriptions and recognize the various localities yet to be named -without the trouble of searching for them on the maps of the atlas, I -have attempted to draw a generalized bird's eye view of northern New -Jersey, as it would be seen by an observer about seventy miles -vertically above the center of southern New Jersey. The meridians are -vertical and east and west lines are horizontal, but oblique azimuths -are foreshortened. The result is hardly more than a geographical -caricature, and I publish it in part to experiment upon the usefulness -of so imperfect an effort. An active imagination may perceive the long -even crest line of Kittatinny Mountain on the northwest, rising beyond -the rolling floor of the Kittatinny Valley, as the great Alleghany -limestone lowland is here called; then come the Highland plateaus, of -accordant altitude one with another, but without the mesa-like margin -that my pen has not known how to avoid indicating. The Central plain -lies in the foreground, diversified by the various trap ridges that -rise above its surface; First and Second mountains of the double -Watchung crescent near the Highlands; Sourland Mountain in the -southwest; and Rocky Hill, the southwestern re-appearance of the -Palisades intrusive trap sheet, lying a little nearer to us. The -Central plain is also diversified by the Fall-line, a slight but rather -distinct break in its surface from Trenton (Tr.) on the Delaware to a -little below New Brunswick (N. B.) on the Raritan. The important -drainage lines are: the Delaware, forming the western boundary of the -State, trenching Kittatinny Mountain at the Water Gap, cutting a deep -transverse valley through the Highlands where it receives longitudinal -branches, and a shallower trench across the Kittatinny lowland and the -Central plain; the Raritan, whose north and south branches head in the -Highlands, while the Millstone joins it from south of the fall-line, -cutting through Rocky Hill near Princeton (Pr.) on the way; and the -Pequannock-Passaic, rising in the Highlands, gathering tributaries in -the low basin behind the Watchung ridges, and escaping to the front -country as a single stream, the Passaic, through deep gaps at -Patterson. The terminal moraine, marking the furthest advance of the -second glacial invasion of post-tertiary time, is indicated by an -irregular dotted band crossing the State, from the Narrows of New York -Bay, which it defines, on the east, passing over Second Mountain by the -gap at Summit (S), rising midway in the Highlands over Schooley -Mountain, and traversed by the Delaware at Belvidere (B). - -The Schooley peneplain is indicated by the crest and summit altitudes -of Kittatinny Mountain, the Highland plateaus and the trap ridges. This -peneplain once lay low and essentially horizontal, the practically -completed work of the processes of denudation acting on a previously -high land through a long period of time: it is now lifted and tilted, -so that its inland portion rises to the height of the Highlands, which -are its remnants, while its seaward portion descends slowly beneath a -cover of unconformable Cretaceous beds, southeast of the fall-line, and -thus hidden sinks gently beneath the Atlantic shore. The cover of -Cretaceous sediments was laid on the southeastern part of the old -peneplain during a moderate submergence of its seaward portion, before -the elevation and tilting above mentioned (fig. 2, below). Much of the -cover has been worn away since the time of elevation (figs. 3-6, -below), which gave opportunity for the opening of deep valleys on the -soft limestones and slates among the hard crystalline rocks of the -Highlands; and for the production of the broad Kittatinny Valley -lowland or peneplain on the wide belt of limestones beyond the -Highlands; and furthermore for the development of a broad baselevelled -plain on the weak Triassic shales and sandstones, where the old -peneplain has been almost entirely destroyed. The Cretaceous cover -remains only near the coast, where it stood too low to be attacked -while the valleys and lowlands just described were carved out. An -interesting peculiarity in the relation between the newer baselevel -plain on the Triassic area and the old Cretaceous peneplain is that -their surfaces mutually intersect at a small angle along the line which -now marks the visible contact between the Triassic and Cretaceous -formations: the newer plain standing beneath the eroded portion of the -older one northwest of this line, while it rises above the buried part -of the older one and obliquely truncates its Cretaceous cover to the -southeast of the line. Finally, the land as a whole has been raised a -little since the making of the newer plain, and shallow valleys -interrupt its broad surface. It is no longer a true plain; it has -become a pastplain. A few words may be allowed me concerning these -terms, peneplain and pastplain. Given sufficient time for the action of -denuding forces on a mass of land standing fixed with reference to a -constant baselevel, and it must be worn down so low and so smooth, that -it would fully deserve the name of plain. But it is very unusual for a -mass of land to maintain a fixed position as long as is here assumed. -Many instances might be quoted of regions which have stood still so -long that their surface is almost reduced to its ultimate form; but the -truly ultimate stage is seldom reached. We can select regions in which -the valley lowlands have become broad and flat, the intermediate "doab" -hills have wasted away lower and lower until they are reduced to forms -of insignificant relief; and yet the surface still does not deserve the -name of plain as unqualifiedly as do those young lands newly born from -seas or lakes in which their geometrically level surfaces were formed. -I have therefore elsewhere suggested[4] that an old region, nearly -baselevelled, should be called an almost-plain; that is, a peneplain. - -[Footnote 4: Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxvii, 1889, 430.] - -On the other hand, an old baselevelled region, either a peneplain or a -truly ultimate plain, will, when thrown by elevation into a new cycle -of development, depart by greater and greater degrees from its simple -featureless form, as young narrow valleys are sunk beneath its surface -by its revived streams. It therefore no longer fully deserves the name -that was properly applicable before its elevation. It must not again be -called a peneplain, for it is now not approaching and almost attaining -a smooth surface, but is becoming rougher and rougher. It has passed -beyond the stage of minimum relief, and this significant fact deserves -implication, at least, in a name. I would therefore call such a region -a pastplain. The area of the weak Triassic shales was, until its late -elevation, as good an example of an ultimate baselevelled plain as any -that I have found; but now it is a pastplain, as any one may see while -traveling across it on the train: its doabs are broad and continuous, -and its valleys are relatively narrow and shallow. The Kittatinny -lowland is intersected by streams whose valleys sink below its -generally even, gently rolling surface; but it was never so smooth as -the Triassic plain. It was only a peneplain, and it is now a roughened -peneplain. Perhaps the more adventurous terminologist will call it a -past-peneplain; but I dare not venture quite so far as that. When the -Highlands were lowlands, their surface well deserved the name of -peneplain; but they were lifted so long ago into so high a position -that they are now cut into a complicated mass of rugged uplands. They -no longer deserve the name of peneplain; and if in preceding paragraphs -I have referred to them as constituting an old peneplain, it is because -no satisfactory name has yet been applied to the particular stage of -development of plains and plateaus in which they now stand. Having -tried in vain to invent a term with which to name the Highlands, let me -now advertise for one in the pages of our Magazine. - - * * * * * - -WANTED: a name applicable to those broken, rugged regions that have -been developed by the normal processes of denudation from the once -continuous surface of a plain or peneplain. The name should be if -possible homologous with the words, _plain_, _peneplain_ and -_pastplain_; it should be of simple, convenient and euphonious form; it -must be satisfactory to many other persons than its inventor; and its -etymological construction should not be embarrassed by the attempt to -crowd too much meaning into it. The mere suggestion that it was once a -plain and that it is now maturely diversified will suffice. - - * * * * * - -The topography of northern New Jersey is therefore, like its structure, -polygenetic. It exhibits very clearly a series of forms developed under -three different geographic cycles, and closer search will doubtless -discover forms belonging to yet other cycles, less complete and of -briefer duration than these three. There is the tilted and deeply -eroded peneplain of the Highlands, whose initial form may be called the -Schooley peneplain, from the distinct exhibition of one of its remnants -on Schooley's mountain; this was the product of Jurassic and Cretaceous -denudation. There is the younger central baselevelled plain, developed -during Tertiary time, or thereabouts, on the weaker Triassic and -Cretaceous beds; and the associated valleys of the same age that have -been sunk into the weakest rocks of the Highlands. There are the -shallow valleys in the Central plain, of the latest post-tertiary -cycle, requiring the name of this region to be changed from plain, as -it was lately, to pastplain, as it is now. The first cycle, in which -the Schooley peneplain was produced, witnessed the accomplishment of a -great work; it included in its later part, besides various other -oscillations, the sub-cycle when the seaward or southeastern part of -the peneplain was gently submerged and buried to a slight depth under -Cretaceous deposits. The second cycle was shorter; being a time -sufficient to baselevel the softer beds, but not seriously to consume -the harder parts of the pre-existing surface. We are still in the third -cycle, of which but a small part has elapsed. The question with which -this essay opened may now be taken up. - -The streams and rivers of northern New Jersey may be examined, with the -intention of classifying them according to their conditions of origin, -to their degree of complexity as indicated by the number of geographic -cycles through which they have lived, and to the advance made toward -their mature adjustment. - -The Musconetcong may be taken as the type of the Highland streams. It -flows southwestward along a narrow limestone valley between crystalline -plateaus on either side, entering the Delaware a little below Easton, -Pa., (E, fig. 1). It drains a country that has been enormously denuded, -and during the Jura-Cretaceous cycle of this deep denudation, there -must have been time for it and its fellows to become thoroughly -adjusted to the structure of the region; it must be chiefly for this -reason that it flows so closely along the weak limestone belt, and has -its divides close by on the adjoining harder crystallines, (M, fig. 2). -Whatever its origin, it has lost every initial feature that was -discordant with the deep structures that it discovered beneath the -initial surface; it is maturely adjusted to its environment. It endured -to an old age during the baselevelling of the Schooley peneplain, and -is now a "revived" stream, in at least its second cycle of work. Most -of the other streams of the Highlands and the country farther inland -are also of this well adjusted, revived kind. The streams of the -Kittatinny valley lowland show not only the first revival of the kind -just described, but also a second revival, in consequence of the recent -uplift that has introduced the third cycle of development; this not -being so clearly manifested in the Highlands, where the rocks are -harder, and the valleys of the second cycle are narrower. - -Look now at the drainage of the crescentic Watchung mountains; the -curved edges of two great warped lava-flows of the Triassic belt. The -noteworthy feature of this district is that the small streams in the -southern part of the crescent rise on the back slope of the inner -mountain and cut gaps in both mountains in order to reach the outer -part of the Central Plain. If these streams were descended directly or -by revival from ancestors antecedent to or consequent upon the -monoclinal tilting of the Triassic formation, they could not possibly, -in the long time and deep denudation that the region has endured, have -down to the present time maintained courses so little adjusted to the -structure of their basins. In so long a time as has elapsed since the -tilting of the Triassic formation, the divides would have taken their -places on the crest of the trap ridges and not behind the crest on the -back slope. They cannot be subsequent streams, for such could not have -pushed their sources headwards through a hard trap ridge. Subsequent -streams are developed in accordance with structural details, not in -violation of them. Their courses must have been taken _not long ago_, -else they must surely have lost their heads back of the second -mountain; some piratical subsequent branch of a larger transverse -stream, like the Passaic, would have beheaded them. - -The only method now known by which these several doubly transverse -streams could have been established in the not too distant past, is by -superimposition from the Cretaceous cover that was laid upon the old -Schooley peneplain. It has already been stated that when the Highlands -and this region together had been nearly baselevelled, the coastal -portion of the resulting peneplain was submerged and buried by an -unconformable cover of waste derived from the non-submerged portion: -hence when the whole area was lifted to something like its present -height, a new system of consequent streams was born on the revealed sea -bottom. Since then, time enough may have passed to allow the streams to -sink their channels through the unconformable cover and strip it off, -and thus superimpose themselves on the Triassic rocks below: we should -therefore find them, in so far as they have not yet been re-adjusted, -following inconsequent, discordant courses on the under formation. The -existing overlap of the Cretaceous beds on the still buried Triassic -portion of the old Schooley peneplain makes it evident that such an -origin for the Watchung streams is possible; but it has not yet been -independently proved that the Cretaceous cover ever reached so far -inland as to cross the Watchung ridges. - -Want of other explanation for the Watchung streams is not satisfactory -evidence in favor of the explanation here suggested. There should be -external evidence that the Triassic area has actually been submerged -and buried after it was baselevelled to the Schooley peneplain and -before it was uplifted to its present altitude; other streams as well -as the ones thus far indicated, should bear signs of superimposition; -and if adjustment of the superimposed courses has begun, it should be -systematically carried farthest near the largest streams. I shall not -here state more than in brief form, the sufficient evidence that can be -quoted in favor of the first and second requisites. Suffice it to say -that the overlap of the Cretaceous beds (which contain practically no -Triassic fragments) on the bevelled Triassic strata at Amboy and -elsewhere indicates submergence after baselevelling; and that the -pebbles, sands and marls of the Cretaceous series point clearly to the -Highlands as their source. The submergence must therefore have reached -inland across the Triassic formation at least to the margin of the -crystalline rocks. Some shore-line cutting must have been done at the -margin of the Highlands during Cretaceous time, but the generally -rolling surface of the old peneplain leads me to ascribe its origin -chiefly to subaërial wasting. Moreover, the North Branch of the -Raritan, between Mendham and Peapack (* Fig. 1) and the Lockatong (L), -a small branch of the Delaware on the West Hunterdon sandstone plateau, -give striking indications of superimposition in the discordance of -their courses with the weaker structural lines of their basins, so -unlike the thoroughly adjusted course of the Musconetcong and its -fellows, the Pohatcong, the Lopatcong, and others. - -The third requisite of the proof of the inland extension of the -Cretaceous, and the resulting superimposed origin of the Watchung -streams may be stated in detail, as being more in the line of this -essay: has the adjustment that accompanies superimposition -systematically advanced farther near the large streams than near the -small ones? The character of this adjustment should be first examined -deductively. Given a series of streams of different volumes, flowing -southeastward, in the direction of the present dip of the remnant of -the Cretaceous cover, over the former inland extension of this -superposed formation; how will these streams react on one another when -they sink their channels into the underlying Triassic formation? - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -The conditions during the formation of the cover of Cretaceous beds are -illustrated in fig. 2, where the Triassic portion of the peneplain is -submerged, and the shore-line of the transgressing ocean has reached -the margin of the crystalline rocks. The waste from the crystallines is -spread out as a series of gravels, sands and marls on the baselevelled -Triassic area. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -Then follows the elevation and tilting of the peneplain with the cover -on its back; and with this regression of the sea, there is an -equivalent gain of new land; a smooth gently sloping plain is revealed -as the shore line retreats; streams run out across it from the -crystalline area, or begin on its open surface, growing mouthward as -the land rises. Three such streams, A, C, D, are shown in fig. 3; their -opportunity for deep valley-cutting is indicated by the depth of the -new baselevel, BL, below the general surface of the country. While -these streams are deepening their channels in the Cretaceous cover, -which is unshaded with marginal contour lines in the figures, their -subsequent, autogenetic branches are irregularly disposed, because -there is no lateral variation of structure to guide them; but after a -time, the baselevelled surface of the buried Triassic beds is reached, -as is shown by linear shading in the valley bottoms of figs. 4, 5, 6, -7. The growth of the subsequent branches then developed, will be along -the strike of the Triassic softer beds, that is, about square to the -course of the three transverse streams under consideration. The most -rapid growth will be found on the branches of the largest stream, A, -because it will most quickly cut down its channel close to the -baselevel of the time and thus provide steep sloping valley-sides, from -which the subsequent branches cut backwards most energetically. In due -time the main streams discover the particularly resistant transverse -lava sheets in the underlying formation; and then the subsequent -branches of the largest transverse stream on the up-stream side of the -obstructions, for example, F and G, fig. 4, will have a great advantage -over those of the smaller streams. The most rapidly growing subsequent -branch, G, fig. 5, of the largest transverse master stream, A, may grow -headwards so fast as to push away the divide, X, which separates it -from the head of the opposing subsequent branch, J, of the next -adjacent smaller transverse stream, C, and thus finally to capture and -divert the headwaters, H, of the smaller transverse stream to the -larger one, as in fig. 6. The divide creeps while the two opposing -subsequent branches are in contest; it leaps when the successful -subsequent branch reaches the channel of the conquered stream. The -first stream captured in this way must necessarily be the nearest to -the large stream. The diversion of the considerable volume of -headwaters, H, to the channel of the small subsequent branch, G, causes -it to deepen its channel rapidly; the same effect is perceptible in H -for a distance above its point of capture and diversion: the increased -load of sediment thus given to G will be in great part dropped in a -fan-delta where it enters the flat valley of the master stream, A, -(fig. 6). - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -Gaining strength by conquest, other captures are made, faster for a -time, but with decreasing slowness as the head of the diverting -subsequent branch recedes from the original master: and at last, -equilibrium may be gained when the headwater slope of the diverting -branch is no greater than that of the opposing subsequent branch of the -next uncaptured transverse stream. After the capture of a transverse -stream has been effected in this way, the divide, Y, between its -diverted upper portions, H, fig. 6, and its beheaded lower portion, C, -will be pushed down stream by the growth of an inverted stream, V. This -goes on until equilibrium is attained and further shifting is prevented -on reaching the hard transverse lava sheets, Z, fig. 7; here the divide -is maturely established. In the case of a system of transverse streams, -C, D, etc., fig. 7, successively captured by the subsequent branch of a -single master, the divides (Z, Y'), between the inverted (V, V') and -beheaded (C, D) portions of the captured streams will for a time -present different stages of approach to establishment. The divide on -the line of that one of the original streams, C, that is nearest to the -master stream, A, may reach a final stable position, Z; while on the -next stream further away from the master, the beheaded portion, D, may -still retain a short piece above the gap in the upper lava sheet, not -yet secured by the inverted stream, V'; and a third stream, further -away still from the master (not shown in figure 7) might remain -uncaptured and independent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -It is by such tests as these that we may hope to recognize the -occurrence of partial adjustment in the streams of the Watchung -crescent as a result of their superimposition on the Triassic formation -from its former Cretaceous cover. The greater the degree of complexity -in the tests proposed, the more confidence we shall have in the theory -when the tests successfully meet the facts. Hence the reason for -deductively carrying out the theoretical conditions to their extremest -consequences in order to increase the complexity of the tests that are -to be confronted with the facts. This, as a matter of method, seems to -me of great practical importance in any attempt to decipher the past -progress of geographical development. - -The admirable contoured topographic maps of New Jersey, issued by the -Geological Survey of that state under the leadership of the late -Professor George H. Cook, afforded means of applying the deductive -tests above outlined without the necessity of plodding over all the -country concerned; but however good the maps are, it is hardly -necessary to say that they can be interpreted with a better -appreciation of the facts that they represent after an excursion on the -ground has given the student some personal acquaintance with it. This I -have tried to gain on various occasions, maps in hand. - -Atlas sheet number six, including the Central red-sandstone area, and -the five-mile-to-an-inch geological map of the state present in the -clearest manner the facts of form and structure involved in our -problem; and to my mind, the correspondence between theory and fact is -very striking. The Pequannock-Passaic is the master transverse stream -of the region: its preëminence was probably due in the beginning to its -gathering, from the unsubmerged Highlands, a greater amount of drainage -than belonged to any other stream that ran southeastward down the -gentle slope of the newly revealed Cretaceous cover. It was at that -time a compound, composite river:[5] compound because it drained areas -of different ages; composite, because these areas were of different -structures. Existing examples of compound, composite rivers are seen in -the Catawba, the Yadkin-Pedee, the Cape Fear and the Neuse rivers of -North Carolina, which all rise on the inland crystalline area, and -traverse the coastal quaternary plain before reaching the sea. But -unlike these, there must have been, when the old submerged land rose -with the Cretaceous cover on its back, numerous small streams whose -drainage area lay entirely within the Cretaceous plain. These were -simple streams, flowing over a structure of one kind and one age. Their -modern homologues are seen in the Maurice, the Great and Little Egg -Harbor and the Wading rivers of southern New Jersey, and I suppose also -in various relatively short streams of North Carolina, such as the -Lumber, Great Cohera and Moccassin. - -[Footnote 5: See terminology suggested by the author. Nat. Geogr. Mag., -i, 1889, 218.] - -It cannot be supposed that the original Pequannock-Passaic possessed -the large southern branch, which I shall call the upper Passaic, by -which Great Swamp is now drained;[6] for had this been the case, the -divides between the branches of the upper Passaic and the heads of the -small streams that now still cross both of the trap ridges, must have -long ago been driven to a stable position on the crest line of the -inner ridge. The upper Passaic member of the Pequannock-Passaic system -must be regarded as a branch of subsequent development, guided by some -of the softer Triassic beds when they were reached beneath the -Cretaceous cover, and very successful in capturing and diverting other -transverse streams that were smaller than its master. For some distance -on either side from the Pequannock-Passaic gap in the trap ridges at -Patterson, the existing streams are perfectly adjusted to the Triassic -structure; that is, the ridges are persistent divides, and the lateral -subsequent branches of the master flow along the strike of the softer -shales and sandstones, except where lately thrown off their courses by -glacial drift barriers. This I interpret as meaning that the -Pequannock-Passaic master stream hereabouts made so early a capture of -adjacent superimposed streams that all traces of their initial -discordant courses have been obliterated by the development of -structurally accordant subsequent streams. - -[Footnote 6: It should be recognized that the present round-about -drainage of the Great Swamp is a post-glacial feature, determined by -the morainic barrier that crosses the basin from Summit (S) to -Morristown (M): the pre-glacial drainage of the southern part of the -inner crescent was undoubtedly of a simpler and more direct pattern.] - -The Watchung ridges extend only about eight miles northward of the -Paterson gaps, but reach thirty miles southwestward. It is therefore -chiefly in the latter direction that we may expect to find examples of -incomplete adjustment following superimposition and capture. At -Milburn, there is a deep gap in First mountain, and opposite this at -Summit (S, fig. 1) a partly drift-filled gap in Second mountain: this I -am disposed to regard as the former outlet of the Rockaway-Rahway -river, which on account of its considerable size was not captured by -the Passaic until it had cut its passage across the trap sheets almost -to a safe depth. The diverted upper portion--the Rockaway--now joins -the Passaic; its crooked course from the Highlands via Boonton (Bn) -being a post-glacial irregularity; the beheaded lower portion--the -Rahway--heads on the ridge of Second mountain, retains the pair of -subsequent streams between the two ridges, and flows in diminished -volume to the sea: the divide between the two portions being in its -mature stable position on Second mountain. - -South of the Milburn gap, there are three streams that maintain water -gaps in First mountain, and five head branches of these three streams -rise behind the crest of Second mountain. These must be interpreted as -remnants of streams that once rose further inland, and whose upper -courses have been captured by the victorious upper Passaic; but it is -noteworthy that here, at the greatest distance from the gap of the -master stream at Paterson, the divides between the diverted and -beheaded portions of these southern streams should lie in unstable -positions, back of the crest line of Second mountain. This is exactly -what the hypothesis of a superimposed origin for these streams would -require; and if the complexity of accordance between deduction and fact -here presented be duly considered, I believe new confidence may be -gained in the hypothesis of superimposition, already rendered likely -from other evidence. - -The rectangular courses of the streams that cross First and Second -mountains southwest of Milburn do not militate against their initial -obliquely superimposed courses; for, as Gilbert has shown, oblique -courses across tilted beds, alternately hard and soft, will gradually -shift until they follow rectangular courses, along the strike of the -soft beds and square across the strike of the hard beds. Middle Brook, -at the southern bend of First mountain near Bound Brook (B, B), -presents the peculiarity of branching east and west while on the trap -sheet of the mountain: this may be due to a retention here, where the -dip is moderate, of an initially superimposed bifurcation; or to -guidance by fractures at this point where the course of the mountain -changes rather abruptly; the facts at hand do not serve to make choice -between these alternatives. - -The lesson of greatest importance in this study lies, to my mind, in -the gradual development of accordant subsequent streams in a region -where the unchanged superimposed drainage would show no such -accordance. Similar adjustment of subsequent streams to structural -features may characterize drainage systems that were originally -antecedent: and with this principle in mind, I have recently read over -with renewed interest Powell's classic study of the Green river where -it crosses the Uinta mountains.[7] The Green river and the smaller -streams of its lateral cañons and valleys are all regarded as -antecedent. Let us examine the arguments on which this conclusion -rests. - -[Footnote 7: Exploration of the Colorado river of the west, Washington, -1875, 152-166. See also the geological map in the Geology of the Uinta -mountains, 1876.] - -The Green river itself rises many miles north of the Uinta range, -traverses a relatively low basin before reaching the flank of the -mountains, and then instead of turning away, it boldly enters the great -uplift and trenches it from side to side in a profound cañon, flowing -out to the southwest on its way to the Colorado. There is relatively -low ground at the eastern end of the range, several thousand feet lower -than the summits of the range on either side of the Green river cañon, -and many thousand feet lower than the restored crest of the great -uplift; but the river does not follow this open round-about course. -Powell says that the river cut through, instead of running around, the -great obstruction, because it "had the right of way; ... it was running -ere the mountains were formed." Had the mountain fold been formed -suddenly, it would have turned the river around it to the east; "but -the emergence of the fold above the general surface of the country was -little or no faster than the progress of the corrasion of the -channel." ... "The river preserved its level, but the mountains were -lifted up.... The river was the saw which cut the mountains in two" -(152, 153). If this interpretation is correct, the Green river would be -the type of a perfect antecedent stream: but it appears to me that the -case is probably overstated in that respect. Perhaps it would have been -more deliberately stated in a later volume if Powell's intention of -describing more fully the three chief kinds of drainage of the region -had been carried out.[8] Not having seen the region, my comments may -have little value; but the context of Powell's report, the description -of the immense series of lacustrine beds, over a mile thick, north of -the mountains, and the eastward deflection of the river where it -traverses the mountains all seem to me to indicate that the Green was -by no means continuously successful in maintaining its antecedent -course across the uplift. It is by no means a typical antecedent river. -The great series of lacustrine beds up-stream from the cañon, with -conglomerates where they rest on the northern flank of the mountains, -are fully recognized in the report, and must mean that the upper -portion of the river was for a time shut back, or ponded. During part -of this time, there may have been no overflow across the growing -mountains, for the lower lacustrine beds contain fossils indicative of -brackish water.[9] The intermittent growth of the mountains and the -repeated return of lacustrine conditions, with gradually freshening -water, is indicated by the strong unconformities that occur at various -points in the lacustrine beds, and by the change in the fossil fauna. -It must be conceded from this that the upper portion of Green river was -repeatedly ponded back by mountain growth across its middle course; we -therefore have not now any close indication of its pre-lacustrine -course above the mountains; the ancient, or pre-Uinta, upper portion of -the river was extinguished by the lacustrine sediments, and to that -extent the Green river departs from the perfect antecedent type. - -[Footnote 8: Geol. Uinta mountain, page v.] - -[Footnote 9: Geology of the Uinta mountains, 1876, 84; Chapter III, by -C. A. White.] - -In the second place, if the original Green river existed upon the upper -surface of the beds that were at a subsequent date raised to form the -Uinta uplift, it does not appear to be clearly proved that its course -at that early time was closely coincident with its present course in -the mountainous area. The first deformations of the mountain growth may -have temporarily interrupted its flow, as is made likely by the -lacustrine deposits already referred to; and when the rise in the level -of the waters of the lake overtook the uplift, probably at a time of -slower mountain growth than that which first formed the lake, the point -of overflow may have been many miles to one side of its previous -drowned-out course. The moderate elevation of the eastern end of the -range, where it connects with the Yampa plateau, may possibly have then -been a little higher than a point farther west, where the overflow was -consequently located. This is perhaps hardly as probable as the -postulates involved in arguing a truly antecedent course for the river; -but its impossibility is not as strictly proved as would be necessary -before a definite conclusion as to the continuous persistence of an -antecedent river could be finally accepted. Such continuity of action -must be rare and should be rigorously demonstrated if possible. - -It must, moreover, be remembered that Emmons[10] is of the opinion that -the Colorado river is not antecedent at all, but is superimposed on the -eastern portion of the Uinta range from a course that it had chosen -upon a sheet of horizontal sediments--the Wyoming conglomerate--which -he supposes once stretched unconformably all over the previously deeply -eroded surface of the uplifted range, where the cañon is now cut. He -quotes facts of two kinds in evidence of this; first, the remnants of -the Wyoming conglomerate still lie on ridges as high as those that -enclose the river cañons; second, the Green and certain of its branches -possess tortuous courses, out of accord with the structure of the -range. It might be added that the wide open valley of Brown's park, in -the middle of the range is best explained as the product of a -pre-Wyoming cycle of erosion by rivers that were extinguished when the -Wyoming beds were laid over the mountains. The strongest objection to -Emmons' conclusion seems to be the great amount of erosion that it -requires; erosion sufficient not only to remove the Wyoming -conglomerate from nearly all its former overlap on the Uinta range, -where it had buried and extinguished a pre-Wyoming drainage, but also -to carry away a vast extension of the formation at the same height -north of the range. It may be best to conclude that both antecedent and -superimposed processes must be called on: for one must hesitate before -admitting that the Wyoming beds stretched all across the country north -and east of the Uinta range up to the height at which the remnants are -now found on the range; it seems more likely that some part of the -height of these remnants is due to a relatively local elevation. As far -as this is the case, it gives reason for regarding the Green as an -antecedent river; that is, antecedent to the local elevation of the -Wyoming beds, but long posterior to the elevation of the Uinta range: -but as the river now flows--according to Emmons' theory--on beds lying -unconformably below those on which its course was chosen, it is for -this reason to be classed as superimposed. - -[Footnote 10: Fortieth Parallel Survey, ii, 1877, 194, 205, 206.] - -The Green river therefore certainly departs from the type of an -antecedent stream; the departure is distinct in its repeated ponding, -whereby its upper course was broadly and indeterminately shifted from -its original location; and is at least possible if not probable in its -defeat at the line of uplift and subsequent superimposition on a new -line of overflow. The mountains wrenched the saw that afterwards cut -them in two. - -A study of the Jura drainage, of which a fuller account may be given at -some future time, has led to the provisional conclusion that many of -its streams show a combination of consequent and antecedent -characteristics. They appear to be consequent on the early stages of -the deformation but antecedent to its later growth, and for this kind -of a stream I have no satisfactory name to suggest at present. - -Heim has shown that the Reuss and the adjacent smaller transverse -streams of northern Switzerland near Lucerne are in part persistent -across a series of folds, and in part slightly shifted from one course -to another and ponded in Lake Lucerne; but unless the other ranges of -the Alps rise hereafter faster than they have heretofore, the geologist -of the future will reasonably regard the more mature Reuss as an -essentially successful antecedent river. - -The Sutlej and other rivers that escape from the inner valleys of the -Himalaya by deep gaps in the outer ranges, are described by Medlicott -as antecedent to the elevation of the ranges through which they flow: -their antecedent origin being argued from the delta-like structure of -the upturned beds in the outer gorges, as if the rivers were now -cutting down the deformed deltas of an earlier time; but the heavy -gravel and sand deposits in their upper valleys indicates that they -were nearly if not quite ponded for a time during the deformation. - -Rivers seem to have the habit of cutting down their upturned deltas. -Bonney refers to several such examples among the rivers that flow -northward from the Alps, and transect particularly thick portions of -the upturned marginal conglomerates and sandstones, which he regards as -the deltas formed by the same rivers at an earlier time, when the -mountain folding had not extended outward as far as it does now from -the axis of the Alps. I have suspected that the same kind of evidence -might be used to indicate that the Delaware above Trenton, between -Pennsylvania and New Jersey, is in part of even pre-Triassic origin; -for where it now enters the Triassic belt, there is a particularly -heavy and coarse sandstone, sometimes conglomeratic. Being a large -stream, it might persist in an anaclinal course through the -northwestward monocline formed by the Jurassic uplift of the Triassic -beds, although the smaller streams of the region were then probably -extinguished, to be replaced by a new system consequent upon the new -order of things. - -Large rivers, more or less persistent in the face of opposing -disturbance, therefore appear to be generally recognized; but it is -noticeable that those quoted from the Himalaya and the Alps presumably -occupied, at the time of disturbance, well enclosed valleys, from which -it would have been difficult for them to escape backwards or laterally; -and that, even if successful in the end, they for a time suffered -defeat or ponding of greater or less extent and duration. There is no -evidence that the Green river was well enclosed immediately north of -the Uinta mountains at the time of their first elevation; hence the -likelihood of its temporary ponding or enclosure is increased. - -It is stated by Powell that not only the Green but even the smaller -streams of the Uintas are of origin antecedent to the mountains. He -writes: "the explanation of the cañons of Green river will assist us in -understanding the origin of the lateral valleys and cañons. The streams -were there before the mountains were made--that is, the streams carved -out the valleys and left the mountains. The direction of the streams is -indisputable evidence that the elevation of the fold was so slow as not -to divert the streams, although the total amount of elevation was many -thousands of feet. Had the fold been lifted more rapidly than the -principal streams could have cut their channels, Green river would have -been turned about it, and all the smaller streams and waterways would -have been cataclinal" (Colorado River, 162). - -This appears to me an unproved conclusion, and the evidence of it needs -careful attention. It appears that there are several streams which -descend from the crest of the mountains towards the flanks, but instead -of running all the way out to the margin of the fold, they turn along -the strike of a monoclinal valley, and thus reach the main river by a -short cut. Such streams are cataclinal for a time, then monoclinal. It -is in reference to these that it is said, "the streams were there -before the mountains were made;" and again that "the drainage was -established antecedent to the corrugation or displacement of the beds -by faulting and folding" (163). In approaching this conclusion, Powell -says these streams cannot be consequent; for "valleys consequent upon -the corrugation, which was one of the conditions of the origin of the -Uinta mountains, could not have taken the direction observed in this -system; they would have all been cataclinal, as they ran down from the -mountains, and turned into synclinal valleys at the foot, forming a -very different system from that which now obtains" (166). Nor can the -streams be superimposed, for the "later sedimentary beds, both to the -north and south, were found not to have been continuous over the -mountain system, but to have been deposited in waters whose shores were -limited by the lower reaches of the range" (166). Therefore the -discordant streams must be antecedent. - -It appears to me that the possibility of error in this argument lies in -the omission of all consideration of the migration of divides and the -resulting adjustment of stream courses to deep internal structure; but -at the time of the exploration of the Colorado river, this important -process in the development of rivers was not understood. It now seems -only natural that the original, consequent, cataclinal streams, flowing -down the slopes of the range from crest to flanks, should have -permitted the opening of subsequent monoclinal branches on the soft -beds that they discovered; and that the shifting of divides in these -monoclinal valleys should have led to the capture of several cataclinal -streams by that particular one of the subsequent branches that grew out -from the master stream, the Green river itself. Thus it must happen -that the streams "which head near the summit of the range, and, running -down the flank, turn into the Green river, are, in their upper courses, -cataclinal, and when they turn to follow the strike of the rocks into -Green river, are monoclinal" (161): this being a normal result of river -work in cutting down the thousands of feet of rocks of various -hardnesses, here concerned. The smaller streams of the Uinta range are -therefore certainly not of necessity antecedent to the Uinta uplift: -the probability is that they were originally purely consequent, and -that at present they are nicely adjusted to the structures that they -have discovered. - -I have learned so much from the doctrine of baselevelling, as presented -in Major Powell's writings, that I shall hope to profit by the lesson -of the Uinta drainage as well: that is, the possibility that an -apparently sound conclusion may be overturned when new processes that -bear upon it are discovered. It is here said that the drainage of the -Watchung crescent in New Jersey is an example of partial adjustment -following a superimposed origin: hence the necessity of watching -closely for the discovery of new principles in the history of river -work that may call for a revision of this conclusion. - -There are two other examples of peculiar accidents in the history of -rivers in New Jersey, to which I wish to call attention; both of them -in the latest cycle of the development of the State, that is, in the -cycle which has changed the central region from its even baselevelled -lowland surface, to the pastplain as we now see it. Like the uplift of -the Schooley (Highland) peneplain, the uplift of the Central plain, in -passing from the second to the third cycle, was not uniform throughout, -but was greater in one place than in another. In the neighborhood of -the lower Raritan river, a distinct though gentle slope to the -northwest is apparent in the unconsumed surface of the pastplain; but -this strong river runs southeastward against the slope; it is an -anaclinal stream. The tilting of the pastplain is moderate, and its -rocks are weak; the river is large and strong. Its anaclinal course is -therefore best explained by regarding it as a mild example of an -antecedent stream. But Ambrose's brook, a small stream to one side of -the Raritan, flows northwest with the gentle slope that was given to -the pastplain. Ambrose's brook therefore most likely is not a survivor -from the previous cycle, but is a new stream consequent on the slight -deformation by which the latest cycle here considered was ushered in. -Manalapan and Assanpink are apparently of the same kind. (See fig. 1). - -The Millstone river appears to be intermediate as respects origin -between the Raritan and Ambrose's brook. It appears still to lie for -the most part in the channel that it occupied before the elevation and -tilting of the baselevelled Central plain, but the tilting of the plain -seems to have reversed its direction of flow. It rises near the center -of the State and flows northwestward till it joins the Raritan near -Somerville, and on the way it crosses from the thrown or depressed to -the heaved or elevated side of the "fall-line,"[11] and passes through -a deep gap in the trap ridge of Rocky Hill back of Princeton. I believe -there is no other Atlantic river which runs against the fall-line in -this way; and it is certainly at first sight remarkable that a stream -of moderate size like the Millstone should have held its own against a -displacement that sufficed to deflect great rivers like the Delaware -and the Susquehanna from their courses. - -[Footnote 11: For an account of the "fall-line" displacement, see -McGee, Seventh Ann. Rep., U. S. G. S., 1888, 616.] - -The Millstone appears to have been a stream of the normal kind in the -previous cycle, before the tilting of the Central plain, when it -probably ran southeastward with its fellows, and carried off its share -of waste in the baselevelling process of that time. No other -supposition than this seems consistent with the general history of the -region. It was during that cycle that the deep gap was cut in the Rocky -Hill trap ridge. Then came the deformation of the baselevelled plain, -the relatively recent elevation and gentle tilting that have permitted -the streams to carve it into a pastplain; and with this, the -dislocation along the fall-line. The inclination of the interstream -surfaces of the pastplain leaves no doubt that it was tilted to the -northwest, and to this tilting we must ascribe the present direction of -the Millstone flow: but why did not the accompanying dislocation on the -fall-line throw this moderate sized stream off of its track and divert -it southwestward to the Delaware at Trenton, or northeastward to the -Raritan below New Brunswick. The effect of the dislocation appears with -considerable distinctness along a line from Trenton towards Amboy, in -the less altitude of the general surface of the pastplain to the -southeast than to the northwest of the line, the difference of altitude -of the two parts being about a hundred feet. The persistence of the -Millstone against such a dislocation seems to require that we should -postulate a slower and smaller movement here than that which deflected -the Delaware. - -The reversed course of the Millstone cannot be regarded as an example -of inversion following a capture of its ancient northern headwaters by -a branch of the Raritan; for in such a case, surely the inversion could -not have progressed farther south than the hard trap ridge of Rocky -Hill, where a stable divide would have been formed: nor can the -Millstone be regarded as an original stream, first developed and -consequent upon the deformation of the Central plain, for in that case, -it should consist of two separate parts; one part running from the -actual head of the river to the fall-line, where it would turn -southwest and cross the faint flat divide that separates it from the -Delaware; the other part beginning by Princeton north of the fall-line, -and running thence north to the Raritan. The continuity of these two -parts in the actual Millstone seems to be explicable only by regarding -the river as the upper portion of a single larger river that had -reached an old age in the previous cycle; it was then broken in two at -the head of the present river where the greatest elevation of the -Central plain occurred, and thus had its former head waters reversed -from a southeast to a northwest direction of flow across and against -the fall-line break by the tilting of the plain. Only in this way can -the deep gap in Rocky Hill be explained. The river is thus consequent -on the tilting of the plain, and yet antecedent to the accompanying -faulting. It cannot be called an original stream, for it had an -ancestor in its very channel. It is not a purely consequent stream, for -it runs against the heaved side of a fault. It is not a strictly -antecedent stream, for it flows in a direction determined by a -disturbance that occurred late in its life. It is too exceptional a -stream to have a generic name. We cannot expect to find many others -like it. - -The result that has been of the greatest interest to me in these -studies is the discovery of well-recorded and peculiar histories in the -commonplace small-sized rivers of our Atlantic slope. We have looked -for some years to the west as the region where river history should be -illustrated, because it was there that the pioneers in this branch of -study taught us the lessons on which our further work must depend. But -home study as well as distant travel has its rewards, and with the -progress of good topographic work on this side of the country we -confidently await much instruction from a close acquaintance with the -curious histories of many of our rivers which we know now only by name. - - Harvard College, January, 1890. - - * * * * * - -_Supplementary Note_.--Professor Albrecht Penck of Vienna has published -a valuable essay on "Die Bildung der Durchbruchsthäler" (Verein zur -Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien, 1888) from -which the following historical notes are taken to illustrate the -gradual overthrow of the fracture theory of cross valleys by the -introduction of the idea that rivers can sometimes cut down their beds -as fast as the land is uplifted or upfolded beneath them. - -Ferd. Römer. Die jurassische Weserkette. Zeit. d. deutsch. geol. -Gesellsch., ix, 1857, 581. The deepening of valleys by rivers and -streams must keep pace with the gradual elevation of continental -masses. The Porta Westphalica has thus been cut by the Weser in the -Wiehen-Weser range, in the northeastern part of Westphalia. - -A similar suggestion was briefly made a little later by Bischoff, to -explain the gorge of the Rhine below Bingen. Lehrb. d. chem. u. phys. -Geol., 2 Aufl., i, 374, 382; and again independently for the same river -by Dücker. Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdk. Berlin, v, 1870, 183. - -Gümbel explained the course of the Altmühl, a branch of the Danube -which crosses the Frankish Jura in northwestern Bavaria, by supposing -its course was defined before and maintained during the deformation of -the range. Bavaria: Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, -1865, iii, 756. - -Medlicott recognized that many streams flowing from the inner Himalaya -are older than the outer ranges, and showed reason for believing that -they held their places while the outer ranges were tilted up. Mem. -Geol. Survey India, iii, 1865, 6, 122, 127, 157, 163. A little later, -he applied the same explanation to some Alpine rivers. The Alps and the -Himalayas, a geological comparison. Q. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, xiv, -1868, 47, 52. - -Wynne explains the Indus and adjacent rivers as of greater age than the -elevation of the Salt Range in northwestern India. Mem. Geol. Survey -India, xi, 1875; xiv, 1878. - -Rütimeyer recognized the possibility of uprising ranges being cut down -by transverse rivers, but regarded the occurrence as a rare one, -thinking that lakes would generally appear behind such a growing -barrier. He emphasized the idea that erosion works upstream, which Löwl -has later developed farther. Ueber Thal- und Seebildung, Basel, 1869; 2 -Aufl., 1874. - -Tietze regarded the persistence of rivers across growing ranges as the -rule rather than the exception. Die Bildung von Querthälern, Jahrb. d. -k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., 1878, 581. - -Hayden was perhaps the first to point out in this country the -antecedent origin of certain headwaters of the Missouri in Montana, -where the mountain ranges are frequently cut across by deep cañons. -Amer. Journ. Science, xxxiii, 1862, 305. Hayden's Sixth Report, 1872 -(1873), 85. - -Reference may be made also to White, Hayden's Tenth Report, 1876 -(1878), 52; Peale, id., 167; Bechler, id., 372. General discussion of -valley making is given by Green, Geology for students and general -readers, London, 1876; Hartung, Zeitschr. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde, -Berlin, 1878, 308. - -In spite of the early date of some of these essays, the idea of the -antecedent origin of rivers did not gain general recognition and -acceptance till it was strongly stated by Powell. - - - - -A CRITICAL REVIEW OF BERING'S FIRST EXPEDITION, 1725-30, TOGETHER WITH -A TRANSLATION OF HIS ORIGINAL REPORT UPON IT. With a Map. - -BY WM. H. DALL. - -CONTENTS.--Introductory remarks.--Instruments and Methods.--Sources of -information.--Translation of Bering's Report.--Bering's List of -Geographical Positions.--An Itinerary of the Expedition.--Annotated -Synopsis of the Voyage compiled from all accessible data.--Comparative -Table of Geographical Positions.--Resumé of the results of the -Expedition. - - -In 1648 the tide of exploration and adventure setting eastward through -Siberia, impelled the fitting out of seven small trading boats on the -Kolyma river. Three of these, in charge of Simeon Deshneff, Gerasim -Ankudinoff and Feodor Alexieff, respectively, reached Bering Strait. -Ankudinoff's boat was wrecked on East Cape, but his party was -accommodated on the others. There were hostilities with the Chukchi, -the two boats were separated, and Deshneff's alone finally reached -Kamchatka. Next year he constructed the trading post on the Anadyr -river subsequently known as Anadyrsk. - -There is a tradition that in 1654 a trader named Taras Stadukin -followed Deshneff's route, made a portage across the neck of East Cape, -circumnavigated Kamchatka, discovered the Kurile Islands, and finally -reached the Gulf of Penjina in safety. - -In 1711 an emissary named Peter Iliunsen Popoff was sent to East Cape -by the Russians to induce the Chukchi to pay tribute. In this he -failed, but brought back an account of islands beyond East Cape, and of -a continent reported by the Chukchi to exist beyond these islands. Some -statements which he made in regard to the people of this continent were -regarded by geographers of the last century as fictitious, but with our -better knowledge, they set the seal of authenticity upon Popoff's -report and show that his journey was really made. - -The political disorders which prevailed in Western Russia about this -period, prevented any attention from being directed to the reports of -these explorations, which were preserved in the archives at Yakutsk. -Somewhat later the attention of geographers was directed toward this -unknown corner of the world and the subject was brought to the notice -of Peter the Great. He took great interest in it, drew up instructions -for an expedition with his own hand and delivered them to Count Apraxin -with orders to see them executed. A few days later, in January, 1725, -he died; but the Empress desiring to carry out all the plans of her -deceased husband as closely as possible, ordered their execution. -Fleet-Captain Vitus Ivanovich Bering was nominated to the command of -the expedition and Lieutenants Martin Spanberg[1] and Alexie Chirikoff -to be his assistants. - -[Footnote 1: So spelled by Bering himself.] - -This expedition forms the subject of this paper. It has been treated of -by various geographers and biographers, but so far the original report -of Bering, printed in 1847 in the Russian language, has never been -faithfully translated into any other language; while his map has never, -in its entirety, been published at all. Reduced sketches derived from -the maps and more or less mutilated and garbled versions of the report -have appeared in sundry collections of voyages, and upon these the -latest contributions to the history of the expedition have been in -great part based. - -Believing that the original report is a document of sufficient historic -and geographic interest to be made accessible to those who do not read -Russian, and that the errors of existing works make a critical review -of the subject desirable, I have translated the document in question -and prepared a general review of the present state of our knowledge in -regard to the expedition. - -Bering's Report being written in archaic and badly spelled Russian, -with a singular disregard of punctuation and other literary niceties, -the translation presented unusual difficulties, in solving which I have -had the kind coöperation of that excellent Russian scholar Mr. J. -Curtin. I am indebted to the Reverend Father Richards, president of -Georgetown University, and Father Maas of Woodstock College, Md., for -valuable information in regard to the church festivals and saints, -whose names were utilized in the nomenclature of Bering's new -discoveries. To Mr. Marcus Baker, Messrs. Gannett and Woodward, and Mr. -C. C. Darwin of the Geological Survey; Dr. S. Hertzenstein of the -Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg; Baron -Nordenskiöld of Stockholm, and Baron Robert Klinckofström; Drs. Holm -and Stejneger of the U. S. National Museum, and Prof. Julius Olson of -Madison, Wisconsin, I am indebted for numerous favors and courteous -assistance, and to all of these gentlemen I desire to express my -thanks. - -In conclusion I desire to state that I am well aware this paper cannot -be regarded as a finality, but as a contribution to the geographical -history of North America it will not be without its value, while the -fact that I have myself spent parts of three summers in scientific -exploration of the coast visited by Bering and first charted by him, -has greatly helped me in my discussion of minor details of his work. - -[Illustration: BERING'S CHART OF HIS FIRST VOYAGE. FROM D'ANVILLES -ATLAS. 