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diff --git a/old/51248-0.txt b/old/51248-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4c10c6f..0000000 --- a/old/51248-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10239 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Entertainment Handbook, by -John Chilton Scammell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Library of Entertainment Handbook - -Author: John Chilton Scammell - -Release Date: February 18, 2016 [EBook #51248] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINMENT *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - More detail can be found at the end of the book. - - - - - THE - LIBRARY OF - ENTERTAINMENT - - A THOUSAND HOURS OF ENJOYMENT - WITH THE WORLD'S GREAT WRITERS - - HANDBOOK - - BY JOHN CHILTON SCAMMELL, A.B. - - CHICAGO AND BOSTON - - GEO. L. SHUMAN & CO. - - MCMXX - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1915, - BY GEO. L. SHUMAN & CO. - - - _Norwood Press_ - _J. S. Cashing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co._ - _Norwood, Mass., U.S.A._ - - _Boston Bookbinding Co., Cambridge, Mass._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK xi - - - PART I - - SIDE-LIGHTS ON GREAT WRITERS 1 - - 'TO DRIVE DULL CARE AWAY' 12 - - - PART II - - THE STUDY OF LITERATURE 17 - - THE DECISIVE PERIODS IN LITERATURE 19 - - NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 28 - - THE DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE 36 - - FROM SEVEN TO TWENTY-ONE 54a - - THE USE OF THE INDEX AND THE BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 54m - - LITERARY CRITICISM 55 - - - PART III - - STUDIES OF GREAT AUTHORS 61 - - BURNS 61 - - SCOTT 64 - - WORDSWORTH 67 - - COLERIDGE 70 - - BYRON 72 - - SHELLEY 76 - - KEATS 78 - - TENNYSON 81 - - BROWNING, R. 83 - - BROWNING, E. B. 86 - - IRVING 89 - - POE 91 - - HAWTHORNE 94 - - BRYANT 97 - - LONGFELLOW 99 - - WHITTIER 102 - - LOWELL 104 - - HOLMES 107 - - HOMER 109 - - VERGIL 113 - - DANTE 116 - - MILTON 119 - - SHAKESPEARE 122 - - GOETHE 126 - - SCHILLER 129 - - DICKENS 131 - - THACKERAY 134 - - JOHNSON 136 - - GOLDSMITH 139 - - GRAY 141 - - BURKE 143 - - WEBSTER 146 - - PLATO 148 - - AURELIUS 151 - - BACON 153 - - CARLYLE 156 - - RUSKIN 159 - - EMERSON 162 - - HEINE 164 - - PLINY 166 - - - - -PREFACE - - -"Nowhere so happy as curled up in a corner with a book." So said, or -is reputed to have said, no less a genius than St. Thomas à Kempis. -And thousands of men and women, boys and girls, still testify to the -truth and power of that saying. For of all friends or companions a -book is the most reliable--often quite as helpful as any Jonathan to -any David. For instance, what could have given Abraham Lincoln more -lasting help than those early volumes which he so hungrily devoured -over and over again? "Æsop's Fables," "Robinson Crusoe," "Benjamin -Franklin's Autobiography," "The Pilgrim's Progress" absorbed every -moment he could spare from his chores and his sleep. Not mere -knowledge, but inspiration entered his soul from those oft-read -pages; in them he gleaned visions of life, its strain and anguish, -its exaltation and thrill; there, too, he caught the secret of that -quaint faculty for terse anecdote by which he was to win his way not -only to the heads but to the hearts of the hardy, courageous folk -of the Middle West, and, later, those of the East as well. It was -through this power to read and understand and enjoy that Lincoln -learned to penetrate to the very soul of mankind, the deep recesses -of the thoughts and feelings of his fellow men. - -The will to try, the simple decision to make the effort, is all that -is needed in order to grasp what an infinite fund of amusement and -delight lies stored away in books. No unusual imaginative powers are -requisite to get us on horseback with Dumas's swashbuckling, duelling -musketeers, or to place us beside Poe's heroes in their dread -predicaments. What friend or acquaintance can tell you half the tales -of hair-breadth escape, side-splitting dilemma, or tender romance, -such as scores of the cleverest writers have spent their lives in -devising? These same writers have left this world, they can never -more be seen or heard on earth; but the very essence of their talent -and their personality, their brightest, most sparkling thoughts and -ideas remain, and may readily be placed within reach of your own -hand. Charles Dickens can never again voyage over the Atlantic and -stroll across Boston Common in velvet coat and plaid waistcoat, -gesticulating with eyes a-twinkle. But his Mr. Pickwick's adventure -with the Middle-Aged Lady in Yellow Curl-Papers still remains, and -the echo of Pickwick's "Bless my soul, what a dreadful thing" will -ring in our ears forever, and forever stir a quiet chuckle. Rudyard -Kipling is growing old, and his pen no longer flourishes with the -reckless vivacity of the days when he was little more than a "cub" -reporter and wrote "Mandalay." Yet that same "Mandalay" of the "old -Moulmein pagoda" and the "tinkly temple bells" will rouse a thrill -of romance and adventure in thousands of hearts that are still to be -born. Poor Stevenson coughed his life away at Samoa, after a plucky -fight for life that led him to France, 'Frisco, and the South Seas. -None the less, though he has gone from us, the pictures of hope and -courage that leap and laugh at us from his pages are as vivid to-day -as when they first brought their new joy to the delighted world. Read -once more that dainty sketch--that etching rather--"A Night among -the Pines," and see for yourself how that great master of words has -voiced our modern appreciation of the great outdoors. For each great -author is an individual, no two of them are alike, any more than you -are like your next-door neighbor. Their modes of expression, their -joy in life are as varied and divergent as life itself. There is, -moreover, nothing commonplace about them, their work is strong and -fresh. Each has his tale to tell, his song to sing, his meditations -to entrust to us, his own special message to the spirit or to the -intellect of many a generation and many a race. - -In other words, all great authors are artists, makers or shapers -of truth and beauty, just as much and in the same measure as are -painters and sculptors. Indeed, Literature is the chief of the Fine -Arts. Music, with all its grandeur and charm, is but sound, and dies -away; Painting, though never so rich in color and striking in form, -is passive and for the most part devoid of action, and sad to say, -very few of us have wealth enough to own even one canvas by a master; -Sculpture, with all its dignity and grace, is cold and cheerless -in the main; and Architecture is too bulky and ponderous to stir -personal appreciation at a moment's notice. - -In fact, Literature, and Literature alone, possesses the power of -meeting our every mood and desire, for comfort, for excitement, for -exaltation, for pathos, for laughter. - -Literature alone can dwell within the walls of the humblest cabin, -even in the squatter's camp in Labrador or Borneo. Raphael's glorious -paintings may only be visited at the expense of months of time and -hundreds of dollars; Beethoven's symphonies can only be presented -by the most finished orchestras in a few of our largest cities; the -statues wrought by Phidias and Rodin cannot be reproduced by the -thousand and spread broadcast over our nation; Rheims Cathedral and -her sister marvels must stand where first they rose, nor may they -be successfully imitated. But, thank Heaven, Shakespeare, Dickens, -Longfellow for a few cents send their messages to every soul on earth -that can read English. - -All of us are acquainted with some half dozen of the immortal writers -of the world, but how many of them have we never met, perhaps have -never heard of. If we could only obtain an introduction to them; -if we only knew which writers and which of their works to select, -all would be well. The most brilliant, the most lovable, the most -sincere, the most thoughtful authors would gather round us and talk -to us; they would bring their very best to entertain and delight -us; they would offer us their guidance and companionship into every -field of thought. Emerson's calm reflective tones reveal the answers -to many of life's most pressing and significant problems; Swift, in -"Gulliver's Travels," jestingly, yet bitterly, strips mankind of its -pride and conceit, and lays bare the greed and selfishness that have -ruined not individuals alone, but whole nations and empires; Lewis -Carroll talks the most laughable, clever nonsense that ever inspired -a humorist's pen; Burns, in the simplest of language, voices the -pathos and tragedy of every life, even the humblest, and with our -own Lincoln proves again and again that true nobility may dwell and -flourish in the midst of poverty. - -Truly, herein lies one of life's chief joys, in encountering what -others have thought and achieved--in meeting the actors in the great -world drama, the scenes in which they played their parts, the deeds -by which they have won fame and fortune; still more delectable is the -pleasure of whiling away leisure hours with those folk who are but -products of the fancy, children of the poet's brain, dreams of the -teller of tales: Odysseus, who, for the last three thousand years, as -Sir Philip Sidney has put it, "held children from play and old men -from the chimney corner"; Falstaff, chuckling at the comical ease -with which he hoodwinks all about him; Lady Macbeth, who, even in her -dreams, may not forget the dread stain upon her little hand; Faust, -ever seeking to rid himself of his demon accomplice; the knights of -King Arthur's round table, Robin Hood and his merry men, Dickens's -troop of immortal grotesques, Bret Harte's rough miners, with their -hearts of gold, Irving's droll New Yorkers of the Knickerbocker era, -Longfellow's Blacksmith and his Evangeline,--these and a host of -other undying notables have made life far richer for us all. - -Ours is the fault if we do not avail ourselves of their magic. For -here in America the special opportunity to mingle with them lies -readier to the hand than in any other nation. Nowhere else, not in -England, nor France, nor in Italy can the everyday man find books at -his command for the asking. In a few of the largest European cities, -and not anywhere else on that continent, there are libraries of size -and worth, yet even these are hedged about with a hundred rules and -regulations that hamper circulation. But here, through the length and -breadth of this glorious land, are thousands and yet more thousands -of free libraries, containing all manner of books, of every age and -nation, awaiting your demand. They contain all that is splendid in -the way of printed matter, but also much, alas, that is not worth any -man's time; so that though the best lies open and free to us, it is -mingled with a vast amount of wretched trash. - -Here lies the chief difficulty for us Americans: How are we to -distinguish the chaff from the wheat, the weeds from the harvest? The -task is that of seeking the proverbial needle in the haystack. We are -deluged with printed matter, tons upon tons of books and magazines -are poured daily upon the bookseller's counters. What is our chance -of choosing the treasures from out this hodgepodge? - -To meet this very problem these volumes have been prepared; it is -hardly our place to dwell upon the years of labor and thought in -which they have gradually taken shape, but it is perhaps to the point -to remark that they represent the patient effort of many judges and -critics to supply an introduction and a guide to the best and most -inspiring literature of the nations from the beginning of the art -to the present day,--a means of recreation, amusement, and lasting -profit. - -In the past three thousand years, some four hundred authors have -achieved such fame and standing as to distinguish them from the -endless multitudes of commonplace penmen. To choose and present their -very best work in complete, unified selections has constituted the -fundamental purpose of these twelve volumes. In them, it is certain, -an amazingly large proportion of the finest literature has been -brought together; they form a boundless source of entertainment and a -wellnigh infinite field for intellectual diversion and development. - -By means of brief and suggestive biographical sketches, together with -the Index and the Handbook, to serve as a guide to fuller enjoyment -and appreciation, the editors have sought to amplify and enhance -the value of the selective feature of the work. And through an -abundance of illustrations, many of them painstaking reproductions of -water color paintings of the homes and favorite haunts of the chief -writers, additional understanding and pleasure is afforded. - -The whole of this work has been built on the central idea of -entertainment that shall be simple and unified. Every effort has -been made to shun the elaborate, intricate methods that prevail so -wastefully to-day in our educational and our recreational systems. -At last educators are openly admitting that the only sane means -of raising our standards of education must lie in simplifying the -quantity of the studies so as to attain higher quality. In school and -out of it, Johnny and his sister Molly will unquestionably profit by -simple, straightforward teaching, play, reading, thinking. The more -complex a game is, the fewer people can enjoy it or appreciate its -fine points; the more involved a school system, the fewer children -will be able to acquire thorough training. But simple games and -simple instruction will enable all of us and of our little