1737. The first published map of his Explorations.] - - -INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS. - -In considering the work done by the expedition it is very necessary to -bear in mind the character of the instrumental outfit, if any, which -they might have possessed, and the state of the science of navigation -at the time. - -When Bering and his two cartographers left St. Petersburg in February, -1725, the astronomical instrument in use by navigators was the Davis -quadrant or "backstaff," in which the sun's altitude was measured by -sighting without a telescope or tube on the shadow cast by the sun from -one projection of the instrument upon another, the observer's back of -course, being turned to the luminary. The only alternative to this was -the still older astrolabe with which the observer had to look along the -two lines of his angle at the same time, and which also depended upon -sights or spurs attached to a frame. The reflecting quadrant of Hadley -was not invented until 1731 and telescopes were not used on the -instruments of navigation until somewhat later. There were no -chronometers or reliable watches or clocks for use in dividing -intervals of time. Even after the Hadley quadrant came into use, time -was noted by a pendulum vibrating seconds, which could not be used on -ship-board. - -A futile attempt had been made by means of tables of variation of the -compass to determine the longitude by comparison with observed -variation in the field. Results by this method approached the truth -accidentally, if at all. Lunar observations were the only means of -getting an approximation to the longitude except the occultations of -Jupiter's satellites, both methods being impracticable on board ship, -with the instruments then employed. - -In 1731 the astronomer Halley proved[2] that at that date it was still -impossible to find the longitude correctly by the moon, the lunar -tables being so inaccurate that an error of several hundred miles was -quite possible and an accurate determination would depend upon the -respective errors of instrument, observation and the lunar tables -happening to balance one another. Halley ventured to express the hope -that the tables may be so amended that an error may scarce ever exceed -three minutes, which would correspond to a degree and a half of -longitude, amounting at the equator to a distance of a little less than -one hundred miles. Messerschmidt, who preceded Bering as an explorer of -Eastern Siberia, was according to Middendorf (Sib. Reise, iv. 1, p. 56) -thirty-two degrees out in his determination of the longitude, and the -eastward extent of Asia in this region was underrated by that amount or -thereabouts, on many maps. - -[Footnote 2: Phil. Trans. 1731, No. 421.] - -One other means of approximating to the meridian remained, in the -observation of eclipses. This from the comparative rarity of these -occurrences in the case of the sun and moon, could with the imperfect -instruments of those days be available but seldom. Owing to the -difficulty of determining the exact time of the first and last contacts -the longitudes computed by these observations were liable to quite as -great inaccuracy as those computed from the lunar tables. Still an -ordinary spyglass would enable an observer to note the time within a -minute or two, and, if he was possessed of the local time, a simple -comparison with the observed time of the eclipse in some locality where -the longitude was known would give a fairly good determination, -considering the instruments and methods of those days. Of the four -eclipses of the moon occurring in 1728-9 two might have been observed -without difficulty by Bering, one would have been invisible to him, and -one might barely have been noted, but in all probability was not -observed by him. In none of the published reports of the expedition is -any mention made by Bering or his officers of the occurrence or -observation of an eclipse, which seems very singular if by such an -observation he was enabled to correct an error of 30° in the longitude -of northeastern Siberia. However, Middendorf states (Sib. Reise, iv. 1, -p. 56) that "Bering and his lieutenant in the years 1728 and 1729 -observed in Kamchatka[3] two eclipses of the moon," by which they -corrected the longitude. He gives no authority for this statement. - -[Footnote 3: It is possible that an eclipse observed at Ilimsk in -Middle Siberia by Chirikoff is thus erroneously referred to.] - -Euler, who had access to the archives of the Admiralty College, while -engaged on a Geography of Russia, mentions (Philos. Trans., No. 482, p. -421) that he was informed that Bering observed an eclipse "at -Kamchatka." This letter of Euler's is copied by Campbell in Harris' -Voyages (vol. II, Book III, p. 1024) and the expression "at Kamchatka" -has led to the statement that these observations were made at the fort -or village of Lower Kamchatka. This is an error since Bering gives no -longitude for the fort in his table of geographical positions. It must -be remembered that the name Kamchatka at that period was applied not -merely to the peninsula as at present, but also to the whole region of -northeastern Siberia, the governor of Kamchatka being located at -Okhotsk. So to come within the probable meaning of the phrases used by -Middendorf and Euler it is only necessary to suppose that the -observations were made somewhere in that region. Lauridsen (Danish -edition, note 34, p. 186) refers to a paper of Struve (Bull. -phys.-math. Acad. St. Petersb., I, 1842, p. 290) containing a table of -geographical positions in Russia, in connection with these alleged -observations of Bering. An examination of Struve's paper does not bear -out the implication of Lauridsen's reference, as Struve not only makes -no mention whatever of Bering's observations there but specifically -states that the first observations of precision made in this part of -Siberia were those of Krassilnikoff who accompanied Bering's second -expedition in 1741. It would seem extraordinary that a determination so -important for geography as that of Bering and his companion should be -unknown to so distinguished an astronomer as Struve who must have had -access to all the archives of the early explorations by Russia. But it -may be perhaps accounted for by the facts that Bering's observations -were necessarily of a very rough and primitive character--as it is -certain he had no instruments of precision; and that, for that reason, -they were not received with entire confidence; so that Struve may have -considered them insufficiently exact to be included with those of -Krassilnikoff and others made with more modern appliances. - -From the note in regard to the eclipses which is kindly contributed by -Mr. Marcus Baker and from the other circumstances, it is evident that -if Bering and his party made the observations alluded to, the eclipses -noted were the partial eclipse of Feb. 25 (local calendar), 1728, of -which he might have observed the last contact, or the total eclipse of -Feb. 14, 1729, of which he might have observed the first contact and -the totality. At the time of the last eclipse he was at Lower Kamchatka -post, and as, in the list of positions handed in with his Report in -1730, no longitude is entered for this locality, it would seem that -choice is reduced to the first of the two mentioned; which occurred -when Bering was either at Bolsheretsk or on his way from that place to -Lower Kamchatka, which he reached about a month later. Campbell's table -of positions is credited by him to the year 1728, but my own opinion is -that it was really derived (with various errors, interpolations, etc.) -from Bering's table of 1730. - -The ordinary method of getting the longitude of a place, and that upon -which Bering originally depended, as his itinerary table shows, was by -a continuous record of the distances and directions traveled from a -point of known longitude. This record would afford the data from which -the distance on a mean parallel, by means of a traverse table, could be -computed. Laborious, imperfect, and slow as it was, it was the only -sure reliance of the traveler in those days. Whether Bering observed an -eclipse or not, it is certain that his original dependence was upon his -itinerary, that his report was based upon that and that this part of -his work was done as well as the nature of the method would permit. His -silence about the eclipse may be due to the fact that he depended not -upon astronomical but upon pedometric observations, to which the -eclipse may have afforded some corrections. At any rate the pedometric -determination of the distance between Tobolsk and Okhotsk or the -peninsula of Kamchatka was in itself a tremendous undertaking. - -I find by a rough calculation from Bering's data that the longitude -resulting from his itinerary from Tobolsk to Okhotsk is 77° 36' E. The -distance in a straight line is about 2,390 miles, but by the route -Bering traveled the distance is a little more than 3,746 miles. The -longitude in Bering's List of Positions is 76° 07', which differs from -the pedometric measurement by 1° 29' (or about 45 miles). On Bering's -map, Okhotsk is located in longitude 74° 30' E. of Tobolsk, while the -most modern observations for Okhotsk put it in 142° 40' E. of Greenwich -or 75° 40' E. of Tobolsk. So that Bering's pedometric measurement was -nearly 60 miles in excess; his revised table (as corrected by the -eclipse?) 27 miles in excess; and his map about 30 miles in error in -the opposite direction. These discrepancies show the inexactness of the -methods then in vogue and also that the pedometric method was not very -much worse than the others in its results. Although there are several -typographic or other errors in his table of itinerary which render -exact comparisons impossible, it may be said that the error of the -pedometric method, including the passage by sea from Okhotsk to -Kamchatka, averages about two degrees or sixty geographical miles. In -the cases of Okhotsk and Bolsheretsk the error is one of excess; in the -case of the cape at the mouth of the Kamchatka river and of the turning -point of the expedition north of Bering Strait, the result is too small -by about the same amount. - -That his chart and his revised list of positions should differ as they -do, is quite as likely the result of the careless way in which the -minutiæ of such work were generally regarded at that day, as to any -difference of date, or of intentional modification. - -To conclude our review of the instrumental means and methods then in -use, it may be said that the compasses in use at that day were -comparatively roughly made and more or less inaccurate. The variation -was determined in a given latitude by the azimuth of the Polestar or -the sun at setting observed by means of sights attached to the rim of -the compass, which was a method accurate enough for the general -purposes of navigation. The distance run was measured on shipboard by -the log which was in about the same form and perfection as at present, -being a very ancient invention. - -The survey of a general coast-line was made by compass bearings on -prominent points, repeated from successive stations, the distances of -the ship's course being determined by the log and the courses by -compass, with corrections for current and the variation. The lines thus -obtained were checked by latitude observations made with Davis' -backstaff when the weather permitted. - -Apart from any of the methods mentioned it seems to have been -overlooked that Bering might have corrected the longitudes of the N.E. -Siberian coast by the ordinary dead reckoning kept on board his vessel, -provided he started by adopting the longitude for the southern part of -Kamchatka peninsula which was in common use on many of the charts of -his day. Though it is true that the maps of that part of Siberia north -and northeast from the Okhotsk sea were many degrees in error in the -longitude, this observation does not hold good in regard to the -southern end of Kamchatka. The work of the Jesuit fathers in China had -already determined fairly well the position of China and Korea, while -rude outlines of the northern islands of Japan, Sakhalin, the Kuriles -and the south end of Kamchatka, were added to these on maps of Asia. -The outlines are often very incorrect but it is quite evident what is -intended. In nearly all early maps of this region which I have been -able to consult, as for instance those of N. de Witt, I have found the -south end of Kamchatka in approximately correct longitude. For -instance, in the Novissimae Ephemerides of Manfredio, published at Bonn -the same year that Bering left St. Petersburg, and which might well -have been sent to him before he sailed, we find two charts of the paths -of solar eclipses (Plates ii and iii). On these charts the meridian of -180° from Ferro passes across what is unmistakably the south end of -Kamchatka, though northeastern Siberia remains a blank. This would be a -sufficient starting point and is quite as correct as Bering's -determinations; in fact is within a few miles of the modern longitudes -for the same part of the peninsula. Dead reckoning along the shores of -the peninsula, corrected by latitude observations, would have done all -that was necessary to correct the meridian without observing any lunar -eclipse, provided the surveyor started with such an assumption as -Manfredio's or De Witt's charts supply. - - -SOURCES OF INFORMATION. - -The general History of China [etc.] Done from the French of P[ere]. Du -Halde [by R. Brookes]. London, John Watts, 1736. 4 vols. 8° with maps -and ills. - -This is referred to in the following text by the letter B. - - -This is the first English translation from the original French edition -of the "Description géographique et historique de l'empire de la Chine" -by the father J. B. Du Halde, published at the Hague in the same year -as the above translation. The text of the original French I have not -been able to consult, though, so far as Bering's voyage is concerned, -there does not seem to have been any material abridgment in the -translation above cited, for an opportunity of consulting which I am -indebted to the Librarian of Congress. - -The maps and charts of the original French edition were separately -printed in an atlas by themselves, for the use of those who might -desire to do without the text, under the following title: - - -Nouvel Atlas de la Chine, de la Tartarie Chinoise, et du Thibet: -contenant Les Chartes générales & particulieres de ces Pays, ainsi que -la Carte du Royaume de Corée; (etc.): Rédigées par M^r D'Anville, -Géographe ordinaire de sa Majesté très Chrétienne, Précedé d'une -description de la Boucharie, Par un Officier Suedois que a fait quelque -sejour dans ce Pays. A la Haye, chez Henri Scheurleer MDCCXXVII. Folio, -12 pp. 42 charts. - - -The chart of Bering forms sheet 42, and differs from the others in -being on Mercator's projection which indicates that it was copied -directly from an original as stated in the text, and not redrawn. It is -20-3/4 by 9-3/8 inches on the neat-lines and is entitled: - - -"Carte des Pays traversé par le Cap^{ne}. Beerings depuis la ville de -Tobolsk jusqu'a Kamtschatka." - - -Beneath the title is a table of four transliterated Russian terms for -fort, post, village and convent, with their French equivalents. This -and certain peculiarities in the transliteration of proper names make -it certain that the original chart was in Russian and that the -transliteration was done by some one not perfectly familiar with both -languages. There are a few errors of the engraver in rendering single -letters "c" appearing for "t" and "r" for "e" in a few places. The -longitude is reckoned in degrees east from Tobolsk to which 67° degrees -when added will give practically the meridian east from Greenwich. The -transcriber of the map from the Russian appears to have been a Dane, G. -Kondet. - -That part of this chart east from 112° E. Gr. has been fairly -reproduced by Lauridsen (Chart I) with the omission of some unimportant -names and the addition of a signature (not the ordinary autograph) of -Bering. This is reproduced with a different running headline to -accompany Olson's translation. - - -The fourth volume of Brookes' translation (pp. 429-440) contains - -"A succinct narrative of Captain Beerings's Travels into Siberia:" - - -with a reduction of the above-mentioned map, on which there is no trace -of the island of St. Demetrius, even its name, which alone appears on -the Du Halde map, is here omitted. Otherwise this version of the map -does not differ from Du Halde's, more than one copy of a drawing -usually differs from another. When Bering started on his expedition he -was accompanied by two cartographers (Bergh, First Voy. of the Russ. -pp. 2-5, fide Lauridsen) Luzhin and Potiloff, and to one or both of -them under Bering's direction the construction of the map in question -was probably due. - -When Bering made his report it was accompanied by a list of positions -for important places visited by the Expedition. - -Dr. Campbell, while gathering material for his second edition of -Harris' Voyages, procured a copy of this unpublished list of positions -and prints it in his account of Bering's travels, with the comment that -it was sent by Bering from Kamchatka, before his return to Russia, and -to the Senate at St. Petersburg, to which Bering did not report. -Whether due to the transcriber or the printer there are several very -obvious errors in the list as printed by Campbell, and when it is -compared with Bering's own list we see that there are also several -interpolations. - -But the positions adopted in the chart, said by Du Halde to have been -brought to St. Petersburg by Bering on his return (a statement -confirmed by the mention of a chart in the report itself), are not -identical with the positions enumerated in the list. This leads to the -suspicion that Bering's first chart was not published, and that the -chart issued was due to a recomputation and revision of his data. This -suspicion is made stronger by the statement of Lauridsen, who gives no -authority, however, that Bering's chart was made in Moscow in 1731,[4] -though this may merely mean that some of the copies which were -distributed to various personages were so prepared. - -[Footnote 4: Lauridsen, Am. ed., p. 57.] - -These manuscript copies of the chart and report were sent to various -foreign courts, as a matter of general interest, by the Russian -authorities. The copy used by Du Halde was communicated to him by the -King of Poland who had received it as a "Present worthy of his regard -and curiosity" (Du Halde, iv, p. 439, Brookes' ed.). Other copies were -sent to Sweden and probably to England and other countries. In the -journal, "Ymer," of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography -(1884, p. 93) is a short notice by E. Dahlgren of three manuscript -copies of Bering's chart of his first expedition, or rather of charts -embodying its results. Two of these charts are in the Royal archives of -Sweden and measures 58 x 135 cm. One of them is ornamented with ten -colored drawings of natives of Siberia. The other is without these but -does not seem to be a copy of the first as it has a number of soundings -between St. Lawrence and the Diomede Islands which are not on the -former, and some names which are peculiar to it. Both have many more -names than are given on the chart published by Du Halde. Both of the -manuscripts have a legend referring to the coast from the Kolyma -eastward, on the north coast of Siberia, to the effect that it is put -down from older charts and information, doubtless furnished by the -archives at Yakutsk. The third copy is in the possession of Baron -Robert Klinckofström, of Stafsund, Sweden. - -Through the kind offices of Baron Nordenskiöld and the generosity of -Baron Klinckofström, the last mentioned chart has been forwarded to the -writer through the Smithsonian Institution for examination. It appears -to be essentially the same as the second of the two charts referred to -as comprised in the Royal Swedish Archives. The result of my -examination of it leads me to the belief that there were two different -charts sent out in manuscript by the Russian authorities. The first, -which I regard as the earlier, and which is certainly more accurate, -shows the island of St. Demetrius in its proper place in accordance -with Bering's Report and list of positions. It formed the basis of -Campbell's engraving which will be referred to later, and of the chart -which appears in the various editions of Du Halde. It is possible that -this represents the original chart prepared by Bering in Kamchatka -during the winter of 1728-9. The second and probably later form of the -chart is represented by the Klinckofström chart, upon which the name -and island of St. Demetrius have vanished and a smaller island in the -corresponding latitude is represented close to the Siberian coast and -westward from the meridian passing through the eastern extreme of East -Cape. This island is named the island of St. Diomede. If it is intended -as a revised position for the island of St. Demetrius of the other -chart and of Bering's Report, it is in conflict with the facts and with -the position assigned to St. Demetrius in the report. No one who had -sailed between St. Demetrius and East Cape could have sanctioned such a -position for the island with honesty. If a different island is intended -the question arises, Why is St. Demetrius omitted? This second chart is -obviously the basis upon which in D'Anville's chart of Asia (1753) the -configuration of the eastern extreme of Siberia is based, and I suspect -that the chart of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg -and the reproduction of Jefferys, were also derived from it as far as -this region is concerned. - -It would be rash, in the absence of authentic information which only -the Russian archives can supply, to hazard an opinion as to the origin -of the important difference between these charts. I may return to this -point later. Apart from this, it may be added that the northern coast -of Siberia from East Cape west to Cape Shelagskoi is represented as -mountainous throughout its extent. A legend states that it is laid down -from older charts and information. This relieves Bering from the -responsibility for the fictitious or at least grossly erroneous and -exaggerated form and direction given to Cape Shelagskoi on his chart. -The west coast of the Okhotsk sea and part of its northeastern shores -not visited by Bering are stated to be laid down from "information." -This map is not dated and the blank space in the title left for -Bering's autograph has never been filled. No name of draughtsman or -place or authority of issue are indicated upon it. It measures 51 by -20-1/8 inches between the neat-lines. It is in black and white, the -mountains washed in, the only color being small green trees as a -conventional sign for wooded country. A copy of the earlier chart fell -into the hands of Dr. Campbell and was published by him in his edition -of Harris' Voyages,[5] together with a version of the report which is -more or less mutilated and to which the editor to make his book more -readable has added certain flowers of rhetoric which detract from its -accuracy. Campbell's copy of the map is the most perfect yet published -and the only one showing the island of St. Demetrius in its proper -place. - -[Footnote 5: HARRIS, JOHN. Complete collection of Voyages and travels -[etc.]. London, T. Woodward [and others] 1748. 2 v. folio, maps and -plates, Vol. 2, pp. 1016-1041, is devoted to a discussion of Bering's -discoveries, entitled: Book III, Section VIII. "A distinct account of -part of the northeast frontier of the Russian Empire, commonly called -the country of Kamschatka or Kamschatska including the voyages of -Captain Behring for discovering toward the East [etc.], collected from -the best authorities both printed and manuscript."] - -In Du Halde's copy and those derived from it the eastern border of the -chart has cut off the island, though in some of them, as in that of -1736, the name remains. The only fault to be noted in Campbell's -edition of Bering's map is the omission by the engraver of the small -bay named Preobrazhenia by Bering and which, though it is not named, -appears on the other editions of the map. The title is as follows: - - -"An exact chart of all the countries through which Cap^t. Behring -travelled, from Tobolski Capital of Siberia to the country of -Kamtschatka." - - -The size of the map is 7 x 12¾ inches. It extends on the east to the -meridian of 126° east from Tobolsk which enables the "Isle of St. -Demetrius" (our present Big Diomede) to appear in its proper place. The -editions previously reported have all stopped at the 124th meridian, -thus cutting off the island, whose name sometimes appeared and -sometimes did not. - -It will be observed that Dr. Campbell in this paper was the means of -introducing the erroneous and obnoxious Germanized spelling of Bering's -name into English literature. This is a pretty good indication that he -had no autographic documents from Bering himself, and that his -manuscripts were obtained from German sources, or at least had been -transcribed into the German language. In his thorough search of the -literature of the subject and lengthy discussion of the results, Dr. -Campbell undoubtedly gathered the fullest account of the first -expedition which had up to that date been printed. In order to enliven -his history of the proceedings, the good Doctor occasionally rises to -flights of fancy, and the theories he held were long since proved -erroneous. - -There are several other English translations of Du Halde's China, of -which the following is the most important: - - -"A description of the empire of China and Chinese-Tartary, together -with the kingdoms of Korea, and Tibet: containing the geography and -history (natural as well as civil) of those countries. From the French -of P. J. B. Du Halde, Jesuit. Illustrated with general and particular -maps, and adorned with a great number of cuts. With notes geographical, -historical and critical, and other improvements, particularly in the -maps, by the Translator." London, Edward Cave, 1741. 2 vols. folio, -maps and ills. - - -This edition does not show the name of the translator, but he was -evidently a man of no small attainments as a geographer and -cartographer, and introduced numerous improvements and corrections into -the charts of D'Anville, which accompanied the original edition of Du -Halde. A copy of this was presented to the library of Harvard College -by the province of New Hampshire in 1765-6, for an opportunity of -examining which I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Justin Winsor, the -Librarian. - -The text of this edition, compared with that of 1736, is as much as -possible abridged, yet contains nothing not in the original, but the -map exhibits certain additions to be noted. This map is entitled, - - -"A Map of Capt. Beerings' travels from Tobolskoy to Kamchatka between -y^e years 1725 and 1730. With improvements by y^e Editor." It contains -the following note by the editor. "Capt. Beerings probably observ'd y^e -Lat.^d in y^e Principal places thro' w^{ch} he pass'd, tho' two -Observations only are mentioned in his Journal. But M^r Kyrilow in his -Map of the Russian Empire does not follow y^e Author in this respect -for instance he places Ilimski 1° 30' more north, Yakutskoy 2° more -south, and Cape Chiokotskago 1° more south than Cap^t. Beerings; -likewise other places in Proportion. I have reckon'd y^e Long^d of -Tobolskoy from Paris according to an Eclipse of y^e Sun observed at -Hamburg and Tobolskoy, mentioned by Mr. Strahlenberg in his account of -y^e Northern parts of Europe and Asia. This is all that can be done -till y^e return of y^e Russian Mathematicians sent to make observations -and discoveries throughout Siberia." Then follows a line "Inscribed to -Francis Gashrey Esq^r." - - -The main body of the chart is that of Du Halde's original and the scale -is the same, but the height of the neat-lines is only 8-5/8 inches. -Bering's track from Okhotsk to Bolsheretsk, across Kamchatka, northward -to 67° 18'; also his track eastward from Kamchatka in 1729 and around -the peninsula to Bolsheretsk and Okhotsk; are indicated by dotted -lines. The two latitudes noted in Bering's journal are indicated on -this map by a +, and the northern one is placed near the Asiatic coast -in latitude 118° E. from Tobolsk. At the top of the map the supposed -Paris meridians[6] are indicated, a difference between Paris and -Tobolsk being assumed of 70° degrees, which is about five degrees too -much. There are also sundry infelicities in the transliteration of the -names from the French of D'Anville. - -[Footnote 6: In the Campbell map these are taken as east from London -with an allowance of 67° between London and Tobolsk.] - -A chart which deserves notice, though almost wholly fictitious, being -chiefly devoted to the spurious discoveries of the alleged Admiral de -Fonte, was issued by J. N. de L'Isle with the concurrence of M. P. -Buache, or at his suggestion. It appeared at Paris, in 1752, and was -copied for Jefferys' (2d) edition of Voyages from Asia to America in -1764. I do not know if this copy appeared in the first edition, but -presume it did. - -For present purposes the interesting features of this map are as -follows: - -Opposite the eastern extreme of the Chukchi peninsula there is -represented part of America with the legend, "Terres vues par Mr. -Spanberg in 1728, frequentées à présent par les Russes, qui en -apportent de très belles fourrures." In the English edition the legend -is "Seen by Spanberg 1728." Four islands are represented in the strait -between Asia and America, corresponding in a general way to the four -now known to exist there. Connected with America and north of the -Chukchi peninsula is land with an island off it corresponding not badly -to Wrangell and Herald Islands, and marked "Discovered in 1722." It is -possible that this land is a hypothetical compound of the land reported -by the Chukchis east of the strait with that which they knew to be -visible in clear weather from Cape Yakan, more or less confused -accounts of which had long been current among persons interested in -these regions. - -The next chart of note in this connection was published by D'Anville, -the royal geographer of France, who had previously prepared the -original map of Bering for publication. He issued a general map of -Asia, in three parts, each of two leaves which could be joined -together, of which the first part appeared in 1751 and the third part -in 1753, entitled: - - -Troisième Partie de la Carte/d'Asie,/contenant/La Sibérie/et quelques -autres parties/de la Tartarie,/Publiée sous les Auspices de -Monseigneur/Louis-Philippe d'Orléans/Duc d'Orléans/Prémier Prince du -Sang./Par le S^r. d'Anville,/Sécrétaire de Son Alt^s. -Sereniss^s./MDCCLIII./Avec Privilége./ - - -This map is in two sheets (each 20 x 21 inches), the engraving of the -geographical part by Guill. de la Haye and of the ornamental title by -De Lafosse. The longitude is reckoned from Ferro, and the map is -constructed on a scale of 23 French leagues to 60 geographical miles. -The boundaries are colored and the sea shore shaded with short -horizontal lines. It is on the polyconic projection. - -This map includes many of the additions to geography in eastern Siberia -which were due to the members of the great Siberian expedition. The -courses and branches of the rivers especially were augmented and -corrected as well as named. The branches of the Anadyr River were -represented and named, but as no new information in regard to the coast -had been received at that date, this river was still mapped as entering -the sea to the south and west of Cape Thaddeus, as erroneously laid -down by Bering, who confounded with the Anadyr a small river which does -come in here, and passed the estuary of the true Anadyr without seeing -it. The coast lines are essentially those of Bering. Beyond the basins -of the Kolyma and Anadyr is marked "Terre inconnue"; a small supplement -in the north-east corner of the map, on half the scale of the map, -represents the north-east extreme of Asia as delineated by Bering. This -little supplement is of considerable interest as it gives fuller -information than that which appears on the original publication of Du -Halde, perhaps from a more modern version of Bering's chart, as -previously suggested. - -Several names appear for the first time in cartographic history, upon -this map. Preobrazhenia Bay; Bolshoia River falling into Holy Cross -Bay, and the "Isle de St. Diomide" are among these. The Island of St. -Demetrius is omitted, as well as its name. The Island of St. Diomide is -placed about on a line between East Cape and Cape Chukotski, to the -westward of the meridian of East Cape. There is a discrepancy averaging -about five minutes in latitude and longitude between the positions on -this map and those on the second version of the Bering manuscript -charts. But in the main these differences are, I suspect, merely due to -carelessness in copying, and the general harmony between the two leads -to the belief that the D'Anville outline for this region was based on -the second version of the manuscript. - -The differences of position for points on this part of the coast are -numerous. I have noted them in the comparative table of positions -herewith. They may be chiefly owing to slips in transferring from the -Mercator to the Polyconic projection; but some of them are due to new -information, probably derived from the surveyors of the second -expedition. Bering island appears on the map, in about its proper -place, though Copper island is not indicated, nor are any of the -Aleutians shown. I suspect this is the first publication of a -cartographic kind on which Bering island is laid down, as the map of -the Imperial Academy of Sciences, embodying the geographical results of -Bering's Voyage to the coast of America, was not engraved until a year -later, while De L'Isle's of 1752 does not contain them. - -The island between Cape Shelaginski and East Cape off the northern -coast, on Bering's map, is omitted by D'Anville. The Kamchatkan -peninsula in latitude 56° is represented to have a width of 180 miles, -while Bering made it 270 miles. - -A most important contribution to the subject appeared in Müller's -Historical Collections known as the "Sammlung Russische Geschichte" and -published at St. Petersburg (Kayserl. Academie der Wissenschaften, -1732-64. 8°. Nine volumes.) Des dritten Bandes (erstes, zweytes und -drittes Stück, pp. 1-304, 1758) contains the original account of the -Russian Voyages toward America from which the work of Jefferys has, -with some errors and omissions, been translated. As far as regards -Bering's first voyage, there is only one error of consequence made by -Jefferys, which will be noted in its place. This book is extremely -rare, and the only copy in America which I have been able to find after -much enquiry, is in the library of the Smithsonian Institution. - -The first volume of this series has the title - - -"Eröffnung eines Vorschlages zu Verbesserung der Russischen Historie -Durch den Druck eines Stückweise herauszugebenden Sammelungen von -allerly zu den Umstanden und Begebenheiten dieses Reichs gehorigen -Nachrichten. St. Petersburg, bey der Keyserl. Academie der -Wissenschaften, 1732." - - -The succeeding volumes have the running title "Sammlung Russische -Geschichte" with the number of the parts subjoined but no other -title-page. - -The account of the Russian Voyages is stated by Müller to have been -prepared at the direction of the Empress and endorsed by the Academy of -Sciences. It contains invaluable material on the early explorations, -which, if it had not been for Müller's painstaking researches, would -have been totally lost, as the archives of Yakutsk from whence the data -were derived by Müller were subsequently destroyed by fire. The errors -which occur in it are chiefly due to Müller's endeavor to utilize the -inexact geographical data of the Promyschleniks and Cossacks by -combining them with the less detailed but more precise observations of -later observers. In this attempt he added many valuable details to the -charts, but at the same time introduced several errors. The exaggerated -distances reported by the first explorers who were unable to correct -their estimates by observations of precision, distort those parts of -the map due to their reports. The peninsula of Aliaska becomes hugely -exaggerated as does the Shelagskoi promontory on the Arctic Sea. But no -unprejudiced person can read Müller's account without perceiving his -great caution in accepting unreservedly these imperfect contributions, -the really important additions which he made to cartography, the -preciousness of the facts which he rescued from oblivion, and his -desire to be fair to everybody. - -The insinuations of malice and of a desire to injure Bering by means of -this account given by Müller, which Lauridsen attributes to the latter, -appear to be entirely the product of a suspicious temperament and an -excited imagination. Certainly I have seen nothing anywhere cited which -lends to such suspicions any tint of probability. The facts cited in -support of them can easily be otherwise explained, if one desires to -view the subject judicially, and for the most part are not quite -thoroughly understood by the Danish author. - -One error upon which the latter lays great stress, is due to a -manipulation of the record, originated or at least adopted by Bering -himself, and which is incorporated in the map and report which all -authors agree proceeded directly from Bering's own hand. - -The next map of importance was issued by the Imperial Academy of -Sciences, St. Petersburg in 1754. It was made under the inspection of -Gerhard Friedrich, Staatsrath von Müller, who revised and corrected it -subsequently, when an edition dated 1758 was issued. This map comprised -the geographical results of the great Siberian expedition sent out by -the Russian government; of Bering's voyages; and of the records of the -hunters (Promishleniks) and traders in northeastern Siberia preserved -in the archives of Yakutsk. The sources of this map are fully explained -by Müller in the "Russian Discoveries" (Jefferys' translation, p. 108 -et seq.). I have not been able to examine a copy of the original map, -and have therefore relied on the English version of it which is to be -found in Jefferys' translation, second edition, London, 1764. - -Among the improvements introduced on this map may be specified, the -correction of the shores of the Okhotsk Sea, and Gulf of Penjina, the -correcter location of the mouth of the Anadyr river and its estuary, -the introduction of the results of the voyages of Gvosdeff, Bering and -Chirikoff to the northwest coast of America, and a multitude of details -relating to northeastern Siberia. The island of St. Deomid (Diomede) is -not represented though its name appears on the 65th parallel in Bering -Strait. The island may have been on the original map and carelessly -omitted by Jefferys' engraver on his copy. Among the errors, or rather -mistaken hypotheses of others, which are suggested in this map by -dotted lines, are the extension westward to 174° E. of Greenwich, of -the peninsula of Aliaska which is also given a wholly uncalled-for -width; and the northward extension of the coast on each side of Bering -Strait. In the former case the cartographer was misled by the errors of -the map of Bering and Chirikoff's last voyage and rumors reported by -other navigators; and in the second case he followed Bering in adopting -an erroneous position and exaggerated form for the coast eastward from -Koliuchin Bay, due to the uncorrected sketches of the Cossacks and -traders. The northern extension of the American coast opposite, was -purely hypothetical and for this Müller must be held responsible. Many -of the western Aleutians are exaggerated in size and erroneous in -position but the chart of Bering's last voyage, and the exaggerated -reports of the hunters who followed him, must be held responsible for -this, in the main. - -The work in which this chart appears is largely derived from Müller's -"Sammlung russische geschichte," St. Petersburg, 1758, vol. iii, Parts -I-III (cf. antea). The first edition is entitled, according to -bibliographies: - - -"Voyages from Asia to America for completing the discoveries of the -northwest coast of America. A summary of voyages made by the Russians -on the frozen sea. From the high Dutch of S[taatsrath]. Muller by T. -Jefferys. London: T. Jefferys, 1761." lxvi, 76 pp. 4°, with four maps. - - -The second edition which is that referred to in this paper is entitled - - -"Voyages from Asia to America, for completing the discoveries of the -northwest coast of America. To which is prefixed, a summary of the -Voyages made by the Russians on the Frozen Sea, in search of a -northeast passage. Serving as an explanation of a map of the Russian -discoveries, published by the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, -[etc.] London: T. Jefferys, 1764," viii, 120 pp. 4°, four maps. - - -A French translation by Dumas, with the author's initials misprinted G. -P. instead of G. F., was printed at Amsterdam in 1766. It consisted of -two volumes, 18mo, with a map. A Danish translation, by Morten -Hallager, was issued at Copenhagen in 1784, as a portion of a volume -relating to northern explorations. Bibliographers seem to have been -puzzled by the discrepancy of initials, not recognizing that the S. in -Jefferys' volume stood for a title and not a name. Another work -important in its collection of facts bearing upon the general question -of the explorations eastward by the Russians, was published by the -archdeacon of Wilts, Rev. William Coxe in 1780. This was followed by a -second edition during the same year. A third edition accompanied by a -Supplement of 57 pages was printed in 1787 and a fourth in 1803. There -were two apparently distinct translations of the book printed at Paris -in 1781, and a German edition at Frankfurt and Leipzig in 1783. The -third edition which is the best and most correct appeared both in -octavo and quarto form, and is that to which reference is made in this -paper. It is entitled: - - -"Account of the Russian discoveries between Asia and America. To which -are added the Conquest of Siberia, and the history of the transactions -and commerce between Russia and China, [etc.]. London: T. Cadell, -1787." - - -410 pp. 8° [or 4°] with four charts and one plate; to which is added, -consecutively paged: - - -"A comparative view of the Russian discoveries with those made by -Captains Cook and Clerke, and a sketch of what remains to be -ascertained by future navigators. London: T. Cadell, 1787." 3 l. unp., -417-456 pp. 8°. - - -The latter was also separately issued. Among the maps contained in this -work of Coxe's are a reduced copy of the general map of Russia issued -by the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1776, and a chart -of Synd's Voyage toward Chukotski Noss. - -The latter is the only chart of Synd's voyage (1764-1768) which is -accessible, and it is vouched for as authentic by Dr. Coxe. Compared -with later charts it is, of course, extremely imperfect yet there is in -it enough resemblance to the truth to enable us to recognize what was -intended in many instances. In the northeastern part of the chart, the -latitudes are exaggerated and the longitudes contracted in a very -erroneous manner. Nevertheless we recognize East Cape, here named -"Prom. Tschukotskoi;" the two islands now called the Diomedes but here -left nameless; a large island, moved eastward out of place, but -doubtless intended for Arakam Island, is called "I. Diomedis;" while -among a crowd of islets (referable to the hills of St. Lawrence Island -seen through a fog and laid down very inaccurately), the name "S. -Diomedis" appears again. The American coast was seen and landed upon; -Cape Prince of Wales and the shore south and east from it are -recognizable. The island of St. Mathew was discovered and named, though -placed a degree too far south. The island of St. Paul in the Pribiloff -group was discovered by Synd, put in its true latitude, and named -Preobrazhenia or Transfiguration Island. It is about seven degrees out -in relative longitude and fourteen in absolute longitude. One cannot -doubt however that it was the island now known as St. Paul when we -recall the fact that there are no other islands than the Pribiloff -group, in that latitude or within that general area of Bering Sea. The -southern Cape of the Chukchi Peninsula, Chukotski Cape of Bering and -Müller is represented two degrees too far south. Preobrazhenia Bay is -not recognizable but the name is transferred to the bight west and -north of Cape Bering of our present charts. This part of the coast was -not however approached by Synd, who spent much time on the coast of -Kamchatka. On his chart this peninsula is represented better than we -should have expected from the rudeness of the rest. - -The map of the Academy shows the influence of those who discredited the -near approach of America to eastern Siberia; notwithstanding the -explorations of Deshneff, Gvosdeff and Synd, the American shore of -Bering Strait has disappeared altogether. The eastern portion of the -Chukchi Peninsula is indented by a host of hypothetical inlets, and -defended by an unrecognizable archipelago of nameless islands. The -far-stretching chain of islands, among which Bering's second expedition -was so long entangled, excepting those confirmed by Krenitzen and -Levasheff (who sailed far north of the southern arc of the chain) is -also absent. Excepting that the fictitious peninsula north from Chukchi -land is effaced, the map in its main features for this region is less -accurate than that of Bering, and does not compare very favorably with -that of Müller. And yet but shortly after its publication, the -explorations of Cook and Clerke recorded the facts which should, when -published, exalt the memory of the older geographers and scatter the -hypotheses which for a time prevailed against them. - -Their explorations are included in - - -"A voyage to the Pacific Ocean, undertaken by the command of his -Majesty, for making discoveries in the northern hemisphere, [etc.], -performed under the direction of captains Cook, Clerke and Gore, in his -Majesty's ships the Resolution and Discovery, in the years 1776-1780. -London, for T. Nicol and T. Cadell, 1784-5." 3 volumes 4° and atlas -folio. - - -This is the edition ordered by the Admiralty. Of this celebrated work, -said to have been written from the explorers' manuscripts by Bishop -Douglas, there have been many editions. In the Bulletin of the Société -de Géographie, Paris, 1879, pp. 481-540, is a bibliography by James -Jackson. - -The most interesting points in regard to Cook's explorations about -Bering Strait are comprised on the chart (vol. ii, p. 467) entitled: - - -"Chart of Norton Sound and of Bherings Strait made by the East Cape of -Asia and the west point of America." - - -On this chart the main features of the coast on either side of the -strait are correctly indicated, though several of the inlets and bays -are wanting. The Diomedes and Fairway Rock of modern charts are located -but left without names, King's Island is named; Arakam was not -recognized as an island nor was Point Chaplin (Indian Point) observed. -St. Lawrence Island was seen in foggy weather. Its isolated hills -connected by very low flat land led Cook into the error of supposing -that it comprised several islands, one of which he correctly referred -to that named St. Lawrence by Bering and the rest he lumped under the -name of Clerke's Islands. A single fictitious island, midway between -St. Lawrence and King's appears on the chart, but is not named or -mentioned in the text. St. Lawrence Bay is named and discovered. Bering -and Müller's Chukotski cape is correctly identified. East Cape is well -delineated, and the name Serdze Kamen (Heart-Rock) originally given to -a cliff or bluff point at the entrance of Holy Cross Bay is transferred -to a point on the Arctic shore of the peninsula. There is a confused -and somewhat curious history connected with the use of the names -Serdze-Kamen and Chukotski Cape. After the travels of Deshneff, Popoff -and others and the reception at various times of information from the -natives, it was pretty generally understood among the hunters and -traders of this region that the extreme of Asia was a cape or point on -or near which the Chukchi dwelt, or which they described, which was not -definitely located, and which was vaguely known as the Chukchi Cape or -the Cape of the Chukchis, Chukotski Noss in the Russian tongue. Cape -Serdze Kamen will be found on the chart of Billings' Voyage. It was the -point where the Chukchis successfully defended themselves against the -invading Russians who sought to force them to pay tribute. Beyond it, -for the Russians all was mysterious Chukchi country with an unknown -coast. This cape being their _ne plus ultra_ it is probable that it was -more or less confounded by these illiterate and ignorant hunters with -the supposed eastern Cape of Asia, otherwise the Cape of the Chukchis -as used by Müller. Admit this and it is not difficult to frame an -hypothesis which shall account for the confusion, without recourse to -the absurd charges with which Lauridsen attempts to soil the reputation -of Müller, Steller and others. - -When Bering named a cape near which he met a baidar-load of Chukchi who -gave him some geographical information (among other things that the -coast made a turn after passing it) he called this cape with great -propriety the Cape of the Chukchis, as observed by Cook (ii, p. 474) -and with no reference to the legendary Cape of the Chukchis above -referred to. - -But when Müller and others more familiar with the records of the -earlier explorers came to make maps, they naturally applied the -legendary name to the cape which they supposed to be the eastern end of -Asia, and beyond which the coast makes a turn to the west. Müller -believing in a great cape or peninsula on the northern coast of the -Chukchi country supposed this to be the true Cape Chukotski, and to the -eastern Cape of Bering he left the name of Serdze-Kamen, probably -knowing little about the original Cape Serdze. And as Bering, by the -ambiguity of his journal, gave color to the idea that he had rounded -East Cape and pursued the north coast west of it for a few hours before -turning homeward, what more natural than that those little acquainted -with the region should speak of his turning back from near -Serdze-Kamen? Thus Cook, following out the same idea derived from his -study of the map and journal in Harris, transferred the name to a point -in the latitude at which Bering turned back, on the coast which he -supposed him to have surveyed. There is plenty of confusion here but no -just ground for supposing malice in it. - -A publication which throws much light upon Bering's voyage of 1728 was -printed by Vasili Nikolaievich Bergh (or Berkh) a well known writer on -geographical matters in connection with Russian history. It is in the -Russian language and the title may be translated as follows: - - -First Sea Voyages of the Russians undertaken for the settlement of this -geographical problem--Are Asia and America united?--and performed in -1727, 28 and 29, under the command of fleet captain of the first rank, -Vitus Bering. To which is added a short biographical account of Captain -Bering and some of his officers. St. Petersburg, Academical printing -office, 1823. 8°. 3 pr. l. iv, 126 pp. 1 map. Russian text. - - -This book was printed, as many private books are, at the printing -office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, but was not published or -printed by the Academy. The only copies I know of are those in the -library of the Academy and one in the British Museum library, neither -of which I have been able personally to consult. But through the kind -offices of Dr. S. Hertzenstein, of the Zoological Museum of the -Academy, I learn that Bergh found in the Archives of the State -Admiralty Department the logbook of midshipman Peter Chaplin entitled, -"Midshipman Peter Chaplin's journal of the Kamchatka expedition of -1725-1731." From this MSS and from the notes of G. F. Müller and -Admiral Nagaieff, Bergh compiled his work. Chaplin's journal is not -reprinted verbatim but only paraphrased by Bergh who adds his own -commentary on the subject matter, and occasionally gives extracts from -Chaplin whose logbook seems to have been kept in a model way. - -An effort will be made to obtain a copy of the original logbook,[7] but -for the present we are obliged to be content with what of authenticity -remains to the data which have been translated or paraphrased by Bergh, -Lauridsen and Olson, necessarily submitting to more or less -modification in the process. - -[Footnote 7: Simultaneously with the proofs of this paper the work of -Bergh has been communicated to me through the liberality of the -University of Upsala, Sweden. The results of a critical examination of -it will form the subject of a later paper as the present publication -cannot be delayed.] - -The most authentic and important document for the history of this -voyage is naturally the official report handed in by Bering himself and -printed in the Journal of the Military Topographical Depot of the -Russian Army, volume x, pp. 67-79, St. Petersburg, 1847. - -This journal is a quarto and the report is printed _verbatim et -literatim_ if one may judge by the archaic and mispelled words with -which it is adorned. It comprises Bering's report including his -instructions, a table of geographical positions, and a painfully -detailed table of routes and distances by which his position in -Kamchatka was computed. This report has never been translated in full -and unmodified, the original is thought to have been lost. The present -publication is not referred to by Lauridsen and was apparently unknown -to him. I have therefore thought it worth while to prepare an English -version of the report and geographical table which are incorporated in -this paper. - -The result shows that the previous versions of the report which have -appeared were more or less mutilated or colored by the editors printing -them, probably with the view of making the report of more popular -interest to their readers but with injurious results to its historic -value for reference. - -We now come to the latest contributions to the subject. If it were not -for the deficiencies in them, which seem to me serious, this paper -would not have been prepared, but it seemed to be a pity that the -sources of information in regard to Bering, accessible to those who do -not read Russian should not be both more impartial and more accurate. - - -Vitus J. Bering og de Russiske opdagelsesrejser fra 1725-43. Af P. -Lauridsen. Udgivet med understöttelse af den Hielmstierne-Rosencroneske -stiftelse. Kjöbenhavn. Gyldendalske Boghandels forlag (F. Hegel & Sön). -Fr. Bagges bogtrykkeri, 1885. Small 4°, six prel. l. 211 pp., 4 sheets -of charts, one plate, one wood-cut. - - -This work is an attempt at a life of Bering which should combine an -account of his career with a reversal of the generally received opinion -in regard to his indecision of character. It embodies a general polemic -against those who at different times have criticised the explorer. It -contains a paraphrase of some portions of Bergh's work which had not -previously been accessible in any language except the Russian, yet -which would have been much more valuable in the shape of exact -translation and quotation. The author labored under the disadvantages -of not understanding the language in which all the original records -both printed and in manuscript are written; of having little or no -familiarity with nautical surveying or cartography; and of being -apparently unacquainted with the best modern charts of the region. His -criticisms of others are couched in very heated and not altogether -parliamentary language, and he is the victim of a narrow spirit of -nationalism which is sometimes mistaken for patriotism. Nevertheless he -has brought together a great deal of information; it is evident, in -spite of his violent criticisms, that he has not intended to be unfair, -since he puts on record in several instances evidence damaging to his -own views which would not otherwise have come to light; and he has -certainly exhibited Bering's valuable qualities in a manner which will -do much towards rehabilitating his reputation.