ones to -get the habit of thoroughness and stability. These twelve volumes, -then, are all constructed upon this principle of furnishing enjoyment -in a simple, clean-cut manner; they constitute one of the most -straightforward, clear, and forceful means toward the advance of our -civilization. - -The measure of a successful life is surely the amount of happiness, -of true lasting pleasure which it has contained and which it has -passed on to others. We do not count our years in terms of sorrow or -vexation; we do not recall again and again our moments of failure or -folly; only the bright and golden hours remain fast emblazoned in -our memories, those days of sunshine and delight, when beauty and -laughter sang in our hearts and the air was filled with music. Of all -such days, those on which the friendly pages of some treasured author -were first opened, or those when we reveled in the companionship of -our favorite heroes of romance and adventure--those days indeed are -among the brightest of all. The greater the number of red-letter -days of such wonder and rapture, the greater the value of our lives, -not only to ourselves, but to all who have shared them. In work and -in play, at home and abroad, our undoubted ideal is that of finding -perpetual joy in life. The Fountain of Youth, which Ponce de Leon -vainly sought, is the quest of us all--we no longer seek to lengthen -our lives, but instead we strive with might and main to fill them to -the very brim with joyous thoughts and deeds. To be happy is to be -forever young. - - - - -THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK - - -It is the easiest thing in the world to open the treasure-vaults of -the Bank of England--if you have the combination; if you haven't, the -task is hopeless. It is the easiest thing in the world to enjoy the -most brilliant stories, the most laughable humor, the most heroic -deeds that the world has known--if you know where to find them. - -"Where's something to read, something so interesting that I can -forget how tired I am and what a hard day I had at the office?" There -is the problem of almost every home in this country. Tired men and -women must have some means of refreshing themselves, of forgetting -their worries and trials for a time. They must rest and gather -strength for the next day's work. Where are they going to get it? - -The purpose of this book is to give the owners of THE LIBRARY OF -ENTERTAINMENT an easy answer to that question. Its opening pages -contain some unusual notes on the oddities of literary folk and some -suggestions for hours and hours of entertainment and amusement that -will drive away care and fatigue unfailingly. The brightest stories -and the most fascinating humor are put right on the table beside you, -all you have to do is to turn to them according to the directions in -these pages. - -But there is something better still in this little volume. It gives -a true opportunity to enjoy the company of the ablest men and women -who have ever put pen to paper. Until now a college course of three -or four years has been the only means of getting in touch with the -best of good, sensible reading. Our schools do not teach us how to -understand and take pleasure in these books; our libraries only store -them for us to use if we already know about them. Recent figures -show that for some time past more than 10,000 new books have been -published in the United States each year, an equal number in England, -and even more in Germany and Russia. The public libraries contain -millions upon millions printed in the past. It would be impossible -for even a hundred men giving their whole lifetime of eighty years to -do as much as scan the pages of all the world's literature. - -Therefore it is only too evident that for the sensible use of the -little time which we can give to reading we should be enabled to -make a selection. We must be started on the right road. This is the -express aim of THE LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINMENT. Until now the pleasure -and the distinction that come from being well-read have belonged to -a few. The combination that opens the treasure-vaults of literature -was only given in college lectures. The outside world has been left -to shift for itself. But this is utterly wrong; with the simple -introduction that is given in Part Two of this book the world of -literature and its lasting delights are open to all. - - - - -PART I - - - - -SIDE-LIGHTS ON GREAT WRITERS - - -To many of us it seems as if an author with an assured reputation -must be one of the happiest of men; yet some of the very greatest -have suffered almost intolerably. - -Bobby Burns was a victim of drink largely because of his brilliant -imagination and extreme sensitiveness. He was petted by society and -praised as the poet of the future; all England was at his feet. Yet -he gave way to his passions, took to drink, and ruined the lives of -several of his dearest friends, as well as his own. In almost anyone -else this would condemn him absolutely; but the truth is that his -poetic powers, the gift of his genius, rendered him too sensitive to -moods of the moment, and his will could not hold out under the strain. - -A somewhat similar case was that of Coleridge. In his youth he showed -extraordinary talent, but he fell a victim to opium and the greater -part of his life was wasted in a series of unfinished efforts. No -opium was necessary to stimulate his imagination, as his weird ballad -of "The Ancient Mariner" plainly shows. Indeed his genius even worked -during his sleep, for "Kubla Khan" is but a fragment of a poem which -he dreamed and then began to write down as soon as he awoke. If he -had not been interrupted by a visitor, a man of no importance, we -might have had the whole instead of a scanty portion of this unique -masterpiece. Even as it stands it is one of the most picturesque and -brilliant compositions ever produced. It seems incredible that it -should be the work of a sleeping brain. And yet this is the man who -gave himself up to opium, wrecking a career that promised to surpass -even that of Byron or Shelley in poetic power. - -Thomas De Quincey, the author of the "Confessions of an Opium -Eater," drank laudanum by the glassful. He first took to using this -liquid form of opium in order to gain relief from the dyspepsia that -resulted from his days of privation in the streets of London. Of -course he was unable to stop the use of the drug and had to increase -the doses to the alarming extent mentioned. When he was living in -Edinburgh this almost caused the death of a gentleman who dined with -him there; for his visitor picked up a decanter of a rich, dark red -liquor, which he thought was port wine, poured out a glass, and had -it at his lips, when De Quincey hurriedly seized it and saved the -situation. Smoking opium was not the custom then; Coleridge drank it, -as De Quincey did, and unknowingly spread the habit; for a poor man -who once lived near Coleridge's house admitted that he had obtained -laudanum from a boy who worked for Coleridge and smuggled it out to -his friend by the bottleful. - -As we all know, our great American short story writer, Edgar Allan -Poe, was the prey of alcohol and also of opium, as well as a genius. -The combination seems to have been more unavoidable in his case than -in any other we know of. His imagination could only bring forth those -extraordinarily gruesome tales of mystery and horror when stimulated -by wines and brandy or opium. His whole life was spent in the shadow -of despondency and irritation; and although we are indebted to him -for priceless literary gems, he paid the penalty with misery which we -cannot imagine. - -In contrast, look at the life of Charles Lamb. He was a poor clerk -at a pitiful salary, struggling to increase his income by literary -work in his spare time, with a dangerous appetite for alcohol, and -an insane sister to take care of. He, himself, constantly dreaded -insanity. Yet he kept up a cheerful and continual resistance to his -craving for drink, although he often took a drop too much. In order -to care for his sister, who had killed her mother in one of her -attacks, he gave up his sweetheart and settled down to the brave and -heartrending task of devotion to the unhappy invalid. This lasted -for thirty-three years, during which he never murmured except when -her attacks forced him to place her in an asylum. One of his friends -leaves the record of meeting Charles and Mary Lamb walking across -the fields to the hospital with tears streaming down their faces. -Yet in spite of all his troubles Lamb's essays have a delicacy and a -cheerfulness that never reveal the burden he had to bear. He is one -of the great heroes of English literature. - -John Milton was another such hero. As a young man he won great -distinction as a poet and a scholar; so much so that when he -went to Italy the greatest Italian authors and critics praised -his Italian and Latin poetry as the best of that day, superior -to anything written during that time in Italy itself. He was -received there with boundless enthusiasm and was having the time -of his life, so to speak, when the news reached him of the Puritan -rebellion against Charles the First. Without a moment's hesitation -he abandoned his tour and came back to England. There he acted as -foreign correspondent for Cromwell's Government and kept England -safe from attacks by France and the rest of Europe through his able -diplomacy. He worked day and night until he fell ill and eventually -lost his eyesight. To make matters worse, the Puritans were deprived -of their power and Milton's enemies then persecuted him so that he -had to fly for his life. He spent the rest of his days in a humble -cottage, while his daughters grumbled because he made them transcribe -"Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained." It seems as if his sacrifice -for his country was utterly unrewarded, until we remember that his -name to-day is almost the first in its long roll of poets. - -One of the sorrows of literary men is lack of appreciation. -Longfellow was laughed at by the Harvard students whom he taught, -for his poems had no attraction for them and he was only appreciated -elsewhere. Bret Harte wrote the finest stories of California life -that have ever appeared, yet for years he was not recognized in this -country as a writer of unusual powers, and as a matter of fact he -spent the greater part of his life in London, six thousand miles -from his old home; Lafcadio Hearn was so homely and eccentric that -he could not be happy or comfortable in the United States or in -Europe, and took refuge in Japan where his appearance would never -be remarked. As he points out in his wonderful writings on Japanese -life, politeness is one of the ruling habits of that race, so that -he was made far more comfortable and did far better work than would -have been possible in his own country. - -Some writers have done their best work in prison. "The Star Spangled -Banner," as we know, was written by Francis Scott Key, while he was -a captive on a British battleship during the bombardment of Fort -McHenry, near Baltimore, in the War of 1812, and as he wondered -whether the flag was still flying he jotted down the lines of our -National Anthem. The masterpiece of Spanish literature was written -in jail; "Don Quixote" is so amusing, so pathetic, and so vivid -that Spain can stake her whole reputation on that one work, written -by Cervantes, an innocent man, imprisoned through envy and malice. -John Bunyan, another guiltless author, wrote his immortal "Pilgrim's -Progress" while he was locked up for his stubborn refusal to mold his -religious belief according to the demands of authorities for whom he -could have no respect. The opium of Coleridge and De Quincey and the -brandy of Edgar Allan Poe never stimulated them to equal the work -of these two geniuses. Innocence in prison has been proved superior -to dissipation in the best of surroundings, for the opium victims, -Coleridge and De Quincey, had the society of England's most brilliant -men and the environment of her finest scenery. - -Both Bunyan and Cervantes worked hard, but the hardest workers of -all have been Frenchmen; Balzac and Dumas labored unceasingly for -the greater part of their lifetimes. In twenty years Balzac wrote -ninety-seven novels for a mere pittance that just kept body and -soul together. The greatness of his work was recognized, but the -French public, as a whole, did so little reading, that the publisher -himself did not make anything like a fortune. Dumas was more popular -and employed a staff of assistants to collect the material for his -historical romances, but the actual writing was all his own and cost -him from fourteen to eighteen hours a day in labor. His works are -more numerous than those of Dickens, Thackeray, and Cooper combined. -It seems incredible that one man could have turned out such a -tremendous mass of fascinating stories. - -The only man in English literature who is to be compared to these -two Frenchmen is Sir Walter Scott. In his first success, when money -flowed in on him almost in torrents, his vanity led him to build the -mansion of Abbotsford and his one wish was to be regarded as the -Squire or ruler of the countryside, but not long after, when his -partner in the publishing business had caused the failure of the -firm, he bravely went to work and wrote novel after novel, year after -year, to pay off his debts. His vanity and love of show disappeared -and the man's true nobility took its proper place; almost on his -death-bed he continued to dictate his novels although he was agonized -with pain and distress. - -Similar patience was shown by Thomas