[8] - -[Footnote 8: I may take opportunity in this place of replying to -certain criticisms of Mr. Lauridsen on the chronological chapter of my -work on Alaska and its Resources published in 1870. - -That chapter was and was stated in its introductory paragraph to be a -compilation from the authorities on the subject. It contained no -original matter except that relating to explorations subsequent to -1865. - -For Bering's two voyages I consulted the report on the Russian -Discoveries printed by order of the Empress and under the auspices of -the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, prepared by the -distinguished geographer Müller, himself a member of the second -expedition and personally acquainted with the actors in those scenes. -No more authoritative printed document exists on the subject. The -supposed errors animadverted upon by Mr. Lauridsen are either taken -directly from Müller, or are inferences drawn from his report. Some of -them the critic has misunderstood or misconstrued, which from the -necessarily extreme condensation of my table is particularly easy. The -expression of surprise that Bering passed through Bering Strait without -seeing the Diomedes, was warranted by the fact that Bering nowhere -mentions their name or speaks of seeing any islands in their location, -nor are they on his earliest printed charts. This point, however, will -be more fully dealt with later. If I were to re-write that chapter I -should probably modify the criticisms of Bering's character which -appear in it; but at the time it was written I was fresh from four -years' exploration in the same region, and was particularly impressed -with his failure to secure better results when to do so would have been -so easy, as well as directly in the line of his duty.] - - -Review: Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for 1885. New -York, the Society, 1885. pp. 285-298. - - -This review forms part of a "Reply to criticisms upon the voyage of the -Vega around Asia and Europe," by Baron A. E. von Nordenskiold, -translated from the Swedish by Vere A. Elfwing. It is addressed only -toward certain points in Lauridsen's work, and contains valuable -corrections of certain errors therein, and information in regard to the -work of Strahlenberg and the other early cartographers of Eastern -Siberia. It is a translation of a paper published in _Ymer_ for 1885, -to which for exact accuracy reference should be made. - - -Russian explorations, 1725-1743. Vitus Bering: the discoverer of Bering -Strait. By Peter Lauridsen (etc.). Revised by the author and translated -from the Danish by Julius E. Olson (etc.). Chicago, S. C. Griggs & -Company, 1889. 8° xvi, 223 pp., 2 cuts, 2 folding sheets of maps. - - -This edition is a good deal condensed, especially in the matter of -references, and does not have all the illustrations of the original. -There are also a good many slips or typographical errors, which affect -its value as a work of reference. Some of those important in connection -with the present paper are as follows: page 31, line 4, "60° 50' N." -latitude should be "62° 50'." On the last line of the same page -"longitude" should be "latitude." Page 32, after "cloudy weather" in -the second line from the bottom, the whole remaining record of August -15th is omitted altogether. The sentence beginning "From noon" relates -to August 16th, nautical reckoning. Page 33, line 5, "30° 19' east" -should be "30° 17' east;" line 20 after "half west" should be inserted -"south by east, by compass." Page 51, line 4 from bottom, "latitude" -should be "longitude." - - -Review: Nation (The) New York, vol. xlix, No. 1275, p. 454. Dec. 5, -1889. - -I may add that a number of references to Russian articles treating of -Bering will be found in my Bibliography of charts and publications -relating to Alaska and adjacent region, published by the U. S. Coast -Survey in 1879. - - -REPORT OF FLEET-CAPTAIN BERING ON HIS EXPEDITION TO THE EASTERN COAST -OF SIBERIA. - -To the most Serene Sovereign, the high and powerful, the Empress of all -the Russias: - -A short relation of the Siberian Expedition upon which was sent - -Of your Imperial Majesty the most humble servant and fleet-captain, - W. I. BERING. - -On February 5 of the late year 1725 I received from her Imperial -Majesty the Empress Ekaterina Alexievna, of happy and well-deserving -memory, the autographic instructions of his Imperial Majesty Peter the -Great, of happy and well-deserving memory, a copy of which is hereunto -affixed. - - -_Instructions._ - -(1.) There should be built on the Kamchatka [River], or at some other -place adjacent, one or two boats with decks. - -(2.) With these boats [you are directed] to sail along the coast which -extends northwards and which is supposed (since no one knows the end of -it) to be continuous with America. - -(3.) And therefore [you are directed] to seek the point where it -connects with America and to go to some settlement under European rule, -or if any European vessel is seen, learn of it what the coast visited -is called, which should be taken down in writing, an authentic account -prepared, placed on the chart and brought back here. - - * * * * * - -The following were the instructions given me by the former General -Admiral Count Apraxin, in which were written: "Artisans, laborers and -whatever, in my opinion, is necessary for the expedition, are to be -demanded from the chancellor's office of the government of Tobolsk and -monthly reports sent to the Imperial Admiralty College." - -Before receiving these instructions, January 24, a lieutenant and 26 -men of my command had been ordered to service on the expedition by the -Admiralty College with the necessary equipment for 25 wagons. The whole -number of my command sent out amounted to 33 men who were ordered to -Vologdie and from St. Petersburg to Tobolsk by a route which passed -through the towns here named: through Vologdie, Totma, Upper Ustiuk, -Solwichergodsk, Kaigorodok, Solkamsk, Verkhoturia, Turinsk, Epanchin -and Tiumen. - -On the 16th day of March we arrived at Tobolsk and were there until the -15th day of May because of the lateness of the season interfering with -travel. During the delay at Tobolsk requisitions were made for the -necessary outfit for the expedition. - -May 15th we left Tobolsk by water down the Irtish to Samarovska Yama, -on four boats of the kind called by the Siberians "dostcheniki," on -which were loaded all the outfit brought from St. Petersburg or -obtained at Tobolsk; together with a chaplain, commissary, sub-officers -and thirty-four soldiers. - -I had previously sent a garde-marine officer, on a small boat furnished -by the Tobolsk authorities in obedience to the orders of the Naval -College, to the proper settlements where the preparation of -freight-boats had been ordered on the Yenisei and Uskut rivers, and I -ordered him to sail to Yakutsk. - -From Samarovska Yama the Obi river was ascended to Surgut and to Narim, -and thence the Ket river to Makovska post. From Tobolsk to Makovska as -we traveled live Ostiaks who were formerly idolaters, but, since the -year 1715, through the labors of the Metropolitan of Tobolsk they have -been converted to the true faith. From Makovska post to Yeniseisk the -route lay overland. From Yeniseisk to the Ilima-mouth we proceeded also -in four boats by way of the Yenisei and Tunguska rivers. On the -Tunguska there are three rapids and several shoals; rapids be it -understood where across the whole width of the river large rocks stand -high in the water, with a passage only in one or two places; and -shoals, similarly under water and above water but composed of small -stones, alternate with rapids and with places where the water in the -river is shallow for the distance of one or two versts, and which are -not surmounted without a great deal of labor. From Yeniseisk in -pursuance of orders from Tobolsk we took thirty men, carpenters and -smiths. - -On the Ilima river, on account of rapids, bars and shoal water, the -barges could not be taken to Ilimsk. For a certain distance only small -canoes were available, for which reason the heaviest part of the outfit -was reserved to be sent by sledges in winter. - -Lieut. Spanberg, with a party of thirty-nine carpenters and laborers, -went by land from Ilimsk by the Uskut to the river Lena, to prepare -during the winter fifteen barges on which the command and its equipment -should be floated down to Yakutsk. I remained with the rest of the -party near Ilimsk just below the Uskut, because at Ilimsk there are few -houses and on account of the difficulties involved in a winter journey -to Yakutsk, from the deficiencies of transportation, the deep snow and -the severe cold, which prevented us from proceeding. - -To these reasons [was added] the necessity, according to the orders -from the authorities at Tobolsk, of drawing the provisions for the -expedition from Irkutsk and from Ilimsk down to Yakutsk because at the -latter place grain is not cultivated. During our wintering at Ilimsk I -made a sledge journey to Irkutsk to advise with the local Voivod who -had previously been Voivod at Yakutsk and who understood what would be -needed by us in transporting our outfit from Yakutsk to Okhotsk and -Kamchatka, since I did not possess any actual information in regard to -that region. During the last days of winter travel I went over to the -Uskut and obtained from Irkutsk twenty additional carpenters and smiths -for the work of the expedition and two coopers from Ilimsk. - -On the Tunguska, Ilima and Lena rivers to the Vitim live the so-called -Tunguses, people who own reindeer which they use as draught animals, -while those who do not own deer live near the rivers on fish and travel -in canoes made of birch bark. These people are idolaters. - -From Uskutsk on fifteen barges, in the spring of 1726, we descended the -Lena to Yakutsk. From the river Vitim down to the Lena, on both banks -live Yakuts with a smaller proportion of Tunguses. The Yakuts possess -herds of cattle, plenty of horses and cows by which they subsist, and -are contented with the product of their herds, depending but little on -fish except where their cattle are too few. They pay an idolatrous -reverence to the sun and moon as well as to birds, such as the swan, -eagle and crow. They also hold in great honor their own fortunetellers, -known hereabouts as _shamani_, each of whom owns small idols or figures -which they call _shaitan_. By their own account these people are of -Tartar origin. - -On reaching Yakutsk in boats I required the aid of all the people of my -command. Thirteen flat-bottomed barges which had been constructed at -Uskutsk, under Lieut. Spanberg, proceeded by water on the Lena down to -the Aldan to ascend that river, the Maya and the upper Yudoma. Such a -cargo could hardly have been transported to that distance overland on -horseback where but little in the way of subsistence was obtainable -from land or water. The Cross of Yudoma might only be reached with -great difficulty, but if successful the expense would be less than if -the material had been carried on the backs of horses. I myself with a -few people crossed from Yakutsk to Okhotsk with pack horses, as is the -general custom. The load or pack taken is only about five puds to one -horse, less than by the telega [ordinary cart], the deep mire and high -mountains to be traversed not permitting more, though my supplies -amounted to 1600 puds. At the post called Okhotsk is a Russian village -of only ten houses, and Lieut. Chirikoff was left to winter at Yakutsk -with orders to come overland to the Okhotsk post in the spring. - -In the last days of December, 1726, a message asking for assistance was -received from Lieut. Spanberg, who had been dispatched by the river, -saying that the boats had failed to get within 450 versts of Yudoma -Cross and were frozen in on the Gorbeh River, where he was transporting -by sledges a cargo of outfit indispensable to our party. I sent at -once, from among those who were wintering with me at the post of -Okhotsk, a party with dogs and supplies and brought in the Lieutenant -to the post on the first day of January, 1727, but without any of the -outfit, he having left the Gorbeh river November 4th, 1726. His command -had been obliged by hunger to eat the flesh of their horses and even -the rawhide harness, the skin of their fur clothing and the untanned -uppers of their shoes. Their cargo was all left at four different -places along the route, which lay through uninhabited country. The only -addition to their means which they had been able to secure, was some of -our own flour, to the amount of 150 puds, which on my overland journey -I had been obliged to leave near Yudoma Cross on account of the death -of some of my pack-horses. - -Along the rivers Aldan and Maia live Yakuts of the same stock as those -of the Lena and Yudoma rivers. But near and around the post of Okhotsk -wander the seaside Tunguses and some Lamuts with their herds and many -reindeer, who travel about winter and summer where their deer can find -pasturage; and some pedestrian Tunguses who live near the sea and -rivers and are professional fishermen as among the Yakuts. - -February 1, ninety men with some dogs and sledges were collected and -sent under Lieut. Spanberg to bring in the outfit left behind by the -Yudoma river, and by the 1st of April about half of it had been -transported safely to Okhotsk. Since more remained I sent twenty-seven -men to Yudoma Cross to bring over the rest of the material on -pack-horses from that place, who returned in May. - -In this region in winter time from Yakutsk to Okhotsk and other distant -places people always travel on foot in parties of eight or ten, hauling -their own sledges after them. Those belonging to our command, when sent -from Gorbeh to Okhotsk, brought down ten or fifteen puds or more, the -snow being seven feet deep in places and travelers in winter being -obliged to dig out a camp every evening, down to the ground to keep -warm. - -June 30, Lieut. Spanberg in his newly built vessel sailed across the -sea to the port of Bolsheretsk with a cargo of outfit and supplies and -the material for the shipbuilders and workmen of our command, sent to -Kamchatka to get out the timbers for a vessel, being ordered to return -again for us. - -July 3d, Lieut. Chirikoff arrived from Yakutsk with 2300 puds of flour, -according to my instructions. - -August 21, we loaded the new vessel which had returned from the land of -Kamchatka, and another old boat which had been at Bolsheretsk, with the -flour, and the whole command then at Okhotsk proceeded across the sea -to Bolsheretsk. The officer who had been left to guard the provisions -which had not arrived from the wintering place on the Gorbeh river was -directed to float them down again and take a receipt from the -authorities at Yakutsk and endeavor, the following year, to deliver to -the command in Kamchatka some part of the provisions, iron and tar. - -It was necessary to take the supplies from the mouth of the [Bolshoia] -river to the post of Bolsheretsk by water in small boats. At the post -were fifteen houses inhabited by Russians. For the ascent of the -shallow river small boats had been built as I desired that the outfit -and the most necessary part of the provisions should be transported to -the upper Kamchatka post, a distance of 120 versts by water. The -transportation between Bolsheretsk and Upper and Lower Kamchatka in -winter was entirely carried on by the use of the native dogs. Every -evening it is necessary to dig out the camp in the snow, in order to -get shelter from whirlwinds of snow which in this region are called -_poorga_. If one makes camp in an open place free from snow, these snow -squalls are liable to overwhelm the party and they may perish. - -At Upper Kamchatka there are seventeen and at Lower Kamchatka fifty -houses, at another place [Middle Kamchatka] where there is a church are -fifteen houses, and in all these settlements there are not over 150 -Russian subjects, who live by the collection of the _yassak_ [tribute -money], beside those who were brought to the country on our expedition. - -In coming over to Bolsheretsk we brought 300 puds of whale blubber -obtained from a whale cast up by the sea, which served us as money, -together with the Circassian tobacco which is here commonly so used. - -In the southern part of Kamchatka live Kuriles, in the northern part -Kamchadales, whose language is peculiarly their own with but few -introduced words. Of these people some are idolaters, others believe in -nothing and are strangers to all honesty. The Russians who live in -Kamchatka and the indigenes grow no grain and have no domestic animals -except draught dogs. They dress and subsist upon what they can get, -principally fish, roots and berries, in summer time wild fowl and large -marine animals. At present in the wilderness of Yakutsk, the convent, -which is of the same age as the Kamchatka churches, cultivates barley, -hemp and turnips. Here only turnips are grown by the people of the -three settlements, but they grow very large, in Russia they are -smaller, here there may be four turnips to a pud. I brought with me on -my journey some rye which was sowed around the establishments near us, -but whether it ripened or not I did not ascertain. The frost strikes -early into the ground in this region and the absence of cattle renders -it difficult for the people to plow. - -The natives described and from whom the yassak [tribute] is collected, -belong to the Russian Empire and are all savages. They are known for -their dirt and bad passions. If a woman or any animal brings forth -twins then one of them is smothered, the hour it is born, and it is -regarded as a great fault if one does not smother one of the two. - -The Kamchadales are very superstitious. If there is any one who is very -ill, even a father or mother, or near the point of death, they will -carry them out into the woods and leave them without nourishment for a -week together whether it be winter or summer, from which treatment many -die. The dead are not covered with earth but are dragged out and left -to be eaten by dogs. The house of a man who has died is abandoned. -Among the Kariak people it is the custom to burn the body, although -this is forbidden. - -By the time of our arrival at the Lower Kamchatka post the ship-timber -for our vessel was in large part prepared, and upon the 4th of April, -1728, was put upon the stocks for the vessel, which, with God's help, -was finished by the 10th of July, the timber being hauled by dogs. Tar -was made from the native tree which is called _Listvennik_ [spruce], -since the tar which we should have brought with us had not arrived. - -Before this it was not known here that tar could be obtained from the -native trees. So also for the sea voyage, the deficiency of spirit made -from grain was supplied by a liquor distilled from herbs, and salt was -made by boiling sea water. To increase our store of sea provisions, in -place of cow's butter, fat was tried out from fish, in place of meat -fish was salted. The vessel was provisioned with everything needful for -forty men for a year. On the 14th day of July we went out of the mouth -of the Kamchatka river into the sea, in obedience to the autographic -orders given me by his Imperial Majesty Peter the Great, as the map -constructed for that purpose will show. - -August 8th, having arrived in north latitude 64° 30', eight men rowed -to us from the shore in a skin-boat, enquiring from whence we came and -what was our business there. They said they were Chukchi, (whom the -Russians of these parts have long known) and as we lay to they were -urged to come to the vessel. They inflated some floats made of sealskin -and sent one man swimming to us to talk, then the boat came up to the -vessel and they told us that on the coast lived many of their nation; -that the land not far from there takes a decided turn to the westward, -and they also said that at no great distance from where we were, we -should see an island. This proved true, but we saw nothing valuable -upon it except huts. This island in honor of the day we named St. -Lawrence, but we were not able to see any people upon it, though an -officer was sent in a boat from the vessel on two occasions to look for -inhabitants. - -On the 15th of August we arrived in the latitude of 67° 18' and I -judged that we had clearly and fully carried out the instructions given -by his Imperial Majesty of glorious and ever deserving memory, because -the land no longer extended to the north. Neither from the Chukchi -coast nor to the eastward could any extension of the land be observed. -If we should continue on our course and happen to have contrary winds -we could not get back to Kamchatka before the close of navigation and -might be obliged to winter in that region, not only without a harbor, -but where no fuel could anywhere be obtained, where the native people -do not acknowledge the authority of the Russian government, but are -wholly independent and united against us in refusing to pay tribute. - -From the mouth of the Kamchatka river and all the way to this place -along the seacoast wind elevated mountains, resembling a wall in -steepness, and from which the snow does not disappear in summer. - -On the 20th of August four canoes were observed rowing toward us, -containing about forty people who were Chukchi of the same sort as -those whom we had met before. They brought for sale meat, fresh water, -fish, fox skins, of which fifteen were of the white fox, and four -walrus teeth, which my people bought of them for needles and -flint-and-steels. They said that some among them had been overland with -reindeer to the Kolyma river and that they never went by sea to the -Kolyma; but, at a great distance, by the seashore lived some of our -people, born Russians, people whom they had known for a long time, and -one of them said that he had been at the Anadyr post to trade. To other -questions they gave the same answers as the Chukchi previously seen. - -On the 2d of September we entered the mouth of the Kamchatka river and -wintered at the post of Lower Kamchatka. - -On the 5th of June, 1729, having repaired the vessel which had been -laid up, we went out of the mouth of the Kamchatka river and put to sea -to the eastward, because the inhabitants of Kamchatka declared that on -fine days land could be seen across the sea. Though none of our own -people had observed it, we went out to determine the authenticity of -the information. We sailed nearly 200 versts and saw not the slightest -trace of land. We sailed around the south point of Kamchatka to the -mouth of the Bolshoia river, making a chart of this part which had not -previously been delineated. From the mouth of the Bolshoia river we -sailed across the sea to the post of Okhotsk having left at Lower -Kamchatka and at Bolsheretsk, out of the supplies received by us from -the authorities of Yakutsk, flour, meal and dry salt meat to the amount -of 800 puds. - -On the 23d of July the vessel reached the mouth of the Okhotsk river, -where the outfit and supplies of the expedition were turned over to the -governor and I, with my command, on hired horses, crossed over to -Yudoma Cross and thence in canoes down the Aldan river, crossing over -at Belskoi and below, and carrying everything on pack horses over to -Yakutsk. - -The whole journey occupied the time from Okhotsk, July 29th, to Yakutsk -on the 29th of August. We remained in Yakutsk until September 3d, and -from September 10th until October 1st traveled in two barges on the -Lena when we were arrested by ice at the settlement of Peleduie. Here -we were detained until the 29th of October, by the absence of snow and -the presence of small ice in the Lena. When the ice solidified we -proceeded to Ilimsk and from Ilimsk to Yeniseisk on the Tunguska river, -stopping at Russian settlements; and from Yeniseisk to Tomsk with -Russians and converted Tartars; from Tomsk to Chausk Ostrog, Russian -settlements; from Chausk to Tari by the Barabinskoi steppe; from Tari -to Tobolsk by the Irtish river among the Tartars; arriving at Tobolsk -January 10, 1730. From Tobolsk for St. Petersburg we left on the 25th -of the same month, following the same route by which we originally -reached Tobolsk from the capital. We arrived in St. Petersburg March 1, -1730. - - * * * * * - -_Note._--The extensive tabular itinerary covering two quarto pages, -showing the details of the route traversed in going to Kamchatka, the -distances and directions from point to point (except during the sea -voyages), the native tribes in the region traversed, etc.--is not -reproduced, as it contains no information of importance in the present -connection. The other table, showing the astronomical position -estimated for the more important places is herewith transcribed. - -To get the approximate Greenwich longitude 67° should be added to the -longitudes in the table which are reckoned from Tobolsk. - -I have provided a tabular itinerary, which shows the dates of the -events of the expedition, derived from Bering's Report and from other -sources, which are indicated by letters. B stands for Brookes' edition -of Du Halde; H for Campbell's version in Harris; M for Müller's -account; and L for Lauridsen. The astronomical events are taken from -Oppolzer's standard catalogue of solar and lunar eclipses. - -It will be noted in the following tables there are a few discrepancies -of single days compared with Lauridsen's account or other authorities. -These I take to be due to the use in the ship's journal of the nautical -day in which the nautical second day of the month begins on the first -calendar day at noon and ends at noon on the second calendar day, so -that events occurring during the first twelve hours of the nautical day -would have a date one day later than the true calendar date. - -_Catalogue of the towns and notable Siberian places put on the chart -through which the route passes, with their latitude and longitude, the -latter computed from Tobolsk._ - - --------------------------------------+-------------+------------ - Cities and Places. | Latitude N. | Long. E. of - | | Tobolsk. - --------------------------------------+-------------+------------ - Tobolsk | 58° 05' | 00° 00' - Samarofska Yama | 60 17 | 00 30 - Town of Surgut | 60 51 | 5 18 - Town of Narim | 58 48 | 14 35 - Ketskoi post | 58 19 | -- --[9] - Losinoborski convent | 58 17 | -- --[9] - Makoffska post | 58 03 | 23 13 - Yeniseisk | 58 20 | 25 12 - Kashim convent | 58 37 | 32 00 - House of Simakhina, Ilima river mouth | 57 25 | 35 16 - Ilimsk | 56 40 | 36 44 - Ust Kutskoi post | 56 40 | 38 26 - Kirinski post | 57 50 | 41 01 - Yakutsk | 62 08 | 57 53 - Okhotsk post | 59 13 | 76 07 - Mouth of Bolshoia river, Kamchatka | 52 42 | 89 51 - Upper Kamchatka post | 54 48 | -- --[9] - Lower Kamchatka post | 56 11 | -- --[9] - Mouth of Kamchatka river | 56 03 | 96 10 - Cape St. Thaddeus | 62 20 | 111 32 - West cape, Holy Cross bay | 65 35 | 115 15 - East cape, Holy Cross bay | 65 28 | 115 37 - Preobrazhenia bay | 65 01 | 120 30 - Chukotski cape, east end | 64 25 | 122 55 - St. Lawrence island | 64 00 | 122 55 - St. Diomede island | 66 00 | 125 42 - Place from which we turned back | 67 18 | 126 07 - South cape of Kamchatka | 51 10 | 89 51 - --------------------------------------+-------------+------------ - -[Footnote 9: These longitudes absent from Bering's own report are -supplied by Campbell in his list, probably from the chart.] - -In the Table of positions the addition of 67° will reduce the -longitudes to E. of Greenwich. It is probably from this table that Dr. -Campbell derived his list, in Harris, which is, barring some additions, -errors, and mistranslations, much the same. As Bering does not give any -longitude for Lower Kamchatka post it is highly improbable that he -observed it at that place, by means of a lunar eclipse or otherwise. - -Chirikoff's observation of a lunar eclipse at Ilimsk made that point -30° 13' east longitude from Tobolsk or, approximately, 97° 13' east -from Greenwich. His pedometric observations placed Ilimsk in 103° 44' -E. Gr. On recent charts Ilimsk is in about 104° E. Gr., so that the -eclipse observation was in error about 6½ degrees. The meridian used on -the voyage of 1728 was that of Lower Kamchatka, based on pedometric -observations from Ilimsk computed by means of a traverse table. These, -according to Chirikoff's journal, gave for the Lower Kamchatka post a -meridian of 126° 01' 49" east from St. Petersburg or about 156° 02' -east from Greenwich, which is in error about six and a quarter degrees. -Discarding the eclipse observation and using only the pedometric -observations from Tobolsk to Lower Kamchatka the result for that place -is 162° 33' E. Gr., which is very near the truth. I have no doubt that -this result is what was finally used in the chart (though not in the -original report) and, therefore, that all the observations of Lauridsen -and others in regard to the alleged eclipse in Kamchatka are based on a -misunderstanding and without value. - -ITINERARY FOR BERING'S FIRST EXPEDITION. - -_Dates corrected to ordinary calendar, beginning at midnight._ - - ------------------------------+-------------+------------+----------- - | | Date. | Date. - | Authorities.| Old Style. | New Style. - ------------------------------+-------------+------------+----------- - 1725. | | | - Advance party under Chirikoff | | | - left St. Petersburg | H. L. | Jan. 24. | Feb. 4. - Bering followed | B. L. M. | Feb. 5. | Feb. 16. - Bering arrived at Tobolsk | B. H. L. M. | March 16. | March 27. - Bering left Tobolsk | Bering. | May 15. | May 27. - Bering arrived at Ilimsk, | | | - where they spent the winter | | | - of 1725-6 | L. | Sept. 29. | Oct. 10. - Lunar eclipse obs. at Ilimsk | Chirikoff. | Oct. 10. | - | | | - 1726. | | | - Bering arrived at Yakutsk | L. | Mid. June. | End June. - Bering left Yakutsk | L. | Aug. 16. | Aug. 27. - Bering reached Okhotsk | L. | Sept. 30. | Oct. 11. - Bering's provision train | | | - arrived at Okhotsk | L. | End Oct. | Mid. Nov. - | | | - 1727. | | | - Spanberg reached Okhotsk | | | - (Jan. 6, L) | M. H. | Jan. 1. | Jan. 12. - Vessel _Fortuna_ launched at | | | - Okhotsk | L. | June 8. | June 19. - Spanberg sailed for Bolshoia | | | - river | M. H. L. | June 30. | July 11. - Chirikoff arrived at Okhotsk | B. M. L. | July 3. | July 14. - Spanberg returned with Fortuna| L. | Aug. 11. | Aug. 22. - Bering and party sailed for | | | - Bolshoia river (Lauridsen | | | - says August 19) | B. M. H. | Aug. 21. | Sept. 1. - Bering arrived at Bolshoia | | | - river | M. | Sept. 2. | Sept. 13. - Bering arrived at Bolsheretsk | L. | Sept. 4. | Sept. 15. - | | | - 1728. | | | - Partial eclipse of moon, | | | - visible in Kamchatka, last | | | - contact 7^h 41^m P.M. | Oppolzer. | Feb. 14. | Feb. 25. - Bering arrived at Lower | | | - Kamchatka | L. | March 11. | March 22. - Vessel Gabriel put on the | | | - stocks | B. H. M. | April 4. | April 15. - The Gabriel launched | | | - (Lauridsen says she sailed | | | - to the mouth of the river | | | - July 9) | B. H. M. | June 10. | June 21. - The expedition left the river | | | - to commence explorations | B. H. L. | July 13. | July 24. - The expedition sailed | | | - northward | M. | July 14. | July 25. - Bering reached his | | | - northernmost point and | | | - started on his return | M. H. B. L. | Aug. 15. | Aug. 26. - They reached the Kamchatka | | | - river on their return | H. L. | Sept. 2. | Sept. 13. - | | | - 1729. | | | - Total eclipse of the moon, | | | - visible in this region, | | | - beginning at 6^h 06^m A.M. | Oppolzer. | Feb. 2. | Feb. 13. - Bering sailed E. from | | | - Kamchatka river (Lauridsen | | | - says July, which is | | | - erroneous) | M. H. | June 5. | June 16. - Bering steered to the | | | - southwest | L. | June 8. | June 19. - The party arrived at | | | - Bolsheretsk | | July 2. | July 13. - Bering sailed for Okhotsk | L. | July 14. | July 25. - Bering arrived at Okhotsk | M. Ber. | July 23. | Aug. 3. - Bering left Okhotsk | H. | July 29. | Aug. 9. - Total eclipse of the moon | | | - same day, but not visible | | | - in this part of Asia | Oppolzer. | July 29. | Aug. 9. - | | | - 1730. | | | - Bering arrived at St. | | | - Petersburg | H. M. B. L. | March 1. | March 12. - ------------------------------+-------------+------------+----------- - - -SYNOPSIS OF THE VOYAGE. - -The dates are reduced to the Julian calendar from the nautical account. -The longitude is stated in degrees east from Greenwich. - - -June 10/21, 1728. The vessel, which was named the _Gabriel_, was -launched at the Lower Kamchatka fort and loaded with a year's supply of -provisions for forty men (B. C. H. M.). She resembled the packet boats -used in the Baltic. - - -_Notes._--This vessel was constructed of the Kamchatkan spruce, a -species according to Kittlitz closely resembling _Abies canadensis_ of -America. There is also a smaller species, _A. mertensiana_, and by -distillation of these two trees the deficiency in their supply of tar -or pitch was made up. The rigging, sail-cloth, oakum and anchors had -been transferred with great labor from Tobolsk. The planking and -timbers were doubtless fastened with trenails and not with spikes, so -the amount of iron used was much smaller than it would be in most -modern vessels. The provisioning of the expedition is the subject of a -fanciful paragraph garbled from Bering's original report, which has -been quoted by every one of the historians of the voyage from D'Anville -to Lauridsen. I transcribe it from Brooke's translation of 1736, pp. -437-8. - -"The provisions consisted of Carrots for want of Corn (=grain or -wheat), the fat of Fish uncured served instead of Butter and salt fish -supplied the place of all other meats." - -Campbell in Harris' Voyages, p. 1020, still further enlarges this -statement and Lauridsen puts it - -"Fish oil was his butter and dried fish his beef and pork. Salt he was -obliged to get from the sea," and "he distilled spirits from 'sweet -straw.'" - -This gives a totally false idea of the supplies provided for the -expedition. Bering received from Yakutsk over forty-two tons of flour, -and large numbers, fifty at a time, of the small Siberian cattle were -driven on the hoof to Okhotsk where their flesh was partly dried and -partly salted. On his return he delivered surplus supplies to the -proper officers in Kamchatka and at Okhotsk ever 30,000 lbs. of meal, -flour and salt meat. There were at that time no carrots to be had in -Kamchatka as Bering himself testifies. Salted salmon then as now, -formed a staple article of diet in Kamchatka and was without doubt -included in his stores. The delicate fat obtained by boiling the -bellies of the salmon, is annually prepared in Kamchatka and is -regarded to this day as a great delicacy (cf. Voyage of the _Marchesa_, -2d edition, p. 135.) A store of it might without any hardship be -furnished to the commander for use as butter. Salt he obtained as it is -usually obtained by evaporating sea-water, and the absence of strong -drink of European origin was supplied by a distillation of the stalks -of the bear's foot or "sweet herb" of the Cossacks (_Heracleum dulce_ -Kittlitz), long used for that purpose by the Russians in Siberia and -from which, even in modern times, according to Seemann, the Kamchadales -secured additions to their scanty supply of syrup or sugar. - -The supplies then of the expedition, were not inferior to those in -common use at sea at that period, and as far as health is concerned -were certainly less likely to result in an invasion of scurvy than the -use of salt beef and pork alone would have been. - -It must be remembered that the fare on naval vessels all over the world -in those days, was rude and coarse to a degree now long unknown and -that it was not until the voyages of Cook, nearly half a century later, -that the antiscorbutic and varied regimen, now usually enforced by law -in maritime nations, was even thought of. - -The force crowded together on the little _Gabriel_ is enumerated by -Lauridsen presumably from the account of Bergh. - -It consisted beside the commander, of Lieutenants Martin Spanberg and -Alexie Chirikoff; Second Lieutenant Peter Chaplin, Doctor Nieman, a -quartermaster, eight sailors, a worker in leather, a rope maker, five -carpenters, a boatswain, two cossacks with a drummer and nine marines, -six servants, stewards, etc., and two Kariak interpreters, a cabin boy -and a pilot, in all forty-four persons. - -It is not clear from Lauridsen's account whether in the above list are -or are not included the two mates, Richard Engel and George Morison, or -the cartographer Potiloff, who started with Bering from St. Petersburg. -Luzhin was left behind, being ill. - - -July 13/24. The variation of the compass was determined to be 13° 10' -easterly (L.). In the afternoon (being the 14th nautical reckoning) the -vessel left the Kamchatka river. (B. C. H.) They steered to the -northeast along the coast, which was kept in sight to the north and -west, in from nine to twelve fathoms water. As the point of departure -Cape Kamchatka was determined to be in north latitude 56° 3' (M. L.) - - -_Notes._--The variation of the compass in 1885 was 2° 30' easterly -(Schott). As will be seen by the Table of Positions, the latitude above -given for the cape is not the same as that adopted by Bering on his -chart. The depth mentioned shows that the _Gabriel_ must have kept -within a few miles, probably not exceeding ten, from the shore and the -very slow progress made, as indicated by the log, not much exceeding -two miles an hour gives rise to the suspicion that, in the early part -of the voyage, in order to keep their survey continuous, they probably -lay to during the hours of darkness. Off Karaginski Island the -variation of the compass was determined to be the same as at the mouth -of the Kamchatka river. - -From this date to the 27th, the accessible authorities give no data, -and the expedition probably pursued its way uneventfully. - - -July 27/Aug. 7. This day a prominent Cape was passed at a distance of -some three miles. [It was named St. Thaddeus, after the saint on whose -holy day it was again seen on the return voyage.] Many grampus, -porpoises, seals and sealions were seen (L.). - - -_Notes._--This Cape St. Thaddeus is not the cape of the same name on -modern charts, but the cape now known as Cape Navarin. This is evident -from Bering's chart. Bering's position for the cape is in error about -fifteen miles in latitude and three degrees in longitude on his chart, -while in the list of positions, the error is only about five miles of -latitude and half a degree in longitude. - -From near Cape Thaddeus Bering stood across Anadyr Gulf, out of sight -of the low land, missing Anadyr Bay, and thereby falling into the error -of placing on his chart the mouth of the Anadyr River south of the -cape. The error was subsequently corrected by G. F. Müller. - -Lauridsen observes (American edition, p. 30), that "having sailed past -the Anadyr River without quite being able to find their bearings, in -regions of which they had not a single astronomical determination," -etc. This is absurd. They had a compass and there is no reason why they -should not find their bearings, and it is certain they were there to -make observations and not to verify those already made. No apology is -needed for Bering's determination to press more rapidly northward. It -was in accordance with common sense, considering the lateness of the -season and the uncertainty of what they had to accomplish before the -season closed. - - -Aug. 1/12. Festival of the Holy Cross. The expedition saw land to the -northward and soon after entered a great bay which they named Holy -Cross Bay. This they explored to the river at its head which they named -Bolshoia (Great) River, and on the western point of entrance the -latitude was, Aug. 2/13, observed to be 65° 35' north, while the -longitude by dead reckoning was estimated at 182° 15' east of -Greenwich, and the magnetic variation ¾ of a point easterly. - - -_Notes._--Lauridsen says (p. 31, American edition) that in Holy Cross -Bay the _Gabriel_ spent two days under sail in search of fresh water -and a place to anchor. This is extremely singular, as there is an -anchorage immediately at the entrance to the bay, on the starboard -hand, and runs of fresh water are abundant. The application of an -obvious correction[10] to the list of positions given by Campbell makes -the position at the western elbow or spit, at the mouth of Holy Cross -Bay, that which is given above. This position is over a degree too far -west and over six miles too far south. But Lauridsen (quoting Campbell -without observing the blunder?) not stating the source of his -information, gives a position (N. Lat. 62° 50') which is two hundred -and twelve miles too far south and the English translation improves -upon this by making it 60° 50', or three hundred and thirty-two miles -south of the truth, or two hundred and sixty-five miles south of the -entrance to the bay as platted on Bering's own chart. - -[Footnote 10: In Harris' Voy., 2d ed., ii, p. 1021, Bering's table of -positions is printed: - - (N. Lat.) (Lon. E. Tobolsk) - _Nischuvi Kamschatska Oostrog_ 56° 11', 98° 30' - The Mouth of the river of the Apostle - _Thadeus_ and the Cape 56° 03', 96° 10' - The Elbow of the river _Swetoi Krest_ 62° 20', 111° 32' - Eastern Point 65° 35', 115° 15' - -This should read, errors and misplacements corrected: - - Lat. Long. - Nizhni Kamschatsk Ostrog 56° 11', 95° 30' - The mouth of the River (Kamchatka) 56° 03', 96° 10' - The Cape of the Apostle _Thaddens_ 62° 20', 111° 32' - The western cape (or spit) of Svietoi - Krest Bay 65° 35', 115° 15' - -The words in parentheses are added by the writer for clearness. It is -somewhat surprising that in using this table nobody seems to have -recognized these errors.] - -Bering's table in his report and Bering's chart as printed by D'Anville -differ from each other fifteen miles in latitude and two degrees and -twenty-five minutes or nearly seventy-five miles in longitude. The -chart is the more correct, but it differs more than thirty miles in -latitude and nearly a degree in longitude from the modern observations -of Lütké and Rodgers for the same locality. After leaving Holy Cross -Bay, the voyage was continued to the southeast along the "high and -rocky coast" of which Lauridsen (probably paraphrasing Bergh) says that -"every indentation was very carefully explored." This is obviously a -flight of fancy, since a good part of this coast is low and sandy, -while there is no indication of two excellent harbors which it affords, -on any of the charts of Bering or his successors in that century. - - -Aug. 6/17, 1728. This day, the festival of the Transfiguration, found -the _Gabriel_ entering a small bay, which on that account was named -Transfiguration (Preobrazhenia) Bay. Here they anchored (L.). -Lieutenant Chaplin was sent ashore for water and found native huts but -no people. - - -_Notes._--This bay has never been surveyed, and on the best modern -charts is merely indicated, while on many others it is omitted -altogether or the name transferred to the anchorage north of Cape -Bering or to Plover Bay. Bering's position for the spit at the entrance -of Transfiguration Bay is two degrees and a quarter too far east and -sixteen miles too far north by the table, but his chart gives the -position much more closely, with a difference from Rodgers' chart of -not exceeding five miles. - - -Aug. 7/18. They proceeded along the coast in a south-southeasterly -direction. - - -_Note._--The total eclipse of the moon of this date could hardly have -been observed by Bering, since the moon must have been close to the -horizon and first contact of the shadow occurred only about five -minutes before the moon set. As Bering does not mention it, it is not -likely that he noted the eclipse. - - -Aug. 8/19. At seven in the morning a skin-boat (umiak or bidarrá) was -observed to be launched from the shore, eight men getting into it and -rowing toward the vessel (B.). They approached within hail, and were -understood, through the aid of the Kariak interpreters on board the -_Gabriel_, to enquire whence the vessel came and what was the object of -the expedition in entering these waters. After much persuasion one of -the natives left the skin-boat and swam, sustaining himself on two -inflated seal-skins tied by a pole, to the _Gabriel_ and came on board -and the others, seeing that no harm befel him, came nearer the vessel -shortly afterward (M. B. C.). The interpreters had some difficulty in -understanding all the natives said, but it was gathered from their -conversation that these people called themselves Chukchi (or by an -analogous name); that they were acquainted with the Russians, by report -or otherwise, that there were numerous settlements of their people -along this shore; that the Anadyr River lay far to the west (L.); that -to the south and east lay an island which would soon be visible to the -people on the _Gabriel_ if they continued on the course they were then -steering; that in the vicinity of this island the shore of the mainland -changes its direction and extends beyond to the north and then to the -westward (B. M. C. H.). The man who had boarded the vessel was given -some presents and sent back to the native boat, in the hope that he -would persuade his comrades to come on board the _Gabriel_, but, -suspecting some evil design, the natives pulled away toward the shore -and disappeared. According to Bergh, Chaplin's journal expresses regret -that more important information could not be obtained owing to the -difficulty in interpreting what was said by the Chukchi. At noon the -latitude was estimated to be 64° 30'. In the afternoon the cape -mentioned by the Chukchis was seen. - - -_Notes._--The account given in Bering's report, and variously rendered -by Müller, Brooks, D'Anville and Campbell, differs in several details -from that given in Chaplin's journal and described by Bergh and -Lauridsen. The various English versions of both fail in clearly -rendering the important point gained by this interview with the -natives, which was, that, at a short distance, the main coast changes -its direction and turns to the north and west. These Chukchis pointed -the way to the strait for the party on the _Gabriel_, and their account -proved to be accurate in every particular. - -The people of this part of the coast call themselves _Tsau-chú_, which -is their tribal name. The similar name of another branch living near -the Anadyr River has been corrupted into the word Chuk-chi, by the -Russians, from which we derive our general name for these people. -Lauridsen says "Breden var 64° 41'" which in the American edition -stands, "the longitude (sic) was 64° 41'." But the original and all the -variants of Bering's own report make the latitude 64° 30' which is -correct. If it had been 64° 41' they would have been north of their own -position for Transfiguration Bay, from which their course had been -S.S.E., therefore the 41' is certainly erroneous. - -On Bering's chart he refers to the point of the coast where the shore -changes its direction under the name _Chukotskago Noss_, which means -the promontory of the Chukchi, though this is not the same as the -Chukchi Cape of the Anadyr Cossacks, who so denominated the eastern -extreme of Asia, which they knew from report and by the voyage of -Deshneff. There can be no reasonable doubt that Bering named his cape -after the people who had described it to him, although the -imperfections of the record leave this to be inferred. Bering's map -gives the latitude of the south extreme of the cape as about 64° 02', -and it is erroneously represented as extending south of the latitude of -the northwest end of St. Lawrence Island. Its real latitude is about -fifteen miles further north. Cook made it 64° 13'. Chaplin's journal -(according to Lauridsen) makes it 64° 18', which would agree with the -latest surveys very nearly, though the coincidence must be regarded as -a happy accident in view of their imperfect tables, instruments and -methods. Bering's report places its eastern extreme in 64° 25' and -(wrongly) in the same longitude as the west end of St. Lawrence Island. - - -Aug. 10/21. St. Lawrence's day. The island referred to by the Chukchi -was seen and the vessel stood toward it, about two o'clock in the -afternoon. Twice, an officer with a four-oared boat was sent to -reconnoiter the coast more closely, but he saw only what appeared to be -huts without inhabitants (C). The island (of which only the northwest -hilly portion was seen, owing to the hazy weather) was named after the -patron saint of the day and the course of the vessel was changed to the -northward. - -Aug. 11/22. At noon the latitude was estimated at 64° 20', and at -sunset an attempt was made by the determination of the magnetic -variation to get the longitude (L.). - - -_Notes._--An illustration of the want of care with which Lauridsen has -weighed his comments, it may be pointed out that he claims (p. 32, Am. -Ed.) that on reaching latitude 64° 20' the _Gabriel_ was in Bering -Strait, while two pages later, on her return southward, he declares her -to have got out of the strait on reaching latitude 64° 27'! As a matter -of fact, at the present day, the whalers and traders of this region -consider that Cape Chaplin (more commonly known as Indian Point) forms -the southwest point of entrance to the strait; and this point is -situated in latitude 64° 25' and E. longitude 187° 40', as determined -by the writer in 1880. This is perhaps the point referred to by Bering -as the eastern point of his Chukotskoi Cape. - -The magnetic method of determining the longitude would give correct -results only accidentally, as previously explained. The result -announced by Lauridsen for the present occasion is 25° 31' east from -Lower Kamchatka Ostrog or 187° 51' east from Greenwich, which would be -within a few miles of the latest determinations. But it is obvious from -Bering's map that he could not have made his position less than 28° 45' -east from Lower Kamchatka, and the position above given is perhaps an -interpolation from modern sources, which has been misunderstood or -mistranslated. As Lauridsen has paraphrased, not quoted, it is -impossible in the absence of Bergh's original to determine who is -responsible for the incongruity. An interpolation seems the more likely -since Bering himself gives the longitude as 189° 55' E. Gr.[11] - -[Footnote 11: A glance at Bergh shows that this statement of Lauridsen -is simply a blunder. Bergh only says they obtained the magnetic -variation (25° 31' easterly) by an _amplitude_ observation! Longitude -is not mentioned, nor Kamchatka.] - - -Aug. 12/23. From noon of the 11th to noon of this day, the _Gabriel_ -sailed sixty-nine miles, but the difference of latitude was only 21 -miles. The wind was light to fresh and the weather overcast (L.). - - -_Notes._--If the above statement be taken literally with the assumption -that they were at noon of the 11th in latitude 64° 20' and E. longitude -188° from Greenwich, it would give their position for noon of the 12th -as 64° 49' and longitude 190° 45' E. Gr., which does not at all accord -with the subsequently narrated course, etc. If we proceed on the -hypothesis that it means that the log recorded 69 miles and that only -29 miles were made good (which might easily happen if the polar current -were running strong on the west side of the strait) and that their -course was parallel with the Siberian shore in a general way they would -have been, at noon of August 12th, in latitude 64° 49' and longitude -188° E. Gr. or thereabouts, which agrees very fairly with the known -circumstances. - - -Aug. 13/24. A fresh breeze and cloudy weather. The _Gabriel_ sailed the -whole day with no land in sight and the difference in latitude was only -78 miles at noon, reckoned from noon of the 12th. The wind diminished -toward night. - - -_Notes._--On the same hypothesis as to the meaning of "difference in -latitude" as the words are used by Lauridsen, the _Gabriel_ at noon of -the 13th would have been ten or twelve miles south from East Cape and -in about latitude 65° 55'. If the words are to be taken literally, as a -navigator would use them, the _Gabriel_ would have been about fifteen -miles to the northward and eastward of East Cape, which agrees much -less with the subsequently detailed circumstances. With the nautical -day beginning at noon on the 13th according to Lauridsen the weather -began to be calm and cloudy which would check their progress. - - -Aug. 14/25. This is the festival of Saint Demetrius of Africa. A -current was experienced during this day which was estimated to have -helped the vessel northward eight miles and three quarters. This -current ran from south-southeast to north-northwest. From noon of the -13th to noon of this day the vessel sailed 29 miles in addition to the -current drift. At noon the latitude was estimated to be 66° 41' and -high land was visible astern. At three o'clock in the afternoon high -mountains were observed to the southward, which, says Chaplin, "were -probably on the continent." - - -_Notes._--Under any hypothesis either the run of the vessel was -underestimated or the latitude was overestimated. Adding the estimated -run to the position attained under our hypothesis for the 12th and 13th -it will put the _Gabriel_ at noon, August 14th, in about north latitude -66° 24' and longitude E. Gr. 191° 30'. Chaplin's reckoning as given by -Lauridsen would have put the _Gabriel_ more than fifty miles off shore -when the land spoken of would have been out of sight. Our hypothesis -puts her about twenty-eight miles N.E. true from East Cape when the -high land of either shore, under favorable circumstances, might have -been seen even if the sky were overcast. Clouds do not interfere with -seeing, unless attended by fog or haze. During this day the _Gabriel_ -had sailed between East Cape and the islands now known as the Diomedes; -the shore being near by. Why then should it be noted in the log that -"high land was seen astern" at noon? The high land of Siberia they had -seen and sailed along for days in full sight of it. It seems to us that -this excludes the idea that the log refers to the Siberian highland and -that what was seen was the loom of land not before seen, as of the -Diomedes or even of America. It may not have been clear to the -commander and yet have been marked enough for the subordinate officer -to have put it in his log, with the dead reckoning and daily notes.[12] -On several old charts mention is made of land seen by Spanberg which is -supposed to have been America, after Gwosdeff had confirmed the -existence of the American mainland in that direction and Synd had -landed upon it. This suggestion is not unimportant in connection with -the subsequent conduct of Bering and will be referred to again in its -proper connection. The further fact that all early printed versions of -Bering's list of positions, refer to the modern Diomedes only as the -island of _St. Demetrius_ and that this day was the festival of that -obscure saint, lends further confirmation to the above suggestions. - -[Footnote 12: Lauridsen gets over the discrepancy by putting the word -"still" before "seen" (Am. Ed., p. 41), but there is nothing in the -original sources to confirm this view of the matter.] - - -Aug. 15/26. The _Gabriel_ appears to have continued to sail in a -northeasterly direction until three o'clock in the afternoon, having -been aided by the current to the extent of 8¾ miles and sailed 65 -miles; many whales were seen and the depth averaged between 23 and 36 -fathoms. Since the 13th the water had appeared whitish or discolored. -The wind was moderate and the weather cloudy. Between noon and three -o'clock the vessel made seven miles against a head wind. The position -of the _Gabriel_ at that time was estimated to be in north latitude 67° -18' and 30° 17' east longitude from the town of Lower Kamchatka (C. -corrected). - - -_Note._--The nautical day Aug. 15 extending from noon of the 14th to -noon of the 15th is altogether omitted from the American translation of -Lauridsen's book. The position for the turning point estimated by -Chaplin is manifestly by dead reckoning, as the sky was cloudy. It was -not adopted in the list of positions published by Campbell in Harris' -Voyages nor on Bering's map. In the former the longitude he adopts is -27° 37' east of Lower Kamchatka fort, and this agrees exactly with the -point on the coast in Du Halde's engraving of Bering's map where the -mountains cease to be put down near the shore, the point on the north -coast of Siberia where Lauridsen, and Chaplin as quoted by him, say -Bering did not go, and the point which has been generally regarded as -Bering's farthest! - -If we apply the distance and direction from Chaplin's journal to the -course of the _Gabriel_ platted from his preceding data, literally, it -will put the turning point of the voyage in N. latitude 67° 32' and E. -longitude 193° 37' or thereabouts, which is about thirty-five miles off -the American coast southwest from Cape Seppings. But if we do this the -position is far from agreeing with Chaplin's. By applying the -hypothetical correction which we have heretofore used, the position -would be in latitude 67° 24' and E. longitude 193° 15' from Greenwich -or 31° east from Lower Kamchatka fort, agreeing more nearly with -Chaplin. On the other hand the position off Cape Seppings agrees better -with Chaplin's figures for the remainder of the day. - - -At this point the commander of the expedition determined to turn -homeward. The _Gabriel_ was put on a course S. by E. by compass (S. by -W. ½ W. true, the variation allowed being 2½ points easterly) before a -brisk seven knot breeze, making better time than is recorded for any -part of her outward voyage. - - -_Notes._--Lauridsen says[13] that, in terminating the outward voyage, -Bering "announced that as he had now accomplished his task it was his -duty, according to his orders, to return." Müller and other authorities -quote, more or less modified in the translation, the reasons given in -Bering's report. But, as there is no reason to suppose these were -uttered to the ship's company officially at the time, a consideration -of them may be deferred until the total results of the voyage are -discussed. The course set, according to Chaplin's journal, would, if -made good, have carried the _Gabriel_ east of the Diomedes and close to -Cape Prince of Wales. The northwesterly current referred to by Chaplin -and recognized by most navigators who have since visited those seas, -would have carried the vessel more to the westward, as was actually the -result, and it was probably allowed for. - -[Footnote 13: Bergh (p. 54) quotes Chaplin's journal, which says: "At -three o'clock Captain Bering announced: _that it was necessary for him, -in spite of his instructions, to turn back_, and put the vessel about -with orders to steer S. by E. by compass." The italics are Bergh's, who -adds that, in the journal of Lieut. Chirikoff, the same statement is -made in the same words. I transliterate the italicized phrases -according to the schedule for Russian letters published in _Nature_, -Feb. 27, 1890. "Chto nadlezhit emu protiv ukazu vo ispolnenie -vozvratit'sya." This plain statement, which proves that (at the moment) -Bering recognized that he was not fulfilling his orders, is suppressed -by Lauridsen and of course by Bering himself when he came to prepare -his official report. Lauridsen however is not satisfied with -suppressing the truth, which would have weighed so heavily against his -hero and his argument, but, with the truth in his possession, he has -inserted in his book a statement which is diametrically opposed to it -as above cited.] - - -August 16/27. Saint Diomede's day. The _Gabriel_ had kept on her course -with a free wind making more than seven knots (miles) an hour. At nine -in the morning they found themselves off a high promontory on the west, -where there were Chukchi habitations. On the east and seaward they saw -an island, which it was proposed to call after the saint of the day. At -noon the vessel had made since the previous noon 115 miles and had -reached latitude 66° 02'. Continuing on their way, with a fresh breeze -and cloudy weather, they sailed along the Asiatic coast near enough to -observe many natives and at two places they saw dwellings. At three -P.M. very high land and mountains were passed (probably the highlands -near St. Lawrence Bay). - - -_Notes._--From 3 P.M. Aug. 15th to 9 A.M. Aug. 16th is 18 hours, which -at seven knots an hour (allowing the alleged excess to be the -equivalent of the drift caused by the current) would amount to 126 -miles. Deduct from this the seven miles sailed between noon and 3 P.M. -Aug. 15th in the opposite direction and we have remaining 119 miles -made on the homeward voyage at a time when the _Gabriel_ was between -the Diomedes and East Cape, or at least in plain sight of both. But -three hours later, at noon, according to Lauridsen, they had made only -115 miles in all, although the breeze was fresh and fair. From -Chaplin's position for the turning point to latitude 66° 02' off East -Cape is 96 miles. From our hypothetically corrected position for the -turning point, off Cape Seppings, the distance would be to the same -place 126 miles, or thereabouts. It is evident that there is a -miscalculation, or an error in the record here, which, without further -data, it is not possible to correct. - -It is certain that Bering with whom the right of naming any new island -would have rested, did not then name the island above mentioned after -St Diomede. On all copies of the earlier version of his chart it -appears if at all under the name of the Island of St. Demetrius. From -this we may suspect that he identified it with the high land seen Aug. -14th, St. Demetrius' day, while others on board, suspecting they were -not the same proposed the name of Diomede for the present island; -regarding the high land as something distinct. If the hardy and -self-willed Spanberg was the one who reported the land Aug. 14th, and -if he saw the high land about Cape Prince of Wales, as several old -charts allege, he would have been the last to admit that the relatively -small and adjacent island now seen, should be identified with his -discovery. - - -Aug. 17/28. The breeze having been strong and fair an observation at -noon indicated that the latitude was 64° 27' and that the _Gabriel_ had -sailed 164 miles since noon of the 16th. In the afternoon the weather -was clear and the wind became light. (The _Gabriel_ must have come out -of the strait this afternoon). - - -_Notes._--A distance of 164 miles from the position of the previous -noon would have put the _Gabriel_ in latitude 63° 38'. The distance on -the general course sailed by the _Gabriel_ from 66° 02' to 64° 27' is -about 107 miles. It is possible that in copying or printing 104 miles -has become transmuted to 164 miles. There is an obvious error here of -some kind. - - -Aug. 18/29. (Lauridsen does not refer to any record for this day, but -it is probable that the wind continued light and the weather fair and -that the _Gabriel_ was slowly working her way westward and southward in -the vicinity of Cape Chukotski.) - -Aug. 19/30. In the afternoon being in the vicinity of the place where -they had met the Chukchi boat on the outward voyage, four baidars were -seen with their crews pulling for the vessel, which accordingly lay by -for them to come up with her. There were ten natives to each baidar, or -forty in all. They brought reindeer meat, fish, and fresh water in -large bladders for sale for which they were suitably rewarded, while -the crew of the _Gabriel_ obtained from them skins of the red and the -polar foxes and four walrus teeth, which the natives bartered for -needles, flint-and-steel for striking fire, and iron. These Chukchi -told them that they went over land to trade at the Kolyma River, -carrying their goods with reindeer, and that they never went by sea. -They had long known the Russians and one of them had even been to the -Anadyrsk fort to trade. From this man they had hopes of gaining -valuable information but he could tell them nothing more than they had -learned from the first Chukchis who had been questioned. - -Aug. 20/31 to Aug. 29/Sept. 9. (For this period the documents -accessible to me give no information, but the _Gabriel_ was doubtless -pursuing her homeward way uneventfully along the coast of Kamchatka.) - -Aug. 30/Sept. 10. A heavy storm arose with fog and the _Gabriel_ -finding herself dangerously close to the shore anchored near the land -to ride it out. A note in Harris indicates that they may have been near -Karaginski Island. - -Aug. 31/Sept. 11. At one P.M. the storm had abated, but in weighing -anchor the cable had been so chafed by the rocky bottom that it parted -and they lost the anchor, and were obliged to put to sea without -recovering it. - -Sept. 1/12, 1728. At five o'clock in the afternoon they approached and -at seven the next morning entered the mouth of the Kamchatka river, -thus ending the voyage. - - -_Note._--The _Gabriel_ was secured in a slough of the river and the -party went up the river to the fort of Lower Kamchatka where Bering -passed the winter. - -It is certain that the residents of Kamchatka and others more or less -familiar with the reports of Cossack explorations in Chukchi-land were -not altogether satisfied with the summary manner in which exploration -had been given up by Bering, and his apparent assumption that there was -no adjacent land to the eastward except small islands. More or less -such discussion and criticism could hardly have failed to reach his -ears, and his reflections may have led him to think that, after all, he -had been too hasty. Trees not indigenous to Kamchatka had been seen -floating near the shores, no heavy breakers ever proceeded from the -eastward and it was even alleged that land or the loom of land might be -seen to the east from the coast mountains in very clear weather. On -account of these and other reasons[14] which were urged by residents of -the country, Bering determined to make a new trial. Instead of -proceeding directly to Okhotsk across Kamchatka he fitted out the -_Gabriel_ for another voyage. Beside the fact that Luzhin, one of his -cartographers, had explored the Kurile Islands lying next to Kamchatka, -the vessel _Fortuna_ during Bering's absence had doubled Cape Lopatka -and was anchored in the Kamchatka River when Bering entered it on his -return. It was therefore evident that the straits were navigable and -the return voyage might be made that way. Spanberg was ordered to -Bolsheretsk "on account of illness" (L.), and it is possible he took -the _Fortuna_ back there since she had already returned to Bolsheretsk -when Bering reached that port, on his way to Okhotsk. - -[Footnote 14: The natives even claimed that a man had been stranded on -the coast of Kamchatka in 1715, who stated that his own country lay to -the eastward and contained forests with high trees and large rivers. -(Lauridsen, op. cit. Am. ed. p. 51). Bering himself states that he made -the search of 1729 at the instance of the Kamchatkan residents.] - -Lauridsen has ascribed to Bering's own initiative the willingness to -make another search for land as if these ideas were original with him. -It is evident that this is unjustified and fanciful. Müller's account -shows that the incitement to a second attempt proceeded from the -residents of the country and that Bering complied with their -suggestions; and Bering says so himself in his report. - -On June[15] 5/16, 1729, the _Gabriel_ left the mouth of the Kamchatka -River and stood to the eastward, directly off shore. She continued on -this course about forty-eight hours, sailing a distance variously -estimated at from ninety to one hundred and thirty miles. The weather -was foggy, no land was seen, the wind shifted to dead ahead at east -northeast, and on the third day Bering gave up the search and steered -for the southern coast of Kamchatka, the extreme of which is marked by -the point known as Narrow (Ooskoi) Cape, or more generally as Shovel -(Lopatka) Cape, from its low square termination. He determined the -latitude of this cape, and passing through the strait south of it -reached Bolsheretsk on the west coast of the peninsula on the second of -July. Most of this time was probably spent in tracing the form of the -southern part of Kamchatka. Half way between the Kamchatka River and -the coast the variation was observed to be one point easterly, and off -Avatcha Bay three-quarters of a point easterly. - -[Footnote 15: Lauridsen says July, which is erroneous.] - -In the American translation of Lauridsen it is said (p. 51) that Bering -fixed the difference of latitude (for which one should read longitude) -between Bolsheretsk and Lower Kamchatka Ostrog at 6° 29'. But on -Bering's maps the difference is only 3° 50', while in his list of -positions no longitude is assigned to Lower Kamchatka post. In -Campbell's list it stands at 8° 39', which the correction of an evident -error of 98° for 95° reduces to 5° 39'. The true difference of -longitude according to the latest charts is about 5° 25'. Where -Lauridsen got his figures he does not state. Campbell, in Harris, -states that Bering was the first navigator to double Cape Lopatka, but -the _Fortuna_ had made this voyage in 1728, though her commander is not -known. - -At Bolsheretsk Bering left a crew for the _Fortuna_ which had returned -thither; turned over some of his surplus stores to the local -authorities and on the 14/25 July sailed from the Bolshoia River for -Okhotsk. Here he arrived July 23/Aug. 3 and after some days spent in -turning over government property to the local officials and procuring -his horses and outfit, he left Okhotsk July 29/Aug. 9 on the overland -journey to St. Petersburg. The second eclipse of the moon for the year -occurred on this day, but during hours of daylight, and hence was -invisible in this part of Asia. - -After an uneventful but successful journey Bering arrived in St. -Petersburg Mar. 1/12, 1730, bringing with him, according to Du Halde, -the map and report he had prepared upon his explorations. - - - TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS DERIVED FROM BERING'S FIRST VOYAGE, - REDUCED TO GREENWICH, E. LONGITUDE. - - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Meridian used in the | Tobolsk. | Tobolsk. | Tobolsk. | Greenwich. - original, | | | | - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Amount used for | +67°. | +67°. | +67°. | - reduction, | | | | - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Source of the data, | Bering[16]| Campbell. | Du Halde. | Modern - | MS. | [17] | | charts. - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Date, | 1730? | 1730? | 1736. | 1852-88. - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | ° ' | ° ' | ° ' | ° ' - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Okhotsk | 58 54 | 59 13 | 58 54 | 59 20[18] - | 141 30 | 143 07 | 141 20 | 142 40 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Bolsheretsk, | 52 35 | 52 42 | 52 40 | 52 51 - Kamchatka | 155 28 | 156 51 | 155 25 | 156 50 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Upper Kamchatka | 54 10 | 54 48 | 54 10 | -- -- - settlement | 157 10 | 158 00 | 157 15 | -- -- - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Lower Kamchatka | 55 46 | 56 11 | 55 50 | 56 15 - settlement | 159 28 | 162 30[19]| 159 15 | 162 15 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape, at Kamchatka | 55 52 | 56 03 | 55 40 | 56 00 - river-mouth | 162 05 | 163 10[20]| 162 10 | 163 05 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Thaddeus | 61 50 | 62 20 | 62 00 | 62 15 - (Navarin) | 176 05 | 178 32[21]| 176 00 | 179 02 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - West point, entrance | 65 16 | 65 35 | 65 15 | 65 28 - Holy Cross Bay | 179 40 | 182 15[22]| 180 00[23]| 181 12 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Mouth of river, Holy | 66 00 | -- -- | 65 50 | 66 22 - Cross Bay | 179 40 | -- -- | 179 50 | 180 45 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Transfiguration Bay | 64 45 | 65 01 | 64 40 | 64 45 - (east entrance) | 185 15 | 187 30 | 185 10 | 185 15 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Chukotski, of | 63 55 | 64 25 | 64 02 | 64 14 - Bering | 186 55 | 189 55[24]| 186 10 | 186 50 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - N. W. point St. | 63 50 | 64 00 | 64 02 | 63 52[25] - Lawrence Id. | 187 00 | 189 55 | 187 20 | 188 27 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - St. Demetrius Id. | 65 42 | 66 00 | -- -- | 65 50 - (Big Diomede) | 189 05[26]| 192 42[27]| -- -- | 190 25 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - East Cape of Asia | 66 40 | 67 18 | 66 45 | 66 05 - | 189 40 | 193 07[28]| 189 45 | 190 30 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Bering's farthest | not | 67 18 | -- -- | -- -- - | indicated.| 193 07[29]| -- -- | -- -- - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Petropavlovsk, | 53 10 | 53 12 | 53 15 | 53 02 - Avacha Bay | 160 02 | 159 50 | 157 00 | 158 39[30] - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Uskoi, or | 50 50 | 51 10 | 51 10 | 50 52 - Lopatka[31] | 155 05 | 156 51 | 155 10 | 156 47 - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - - (_table continued_) - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Meridian used in the | Tobolsk. | Ferro. | Ferro. | Greenwich. - original, | | | | - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Amount used for | +67°. | -18°. | -18°. | - reduction, | | | | - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Source of the data, | Bering[16]| D'Anville.| Müller. | Modern - | MS. | | | charts. - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Date, | 1730? | 1753. | 1758. | 1852-88. - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | ° ' | ° ' | ° ' | ° ' - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Okhotsk | 58 54 | -- -- | 59 20 | 59 20[18] - | 141 30 | -- -- | 141 15 | 142 40 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Bolsheretsk, | 52 35 | 52 40 | 52 54[32]| 52 51 - Kamchatka | 155 28 | 155 30 | 156 30[33]| 156 50 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Upper Kamchatka | 54 10 | 53 40 | 54 28 | -- -- - settlement | 157 10 | 156 30 | 156 55 | -- -- - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Lower Kamchatka | 55 46 | 56 05 | 56 20 | 56 15 - settlement | 159 28 | 159 00 | 159 30 | 162 15 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape, at Kamchatka | 55 52 | 56 00 | 56 10 | 56 00 - river-mouth | 162 05 | 159 20 | 160 20 | 163 05 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Thaddeus | 61 50 | 62 05 | 62 25 | 62 15 - (Navarin) | 176 05 | 171 14 | 175 20 | 179 02 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - West point, entrance | 65 16 | 65 15 | 65 30 | 65 28 - Holy Cross Bay | 179 40 | 175 10 | 178 45 | 181 12 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Mouth of river, Holy | 66 00 | 65 45 | 66 15 | 66 22 - Cross Bay | 179 40 | 175 00 | 178 15 | 180 45 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Transfiguration Bay | 64 45 | 64 25 | -- -- | 64 45 - (east entrance) | 185 15 | 180 00 | -- -- | 185 15 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Chukotski, of | 63 55 | 64 10 | 64 35 | 64 14 - Bering | 186 55 | 181 10 | 185 10 | 186 50 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - N. W. point St. | 63 50 | 64 00 | 64 15 | 63 52[25] - Lawrence Id. | 187 00 | 181 20 | 186 05 | 188 27 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - St. Demetrius Id. | 65 42 | 66 00 | -- -- | 65 50 - (Big Diomede) | 189 05[26]| 183 20[26]| -- --[34]| 190 25 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - East Cape of Asia | 66 40 | 66 30 | 66 45 | 66 05 - | 189 40 | 184 00 | 187 25 | 190 30 - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Bering's farthest | not | -- -- | 66 45[35]| -- -- - | indicated.| -- -- | 187 25 | -- -- - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Petropavlovsk, | 53 10 | 52 50 | 52 55[36]| 53 02 - Avacha Bay | 160 02 | 158 55 | 158 13 | 158 39[30] - +-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Cape Uskoi, or | 50 50 | 51 20 | 51 20[37]| 50 52 - Lopatka[31] | 155 05 | 156 00 | 157 00 | 156 47 - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - -[Footnote 16: This column is taken directly from Baron Klinckofström's -manuscript copy of Bering's chart.] - -[Footnote 17: Date of Campbell's Harris' Voy., 1748; date of table of -positions, 1728; fide Campbell, 1021, col. 2.] - -[Footnote 18: The positions in this column are taken from the most -recent charts of the U. S. Coast Survey and the U. S. and Russian -Hydrographic bureaux.] - -[Footnote 19: Campbell has 98° 30' E. of Tobolsk, an error(?), for 95° -30' (=162° 30' E. Gr.). Bering omits this position.] - -[Footnote 20: Campbell's confusion of two entries is here corrected -from Bering's Report.] - -[Footnote 21: Confused with preceding entry by Campbell.] - -[Footnote 22: Campbell's confusion here corrected.] - -[Footnote 23: Bering gives both east and west points of entrance in his -table.] - -[Footnote 24: The southern end of the cape is assumed to be meant.] - -[Footnote 25: U. S. Coast Survey, 1880, Marcus Baker, observer; his -position is reduced to the N. W. extreme of the island by adding 5' of -latitude and deducting 30' 35" in longitude. See Bull. Phil. Soc. of -Washington, iv, p. 133, 1882, and U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1880, -App. No. 16.] - -[Footnote 26: St. Diomide on the chart.] - -[Footnote 27: The island is omitted by Du Halde and Müller, but appears -on Campbell's version of Bering's chart.] - -[Footnote 28: Campbell, p. 1024; omitted by Bering from his report.] - -[Footnote 29: Campbell, p. 1022; also Bering's Report.] - -[Footnote 30: Lieut. Onatsevich in Report Russ. Hydrographic office, -1878.] - -[Footnote 31: Oskoi (error for Ooskoi), on most early charts; sometimes -Osnoi (error for Uzhnoi=southern).] - -[Footnote 32: Determined in 1741 by Krassilnikoff to be 52° 55' and -156° 24' E. Gr.] - -[Footnote 33: From the chart; on p. 114 Müller has 156° 10'.] - -[Footnote 34: Name St. Deomed on chart, but no island represented.] - -[Footnote 35: From Jefferys' copy of the chart; on p. 47 of text N. -Lat. 67° 18' appears but no longitude is given.] - -[Footnote 36: From the chart; on p. 114 of text it is given as 53° 01' -45". Krassilnikoff (see note 32), made it N. Lat. 53° 01' and 158° 10' -E. Lon. from Greenwich, from eclipses of Jupiter's satellites.] - -[Footnote 37: From the chart; the text, p. 114, makes it 51° 03'.] - - -RESUMÉ OF THE RESULTS. - -Bering had brought a party, together with supplies and material, over -the rough and difficult but long-traveled routes to Okhotsk. Wherever -he went he found settlements and roads such as they were. He -transported his material to Bolsheretsk and from there across the -peninsula to Lower Kamchatka settlement. It would have been much easier -and shorter to have doubled the peninsula and taken his stores by sea; -one of his party had already explored the straits near Cape Lopatka, -but there was the chance of disaster in this plan and, with his stores -on _terra firma_, Bering cannot be blamed for taking the land route; -especially as the difficulties would not inconvenience him personally. -He succeeded in getting his stores and shipwrights to the place -designated and there prepared himself for the voyage. In all this there -was difficulty and trouble enough of a certain kind. That it all was -surmounted with success is very creditable to Bering and his officers. -But to call it exceptionally heroic or extraordinary, is to forget the -hundreds of others who preceded Bering, without the strong arm of the -government at their backs, who made the trails he followed, who founded -the settlements at which he rested, who raised the dogs, the horses and -the cattle which were used or consumed by his party. - -Whatever praise we may feel due to Bering and his companions, and it is -certainly no stinted allowance, the appreciation of their struggles -cannot fail to include with justice, the still more remarkable and -nearly forgotten pioneer labors of the undaunted Siberiaks, who paved -the way, not only for Bering's weary journey, but for the slow yet -never ceasing march of civilization. - -After leaving port Bering traced the shores of Kamchatka and eastern -Siberia as far as East Cape. Thence he sailed in a northeasterly -direction. At 3 P.M., Aug. 14th, land was seen astern; the vessel -continued in the same direction until 3 P.M. the next afternoon, -having, at most, sailed about twenty-four hours out of sight of land -but in shallow water. Bering then concluded he had gone far enough to -show the separation of Asia from America, or any land to the eastward. -No doubt he was influenced by the testimony of the residents of -Kamchatka who knew the work which had been performed in this region by -Deshneff and others, and also by the fact that the native testimony all -pointed the same way. If he was convinced of the truth of this -testimony he would have been disposed to accept as conclusive evidence -which would not be so regarded by critics. All the evidence shows -Bering as faithful to the letter of his orders, honest, patient with -the ill-doing or insubordination of others, but perfectly satisfied -with the accomplishment of what he had been specifically directed to -perform, and with a tendency to limit the specifications to the -narrowest construction they would bear. He adventured nothing beyond. -In the arbitrary government under which he served, with the violent -competition between foreign officers in the Russian service for -promotion in rank and pay, who can criticise him for the prudence and -caution which kept him well within his instructions? I certainly do -not. But to say that he was a cautious, prudent and sagacious officer, -is a different thing from asserting he was a daring, adventurous and -heroic explorer. I have not been able to discover anything in his -career justifying the latter estimate of his character. - -At all events in the present case it must in time have occurred to him, -or have been suggested by his officers or by the Kamchatkans after his -return that the mere sailing off shore in admittedly shallow water for -twenty-four hours, was not an absolutely conclusive proof that the -continents were separated. Here was a man with a new vessel, a full -crew, a year's provisions for all hands, who has come half around the -globe, taking three and a half years to do it, building ships and at no -end of labor of one sort and another; all this to get into the region -where there is a question to be answered; and when he gets there he -barely gives twenty-four hours to searching for that answer with a -month of the season still available for work; and then starts for home -without settling the question; with a right conclusion, it is true, but -not of his own discovery, and without securing definite proof to defy -critics. - -Leaving out of account the continent within half a day's sail which he -fairly ran away from, ignorantly, where is there anything adventurous, -daring or heroic in such conduct? - -It is evident that if Bering had sailed along the coast which the -Chukchis said extended to the westward, instead of going off shore, -away from it, he would have confirmed that part of their testimony, and -given high probability to the assumption of their correctness in the -rest. - -As it was, he left the question in a state so unsettled as to be a -subject of debate for nearly half a century; even authorities so -friendly as Dr. Campbell assuming with great confidence that Bering's -conclusions as to the separation of the two continents were erroneous. -It was not until the voyages of Captain Cook and his associates were -given to the world in 1784 that the matter was settled beyond -controversy. - -Even in regard to the details of his voyage it was only through Bergh's -publication of Chaplin's logbook of the voyage in 1823, that the public -were informed as to what Bering did, and it was only in 1847 that the -unmutilated, but still ambiguous Report of 1730 was accessible even in -Russian typography. - -We find that all the authorities who published in the last century -copies of Bering's map and accounts of his expedition arrived at what -Lauridsen calls an "interesting misunderstanding." - -This misunderstanding was that he had sailed along the Chukchi coast, -as above suggested, and that his farthest point was in latitude 67° 18' -on the coast of northeastern Siberia. - -How was it possible that men of such exceptional intelligence as Du -Halde and D'Anville and Müller, and Hazius, and Euler and Campbell were -all so deceived? - -The facts are as follows: - -(1) The verbatim Report of the voyage, the logbook of the expedition, -Bering's chart in its entirety, were inaccessible to the public for -many years; the chart has never been fully engraved for publication. - -(2) The fragments of the Report which were circulated in print were -ambiguous in their language or erroneously modified; while the -published reductions of the chart which got into print were misleading, -or even erroneous. - -(3) Two conflicting versions of the manuscript chart were circulated -and appear to have been officially sent out. That which appears to be -the later of the two is in some details quite erroneous and at variance -with Bering's report as printed and with the facts derived from -Chaplin's logbook, these two constituting the only authentic original -information which has yet reached the public in printed form. But these -two sources of correct data about the expedition were not printed until -long after the charts had been widely circulated, while the extracts -from the Report which appeared in print, even under so friendly an -editor as Dr. Campbell were so modified as to support rather than -expose the original error. How this arose there may be something in the -Russian archives to explain, or, if not, the case seems insoluble. -Whatever conclusion one arrives at, it is difficult to acquit Bering of -all responsibility for the misconception, if, as Lauridsen claims, he -was responsible for the chart of Du Halde in the form it was engraved. - -In his report he states that their northernmost latitude was 67° 18', -that "all along the seacoast to this place wind elevated mountains." On -turning to the Du Halde chart we find the range of mountains continued -along the Chukchi coast until it reaches the latitude of 67° 18' where -it stops. If Bering drew the chart so, it would have been deception, -but it is quite as probable that the editor modified the chart in -engraving it, to correspond to his understanding of Bering's ambiguity. -As this would present nothing questionable to the reader, in the -absence of the details omitted by Bering, it would have been nothing -surprising if Campbell's interpolation of a false longitude for Lower -Kamchatka, in his list of positions, might have been, not a -typographical error, but an attempt to make the position agree with -this erroneous assumption. If it was a pure accident, the coincidence -is extraordinary. Of course Bering never was on this coast but Du -Halde's map is so engraved as to lead directly to the false inference -that he had been. - -Again Bering says in his Report that at his turning point the land no -longer extended to the north and that no projecting points could be -observed in any direction. Since he had deliberately sailed away from -the shores without attempting to follow their trend this observation -would be absurd unless we suppose it addressed to a reader who took it -for granted that the vessel was still skirting the coast. There is no -mention in his Report of the fact that he had sailed away from the -coast, nor of the still more important fact that the soundings showed -that the water was comparatively shallow and discolored. Of course in -the absence of direct proof of the separation of Asia and America this -last evidence would tend to indicate that Bering was only in a bay or -shallow arm of the sea and that he suppressed it shows, if not a want -of candor, at least an injudicious reticence. - -The map for the day when it was made (in the earlier version) was a -good one, and is appropriately praised by Cook, who had a copy of -Campbell's Harris on his vessel when exploring in the same region fifty -years later. - -In his report of the trip eastward from Kamchatka in 1729, Bering says -nothing about the weather being foggy or stormy, but merely asserts -that he sailed nearly 200 versts and saw no trace of land. He leaves it -to be inferred that he could have seen land if it had been there to -see, which if the weather was foggy was not true. - -The impression which these facts leave upon the mind is that Bering did -certainly frame his language so as to convey the idea that his evidence -of the separation of the two continents and of the absence of land -eastward from Kamchatka was more conclusive than it was in reality. - -That this was done to avoid criticism seems a natural inference. That -an examination of his list of positions would have shown the location -of the point whence he turned back to be to the eastward of the -easternmost of his reported land is true, but his list of positions was -not published with his report, does not agree with his maps, and when -published by Campbell was garbled, as I have shown. - -That the truth, however, did get out and that criticism was not -successfully avoided, is a matter of history. There can be little doubt -that Bering's anxiety to undertake the second expedition, which -followed, was stimulated by a desire to set these criticisms (which -would naturally be magnified by his enemies) finally at rest. - -It may be suggested that Bering's report was modified by the -authorities, though why they should make these particular modifications -is not very evident. Bering was the only person who could profit by -them and the natural conclusion is that he should be held responsible. - -In pointing out that some of Bering's acts are vulnerable to criticism -I am far from desiring to sully his memory or give the idea that he was -not entitled to great praise for what he accomplished, much of which -was admirably done. - -I wish merely to apply a gentle corrective to the exaggerated and -injurious flattery and undiscriminating praise which has been -injudiciously indulged in by his latest biographer. - -If the interest in the subject be stimulated by discussion from these -opposing points of view, so as to result in the publication of some of -the material still hidden in the Russian archives I shall be more than -repaid for the time I have devoted to the question, even if the -publication of the original data should show some of my conclusions to -be ill founded or erroneous. - - -_Note_--The reception of the original work of Bergh while reading the -proofs of these pages has enabled me to correct several errors of -previous writers, but it was too late to incorporate here the -additional material which Bergh's work affords. This will enable me to -add, in a future publication, some historical data which have never -appeared in English and which are necessary to complete the record. I -desire in this place to express my gratitude for and appreciation of -the liberality of the authorities of that ancient seat of learning, the -University of Upsala, as exhibited in their willingness to send such a -valuable document to a foreign student half around the world for -purposes of historical research. - - - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE BY MARCUS BAKER. - -ON THE ALLEGED OBSERVATION OF A LUNAR ECLIPSE BY BERING IN 1728-9. - - -Bering was in Eastern Siberia, Kamchatka and the adjacent waters in -1728 and 1729. Could he have observed a lunar eclipse there at that -time? - -According to the ephemeris of Manfred[1] published at Bonn in 1725 -there were two partial eclipses of the moon visible in Europe in 1728, -and two total eclipses of the moon in 1729. - -[Footnote 1: Manfredius (Eustachius). Novissimae ephemerides motuum -coelestium e Cassinianis tabulis ad meridianum Bononiae supputatae -auctoribus Eustachio Manfredio (etc.) Tomus 1. ex anno 1726 in annum -1737 (etc.) 4° _Bononiae_, MDCCXXV.] - -In regard to these four eclipses the ephemeris furnishes the following -data: - - | 1728, | 1728, | 1729, | 1729, - | Feb. 24. | Aug. 19. | Feb. 13. | Aug. 8. - -------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Eclipse begins | 18^h 32^m | 4^h 07^m | 7^h 45^m | 12^h 02^m - Total immersion | -- -- | -- -- | 8 46 | 13 02 - Middle of eclipse | 20 0 | 5 35 | 9 35 | 13 52 - Emersion begins | -- -- | -- -- | 10 24 | 14 42 - Eclipse ends | 21 29 | 7 03 | 11 25 | 15 42 - -------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Digits eclipsed | 9 51 S.| 7 45 N.| 19 46 | 19 44 S. - Sun rises | 18 36 | -- -- | -- -- | -- -- - Sun sets | -- -- | 6 49 | -- -- | -- -- - Eclipse | Partial | Partial | Total | Total. - -------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Sun's declination | -9° 38' | +12° 42' | -13° 16' | +16° 09' - " hourly motion | + 0.9 | - 0.8 | + 0.8 | - 0.7 - -------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - -In this table the calendar is Gregorian, the time is apparent or true -sun time, the day is reckoned from noon and the hours are counted -continuously through the entire 24. - -The present observatory in Bonn is in - - Latitude 50° 43' 45" N. - Longitude 0^h 28^m 23^s E. from Greenwich. - -At the date of the _first eclipse_ Bering was on his way across the -southern end of Kamchatka from Bolsheretsk to Lower Kamchatka. This -would make his position somewhere near latitude 55° N. and longitude -160° or 10^h 40^m E. from Greenwich. - -He was therefore 10^h 12^m east of Bonn for which we have the elements -of this eclipse as computed by Manfred. With this data together with -the latitude and sun's declination we have the following data for the -eclipse in the region where Bering was. - - Beginning of eclipse 4^h 44^m - Middle of eclipse 6 12 - End of eclipse 7 41 - Sun sets 5 07 - -This means that the sun set, bearing about W. by S. ½ S., and the moon -rose in partial eclipse, bearing about E. by N. ½ N., at 5^h 07^m after -apparent noon or 23 minutes after the eclipse had begun. The eclipse -lasted for 2^h 34^m after sunset, or until 7^h 41^m in the evening, -thus rendering observation of the last contact plainly visible. - -At the date of the _second eclipse of 1728_, August 19, Bering was at -sea somewhere in the vicinity of the strait which bears his name. -Assuming his position to have been latitude 65° N. and longitude 188° -or 12^h 32^m E. from Greenwich, equal to 12^h 04^m E. from Bonn, and as -before taking the data from Manfred's ephemeris we have as follows: - - Beginning of eclipse 16^h 11^m - Middle of eclipse 17 39 - End of eclipse 19 07 - Sun rises 16 04 - -It thus appears that the first contact of this partial eclipse of the -northern limb of the moon may have been just barely visible to Bering. -The moon bearing about SW. by W. was entering the earth's shadow about -five minutes before the sun's rising and its own setting. If much -importance attaches to determining the possibility to Bering of -observing this eclipse then a more precise calculation is needful. - -At the date of the _first lunar eclipse of 1729_, February 13, Bering -was at Lower Kamchatka, in latitude 56° 03' N. and longitude 162° 15' -or 10^h 49^m E. from Greenwich equal to 10^h 21^m E. from Bonn. For -this place we have from Manfred: - - Eclipse begins 18^h 06^m - Total immersion 19 07 - Middle of eclipse 19 56 - Emersion begins 20 45 - Eclipse ends 21 46 - ---------- - Sun rises 19^h 21^m - -Thus it appears that this total and almost central eclipse of the moon -lasting 3^h 40^m began at Bering's station 1^h and 15^m before sunrise -of February 14, the total immersion occurring 14 minutes before -sunrise. It is manifest, therefore, that Bering might have observed -this eclipse. - -The _second lunar eclipse of 1729_ occurred August 8, when Bering was -in or near Okhotsk and about returning to Europe. We may assume his -position to have been latitude 59° 20' N. and longitude 142° 40' or 9^h -31^m E. from Greenwich, equal to 9^h 03^m E. from Bonn. This eclipse -was also total and almost central, but at Bering's station was wholly -invisible, beginning at 9^h 05^m A.M. and ending at 12^h 45^m P.M. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 2, May, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG., MAY 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 51382-8.txt or 51382-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/8/51382/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/51382-8.zip b/old/51382-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e13f64e..0000000 --- a/old/51382-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h.zip b/old/51382-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 944108c..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/51382-h.htm b/old/51382-h/51382-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 0f9f84d..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/51382-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5057 +0,0 @@ - -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> - -<html> -<head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> - <title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 2, by Various</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/img-cover.jpg"> - <style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body {margin:10%; text-align:justify} - h1 {text-align:center} - h2 {text-align:center} - h3 {text-align:center} - h4 {text-align:center} --> - </style> -</head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 2, May, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 2, May, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: March 6, 2016 [EBook #51382] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG., MAY 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -</pre> - -<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p><a href="#chap1">The Rivers of Northern New Jersey, with notes on the classification of -rivers in general</a>: William Morris Davis<br> - (With seven illustrations.)</p> - -<p><a href="#chap2">A Critical Review of Bering's First Expedition, 1725-30, together with -a translation of his original Report upon it</a>: Dr. Wm. H. Dall<br> - (Illustrated by one map.)</p> - -<p><a href="#chap3">Supplementary note on the alleged observation of a Lunar Eclipse by -Bering in 1728-9</a>: Marcus Baker</p> - -<blockquote>Published May, 1890.</blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small><small>PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.</small></small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<center>Vol. II. -1890. No. 2.</center> -<hr> -<br> -<br><a name="chap1"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE RIVERS OF NORTHERN NEW JERSEY, WITH NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF -RIVERS IN GENERAL.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> W<small>ILLIAM</small> M<small>ORRIS</small> D<small>AVIS</small>.</center> - -<blockquote><small>O<small>UTLINE</small>.—Rivers of different kinds: consequent, antecedent, -superimposed, subsequent, adjusted.—Topography of Northern New -Jersey.—Revived and superimposed rivers in New Jersey.—Drainage of -the Watchung crescent.—Re-arrangement of superimposed rivers by the -growth of subsequent streams.—Application of this principle to the -Green river in the Uinta mountains: Powell's and Emmons' theories.—The -Green river probably superimposed and its branches re-arranged by the -growth of subsequent streams.—Anaclinal and reversed rivers in New -Jersey.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>Northern New Jersey is drained by several streams which rise in the -Archean Highlands, flow southeastward across the central Triassic plain -and reach the sea near the inland margin of the Cretaceous formation.</p> - -<p>What kinds of rivers are these? Such a question can hardly be answered -until we have examined rivers in many parts of the world, gaining -material for a general history of rivers by induction from as large as -possible a variety of examples; and until we have deduced from our -generalizations a series of critical features sufficient to serve for -the detection of rivers of different kinds wherever found.</p> - -<p>The generalizations here referred to may be presented in the form of a -classification, following the ideas of Powell, Gilbert, Heim, Löwl and -others, as follows:</p> - -<p><i>Consequent rivers</i>.—Those that have in their birth, at the time of -their original establishment on the country which they drain, selected -courses in accordance with the constructional slopes of the surface; -for example, the Red River of the North and such of its branches as -flow on the even surface of the lacustrine plain of Lake Agassiz; the -several streams that drain the broken lava blocks of Southern Oregon; -certain streams and rivers of the Jura that drain the synclinal troughs -of those mountains. Consequent streams may be divided into definite and -indefinite groups. Definite consequent streams are those that follow -well defined constructional channels, such as the axial line of a -synclinal trough, or the lowest point of an anticlinal arch between two -synclinal basins; they are defined in location as well as in direction. -Indefinite consequent streams are those that flow down constructional -slopes, such as the flanks of an anticline, but whose precise location -depends on those minor inequalities of surface that we term accidental; -they are defined in direction but not in location; and they are as a -rule branches of definite consequent streams.</p> - -<p><i>Antecedent rivers</i>.—Those that during and for a time after a -disturbance of their drainage area maintain the courses that they had -taken before the disturbance. In Powell's original definition of this -class of rivers, he said that the valleys of the Uinta mountains are -occupied by "drainage that was established antecedent to the -corrugation or displacement of the beds by faulting or -folding."<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> No -limit is set to the amount of corrugation or displacement or to the -strength of the faulting or folding. It therefore seems advisable to -consider what variations there may be from the strongly marked -antecedent type; one extreme being in those cases where the -displacement was a minimum and the perseverance of the streams a -maximum, the other where the displacement was a maximum and the -successful perseverance of the streams a minimum, or zero. The simplest -examples of antecedent rivers are therefore found in regions that have -been broadly elevated with the gentlest changes of slope, so as to -enter a new cycle of topographic development, all the streams retaining -their previous courses, but gaining ability to deepen their former -channels down to the new baselevel; such streams may be called -"revived." Examples of revived streams are very common; nearly all the -streams of the Highlands of New Jersey are of this kind; all the -streams of central and western Pennsylvania seem to belong in the same -class. From these simple and common examples, we shall some day, when -our knowledge of rivers is better developed, be able to form a complete -series leading to what is generally understood as the typical -antecedent river, which has outlived deformation as well as elevation -without suffering either deflection or ponding. Large rivers of strong -slope, well enclosed in steep-sided valleys, or in other words vigorous -adolescent rivers have the best opportunity to persist across a belt of -rising or writhing country,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> because a great deformation would be -required to throw them from their courses. Small streams or large ones -of faint slope in an open low country are more easily deflected. From -the typical antecedent river, the series may be continued by examples -in which even the larger streams are less or more ponded or deflected -by the deformation, until at the end of the series there is a complete -extinction of the antecedent drainage and the establishment of an -entirely original consequent drainage. The perfectly typical antecedent -river, in the middle of this series, is certainly of rare occurrence, -and is perhaps unknown.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Colorado river of the West, -163.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Stur's expression "Gebirgshub oder Gebirgschub" suggested -to me the terms here employed.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Consequent streams, whose course is taken on a relatively thin, -unconformably overlying mass, for a time preserve their initial -courses, even though they may be quite out of accord with the -underlying structures on which they have descended. Such streams were -first recognized by Marvine, and afterwards named "superimposed," -"inherited" or "epigenetic" by various authors. A full collection of -examples of this class should begin with streams that depart from true -consequent courses only locally, where they have discovered a small -portion of the underlying formation, like the Merrimack at Manchester -and other water-power towns of New Hampshire, where the stream has sunk -upon rocky ledges beneath the surface drift and sands; or like the -Mississippi and other rivers in Minnesota which have in places cut -through the drift sheet to the underlying crystallines. The series -would conclude with streams that have stripped off the cover on which -they were consequent, and have thus become superimposed on the -underlying formation in their whole length.</p> - -<p>There is a curious intermediate type of drainage lately recognized by -McGee in the southern states, a superimposed drainage that is not -inconsequent upon the buried surface beneath the unconformably -overlying surface layer. It occurs in regions where a well-marked -drainage had been established; a brief submergence then allowed the -deposition of a relatively thin mask of sediments; an elevation brought -the masked surface up again, and as it rose, the streams took -possession of lines essentially identical with the courses of their -ancestors, because the mask of newer deposits had not extinguished the -antecedent topography. McGee proposes to call such streams -"resurrected."</p> - -<p>Rivers of all classes as a rule develop during their adolescence and -more mature growth certain "subsequent" branches that were not in any -way represented in the early youth of the system. Thus the indefinite -members of the consequent drainage of the Jura mountains have developed -subsequent streams on soft beds of monoclinal and anticlinal -structures, where there could not possibly have been any consequent -drainage lines at the birth of this system, unless we admit the -supposed fracturing of the anticlinal crests, which seems unnecessary -to say the least. Even in the simplest style of drainage, growing on a -level surface, many of the branches must be "subsequent," or as McGee -has called them in such cases, "autogenetic."</p> - -<p>Rivers of all classes are subject to spontaneous re-arrangement or -adjustment of their courses to a greater or less extent, in accordance -with the weaker structural lines. This results from the migration of -divides and the consequent abstraction or capture of one stream by -another. The capture is generally made by the headward development of -some subsequent branch. But after this kind of change has advanced to a -certain extent, the divides become stable, and further change ceases. -The rivers may then be said to be maturely adjusted. Under certain -conditions, chiefly great initial altitude of surface, and great -diversity of structure, that is, in mountainous regions, the changes -arising from adjustments of this spontaneous kind are very great, so -that the courses of a river's middle age may have little resemblance to -those of its youth, as Löwl has pointed out and as I have tried to show -in the case of the Pennsylvanian rivers. It may be difficult to -recognize in such cases whether the youthful courses of a river system -were consequent, antecedent or superimposed. Adjustments of this kind -were not discussed by Powell, although he makes brief mention of what I -have called subsequent streams. The first appreciation that I gained of -river adjustments came from the writings of Löwl; but I have since -found that the general principles governing their opportunity were -stated by Gilbert in his monograph on the Henry Mountains of Utah (pp. -141, 149), and by Heim in his Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (i, 272, -etc., ii, 79, 320).</p> - -<p>Where do the rivers of northern New Jersey stand in this general scheme -of river classification? We must again postpone the answer to the -question, while reviewing the history of the general geographical -development of the region.<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> The more detailed statement of this history may be found -in an essay prepared by the author with the collaboration of Mr. J. W. -Wood, Jr., of the class of 1888 in Harvard College, the study being -undertaken as a joint thesis by instructor and student in a second -course in Physical Geography. The essay is published in the Proceedings -of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1889.</small></blockquote> -<a name="fig1"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 1"> - <tr> - <td width="692"> - <img src="images/1.jpg" alt="Figure 1"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="692" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 1. - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The topography of northern New Jersey may be briefly described as made -up of valleys and lowlands that have been etched in the now elevated -surface of what may be called the Schooley peneplain on the Cretaceous -baselevel. The topographical atlas of New Jersey should be constantly -referred to, in order to follow such a statement as this; but in order -that the reader may without undue difficulty apprehend the meaning of -my descriptions and recognize the various localities yet to be named -without the trouble of searching for them on the maps of the atlas, I -have attempted to draw a generalized bird's eye view of northern New -Jersey, as it would be seen by an observer about seventy miles -vertically above the center of southern New Jersey. The meridians are -vertical and east and west lines are horizontal, but oblique azimuths -are foreshortened. The result is hardly more than a geographical -caricature, and I publish it in part to experiment upon the usefulness -of so imperfect an effort. An active imagination may perceive the long -even crest line of Kittatinny Mountain on the northwest, rising beyond -the rolling floor of the Kittatinny Valley, as the great Alleghany -limestone lowland is here called; then come the Highland plateaus, of -accordant altitude one with another, but without the mesa-like margin -that my pen has not known how to avoid indicating. The Central plain -lies in the foreground, diversified by the various trap ridges that -rise above its surface; First and Second mountains of the double -Watchung crescent near the Highlands; Sourland Mountain in the -southwest; and Rocky Hill, the southwestern re-appearance of the -Palisades intrusive trap sheet, lying a little nearer to us. The -Central plain is also diversified by the Fall-line, a slight but rather -distinct break in its surface from Trenton (Tr.) on the Delaware to a -little below New Brunswick (N. B.) on the Raritan. The important -drainage lines are: the Delaware, forming the western boundary of the -State, trenching Kittatinny Mountain at the Water Gap, cutting a deep -transverse valley through the Highlands where it receives longitudinal -branches, and a shallower trench across the Kittatinny lowland and the -Central plain; the Raritan, whose north and south branches head in the -Highlands, while the Millstone joins it from south of the fall-line, -cutting through Rocky Hill near Princeton (Pr.) on the way; and the -Pequannock-Passaic, rising in the Highlands, gathering tributaries in -the low basin behind the Watchung ridges, and escaping to the front -country as a single stream, the Passaic, through deep gaps at -Patterson. The terminal moraine, marking the furthest advance of the -second glacial invasion of post-tertiary time, is indicated by an -irregular dotted band crossing the State, from the Narrows of New York -Bay, which it defines, on the east, passing over Second Mountain by the -gap at Summit (S), rising midway in the Highlands over Schooley -Mountain, and traversed by the Delaware at Belvidere (B).</p> - -<p>The Schooley peneplain is indicated by the crest and summit altitudes -of Kittatinny Mountain, the Highland plateaus and the trap ridges. This -peneplain once lay low and essentially horizontal, the practically -completed work of the processes of denudation acting on a previously -high land through a long period of time: it is now lifted and tilted, -so that its inland portion rises to the height of the Highlands, which -are its remnants, while its seaward portion descends slowly beneath a -cover of unconformable Cretaceous beds, southeast of the fall-line, and -thus hidden sinks gently beneath the Atlantic shore. The cover of -Cretaceous sediments was laid on the southeastern part of the old -peneplain during a moderate submergence of its seaward portion, before -the elevation and tilting above mentioned (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>, p. 93). Much of the -cover has been worn away since the time of elevation (<a href="#fig3">figs. 3-6</a>, p. -95), which gave opportunity for the opening of deep valleys on the soft -limestones and slates among the hard crystalline rocks of the -Highlands; and for the production of the broad Kittatinny Valley -lowland or peneplain on the wide belt of limestones beyond the -Highlands; and furthermore for the development of a broad baselevelled -plain on the weak Triassic shales and sandstones, where the old -peneplain has been almost entirely destroyed. The Cretaceous cover -remains only near the coast, where it stood too low to be attacked -while the valleys and lowlands just described were carved out. An -interesting peculiarity in the relation between the newer baselevel -plain on the Triassic area and the old Cretaceous peneplain is that -their surfaces mutually intersect at a small angle along the line which -now marks the visible contact between the Triassic and Cretaceous -formations: the newer plain standing beneath the eroded portion of the -older one northwest of this line, while it rises above the buried part -of the older one and obliquely truncates its Cretaceous cover to the -southeast of the line. Finally, the land as a whole has been raised a -little since the making of the newer plain, and shallow valleys -interrupt its broad surface. It is no longer a true plain; it has -become a pastplain. A few words may be allowed me concerning these -terms, peneplain and pastplain. Given sufficient time for the action of -denuding forces on a mass of land standing fixed with reference to a -constant baselevel, and it must be worn down so low and so smooth, that -it would fully deserve the name of plain. But it is very unusual for a -mass of land to maintain a fixed position as long as is here assumed. -Many instances might be quoted of regions which have stood still so -long that their surface is almost reduced to its ultimate form; but the -truly ultimate stage is seldom reached. We can select regions in which -the valley lowlands have become broad and flat, the intermediate "doab" -hills have wasted away lower and lower until they are reduced to forms -of insignificant relief; and yet the surface still does not deserve the -name of plain as unqualifiedly as do those young lands newly born from -seas or lakes in which their geometrically level surfaces were formed. -I have therefore elsewhere suggested<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small> that an old region, nearly -baselevelled, should be called an almost-plain; that is, a peneplain.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxvii, 1889, 430.</small></blockquote> - -<p>On the other hand, an old baselevelled region, either a peneplain or a -truly ultimate plain, will, when thrown by elevation into a new cycle -of development, depart by greater and greater degrees from its simple -featureless form, as young narrow valleys are sunk beneath its surface -by its revived streams. It therefore no longer fully deserves the name -that was properly applicable before its elevation. It must not again be -called a peneplain, for it is now not approaching and almost attaining -a smooth surface, but is becoming rougher and rougher. It has passed -beyond the stage of minimum relief, and this significant fact deserves -implication, at least, in a name. I would therefore call such a region -a pastplain. The area of the weak Triassic shales was, until its late -elevation, as good an example of an ultimate baselevelled plain as any -that I have found; but now it is a pastplain, as any one may see while -traveling across it on the train: its doabs are broad and continuous, -and its valleys are relatively narrow and shallow. The Kittatinny -lowland is intersected by streams whose valleys sink below its -generally even, gently rolling surface; but it was never so smooth as -the Triassic plain. It was only a peneplain, and it is now a roughened -peneplain. Perhaps the more adventurous terminologist will call it a -past-peneplain; but I dare not venture quite so far as that. When the -Highlands were lowlands, their surface well deserved the name of -peneplain; but they were lifted so long ago into so high a position -that they are now cut into a complicated mass of rugged uplands. They -no longer deserve the name of peneplain; and if in preceding paragraphs -I have referred to them as constituting an old peneplain, it is because -no satisfactory name has yet been applied to the particular stage of -development of plains and plateaus in which they now stand. Having -tried in vain to invent a term with which to name the Highlands, let me -now advertise for one in the pages of our Magazine.</p> - -<blockquote><small>W<small>ANTED</small>: a name applicable to those broken, rugged regions that have -been developed by the normal processes of denudation from the once -continuous surface of a plain or peneplain. The name should be if -possible homologous with the words, <i>plain</i>, <i>peneplain</i> and -<i>pastplain;</i> it should be of simple, convenient and euphonious form; it -must be satisfactory to many other persons than its inventor; and its -etymological construction should not be embarrassed by the attempt to -crowd too much meaning into it. The mere suggestion that it was once a -plain and that it is now maturely diversified will suffice.