Carlyle, who rewrote the whole -of his great work, "The French Revolution," after the first copy had -been carelessly burnt by a servant girl in the house of a friend -who had borrowed the manuscript. He was a dyspeptic and a constant -grumbler, but on this occasion he redeemed himself by sitting down -quietly to work and hammering away at his dreary task until he had -once more finished the masterpiece. Carlyle was so sensitive to noise -and other disturbances that he had a sound-proof shed or room built -on the roof of his house in London, where he did a great part of his -writing, and even there he complained of the rumbling of the wagons -in the street, which vibrated through the house. - -Herbert Spencer, the great English philosopher, was also easily -disturbed by noises, but he solved the problem by wearing ear muffs -which were specially made under his instruction. Spencer was rather -irritable, it is said; certainly on one occasion he made himself a -source of amusement when he objected to being beaten at billiards by -the son of a friend of his and remarked that it was not fitting that -a young man should have spent so much time and money on so foolish a -pastime; yet when he won, the expenditure of thought and time on the -part of so great a philosopher seemed altogether wise. - -Robert Browning had an amusing experience on one occasion toward the -close of his life. He was walking through the residential district of -London's fashionable West End to a meeting which he had been invited -to attend. Mistaking the house, he walked into a literary gathering -that was discussing his own poems. Presently he rose to his feet and -offered a few suggestions as to the meaning of a rather difficult -passage. Now Browning was not at all like a poet in appearance, but -rather resembled a prosperous business man, and it happened that as -he was well toward the back of the hall no one recognized him. On the -contrary his suggestions were ridiculed by other critics who took -the floor when he sat down and he retired unrecognized but vastly -delighted. Of course some of Browning's work is intensely intricate -and confused; he himself said of his early poem "Sordello" that once -there were two beings who understood it, the Almighty and Robert -Browning; now, he added, there was but one, for Browning had long -lost the key to its problem. - -Charles Dickens was one of the most impressionable writers who -ever lived. His characters were absolutely real to him and when -he was writing he would impersonate the various characters he -was describing, talking, making faces, jumping up and looking in -the mirror, and then dashing back to his desk to set down each -inspiration. But his impressionable nature prevented complete -happiness; he was either intensely happy or down in the dumps and -miserable. This made him very hard to get along with, so that it is -no wonder that his wife found it almost impossible to live with him. - -Gladstone, the 'Grand Old Man' of English politics in the last -century, was a scholar and a linguist as well as a statesman. -On one occasion he was seated in the House of Commons while his -bitter opponent, the clever Disraeli, was delivering a venomous and -brilliant attack upon him. During the speech Gladstone was observed -to be writing on a scrap of paper, apparently taking notes for his -reply. At the conclusion of his enemy's speech Gladstone rose and -delivered a most masterly refutation of the attack, answering and -breaking down each point of Disraeli's invective with the utmost -skill. A member sitting near by noticed that the scrap of paper was -lying on Gladstone's seat and picked it up to see what the notes -were like; to his surprise they consisted of a careful translation -of "Rock of Ages" into smooth Greek verse, which the orator had made -half-consciously while waiting for the occasion to reply to his -opponent. - -Macaulay, too, had wonderful scholastic talent and a fine memory. -Even in his youth he showed great ability and read with amazing -speed; most remarkable is the fact that he never seemed to forget -a line he had read, but could repeat pages of an author many years -after he had once perused his work. He read many works again and -again, it is true, but for the pleasure of enjoying the fine points -of style rather than for the sake of attaining greater familiarity -with the book. His essays are regarded as among the most brilliant in -the language, and seem to have been written posthaste, at full swing. -In reality, however, he was well pleased if he produced five foolscap -pages of longhand manuscript a day. It was his custom to spend the -morning writing as fast as he could, the afternoon, in revising and -pruning the morning's work and thus producing finished copy. He knew -only too well that, as Sheridan said, "easy writing makes cursed hard -reading," and that labor alone could produce a forceful and pleasant -style. - -Goethe, the greatest of the German immortals, is mainly remembered -as a poet. Yet his fame would be great even if it depended only upon -his scientific exploits. It was he who did much toward establishing -the modern theory of evolution. Goethe also showed his insight into -human progress by prophesying the construction of the Suez and the -Panama Canals as long ago as 1827; this illustrates the marvelous -imagination of the genius who was, as he himself said, a citizen of -the world. - -Shakespeare is certainly the supreme master of English literature, -yet there was a time when he was regarded as a nuisance and a -good-for-nothing. He was a poacher, a thieving vagabond arrested for -stealing or killing deer in the park of the neighboring aristocrat, -Sir Thomas Lucy. It was not long afterward that the future playwright -went to London and gained his first acquaintance with the theater -by holding horses for gentlefolk at the entrance of the principal -playhouse of the city. Some authors would also call him a pirate and -a thief, as Sir Thomas Lucy did, for he took plots and ideas wherever -he found them and worked them over into the revised versions that now -rank among the finest achievements of mankind. Yet all the while -his one desire was to be a well-to-do business man of his native -town of Stratford, and as soon as he had made a comfortable fortune -he retired and spent his last years in quiet, building a new house -and writing one or two last plays in the commonplace seclusion of a -country town. There is still one place left in London where his plays -were performed under his direction, although the old theaters have -long since perished. This is the Temple Hall, in the grounds that -belonged to the old Knights Templar of Crusading fame. Here he put on -"The Winter's Tale" with great success. If you are ever in London you -can visit the hall and on entering you can turn the very door-handle, -so tradition says, which the poet himself used. - -Molière was the greatest French dramatist. At the height of his -career, legend relates, he was such a favorite with the grand -monarch, Louis XIV, that this proud king made him come and dine in -private with him, so as to convince his servants and courtiers that -the genius whom they thought of as a vulgar, impossible boor, a mere -actor, was worthy of the greatest consideration. Yet when Molière was -dead the king ungratefully refused to see that he was properly buried -and the great man was carried to his last resting-place with little -ceremony. - -At the present day one of France's most prominent writers is Rostand, -the author of "Cyrano de Bergerac," a play which brought him into -instant popularity through its brilliance, although a few weeks -before scarcely anyone had heard his name. On the first night of the -production, in 1897, the audience cheered and shouted until it seemed -as if the performance would break up in the confusion created by its -success, yet thanks to Rostand's coolness the actors and even the -spectators were kept calm enough to carry the play through to its -masterly conclusion. At the close, when the curtain had fallen on the -last act, Rostand was sought for everywhere to make his bow to the -enthusiastic audience, but he had quietly driven away to his country -home, with his wife, and there he stayed for a week or more before -the public had a chance to welcome him. - -Byron is almost the only man in English letters to come so suddenly -before the people. He woke up one morning to find himself famous, -through the publication of "Childe Harold." Byron was another of -the unhappy geniuses. He was hot-headed and married an equally -irritable wife, so naturally they separated, with anger and yet -with sorrow. His little daughter, who he said was the one friend he -had in the world, died at an early age. He dreaded being fat and -therefore starved himself, a process which did not make him happier. -But his death was in itself enough to redeem him in spite of his -irresponsible and rather selfish career, for he gave himself up to -the cause of the freedom and independence of the Greeks, and died of -fever contracted while preparing for the great campaign against the -Turks. - -Poor Dean Swift, the author of "Gulliver's Travels," the bitterest -book ever written about human beings, suffered even more than Byron. -He was keenly sensitive, and his political labors were poorly paid -because he was none too courteous in his manner to the political -leaders for whom he worked so hard. Boot-licking would have brought -him the position he desired, but Swift was not a toady, so he was -driven to accept the second-rate place offered him, and there vented -his anger in the most savage attacks on human nature that can be -imagined. All this while he had been fearing that his mind would give -way; "I am like that tree," he said to a friend one day when they -were out walking, "I shall die at the top first." He was right, for -not long afterward his brain gave way. - -"The Old Oaken Bucket" still has a touch of beauty for us, if we -do not hear it too often. It was written under rather interesting -circumstances. Samuel Woodworth, the author, was born and brought up -on a little farm in Scituate, not far from Plymouth, Massachusetts. -In his youth he went to New York and got a job as a reporter. One -day he was in a bar, taking a glass of brandy and declaring that it -was the finest drink on earth, when a friend with him said, "You're -wrong; think of the delicious water you used to draw from the old -well at home." Woodworth jumped up and hurried over to his rooms, -where he sat down and dashed off the outline of the song that at once -won a widespread vogue. - -Perhaps the bravest fight against ill health was put up by Robert -Louis Stevenson, the gentle, lovable poet and novelist. As a young -man he found that consumption threatened to carry him off. With the -cheerfulness characteristic of the victims of the White Plague he -set off on a series of outdoor trips afoot and afloat. Two of these -are preserved for us in his "Inland Voyage" and the more fascinating -"Travels with a Donkey." This latter is almost unequaled as a picture -of travel. He finally started for America to see if the climate there -would not be better for him than the moist weather of Scotland, his -home. Eventually he reached Samoa, in the South Seas of the Pacific, -where he lived for several years, cheerful and brave in spite of his -increasing weakness. His character, although mild and kindly, was so -forceful that the chiefs among the natives held him in veneration, -and at the time of his death no one lamented him more than the simple -Samoans, some of whom bore him to the grave on the hill-top near his -home. - -Thoreau, one of New England's philosophers of the great and glorious -Emerson days, was as eccentric as any one that can be found. For the -sake of peace and independence he went off into the woods and lived -as a hermit near Walden Pond, outside Concord. To earn what little -money he needed he made lead pencils; like many country folks of -those days he was amazingly dexterous with his knife and his pencils -were a delight to use. In his leisure he made an exhaustive study of -the Pond; but in two years' time he left this little cabin and never -returned. He said that he had had enough of that sort of life and -now he was going to try something else. His was the same spirit of -adventure that stirred the old explorers and yet he was so fond of -New England that he rarely set foot outside her boundaries. He could -find enough to keep him busy thinking and writing within his own -dooryard. But he showed that it was possible for a man in good health -to live on less than $100 a year and have more than two thirds of his -time to himself. On the other hand, as he died of consumption at the -age of forty-four, he also proved that outdoor life is not in itself -a preventive of that scourge. - -Whittier, the gentle Quaker poet, was one of the sturdiest heroes of -the antislavery movement. In those days he was a fighter, stoned and -mobbed by the partisans of slavery in Philadelphia and Concord, New -Hampshire. His genius was discovered by William Lloyd Garrison, the -abolitionist, while he was editing a paper at Newburyport. Whittier's -sister had sent some verses of her young brother's to the paper and -Garrison not only printed them but hunted up the author to enlist him -in his good work. In his latter years Whittier clung to the rural -obscurity of Amesbury, where he enjoyed the rippling life of the -little town, talking local politics with the 'natives' in the country -store, chatting with his friends on the doorstep of the Friends' -meeting-house which he had helped to build, or planting trees about -it, like Holmes, who used to boast that at one