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The topography of northern New Jersey is therefore, like its structure, -polygenetic. It exhibits very clearly a series of forms developed under -three different geographic cycles, and closer search will doubtless -discover forms belonging to yet other cycles, less complete and of -briefer duration than these three. There is the tilted and deeply -eroded peneplain of the Highlands, whose initial form may be called the -Schooley peneplain, from the distinct exhibition of one of its remnants -on Schooley's mountain; this was the product of Jurassic and Cretaceous -denudation. There is the younger central baselevelled plain, developed -during Tertiary time, or thereabouts, on the weaker Triassic and -Cretaceous beds; and the associated valleys of the same age that have -been sunk into the weakest rocks of the Highlands. There are the -shallow valleys in the Central plain, of the latest post-tertiary -cycle, requiring the name of this region to be changed from plain, as -it was lately, to pastplain, as it is now. The first cycle, in which -the Schooley peneplain was produced, witnessed the accomplishment of a -great work; it included in its later part, besides various other -oscillations, the sub-cycle when the seaward or southeastern part of -the peneplain was gently submerged and buried to a slight depth under -Cretaceous deposits. The second cycle was shorter; being a time -sufficient to baselevel the softer beds, but not seriously to consume -the harder parts of the pre-existing surface. We are still in the third -cycle, of which but a small part has elapsed. The question with which -this essay opened may now be taken up.</p> - -<p>The streams and rivers of northern New Jersey may be examined, with the -intention of classifying them according to their conditions of origin, -to their degree of complexity as indicated by the number of geographic -cycles through which they have lived, and to the advance made toward -their mature adjustment.</p> - -<p>The Musconetcong may be taken as the type of the Highland streams. It -flows southwestward along a narrow limestone valley between crystalline -plateaus on either side, entering the Delaware a little below Easton, -Pa., (E, <a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>). It drains a country that has been enormously denuded, -and during the Jura-Cretaceous cycle of this deep denudation, there -must have been time for it and its fellows to become thoroughly -adjusted to the structure of the region; it must be chiefly for this -reason that it flows so closely along the weak limestone belt, and has -its divides close by on the adjoining harder crystallines, (M, <a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>). -Whatever its origin, it has lost every initial feature that was -discordant with the deep structures that it discovered beneath the -initial surface; it is maturely adjusted to its environment. It endured -to an old age during the baselevelling of the Schooley peneplain, and is -now a "revived" stream, in at least its second cycle of work. Most of -the other streams of the Highlands and the country farther inland are -also of this well adjusted, revived kind. The streams of the Kittatinny -valley lowland show not only the first revival of the kind just -described, but also a second revival, in consequence of the recent -uplift that has introduced the third cycle of development; this not -being so clearly manifested in the Highlands, where the rocks are -harder, and the valleys of the second cycle are narrower.</p> - -<p>Look now at the drainage of the crescentic Watchung mountains; the -curved edges of two great warped lava-flows of the Triassic belt. The -noteworthy feature of this district is that the small streams in the -southern part of the crescent rise on the back slope of the inner -mountain and cut gaps in both mountains in order to reach the outer -part of the Central Plain. If these streams were descended directly or -by revival from ancestors antecedent to or consequent upon the -monoclinal tilting of the Triassic formation, they could not possibly, -in the long time and deep denudation that the region has endured, have -down to the present time maintained courses so little adjusted to the -structure of their basins. In so long a time as has elapsed since the -tilting of the Triassic formation, the divides would have taken their -places on the crest of the trap ridges and not behind the crest on the -back slope. They cannot be subsequent streams, for such could not have -pushed their sources headwards through a hard trap ridge. Subsequent -streams are developed in accordance with structural details, not in -violation of them. Their courses must have been taken <i>not long ago</i>, -else they must surely have lost their heads back of the second -mountain; some piratical subsequent branch of a larger transverse -stream, like the Passaic, would have beheaded them.</p> - -<p>The only method now known by which these several doubly transverse -streams could have been established in the not too distant past, is by -superimposition from the Cretaceous cover that was laid upon the old -Schooley peneplain. It has already been stated that when the Highlands -and this region together had been nearly baselevelled, the coastal -portion of the resulting peneplain was submerged and buried by an -unconformable cover of waste derived from the non-submerged portion: -hence when the whole area was lifted to something like its present -height, a new system of consequent streams was born on the revealed sea -bottom. Since then, time enough may have passed to allow the streams to -sink their channels through the unconformable cover and strip it off, -and thus superimpose themselves on the Triassic rocks below: we should -therefore find them, in so far as they have not yet been re-adjusted, -following inconsequent, discordant courses on the under formation. The -existing overlap of the Cretaceous beds on the still buried Triassic -portion of the old Schooley peneplain makes it evident that such an -origin for the Watchung streams is possible; but it has not yet been -independently proved that the Cretaceous cover ever reached so far -inland as to cross the Watchung ridges.</p> - -<p>Want of other explanation for the Watchung streams is not satisfactory -evidence in favor of the explanation here suggested. There should be -external evidence that the Triassic area has actually been submerged -and buried after it was baselevelled to the Schooley peneplain and -before it was uplifted to its present altitude; other streams as well -as the ones thus far indicated, should bear signs of superimposition; -and if adjustment of the superimposed courses has begun, it should be -systematically carried farthest near the largest streams. I shall not -here state more than in brief form, the sufficient evidence that can be -quoted in favor of the first and second requisites. Suffice it to say -that the overlap of the Cretaceous beds (which contain practically no -Triassic fragments) on the bevelled Triassic strata at Amboy and -elsewhere indicates submergence after baselevelling; and that the -pebbles, sands and marls of the Cretaceous series point clearly to the -Highlands as their source. The submergence must therefore have reached -inland across the Triassic formation at least to the margin of the -crystalline rocks. Some shore-line cutting must have been done at the -margin of the Highlands during Cretaceous time, but the generally -rolling surface of the old peneplain leads me to ascribe its origin -chiefly to subaërial wasting. Moreover, the North Branch of the -Raritan, between Mendham and Peapack (* <a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>) and the Lockatong (L), -a small branch of the Delaware on the West Hunterdon sandstone plateau, -give striking indications of superimposition in the discordance of -their courses with the weaker structural lines of their basins, so -unlike the thoroughly adjusted course of the Musconetcong and its -fellows, the Pohatcong, the Lopatcong, and others.</p> - -<p>The third requisite of the proof of the inland extension of the -Cretaceous, and the resulting superimposed origin of the Watchung -streams may be stated in detail, as being more in the line of this -essay: has the adjustment that accompanies superimposition -systematically advanced farther near the large streams than near the -small ones? The character of this adjustment should be first examined -deductively. Given a series of streams of different volumes, flowing -southeastward, in the direction of the present dip of the remnant of -the Cretaceous cover, over the former inland extension of this -superposed formation; how will these streams react on one another when -they sink their channels into the underlying Triassic formation?</p> -<a name="fig2"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 2"> - <tr> - <td width="696"> - <img src="images/2.jpg" alt="Figure 2"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="696" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 2. - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The conditions during the formation of the cover of Cretaceous beds are -illustrated in fig. 2, where the Triassic portion of the peneplain is -submerged, and the shore-line of the transgressing ocean has reached -the margin of the crystalline rocks. The waste from the crystallines is -spread out as a series of gravels, sands and marls on the baselevelled -Triassic area.</p> -<a name="fig3"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 3"> - <tr> - <td width="698"> - <img src="images/3.jpg" alt="Figure 3"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="698" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 3. - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Then follows the elevation and tilting of the peneplain with the cover -on its back; and with this regression of the sea, there is an -equivalent gain of new land; a smooth gently sloping plain is revealed -as the shore line retreats; streams run out across it from the -crystalline area, or begin on its open surface, growing mouthward as -the land rises. Three such streams, A, C, D, are shown in fig. 3; their -opportunity for deep valley-cutting is indicated by the depth of the -new baselevel, BL, below the general surface of the country. While -these streams are deepening their channels in the Cretaceous cover, -which is unshaded with marginal contour lines in the figures, their -subsequent, autogenetic branches are irregularly disposed, because -there is no lateral variation of structure to guide them; but after a -time, the baselevelled surface of the buried Triassic beds is reached, -as is shown by linear shading in the valley bottoms of figs. 4, 5, 6, -7. The growth of the subsequent branches then developed, will be along -the strike of the Triassic softer beds, that is, about square to the -course of the three transverse streams under consideration. The most -rapid growth will be found on the branches of the largest stream, A, -because it will most quickly cut down its channel close to the -baselevel of the time and thus provide steep sloping valley-sides, from -which the subsequent branches cut backwards most energetically. In due -time the main streams discover the particularly resistant transverse -lava sheets in the underlying formation; and then the subsequent -branches of the largest transverse stream on the up-stream side of the -obstructions, for example, F and G, fig. 4, will have a great advantage -over those of the smaller streams. The most rapidly growing subsequent -branch, G, fig. 5, of the largest transverse master stream, A, may grow -headwards so fast as to push away the divide, X, which separates it -from the head of the opposing subsequent branch, J, of the next -adjacent smaller transverse stream, C, and thus finally to capture and -divert the headwaters, H, of the smaller transverse stream to the -larger one, as in fig. 6. The divide creeps while the two opposing -subsequent branches are in contest; it leaps when the successful -subsequent branch reaches the channel of the conquered stream. The -first stream captured in this way must necessarily be the nearest to -the large stream. The diversion of the considerable volume of -headwaters, H, to the channel of the small subsequent branch, G, causes -it to deepen its channel rapidly; the same effect is perceptible in H -for a distance above its point of capture and diversion: the increased -load of sediment thus given to G will be in great part dropped in a -fan-delta where it enters the flat valley of the master stream, A, -(fig. 6).</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 4"> - <tr> - <td width="700"> - <img src="images/4.jpg" alt="Figure 4"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="700" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 4. - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 5"> - <tr> - <td width="697"> - <img src="images/5.jpg" alt="Figure 5"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="697" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 5. - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 6"> - <tr> - <td width="700"> - <img src="images/6.jpg" alt="Figure 6"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="700" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 6. - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Gaining strength by conquest, other captures are made, faster for a -time, but with decreasing slowness as the head of the diverting -subsequent branch recedes from the original master: and at last, -equilibrium may be gained when the headwater slope of the diverting -branch is no greater than that of the opposing subsequent branch of the -next uncaptured transverse stream. After the capture of a transverse -stream has been effected in this way, the divide, Y, between its -diverted upper portions, H, fig. 6, and its beheaded lower portion, C, -will be pushed down stream by the growth of an inverted stream, V. This -goes on until equilibrium is attained and further shifting is prevented -on reaching the hard transverse lava sheets, Z, fig. 7; here the divide -is maturely established. In the case of a system of transverse streams, -C, D, etc., fig. 7, successively captured by the subsequent branch of a -single master, the divides (Z, Y'), between the inverted (V, V') and -beheaded (C, D) portions of the captured streams will for a time -present different stages of approach to establishment. The divide on -the line of that one of the original streams, C, that is nearest to the -master stream, A, may reach a final stable position, Z; while on the -next stream further away from the master, the beheaded portion, D, may -still retain a short piece above the gap in the upper lava sheet, not -yet secured by the inverted stream, V'; and a third stream, further -away still from the master (not shown in figure 7) might remain -uncaptured and independent.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 7"> - <tr> - <td width="695"> - <img src="images/7.jpg" alt="Figure 7"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="695" align="center"> - F<small>IG</small>. 7. - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It is by such tests as these that we may hope to recognize the -occurrence of partial adjustment in the streams of the Watchung -crescent as a result of their superimposition on the Triassic formation -from its former Cretaceous cover. The greater the degree of complexity -in the tests proposed, the more confidence we shall have in the theory -when the tests successfully meet the facts. Hence the reason for -deductively carrying out the theoretical conditions to their extremest -consequences in order to increase the complexity of the tests that are -to be confronted with the facts. This, as a matter of method, seems to -me of great practical importance in any attempt to decipher the past -progress of geographical development.</p> - -<p>The admirable contoured topographic maps of New Jersey, issued by the -Geological Survey of that state under the leadership of the late -Professor George H. Cook, afforded means of applying the deductive -tests above outlined without the necessity of plodding over all the -country concerned; but however good the maps are, it is hardly -necessary to say that they can be interpreted with a better -appreciation of the facts that they represent after an excursion on the -ground has given the student some personal acquaintance with it. This I -have tried to gain on various occasions, maps in hand.</p> - -<p>Atlas sheet number six, including the Central red-sandstone area, and -the five-mile-to-an-inch geological map of the state present in the -clearest manner the facts of form and structure involved in our -problem; and to my mind, the correspondence between theory and fact is -very striking. The Pequannock-Passaic is the master transverse stream -of the region: its preëminence was probably due in the beginning to its -gathering, from the unsubmerged Highlands, a greater amount of drainage -than belonged to any other stream that ran southeastward down the -gentle slope of the newly revealed Cretaceous cover. It was at that -time a compound, composite river:<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small> compound because it drained areas -of different ages; composite, because these areas were of different -structures. Existing examples of compound, composite rivers are seen in -the Catawba, the Yadkin-Pedee, the Cape Fear and the Neuse rivers of -North Carolina, which all rise on the inland crystalline area, and -traverse the coastal quaternary plain before reaching the sea. But -unlike these, there must have been, when the old submerged land rose -with the Cretaceous cover on its back, numerous small streams whose -drainage area lay entirely within the Cretaceous plain. These were -simple streams, flowing over a structure of one kind and one age. Their -modern homologues are seen in the Maurice, the Great and Little Egg -Harbor and the Wading rivers of southern New Jersey, and I suppose also -in various relatively short streams of North Carolina, such as the -Lumber, Great Cohera and Moccassin.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> See terminology suggested by the author. Nat. Geogr. Mag., -i, 1889, 218.</small></blockquote> - -<p>It cannot be supposed that the original Pequannock-Passaic possessed -the large southern branch, which I shall call the upper Passaic, by -which Great Swamp is now drained;<small><small><sup>6</sup></small></small> for had this been the case, the -divides between the branches of the upper Passaic and the heads of the -small streams that now still cross both of the trap ridges, must have -long ago been driven to a stable position on the crest line of the -inner ridge. The upper Passaic member of the Pequannock-Passaic system -must be regarded as a branch of subsequent development, guided by some -of the softer Triassic beds when they were reached beneath the -Cretaceous cover, and very successful in capturing and diverting other -transverse streams that were smaller than its master. For some distance -on either side from the Pequannock-Passaic gap in the trap ridges at -Patterson, the existing streams are perfectly adjusted to the Triassic -structure; that is, the ridges are persistent divides, and the lateral -subsequent branches of the master flow along the strike of the softer -shales and sandstones, except where lately thrown off their courses by -glacial drift barriers. This I interpret as meaning that the -Pequannock-Passaic master stream hereabouts made so early a capture of -adjacent superimposed streams that all traces of their initial -discordant courses have been obliterated by the development of -structurally accordant subsequent streams.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>6</sup></small> It should be recognized that the present round-about -drainage of the Great Swamp is a post-glacial feature, determined by -the morainic barrier that crosses the basin from Summit (S) to -Morristown (M): the pre-glacial drainage of the southern part of the -inner crescent was undoubtedly of a simpler and more direct pattern.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The Watchung ridges extend only about eight miles northward of the -Paterson gaps, but reach thirty miles southwestward. It is therefore -chiefly in the latter direction that we may expect to find examples of -incomplete adjustment following superimposition and capture. At -Milburn, there is a deep gap in First mountain, and opposite this at -Summit (S, <a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) a partly drift-filled gap in Second mountain: this I -am disposed to regard as the former outlet of the Rockaway-Rahway -river, which on account of its considerable size was not captured by -the Passaic until it had cut its passage across the trap sheets almost -to a safe depth. The diverted upper portion—the Rockaway—now joins -the Passaic; its crooked course from the Highlands via Boonton (Bn) -being a post-glacial irregularity; the beheaded lower portion—the -Rahway—heads on the ridge of Second mountain, retains the pair of -subsequent streams between the two ridges, and flows in diminished -volume to the sea: the divide between the two portions being in its -mature stable position on Second mountain.</p> - -<p>South of the Milburn gap, there are three streams that maintain water -gaps in First mountain, and five head branches of these three streams -rise behind the crest of Second mountain. These must be interpreted as -remnants of streams that once rose further inland, and whose upper -courses have been captured by the victorious upper Passaic; but it is -noteworthy that here, at the greatest distance from the gap of the -master stream at Paterson, the divides between the diverted and -beheaded portions of these southern streams should lie in unstable -positions, back of the crest line of Second mountain. This is exactly -what the hypothesis of a superimposed origin for these streams would -require; and if the complexity of accordance between deduction and fact -here presented be duly considered, I believe new confidence may be -gained in the hypothesis of superimposition, already rendered likely -from other evidence.</p> - -<p>The rectangular courses of the streams that cross First and Second -mountains southwest of Milburn do not militate against their initial -obliquely superimposed courses; for, as Gilbert has shown, oblique -courses across tilted beds, alternately hard and soft, will gradually -shift until they follow rectangular courses, along the strike of the -soft beds and square across the strike of the hard beds. Middle Brook, -at the southern bend of First mountain near Bound Brook (B, B), -presents the peculiarity of branching east and west while on the trap -sheet of the mountain: this may be due to a retention here, where the -dip is moderate, of an initially superimposed bifurcation; or to -guidance by fractures at this point where the course of the mountain -changes rather abruptly; the facts at hand do not serve to make choice -between these alternatives.</p> - -<p>The lesson of greatest importance in this study lies, to my mind, in -the gradual development of accordant subsequent streams in a region -where the unchanged superimposed drainage would show no such -accordance. Similar adjustment of subsequent streams to structural -features may characterize drainage systems that were originally -antecedent: and with this principle in mind, I have recently read over -with renewed interest Powell's classic study of the Green river where -it crosses the Uinta mountains.<small><small><sup>7</sup></small></small> The Green river and the smaller -streams of its lateral cañons and valleys are all regarded as -antecedent. Let us examine the arguments on which this conclusion -rests.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>7</sup></small> Exploration of the Colorado river of the west, Washington, -1875, 152-166. See also the geological map in the Geology of the Uinta -mountains, 1876.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The Green river itself rises many miles north of the Uinta range, -traverses a relatively low basin before reaching the flank of the -mountains, and then instead of turning away, it boldly enters the great -uplift and trenches it from side to side in a profound cañon, flowing -out to the southwest on its way to the Colorado. There is relatively -low ground at the eastern end of the range, several thousand feet lower -than the summits of the range on either side of the Green river cañon, -and many thousand feet lower than the restored crest of the great -uplift; but the river does not follow this open round-about course. -Powell says that the river cut through, instead of running around, the -great obstruction, because it "had the right of way; ... it was running -ere the mountains were formed." Had the mountain fold been formed -suddenly, it would have turned the river around it to the east; "but -the emergence of the fold above the general surface of the country was -little or no faster than the progress of the corrasion of the channel." -... "The river preserved its level, but the mountains were lifted -up.... The river was the saw which cut the mountains in two" (152, -153). If this interpretation is correct, the Green river would be the -type of a perfect antecedent stream: but it appears to me that the case -is probably overstated in that respect. Perhaps it would have been more -deliberately stated in a later volume if Powell's intention of -describing more fully the three chief kinds of drainage of the region -had been carried out.<small><small><sup>8</sup></small></small> Not having seen the region, my comments may -have little value; but the context of Powell's report, the description -of the immense series of lacustrine beds, over a mile thick, north of -the mountains, and the eastward deflection of the river where it -traverses the mountains all seem to me to indicate that the Green was -by no means continuously successful in maintaining its antecedent -course across the uplift. It is by no means a typical antecedent river. -The great series of lacustrine beds up-stream from the cañon, with -conglomerates where they rest on the northern flank of the mountains, -are fully recognized in the report, and must mean that the upper -portion of the river was for a time shut back, or ponded. During part -of this time, there may have been no overflow across the growing -mountains, for the lower lacustrine beds contain fossils indicative of -brackish water.<small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small> The intermittent growth of the mountains and the -repeated return of lacustrine conditions, with gradually freshening -water, is indicated by the strong unconformities that occur at various -points in the lacustrine beds, and by the change in the fossil fauna. -It must be conceded from this that the upper portion of Green river was -repeatedly ponded back by mountain growth across its middle course; we -therefore have not now any close indication of its pre-lacustrine -course above the mountains; the ancient, or pre-Uinta, upper portion of -the river was extinguished by the lacustrine sediments, and to that -extent the Green river departs from the perfect antecedent type.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>8</sup></small> Geol. Uinta mountain, page v.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>9</sup></small> Geology of the Uinta mountains, 1876, 84; Chapter III, by -C. A. White.</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the second place, if the original Green river existed upon the upper -surface of the beds that were at a subsequent date raised to form the -Uinta uplift, it does not appear to be clearly proved that its course -at that early time was closely coincident with its present course in -the mountainous area. The first deformations of the mountain growth may -have temporarily interrupted its flow, as is made likely by the -lacustrine deposits already referred to; and when the rise in the level -of the waters of the lake overtook the uplift, probably at a time of -slower mountain growth than that which first formed the lake, the point -of overflow may have been many miles to one side of its previous -drowned-out course. The moderate elevation of the eastern end of the -range, where it connects with the Yampa plateau, may possibly have then -been a little higher than a point farther west, where the overflow was -consequently located. This is perhaps hardly as probable as the -postulates involved in arguing a truly antecedent course for the river; -but its impossibility is not as strictly proved as would be necessary -before a definite conclusion as to the continuous persistence of an -antecedent river could be finally accepted. Such continuity of action -must be rare and should be rigorously demonstrated if possible.</p> - -<p>It must, moreover, be remembered that Emmons<small><small><sup>10</sup></small></small> is of the opinion that -the Colorado river is not antecedent at all, but is superimposed on the -eastern portion of the Uinta range from a course that it had chosen -upon a sheet of horizontal sediments—the Wyoming conglomerate—which -he supposes once stretched unconformably all over the previously deeply -eroded surface of the uplifted range, where the cañon is now cut. He -quotes facts of two kinds in evidence of this; first, the remnants of -the Wyoming conglomerate still lie on ridges as high as those that -enclose the river cañons; second, the Green and certain of its branches -possess tortuous courses, out of accord with the structure of the -range. It might be added that the wide open valley of Brown's park, in -the middle of the range is best explained as the product of a -pre-Wyoming cycle of erosion by rivers that were extinguished when the -Wyoming beds were laid over the mountains. The strongest objection to -Emmons' conclusion seems to be the great amount of erosion that it -requires; erosion sufficient not only to remove the Wyoming -conglomerate from nearly all its former overlap on the Uinta range, -where it had buried and extinguished a pre-Wyoming drainage, but also -to carry away a vast extension of the formation at the same height -north of the range. It may be best to conclude that both antecedent and -superimposed processes must be called on: for one must hesitate before -admitting that the Wyoming beds stretched all across the country north -and east of the Uinta range up to the height at which the remnants are -now found on the range; it seems more likely that some part of the -height of these remnants is due to a relatively local elevation. As far -as this is the case, it gives reason for regarding the Green as an -antecedent river; that is, antecedent to the local elevation of the -Wyoming beds, but long posterior to the elevation of the Uinta range: -but as the river now flows—according to Emmons' theory—on beds lying -unconformably below those on which its course was chosen, it is for -this reason to be classed as superimposed.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>10</sup></small> Fortieth Parallel Survey, ii, 1877, 194, 205, 206.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The Green river therefore certainly departs from the type of an -antecedent stream; the departure is distinct in its repeated ponding, -whereby its upper course was broadly and indeterminately shifted from -its original location; and is at least possible if not probable in its -defeat at the line of uplift and subsequent superimposition on a new -line of overflow. The mountains wrenched the saw that afterwards cut -them in two.</p> - -<p>A study of the Jura drainage, of which a fuller account may be given at -some future time, has led to the provisional conclusion that many of -its streams show a combination of consequent and antecedent -characteristics. They appear to be consequent on the early stages of -the deformation but antecedent to its later growth, and for this kind -of a stream I have no satisfactory name to suggest at present.</p> - -<p>Heim has shown that the Reuss and the adjacent smaller transverse -streams of northern Switzerland near Lucerne are in part persistent -across a series of folds, and in part slightly shifted from one course -to another and ponded in Lake Lucerne; but unless the other ranges of -the Alps rise hereafter faster than they have heretofore, the geologist -of the future will reasonably regard the more mature Reuss as an -essentially successful antecedent river.</p> - -<p>The Sutlej and other rivers that escape from the inner valleys of the -Himalaya by deep gaps in the outer ranges, are described by Medlicott -as antecedent to the elevation of the ranges through which they flow: -their antecedent origin being argued from the delta-like structure of -the upturned beds in the outer gorges, as if the rivers were now -cutting down the deformed deltas of an earlier time; but the heavy -gravel and sand deposits in their upper valleys indicates that they -were nearly if not quite ponded for a time during the deformation.</p> - -<p>Rivers seem to have the habit of cutting down their upturned deltas. -Bonney refers to several such examples among the rivers that flow -northward from the Alps, and transect particularly thick portions of -the upturned marginal conglomerates and sandstones, which he regards as -the deltas formed by the same rivers at an earlier time, when the -mountain folding had not extended outward as far as it does now from -the axis of the Alps. I have suspected that the same kind of evidence -might be used to indicate that the Delaware above Trenton, between -Pennsylvania and New Jersey, is in part of even pre-Triassic origin; -for where it now enters the Triassic belt, there is a particularly -heavy and coarse sandstone, sometimes conglomeratic. Being a large -stream, it might persist in an anaclinal course through the -northwestward monocline formed by the Jurassic uplift of the Triassic -beds, although the smaller streams of the region were then probably -extinguished, to be replaced by a new system consequent upon the new -order of things.</p> - -<p>Large rivers, more or less persistent in the face of opposing -disturbance, therefore appear to be generally recognized; but it is -noticeable that those quoted from the Himalaya and the Alps presumably -occupied, at the time of disturbance, well enclosed valleys, from which -it would have been difficult for them to escape backwards or laterally; -and that, even if successful in the end, they for a time suffered -defeat or ponding of greater or less extent and duration. There is no -evidence that the Green river was well enclosed immediately north of -the Uinta mountains at the time of their first elevation; hence the -likelihood of its temporary ponding or enclosure is increased.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Powell that not only the Green but even the smaller -streams of the Uintas are of origin antecedent to the mountains. He -writes: "the explanation of the cañons of Green river will assist us in -understanding the origin of the lateral valleys and cañons. The streams -were there before the mountains were made—that is, the streams carved -out the valleys and left the mountains. The direction of the streams is -indisputable evidence that the elevation of the fold was so slow as not -to divert the streams, although the total amount of elevation was many -thousands of feet. Had the fold been lifted more rapidly than the -principal streams could have cut their channels, Green river would have -been turned about it, and all the smaller streams and waterways would -have been cataclinal" (Colorado River, 162).</p> - -<p>This appears to me an unproved conclusion, and the evidence of it needs -careful attention. It appears that there are several streams which -descend from the crest of the mountains towards the flanks, but instead -of running all the way out to the margin of the fold, they turn along -the strike of a monoclinal valley, and thus reach the main river by a -short cut. Such streams are cataclinal for a time, then monoclinal. It -is in reference to these that it is said, "the streams were there -before the mountains were made;" and again that "the drainage was -established antecedent to the corrugation or displacement of the beds -by faulting and folding" (163). In approaching this conclusion, Powell -says these streams cannot be consequent; for "valleys consequent upon -the corrugation, which was one of the conditions of the origin of the -Uinta mountains, could not have taken the direction observed in this -system; they would have all been cataclinal, as they ran down from the -mountains, and turned into synclinal valleys at the foot, forming a -very different system from that which now obtains" (166). Nor can the -streams be superimposed, for the "later sedimentary beds, both to the -north and south, were found not to have been continuous over the -mountain system, but to have been deposited in waters whose shores were -limited by the lower reaches of the range" (166). Therefore the -discordant streams must be antecedent.</p> - -<p>It appears to me that the possibility of error in this argument lies in -the omission of all consideration of the migration of divides and the -resulting adjustment of stream courses to deep internal structure; but -at the time of the exploration of the Colorado river, this important -process in the development of rivers was not understood. It now seems -only natural that the original, consequent, cataclinal streams, flowing -down the slopes of the range from crest to flanks, should have -permitted the opening of subsequent monoclinal branches on the soft -beds that they discovered; and that the shifting of divides in these -monoclinal valleys should have led to the capture of several cataclinal -streams by that particular one of the subsequent branches that grew out -from the master stream, the Green river itself. Thus it must happen -that the streams "which head near the summit of the range, and, running -down the flank, turn into the Green river, are, in their upper courses, -cataclinal, and when they turn to follow the strike of the rocks into -Green river, are monoclinal" (161): this being a normal result of river -work in cutting down the thousands of feet of rocks of various -hardnesses, here concerned. The smaller streams of the Uinta range are -therefore certainly not of necessity antecedent to the Uinta uplift: -the probability is that they were originally purely consequent, and -that at present they are nicely adjusted to the structures that they -have discovered.</p> - -<p>I have learned so much from the doctrine of baselevelling, as presented -in Major Powell's writings, that I shall hope to profit by the lesson -of the Uinta drainage as well: that is, the possibility that an -apparently sound conclusion may be overturned when new processes that -bear upon it are discovered. It is here said that the drainage of the -Watchung crescent in New Jersey is an example of partial adjustment -following a superimposed origin: hence the necessity of watching -closely for the discovery of new principles in the history of river -work that may call for a revision of this conclusion.</p> - -<p>There are two other examples of peculiar accidents in the history of -rivers in New Jersey, to which I wish to call attention; both of them -in the latest cycle of the development of the State, that is, in the -cycle which has changed the central region from its even baselevelled -lowland surface, to the pastplain as we now see it. Like the uplift of -the Schooley (Highland) peneplain, the uplift of the Central plain, in -passing from the second to the third cycle, was not uniform throughout, -but was greater in one place than in another. In the neighborhood of -the lower Raritan river, a distinct though gentle slope to the -northwest is apparent in the unconsumed surface of the pastplain; but -this strong river runs southeastward against the slope; it is an -anaclinal stream. The tilting of the pastplain is moderate, and its -rocks are weak; the river is large and strong. Its anaclinal course is -therefore best explained by regarding it as a mild example of an -antecedent stream. But Ambrose's brook, a small stream to one side of -the Raritan, flows northwest with the gentle slope that was given to -the pastplain. Ambrose's brook therefore most likely is not a survivor -from the previous cycle, but is a new stream consequent on the slight -deformation by which the latest cycle here considered was ushered in. -Manalapan and Assanpink are apparently of the same kind. (See <a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>).</p> - -<p>The Millstone river appears to be intermediate as respects origin -between the Raritan and Ambrose's brook. It appears still to lie for -the most part in the channel that it occupied before the elevation and -tilting of the baselevelled Central plain, but the tilting of the plain -seems to have reversed its direction of flow. It rises near the center -of the State and flows northwestward till it joins the Raritan near -Somerville, and on the way it crosses from the thrown or depressed to -the heaved or elevated side of the "fall-line,"<small><small><sup>11</sup></small></small> and passes through -a deep gap in the trap ridge of Rocky Hill back of Princeton. I believe -there is no other Atlantic river which runs against the fall-line in -this way; and it is certainly at first sight remarkable that a stream -of moderate size like the Millstone should have held its own against a -displacement that sufficed to deflect great rivers like the Delaware -and the Susquehanna from their courses.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>11</sup></small> For an account of the "fall-line" displacement, see -McGee, Seventh Ann. Rep., U. S. G. S., 1888, 616.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The Millstone appears to have been a stream of the normal kind in the -previous cycle, before the tilting of the Central plain, when it -probably ran southeastward with its fellows, and carried off its share -of waste in the baselevelling process of that time. No other -supposition than this seems consistent with the general history of the -region. It was during that cycle that the deep gap was cut in the Rocky -Hill trap ridge. Then came the deformation of the baselevelled plain, -the relatively recent elevation and gentle tilting that have permitted -the streams to carve it into a pastplain; and with this, the -dislocation along the fall-line. The inclination of the interstream -surfaces of the pastplain leaves no doubt that it was tilted to the -northwest, and to this tilting we must ascribe the present direction of -the Millstone flow: but why did not the accompanying dislocation on the -fall-line throw this moderate sized stream off of its track and divert -it southwestward to the Delaware at Trenton, or northeastward to the -Raritan below New Brunswick. The effect of the dislocation appears with -considerable distinctness along a line from Trenton towards Amboy, in -the less altitude of the general surface of the pastplain to the -southeast than to the northwest of the line, the difference of altitude -of the two parts being about a hundred feet. The persistence of the -Millstone against such a dislocation seems to require that we should -postulate a slower and smaller movement here than that which deflected -the Delaware.</p> - -<p>The reversed course of the Millstone cannot be regarded as an example -of inversion following a capture of its ancient northern headwaters by -a branch of the Raritan; for in such a case, surely the inversion could -not have progressed farther south than the hard trap ridge of Rocky -Hill, where a stable divide would have been formed: nor can the -Millstone be regarded as an original stream, first developed and -consequent upon the deformation of the Central plain, for in that case, -it should consist of two separate parts; one part running from the -actual head of the river to the fall-line, where it would turn -southwest and cross the faint flat divide that separates it from the -Delaware; the other part beginning by Princeton north of the fall-line, -and running thence north to the Raritan. The continuity of these two -parts in the actual Millstone seems to be explicable only by regarding -the river as the upper portion of a single larger river that had -reached an old age in the previous cycle; it was then broken in two at -the head of the present river where the greatest elevation of the -Central plain occurred, and thus had its former head waters reversed -from a southeast to a northwest direction of flow across and against -the fall-line break by the tilting of the plain. Only in this way can -the deep gap in Rocky Hill be explained. The river is thus consequent -on the tilting of the plain, and yet antecedent to the accompanying -faulting. It cannot be called an original stream, for it had an -ancestor in its very channel. It is not a purely consequent stream, for -it runs against the heaved side of a fault. It is not a strictly -antecedent stream, for it flows in a direction determined by a -disturbance that occurred late in its life. It is too exceptional a -stream to have a generic name. We cannot expect to find many others -like it.</p> - -<p>The result that has been of the greatest interest to me in these -studies is the discovery of well-recorded and peculiar histories in the -commonplace small-sized rivers of our Atlantic slope. We have looked -for some years to the west as the region where river history should be -illustrated, because it was there that the pioneers in this branch of -study taught us the lessons on which our further work must depend. But -home study as well as distant travel has its rewards, and with the -progress of good topographic work on this side of the country we -confidently await much instruction from a close acquaintance with the -curious histories of many of our rivers which we know now only by name.</p> - -<blockquote><small>Harvard College, January, 1890.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p><i>Supplementary Note</i>.—Professor Albrecht Penck of Vienna has published -a valuable essay on "Die Bildung der Durchbruchsthäler" (Verein zur -Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien, 1888) from -which the following historical notes are taken to illustrate the -gradual overthrow of the fracture theory of cross valleys by the -introduction of the idea that rivers can sometimes cut down their beds -as fast as the land is uplifted or upfolded beneath them.</p> - -<p>Ferd. Römer. Die jurassische Weserkette. Zeit. d. deutsch. geol. -Gesellsch., ix, 1857, 581. The deepening of valleys by rivers and -streams must keep pace with the gradual elevation of continental -masses. The Porta Westphalica has thus been cut by the Weser in the -Wiehen-Weser range, in the northeastern part of Westphalia.</p> - -<p>A similar suggestion was briefly made a little later by Bischoff, to -explain the gorge of the Rhine below Bingen. Lehrb. d. chem. u. phys. -Geol., 2 Aufl., i, 374, 382; and again independently for the same river -by Dücker. Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdk. Berlin, v, 1870, 183.</p> - -<p>Gümbel explained the course of the Altmühl, a branch of the Danube -which crosses the Frankish Jura in northwestern Bavaria, by supposing -its course was defined before and maintained during the deformation of -the range. Bavaria: Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, -1865, iii, 756.</p> - -<p>Medlicott recognized that many streams flowing from the inner Himalaya -are older than the outer ranges, and showed reason for believing that -they held their places while the outer ranges were tilted up. Mem. -Geol. Survey India, iii, 1865, 6, 122, 127, 157, 163. A little later, -he applied the same explanation to some Alpine rivers. The Alps and the -Himalayas, a geological comparison. Q. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, xiv, -1868, 47, 52.</p> - -<p>Wynne explains the Indus and adjacent rivers as of greater age than the -elevation of the Salt Range in northwestern India. Mem. Geol. Survey -India, xi, 1875; xiv, 1878.</p> - -<p>Rütimeyer recognized the possibility of uprising ranges being cut down -by transverse rivers, but regarded the occurrence as a rare one, -thinking that lakes would generally appear behind such a growing -barrier. He emphasized the idea that erosion works upstream, which Löwl -has later developed farther. Ueber Thal- und Seebildung, Basel, 1869; 2 -Aufl., 1874.</p> - -<p>Tietze regarded the persistence of rivers across growing ranges as the -rule rather than the exception. Die Bildung von Querthälern, Jahrb. d. -k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., 1878, 581.</p> - -<p>Hayden was perhaps the first to point out in this country the -antecedent origin of certain headwaters of the Missouri in Montana, -where the mountain ranges are frequently cut across by deep cañons. -Amer. Journ. Science, xxxiii, 1862, 305. Hayden's Sixth Report, 1872 -(1873), 85.</p> - -<p>Reference may be made also to White, Hayden's Tenth Report, 1876 -(1878), 52; Peale, id., 167; Bechler, id., 372. General discussion of -valley making is given by Green, Geology for students and general -readers, London, 1876; Hartung, Zeitschr. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde, -Berlin, 1878, 308.</p> - -<p>In spite of the early date of some of these essays, the idea of the -antecedent origin of rivers did not gain general recognition and -acceptance till it was strongly stated by Powell.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap2"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>A CRITICAL REVIEW OF BERING'S FIRST EXPEDITION, 1725-30, TOGETHER WITH -A TRANSLATION OF HIS ORIGINAL REPORT UPON IT. With a Map.</h3> -<center>B<small>Y</small> W<small>M</small>. H. D<small>ALL</small>.</center> - -<blockquote><small>C<small>ONTENTS</small>.—Introductory remarks.—Instruments and Methods.—Sources of -information.—Translation of Bering's Report.—Bering's List of -Geographical Positions.—An Itinerary of the Expedition.—Annotated -Synopsis of the Voyage compiled from all accessible data.—Comparative -Table of Geographical Positions.—Resumé of the results of the -Expedition.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>In 1648 the tide of exploration and adventure setting eastward through -Siberia, impelled the fitting out of seven small trading boats on the -Kolyma river. Three of these, in charge of Simeon Deshneff, Gerasim -Ankudinoff and Feodor Alexieff, respectively, reached Bering Strait. -Ankudinoff's boat was wrecked on East Cape, but his party was -accommodated on the others. There were hostilities with the Chukchi, -the two boats were separated, and Deshneff's alone finally reached -Kamchatka. Next year he constructed the trading post on the Anadyr -river subsequently known as Anadyrsk.</p> - -<p>There is a tradition that in 1654 a trader named Taras Stadukin -followed Deshneff's route, made a portage across the neck of East Cape, -circumnavigated Kamchatka, discovered the Kurile Islands, and finally -reached the Gulf of Penjina in safety.</p> - -<p>In 1711 an emissary named Peter Iliunsen Popoff was sent to East Cape -by the Russians to induce the Chukchi to pay tribute. In this he -failed, but brought back an account of islands beyond East Cape, and of -a continent reported by the Chukchi to exist beyond these islands. Some -statements which he made in regard to the people of this continent were -regarded by geographers of the last century as fictitious, but with our -better knowledge, they set the seal of authenticity upon Popoff's -report and show that his journey was really made.</p> - -<p>The political disorders which prevailed in Western Russia about this -period, prevented any attention from being directed to the reports of -these explorations, which were preserved in the archives at Yakutsk. -Somewhat later the attention of geographers was directed toward this -unknown corner of the world and the subject was brought to the notice -of Peter the Great. He took great interest in it, drew up instructions -for an expedition with his own hand and delivered them to Count Apraxin -with orders to see them executed. A few days later, in January, 1725, -he died; but the Empress desiring to carry out all the plans of her -deceased husband as closely as possible, ordered their execution. -Fleet-Captain Vitus Ivanovich Bering was nominated to the command of -the expedition and Lieutenants Martin Spanberg<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> and Alexie Chirikoff -to be his assistants.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> So spelled by Bering himself.</small></blockquote> - -<p>This expedition forms the subject of this paper. It has been treated of -by various geographers and biographers, but so far the original report -of Bering, printed in 1847 in the Russian language, has never been -faithfully translated into any other language; while his map has never, -in its entirety, been published at all. Reduced sketches derived from -the maps and more or less mutilated and garbled versions of the report -have appeared in sundry collections of voyages, and upon these the -latest contributions to the history of the expedition have been in -great part based.</p> - -<p>Believing that the original report is a document of sufficient historic -and geographic interest to be made accessible to those who do not read -Russian, and that the errors of existing works make a critical review -of the subject desirable, I have translated the document in question -and prepared a general review of the present state of our knowledge in -regard to the expedition.</p> - -<p>Bering's Report being written in archaic and badly spelled Russian, -with a singular disregard of punctuation and other literary niceties, -the translation presented unusual difficulties, in solving which I have -had the kind coöperation of that excellent Russian scholar Mr. J. -Curtin. I am indebted to the Reverend Father Richards, president of -Georgetown University, and Father Maas of Woodstock College, Md., for -valuable information in regard to the church festivals and saints, -whose names were utilized in the nomenclature of Bering's new -discoveries. To Mr. Marcus Baker, Messrs. Gannett and Woodward, and Mr. -C. C. Darwin of the Geological Survey; Dr. S. Hertzenstein of the -Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg; Baron -Nordenskiöld of Stockholm, and Baron Robert Klinckofström; Drs. Holm -and Stejneger of the U. S. National Museum, and Prof. Julius Olson of -Madison, Wisconsin, I am indebted for numerous favors and courteous -assistance, and to all of these gentlemen I desire to express my thanks.</p> - -<p>In conclusion I desire to state that I am well aware this paper cannot -be regarded as a finality, but as a contribution to the geographical -history of North America it will not be without its value, while the -fact that I have myself spent parts of three summers in scientific -exploration of the coast visited by Bering and first charted by him, -has greatly helped me in my discussion of minor details of his work.</p> - -<center><img src="images/8.jpg" alt="Behrings Chart of his first Voyage"></center> -<br> -<br> - -<center>I<small>NSTRUMENTS AND</small> M<small>ETHODS</small>.</center> - -<p>In considering the work done by the expedition it is very necessary to -bear in mind the character of the instrumental outfit, if any, which -they might have possessed, and the state of the science of navigation -at the time.</p> - -<p>When Bering and his two cartographers left St. Petersburg in February, -1725, the astronomical instrument in use by navigators was the Davis -quadrant or "backstaff," in which the sun's altitude was measured by -sighting without a telescope or tube on the shadow cast by the sun from -one projection of the instrument upon another, the observer's back of -course, being turned to the luminary. The only alternative to this was -the still older astrolabe with which the observer had to look along the -two lines of his angle at the same time, and which also depended upon -sights or spurs attached to a frame. The reflecting quadrant of Hadley -was not invented until 1731 and telescopes were not used on the -instruments of navigation until somewhat later. There were no -chronometers or reliable watches or clocks for use in dividing -intervals of time. Even after the Hadley quadrant came into use, time -was noted by a pendulum vibrating seconds, which could not be used on -ship-board.</p> - -<p>A futile attempt had been made by means of tables of variation of the -compass to determine the longitude by comparison with observed -variation in the field. Results by this method approached the truth -accidentally, if at all. Lunar observations were the only means of -getting an approximation to the longitude except the occultations of -Jupiter's satellites, both methods being impracticable on board ship, -with the instruments then employed.</p> - -<p>In 1731 the astronomer Halley proved<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> that at that date it was still -impossible to find the longitude correctly by the moon, the lunar -tables being so inaccurate that an error of several hundred miles was -quite possible and an accurate determination would depend upon the -respective errors of instrument, observation and the lunar tables -happening to balance one another. Halley ventured to express the hope -that the tables may be so amended that an error may scarce ever exceed -three minutes, which would correspond to a degree and a half of -longitude, amounting at the equator to a distance of a little less than -one hundred miles. Messerschmidt, who preceded Bering as an explorer of -Eastern Siberia, was according to Middendorf (Sib. Reise, iv. 1, p. 56) -thirty-two degrees out in his determination of the longitude, and the -eastward extent of Asia in this region was underrated by that amount or -thereabouts, on many maps.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Phil. Trans. 1731, No. 421.</small></blockquote> - -<p>One other means of approximating to the meridian remained, in the -observation of eclipses. This from the comparative rarity of these -occurrences in the case of the sun and moon, could with the imperfect -instruments of those days be available but seldom. Owing to the -difficulty of determining the exact time of the first and last contacts -the longitudes computed by these observations were liable to quite as -great inaccuracy as those computed from the lunar tables. Still an -ordinary spyglass would enable an observer to note the time within a -minute or two, and, if he was possessed of the local time, a simple -comparison with the observed time of the eclipse in some locality where -the longitude was known would give a fairly good determination, -considering the instruments and methods of those days. Of the four -eclipses of the moon occurring in 1728-9 two might have been observed -without difficulty by Bering, one would have been invisible to him, and -one might barely have been noted, but in all probability was not -observed by him. In none of the published reports of the expedition is -any mention made by Bering or his officers of the occurrence or -observation of an eclipse, which seems very singular if by such an -observation he was enabled to correct an error of 30° in the longitude -of northeastern Siberia. However, Middendorf states (Sib. Reise, iv. 1, -p. 56) that "Bering and his lieutenant in the years 1728 and 1729 -observed in Kamchatka<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> two eclipses of the moon," by which they -corrected the longitude. He gives no authority for this statement.