time or another he -had set out more than seven hundred saplings. Whittier, more than -any other American, has left us glowing pictures of New England life -and geniality. With his reverent sense of the need for emphasizing -morals and duty there was a love of home, of the memory of youth's -work and play that makes "Snow-Bound" immortal. Emerson was the -Yankee philosopher; Hawthorne, the novelist of New England's moods; -Thoreau, the nature-worshiper; Holmes, the Bostonian; Longfellow, the -cosmopolitan poet; but Whittier was the poet of New England's heart. - - - - -'TO DRIVE DULL CARE AWAY' - -The brightest and most delightful pages that have ever been written. - -Short stories, humor, adventure, and fun. - - -SHORT STORIES - - ALDRICH: "Père Antoine's Date Palm." - - BALZAC: "The Purse." - - BARRIE: "Lads and Lassies." - - BJÖRNSON: "The Railroad and the Churchyard." - - BOCCACCIO: "The Story of Constantia," "The Story of Federigo and - the Falcon." - - BROWN: "Rab and his Friends." - - COLLINS: "A Terribly Strange Bed." - - CRAWFORD: "The Upper Berth." - - ELIOT: "Brother Jacob." - - HALE: "The Man Without a Country." - - HARDY: "The Three Strangers." - - HARTE: "Tennessee's Partner." - - HAWTHORNE: "The Snow-Image." - - IRVING: "Rip Van Winkle." - - JAPANESE LITERATURE: "The Forty-Seven Rônins." - - KIPLING: "The Man Who Would Be King." - - MACLEOD: "The Washer of the Ford." - - MAUPASSANT: "The Piece of String." - - MEREDITH: "The Story of Noorna Bin Noorka, the Genie Karaz, and - the Princess of Oolb," "The Punishment of Shahpesh, the Persian, - on Khipil, the Builder." - - POE: "The Fall of the House of Usher," "The Cask of Amontillado." - - STERNE: "The Story of Le Fevre." - - STEVENSON: "A Lodging for the Night." - - TOLSTOI: "Where Love is, There God is Also." - - -FAIRY TALES - - ANDERSEN: "The Hardy Tin Soldier," "The Ugly Duckling," "The Old - Street Lamp." - - APULEIUS: "The Story of Cupid and Psyche." - - ARABIAN NIGHTS: "Ali Baba and the Forty Robbers," "Abon-Hassan - the Wag, or the Sleeper Awakened," "The Story of the Three - Apples." - - FOUQUÉ: "Undine." - - GRIMM: "Cinderella," "Hansel and Grethel," "The Two Brothers." - - PERRAULT: "Little Red Riding-Hood," "Blue Beard," "Puss in Boots." - - RUSSIAN LITERATURE: "The Water King and Vasilissa the Wise." - - -HUMOR - - BARHAM: "The Knight and the Lady." - - BROWNE: "The Showman's Courtship." - - CARROLL: "A Mad Tea-Party," "The White Knight," "The Walrus and - the Carpenter," "Jabberwocky." - - COWPER: "The Diverting History of John Gilpin." - - GILBERT: "The Yarn of the Nancy Bell." - - HARRIS: "Old Mr. Rabbit, He's a Good Fisherman." - - HARTE: "Plain Language from Truthful James." - - HOOD: "Faithless Sally Brown." - - HOPE: "The House Opposite." - - JERROLD: "Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures." - - LAMB: "A Dissertation on Roast Pig." - - LOWELL: "The Courtin'." - - RASPE: "Baron Münchhausen." - - STERNE: "A Sentimental Journey." - - -ADVENTURE - - AUDUBON: "Hospitality in the Woods." - - CARLYLE: "The Fall of the Bastille." - - COLERIDGE: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner." - - FROUDE: "A Cagliostro of the Second Century." - - HAY: "Jim Bludso of the Prairie Belle." - - HEARN: "In the Cave of the Children's Ghosts." - - HEINE: "Travel-Pictures." - - KINGLAKE: "Eothen." - - MANDEVILLE: "Travels." - - MELVILLE: "Typee." - - POLO: "Travels." - - STEVENSON: "A Night among the Pines." - - - - -PART II - - - - -THE STUDY OF LITERATURE - - -We are told there is no royal road to learning; no short cut to -the understanding and appreciation of literature. We are told that -we must admire Homer, or Addison, or some other immortal author, -but no one tells us _why_ or _how_. No explanation is given of the -reason why their work is deservedly immortal. Our schools do not -introduce us to the delights of good reading; instead, they handle -a few stories and essays as if they were Latin or algebra, making -drudgery out of what ought to be enjoyment. The result is that we are -frightened away from the great writers; their work is supposed to be -a mystery, only to be revealed to those who give years of labor to -its study. - -But no one is so dull or so heedless of pleasure as not to accept -the means of lasting delight when it is put right in front of them. -Thousands of people are waiting for the chance to get in touch with -the good sense, rousing style, and splendid ideas of the masters of -literature. That is why this volume has been prepared. It furnishes -a direct and attractive road straight to the heart of literature. It -has been laid out systematically so as to be a simple and practical -guide. - -The leading characteristics of each era, each nation, and each -division of literature have been tersely stated, with the authors -under each of these classifications listed beneath. The noblest and -most fascinating works gain tenfold in interest through the knowledge -of these fundamental facts. With them before you, you command a view, -not merely of one single author, but of the whole movement of which -he was a part. You see the ideas and lines of thought from which a -book has sprung, the hidden forces which went into the making of -it. Each book stands in association with those of the same literary -class, or nation, or period; their relationship with the rest of -literature is at once apparent. In this way the wasteful drudgery -and folly of aimless reading is avoided. The study of literature -pursued with the means here given cannot be tedious, for it is -straightforward, simple, and clear. - -The results that are to be expected from the limited time which most -of us can devote to reading are more extensive than might be thought. -In this connection read the following selections, practical and -full of common sense, each of them throwing light on the subject of -reading. - - THE PREFACE, I, 3. - - HAMERTON, "To a Man of Business," VI, 236. - - HARRISON, from "The Choice of Books," VI, 275. - - MORLEY, "Popular Culture," IX, 236. - - SCHOPENHAUER, "On Books and Reading," X, 374. - - - - -THE DECISIVE PERIODS IN LITERATURE - -FIRST OF ALL: =What is Literature?= - -=The expression of thought upon the countless phases of life and the -universe as felt by the greatest intellects.= - - -There are innumerable views to be taken of this world of ours; each -of us sees it a little differently, the problem of life strikes a -nation or an age or an individual in ever changing ways. Homer saw -it in heroic terms, Swift, in "Gulliver's Travels," looked at it -savagely and sadly, Bunyan, in the "Pilgrim's Progress," saw the -religious side. These authors not only saw but felt; their feelings -took possession of them, they had to write them down and give them -expression. Gray, the author of the immortal "Elegy in a Country -Churchyard," took seven years to perfect the expression of the -feelings roused by what he saw in that secluded village nook. Poe -chose every word of his "Tales of Mystery and Imagination" with the -utmost care. The labor of composition was solely for the purpose of -giving the reader exactly the impression and emotion desired; for the -sake of clearness, force, and ease. - - -In the second place: Each of the great periods in history has -had certain traits and has excelled in some particular field of -literature. The traits and the works of an era have been molded -by preceding ages and likewise have brought about the development -of the periods which followed. Vergil was influenced by Homer and -the whole tradition of Greek literature; Shakespeare and the rest -of the Elizabethan writers are products of the fresh outburst of -activity which we call the Renaissance; Kipling has profited by the -work of Dickens, Poe, Milton, Chaucer, and a host of other authors. -If we are to appreciate a writer, then, we must know the chief -characteristics of these great literary epochs. - -=The Age of the Ancients.= 1500 B.C.-500 A.D. From the dawn of -history to the fall of the Roman Empire, all the principal forms -of literary expression were developed, at least two of which, epic -poetry and tragedy, have never been surpassed. Yet the world was very -small then; it was merely the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Its -ideals were narrow, limited by paganism and slavery. For those who -wrote and those who read there was no struggle for existence, they -were waited on by their slaves, they had no faith in a life after -death; whether thinkers or heedless wasters, they were selfishly -living for to-day and not for the morrow. The bulk of the people were -ignorant, even when not enslaved. As their literature was the product -of an aristocracy, leading a life of leisure, it was inevitably -stately, reserved, and formal in its tone, except in the earliest -productions before society had emerged completely from barbarism. - - POETRY - - Catullus - Cleanthes - Egyptian - Lit. - Homer - Horace - Ovid - Pindar - Sappho - Theocritus - Vergil - - FICTION - - Æsop - Apuleius - - HISTORY - - Cæsar - Herodotus - Josephus - Livy - Suetonius - Tacitus - Thucydides - - BIOGRAPHY - - Plato - Pliny - Plutarch - - DRAMA - - Æschylus - Euripides - Sophocles - - PHILOSOPHY - - Aurelius - Cicero - Epictetus - Lucretius - Plato - Seneca - -=The Dark Ages.= 500 A.D.-1000 A.D. Crippled by pride and selfishness -Roman civilization was swept away by wave after wave of barbarian -invasions. Goths, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Huns, Lombards, and Vandals -in turn swarmed over the face of Europe, spreading terror and -desolation. Learning, art, industry, and government perished. But -the invaders brought a love of freedom, a hatred of bondage and -captivity, to offset their contempt for the progress effected by the -great thinkers and rulers of antiquity. - -There is but little left to us of the scanty literature produced in -those dim centuries. It is all primitive, Homeric; rhythmic tales of -the heroic lives and deaths of national leaders constitute the sole -endeavor that has lasted. But in these is _the note of freedom_, for -the masses of the people as well as the rulers and nobles delighted -in Charlemagne and his peerless knight Roland, or in Eric, the Viking -adventurer, who dared to sail far forth to Vinland. The great ruler -was not a mere commander but a leader whom men of every class gladly -followed with love as well as respect. Yet the ideals were low, -mainly of physical prowess and sheer brute strength. - - Anglo-Saxon Lit. - French Lit. - German Lit. - Norse Lit. - Spanish Lit. - -=The Middle Ages.= 1000 A.D.-1400 A.D. However, as soon as the -dread of barbarian havoc had passed and peace and government had -been restored to some extent, a new and brighter era began. The -thirst for learning has never been greater than at this time. -Students flocked to the universities of Paris, Oxford, and Bologna -in thousands, begging their way, traveling on foot for hundreds of -miles. Religion seized men even more firmly, finding them active or -meditative occupations either in the monasteries or in the Crusades. -The aspirations of the time appear in the legends of King Arthur and -the Round Table, as told in the prose of the day by Sir Thomas Malory -or in the more recent verse of Tennyson's "Idylls of the King." This -is the chivalric ideal of perfect knighthood. The religious feeling -is shown in such hymns as the "Stabat Mater," the "Dies Iræ," or -"Jerusalem the Golden." Dante, commonly reckoned the second of the -world's poets, proves the zeal for learning and scholarship. The -spirit of freedom gleams from the "Old English Ballads" of Robin -Hood, the enemy of the oppressive nobles and the friend of the poor -and the humble. It is even more evident in the work of John Wyclif, -who translated the Bible into English so that the common peasant -might have the advantage of hearing the Gospel message read to him -in a tongue that he understood, and that he might feel that the -teachings of religion were meant for him as much as for the wealthy -and the learned. - -But science and thought had not yet startled men into recognition of -the wonder round about them. Knowledge was assumed to be complete. -To probe into the mysteries of nature was unholy and wicked in those -days. The awakening from unseeing and unreasoning childhood to the -adventuresome zest of youth and young manhood was yet to come. - - POETRY - - Chaucer - Dante - Old English - Ballads - Petrarch - Tasso - - FICTION - - Boccaccio - Malory - - HISTORY - - Froissart - - TRAVEL - - Mandeville - Polo - - RELIGION - - Bernard, St. - Bernard of Cluny - Jacopone - à Kempis - Thomas of Celano - Wyclif - -=The Renaissance.