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> It is possible that an eclipse observed at Ilimsk in -Middle Siberia by Chirikoff is thus erroneously referred to.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Euler, who had access to the archives of the Admiralty College, while -engaged on a Geography of Russia, mentions (Philos. Trans., No. 482, p. -421) that he was informed that Bering observed an eclipse "at -Kamchatka." This letter of Euler's is copied by Campbell in Harris' -Voyages (vol. II, Book III, p. 1024) and the expression "at Kamchatka" -has led to the statement that these observations were made at the fort -or village of Lower Kamchatka. This is an error since Bering gives no -longitude for the fort in his table of geographical positions. It must -be remembered that the name Kamchatka at that period was applied not -merely to the peninsula as at present, but also to the whole region of -northeastern Siberia, the governor of Kamchatka being located at -Okhotsk. So to come within the probable meaning of the phrases used by -Middendorf and Euler it is only necessary to suppose that the -observations were made somewhere in that region. Lauridsen (Danish -edition, note 34, p. 186) refers to a paper of Struve (Bull. -phys.-math. Acad. St. Petersb., I, 1842, p. 290) containing a table of -geographical positions in Russia, in connection with these alleged -observations of Bering. An examination of Struve's paper does not bear -out the implication of Lauridsen's reference, as Struve not only makes -no mention whatever of Bering's observations there but specifically -states that the first observations of precision made in this part of -Siberia were those of Krassilnikoff who accompanied Bering's second -expedition in 1741. It would seem extraordinary that a determination so -important for geography as that of Bering and his companion should be -unknown to so distinguished an astronomer as Struve who must have had -access to all the archives of the early explorations by Russia. But it -may be perhaps accounted for by the facts that Bering's observations -were necessarily of a very rough and primitive character—as it is -certain he had no instruments of precision; and that, for that reason, -they were not received with entire confidence; so that Struve may have -considered them insufficiently exact to be included with those of -Krassilnikoff and others made with more modern appliances.</p> - -<p>From the note in regard to the eclipses which is kindly contributed by -Mr. Marcus Baker and from the other circumstances, it is evident that -if Bering and his party made the observations alluded to, the eclipses -noted were the partial eclipse of Feb. 25 (local calendar), 1728, of -which he might have observed the last contact, or the total eclipse of -Feb. 14, 1729, of which he might have observed the first contact and -the totality. At the time of the last eclipse he was at Lower Kamchatka -post, and as, in the list of positions handed in with his Report in -1730, no longitude is entered for this locality, it would seem that -choice is reduced to the first of the two mentioned; which occurred -when Bering was either at Bolsheretsk or on his way from that place to -Lower Kamchatka, which he reached about a month later. Campbell's table -of positions is credited by him to the year 1728, but my own opinion is -that it was really derived (with various errors, interpolations, etc.) -from Bering's table of 1730.</p> - -<p>The ordinary method of getting the longitude of a place, and that upon -which Bering originally depended, as his itinerary table shows, was by -a continuous record of the distances and directions traveled from a -point of known longitude. This record would afford the data from which -the distance on a mean parallel, by means of a traverse table, could be -computed. Laborious, imperfect, and slow as it was, it was the only -sure reliance of the traveler in those days. Whether Bering observed an -eclipse or not, it is certain that his original dependence was upon his -itinerary, that his report was based upon that and that this part of -his work was done as well as the nature of the method would permit. His -silence about the eclipse may be due to the fact that he depended not -upon astronomical but upon pedometric observations, to which the -eclipse may have afforded some corrections. At any rate the pedometric -determination of the distance between Tobolsk and Okhotsk or the -peninsula of Kamchatka was in itself a tremendous undertaking.</p> - -<p>I find by a rough calculation from Bering's data that the longitude -resulting from his itinerary from Tobolsk to Okhotsk is 77° 36' E. The -distance in a straight line is about 2,390 miles, but by the route -Bering traveled the distance is a little more than 3,746 miles. The -longitude in Bering's List of Positions is 76° 07', which differs from -the pedometric measurement by 1° 29' (or about 45 miles). On Bering's -map, Okhotsk is located in longitude 74° 30' E. of Tobolsk, while the -most modern observations for Okhotsk put it in 142° 40' E. of Greenwich -or 75° 40' E. of Tobolsk. So that Bering's pedometric measurement was -nearly 60 miles in excess; his revised table (as corrected by the -eclipse?) 27 miles in excess; and his map about 30 miles in error in -the opposite direction. These discrepancies show the inexactness of the -methods then in vogue and also that the pedometric method was not very -much worse than the others in its results. Although there are several -typographic or other errors in his table of itinerary which render -exact comparisons impossible, it may be said that the error of the -pedometric method, including the passage by sea from Okhotsk to -Kamchatka, averages about two degrees or sixty geographical miles. In -the cases of Okhotsk and Bolsheretsk the error is one of excess; in the -case of the cape at the mouth of the Kamchatka river and of the turning -point of the expedition north of Bering Strait, the result is too small -by about the same amount.</p> - -<p>That his chart and his revised list of positions should differ as they -do, is quite as likely the result of the careless way in which the -minutiæ of such work were generally regarded at that day, as to any -difference of date, or of intentional modification.</p> - -<p>To conclude our review of the instrumental means and methods then in -use, it may be said that the compasses in use at that day were -comparatively roughly made and more or less inaccurate. The variation -was determined in a given latitude by the azimuth of the Polestar or -the sun at setting observed by means of sights attached to the rim of -the compass, which was a method accurate enough for the general -purposes of navigation. The distance run was measured on shipboard by -the log which was in about the same form and perfection as at present, -being a very ancient invention.</p> - -<p>The survey of a general coast-line was made by compass bearings on -prominent points, repeated from successive stations, the distances of -the ship's course being determined by the log and the courses by -compass, with corrections for current and the variation. The lines thus -obtained were checked by latitude observations made with Davis' -backstaff when the weather permitted.</p> - -<p>Apart from any of the methods mentioned it seems to have been -overlooked that Bering might have corrected the longitudes of the N.E. -Siberian coast by the ordinary dead reckoning kept on board his vessel, -provided he started by adopting the longitude for the southern part of -Kamchatka peninsula which was in common use on many of the charts of -his day. Though it is true that the maps of that part of Siberia north -and northeast from the Okhotsk sea were many degrees in error in the -longitude, this observation does not hold good in regard to the -southern end of Kamchatka. The work of the Jesuit fathers in China had -already determined fairly well the position of China and Korea, while -rude outlines of the northern islands of Japan, Sakhalin, the Kuriles -and the south end of Kamchatka, were added to these on maps of Asia. -The outlines are often very incorrect but it is quite evident what is -intended. In nearly all early maps of this region which I have been -able to consult, as for instance those of N. de Witt, I have found the -south end of Kamchatka in approximately correct longitude. For -instance, in the Novissimae Ephemerides of Manfredio, published at Bonn -the same year that Bering left St. Petersburg, and which might well -have been sent to him before he sailed, we find two charts of the paths -of solar eclipses (Plates ii and iii). On these charts the meridian of -180° from Ferro passes across what is unmistakably the south end of -Kamchatka, though northeastern Siberia remains a blank. This would be a -sufficient starting point and is quite as correct as Bering's -determinations; in fact is within a few miles of the modern longitudes -for the same part of the peninsula. Dead reckoning along the shores of -the peninsula, corrected by latitude observations, would have done all -that was necessary to correct the meridian without observing any lunar -eclipse, provided the surveyor started with such an assumption as -Manfredio's or De Witt's charts supply.</p> -<br> - -<center>S<small>OURCES OF</small> I<small>NFORMATION</small>.</center> - -<p>The general History of China [etc.] Done from the French of P[ere]. Du -Halde [by R. Brookes]. London, John Watts, 1736. 4 vols. 8° with maps -and ills.</p> - -<p>This is referred to in the following text by the letter B.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This is the first English translation from the original French edition -of the "Description géographique et historique de l'empire de la Chine" -by the father J. B. Du Halde, published at the Hague in the same year -as the above translation. The text of the original French I have not -been able to consult, though, so far as Bering's voyage is concerned, -there does not seem to have been any material abridgment in the -translation above cited, for an opportunity of consulting which I am -indebted to the Librarian of Congress.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The maps and charts of the original French edition were separately -printed in an atlas by themselves, for the use of those who might -desire to do without the text, under the following title:</small></blockquote> - -<p>Nouvel Atlas de la Chine, de la Tartarie Chinoise, et du Thibet: -contenant Les Chartes générales & particulieres de ces Pays, ainsi que -la Carte du Royaume de Corée; (etc.): Rédigées par M<small><sup>r</sup></small> D'Anville, -Géographe ordinaire de sa Majesté très Chrétienne, Précedé d'une -description de la Boucharie, Par un Officier Suedois que a fait quelque -sejour dans ce Pays. A la Haye, chez Henri Scheurleer <small>MDCCXXVII</small>. Folio, -12 pp. 42 charts.</p> - -<blockquote><small>The chart of Bering forms sheet 42, and differs from the others in -being on Mercator's projection which indicates that it was copied -directly from an original as stated in the text, and not redrawn. It is -20¾ by 9<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small>/<small><small>8</small></small> inches on the neat-lines and is entitled:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Carte des Pays traversé par le Cap<small><sup>ne</sup></small>. Beerings depuis la ville de -Tobolsk jusqu'a Kamtschatka."</p> - -<blockquote><small>Beneath the title is a table of four transliterated Russian terms for -fort, post, village and convent, with their French equivalents. This -and certain peculiarities in the transliteration of proper names make -it certain that the original chart was in Russian and that the -transliteration was done by some one not perfectly familiar with both -languages. There are a few errors of the engraver in rendering single -letters "c" appearing for "t" and "r" for "e" in a few places. The -longitude is reckoned in degrees east from Tobolsk to which 67° degrees -when added will give practically the meridian east from Greenwich. The -transcriber of the map from the Russian appears to have been a Dane, G. -Kondet.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>That part of this chart east from 112° E. Gr. has been fairly -reproduced by Lauridsen (Chart I) with the omission of some unimportant -names and the addition of a signature (not the ordinary autograph) of -Bering. This is reproduced with a different running headline to -accompany Olson's translation.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The fourth volume of Brookes' translation (pp. 429-440) contains</p> - -<p>"A succinct narrative of Captain Beerings's Travels into Siberia:"</p> - -<blockquote><small>with a reduction of the above-mentioned map, on which there is no trace -of the island of St. Demetrius, even its name, which alone appears on -the Du Halde map, is here omitted. Otherwise this version of the map -does not differ from Du Halde's, more than one copy of a drawing -usually differs from another. When Bering started on his expedition he -was accompanied by two cartographers (Bergh, First Voy. of the Russ. -pp. 2-5, fide Lauridsen) Luzhin and Potiloff, and to one or both of -them under Bering's direction the construction of the map in question -was probably due.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>When Bering made his report it was accompanied by a list of positions -for important places visited by the Expedition.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Dr. Campbell, while gathering material for his second edition of -Harris' Voyages, procured a copy of this unpublished list of positions -and prints it in his account of Bering's travels, with the comment that -it was sent by Bering from Kamchatka, before his return to Russia, and -to the Senate at St. Petersburg, to which Bering did not report. -Whether due to the transcriber or the printer there are several very -obvious errors in the list as printed by Campbell, and when it is -compared with Bering's own list we see that there are also several -interpolations.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>But the positions adopted in the chart, said by Du Halde to have been -brought to St. Petersburg by Bering on his return (a statement -confirmed by the mention of a chart in the report itself), are not -identical with the positions enumerated in the list. This leads to the -suspicion that Bering's first chart was not published, and that the -chart issued was due to a recomputation and revision of his data. This -suspicion is made stronger by the statement of Lauridsen, who gives no -authority, however, that Bering's chart was made in Moscow in -1731,<small><sup>4</sup></small> -though this may merely mean that some of the copies which were -distributed to various personages were so prepared.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>4</sup></small> Lauridsen, Am. ed., p. 57.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>These manuscript copies of the chart and report were sent to various -foreign courts, as a matter of general interest, by the Russian -authorities. The copy used by Du Halde was communicated to him by the -King of Poland who had received it as a "Present worthy of his regard -and curiosity" (Du Halde, iv, p. 439, Brookes' ed.). Other copies were -sent to Sweden and probably to England and other countries. In the -journal, "Ymer," of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography -(1884, p. 93) is a short notice by E. Dahlgren of three manuscript -copies of Bering's chart of his first expedition, or rather of charts -embodying its results. Two of these charts are in the Royal archives of -Sweden and measures 58 x 135 cm. One of them is ornamented with ten -colored drawings of natives of Siberia. The other is without these but -does not seem to be a copy of the first as it has a number of soundings -between St. Lawrence and the Diomede Islands which are not on the -former, and some names which are peculiar to it. Both have many more -names than are given on the chart published by Du Halde. Both of the -manuscripts have a legend referring to the coast from the Kolyma -eastward, on the north coast of Siberia, to the effect that it is put -down from older charts and information, doubtless furnished by the -archives at Yakutsk. The third copy is in the possession of Baron -Robert Klinckofström, of Stafsund, Sweden.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Through the kind offices of Baron Nordenskiöld and the generosity of -Baron Klinckofström, the last mentioned chart has been forwarded to the -writer through the Smithsonian Institution for examination. It appears -to be essentially the same as the second of the two charts referred to -as comprised in the Royal Swedish Archives. The result of my -examination of it leads me to the belief that there were two different -charts sent out in manuscript by the Russian authorities. The first, -which I regard as the earlier, and which is certainly more accurate, -shows the island of St. Demetrius in its proper place in accordance -with Bering's Report and list of positions. It formed the basis of -Campbell's engraving which will be referred to later, and of the chart -which appears in the various editions of Du Halde. It is possible that -this represents the original chart prepared by Bering in Kamchatka -during the winter of 1728-9. The second and probably later form of the -chart is represented by the Klinckofström chart, upon which the name -and island of St. Demetrius have vanished and a smaller island in the -corresponding latitude is represented close to the Siberian coast and -westward from the meridian passing through the eastern extreme of East -Cape. This island is named the island of St. Diomede. If it is intended -as a revised position for the island of St. Demetrius of the other -chart and of Bering's Report, it is in conflict with the facts and with -the position assigned to St. Demetrius in the report. No one who had -sailed between St. Demetrius and East Cape could have sanctioned such a -position for the island with honesty. If a different island is intended -the question arises, Why is St. Demetrius omitted? This second chart is -obviously the basis upon which in D'Anville's chart of Asia (1753) the -configuration of the eastern extreme of Siberia is based, and I suspect -that the chart of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg -and the reproduction of Jefferys, were also derived from it as far as -this region is concerned.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It would be rash, in the absence of authentic information which only -the Russian archives can supply, to hazard an opinion as to the origin -of the important difference between these charts. I may return to this -point later. Apart from this, it may be added that the northern coast -of Siberia from East Cape west to Cape Shelagskoi is represented as -mountainous throughout its extent. A legend states that it is laid down -from older charts and information. This relieves Bering from the -responsibility for the fictitious or at least grossly erroneous and -exaggerated form and direction given to Cape Shelagskoi on his chart. -The west coast of the Okhotsk sea and part of its northeastern shores -not visited by Bering are stated to be laid down from "information." -This map is not dated and the blank space in the title left for -Bering's autograph has never been filled. No name of draughtsman or -place or authority of issue are indicated upon it. It measures 51 by -20<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small>/<small><small>8</small></small> inches between the neat-lines. It is in black and white, the -mountains washed in, the only color being small green trees as a -conventional sign for wooded country. A copy of the earlier chart fell -into the hands of Dr. Campbell and was published by him in his edition -of Harris' Voyages,<small><sup>5</sup></small> together with a version of the report which is -more or less mutilated and to which the editor to make his book more -readable has added certain flowers of rhetoric which detract from its -accuracy. Campbell's copy of the map is the most perfect yet published -and the only one showing the island of St. Demetrius in its proper place.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>5</sup></small> H<small>ARRIS</small>, J<small>OHN</small>. Complete collection of Voyages and travels -[etc.]. London, T. Woodward [and others] 1748. 2 v. folio, maps and -plates, Vol. 2, pp. 1016-1041, is devoted to a discussion of Bering's -discoveries, entitled: Book III, Section VIII. "A distinct account of -part of the northeast frontier of the Russian Empire, commonly called -the country of Kamschatka or Kamschatska including the voyages of -Captain Behring for discovering toward the East [etc.], collected from -the best authorities both printed and manuscript."]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>In Du Halde's copy and those derived from it the eastern border of the -chart has cut off the island, though in some of them, as in that of -1736, the name remains. The only fault to be noted in Campbell's -edition of Bering's map is the omission by the engraver of the small -bay named Preobrazhenia by Bering and which, though it is not named, -appears on the other editions of the map. The title is as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"An exact chart of all the countries through which Cap<small><sup>t</sup></small>. Behring -travelled, from Tobolski Capital of Siberia to the country of -Kamtschatka."</p> - -<blockquote><small>The size of the map is 7 x 12¾ inches. It extends on the east to the -meridian of 126° east from Tobolsk which enables the "Isle of St. -Demetrius" (our present Big Diomede) to appear in its proper place. The -editions previously reported have all stopped at the 124th meridian, -thus cutting off the island, whose name sometimes appeared and -sometimes did not.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It will be observed that Dr. Campbell in this paper was the means of -introducing the erroneous and obnoxious Germanized spelling of Bering's -name into English literature. This is a pretty good indication that he -had no autographic documents from Bering himself, and that his -manuscripts were obtained from German sources, or at least had been -transcribed into the German language. In his thorough search of the -literature of the subject and lengthy discussion of the results, Dr. -Campbell undoubtedly gathered the fullest account of the first -expedition which had up to that date been printed. In order to enliven -his history of the proceedings, the good Doctor occasionally rises to -flights of fancy, and the theories he held were long since proved -erroneous.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>There are several other English translations of Du Halde's China, of -which the following is the most important:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"A description of the empire of China and Chinese-Tartary, together -with the kingdoms of Korea, and Tibet: containing the geography and -history (natural as well as civil) of those countries. From the French -of P. J. B. Du Halde, Jesuit. Illustrated with general and particular -maps, and adorned with a great number of cuts. With notes geographical, -historical and critical, and other improvements, particularly in the -maps, by the Translator." London, Edward Cave, 1741. 2 vols. folio, -maps and ills.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This edition does not show the name of the translator, but he was -evidently a man of no small attainments as a geographer and -cartographer, and introduced numerous improvements and corrections into -the charts of D'Anville, which accompanied the original edition of Du -Halde. A copy of this was presented to the library of Harvard College -by the province of New Hampshire in 1765-6, for an opportunity of -examining which I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Justin Winsor, the -Librarian.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The text of this edition, compared with that of 1736, is as much as -possible abridged, yet contains nothing not in the original, but the -map exhibits certain additions to be noted. This map is entitled,</small></blockquote> - -<p>"A Map of Capt. Beerings' travels from Tobolskoy to Kamchatka between -y<small><sup>e</sup></small> years 1725 and 1730. With improvements by -y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Editor." It contains -the following note by the editor. "Capt. Beerings probably observ'd y<small><sup>e</sup></small> -Lat<small><sup>d</sup></small> in y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Principal -places thro' w<small><sup>ch</sup></small> he pass'd, tho' two -Observations only are mentioned in his Journal. But M<small><sup>r</sup></small> Kyrilow in his -Map of the Russian Empire does not follow y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Author in this respect -for instance he places Ilimski 1° 30' more north, Yakutskoy 2° more -south, and Cape Chiokotskago 1° more south than Cap<small><sup>t</sup></small>. Beerings; -likewise other places in Proportion. I have reckon'd y<small><sup>e</sup></small> -Long<small><sup>d</sup></small> of -Tobolskoy from Paris according to an Eclipse of y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Sun observed at -Hamburg and Tobolskoy, mentioned by Mr. Strahlenberg in his account of -y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Northern parts of Europe and Asia. This is all that can be done -till y<small><sup>e</sup></small> return of y<small><sup>e</sup></small> Russian Mathematicians sent to make observations -and discoveries throughout Siberia." Then follows a line "Inscribed to -Francis Gashrey Esq<small><sup>r</sup></small>."</p> - -<blockquote><small>The main body of the chart is that of Du Halde's original and the scale -is the same, but the height of the neat-lines is only 8<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small>/<small><small>8</small></small> inches. -Bering's track from Okhotsk to Bolsheretsk, across Kamchatka, northward -to 67° 18'; also his track eastward from Kamchatka in 1729 and around -the peninsula to Bolsheretsk and Okhotsk; are indicated by dotted -lines. The two latitudes noted in Bering's journal are indicated on -this map by a +, and the northern one is placed near the Asiatic coast -in latitude 118° E. from Tobolsk. At the top of the map the supposed -Paris meridians<small><sup>6</sup></small> are indicated, a difference between Paris and -Tobolsk being assumed of 70° degrees, which is about five degrees too -much. There are also sundry infelicities in the transliteration of the -names from the French of D'Anville.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>6</sup></small> In the Campbell map these are taken as east from London -with an allowance of 67° between London and Tobolsk.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>A chart which deserves notice, though almost wholly fictitious, being -chiefly devoted to the spurious discoveries of the alleged Admiral de -Fonte, was issued by J. N. de L'Isle with the concurrence of M. P. -Buache, or at his suggestion. It appeared at Paris, in 1752, and was -copied for Jefferys' (2d) edition of Voyages from Asia to America in -1764. I do not know if this copy appeared in the first edition, but -presume it did.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>For present purposes the interesting features of this map are as -follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Opposite the eastern extreme of the Chukchi peninsula there is -represented part of America with the legend, "Terres vues par Mr. -Spanberg in 1728, frequentées à présent par les Russes, qui en -apportent de très belles fourrures." In the English edition the legend -is "Seen by Spanberg 1728." Four islands are represented in the strait -between Asia and America, corresponding in a general way to the four -now known to exist there. Connected with America and north of the -Chukchi peninsula is land with an island off it corresponding not badly -to Wrangell and Herald Islands, and marked "Discovered in 1722." It is -possible that this land is a hypothetical compound of the land reported -by the Chukchis east of the strait with that which they knew to be -visible in clear weather from Cape Yakan, more or less confused accounts -of which had long been current among persons interested in these -regions.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The next chart of note in this connection was published by D'Anville, -the royal geographer of France, who had previously prepared the -original map of Bering for publication. He issued a general map of -Asia, in three parts, each of two leaves which could be joined -together, of which the first part appeared in 1751 and the third part -in 1753, entitled:</small></blockquote> - -<p>Troisième Partie de la Carte/d'Asie,/contenant/La Sibérie/et quelques -autres parties/de la Tartarie,/Publiée sous les Auspices de -Monseigneur/Louis-Philippe d'Orléans/Duc d'Orléans/Prémier Prince du -Sang./Par le S<small><sup>r</sup></small>. d'Anville,/Sécrétaire de Son Alt<small><sup>s</sup></small>. -Sereniss<small><sup>s</sup></small>./MDCCLIII./Avec Privilége./</p> - -<blockquote><small>This map is in two sheets (each 20 x 21 inches), the engraving of the -geographical part by Guill. de la Haye and of the ornamental title by -De Lafosse. The longitude is reckoned from Ferro, and the map is -constructed on a scale of 23 French leagues to 60 geographical miles. -The boundaries are colored and the sea shore shaded with short -horizontal lines. It is on the polyconic projection.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>This map includes many of the additions to geography in eastern Siberia -which were due to the members of the great Siberian expedition. The -courses and branches of the rivers especially were augmented and -corrected as well as named. The branches of the Anadyr River were -represented and named, but as no new information in regard to the coast -had been received at that date, this river was still mapped as entering -the sea to the south and west of Cape Thaddeus, as erroneously laid -down by Bering, who confounded with the Anadyr a small river which does -come in here, and passed the estuary of the true Anadyr without seeing -it. The coast lines are essentially those of Bering. Beyond the basins -of the Kolyma and Anadyr is marked "Terre inconnue"; a small supplement -in the north-east corner of the map, on half the scale of the map, -represents the north-east extreme of Asia as delineated by Bering. This -little supplement is of considerable interest as it gives fuller -information than that which appears on the original publication of Du -Halde, perhaps from a more modern version of Bering's chart, as -previously suggested.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Several names appear for the first time in cartographic history, upon -this map. Preobrazhenia Bay; Bolshoia River falling into Holy Cross -Bay, and the "Isle de St. Diomide" are among these. The Island of St. -Demetrius is omitted, as well as its name. The Island of St. Diomide is -placed about on a line between East Cape and Cape Chukotski, to the -westward of the meridian of East Cape. There is a discrepancy averaging -about five minutes in latitude and longitude between the positions on -this map and those on the second version of the Bering manuscript -charts. But in the main these differences are, I suspect, merely due to -carelessness in copying, and the general harmony between the two leads -to the belief that the D'Anville outline for this region was based on -the second version of the manuscript.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The differences of position for points on this part of the coast are -numerous. I have noted them in the comparative table of positions -herewith. They may be chiefly owing to slips in transferring from the -Mercator to the Polyconic projection; but some of them are due to new -information, probably derived from the surveyors of the second -expedition. Bering island appears on the map, in about its proper -place, though Copper island is not indicated, nor are any of the -Aleutians shown. I suspect this is the first publication of a -cartographic kind on which Bering island is laid down, as the map of -the Imperial Academy of Sciences, embodying the geographical results of -Bering's Voyage to the coast of America, was not engraved until a year -later, while De L'Isle's of 1752 does not contain them.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The island between Cape Shelaginski and East Cape off the northern -coast, on Bering's map, is omitted by D'Anville. The Kamchatkan -peninsula in latitude 56° is represented to have a width of 180 miles, -while Bering made it 270 miles.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>A most important contribution to the subject appeared in Müller's -Historical Collections known as the "Sammlung Russische Geschichte" and -published at St. Petersburg (Kayserl. Academie der Wissenschaften, -1732-64. 8°. Nine volumes.) Des dritten Bandes (erstes, zweytes und -drittes Stück, pp. 1-304, 1758) contains the original account of the -Russian Voyages toward America from which the work of Jefferys has, -with some errors and omissions, been translated. As far as regards -Bering's first voyage, there is only one error of consequence made by -Jefferys, which will be noted in its place. This book is extremely -rare, and the only copy in America which I have been able to find after -much enquiry, is in the library of the Smithsonian Institution.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The first volume of this series has the title</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Eröffnung eines Vorschlages zu Verbesserung der Russischen Historie -Durch den Druck eines Stückweise herauszugebenden Sammelungen von -allerly zu den Umstanden und Begebenheiten dieses Reichs gehorigen -Nachrichten. St. Petersburg, bey der Keyserl. Academie der -Wissenschaften, 1732."</p> - -<blockquote><small>The succeeding volumes have the running title "Sammlung Russische -Geschichte" with the number of the parts subjoined but no other -title-page.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The account of the Russian Voyages is stated by Müller to have been -prepared at the direction of the Empress and endorsed by the Academy of -Sciences. It contains invaluable material on the early explorations, -which, if it had not been for Müller's painstaking researches, would -have been totally lost, as the archives of Yakutsk from whence the data -were derived by Müller were subsequently destroyed by fire. The errors -which occur in it are chiefly due to Müller's endeavor to utilize the -inexact geographical data of the Promyschleniks and Cossacks by -combining them with the less detailed but more precise observations of -later observers. In this attempt he added many valuable details to the -charts, but at the same time introduced several errors. The exaggerated -distances reported by the first explorers who were unable to correct -their estimates by observations of precision, distort those parts of -the map due to their reports. The peninsula of Aliaska becomes hugely -exaggerated as does the Shelagskoi promontory on the Arctic Sea. But no -unprejudiced person can read Müller's account without perceiving his -great caution in accepting unreservedly these imperfect contributions, -the really important additions which he made to cartography, the -preciousness of the facts which he rescued from oblivion, and his -desire to be fair to everybody.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The insinuations of malice and of a desire to injure Bering by means of -this account given by Müller, which Lauridsen attributes to the latter, -appear to be entirely the product of a suspicious temperament and an -excited imagination. Certainly I have seen nothing anywhere cited which -lends to such suspicions any tint of probability. The facts cited in -support of them can easily be otherwise explained, if one desires to -view the subject judicially, and for the most part are not quite -thoroughly understood by the Danish author.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>One error upon which the latter lays great stress, is due to a -manipulation of the record, originated or at least adopted by Bering -himself, and which is incorporated in the map and report which all -authors agree proceeded directly from Bering's own hand.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The next map of importance was issued by the Imperial Academy of -Sciences, St. Petersburg in 1754. It was made under the inspection of -Gerhard Friedrich, Staatsrath von Müller, who revised and corrected it -subsequently, when an edition dated 1758 was issued. This map comprised -the geographical results of the great Siberian expedition sent out by -the Russian government; of Bering's voyages; and of the records of the -hunters (Promishleniks) and traders in northeastern Siberia preserved -in the archives of Yakutsk. The sources of this map are fully explained -by Müller in the "Russian Discoveries" (Jefferys' translation, p. 108 -et seq.). I have not been able to examine a copy of the original map, -and have therefore relied on the English version of it which is to be -found in Jefferys' translation, second edition, London, 1764.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Among the improvements introduced on this map may be specified, the -correction of the shores of the Okhotsk Sea, and Gulf of Penjina, the -correcter location of the mouth of the Anadyr river and its estuary, -the introduction of the results of the voyages of Gvosdeff, Bering and -Chirikoff to the northwest coast of America, and a multitude of details -relating to northeastern Siberia. The island of St. Deomid (Diomede) is -not represented though its name appears on the 65th parallel in Bering -Strait. The island may have been on the original map and carelessly -omitted by Jefferys' engraver on his copy. Among the errors, or rather -mistaken hypotheses of others, which are suggested in this map by -dotted lines, are the extension westward to 174° E. of Greenwich, of -the peninsula of Aliaska which is also given a wholly uncalled-for -width; and the northward extension of the coast on each side of Bering -Strait. In the former case the cartographer was misled by the errors of -the map of Bering and Chirikoff's last voyage and rumors reported by -other navigators; and in the second case he followed Bering in adopting -an erroneous position and exaggerated form for the coast eastward from -Koliuchin Bay, due to the uncorrected sketches of the Cossacks and -traders. The northern extension of the American coast opposite, was -purely hypothetical and for this Müller must be held responsible. Many -of the western Aleutians are exaggerated in size and erroneous in -position but the chart of Bering's last voyage, and the exaggerated -reports of the hunters who followed him, must be held responsible for -this, in the main.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The work in which this chart appears is largely derived from Müller's -"Sammlung russische geschichte," St. Petersburg, 1758, vol. iii, Parts -I-III (cf. antea). The first edition is entitled, according to -bibliographies:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Voyages from Asia to America for completing the discoveries of the -northwest coast of America. A summary of voyages made by the Russians -on the frozen sea. From the high Dutch of S[taatsrath]. Muller by T. -Jefferys. London: T. Jefferys, 1761." lxvi, 76 pp. 4°, with four maps.</p> - -<blockquote><small>The second edition which is that referred to in this paper is entitled</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Voyages from Asia to America, for completing the discoveries of the -northwest coast of America. To which is prefixed, a summary of the -Voyages made by the Russians on the Frozen Sea, in search of a -northeast passage. Serving as an explanation of a map of the Russian -discoveries, published by the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, -[etc.] London: T. Jefferys, 1764," viii, 120 pp. 4°, four maps.</p> - -<blockquote><small>A French translation by Dumas, with the author's initials misprinted G. -P. instead of G. F., was printed at Amsterdam in 1766. It consisted of -two volumes, 18mo, with a map. A Danish translation, by Morten -Hallager, was issued at Copenhagen in 1784, as a portion of a volume -relating to northern explorations. Bibliographers seem to have been -puzzled by the discrepancy of initials, not recognizing that the S. in -Jefferys' volume stood for a title and not a name. Another work -important in its collection of facts bearing upon the general question -of the explorations eastward by the Russians, was published by the -archdeacon of Wilts, Rev. William Coxe in 1780. This was followed by a -second edition during the same year. A third edition accompanied by a -Supplement of 57 pages was printed in 1787 and a fourth in 1803. There -were two apparently distinct translations of the book printed at Paris -in 1781, and a German edition at Frankfurt and Leipzig in 1783. The -third edition which is the best and most correct appeared both in -octavo and quarto form, and is that to which reference is made in this -paper. It is entitled:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Account of the Russian discoveries between Asia and America. To which -are added the Conquest of Siberia, and the history of the transactions -and commerce between Russia and China, [etc.]. London: T. Cadell, -1787."</p> - -<blockquote><small>410 pp. 8° [or 4°] with four charts and one plate; to which is added, -consecutively paged:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"A comparative view of the Russian discoveries with those made by -Captains Cook and Clerke, and a sketch of what remains to be -ascertained by future navigators. London: T. Cadell, 1787." 3 l. unp., -417-456 pp. 8°.</p> - -<blockquote><small>The latter was also separately issued. Among the maps contained in this -work of Coxe's are a reduced copy of the general map of Russia issued -by the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1776, and a chart -of Synd's Voyage toward Chukotski Noss.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The latter is the only chart of Synd's voyage (1764-1768) which is -accessible, and it is vouched for as authentic by Dr. Coxe. Compared -with later charts it is, of course, extremely imperfect yet there is in -it enough resemblance to the truth to enable us to recognize what was -intended in many instances. In the northeastern part of the chart, the -latitudes are exaggerated and the longitudes contracted in a very -erroneous manner. Nevertheless we recognize East Cape, here named -"Prom. Tschukotskoi;" the two islands now called the Diomedes but here -left nameless; a large island, moved eastward out of place, but -doubtless intended for Arakam Island, is called "I. Diomedis;" while -among a crowd of islets (referable to the hills of St. Lawrence Island -seen through a fog and laid down very inaccurately), the name "S. -Diomedis" appears again. The American coast was seen and landed upon; -Cape Prince of Wales and the shore south and east from it are -recognizable. The island of St. Mathew was discovered and named, though -placed a degree too far south. The island of St. Paul in the Pribiloff -group was discovered by Synd, put in its true latitude, and named -Preobrazhenia or Transfiguration Island. It is about seven degrees out -in relative longitude and fourteen in absolute longitude. One cannot -doubt however that it was the island now known as St. Paul when we -recall the fact that there are no other islands than the Pribiloff -group, in that latitude or within that general area of Bering Sea. The -southern Cape of the Chukchi Peninsula, Chukotski Cape of Bering and -Müller is represented two degrees too far south. Preobrazhenia Bay is -not recognizable but the name is transferred to the bight west and -north of Cape Bering of our present charts. This part of the coast was -not however approached by Synd, who spent much time on the coast of -Kamchatka. On his chart this peninsula is represented better than we -should have expected from the rudeness of the rest.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The map of the Academy shows the influence of those who discredited the -near approach of America to eastern Siberia; notwithstanding the -explorations of Deshneff, Gvosdeff and Synd, the American shore of -Bering Strait has disappeared altogether. The eastern portion of the -Chukchi Peninsula is indented by a host of hypothetical inlets, and -defended by an unrecognizable archipelago of nameless islands. The -far-stretching chain of islands, among which Bering's second expedition -was so long entangled, excepting those confirmed by Krenitzen and -Levasheff (who sailed far north of the southern arc of the chain) is -also absent. Excepting that the fictitious peninsula north from Chukchi -land is effaced, the map in its main features for this region is less -accurate than that of Bering, and does not compare very favorably with -that of Müller. And yet but shortly after its publication, the -explorations of Cook and Clerke recorded the facts which should, when -published, exalt the memory of the older geographers and scatter the -hypotheses which for a time prevailed against them.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Their explorations are included in</small></blockquote> - -<p>"A voyage to the Pacific Ocean, undertaken by the command of his -Majesty, for making discoveries in the northern hemisphere, [etc.], -performed under the direction of captains Cook, Clerke and Gore, in his -Majesty's ships the Resolution and Discovery, in the years 1776-1780. -London, for T. Nicol and T. Cadell, 1784-5." 3 volumes 4° and atlas -folio.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This is the edition ordered by the Admiralty. Of this celebrated work, -said to have been written from the explorers' manuscripts by Bishop -Douglas, there have been many editions. In the Bulletin of the Société -de Géographie, Paris, 1879, pp. 481-540, is a bibliography by James -Jackson.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The most interesting points in regard to Cook's explorations about -Bering Strait are comprised on the chart (vol. ii, p. 467) entitled:</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Chart of Norton Sound and of Bherings Strait made by the East Cape of -Asia and the west point of America."</p> - -<blockquote><small>On this chart the main features of the coast on either side of the -strait are correctly indicated, though several of the inlets and bays -are wanting. The Diomedes and Fairway Rock of modern charts are located -but left without names, King's Island is named; Arakam was not -recognized as an island nor was Point Chaplin (Indian Point) observed. -St. Lawrence Island was seen in foggy weather. Its isolated hills -connected by very low flat land led Cook into the error of supposing -that it comprised several islands, one of which he correctly referred -to that named St. Lawrence by Bering and the rest he lumped under the -name of Clerke's Islands. A single fictitious island, midway between -St. Lawrence and King's appears on the chart, but is not named or -mentioned in the text. St. Lawrence Bay is named and discovered. Bering -and Müller's Chukotski cape is correctly identified. East Cape is well -delineated, and the name Serdze Kamen (Heart-Rock) originally given to -a cliff or bluff point at the entrance of Holy Cross Bay is transferred -to a point on the Arctic shore of the peninsula. There is a confused -and somewhat curious history connected with the use of the names -Serdze-Kamen and Chukotski Cape. After the travels of Deshneff, Popoff -and others and the reception at various times of information from the -natives, it was pretty generally understood among the hunters and -traders of this region that the extreme of Asia was a cape or point on -or near which the Chukchi dwelt, or which they described, which was not -definitely located, and which was vaguely known as the Chukchi Cape or -the Cape of the Chukchis, Chukotski Noss in the Russian tongue. Cape -Serdze Kamen will be found on the chart of Billings' Voyage. It was the -point where the Chukchis successfully defended themselves against the -invading Russians who sought to force them to pay tribute. Beyond it, -for the Russians all was mysterious Chukchi country with an unknown -coast. This cape being their <i>ne plus ultra</i> it is probable that it was -more or less confounded by these illiterate and ignorant hunters with -the supposed eastern Cape of Asia, otherwise the Cape of the Chukchis -as used by Müller. Admit this and it is not difficult to frame an -hypothesis which shall account for the confusion, without recourse to -the absurd charges with which Lauridsen attempts to soil the reputation -of Müller, Steller and others.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>When Bering named a cape near which he met a baidar-load of Chukchi who -gave him some geographical information (among other things that the -coast made a turn after passing it) he called this cape with great -propriety the Cape of the Chukchis, as observed by Cook (ii, p. 474) -and with no reference to the legendary Cape of the Chukchis above -referred to.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>But when Müller and others more familiar with the records of the -earlier explorers came to make maps, they naturally applied the -legendary name to the cape which they supposed to be the eastern end of -Asia, and beyond which the coast makes a turn to the west. Müller -believing in a great cape or peninsula on the northern coast of the -Chukchi country supposed this to be the true Cape Chukotski, and to the -eastern Cape of Bering he left the name of Serdze-Kamen, probably -knowing little about the original Cape Serdze. And as Bering, by the -ambiguity of his journal, gave color to the idea that he had rounded -East Cape and pursued the north coast west of it for a few hours before -turning homeward, what more natural than that those little acquainted -with the region should speak of his turning back from near -Serdze-Kamen? Thus Cook, following out the same idea derived from his -study of the map and journal in Harris, transferred the name to a point -in the latitude at which Bering turned back, on the coast which he -supposed him to have surveyed. There is plenty of confusion here but no -just ground for supposing malice in it.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>A publication which throws much light upon Bering's voyage of 1728 was -printed by Vasili Nikolaievich Bergh (or Berkh) a well known writer on -geographical matters in connection with Russian history. It is in the -Russian language and the title may be translated as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<p>First Sea Voyages of the Russians undertaken for the settlement of this -geographical problem—Are Asia and America united?—and performed in -1727, 28 and 29, under the command of fleet captain of the first rank, -Vitus Bering. To which is added a short biographical account of Captain -Bering and some of his officers. St. Petersburg, Academical printing -office, 1823. 8°. 3 pr. l. iv, 126 pp. 1 map. Russian text.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This book was printed, as many private books are, at the printing -office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, but was not published or -printed by the Academy. The only copies I know of are those in the -library of the Academy and one in the British Museum library, neither -of which I have been able personally to consult. But through the kind -offices of Dr. S. Hertzenstein, of the Zoological Museum of the -Academy, I learn that Bergh found in the Archives of the State -Admiralty Department the logbook of midshipman Peter Chaplin entitled, -"Midshipman Peter Chaplin's journal of the Kamchatka expedition of -1725-1731." From this MSS and from the notes of G. F. Müller and -Admiral Nagaieff, Bergh compiled his work. Chaplin's journal is not -reprinted verbatim but only paraphrased by Bergh who adds his own -commentary on the subject matter, and occasionally gives extracts from -Chaplin whose logbook seems to have been kept in a model way.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>An effort will be made to obtain a copy of the original -logbook,<small><sup>7</sup></small> but -for the present we are obliged to be content with what of authenticity -remains to the data which have been translated or paraphrased by Bergh, -Lauridsen and Olson, necessarily submitting to more or less -modification in the process.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>7</sup></small> Simultaneously with the proofs of this paper the work of -Bergh has been communicated to me through the liberality of the -University of Upsala, Sweden. The results of a critical examination of -it will form the subject of a later paper as the present publication -cannot be delayed.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The most authentic and important document for the history of this -voyage is naturally the official report handed in by Bering himself and -printed in the Journal of the Military Topographical Depot of the -Russian Army, volume x, pp. 67-79, St. Petersburg, 1847.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>This journal is a quarto and the report is printed <i>verbatim et -literatim</i> if one may judge by the archaic and mispelled words with -which it is adorned. It comprises Bering's report including his -instructions, a table of geographical positions, and a painfully -detailed table of routes and distances by which his position in -Kamchatka was computed. This report has never been translated in full -and unmodified, the original is thought to have been lost. The present -publication is not referred to by Lauridsen and was apparently unknown -to him. I have therefore thought it worth while to prepare an English -version of the report and geographical table which are incorporated in -this paper.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The result shows that the previous versions of the report which have -appeared were more or less mutilated or colored by the editors printing -them, probably with the view of making the report of more popular -interest to their readers but with injurious results to its historic -value for reference.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>We now come to the latest contributions to the subject. If it were not -for the deficiencies in them, which seem to me serious, this paper -would not have been prepared, but it seemed to be a pity that the -sources of information in regard to Bering, accessible to those who do -not read Russian should not be both more impartial and more accurate.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Vitus J. Bering og de Russiske opdagelsesrejser fra 1725-43. Af P. -Lauridsen. Udgivet med understöttelse af den Hielmstierne-Rosencroneske -stiftelse. Kjöbenhavn. Gyldendalske Boghandels forlag (F. Hegel & Sön). -Fr. Bagges bogtrykkeri, 1885. Small 4°, six prel. l. 211 pp., 4 sheets -of charts, one plate, one wood-cut.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This work is an attempt at a life of Bering which should combine an -account of his career with a reversal of the generally received opinion -in regard to his indecision of character. It embodies a general polemic -against those who at different times have criticised the explorer. It -contains a paraphrase of some portions of Bergh's work which had not -previously been accessible in any language except the Russian, yet -which would have been much more valuable in the shape of exact -translation and quotation. The author labored under the disadvantages -of not understanding the language in which all the original records -both printed and in manuscript are written; of having little or no -familiarity with nautical surveying or cartography; and of being -apparently unacquainted with the best modern charts of the region. His -criticisms of others are couched in very heated and not altogether -parliamentary language, and he is the victim of a narrow spirit of -nationalism which is sometimes mistaken for patriotism. Nevertheless he -has brought together a great deal of information; it is evident, in -spite of his violent criticisms, that he has not intended to be unfair, -since he puts on record in several instances evidence damaging to his -own views which would not otherwise have come to light; and he has -certainly exhibited Bering's valuable qualities in a manner which will -do much towards rehabilitating his reputation.<small><sup>8</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>8</sup></small> I may take opportunity in this place of replying to -certain criticisms of Mr. Lauridsen on the chronological chapter of my -work on Alaska and its Resources published in 1870.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>That chapter was and was stated in its introductory paragraph to be a -compilation from the authorities on the subject. It contained no -original matter except that relating to explorations subsequent to 1865.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>For Bering's two voyages I consulted the report on the Russian -Discoveries printed by order of the Empress and under the auspices of -the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, prepared by the -distinguished geographer Müller, himself a member of the second -expedition and personally acquainted with the actors in those scenes. -No more authoritative printed document exists on the subject. The -supposed errors animadverted upon by Mr. Lauridsen are either taken -directly from Müller, or are inferences drawn from his report. Some of -them the critic has misunderstood or misconstrued, which from the -necessarily extreme condensation of my table is particularly easy. The -expression of surprise that Bering passed through Bering Strait without -seeing the Diomedes, was warranted by the fact that Bering nowhere -mentions their name or speaks of seeing any islands in their location, -nor are they on his earliest printed charts. This point, however, will -be more fully dealt with later. If I were to re-write that chapter I -should probably modify the criticisms of Bering's character which -appear in it; but at the time it was written I was fresh from four -years' exploration in the same region, and was particularly impressed -with his failure to secure better results when to do so would have been -so easy, as well as directly in the line of his duty.]</small></blockquote> - -<p>Review: Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for 1885. New -York, the Society, 1885. pp. 285-298.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This review forms part of a "Reply to criticisms upon the voyage of the -Vega around Asia and Europe," by Baron A. E. von Nordenskiold, -translated from the Swedish by Vere A. Elfwing. It is addressed only -toward certain points in Lauridsen's work, and contains valuable -corrections of certain errors therein, and information in regard to the -work of Strahlenberg and the other early cartographers of Eastern -Siberia. It is a translation of a paper published in <i>Ymer</i> for 1885, -to which for exact accuracy reference should be made.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Russian explorations, 1725-1743. Vitus Bering: the discoverer of Bering -Strait. By Peter Lauridsen (etc.). Revised by the author and translated -from the Danish by Julius E. Olson (etc.). Chicago, S. C. Griggs & -Company, 1889. 8° xvi, 223 pp., 2 cuts, 2 folding sheets of maps.</p> - -<blockquote><small>This edition is a good deal condensed, especially in the matter of -references, and does not have all the illustrations of the original. -There are also a good many slips or typographical errors, which affect -its value as a work of reference. Some of those important in connection -with the present paper are as follows: page 31, line 4, "60° 50' N." -latitude should be "62° 50'." On the last line of the same page -"longitude" should be "latitude." Page 32, after "cloudy weather" in -the second line from the bottom, the whole remaining record of August -15th is omitted altogether. The sentence beginning "From noon" relates -to August 16th, nautical reckoning. Page 33, line 5, "30° 19' east" -should be "30° 17' east;" line 20 after "half west" should be inserted -"south by east, by compass." Page 51, line 4 from bottom, "latitude" -should be "longitude."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Review: Nation (The) New York, vol. xlix, No. 1275, p. 454. Dec. 5, -1889.</p> - -<p>I may add that a number of references to Russian articles treating of -Bering will be found in my Bibliography of charts and publications -relating to Alaska and adjacent region, published by the U. S. Coast -Survey in 1879.</p> -<br> - -<center>R<small>EPORT OF</small> F<small>LEET</small>-C<small>APTAIN</small> -B<small>ERING ON HIS</small> E<small>XPEDITION TO THE</small> -E<small>ASTERN</small> C<small>OAST -OF</small> S<small>IBERIA</small>.</center> - -<p>To the most Serene Sovereign, the high and powerful, the Empress of all -the Russias:</p> - -<p>A short relation of the Siberian Expedition upon which was sent</p> - -<p>Of your Imperial Majesty the most humble servant and fleet-captain,</p> - -<div align="right">W. I. B<small>ERING</small>. </div> - -<p>On February 5 of the late year 1725 I received from her Imperial -Majesty the Empress Ekaterina Alexievna, of happy and well-deserving -memory, the autographic instructions of his Imperial Majesty Peter the -Great, of happy and well-deserving memory, a copy of which is hereunto -affixed.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Instructions.</i></center> - -<p>(1.) There should be built on the Kamchatka [River], or at some other -place adjacent, one or two boats with decks.</p> - -<p>(2.) With these boats [you are directed] to sail along the coast which -extends northwards and which is supposed (since no one knows the end of -it) to be continuous with America.</p> - -<p>(3.) And therefore [you are directed] to seek the point where it -connects with America and to go to some settlement under European rule, -or if any European vessel is seen, learn of it what the coast visited -is called, which should be taken down in writing, an authentic account -prepared, placed on the chart and brought back here.</p> -<br> - -<p>The following were the instructions given me by the former General -Admiral Count Apraxin, in which were written: "Artisans, laborers and -whatever, in my opinion, is necessary for the expedition, are to be -demanded from the chancellor's office of the government of Tobolsk and -monthly reports sent to the Imperial Admiralty College."</p> - -<p>Before receiving these instructions, January 24, a lieutenant and 26 -men of my command had been ordered to service on the expedition by the -Admiralty College with the necessary equipment for 25 wagons. The whole -number of my command sent out amounted to 33 men who were ordered to -Vologdie and from St. Petersburg to Tobolsk by a route which passed -through the towns here named: through Vologdie, Totma, Upper Ustiuk, -Solwichergodsk, Kaigorodok, Solkamsk, Verkhoturia, Turinsk, Epanchin -and Tiumen.</p> - -<p>On the 16th day of March we arrived at Tobolsk and were there until the -15th day of May because of the lateness of the season interfering with -travel. During the delay at Tobolsk requisitions were made for the -necessary outfit for the expedition.</p> - -<p>May 15th we left Tobolsk by water down the Irtish to Samarovska Yama, -on four boats of the kind called by the Siberians "dostcheniki," on -which were loaded all the outfit brought from St. Petersburg or -obtained at Tobolsk; together with a chaplain, commissary, sub-officers -and thirty-four soldiers.</p> - -<p>I had previously sent a garde-marine officer, on a small boat furnished -by the Tobolsk authorities in obedience to the orders of the Naval -College, to the proper settlements where the preparation of -freight-boats had been ordered on the Yenisei and Uskut rivers, and I -ordered him to sail to Yakutsk.</p> - -<p>From Samarovska Yama the Obi river was ascended to Surgut and to Narim, -and thence the Ket river to Makovska post. From Tobolsk to Makovska as -we traveled live Ostiaks who were formerly idolaters, but, since the -year 1715, through the labors of the Metropolitan of Tobolsk they have -been converted to the true faith. From Makovska post to Yeniseisk the -route lay overland. From Yeniseisk to the Ilima-mouth we proceeded also -in four boats by way of the Yenisei and Tunguska rivers. On the -Tunguska there are three rapids and several shoals; rapids be it -understood where across the whole width of the river large rocks stand -high in the water, with a passage only in one or two places; and -shoals, similarly under water and above water but composed of small -stones, alternate with rapids and with places where the water in the -river is shallow for the distance of one or two versts, and which are -not surmounted without a great deal of labor. From Yeniseisk in -pursuance of orders from Tobolsk we took thirty men, carpenters and -smiths.</p> - -<p>On the Ilima river, on account of rapids, bars and shoal water, the -barges could not be taken to Ilimsk. For a certain distance only small -canoes were available, for which reason the heaviest part of the outfit -was reserved to be sent by sledges in winter.</p> - -<p>Lieut. Spanberg, with a party of thirty-nine carpenters and laborers, -went by land from Ilimsk by the Uskut to the river Lena, to prepare -during the winter fifteen barges on which the command and its equipment -should be floated down to Yakutsk. I remained with the rest of the -party near Ilimsk just below the Uskut, because at Ilimsk there are few -houses and on account of the difficulties involved in a winter journey -to Yakutsk, from the deficiencies of transportation, the deep snow and -the severe cold, which prevented us from proceeding.</p> - -<p>To these reasons [was added] the necessity, according to the orders -from the authorities at Tobolsk, of drawing the provisions for the -expedition from Irkutsk and from Ilimsk down to Yakutsk because at the -latter place grain is not cultivated. During our wintering at Ilimsk I -made a sledge journey to Irkutsk to advise with the local Voivod who -had previously been Voivod at Yakutsk and who understood what would be -needed by us in transporting our outfit from Yakutsk to Okhotsk and -Kamchatka, since I did not possess any actual information in regard to -that region. During the last days of winter travel I went over to the -Uskut and obtained from Irkutsk twenty additional carpenters and smiths -for the work of the expedition and two coopers from Ilimsk.</p> - -<p>On the Tunguska, Ilima and Lena rivers to the Vitim live the so-called -Tunguses, people who own reindeer which they use as draught animals, -while those who do not own deer live near the rivers on fish and travel -in canoes made of birch bark. These people are idolaters.</p> - -<p>From Uskutsk on fifteen barges, in the spring of 1726, we descended the -Lena to Yakutsk. From the river Vitim down to the Lena, on both banks -live Yakuts with a smaller proportion of Tunguses. The Yakuts possess -herds of cattle, plenty of horses and cows by which they subsist, and -are contented with the product of their herds, depending but little on -fish except where their cattle are too few. They pay an idolatrous -reverence to the sun and moon as well as to birds, such as the swan, -eagle and crow. They also hold in great honor their own fortunetellers, -known hereabouts as <i>shamani</i>, each of whom owns small idols or figures -which they call <i>shaitan</i>. By their own account these people are of -Tartar origin.</p> - -<p>On reaching Yakutsk in boats I required the aid of all the people of my -command. Thirteen flat-bottomed barges which had been constructed at -Uskutsk, under Lieut. Spanberg, proceeded by water on the Lena down to -the Aldan to ascend that river, the Maya and the upper Yudoma. Such a -cargo could hardly have been transported to that distance overland on -horseback where but little in the way of subsistence was obtainable -from land or water. The Cross of Yudoma might only be reached with -great difficulty, but if successful the expense would be less than if -the material had been carried on the backs of horses. I myself with a -few people crossed from Yakutsk to Okhotsk with pack horses, as is the -general custom. The load or pack taken is only about five puds to one -horse, less than by the telega [ordinary cart], the deep mire and high -mountains to be traversed not permitting more, though my supplies -amounted to 1600 puds. At the post called Okhotsk is a Russian village -of only ten houses, and Lieut. Chirikoff was left to winter at Yakutsk -with orders to come overland to the Okhotsk post in the spring.</p> - -<p>In the last days of December, 1726, a message asking for assistance was -received from Lieut. Spanberg, who had been dispatched by the river, -saying that the boats had failed to get within 450 versts of Yudoma -Cross and were frozen in on the Gorbeh River, where he was transporting -by sledges a cargo of outfit indispensable to our party. I sent at -once, from among those who were wintering with me at the post of -Okhotsk, a party with dogs and supplies and brought in the Lieutenant -to the post on the first day of January, 1727, but without any of the -outfit, he having left the Gorbeh river November 4th, 1726. His command -had been obliged by hunger to eat the flesh of their horses and even -the rawhide harness, the skin of their fur clothing and the untanned -uppers of their shoes. Their cargo was all left at four different -places along the route, which lay through uninhabited country. The only -addition to their means which they had been able to secure, was some of -our own flour, to the amount of 150 puds, which on my overland journey -I had been obliged to leave near Yudoma Cross on account of the death -of some of my pack-horses.</p> - -<p>Along the rivers Aldan and Maia live Yakuts of the same stock as those -of the Lena and Yudoma rivers. But near and around the post of Okhotsk -wander the seaside Tunguses and some Lamuts with their herds and many -reindeer, who travel about winter and summer where their deer can find -pasturage; and some pedestrian Tunguses who live near the sea and -rivers and are professional fishermen as among the Yakuts.</p> - -<p>February 1, ninety men with some dogs and sledges were collected and -sent under Lieut. Spanberg to bring in the outfit left behind by the -Yudoma river, and by the 1st of April about half of it had been -transported safely to Okhotsk. Since more remained I sent twenty-seven -men to Yudoma Cross to bring over the rest of the material on -pack-horses from that place, who returned in May.</p> - -<p>In this region in winter time from Yakutsk to Okhotsk and other distant -places people always travel on foot in parties of eight or ten, hauling -their own sledges after them. Those belonging to our command, when sent -from Gorbeh to Okhotsk, brought down ten or fifteen puds or more, the -snow being seven feet deep in places and travelers in winter being -obliged to dig out a camp every evening, down to the ground to keep warm.</p> - -<p>June 30, Lieut. Spanberg in his newly built vessel sailed across the -sea to the port of Bolsheretsk with a cargo of outfit and supplies and -the material for the shipbuilders and workmen of our command, sent to -Kamchatka to get out the timbers for a vessel, being ordered to return -again for us.</p> - -<p>July 3d, Lieut. Chirikoff arrived from Yakutsk with 2300 puds of flour, -according to my instructions.</p> - -<p>August 21, we loaded the new vessel which had returned from the land of -Kamchatka, and another old boat which had been at Bolsheretsk, with the -flour, and the whole command then at Okhotsk proceeded across the sea -to Bolsheretsk. The officer who had been left to guard the provisions -which had not arrived from the wintering place on the Gorbeh river was -directed to float them down again and take a receipt from the -authorities at Yakutsk and endeavor, the following year, to deliver to -the command in Kamchatka some part of the provisions, iron and tar.</p> - -<p>It was necessary to take the supplies from the mouth of the [Bolshoia] -river to the post of Bolsheretsk by water in small boats. At the post -were fifteen houses inhabited by Russians. For the ascent of the -shallow river small boats had been built as I desired that the outfit -and the most necessary part of the provisions should be transported to -the upper Kamchatka post, a distance of 120 versts by water. The -transportation between Bolsheretsk and Upper and Lower Kamchatka in -winter was entirely carried on by the use of the native dogs. Every -evening it is necessary to dig out the camp in the snow, in order to -get shelter from whirlwinds of snow which in this region are called -<i>poorga</i>. If one makes camp in an open place free from snow, these snow -squalls are liable to overwhelm the party and they may perish.</p> - -<p>At Upper Kamchatka there are seventeen and at Lower Kamchatka fifty -houses, at another place [Middle Kamchatka] where there is a church are -fifteen houses, and in all these settlements there are not over 150 -Russian subjects, who live by the collection of the <i>yassak</i> [tribute -money], beside those who were brought to the country on our expedition.</p> - -<p>In coming over to Bolsheretsk we brought 300 puds of whale blubber -obtained from a whale cast up by the sea, which served us as money, -together with the Circassian tobacco which is here commonly so used.</p> - -<p>In the southern part of Kamchatka live Kuriles, in the northern part -Kamchadales, whose language is peculiarly their own with but few -introduced words. Of these people some are idolaters, others believe in -nothing and are strangers to all honesty. The Russians who live in -Kamchatka and the indigenes grow no grain and have no domestic animals -except draught dogs. They dress and subsist upon what they can get, -principally fish, roots and berries, in summer time wild fowl and large -marine animals. At present in the wilderness of Yakutsk, the convent, -which is of the same age as the Kamchatka churches, cultivates barley, -hemp and turnips. Here only turnips are grown by the people of the -three settlements, but they grow very large, in Russia they are -smaller, here there may be four turnips to a pud. I brought with me on -my journey some rye which was sowed around the establishments near us, -but whether it ripened or not I did not ascertain. The frost strikes -early into the ground in this region and the absence of cattle renders -it difficult for the people to plow.</p> - -<p>The natives described and from whom the yassak [tribute] is collected, -belong to the Russian Empire and are all savages. They are known for -their dirt and bad passions. If a woman or any animal brings forth -twins then one of them is smothered, the hour it is born, and it is -regarded as a great fault if one does not smother one of the two.</p> - -<p>The Kamchadales are very superstitious. If there is any one who is very -ill, even a father or mother, or near the point of death, they will -carry them out into the woods and leave them without nourishment for a -week together whether it be winter or summer, from which treatment many -die. The dead are not covered with earth but are dragged out and left -to be eaten by dogs. The house of a man who has died is abandoned. -Among the Kariak people it is the custom to burn the body, although -this is forbidden.</p> - -<p>By the time of our arrival at the Lower Kamchatka post the ship-timber -for our vessel was in large part prepared, and upon the 4th of April, -1728, was put upon the stocks for the vessel, which, with God's help, -was finished by the 10th of July, the timber being hauled by dogs. Tar -was made from the native tree which is called <i>Listvennik</i> [spruce], -since the tar which we should have brought with us had not arrived.</p> - -<p>Before this it was not known here that tar could be obtained from the -native trees. So also for the sea voyage, the deficiency of spirit made -from grain was supplied by a liquor distilled from herbs, and salt was -made by boiling sea water. To increase our store of sea provisions, in -place of cow's butter, fat was tried out from fish, in place of meat -fish was salted. The vessel was provisioned with everything needful for -forty men for a year. On the 14th day of July we went out of the mouth -of the Kamchatka river into the sea, in obedience to the autographic -orders given me by his Imperial Majesty Peter the Great, as the map -constructed for that purpose will show.</p> - -<p>August 8th, having arrived in north latitude 64° 30', eight men rowed -to us from the shore in a skin-boat, enquiring from whence we came and -what was our business there. They said they were Chukchi, (whom the -Russians of these parts have long known) and as we lay to they were -urged to come to the vessel. They inflated some floats made of sealskin -and sent one man swimming to us to talk, then the boat came up to the -vessel and they told us that on the coast lived many of their nation; -that the land not far from there takes a decided turn to the westward, -and they also said that at no great distance from where we were, we -should see an island. This proved true, but we saw nothing valuable -upon it except huts. This island in honor of the day we named St. -Lawrence, but we were not able to see any people upon it, though an -officer was sent in a boat from the vessel on two occasions to look for -inhabitants.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of August we arrived in the latitude of 67° 18' and I -judged that we had clearly and fully carried out the instructions given -by his Imperial Majesty of glorious and ever deserving memory, because -the land no longer extended to the north. Neither from the Chukchi -coast nor to the eastward could any extension of the land be observed. -If we should continue on our course and happen to have contrary winds -we could not get back to Kamchatka before the close of navigation and -might be obliged to winter in that region, not only without a harbor, -but where no fuel could anywhere be obtained, where the native people -do not acknowledge the authority of the Russian government, but are -wholly independent and united against us in refusing to pay tribute.</p> - -<p>From the mouth of the Kamchatka river and all the way to this place -along the seacoast wind elevated mountains, resembling a wall in -steepness, and from which the snow does not disappear in summer.</p> - -<p>On the 20th of August four canoes were observed rowing toward us, -containing about forty people who were Chukchi of the same sort as -those whom we had met before. They brought for sale meat, fresh water, -fish, fox skins, of which fifteen were of the white fox, and four -walrus teeth, which my people bought of them for needles and -flint-and-steels. They said that some among them had been overland with -reindeer to the Kolyma river and that they never went by sea to the -Kolyma; but, at a great distance, by the seashore lived some of our -people, born Russians, people whom they had known for a long time, and -one of them said that he had been at the Anadyr post to trade. To other -questions they gave the same answers as the Chukchi previously seen.</p> - -<p>On the 2d of September we entered the mouth of the Kamchatka river and -wintered at the post of Lower Kamchatka.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of June, 1729, having repaired the vessel which had been -laid up, we went out of the mouth of the Kamchatka river and put to sea -to the eastward, because the inhabitants of Kamchatka declared that on -fine days land could be seen across the sea. Though none of our own -people had observed it, we went out to determine the authenticity of -the information. We sailed nearly 200 versts and saw not the slightest -trace of land. We sailed around the south point of Kamchatka to the -mouth of the Bolshoia river, making a chart of this part which had not -previously been delineated. From the mouth of the Bolshoia river we -sailed across the sea to the post of Okhotsk having left at Lower -Kamchatka and at Bolsheretsk, out of the supplies received by us from -the authorities of Yakutsk, flour, meal and dry salt meat to the amount -of 800 puds.</p> - -<p>On the 23d of July the vessel reached the mouth of the Okhotsk river, -where the outfit and supplies of the expedition were turned over to the -governor and I, with my command, on hired horses, crossed over to -Yudoma Cross and thence in canoes down the Aldan river, crossing over -at Belskoi and below, and carrying everything on pack horses over to -Yakutsk.</p> - -<p>The whole journey occupied the time from Okhotsk, July 29th, to Yakutsk -on the 29th of August. We remained in Yakutsk until September 3d, and -from September 10th until October 1st traveled in two barges on the -Lena when we were arrested by ice at the settlement of Peleduie. Here -we were detained until the 29th of October, by the absence of snow and -the presence of small ice in the Lena. When the ice solidified we -proceeded to Ilimsk and from Ilimsk to Yeniseisk on the Tunguska river, -stopping at Russian settlements; and from Yeniseisk to Tomsk with -Russians and converted Tartars; from Tomsk to Chausk Ostrog, Russian -settlements; from Chausk to Tari by the Barabinskoi steppe; from Tari -to Tobolsk by the Irtish river among the Tartars; arriving at Tobolsk -January 10, 1730. From Tobolsk for St. Petersburg we left on the 25th -of the same month, following the same route by which we originally -reached Tobolsk from the capital. We arrived in St. Petersburg March 1, 1730.</p> - -<hr align="center" width="80"> - -<p><i>Note.</i>—The extensive tabular itinerary covering two quarto pages, -showing the details of the route traversed in going to Kamchatka, the -distances and directions from point to point (except during the sea -voyages), the native tribes in the region traversed, etc.—is not -reproduced, as it contains no information of importance in the present -connection. The other table, showing the astronomical position -estimated for the more important places is herewith transcribed.</p> - -<p>To get the approximate Greenwich longitude 67° should be added to the -longitudes in the table which are reckoned from Tobolsk.</p> - -<p>I have provided a tabular itinerary, which shows the dates of the -events of the expedition, derived from Bering's Report and from other -sources, which are indicated by letters. B stands for Brookes' edition -of Du Halde; H for Campbell's version in Harris; M for Müller's -account; and L for Lauridsen. The astronomical events are taken from -Oppolzer's standard catalogue of solar and lunar eclipses.</p> - -<p>It will be noted in the following tables there are a few discrepancies -of single days compared with Lauridsen's account or other authorities. -These I take to be due to the use in the ship's journal of the nautical -day in which the nautical second day of the month begins on the first -calendar day at noon and ends at noon on the second calendar day, so -that events occurring during the first twelve hours of the nautical day -would have a date one day later than the true calendar date.</p> - -<center><i>Catalogue of the towns and notable Siberian places put on the chart -through which the route passes, with their latitude and longitude, the -latter computed from Tobolsk.</i></center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="catalogue of towns"> - <tr> - <td align="center">Cities and Places.</td> - <td align="center">Latitude N.</td> - <td align="center"> Long. E. of<br> Tobolsk.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tobolsk</td> - <td align="right">58 05</td> - <td align="right">00 00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Samarofska Yama</td> - <td align="right">60 17</td> - <td align="right">00 30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Town of Surgut</td> - <td align="right">60 51</td> - <td align="right">5 18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Town of Narim</td> - <td align="right">58 48</td> - <td align="right">14 35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ketskoi post</td> - <td align="right">58 19</td> - <td align="right"><u> </u> <u> </u><small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Losinoborski convent</td> - <td align="right">58 17</td> - <td align="right"><u> </u> <u> </u><small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Makoffska post</td> - <td align="right">58 03</td> - <td align="right">23 13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yeniseisk</td> - <td align="right">58 20</td> - <td align="right">25 12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kashim convent</td> - <td align="right">58 37</td> - <td align="right">32 00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>House of Simakhina, Ilima river mouth</td> - <td align="right">57 25</td> - <td align="right">35 16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ilimsk</td> - <td align="right">56 40</td> - <td align="right">36 44</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ust Kutskoi post</td> - <td align="right">56 40</td> - <td align="right">38 26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kirinski post</td> - <td align="right">57 50</td> - <td align="right">41 01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yakutsk</td> - <td align="right">62 08</td> - <td align="right">57 53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Okhotsk post</td> - <td align="right">59 13</td> - <td align="right">76 07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mouth of Bolshoia river, Kamchatka</td> - <td align="right">52 42</td> - <td align="right">89 51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper Kamchatka post</td> - <td align="right">54 48</td> - <td align="right"><u> </u> <u> </u><small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower Kamchatka post</td> - <td align="right">56 11</td> - <td align="right"><u> </u> <u> </u><small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mouth of Kamchatka river</td> - <td align="right">56 03</td> - <td align="right">96 10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape St. Thaddeus</td> - <td align="right">62 20</td> - <td align="right">111 32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>West cape, Holy Cross bay</td> - <td align="right">65 35</td> - <td align="right">115 15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>East cape, Holy Cross bay</td> - <td align="right">65 28</td> - <td align="right">115 37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Preobrazhenia bay</td> - <td align="right">65 01</td> - <td align="right">120 30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukotski cape, east end</td> - <td align="right">64 25</td> - <td align="right">122 55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence island</td> - <td align="right">64 00</td> - <td align="right">122 55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Diomede island</td> - <td align="right">66 00</td> - <td align="right">125 42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Place from which we turned back</td> - <td align="right">67 18</td> - <td align="right">126 07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>South cape of Kamchatka</td> - <td align="right">51 10</td> - <td align="right">89 51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>9</sup></small> These longitudes absent from Bering's own report are -supplied by Campbell in his list, probably from the chart.</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the Table of positions the addition of 67° will reduce the -longitudes to E. of Greenwich. It is probably from this table that Dr. -Campbell derived his list, in Harris, which is, barring some additions, -errors, and mistranslations, much the same. As Bering does not give any -longitude for Lower Kamchatka post it is highly improbable that he -observed it at that place, by means of a lunar eclipse or otherwise.</p> - -<p>Chirikoff's observation of a lunar eclipse at Ilimsk made that point -30° 13' east longitude from Tobolsk or, approximately, 97° 13' east -from Greenwich. His pedometric observations placed Ilimsk in 103° 44' -E. Gr. On recent charts Ilimsk is in about 104° E. Gr., so that the -eclipse observation was in error about 6½ degrees. The meridian used on -the voyage of 1728 was that of Lower Kamchatka, based on pedometric -observations from Ilimsk computed by means of a traverse table. These, -according to Chirikoff's journal, gave for the Lower Kamchatka post a -meridian of 126° 01' 49" east from St. Petersburg or about 156° 02' -east from Greenwich, which is in error about six and a quarter degrees. -Discarding the eclipse observation and using only the pedometric -observations from Tobolsk to Lower Kamchatka the result for that place -is 162° 33' E. Gr., which is very near the truth. I have no doubt that -this result is what was finally used in the chart (though not in the -original report) and, therefore, that all the observations of Lauridsen -and others in regard to the alleged eclipse in Kamchatka are based on a -misunderstanding and without value.</p> - -<center>I<small>TINERARY FOR</small> B<small>ERING'S</small> F<small>IRST</small> E<small>XPEDITION</small>. -<br><br> -<i>Dates corrected to ordinary calendar, beginning at midnight.</i></center> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="itinerary"> - <tr> - <td align="center"> </td> - <td align="center">Authorities. </td> - <td align="center">Date.<br>Old Style. </td> - <td align="center">Date.<br>New Style. </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1725.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Advance party under Chirikoff left St. Petersburg</td> - <td>H. L.</td> - <td>Jan. 24.</td> - <td>Feb. 4.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering followed</td> - <td>B. L. M.</td> - <td>Feb. 5.</td> - <td>Feb. 16.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Tobolsk</td> - <td>B. H. L. M.</td> - <td>March 16.</td> - <td>March 27.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering left Tobolsk</td> - <td>Bering.</td> - <td>May 15.</td> - <td>May 27.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Ilimsk, where they spent the winter of 1725-6</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Sept. 29.</td> - <td>Oct. 10.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lunar eclipse obs. at Ilimsk</td> - <td>Chirikoff.</td> - <td>Oct. 10.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1726.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Yakutsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Mid. June.</td> - <td>End June.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering left Yakutsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Aug. 16.</td> - <td>Aug. 27.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering reached Okhotsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Sept. 30.</td> - <td>Oct. 11.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering's provision train arrived at Okhotsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>End Oct.</td> - <td>Mid. Nov.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1727.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spanberg reached Okhotsk (Jan. 6, L)</td> - <td>M. H.</td> - <td>Jan. 1.</td> - <td>Jan. 12.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vessel <i>Fortuna</i> launched at Okhotsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>June 8.</td> - <td>June 19.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spanberg sailed for Bolshoia river</td> - <td>M. H. L.</td> - <td>June 30.</td> - <td>July 11.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chirikoff arrived at Okhotsk</td> - <td>B. M. L.</td> - <td>July 3.</td> - <td>July 14.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spanberg returned with Fortuna</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Aug. 11.</td> - <td>Aug. 22.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering and party sailed for Bolshoia river (Lauridsen says August 19)</td> - <td>B. M. H.</td> - <td>Aug. 21.</td> - <td>Sept. 1.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Bolshoia river</td> - <td>M.</td> - <td>Sept. 2.</td> - <td>Sept. 13.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Bolsheretsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>Sept. 4.</td> - <td>Sept. 15.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1728.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Partial eclipse of moon, visible in Kamchatka, last contact - 7<small><sup>h</sup></small> 41<small><sup>m</sup></small> <small>P.M.</small></td> - <td>Oppolzer.</td> - <td>Feb. 14.</td> - <td>Feb. 25.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Lower Kamchatka</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>March 11.</td> - <td>March 22.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vessel Gabriel put on the stocks</td> - <td>B. H. M.</td> - <td>April 4.</td> - <td>April 15.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The Gabriel launched (Lauridsen says she sailed to the mouth of the river July 9)</td> - <td>B. H. M.</td> - <td>June 10.</td> - <td>June 21.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The expedition left the river to commence explorations</td> - <td>B. H. L.</td> - <td>July 13.</td> - <td>July 24.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The expedition sailed northward</td> - <td>M.</td> - <td>July 14.</td> - <td>July 25.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering reached his northernmost point and started on his return</td> - <td>M. H. B. L.</td> - <td>Aug. 15.</td> - <td>Aug. 26.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>They reached the Kamchatka river on their return</td> - <td>H. L.</td> - <td>Sept. 2.</td> - <td>Sept. 13.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1729.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total eclipse of the moon, visible in this region, beginning at - 6<small><sup>h</sup></small> 06<small><sup>m</sup></small> <small>A.M.</small></td> - <td>Oppolzer.</td> - <td>Feb. 2.</td> - <td>Feb. 13.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering sailed E. from Kamchatka river (Lauridsen says July, which is erroneous)</td> - <td>M. H.</td> - <td>June 5.</td> - <td>June 16.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering steered to the southwest</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>June 8.</td> - <td>June 19.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The party arrived at Bolsheretsk</td> - <td> </td> - <td>July 2.</td> - <td>July 13.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering sailed for Okhotsk</td> - <td>L.</td> - <td>July 14.</td> - <td>July 25.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at Okhotsk</td> - <td>M. Ber.</td> - <td>July 23.</td> - <td>Aug. 3.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering left Okhotsk</td> - <td>H.</td> - <td>July 29.</td> - <td>Aug. 9.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total eclipse of the moon same day, but not visible in this part of Asia</td> - <td>Oppolzer.</td> - <td>July 29.</td> - <td>Aug. 9.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center">1730.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bering arrived at St. Petersburg</td> - <td>H. M. B. L.</td> - <td>March 1.</td> - <td>March 12.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> - -<center>S<small>YNOPSIS OF THE</small> V<small>OYAGE</small>.</center> - -<blockquote><small>The dates are reduced to the Julian calendar from the nautical account. -The longitude is stated in degrees east from Greenwich.</small></blockquote> - -<p>June 10/21, 1728. The vessel, which was named the <i>Gabriel</i>, was -launched at the Lower Kamchatka fort and loaded with a year's supply of -provisions for forty men (B. C. H. M.). She resembled the packet boats -used in the Baltic.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—This vessel was constructed of the Kamchatkan spruce, a -species according to Kittlitz closely resembling <i>Abies canadensis</i> of -America. There is also a smaller species, <i>A. mertensiana</i>, and by -distillation of these two trees the deficiency in their supply of tar -or pitch was made up. The rigging, sail-cloth, oakum and anchors had -been transferred with great labor from Tobolsk. The planking and -timbers were doubtless fastened with trenails and not with spikes, so -the amount of iron used was much smaller than it would be in most -modern vessels. The provisioning of the expedition is the subject of a -fanciful paragraph garbled from Bering's original report, which has -been quoted by every one of the historians of the voyage from D'Anville -to Lauridsen. I transcribe it from Brooke's translation of 1736, pp. -437-8.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The provisions consisted of Carrots for want of Corn (=grain or -wheat), the fat of Fish uncured served instead of Butter and salt fish -supplied the place of all other meats."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Campbell in Harris' Voyages, p. 1020, still further enlarges this -statement and Lauridsen puts it</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Fish oil was his butter and dried fish his beef and pork. Salt he was -obliged to get from the sea," and "he distilled spirits from 'sweet -straw.'"</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>This gives a totally false idea of the supplies provided for the -expedition. Bering received from Yakutsk over forty-two tons of flour, -and large numbers, fifty at a time, of the small Siberian cattle were -driven on the hoof to Okhotsk where their flesh was partly dried and -partly salted. On his return he delivered surplus supplies to the -proper officers in Kamchatka and at Okhotsk ever 30,000 lbs. of meal, -flour and salt meat. There were at that time no carrots to be had in -Kamchatka as Bering himself testifies. Salted salmon then as now, -formed a staple article of diet in Kamchatka and was without doubt -included in his stores. The delicate fat obtained by boiling the -bellies of the salmon, is annually prepared in Kamchatka and is -regarded to this day as a great delicacy (cf. Voyage of the <i>Marchesa</i>, -2d edition, p. 135.) A store of it might without any hardship be -furnished to the commander for use as butter. Salt he obtained as it is -usually obtained by evaporating sea-water, and the absence of strong -drink of European origin was supplied by a distillation of the stalks -of the bear's foot or "sweet herb" of the Cossacks (<i>Heracleum dulce</i> -Kittlitz), long used for that purpose by the Russians in Siberia and -from which, even in modern times, according to Seemann, the Kamchadales -secured additions to their scanty supply of syrup or sugar.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The supplies then of the expedition, were not inferior to those in -common use at sea at that period, and as far as health is concerned -were certainly less likely to result in an invasion of scurvy than the -use of salt beef and pork alone would have been.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It must be remembered that the fare on naval vessels all over the world -in those days, was rude and coarse to a degree now long unknown and -that it was not until the voyages of Cook, nearly half a century later, -that the antiscorbutic and varied regimen, now usually enforced by law -in maritime nations, was even thought of.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The force crowded together on the little <i>Gabriel</i> is enumerated by -Lauridsen presumably from the account of Bergh.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It consisted beside the commander, of Lieutenants Martin Spanberg and -Alexie Chirikoff; Second Lieutenant Peter Chaplin, Doctor Nieman, a -quartermaster, eight sailors, a worker in leather, a rope maker, five -carpenters, a boatswain, two cossacks with a drummer and nine marines, -six servants, stewards, etc., and two Kariak interpreters, a cabin boy -and a pilot, in all forty-four persons.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It is not clear from Lauridsen's account whether in the above list are -or are not included the two mates, Richard Engel and George Morison, or -the cartographer Potiloff, who started with Bering from St. Petersburg. -Luzhin was left behind, being ill.</small></blockquote> - -<p>July 13/24. The variation of the compass was determined to be 13° 10' -easterly (L.). In the afternoon (being the 14th nautical reckoning) the -vessel left the Kamchatka river. (B. C. H.) They steered to the -northeast along the coast, which was kept in sight to the north and -west, in from nine to twelve fathoms water. As the point of departure -Cape Kamchatka was determined to be in north latitude 56° 3' (M. L.)</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—The variation of the compass in 1885 was 2° 30' easterly -(Schott). As will be seen by the Table of Positions, the latitude above -given for the cape is not the same as that adopted by Bering on his -chart. The depth mentioned shows that the <i>Gabriel</i> must have kept within -a few miles, probably not exceeding ten, from the shore and the very -slow progress made, as indicated by the log, not much exceeding two -miles an hour gives rise to the suspicion that, in the early part of -the voyage, in order to keep their survey continuous, they probably lay -to during the hours of darkness. Off Karaginski Island the variation of -the compass was determined to be the same as at the mouth of the -Kamchatka river.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>From this date to the 27th, the accessible authorities give no data, -and the expedition probably pursued its way uneventfully.</small></blockquote> - -<p>July 27/Aug. 7. This day a prominent Cape was passed at a distance of -some three miles. [It was named St. Thaddeus, after the saint on whose -holy day it was again seen on the return voyage.] Many grampus, -porpoises, seals and sealions were seen (L.).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—This Cape St. Thaddeus is not the cape of the same name on -modern charts, but the cape now known as Cape Navarin. This is evident -from Bering's chart. Bering's position for the cape is in error about -fifteen miles in latitude and three degrees in longitude on his chart, -while in the list of positions, the error is only about five miles of -latitude and half a degree in longitude.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>From near Cape Thaddeus Bering stood across Anadyr Gulf, out of sight -of the low land, missing Anadyr Bay, and thereby falling into the error -of placing on his chart the mouth of the Anadyr River south of the -cape. The error was subsequently corrected by G. F. Müller.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Lauridsen observes (American edition, p. 30), that "having sailed past -the Anadyr River without quite being able to find their bearings, in -regions of which they had not a single astronomical determination," -etc. This is absurd. They had a compass and there is no reason why they -should not find their bearings, and it is certain they were there to -make observations and not to verify those already made. No apology is -needed for Bering's determination to press more rapidly northward. It -was in accordance with common sense, considering the lateness of the -season and the uncertainty of what they had to accomplish before the -season closed.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 1/12. Festival of the Holy Cross. The expedition saw land to the -northward and soon after entered a great bay which they named Holy -Cross Bay. This they explored to the river at its head which they named -Bolshoia (Great) River, and on the western point of entrance the -latitude was, Aug. 2/13, observed to be 65° 35' north, while the -longitude by dead reckoning was estimated at 182° 15' east of -Greenwich, and the magnetic variation ¾ of a point easterly.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—Lauridsen says (p. 31, American edition) that in Holy Cross -Bay the <i>Gabriel</i> spent two days under sail in search of fresh water and -a place to anchor. This is extremely singular, as there is an anchorage -immediately at the entrance to the bay, on the starboard hand, and runs -of fresh water are abundant. The application of an obvious -correction<small><sup>10</sup></small> to the list of positions given by Campbell makes the -position at the western elbow or spit, at the mouth of Holy Cross Bay, -that which is given above. This position is over a degree too far west -and over six miles too far south. But Lauridsen (quoting Campbell -without observing the blunder?) not stating the source of his -information, gives a position (N. Lat. 62° 50') which is two hundred -and twelve miles too far south and the English translation improves -upon this by making it 60° 50', or three hundred and thirty-two miles -south of the truth, or two hundred and sixty-five miles south of the -entrance to the bay as platted on Bering's own chart.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>10</sup></small> In Harris' Voy., 2d ed., ii, p. 1021, Bering's table of -positions is printed:</small></blockquote> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="positions in error"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><small>N. Lat.</small></td> - <td align="center"> <small>Long. E.<br> Tobolsk.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small><i>Nischuvi Kamschatska Oostrog</i></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56° 11',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>98° 30'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>The Mouth of the river of the Apostle<br><i>Thadeus</i> and the Cape</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56° 03',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>96° 10'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>The Elbow of the river <i>Swetoi Krest</i></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62° 20',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>111° 32'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Eastern Point</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65° 35',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>115° 15'</small></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small>This should read, errors and misplacements corrected:</small></blockquote> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="positions corrected"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><small>N. Lat.</small></td> - <td align="center"> <small>Long. E.<br> Tobolsk.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Nizhni Kamschatsk Ostrog</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56° 11',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>95° 30'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>The mouth of the River (Kamchatka)</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56° 03',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>96° 10'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>The Cape of the Apostle <i>Thaddens</i></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62° 20',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>111° 32'</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>The western cape (or spit) of Svietoi<br>Krest Bay</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65° 35',</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>115° 15'</small></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small>The words in parentheses are added by the writer for clearness. It is -somewhat surprising that in using this table nobody seems to have -recognized these errors.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Bering's table in his report and Bering's chart as printed by D'Anville -differ from each other fifteen miles in latitude and two degrees and -twenty-five minutes or nearly seventy-five miles in longitude. The -chart is the more correct, but it differs more than thirty miles in -latitude and nearly a degree in longitude from the modern observations -of Lütké and Rodgers for the same locality. After leaving Holy Cross -Bay, the voyage was continued to the southeast along the "high and -rocky coast" of which Lauridsen (probably paraphrasing Bergh) says that -"every indentation was very carefully explored." This is obviously a -flight of fancy, since a good part of this coast is low and sandy, -while there is no indication of two excellent harbors which it affords, -on any of the charts of Bering or his successors in that century.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 6/17, 1728. This day, the festival of the Transfiguration, found -the <i>Gabriel</i> entering a small bay, which on that account was named -Transfiguration (Preobrazhenia) Bay. Here they anchored (L.). -Lieutenant Chaplin was sent ashore for water and found native huts but -no people.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—This bay has never been surveyed, and on the best modern -charts is merely indicated, while on many others it is omitted -altogether or the name transferred to the anchorage north of Cape -Bering or to Plover Bay. Bering's position for the spit at the entrance -of Transfiguration Bay is two degrees and a quarter too far east and -sixteen miles too far north by the table, but his chart gives the -position much more closely, with a difference from Rodgers' chart of -not exceeding five miles.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 7/18. They proceeded along the coast in a south-southeasterly -direction.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Note.</i>—The total eclipse of the moon of this date could hardly have -been observed by Bering, since the moon must have been close to the -horizon and first contact of the shadow occurred only about five -minutes before the moon set. As Bering does not mention it, it is not -likely that he noted the eclipse.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 8/19. At seven in the morning a skin-boat (umiak or bidarrá) was -observed to be launched from the shore, eight men getting into it and -rowing toward the vessel (B.). They approached within hail, and were -understood, through the aid of the Kariak interpreters on board the -<i>Gabriel</i>, to enquire whence the vessel came and what was the object of -the expedition in entering these waters. After much persuasion one of -the natives left the skin-boat and swam, sustaining himself on two -inflated seal-skins tied by a pole, to the <i>Gabriel</i> and came on board -and the others, seeing that no harm befel him, came nearer the vessel -shortly afterward (M. B. C.). The interpreters had some difficulty in -understanding all the natives said, but it was gathered from their -conversation that these people called themselves Chukchi (or by an -analogous name); that they were acquainted with the Russians, by report -or otherwise, that there were numerous settlements of their people -along this shore; that the Anadyr River lay far to the west (L.); that -to the south and east lay an island which would soon be visible to the -people on the <i>Gabriel</i> if they continued on the course they were then -steering; that in the vicinity of this island the shore of the mainland -changes its direction and extends beyond to the north and then to the -westward (B. M. C. H.). The man who had boarded the vessel was given -some presents and sent back to the native boat, in the hope that he -would persuade his comrades to come on board the <i>Gabriel</i>, but, -suspecting some evil design, the natives pulled away toward the shore -and disappeared. According to Bergh, Chaplin's journal expresses regret -that more important information could not be obtained owing to the -difficulty in interpreting what was said by the Chukchi. At noon the -latitude was estimated to be 64° 30'. In the afternoon the cape -mentioned by the Chukchis was seen.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—The account given in Bering's report, and variously rendered -by Müller, Brooks, D'Anville and Campbell, differs in several details -from that given in Chaplin's journal and described by Bergh and -Lauridsen. The various English versions of both fail in clearly -rendering the important point gained by this interview with the -natives, which was, that, at a short distance, the main coast changes -its direction and turns to the north and west. These Chukchis pointed -the way to the strait for the party on the <i>Gabriel</i>, and their account -proved to be accurate in every particular.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The people of this part of the coast call themselves <i>Tsau-chú</i>, which -is their tribal name. The similar name of another branch living near -the Anadyr River has been corrupted into the word Chuk-chi, by the -Russians, from which we derive our general name for these people. -Lauridsen says "Breden var 64° 41'" which in the American edition -stands, "the longitude (sic) was 64° 41'." But the original and all the -variants of Bering's own report make the latitude 64° 30' which is -correct. If it had been 64° 41' they would have been north of their own -position for Transfiguration Bay, from which their course had been -S.S.E., therefore the 41' is certainly erroneous.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>On Bering's chart he refers to the point of the coast where the shore -changes its direction under the name <i>Chukotskago Noss</i>, which means -the promontory of the Chukchi, though this is not the same as the -Chukchi Cape of the Anadyr Cossacks, who so denominated the eastern -extreme of Asia, which they knew from report and by the voyage of -Deshneff. There can be no reasonable doubt that Bering named his cape -after the people who had described it to him, although the -imperfections of the record leave this to be inferred. Bering's map -gives the latitude of the south extreme of the cape as about 64° 02', -and it is erroneously represented as extending south of the latitude of -the northwest end of St. Lawrence Island. Its real latitude is about -fifteen miles further north. Cook made it 64° 13'. Chaplin's journal -(according to Lauridsen) makes it 64° 18', which would agree with the -latest surveys very nearly, though the coincidence must be regarded as -a happy accident in view of their imperfect tables, instruments and -methods. Bering's report places its eastern extreme in 64° 25' and -(wrongly) in the same longitude as the west end of St. Lawrence Island.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 10/21. St. Lawrence's day. The island referred to by the Chukchi -was seen and the vessel stood toward it, about two o'clock in the -afternoon. Twice, an officer with a four-oared boat was sent to -reconnoiter the coast more closely, but he saw only what appeared to be -huts without inhabitants (C). The island (of which only the northwest -hilly portion was seen, owing to the hazy weather) was named after the -patron saint of the day and the course of the vessel was changed to the -northward.</p> - -<p>Aug. 11/22. At noon the latitude was estimated at 64° 20', and at -sunset an attempt was made by the determination of the magnetic -variation to get the longitude (L.).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—An illustration of the want of care with which Lauridsen has -weighed his comments, it may be pointed out that he claims (p. 32, Am. -Ed.) that on reaching latitude 64° 20' the <i>Gabriel</i> was in Bering -Strait, while two pages later, on her return southward, he declares her -to have got out of the strait on reaching latitude 64° 27'! As a matter -of fact, at the present day, the whalers and traders of this region -consider that Cape Chaplin (more commonly known as Indian Point) forms -the southwest point of entrance to the strait; and this point is -situated in latitude 64° 25' and E. longitude 187° 40', as determined -by the writer in 1880. This is perhaps the point referred to by Bering -as the eastern point of his Chukotskoi Cape.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>The magnetic method of determining the longitude would give correct -results only accidentally, as previously explained. The result -announced by Lauridsen for the present occasion is 25° 31' east from -Lower Kamchatka Ostrog or 187° 51' east from Greenwich, which would be -within a few miles of the latest determinations. But it is obvious from -Bering's map that he could not have made his position less than 28° 45' -east from Lower Kamchatka, and the position above given is perhaps an -interpolation from modern sources, which has been misunderstood or -mistranslated. As Lauridsen has paraphrased, not quoted, it is -impossible in the absence of Bergh's original to determine who is -responsible for the incongruity. An interpolation seems the more likely -since Bering himself gives the longitude as 189° 55' E. Gr.<small><sup>11</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>11</sup></small> A glance at Bergh shows that this statement of Lauridsen -is simply a blunder. Bergh only says they obtained the magnetic -variation (25° 31' easterly) by an <i>amplitude</i> observation! Longitude -is not mentioned, nor Kamchatka.]</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 12/23. From noon of the 11th to noon of this day, the <i>Gabriel</i> -sailed sixty-nine miles, but the difference of latitude was only 21 -miles. The wind was light to fresh and the weather overcast (L.).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—If the above statement be taken literally with the assumption -that they were at noon of the 11th in latitude 64° 20' and E. longitude -188° from Greenwich, it would give their position for noon of the 12th -as 64° 49' and longitude 190° 45' E. Gr., which does not at all accord -with the subsequently narrated course, etc. If we proceed on the -hypothesis that it means that the log recorded 69 miles and that only -29 miles were made good (which might easily happen if the polar current -were running strong on the west side of the strait) and that their -course was parallel with the Siberian shore in a general way they would -have been, at noon of August 12th, in latitude 64° 49' and longitude -188° E. Gr. or thereabouts, which agrees very fairly with the known -circumstances.