= 1400-1600. The gradual increase of knowledge -and better government toward the close of the Middle Ages caused a -desire for higher things. This hidden desire suddenly broke loose -with astonishing force when the art of printing was discovered, about -1450. Information had hitherto been spread only by word of mouth -or by laboriously copying a volume by hand. The process in either -case was slower than we can imagine. But now new ideas, rare books, -foreign teaching could be spread broadcast like wildfire. - -It also happened at just this time that Constantinople was taken by -the Turks (1453). The greatest treasures of Greek literature had been -jealously hidden away there for centuries. Now that the scholars had -to fly for their lives they let loose a store of new thought on the -nations of western Europe. Taking refuge in Italy they brought with -them these rich volumes. The Italian enthusiasm and the ardor with -which these discoveries were published to the world spread like fire -through France and Germany and England. - -Everywhere mankind awoke; never before or since have people lived -so strenuously. Their newly awakened curiosity drove them round the -Cape of Good Hope and across the Atlantic Ocean. Exploration and -adventure, the invasion of Mexico and the Americas as well as the -Orient, the search for gold and for happiness went hand in hand. -At the same time Luther roused northern Europe with his demand -for religious reform and founded the Protestant church. In England -Shakespeare and his companions had discovered a new field of literary -venture and produced plays by the hundred, many of them immortal. The -modern world of action and progress had at last come of age. - -The passing of the old ideals, of chivalry and monkish study, is -nowhere better shown than in "Don Quixote." The love of creative art -hand in hand with adventure echoes through every page of Cellini's -"Autobiography." Francis Bacon discovered a new method of reasoning; -Montaigne did what had not been thought of for hundreds of years, and -began to study his own personality, the workings of his mind, and the -problems which he found in his own life within himself; Sir Thomas -More also took up a subject that had not been touched for seventeen -centuries and drew a wonderful picture of an ideal government in his -"Utopia." Columbus and a whole squadron of others sailed the unknown -seas. The Elizabethan nobles, like Sir Philip Sidney and Sir Walter -Raleigh, were poets, statesmen, courtiers, and generals all at once. - - POETRY - - Michelangelo - Ronsard - Shakespeare - Spenser - Villon - - FICTION - - Cervantes - Rabelais - - HISTORY - - Holinshed - Raleigh - - BIOGRAPHY - - Cellini - - DRAMA - - Jonson - Marlowe - Shakespeare - - PHILOSOPHY - & SCIENCE - - Ascham - Bacon - Luther - Machiavelli - Montaigne - More - Sidney - -=The Age of Classicism.= 1600-1776. By 1600 imagination and the -creative spirit were running riot. The exuberance of wonder and -discovery had led to a wordy and confused style of writing. It was -time for this unbalanced disorderly manner to be subjected to sound -criticism and to be regulated by laws of composition. - -This is precisely what happened. Enthusiasm and inventive power -were wearied, and thinking men began to criticize and judge the -work that was being done. It was clear to them that there was need -of proportion and symmetry, that each act of a play, for example, -should do its special part in the development of the plot and in the -revelation of the characters. The problem in the scholar's mind was: -What is the best possible form or model to follow in making a play, a -song, or a speech? Wise men came to the conclusion that the classic -authors of ancient literature furnished the best examples, and this -is why the period is called the Age of Classicism. - -It was characterized by the use of reason and judgment, rather than -feeling and inspiration, by convention and law, by restraint and -dignity. In fact the wilder side of nature was actually disliked; -the Alps were not grand, but barbaric and odious, in the eyes of the -literary men of that day. Dr. Johnson, in his famous Dictionary, -defines a mountain as "a protuberance on the face of nature." The -rich land-owners altered the landscapes on their great estates, -smoothed out the inelegances of the meadows, cut trees down and -planted others, laid out geometrically correct roads and paths, and -altogether 'improved' nature until the whole scene was thoroughly -artificial; very trim and neat, but very unnatural. - -In literature it was much the same. Poetry, such as Pope's, seems -stilted and affected to us; the plays of Racine, the opposite of -Shakespeare's, are formal and long-winded, so exalted in tone and -so restrained in their phrasing that they are dignity indeed, but -nothing else. - -Yet the movement was beneficial because it cut away the extravagances -of the earlier period. It also produced a new branch of literature, -the critical essay. The essays of Bacon and Montaigne had been -philosophical. Those of Addison and Steele dealt with life and -literature critically, using fable and fiction to give point to their -verdicts in enforcement of law and convention. - -But writing based on the ancient classics demanded a highly educated -public. Only the wealthy could obtain the education necessary. -Besides, the aristocracy held that the common people should be kept -in their place, that learning and scholarship were not for them. -The life of thought and progress was remote from the mass of the -population, just as the government was carried on without reference -to their needs or wishes. - - POETRY - - Dryden - Goldsmith - Gray - Herbert[1] - Milton[1] - Pope - - FICTION - - Bunyan[1] - Defoe - Fénelon - Fielding - Goldsmith - Johnson - Le Sage - Sterne - Swift - - HISTORY & ORATORY - - Burke - Gibbon - - ESSAY & BIOG. - - Addison - Boswell - Steele - Voltaire - - DRAMA - - Calderon - Lessing - Molière - Racine - Sheridan - - RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY - - Browne[1] - Bunyan[1] - Herbert[1] - Kant - Smith, A. - Watts - Wesley - - -=The Age of Romanticism.= 1776-1832. The Revolution in America, soon -followed by that in France, is the historical sign of the passing -of the aristocratic spirit of classicism. Freedom, equality, the -destruction of the bondage that had held the common people back from -education and advancement, these are the new ideas. In literature as -in life a reaction broke out against the formal, stilted, unemotional -style of classicism. Wordsworth and Byron in England, Rousseau in -France, and Goethe and Schiller in Germany were the leaders in -the intellectual activity. Their writings and their principles -were directly opposed to their predecessors. Liberty, instead of -convention; free expression of passion and feeling, in the place -of cold reasoning; individual expression instead of imitation and -studied restraint; simple words and direct, clear statement in the -place of an affected and artificial style; a love for the wild and -picturesque in scenery rather than for the smooth and cultivated -parks of the past century. Contrast Byron with Pope, or Scott's -novels with Johnson's "Rasselas" to see the radical difference in -tone. - -This outburst of freedom and self-expression meant progress. To -increase the advance, steam and machinery came into use; just as -printing accomplished marvels in the days of the Renaissance, so -now there was again a blaze of creative genius and inventiveness. -National education at the expense of the state and the growth of -newspapers and magazines put rich and poor, noble and peasant more -nearly on a level than any bloodshed or lawmaking could ever have -done. - - POETRY - - Blake - Burns - Byron - Coleridge - Keats - Musset - Shelley - Uhland - Wordsworth - - FICTION - - Chateaubriand - Fouqué - Hugo - Manzoni - Scott - - ESSAY - - De Quincey - Hazlitt - Heine - Lamb - Richter - Southey - - DRAMA - - Goethe - Schiller - - PHILOSOPHY - - Rousseau - Schopenhauer - -=The Nineteenth Century=. The first glow of the romantic enthusiasm -soon died away and the new forces of industry and commerce took -possession of Europe and America. - -But the swift onrush of manufacturing and trading called for armies -of accountants, skilled workers, and salesmen. These made up a new -class of society; hitherto there had been aristocrats and peasants, -educated and ignorant, rich and poor. The army of business employees, -alert, vigorous, ready for any quantity of reading-matter that would -amuse or furnish knowledge, added their countless numbers to the -reading public. Fiction, at first in the novel, and later in the -short story, was published as fast as it could be printed. This great -middle class itself provided material for genius to work on. Dickens -and George Eliot are striking examples of authors who wrote about -this new middle class in order to amuse it. The influence of business -life made the world more matter of fact and in consequence literature -became rather more prosaic, with a tendency to present a realistic -picture of everyday life and manners. Science, aided by a multitude -of mechanical inventions, made unprecedented progress and assumed a -more important place in the minds of men than ever before. History -was treated scientifically, thought was more systematic than ever, -the nineteenth century presented a union of the enthusiasm of the -Renaissance, the love of system of the Classic Age, and the devotion -to nature of the Romantic Period. - -The following lists have been selected from the great array of -nineteenth-century authors with the view of presenting those whose -work has been peculiarly significant of the period. - - POETRY - - Arnold, M. - Browning, E. B. - Browning, R. - Bryant - Longfellow - Lowell - Morris, W. - Poe - Rossetti - Swinburne - Tennyson - Whitman - - FICTION - - Austen - Balzac - Dickens - Dumas - Eliot - Hardy - Harte - Hawthorne - Irving - Kipling - Poe - Stevenson - Thackeray - Tolstoi - Zola - - HISTORY - - Bancroft - Carlyle - Ferrero - Green - Guizot - Hodgkin - Michelet - Mommsen - Motley - Parkman - Prescott - Symonds - Taine - - ESSAY & BIOG. - - Arnold, M. - Chesterton - Emerson - La Ramée - Lewes - Lockhart - Lowell - Morley - Pater - Sainte-Beuve - Stephen - Thoreau - Villari - - PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE - - Carlyle - Darwin - Emerson - Galton - Hamilton - Ruskin - Shaler - Spencer - - RELIGION - - Bowne - Brierley - Brooks - Channing - Robertson - - - - -NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS - - -Each of the nations, like each of the great eras of human progress, -possesses definite characteristics of its own. Frenchmen differ from -Englishmen in their faces, their customs, and also in intellectual -trend. Shakespeare is unlike Ibsen not simply because he lived at an -earlier date, in another epoch, but also because he was the native -of another country. Kipling's point of view is not the same as that -of Thomas Bailey Aldrich; their national traditions and surroundings -varied sufficiently to leave a mark upon their work so legible that -one is recognized as English and the other as American without need -of referring to their biographies. - -It is necessary, then, to have in mind the traits that individualize -nations and races. For this reason the national characteristics are -here set forth briefly, with lists of the principal authors of each -country. - -=Greek Literature.= An unequaled perception of beauty, with a love of -symmetry and proportion: the reason and the feelings, the intellect -and the emotions are perfectly blended. The powers of imagination -and creation are highly trained, as well as the logical faculty, -resulting in the perfection of skill and insight in epic poetry -(Homer), tragedy (Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles), and philosophy -(Plato). - - POETRY - - Cleanthes - Homer - Pindar - Sappho - Theocritus - - FICTION - - Æsop - - HISTORY - - Herodotus - Thucydides - - BIOGRAPHY - - Plato - Plutarch - - DRAMA - - Æschylus - Euripides - Sophocles - - PHILOSOPHY - - Epictetus - Plato - -=Latin Literature.= The power of organization, with an ardor for -law and order, combined with a genius for adapting and utilizing -the best products of the nations which came under the Roman rule. -This talent for adaptation and imitation stands in contrast to the -Greek creative talent. Inasmuch as Rome's greatest literary works -belong to a period four centuries after the best Greek production, it -follows that the Roman authors profited not only by Greek achievement -but also by the increased knowledge of the world due to the vast -extension of the Roman Empire. Apart from this broader point of -view, Latin authors borrowed method and style from the Greek; Vergil -follows Homer and Theocritus, who was also imitated by Horace. Cicero -and Seneca took both thought and style from Greek philosophers. In -fact, Athens was the university at which all well-educated Romans had -studied. - - POETRY - - Catullus - Horace - Ovid - Vergil - - FICTION - - Apuleius - - HISTORY - - Cæsar - Josephus[2] - Livy - Suetonius - Tacitus - - BIOGRAPHY - - Pliny - - PHILOSOPHY - - Aurelius - Cicero - Lucretius - Seneca - -=English Literature.= England's isolation as an island has enabled -her to develop a national literature continuously for nine centuries -with only the slightest interruption from the world without. Foreign -ideas have been introduced, certainly, but by Englishmen instead of -by foreigners. Where a slothful race would have lain dormant and -inactive, the vigorous and adventurous islanders have even led the -way in two fields of literary endeavor, for fiction and the essay -reached their successive stages of growth more quickly in England -than elsewhere. Throughout poetry and prose, with but few exceptions, -there is a blend of shrewdness and inspiration which in daily life -is called common sense; Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Browning -continually sound the practical note, evincing their knowledge and -appreciation of material affairs. Another trait is that of searching -out the moral lessons in life and thought. "Books in the running -brooks, sermons in stones" are constantly sought by English authors. -Chaucer, Bunyan, Milton, Dickens, Carlyle, Browning, and many others -from the forefront of English letters play the part of teacher and -preacher again and again. - - POETRY - - Anglo-Saxon - Literature - Arnold, M. - Blake - Browning, E. B. - Browning, R. - Burns - Byron - Chaucer - Clough - Coleridge - Dryden - Goldsmith - Gray - Henley - Keats - Kingsley - Macaulay - Milton - Morris, W. - Old English Ballads - Patmore - Pope - Rossetti, C. - Rossetti, D. G. - Scott - Shakespeare - Shelley - Sidney - Spenser - Swinburne - Tennyson - Wordsworth - - FICTION - - Austen - Barrie - Blackmore - Borrow - Brontë - Caine - Defoe - Dickens - Doyle - Eliot - Fielding - Gaskell - Goldsmith - Hardy - Hughes - Kingsley - Kipling - Lever - Lytton - Macdonald - Macleod - Malory - Meredith - Reade - Richardson - Scott - Stevenson - Swift - Thackeray - Watson - - HISTORY - - Carlyle - Creasy - Farrar - Freeman - Froissart - Froude - Gibbon - Gladstone - Green - Grote - Hodgkin - Holinshed - McCarthy - Mahaffy - Raleigh - Smith, G. - Symonds - - BIOGRAPHY - - Boswell - Chesterton - Evelyn - Lewes - Lockhart - Pepys - Southey - - ESSAY - - Addison - Arnold, M. - Bacon - Benson - De Quincey - Hamerton - Harrison - Hazlitt - Lamb - Lang - La Ramée - Macaulay - Milton - Morley - Pater - Ruskin - Sidney - Steele - Stephen - Stevenson - Thackeray - Walton - White, G. - - HUMOR - - Barham - Carroll - Cowper - Dickens - Gilbert - Hood - Hope - Jerrold - Sterne - Swift - Thackeray - - TRAVEL - - Hearn - Kinglake - Mandeville - Stevenson - Tyndall - - DRAMA - - Jonson - Marlowe - Shakespeare - Sheridan - - ORATORY - - Bright - Burke - - SCIENCE - & PHILOSOPHY - - Bacon - Carlyle - Darwin - Galton - Mill - More - Ruskin - Smith, A. - Spencer - - RELIGION - - Bonar - Bowring - Brierley - Browne, Sir T. - Cowper - Faber - Heber - Herbert - Hooker - Keble - Lyte - Milman - Newman - Robertson - Toplady - Watts - Wesley - Wyclif - -=American Literature.