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 13/24. A fresh breeze and cloudy weather. The <i>Gabriel</i> sailed the -whole day with no land in sight and the difference in latitude was only -78 miles at noon, reckoned from noon of the 12th. The wind diminished -toward night.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—On the same hypothesis as to the meaning of "difference in -latitude" as the words are used by Lauridsen, the <i>Gabriel</i> at noon of -the 13th would have been ten or twelve miles south from East Cape and -in about latitude 65° 55'. If the words are to be taken literally, as a -navigator would use them, the <i>Gabriel</i> would have been about fifteen -miles to the northward and eastward of East Cape, which agrees much -less with the subsequently detailed circumstances. With the nautical -day beginning at noon on the 13th according to Lauridsen the weather -began to be calm and cloudy which would check their progress.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 14/25. This is the festival of Saint Demetrius of Africa. A -current was experienced during this day which was estimated to have -helped the vessel northward eight miles and three quarters. This -current ran from south-southeast to north-northwest. From noon of the -13th to noon of this day the vessel sailed 29 miles in addition to the -current drift. At noon the latitude was estimated to be 66° 41' and -high land was visible astern. At three o'clock in the afternoon high -mountains were observed to the southward, which, says Chaplin, "were -probably on the continent."</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—Under any hypothesis either the run of the vessel was -underestimated or the latitude was overestimated. Adding the estimated -run to the position attained under our hypothesis for the 12th and 13th -it will put the <i>Gabriel</i> at noon, August 14th, in about north latitude -66° 24' and longitude E. Gr. 191° 30'. Chaplin's reckoning as given by -Lauridsen would have put the <i>Gabriel</i> more than fifty miles off shore -when the land spoken of would have been out of sight. Our hypothesis -puts her about twenty-eight miles N.E. true from East Cape when the -high land of either shore, under favorable circumstances, might have -been seen even if the sky were overcast. Clouds do not interfere with -seeing, unless attended by fog or haze. During this day the <i>Gabriel</i> -had sailed between East Cape and the islands now known as the Diomedes; -the shore being near by. Why then should it be noted in the log that -"high land was seen astern" at noon? The high land of Siberia they had -seen and sailed along for days in full sight of it. It seems to us that -this excludes the idea that the log refers to the Siberian highland and -that what was seen was the loom of land not before seen, as of the -Diomedes or even of America. It may not have been clear to the -commander and yet have been marked enough for the subordinate officer -to have put it in his log, with the dead reckoning and daily -notes.<small><sup>12</sup></small> -On several old charts mention is made of land seen by Spanberg which is -supposed to have been America, after Gwosdeff had confirmed the -existence of the American mainland in that direction and Synd had -landed upon it. This suggestion is not unimportant in connection with -the subsequent conduct of Bering and will be referred to again in its -proper connection. The further fact that all early printed versions of -Bering's list of positions, refer to the modern Diomedes only as the -island of <i>St. Demetrius</i> and that this day was the festival of that -obscure saint, lends further confirmation to the above suggestions.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>12</sup></small> Lauridsen gets over the discrepancy by putting the word -"still" before "seen" (Am. Ed., p. 41), but there is nothing in the -original sources to confirm this view of the matter.]</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 15/26. The <i>Gabriel</i> appears to have continued to sail in a -northeasterly direction until three o'clock in the afternoon, having -been aided by the current to the extent of 8¾ miles and sailed 65 -miles; many whales were seen and the depth averaged between 23 and 36 -fathoms. Since the 13th the water had appeared whitish or discolored. -The wind was moderate and the weather cloudy. Between noon and three -o'clock the vessel made seven miles against a head wind. The position -of the <i>Gabriel</i> at that time was estimated to be in north latitude 67° -18' and 30° 17' east longitude from the town of Lower Kamchatka (C. -corrected).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Note.</i>—The nautical day Aug. 15 extending from noon of the 14th to -noon of the 15th is altogether omitted from the American translation of -Lauridsen's book. The position for the turning point estimated by -Chaplin is manifestly by dead reckoning, as the sky was cloudy. It was -not adopted in the list of positions published by Campbell in Harris' -Voyages nor on Bering's map. In the former the longitude he adopts is -27° 37' east of Lower Kamchatka fort, and this agrees exactly with the -point on the coast in Du Halde's engraving of Bering's map where the -mountains cease to be put down near the shore, the point on the north -coast of Siberia where Lauridsen, and Chaplin as quoted by him, say -Bering did not go, and the point which has been generally regarded as -Bering's farthest!</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>If we apply the distance and direction from Chaplin's journal to the -course of the <i>Gabriel</i> platted from his preceding data, literally, it -will put the turning point of the voyage in N. latitude 67° 32' and E. -longitude 193° 37' or thereabouts, which is about thirty-five miles off -the American coast southwest from Cape Seppings. But if we do this the -position is far from agreeing with Chaplin's. By applying the -hypothetical correction which we have heretofore used, the position -would be in latitude 67° 24' and E. longitude 193° 15' from Greenwich -or 31° east from Lower Kamchatka fort, agreeing more nearly with -Chaplin. On the other hand the position off Cape Seppings agrees better -with Chaplin's figures for the remainder of the day.</small></blockquote> - -<p>At this point the commander of the expedition determined to turn -homeward. The <i>Gabriel</i> was put on a course S. by E. by compass (S. by -W. ½ W. true, the variation allowed being 2½ points easterly) before a -brisk seven knot breeze, making better time than is recorded for any -part of her outward voyage.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—Lauridsen says<small><sup>13</sup></small> that, in terminating the outward voyage, -Bering "announced that as he had now accomplished his task it was his -duty, according to his orders, to return." Müller and other authorities -quote, more or less modified in the translation, the reasons given in -Bering's report. But, as there is no reason to suppose these were -uttered to the ship's company officially at the time, a consideration -of them may be deferred until the total results of the voyage are -discussed. The course set, according to Chaplin's journal, would, if -made good, have carried the <i>Gabriel</i> east of the Diomedes and close to -Cape Prince of Wales. The northwesterly current referred to by Chaplin -and recognized by most navigators who have since visited those seas, -would have carried the vessel more to the westward, as was actually the -result, and it was probably allowed for.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>13</sup></small> Bergh (p. 54) quotes Chaplin's journal, which says: "At -three o'clock Captain Bering announced: <i>that it was necessary for him, -in spite of his instructions, to turn back</i>, and put the vessel about -with orders to steer S. by E. by compass." The italics are Bergh's, who -adds that, in the journal of Lieut. Chirikoff, the same statement is -made in the same words. I transliterate the italicized phrases -according to the schedule for Russian letters published in <i>Nature</i>, -Feb. 27, 1890. "Chto nadlezhit emu protiv ukazu vo ispolnenie -vozvratit'sya." This plain statement, which proves that (at the moment) -Bering recognized that he was not fulfilling his orders, is suppressed -by Lauridsen and of course by Bering himself when he came to prepare -his official report. Lauridsen however is not satisfied with -suppressing the truth, which would have weighed so heavily against his -hero and his argument, but, with the truth in his possession, he has -inserted in his book a statement which is diametrically opposed to it -as above cited.]</small></blockquote> - -<p>August 16/27. Saint Diomede's day. The <i>Gabriel</i> had kept on her course -with a free wind making more than seven knots (miles) an hour. At nine -in the morning they found themselves off a high promontory on the west, -where there were Chukchi habitations. On the east and seaward they saw -an island, which it was proposed to call after the saint of the day. At -noon the vessel had made since the previous noon 115 miles and had -reached latitude 66° 02'. Continuing on their way, with a fresh breeze -and cloudy weather, they sailed along the Asiatic coast near enough to -observe many natives and at two places they saw dwellings. At three -<small>P.M.</small> very high land and mountains were passed (probably the highlands -near St. Lawrence Bay).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—From 3 <small>P.M.</small> Aug. 15th to 9 <small>A.M.</small> Aug. 16th is 18 hours, which -at seven knots an hour (allowing the alleged excess to be the -equivalent of the drift caused by the current) would amount to 126 -miles. Deduct from this the seven miles sailed between noon and 3 <small>P.M.</small> -Aug. 15th in the opposite direction and we have remaining 119 miles -made on the homeward voyage at a time when the <i>Gabriel</i> was between -the Diomedes and East Cape, or at least in plain sight of both. But -three hours later, at noon, according to Lauridsen, they had made only -115 miles in all, although the breeze was fresh and fair. From -Chaplin's position for the turning point to latitude 66° 02' off East -Cape is 96 miles. From our hypothetically corrected position for the -turning point, off Cape Seppings, the distance would be to the same -place 126 miles, or thereabouts. It is evident that there is a -miscalculation, or an error in the record here, which, without further -data, it is not possible to correct.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It is certain that Bering with whom the right of naming any new island -would have rested, did not then name the island above mentioned after -St Diomede. On all copies of the earlier version of his chart it -appears if at all under the name of the Island of St. Demetrius. From -this we may suspect that he identified it with the high land seen Aug. -14th, St. Demetrius' day, while others on board, suspecting they were -not the same proposed the name of Diomede for the present island; -regarding the high land as something distinct. If the hardy and -self-willed Spanberg was the one who reported the land Aug. 14th, and -if he saw the high land about Cape Prince of Wales, as several old -charts allege, he would have been the last to admit that the relatively -small and adjacent island now seen, should be identified with his -discovery.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 17/28. The breeze having been strong and fair an observation at -noon indicated that the latitude was 64° 27' and that the <i>Gabriel</i> had -sailed 164 miles since noon of the 16th. In the afternoon the weather -was clear and the wind became light. (The <i>Gabriel</i> must have come out -of the strait this afternoon).</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Notes.</i>—A distance of 164 miles from the position of the previous -noon would have put the <i>Gabriel</i> in latitude 63° 38'. The distance on -the general course sailed by the <i>Gabriel</i> from 66° 02' to 64° 27' is -about 107 miles. It is possible that in copying or printing 104 miles -has become transmuted to 164 miles. There is an obvious error here of -some kind.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Aug. 18/29. (Lauridsen does not refer to any record for this day, but -it is probable that the wind continued light and the weather fair and -that the <i>Gabriel</i> was slowly working her way westward and southward in -the vicinity of Cape Chukotski.)</p> - -<p>Aug. 19/30. In the afternoon being in the vicinity of the place where -they had met the Chukchi boat on the outward voyage, four baidars were -seen with their crews pulling for the vessel, which accordingly lay by -for them to come up with her. There were ten natives to each baidar, or -forty in all. They brought reindeer meat, fish, and fresh water in -large bladders for sale for which they were suitably rewarded, while -the crew of the <i>Gabriel</i> obtained from them skins of the red and the -polar foxes and four walrus teeth, which the natives bartered for -needles, flint-and-steel for striking fire, and iron. These Chukchi -told them that they went over land to trade at the Kolyma River, -carrying their goods with reindeer, and that they never went by sea. -They had long known the Russians and one of them had even been to the -Anadyrsk fort to trade. From this man they had hopes of gaining -valuable information but he could tell them nothing more than they had -learned from the first Chukchis who had been questioned.</p> - -<p>Aug. 20/31 to Aug. 29/Sept. 9. (For this period the documents -accessible to me give no information, but the <i>Gabriel</i> was doubtless -pursuing her homeward way uneventfully along the coast of Kamchatka.)</p> - -<p>Aug. 30/Sept. 10. A heavy storm arose with fog and the <i>Gabriel</i> -finding herself dangerously close to the shore anchored near the land -to ride it out. A note in Harris indicates that they may have been near -Karaginski Island.</p> - -<p>Aug. 31/Sept. 11. At one <small>P.M.</small> the storm had abated, but in weighing -anchor the cable had been so chafed by the rocky bottom that it parted -and they lost the anchor, and were obliged to put to sea without -recovering it.</p> - -<p>Sept. 1/12, 1728. At five o'clock in the afternoon they approached and -at seven the next morning entered the mouth of the Kamchatka river, -thus ending the voyage.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Note.</i>—The <i>Gabriel</i> was secured in a slough of the river and the -party went up the river to the fort of Lower Kamchatka where Bering -passed the winter.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It is certain that the residents of Kamchatka and others more or less -familiar with the reports of Cossack explorations in Chukchi-land were -not altogether satisfied with the summary manner in which exploration -had been given up by Bering, and his apparent assumption that there was -no adjacent land to the eastward except small islands. More or less -such discussion and criticism could hardly have failed to reach his -ears, and his reflections may have led him to think that, after all, he -had been too hasty. Trees not indigenous to Kamchatka had been seen -floating near the shores, no heavy breakers ever proceeded from the -eastward and it was even alleged that land or the loom of land might be -seen to the east from the coast mountains in very clear weather. On -account of these and other reasons<small><sup>14</sup></small> which were urged by residents of -the country, Bering determined to make a new trial. Instead of -proceeding directly to Okhotsk across Kamchatka he fitted out the -<i>Gabriel</i> for another voyage. Beside the fact that Luzhin, one of his -cartographers, had explored the Kurile Islands lying next to Kamchatka, -the vessel <i>Fortuna</i> during Bering's absence had doubled Cape Lopatka -and was anchored in the Kamchatka River when Bering entered it on his -return. It was therefore evident that the straits were navigable and -the return voyage might be made that way. Spanberg was ordered to -Bolsheretsk "on account of illness" (L.), and it is possible he took -the <i>Fortuna</i> back there since she had already returned to Bolsheretsk -when Bering reached that port, on his way to Okhotsk.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>14</sup></small> The natives even claimed that a man had been stranded on -the coast of Kamchatka in 1715, who stated that his own country lay to -the eastward and contained forests with high trees and large rivers. -(Lauridsen, op. cit. Am. ed. p. 51). Bering himself states that he made -the search of 1729 at the instance of the Kamchatkan residents.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Lauridsen has ascribed to Bering's own initiative the willingness to -make another search for land as if these ideas were original with him. -It is evident that this is unjustified and fanciful. Müller's account -shows that the incitement to a second attempt proceeded from the -residents of the country and that Bering complied with their -suggestions; and Bering says so himself in his report.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>On June<small><sup>15</sup></small> 5/16, 1729, the <i>Gabriel</i> left the mouth of the Kamchatka -River and stood to the eastward, directly off shore. She continued on -this course about forty-eight hours, sailing a distance variously -estimated at from ninety to one hundred and thirty miles. The weather -was foggy, no land was seen, the wind shifted to dead ahead at east -northeast, and on the third day Bering gave up the search and steered -for the southern coast of Kamchatka, the extreme of which is marked by -the point known as Narrow (Ooskoi) Cape, or more generally as Shovel -(Lopatka) Cape, from its low square termination. He determined the -latitude of this cape, and passing through the strait south of it -reached Bolsheretsk on the west coast of the peninsula on the second of -July. Most of this time was probably spent in tracing the form of the -southern part of Kamchatka. Half way between the Kamchatka River and -the coast the variation was observed to be one point easterly, and off -Avatcha Bay three-quarters of a point easterly.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>[<small><sup>15</sup></small> Lauridsen says July, which is erroneous.]</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>In the American translation of Lauridsen it is said (p. 51) that Bering -fixed the difference of latitude (for which one should read longitude) -between Bolsheretsk and Lower Kamchatka Ostrog at 6° 29'. But on -Bering's maps the difference is only 3° 50', while in his list of -positions no longitude is assigned to Lower Kamchatka post. In -Campbell's list it stands at 8° 39', which the correction of an evident -error of 98° for 95° reduces to 5° 39'. The true difference of -longitude according to the latest charts is about 5° 25'. Where -Lauridsen got his figures he does not state. Campbell, in Harris, -states that Bering was the first navigator to double Cape Lopatka, but -the <i>Fortuna</i> had made this voyage in 1728, though her commander is not known.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>At Bolsheretsk Bering left a crew for the <i>Fortuna</i> which had returned -thither; turned over some of his surplus stores to the local -authorities and on the 14/25 July sailed from the Bolshoia River for -Okhotsk. Here he arrived July 23/Aug. 3 and after some days spent in -turning over government property to the local officials and procuring -his horses and outfit, he left Okhotsk July 29/Aug. 9 on the overland -journey to St. Petersburg. The second eclipse of the moon for the year -occurred on this day, but during hours of daylight, and hence was -invisible in this part of Asia.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>After an uneventful but successful journey Bering arrived in St. -Petersburg Mar. 1/12, 1730, bringing with him, according to Du Halde, -the map and report he had prepared upon his explorations.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<center>TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS DERIVED FROM BERING'S FIRST VOYAGE, - REDUCED TO GREENWICH, E. LONGITUDE.</center> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="table of geographical positions"> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Meridian used in the original,</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Tobolsk.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Tobolsk.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Tobolsk.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ferro.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ferro.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Greenwich.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Amount used for reduction,</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>+67°.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>+67°.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>+67°.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>–18°.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>–18°.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Source of the data,</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Bering<small><sup>16</sup></small> MS.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Campbell.<small><sup>17</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Du Halde.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>D'Anville.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> Müller.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Modern charts.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Date,</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1730?</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1730?</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1736.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1753.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1758.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>1852-88.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - <td align="right">° ' </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Okhotsk</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>58 54 <br>141 30 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>59 13 <br>143 07 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>58 54 <br>141 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>59 20 <br>141 15 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>59 20<small><sup>18</sup></small><br>142 40 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Bolsheretsk, Kamchatka</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 35 <br>155 28 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 42 <br>156 51 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 40 <br>155 25 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 40 <br>155 30 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 54<small><sup>19</sup></small><br>156 30<small><sup>20</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 51 <br>156 50 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Upper Kamchatka settlement</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54 10 <br>157 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54 48 <br>158 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54 10 <br>157 15 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53 40 <br>156 30 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54 28 <br>156 55 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Lower Kamchatka settlement</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55 46 <br>159 28 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 11 <br>162 30<small><sup>21</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55 50 <br>159 15 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 05 <br>159 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 20 <br>159 30 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 15 <br>162 15 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Cape, at Kamchatka river-mouth</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55 52 <br>162 05 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 03 <br>163 10<small><sup>22</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55 40 <br>162 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 00 <br>159 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 10 <br>160 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56 00 <br>163 05 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Cape Thaddeus (Navarin)</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>61 50 <br>176 05 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62 20 <br>178 32<small><sup>23</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62 00 <br>176 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62 05 <br>171 14 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62 25 <br>175 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62 15 <br>179 02 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>West point, entrance Holy Cross Bay</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 16 <br>179 40 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 35 <br>182 15<small><sup>24</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 15 <br>180 00<small><sup>25</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 15 <br>175 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 30 <br>178 45 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 28 <br>181 12 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Mouth of river, Holy Cross Bay</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 00 <br>179 40 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 50 <br>179 50 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 45 <br>175 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 15 <br>178 15 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 22 <br>180 45 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Transfiguration Bay (east entrance)</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 45 <br>185 15 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 01 <br>187 30 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 40 <br>185 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 25 <br>180 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 45 <br>185 15 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Cape Chukotski, of Bering</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63 55 <br>186 55 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 25 <br>189 55<small><sup>26</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 02 <br>186 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 10 <br>181 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 35 <br>185 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 14 <br>186 50 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>N. W. point St. Lawrence Id.</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63 50 <br>187 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 00 <br>189 55 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 02 <br>187 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 00 <br>181 20 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64 15 <br>186 05 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63 52<small><sup>27</sup></small><br>188 27 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>St. Demetrius Id. (Big Diomede)</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 42 <br>189 05<small><sup>28</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 00 <br>192 42<small><sup>29</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 00 <br>183 20<small><sup>28</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— —<small><sup>30</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65 50 <br>190 25 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>East Cape of Asia</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 40 <br>189 40 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67 18 <br>193 07<small><sup>31</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 45 <br>189 45 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 30 <br>184 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 45 <br>187 25 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 05 <br>190 30 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Bering's farthest</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>not<br>indicated.</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67 18 <br>193 07<small><sup>32</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66 45<small><sup>33</sup></small><br>187 25 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — <br>— — </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Petropavlovsk, Avacha Bay</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53 10 <br>160 02 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53 12 <br>159 50 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53 15 <br>157 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 50 <br>158 55 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52 55<small><sup>34</sup></small><br>158 13 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53 02 <br>158 39<small><sup>35</sup></small></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Cape Uskoi, or Lopatka<small><sup>36</sup></small></small></td> - <td align="right"><small>50 50 <br>155 05 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51 10 <br>156 51 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51 10 <br>155 10 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51 20 <br>156 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51 20<small><sup>37</sup></small><br>157 00 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>50 52 <br>156 47 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>16</sup></small> This column is taken directly from Baron Klinckofström's -manuscript copy of Bering's chart.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>17</sup></small> Date of Campbell's Harris' Voy., 1748; date of table of -positions, 1728; fide Campbell, 1021, col. 2.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>18</sup></small> The positions in this column are taken from the most -recent charts of the U. S. Coast Survey and the U. S. and Russian -Hydrographic bureaux.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>19</sup></small> Determined in 1741 by Krassilnikoff to be 52° 55' and -156° 24' E. Gr.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>20</sup></small> From the chart; on p. 114 Müller has 156° 10'.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>21</sup></small> Campbell has 98° 30' E. of Tobolsk, an error(?), for 95° -30' (=162° 30' E. Gr.). Bering omits this position.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>22</sup></small> Campbell's confusion of two entries is here corrected -from Bering's Report.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>23</sup></small> Confused with preceding entry by Campbell.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>24</sup></small> Campbell's confusion here corrected.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>25</sup></small> Bering gives both east and west points of entrance in his -table.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>26</sup></small> The southern end of the cape is assumed to be meant.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>27</sup></small> U. S. Coast Survey, 1880, Marcus Baker, observer; his -position is reduced to the N. W. extreme of the island by adding 5' of -latitude and deducting 30' 35" in longitude. See Bull. Phil. Soc. of -Washington, iv, p. 133, 1882, and U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1880, -App. No. 16.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>28</sup></small> St. Diomide on the chart.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>29</sup></small> The island is omitted by Du Halde and Müller, but appears -on Campbell's version of Bering's chart.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>30</sup></small> Name St. Deomed on chart, but no island represented.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>31</sup></small> Campbell, p. 1024; omitted by Bering from his report.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>32</sup></small> Campbell, p. 1022; also Bering's Report.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>33</sup></small> From Jefferys' copy of the chart; on p. 47 of text N. -Lat. 67° 18' appears but no longitude is given.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>34</sup></small> From the chart; on p. 114 of text it is given as 53° 01' -45". Krassilnikoff (see note 19), made it N. Lat. 53° 01' and 158° 10' -E. Lon. from Greenwich, from eclipses of Jupiter's satellites.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>35</sup></small> Lieut. Onatsevich in Report Russ. Hydrographic office, -1878.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>36</sup></small> Oskoi (error for Ooskoi), on most early charts; sometimes -Osnoi (error for Uzhnoi=southern).</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>37</sup></small> From the chart; the text, p. 114, makes it 51° 03'.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<center>R<small>ESUMÉ OF THE</small> R<small>ESULTS</small>.</center> - -<p>Bering had brought a party, together with supplies and material, over -the rough and difficult but long-traveled routes to Okhotsk. Wherever -he went he found settlements and roads such as they were. He -transported his material to Bolsheretsk and from there across the -peninsula to Lower Kamchatka settlement. It would have been much easier -and shorter to have doubled the peninsula and taken his stores by sea; -one of his party had already explored the straits near Cape Lopatka, -but there was the chance of disaster in this plan and, with his stores -on <i>terra firma</i>, Bering cannot be blamed for taking the land route; -especially as the difficulties would not inconvenience him personally. -He succeeded in getting his stores and shipwrights to the place -designated and there prepared himself for the voyage. In all this there -was difficulty and trouble enough of a certain kind. That it all was -surmounted with success is very creditable to Bering and his officers. -But to call it exceptionally heroic or extraordinary, is to forget the -hundreds of others who preceded Bering, without the strong arm of the -government at their backs, who made the trails he followed, who founded -the settlements at which he rested, who raised the dogs, the horses and -the cattle which were used or consumed by his party.</p> - -<p>Whatever praise we may feel due to Bering and his companions, and it is -certainly no stinted allowance, the appreciation of their struggles -cannot fail to include with justice, the still more remarkable and -nearly forgotten pioneer labors of the undaunted Siberiaks, who paved -the way, not only for Bering's weary journey, but for the slow yet -never ceasing march of civilization.</p> - -<p>After leaving port Bering traced the shores of Kamchatka and eastern -Siberia as far as East Cape. Thence he sailed in a northeasterly -direction. At 3 <small>P.M.</small>, Aug. 14th, land was seen astern; the vessel -continued in the same direction until 3 <small>P.M.</small> the next afternoon, -having, at most, sailed about twenty-four hours out of sight of land -but in shallow water. Bering then concluded he had gone far enough to -show the separation of Asia from America, or any land to the eastward. -No doubt he was influenced by the testimony of the residents of -Kamchatka who knew the work which had been performed in this region by -Deshneff and others, and also by the fact that the native testimony all -pointed the same way. If he was convinced of the truth of this -testimony he would have been disposed to accept as conclusive evidence -which would not be so regarded by critics. All the evidence shows -Bering as faithful to the letter of his orders, honest, patient with -the ill-doing or insubordination of others, but perfectly satisfied -with the accomplishment of what he had been specifically directed to -perform, and with a tendency to limit the specifications to the -narrowest construction they would bear. He adventured nothing beyond. -In the arbitrary government under which he served, with the violent -competition between foreign officers in the Russian service for -promotion in rank and pay, who can criticise him for the prudence and -caution which kept him well within his instructions? I certainly do -not. But to say that he was a cautious, prudent and sagacious officer, -is a different thing from asserting he was a daring, adventurous and -heroic explorer. I have not been able to discover anything in his -career justifying the latter estimate of his character.</p> - -<p>At all events in the present case it must in time have occurred to him, -or have been suggested by his officers or by the Kamchatkans after his -return that the mere sailing off shore in admittedly shallow water for -twenty-four hours, was not an absolutely conclusive proof that the -continents were separated. Here was a man with a new vessel, a full -crew, a year's provisions for all hands, who has come half around the -globe, taking three and a half years to do it, building ships and at no -end of labor of one sort and another; all this to get into the region -where there is a question to be answered; and when he gets there he -barely gives twenty-four hours to searching for that answer with a -month of the season still available for work; and then starts for home -without settling the question; with a right conclusion, it is true, but -not of his own discovery, and without securing definite proof to defy critics.</p> - -<p>Leaving out of account the continent within half a day's sail which he -fairly ran away from, ignorantly, where is there anything adventurous, -daring or heroic in such conduct?</p> - -<p>It is evident that if Bering had sailed along the coast which the -Chukchis said extended to the westward, instead of going off shore, -away from it, he would have confirmed that part of their testimony, and -given high probability to the assumption of their correctness in the rest.</p> - -<p>As it was, he left the question in a state so unsettled as to be a -subject of debate for nearly half a century; even authorities so -friendly as Dr. Campbell assuming with great confidence that Bering's -conclusions as to the separation of the two continents were erroneous. -It was not until the voyages of Captain Cook and his associates were -given to the world in 1784 that the matter was settled beyond -controversy.</p> - -<p>Even in regard to the details of his voyage it was only through Bergh's -publication of Chaplin's logbook of the voyage in 1823, that the public -were informed as to what Bering did, and it was only in 1847 that the -unmutilated, but still ambiguous Report of 1730 was accessible even in -Russian typography.</p> - -<p>We find that all the authorities who published in the last century -copies of Bering's map and accounts of his expedition arrived at what -Lauridsen calls an "interesting misunderstanding."</p> - -<p>This misunderstanding was that he had sailed along the Chukchi coast, -as above suggested, and that his farthest point was in latitude 67° 18' -on the coast of northeastern Siberia.</p> - -<p>How was it possible that men of such exceptional intelligence as Du -Halde and D'Anville and Müller, and Hazius, and Euler and Campbell were -all so deceived?</p> - -<p>The facts are as follows:</p> - -<p>(1) The verbatim Report of the voyage, the logbook of the expedition, -Bering's chart in its entirety, were inaccessible to the public for -many years; the chart has never been fully engraved for publication.</p> - -<p>(2) The fragments of the Report which were circulated in print were -ambiguous in their language or erroneously modified; while the -published reductions of the chart which got into print were misleading, -or even erroneous.</p> - -<p>(3) Two conflicting versions of the manuscript chart were circulated -and appear to have been officially sent out. That which appears to be -the later of the two is in some details quite erroneous and at variance -with Bering's report as printed and with the facts derived from -Chaplin's logbook, these two constituting the only authentic original -information which has yet reached the public in printed form. But these -two sources of correct data about the expedition were not printed until -long after the charts had been widely circulated, while the extracts -from the Report which appeared in print, even under so friendly an -editor as Dr. Campbell were so modified as to support rather than -expose the original error. How this arose there may be something in the -Russian archives to explain, or, if not, the case seems insoluble. -Whatever conclusion one arrives at, it is difficult to acquit Bering of -all responsibility for the misconception, if, as Lauridsen claims, he -was responsible for the chart of Du Halde in the form it was engraved.</p> - -<p>In his report he states that their northernmost latitude was 67° 18', -that "all along the seacoast to this place wind elevated mountains." On -turning to the Du Halde chart we find the range of mountains continued -along the Chukchi coast until it reaches the latitude of 67° 18' where -it stops. If Bering drew the chart so, it would have been deception, -but it is quite as probable that the editor modified the chart in -engraving it, to correspond to his understanding of Bering's ambiguity. -As this would present nothing questionable to the reader, in the -absence of the details omitted by Bering, it would have been nothing -surprising if Campbell's interpolation of a false longitude for Lower -Kamchatka, in his list of positions, might have been, not a -typographical error, but an attempt to make the position agree with -this erroneous assumption. If it was a pure accident, the coincidence -is extraordinary. Of course Bering never was on this coast but Du -Halde's map is so engraved as to lead directly to the false inference -that he had been.</p> - -<p>Again Bering says in his Report that at his turning point the land no -longer extended to the north and that no projecting points could be -observed in any direction. Since he had deliberately sailed away from -the shores without attempting to follow their trend this observation -would be absurd unless we suppose it addressed to a reader who took it -for granted that the vessel was still skirting the coast. There is no -mention in his Report of the fact that he had sailed away from the -coast, nor of the still more important fact that the soundings showed -that the water was comparatively shallow and discolored. Of course in -the absence of direct proof of the separation of Asia and America this -last evidence would tend to indicate that Bering was only in a bay or -shallow arm of the sea and that he suppressed it shows, if not a want -of candor, at least an injudicious reticence.</p> - -<p>The map for the day when it was made (in the earlier version) was a -good one, and is appropriately praised by Cook, who had a copy of -Campbell's Harris on his vessel when exploring in the same region fifty -years later.</p> - -<p>In his report of the trip eastward from Kamchatka in 1729, Bering says -nothing about the weather being foggy or stormy, but merely asserts -that he sailed nearly 200 versts and saw no trace of land. He leaves it -to be inferred that he could have seen land if it had been there to -see, which if the weather was foggy was not true.</p> - -<p>The impression which these facts leave upon the mind is that Bering did -certainly frame his language so as to convey the idea that his evidence -of the separation of the two continents and of the absence of land -eastward from Kamchatka was more conclusive than it was in reality.</p> - -<p>That this was done to avoid criticism seems a natural inference. That -an examination of his list of positions would have shown the location -of the point whence he turned back to be to the eastward of the -easternmost of his reported land is true, but his list of positions was -not published with his report, does not agree with his maps, and when -published by Campbell was garbled, as I have shown.</p> - -<p>That the truth, however, did get out and that criticism was not -successfully avoided, is a matter of history. There can be little doubt -that Bering's anxiety to undertake the second expedition, which -followed, was stimulated by a desire to set these criticisms (which -would naturally be magnified by his enemies) finally at rest.</p> - -<p>It may be suggested that Bering's report was modified by the -authorities, though why they should make these particular modifications -is not very evident. Bering was the only person who could profit by -them and the natural conclusion is that he should be held responsible.</p> - -<p>In pointing out that some of Bering's acts are vulnerable to criticism -I am far from desiring to sully his memory or give the idea that he was -not entitled to great praise for what he accomplished, much of which -was admirably done.</p> - -<p>I wish merely to apply a gentle corrective to the exaggerated and -injurious flattery and undiscriminating praise which has been -injudiciously indulged in by his latest biographer.</p> - -<p>If the interest in the subject be stimulated by discussion from these -opposing points of view, so as to result in the publication of some of -the material still hidden in the Russian archives I shall be more than -repaid for the time I have devoted to the question, even if the -publication of the original data should show some of my conclusions to -be ill founded or erroneous.</p> - -<blockquote><small><i>Note</i>—The reception of the original work of Bergh while reading the -proofs of these pages has enabled me to correct several errors of -previous writers, but it was too late to incorporate here the -additional material which Bergh's work affords. This will enable me to -add, in a future publication, some historical data which have never -appeared in English and which are necessary to complete the record. I -desire in this place to express my gratitude for and appreciation of -the liberality of the authorities of that ancient seat of learning, the -University of Upsala, as exhibited in their willingness to send such a -valuable document to a foreign student half around the world for -purposes of historical research.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<br><a name="chap3"></a> -<br> -<br> -<center>S<small>UPPLEMENTARY</small> N<small>OTE BY</small> M<small>ARCUS</small> B<small>AKER</small>.</center> - -<h3>ON THE ALLEGED OBSERVATION OF A LUNAR ECLIPSE BY BERING IN 1728-9.</h3> -<br> - -<p>Bering was in Eastern Siberia, Kamchatka and the adjacent waters in -1728 and 1729. Could he have observed a lunar eclipse there at that -time?</p> - -<p>According to the ephemeris of Manfred<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> published at Bonn in 1725 -there were two partial eclipses of the moon visible in Europe in 1728, -and two total eclipses of the moon in 1729.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Manfredius (Eustachius). Novissimae ephemerides motuum -coelestium e Cassinianis tabulis ad meridianum Bononiae supputatae -auctoribus Eustachio Manfredio (etc.) Tomus 1. ex anno 1726 in annum -1737 (etc.) 4° <i>Bononiae</i>, MDCCXXV.</small></blockquote> - -<p>In regard to these four eclipses the ephemeris furnishes the following -data:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="four eclipses"> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><small>1728, Feb. 24.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1728, Aug. 19.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1729, Feb. 13.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1729, Aug. 8.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Eclipse begins</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>18<small><sup>h</sup></small> 32<small><sup>m</sup></small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4<small><sup>h</sup></small> 07<small><sup>m</sup></small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7<small><sup>h</sup></small> 45<small><sup>m</sup></small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12<small><sup>h</sup></small> 02<small><sup>m</sup></small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Total immersion</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8 46 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13 02 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Middle of eclipse</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>20 0 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5 35 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9 35 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13 52 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Emersion begins</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10 24 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14 42 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Eclipse ends</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>21 29 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7 03 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11 25 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15 42 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Digits eclipsed</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9 51 S.</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7 45 N.</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19 46 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19 44 S.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Sun rises</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>18 36 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Sun sets</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6 49 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>— — </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Eclipse</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>Partial </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>Partial </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>Total </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>Total. </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Sun's declination</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>–9° 38' </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>+12° 42' </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>–13° 16' </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>+16° 09' </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small> " hourly motion</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>+ 0.9</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>– 0.8 </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>+ 0.8</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>– 0.7 </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In this table the calendar is Gregorian, the time is apparent or true -sun time, the day is reckoned from noon and the hours are counted -continuously through the entire 24.</p> - -<p>The present observatory in Bonn is in</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="bonn observatory"> - <tr> - <td>Latitude</td> - <td align="right">50° 43' 45"</td> - <td>N.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Longitude</td> - <td align="right">0<small><sup>h</sup></small> 28<small><sup>m</sup></small> 23<small><sup>s</sup></small></td> - <td>E. from Greenwich.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>At the date of the <i>first eclipse</i> Bering was on his way across the -southern end of Kamchatka from Bolsheretsk to Lower Kamchatka. This -would make his position somewhere near latitude 55° N. and longitude -160° or 10<small><sup>h</sup></small> 40<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Greenwich.</p> - -<p>He was therefore 10<small><sup>h</sup></small> 12<small><sup>m</sup></small> east of Bonn for which we have the elements -of this eclipse as computed by Manfred. With this data together with -the latitude and sun's declination we have the following data for the -eclipse in the region where Bering was.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="eclipse for bering"> - <tr> - <td>Beginning of eclipse </td> - <td>4<small><sup>h</sup></small> 44<small><sup>m</sup></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Middle of eclipse</td> - <td>6 12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>End of eclipse</td> - <td>7 41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sun sets</td> - <td>5 07</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>This means that the sun set, bearing about W. by S. ½ S., and the moon -rose in partial eclipse, bearing about E. by N. ½ N., at 5<small><sup>h</sup></small> 07<small><sup>m</sup></small> after -apparent noon or 23 minutes after the eclipse had begun. The eclipse -lasted for 2<small><sup>h</sup></small> 34<small><sup>m</sup></small> -after sunset, or until 7<small><sup>h</sup></small> 41<small><sup>m</sup></small> -in the evening, -thus rendering observation of the last contact plainly visible.</p> - -<p>At the date of the <i>second eclipse of 1728</i>, August 19, Bering was at -sea somewhere in the vicinity of the strait which bears his name. -Assuming his position to have been latitude 65° N. and longitude 188° -or 12<small><sup>h</sup></small> 32<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Greenwich, -equal to 12<small><sup>h</sup></small> 04<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Bonn, and as -before taking the data from Manfred's ephemeris we have as follows:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="ephemeris"> - <tr> - <td>Beginning of eclipse </td> - <td>16<small><sup>h</sup></small> 11<small><sup>m</sup></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Middle of eclipse</td> - <td>17 39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>End of eclipse</td> - <td>19 07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sun rises</td> - <td>16 04</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It thus appears that the first contact of this partial eclipse of the -northern limb of the moon may have been just barely visible to Bering. -The moon bearing about SW. by W. was entering the earth's shadow about -five minutes before the sun's rising and its own setting. If much -importance attaches to determining the possibility to Bering of -observing this eclipse then a more precise calculation is needful.</p> - -<p>At the date of the <i>first lunar eclipse of 1729</i>, February 13, Bering -was at Lower Kamchatka, in latitude 56° 03' N. and longitude 162° 15' -or 10<small><sup>h</sup></small> 49<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Greenwich -equal to 10<small><sup>h</sup></small> 21<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Bonn. For -this place we have from Manfred:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Kamchatka eclipse"> - <tr> - <td>Eclipse begins</td> - <td>18<small><sup>h</sup></small> 06<small><sup>m</sup></small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total immersion</td> - <td>19 07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Middle of eclipse </td> - <td>19 56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Emersion begins</td> - <td>20 45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eclipse ends</td> - <td>21 46</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sun rises</td> - <td>19<small><sup>h</sup></small> 21<small><sup>m</sup></small></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Thus it appears that this total and almost central eclipse of the moon -lasting 3<small><sup>h</sup></small> 40<small><sup>m</sup></small> began at Bering's station 1<small><sup>h</sup></small> and 15<small><sup>m</sup></small> before sunrise -of February 14, the total immersion occurring 14 minutes before -sunrise. It is manifest, therefore, that Bering might have observed -this eclipse.</p> - -<p>The <i>second lunar eclipse of 1729</i> occurred August 8, when Bering was -in or near Okhotsk and about returning to Europe. We may assume his -position to have been latitude 59° 20' N. and longitude 142° 40' or 9<small><sup>h</sup></small> -31<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Greenwich, equal to 9<small><sup>h</sup></small> 03<small><sup>m</sup></small> E. from Bonn. This eclipse -was also total and almost central, but at Bering's station was wholly -invisible, beginning at 9<small><sup>h</sup></small> 05<small><sup>m</sup></small> <small>A.M.</small> -and ending at 12<small><sup>h</sup></small> 45<small><sup>m</sup></small> <small>P.M.</small></p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 2, May, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG., MAY 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 51382-h.htm or 51382-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/8/51382/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> - - diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/1.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6e0cebc..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/2.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 04a5742..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/3.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/3.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a6ca10f..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/3.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/4.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/4.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6ded51b..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/4.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/5.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/5.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 80048f7..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/5.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/6.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/6.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a297aff..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/6.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/7.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/7.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 51278be..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/7.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/8.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/8.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6450a00..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/8.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51382-h/images/img-cover.jpg b/old/51382-h/images/img-cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e473a77..0000000 --- a/old/51382-h/images/img-cover.jpg +++ /dev/null |