= Obviously akin to English literature, -yet more democratic in tone, owing to national tendencies, such -as the character of the settlers, and the subsequent historical -developments. Longfellow, Emerson, Whitman, and the other -leading American authors wrote for the nation and not for any -restricted class; the aristocratic note characteristic of much of -eighteenth-century English literature is not to be found in American -writers. - - POETRY - - Aldrich - Bryant - Emerson - Field - Holmes - Howe - Key - Lanier - Longfellow - Lowell - Morris, G. P. - Payne - Poe - Read - Riley - Smith, S. F. - Story - Taylor - Whitman - Whittier - Woodworth - - FICTION - - Aldrich - Cooper - Crawford - Hale - Harte - Hawthorne - Irving - Poe - Stowe - - HISTORY - - Bancroft - Fiske - Irving - McMaster - Motley - Parkman - Prescott - - ESSAY - - Emerson - Fields - Howells - Lowell - Mitchell - Thoreau - Warner - - HUMOR - - Browne, C. F. - Harris - Harte - Holmes - Irving - Lowell - - TRAVEL - - Audubon - Dana - Melville - - ORATORY - - Choate - Henry - Lincoln - Phillips - Sumner - Washington - Webster - - SCIENCE - & PHILOSOPHY - - Emerson - Hamilton - Shaler - - RELIGION - - Bowne - Brooks - Channing - Palmer - Sears - -=French Literature.= A marked love of beauty, almost Greek in its -nature, with a feeling for accuracy and organization which is -decidedly Latin. These qualities have produced delicacy and clearness -of expression; but their tendencies lead to perfection of style and -form rather than to depth of thought, giving an effect of lightness -and brilliance, and at times of superficiality. - - POETRY - - French Lit. - La Fontaine - Musset - Ronsard - Rouget de Lisle - Verlaine - Villon - - FICTION - - Balzac - Bernardin de - Saint-Pierre - Chateaubriand - Daudet - Dumas - Fénelon - Feuillet - French Lit. - Hugo - Laboulaye - Le Sage - Maupassant - Perrault - Zola - - HISTORY - - French Lit. - Guizot - Michelet - Taine - Voltaire - - ESSAY - - Montaigne - Sainte-Beuve - - DRAMA - - Molière - Racine - Rostand - - PHILOSOPHY - - Pascal - Rousseau - - RELIGION - - Bernard, St. - Bernard of Cluny - -=German Literature.= Depth of thought and forceful expression, -which are in part responsible for the complex character of the -national style as opposed to the clarity of the French. Owing to -the unsettled condition of Germany for many centuries, the arts in -general, and literature especially, did not begin to flourish to a -noteworthy degree until the eighteenth century. While Luther was the -first great author to use the language in its present form, it was -not until two centuries later that the next eminent writers, Lessing, -Schiller, and Goethe, appeared, whose work marks the highest point in -the history of German letters. - - POETRY - - Arndt - German Lit. - Goethe - Heine - Schneckenburger - Uhland - - FICTION - - Fouqué - Grimm - Raspe - - HISTORY - - Mommsen - - DRAMA - - Lessing - Schiller - Goethe - - PHILOSOPHY - - Kant - Schopenhauer - - RELIGION - - à Kempis - Luther - -=Italian Literature.= Emotional and imaginative rather than -reflective, and therefore at its best in the brilliant and exuberant -era of the Renaissance, which first came into full bloom in Italy. - - POETRY - - Dante - Jacopone - Michelangelo - Petrarch - Tasso - - FICTION - - Boccaccio - Manzoni - - HISTORY - - Ferrero - - TRAVEL - & BIOG. - - Cellini - Pellico - Polo - Villari - - PHILOSOPHY - - Machiavelli - - RELIGION - - Jacopone - Mazzini - Thomas of Celano - -=Spanish Literature.= Marked by the dignity that is the predominating -characteristic of the nation. Just as Spain has had but one brief -period when she was supreme among the European nations, so she has -produced but one supreme author, Cervantes. Her literature, for the -most part, and notably at the present day, is imitative, behind -rather than ahead of the times. - - POETRY - - Spanish Lit. - - FICTION - - Cervantes - - DRAMA - - Calderon - -=Scandinavian Literature.= Norway, Sweden, and Denmark are nations -of the same race; their history, literature, and civilization are -inseparably associated. Climate, racial character, historical -developments, and other causes have combined to retard the growth of -their literature. Apart from the sagas little of universal interest -appeared until the nineteenth century, in which Ibsen created a -sensation with his dramas of relentless criticism of the vanity and -pettiness of life in the prosperous, democratic society of Norway. - - POETRY - - Ewald - Norse Lit. - - FICTION - - Andersen - Björnson - - HISTORY - - Norse Lit. - - DRAMA - - Ibsen - -=Russian Literature.= In some respects more closely related to the -East than to the West, and hampered by despotism until the twentieth -century, Russia produced nothing of value until a century ago. The -novelists mentioned below then began a series of vivid pictures of -the struggle for freedom, knowledge, and civilization as opposed to -tyranny, universal ignorance, and barbarism. Their work has a strong -national flavor, coupled with a youthful energy and an enthusiasm -for the mission of enlightenment that recalls the spirit of the -Renaissance and its zeal for discovery and progress. - - POETRY - - Derzhavin - - FICTION - - Russian Lit. - Sienkiewicz - Tolstoi - Turgenieff - -=Oriental Literature.= Arabia, Persia, India, China, and Japan -live and think along lines utterly at variance with our mode of -life. Their points of difference from each other are by no means as -distinct as the radical contrast between their customs and ours. -As we all know, Arabic and Hebrew are written from right to left, -so that a book's first page corresponds to the last page with us; -in China and Japan people write down the page in vertical columns. -Again, with us energy and activity, wisely used, form the basis of -our life and our religion, whereas in the Orient it is held best -to abstain from all action, to lead a life of absolute quiet and -inactivity, if possible. - -It follows that the literature of the East is first of all -exceedingly difficult to translate well and in the second place is -not to be judged in the same fashion as Western writings. - - POETRY - - Hafiz - Omar Khayyám - Sadi - - FICTION - - Arabian Nights - Jewish Lit. - - HISTORY - - Japanese Lit. - Josephus[3] - - RELIGION - - Confucius - Hindoo Lit. - Jewish Lit. - Mohammed - - - - -THE DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE - - -Poetry, history, the novel, the short story, the essay, and other -branches of literature have all passed through successive stages -of change and progress. To trace one of these divisions from its -beginnings is not only interesting, but affords an excellent method -of study, easily carried out and immediately beneficial. The novel -of to-day, for example, is the product of centuries of authorship, -in which various elements were gradually blended; the contributions -of Cervantes, Defoe, Addison, and Scott, extending over a space of -two hundred and thirty years, have each played a decisive part in its -formation. So it is with history, poetry, and the rest of the forms -of intellectual expression. The origin and nature of each of these -divisions is considered in the pages that follow, with the usual -lists and examples under each heading. - - -POETRY - -How did poetry originate? In every nation the beginnings of its -literature have been poems. This highest form of literary expression -is also the oldest; it is not the final triumphant product of a -highly civilized age, after centuries of slow development and gradual -growth of power and art in the use of words. It is exactly the -opposite; the earliest authors are the poets who sang and chanted the -brave deeds of the leaders of their nation; the "Iliad," the Norse -sagas, the "Song of Roland" are well-known examples of this primitive -yet glorious poetry. But why is this, that one of the greatest of the -arts should be already highly perfected in barbaric times? Because -poetry rests on two principles: it is imaginative in its nature and -rhythmic in its form. Man's imagination stirred him to conquest for -the sake of glory and dominion, and then his imagination was again -roused to tell in words of splendid imagery of his honor and fame -and valor, of loveliness and happiness and power. Man's instinct for -the regular cadence that he heard in the tramp of marching feet led -him to chant aloud in firm, even measure while the words he sang -fitted themselves to the beat of his music. It was only a slight -matter to vary the length of the lines or group them in stanzas or -use rhyme in order to increase the beauty of verse construction. -However, the true test of poetry has always been the value of its -imaginative power; no matter how accurate or elaborate its form, -unless it expresses great ideas it cannot rank as great poetry, but -merely as good verse. Like all art, poetry is the expression of -genuine feeling in beautiful form. (See Sidney's "Defense of Poesy.") - - -THE CHIEF DIVISIONS OF POETRY - -=Epic poetry= tells the story of a great sequence of events, such as -the wanderings and home-coming of Odysseus, in the "Odyssey." It is -the earliest form of literature and one of the grandest. No great -period or nation has failed to produce its epic. - -For examples in Ancient Literature see "The Epic of Pentaur" under -Egyptian Literature; Homer; and Vergil. The works of the last two are -known as 'heroic epics.' - -In the Dark Ages: "Beowulf" under Anglo-Saxon Literature; "The Song -of Roland" under French Literature; "The Nibelungenlied" under German -Literature; "The Saga of Eric the Red" under Norse Literature; and -"The Chronicle of the Cid" under Spanish Literature. - -In the Middle Ages: Dante and Tasso, who wrote 'sacred epics.' The -"Old English Ballads" are excellent examples of the shorter poetic -tales from which such epics as the "Iliad," the "Nibelungenlied," and -the "Song of Roland" were built up. - -In the Renaissance: Spenser, whose "Faerie Queene" is an epic of -chivalry. Milton's great epics of "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise -Regained" are sacred epics, reflecting the Puritan influence that -came over England at the close of the period. - -In the Age of Classicism: the mock-epic of Pope's "Rape of the Lock," -and the epic tale in prose, "Telemachus," by Fénelon. - -In the Age of Romanticism: Scott's "Lady of the Lake," and Byron's -"Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," although this last is perhaps best -regarded as a study of the poet's emotions upon visiting the grandest -scenes in Europe. - -In Nineteenth Century Literature: Longfellow's "Evangeline" and -"Hiawatha" are short epics. Owing to the central, unifying figure of -King Arthur, Tennyson's "Idylls of the King" have much of the epic -effect. - -=Lyric poetry= includes all verse that presents the poet's feelings -and passions; it is characterized also by plentiful use of varied -ideas, rich and fanciful imagery, and rhythmical flow of language. - -From the beginning there were shorter songs, as well as the epic, -often accompanied on the lyre, a small harp, from which this branch -of poetry takes its name. To-day lyric poetry tends toward a lighter -tone and spirit than in the Romantic Period; in length it may vary -very widely, from the little quatrain, of four lines, to an ode or -a ballad of almost epic extent. Burns, Milton, Moore, Byron, Keats, -Shelley, Shakespeare, and Wordsworth are among the foremost in this -field; among the ancients Catullus, Horace, and Sappho are prominent; -while the writings of Goethe, Heine, Uhland, Longfellow, Whittier, -Browning, Tennyson, and Swinburne contain many that are familiar. -Musical accompaniment is no longer essential. There are several forms -of the lyric, chief among which are the following: - - The Ode, addressed to a person or a personified idea or else - expressing the poet's emotions at a moment of great exaltation. - In form it either follows a varying sequence of lines of - irregular length or else employs a series of uniform stanzas. - Illustrative of the former are Dryden's "Alexander's Feast" - and "A Song for St. Cecilia's Day," and Wordsworth's "Ode on - Intimations of Immortality"; among the latter are Collins's "Ode - to Evening," Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian - Urn," Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" and "To a Skylark," and - Wordsworth's "To the Cuckoo" and "Ode to Duty." - - The Sonnet, of Italian origin, was brought to its perfection - by Petrarch; it consists of fourteen lines of equal length - (in English usually of ten syllables), the first eight lines - constituting the _octave_ and the last six, the _sestet_. In - the octave the rhymes are arranged _a b b a a b b a_, and in - the sestet, either _c d c d c d_ or _c d e c d e_. The sonnet - should contain one idea, which may be treated from two points of - view, in the octave and sestet respectively. As used by Milton - and later poets in England this double treatment was not often - observed and there is no break of thought at the end of the - octave. Owing to its restrictions the sonnet is considered one - of the most difficult forms in which to achieve distinction, - as metrical ingenuity without sublimity of thought bars mere - versifiers. The most noted examples by English authors are E. - B. Browning's "Sonnets from the Portuguese," Keats's "On First - Looking into Chapman's Homer," Milton's "On His Blindness," - Shelley's "England in 1819," and those selected from Wordsworth. - - The Ballad, partaking somewhat of the epic, is a tale in verse, - usually arranged in short stanzas. "Old English Ballads," - Cowper's "The Diverting History of John Gilpin," Drayton's - "Ballad of Agincourt," and Rossetti's "The White Ship" are - specimens of this form. It originated among the peasantry, who - commemorated the prowess of their favorite heroes in rough verse - sung by the cottage hearth. - - The Elegy is devoted to the memory of the dead and therefore is - grave and stately in its metrical form as well as in thought. - Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," Milton's - "Lycidas," Shelley's "Adonais," and Tennyson's "In Memoriam" are - the most famous. - -=Idyllic poetry= briefly presents a picture, complete and lovely, -usually pastoral and romantic. Tennyson's "Idylls of the King," -Goldsmith's "Deserted Village," the Idylls of Theocritus, and the -Eclogues of Vergil are the best examples. - -=Dramatic poetry=, in which the form of a play or drama is used, has -always been chosen for the deepest and most majestic presentations -of the problems and wonders of human life. The dramatic poets of -the ancients as well as those of modern times rank among the most -far-seeing thinkers and ablest writers of the world. No philosopher -or historian has ever been able to reach the people or express the -profoundest reflections so readily and forcibly. - -The tragedies of Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, with those of -Shakespeare and the "Faust" of Goethe, are the highest achievements -in literature; their effect, from the stage, is instantaneous, and -even in reading them the mind receives a direct impression of wonder -and awe not elsewhere given. The Greek tragedies mentioned above -have for their underlying theme the power of relentless fate, the -inevitable omnipotence of right, and the final destruction of wrong -and falsehood. In these and "Macbeth," "Hamlet," and "King Lear" -the mastery of plot and action is superb; the play gathers force -and momentum until the catastrophe sweeps down upon the evil-doers -and unfortunates like a tidal wave. Yet each step in its progress, -even the least trifle, is so natural as to seem unavoidable. Here -is the proof of the poet's genius, in that he selects the message -to be presented to his audience or readers, chooses his characters, -and outlines his plot, then combines the three elements with such -skill and with such inspiration as to leave an effect of perfect -truth and actuality. Aristotle, the ancient philosopher and critic, -declared that the very souls of the audience were cleansed and rid of -pettiness and self-seeking by beholding such works as these; that the -spectacle of disaster brought down upon men by their own vanity and -wrong-doing, and portrayed in language of such vivid grandeur, was -the most impressive means of reaching the hearts of men. - -In addition to the authors mentioned above, Calderon, Jonson, -Lessing, Marlowe, Molière, Racine, Rostand, and Schiller have made -notable contributions to the poetic drama. (See also Drama, p. 49.) - - -FICTION - -The practice of telling tales of love and heroism is older than -history itself. Ever since men sat about the fire of an evening and -recited the deeds of their chieftains or extolled the beauty of -their princesses, in other words, ever since the days when poetry -first began, stories and tales have been handed down, first by word -of mouth, then by carvings and inscriptions and at last by writing -and printing. The first fiction was a simple, imaginative invention -of adventure, told to pass the time. Æsop's "Fables" and Apuleius's -"Story of Cupid and Psyche," ancient as they are, show the progress -already made in the art of narration, the one simple and insistent -in its purpose of teaching common sense by whimsical anecdotes, the -other a delicately artistic legend told with exquisite grace. In -"Jewish Literature" the story of Tobit's wonderful adventures at once -calls to mind the "Arabian Nights," which were of similar origin, -told by professional story-tellers for centuries before they were -finally written down and translated for our perpetual delight. - -=The novel=, a new feature in fiction, shows its first faint -beginnings in the tumult and enthusiasm of the Renaissance, that -strenuous age of new ideas and discoveries. Cervantes in writing "Don -Quixote" had a definite purpose in mind beyond mere entertainment; -the passing of the age of chivalry and the pathos and humor of life -form the true subject of his tale. Bunyan in the "Pilgrim's Progress" -shows the same intent of doing something more than providing -interesting reading; the growth of a noble character through struggle -and temptation on the journey through life is the central thought -of his work. His hero, Christian, changes in character, becoming a -stronger, better man as the story goes on. Defoe's Robinson Crusoe -goes through much of the same evolution. And this is the underlying -principle of the novel, that it has a purpose beyond simple -story-telling, possessing a plot or unified succession of incidents, -with actors whose characters develop. It is a picture of human life, -with strength and weakness, happiness and misery, all bound together -and forming a united and well-proportioned whole. - -However, it was not until Addison and Steele, in the "Spectator" -essays, had shown such skill in drawing characters and depicting -manners and customs that the time was ripe for the true novel to -appear. For one of the chief duties of the novel is to criticize -life, to furnish comment on the social conditions and tendencies of -the day. Among the earliest and also the greatest of the English -novelists, Fielding, whose work appeared about thirty years after the -"Spectator," not only draws sturdy and truthful pictures of the life -of his day, but also makes the reader see the true value of that life -and estimate its good and its bad qualities. In the same way Dickens -and Thackeray, not very long after, supplied unending amusement and -fun for the world and at the same time did far more by making the -nations sit up and think, pointing out with almost brutal clearness -the need of unselfish action and the love of truth and simplicity. -There is not a novel of high rank but contains more than meets the -eye at first glance. It is the readiest means of putting a critical -estimate of history, of life and society, directly before the world. - -NOVELS AND GENERAL FICTION - - Austen - Balzac - Beaconsfield - Blackmore - Borrow - Brontë - Bunyan - Caine - Cervantes - Chateaubriand - Cooper - Daudet - Defoe - Dickens - Doyle - Dumas - Fénelon - Feuillet - Fielding - Gaskell - Goldsmith - Hugo - Kingsley - Le Sage - Lever - Lytton - Macdonald - Manzoni - Meredith - Reade - Richardson - Scott - Shorthouse - Sienkiewicz - Stowe - Thackeray - Turgenieff - Zola - -=The short story=, as distinct from a story that is short, is a -nineteenth-century development in fiction. During the last hundred -years the magazines grew so rapidly in numbers and circulation that -they could not depend entirely on continued stories; they had to -have tales that would be complete in one number, which could be read -at one sitting. The demand brought the needed solution, a story -which instead of length, with intricate action and complex studies -of personality, supplied rapid action, brilliantly imaginative -description, and a terse portrayal of character. Scenes, persons, -and events were stamped immediately on the reader's mind; the effect -desired by the writer was attained by force and bold decision. Edgar -Allan Poe was one of the first to excel in this field, utilizing his -critical powers as well as sheer inspiration to meet the situation. - -The variations in style and manner are as manifold in the short story -as in the novel. Boccaccio, "The Arabian Nights," French Literature, -and the "Gesta Romanorum" show the work of the Middle Ages, from mere -anecdote with a moral tagged on, in the "Gesta," to the graceful -prose poem of "Aucassin and Nicolete." Barrie, Brown, and Hawthorne -do little more than draw quiet sketches of simple life, while -Björnson, Eliot, Hardy, Harte, Irving, Kipling, Macleod, Maupassant, -Stevenson, and Tolstoi deal powerfully with situations that bring -home to us the force of fate which lurks hidden in petty incidents. -Aldrich, Collins, Crawford, Hale, and Watson have all used this type -of fiction effectively. Indeed, Hale's "Man Without a Country" drives -home the idea of patriotism so vigorously that Italy recently issued -a translation in an edition of a million copies for distribution to -her army. - - -HISTORY - -Like poetry and fiction, history emerges from the darkness of the -unknown ages, at first no more than a boastful record of slaughter -and usurpation, such as shows through the gloss and splendor of epic -poetry. The sagas in "Norse Literature," the crisp record of invasion -and conquest by Cæsar, and that of Josephus on the Roman conquest of -the Jews are all of this type, a chronicle by an eyewitness of the -succession of deeds that made up some event in a nation's life. - -An improvement came with Herodotus in ancient times and again with -Froissart in the Middle Ages. Both of these historians added zest -to their tale by including some account of the principal personages -as well as picturesque, well-drawn pictures of the scene. In other -words, they filled in the background of their pictures, their wars -were waged by people with definite personalities and in a country -with certain individual features and peculiarities. - -From this method to the modern scientific style was a further -advance. It is now understood that we must perceive the growth of -a nation, its social changes, its increase of intellectual as well -as physical power, its innermost secrets of success or failure. -Thucydides, the Greek historian, and Tacitus, the Roman, felt -something of this and have left us far more than a mere list of -battles and rulers. Gibbon, in "The Decline and Fall of the Roman -Empire," and later still, Guizot, Mommsen, and Ferrero, have carried -on the work of analyzing the complex mysteries of history and -civilization and have brought it to its highest development. The more -stirring visions of heroism and kingly dominion have been replaced by -pages in which not an emperor but a nation is born, passes through -childhood to maturity and wisdom, succumbs to disease or an enemy's -murderous attacks, and perishes. - -The study of history nowadays may involve the scholar in years of -drudgery, such as searching out and listing the exports and imports -of the city of London between the years 1340 and 1400. However, -the conclusions drawn from his discoveries may be of world-wide -importance. The questions of tariff reform, wage-scales, taxation, -and representative government will all be affected by the data which -his scientific investigation will have brought to light. Those of us -whose life-work lies in other directions can give no attention to -the details of toilsome labor like this. But the results must always -be significant for us. The great movements in the troublous advance -of the nations from barbarism to civilization are full of lessons -which we must learn. History, regarded as a series of wars, an -unceasing fury of bloodshed and misgovernment, is of slight interest -to peace-loving people. But history as a series of pictures, showing -the conditions of life in various ages and countries, picturing the -spread of liberty and equality, and the slow yet sure increase of -justice--history viewed in this manner is one of the most stirring -and educative subjects for reading and study. - -How was the Roman Empire built up? What was the condition of the -people in the days of Homer? How did the ancient tribes live from -which the German nation is descended? What was England like in -Shakespeare's time? These are some of the questions which we should -ask. Many of the ablest brains in Europe and America have spent their -lives in finding out the answers. - -The following lists group the historians according to the nation -which they discuss. - - GREECE - - Froude - Gladstone - Grote - Herodotus - Mahaffy - Plutarch - Thucydides - - ROME - - Cæsar - Farrar - Ferrero - Freeman - Gibbon - Hodgkin - Josephus - Livy - Mommsen - Pliny - Suetonius - Tacitus - - ENGLAND - - Cæsar - Creasy - Evelyn - Froissart - Green - Holinshed - McCarthy - Pepys - Raleigh - Smith, G. - Southey - Taine - - AMERICA - - Bancroft - Fiske - Irving - McMaster - Parkman - - FRANCE - - Cæsar - Carlyle - Creasy - French Lit. - Froissart - Michelet - Parkman - - ITALY - - Cellini - Hodgkin - Symonds - Villari - - - SPAIN - - Creasy - Prescott - Spanish Lit. - -Egyptian Literature, Guizot's "History of Civilization in Europe," -Japanese Literature, Josephus on the conquest of the Jews by Rome, -Motley's "Relief of Leyden," Norse Literature, Tacitus's "Customs of -the Germans," and Voltaire's account of Charles XII of Sweden are -other selections. - - -BIOGRAPHY - -The lives of great men have always been of interest not merely for -the sake of satisfying curiosity, but because of the value of further -knowledge about their habits, thoughts, and actions. The personality -of a great man attracts us; perhaps through reading an intimate -account of his life we may see into the reasons for his superiority, -possibly we may find the key to the secret of power. So much can be -learned from biography that it seems absurd how little importance -is given to the subject even in our best colleges. Yet Christianity -rests upon the life and teachings of one Personality, nation after -nation has been saved or ruined by the deeds of one individual, -wisdom and contentment have been found by the great minds of the -world. By considering their lives, their principles, their virtues, -and their failings we can get an extraordinary insight into the -problems of happiness and wholesome living. Carlyle rightly called a -Great Man "the most precious gift that Heaven can give to the Earth; -a man of 'genius' as we call it; the Soul of a Man actually sent down -from the skies with a God's-message to us." To see such a man at his -work, at his play, thinking, dreaming, attaining greatness little by -little or in a flash, to spend hours with him in thought, learning -from him or from his friends and critics wherein he proved his power -and how he labored to express it: to be in such close touch with one -of the giants of the earth is a privilege which we must not dare to -neglect. The opportunity is ours, ours be the blame and the failure -if we neglect it. - - Boswell - Cellini - Chesterton - Eckermann - Evelyn - Fields - Franklin - Lewes - Lockhart - Pellico - Pepys - Plato - Pliny - Plutarch - Renan - Southey - Stephen - Villari - - -ESSAY - -Originally intended, as its name implies, to be a tentative effort -rather than a finished production, the essay has none the less become -one of the most perfect forms of prose. Its subject and the treatment -thereof may be of almost any nature, provided it is well wrought -and finished in style; for an essay is the artistic consideration -of a topic, often critical, as in the case of Matthew Arnold's -masterpieces, humorous, as with Lamb, philosophical as with Emerson, -Carlyle, and Ruskin, and so on through a dozen diverse manners. In -general the essay is brief, critical, and scholarly, and bears the -stamp of the author's personality and individual opinion in his most -polished style. - -Bacon and Montaigne were the first to use it, Milton followed, and -then Addison and Steele brought it to a high state of light and -pungent perfection. Lamb, Macaulay, and Stevenson are perhaps the -leaders in its later development. The work of such writers as Walton -and Gilbert White, though not perhaps within the stricter limits of -the definition, is closely related to the essay in tone and style. - - Addison - Arnold, M. - Benson - De Quincey - Hamerton - Harrison - Hazlitt - Howells - Lamb - Lang - La Ramée - Lowell - Macaulay - Mill - Mitchell - Montaigne - Morley - Pater - Ruskin - Sainte-Beuve - Sidney - Steele - Stephen - Stevenson - Thackeray - Thoreau - Walton - Warner - White, G. - - -HUMOR - -Humor is the most subtle of intellectual modes of expression. To -define it and lay down its laws and principles is all but beyond -human power. For it ranges from the inspired nonsense of Carroll's -"Alice in Wonderland" and "Through the Looking-Glass" or the rough -and ready gusto of Browne's "Showman's Courtship" to the airily -intangible delicacy of Lamb's "Essays of Elia" and the venomous -sarcasm of Swift's "Gulliver's Travels." Mere wit turns on an absurd -similarity in words or ideas, as in Hood's lines: - - "They went and told the sexton, and - The sexton tolled the bell." - -Yet the deepest humor is all but pathos; Don Quixote's demented -visions of giants that prove to be windmills and of castles that turn -out to be taverns provoke our laughter while they stir our pity. - -Humor would seem to depend, according to some, upon the association -of ideas or circumstances that have no true relation to each other, -as if they actually possessed a natural relationship. For this reason -a cat or a cow dressed in coat and trousers provokes laughter, or -a village bully described as a proud monarch causes a smile. An -unexpected answer made as seriously as if it were appropriate is one -of the commoner examples of the ludicrous. It is much for the same -reason that actual misfortune may appear laughable, if the element of -suffering is suppressed, as in Joel Chandler Harris's "Uncle Remus" -stories, or Gilbert's "Yarn of the Nancy Bell." Its very subtlety -limits the appeal of humor. "One man's meat is another man's poison" -applies more closely to this division of authorship than to any -other. What tickles the fancy of one person, and more especially, one -nation, may not afford even passing amusement to another. Englishmen -find our comic papers dull, while many Americans see little to laugh -at in "Punch." - - Barham - Browne - Carroll - Cervantes - Cowper - Gilbert - Harris - Harte - Holmes - Hood - Hope - Irving - Jerrold - Jonson - Lamb - Lowell - Richter - Sheridan - Sterne - Swift - - -FOR THE CHILDREN - -The foundations of good taste are best laid in childhood. Fairy -tales, adventures, and all sorts of stories for children may be -well designed and well written, or the opposite, just as much as -books for older people. Choose your children's books as you choose -their food; take care they get no trash, arrange a tempting diet of -wholesome nourishment for their minds. The authors listed below wrote -as carefully and thoughtfully for little folks as when they wrote -for grown-ups. Andersen devoted his life to authorship for children; -the Grimm brothers made a scientific study of folk-lore and fairy -tales throughout the German empire, collecting the stories told by -the firesides in each district. Carroll, Hawthorne, Kingsley, and -many others put their best efforts into books which are unquestioned -examples of great literature and yet were purposed entirely for -youth. There is no occasion for young people to ruin their taste and -their appreciation with ill-written rubbish. - - Æsop - Andersen - Arabian Nights - Brown - Fouqué - Grimm - Hughes - Irving - Jewish Lit. - Kingsley - Laboulaye - Perrault - Raspe - Russian Lit. - Swift - - -TRAVEL - -The majority of travelers have been men of action rather than words, -filled with enthusiasm and inspiration for deeds instead of books. -Columbus, Magellan, Drake, and the rest of the leaders of exploration -have left nothing that can be called literature. Their records, -at best, are scientific reports of their discoveries. Still, ever -since the days when Pausanias made his remarkable tour of Greece and -described its wonders and Herodotus jotted down the travelers' tales -of Egypt, there have been able writers to tell of the marvels, real -or imaginary, to be found in foreign lands. - - Audubon - Dana - Hearn - Heine - Kinglake - Mandeville - Melville - Pausanias - Polo - Stevenson - Tyndall - - -DRAMA - -In both ancient and modern literature the drama is of religious -origin. Among the Greeks it began as a service in memory of some dead -hero, the choir or chorus chanting the story of his life and deeds. -Their leader presently began to take an actor's part, addressing the -audience or congregation, and then other persons were introduced -who carried on a dialogue with him and at last played the part of -characters in the hero's history. In the Middle Ages, when the great -majority of the people could not read, the Bible story was acted -at Christmas, Easter, and other festivals in order to impress it -on their minds more vividly. From this it was an easy step to the -presentation of historical events, and it was but one more step to -the modern drama's elaborate staging and well-rounded plot. (For the -poetic drama, see p. 40.) - -In general the drama has certain limitations which must be taken -into account before passing judgment upon a play. Three hours is the -utmost duration for a play; it must 'get across' within that period, -since an audience becomes wearied during the third hour. It appeals -to two senses, hearing and sight, while other forms of literature -appeal but to one. This is an advantage as far as it enables the -dramatist to tell his story by scenery and action as well as by -speech and incidental music. It is a handicap when the action or -the scenery is faulty and distracts the attention of the audience -from the dialogue. Descriptions of any length, the study or analysis -of personality, all features of ordinary fiction which delay the -action are impossible on the stage. Speech and action must be fitted -together so as to carry the plot through without pause, revealing the -story forcibly, clearly, and yet naturally, within the restricted -time. - -These limitations have been handled in widely varying manners: -three systems of presentation have been employed, the ancient, -the medieval, and the modern, all of which are to be seen at the -present day, thanks to the revival of Greek plays in the stadiums -and amphitheaters of our colleges and likewise to the revival of the -Elizabethan drama during the past ten years. - -The ancient or Greek drama was presented in a stone amphitheater -against a background of marble, constructed in the form of a palace -or temple; the semicircular space occupied by the orchestra seats -in our theaters contained an altar in the center and was used by -the actors as a part of the stage; the chorus in particular used -this space for their stately dances and stood at one side during -the progress of the action, commenting on the course of events in -odes which they chanted. The lack of movable scenery, and other -limitations, resulted in the restrictions known as =the three -'unities,'= of action, time, and place. No play, according to =the -unity of action=, should introduce incidents that were not a part of -the main action; the plot must be absolutely simple. Thus the story -of Jessica and Lorenzo, in "The Merchant of Venice" would be barred -by this convention, as it does not contribute to the development of -the main story of Antonio and Shylock. The =unity of time= required -that the action should not represent the occurrences of more than a -day at the very outside, and the =unity of place= held the action to -one spot. These latter conventions were to increase the impression -of truth and actuality on the minds of the spectators, heightening -the effect of complete naturalness and leaving their imaginations -free to grasp the problems of the plot without the additional effort -of supposing lapses of time and changes of scene to have occurred. -The number of actors was small; usually two, or at most three, were -permitted to take part at one time in a portion of the dialogue. -These conventions produce a simplicity that was not bare and dull, -but just the reverse; the attention is focused directly upon the -leading character and his fate from beginning to end. The effect is -single and direct, there is no complexity or intricacy to puzzle the -audience or distract its interest in the crisis which is so obviously -approaching. The grandeur of this type of drama is like that of a -great hymn, such as "Old Hundred," sung by a vast congregation. - -The medieval plays, which reached their height in Shakespeare's -time, were very different from those of the ancients. The stage was -almost as bare and scenery was not used, but changes of locality were -frequent, indicated by hanging out a sign with the words, "This is -a garden" or "A Street in Venice" and so on. In the same way there -was no restriction upon time; years might be supposed to have passed -between one act and the next. The imagination of the audience was -expected to take care of such matters, and indeed it did so with -the utmost ease. The plot could be supplemented with all sorts of -incidents whether they directly concerned it or not. For example, the -wrestling scene at the beginning of "As You Like It" was inserted to -satisfy the Elizabethan love of sport, not because it could be of -use in advancing the progress of the story, as it did nothing of the -kind. The Greek unities were disregarded completely; however, the -most impressive of Shakespeare's tragedies do adhere to the principle -of the unity of action,--"Macbeth," for example, deals with the -consequences of unscrupulous ambition, each event in the play leads -directly on to the catastrophe without a pause, there are no minor -events or plots. - -The modern play differs from both the earlier forms of the drama -in its appeal to the eye. The use of scenery, which came in at -the beginning of the Age of Classicism, has led to an elaboration -of stage effects which sometimes is injurious to the success of -a production. Much of the modern stage-craft is concerned with -scenic effects and therefore does not come into this discussion. -The chief distinction to-day lies in the treatment of problems -of everyday life in an everyday manner. Neither the ancient nor -the Shakespearian playwrights handled tragedy in the setting of -ordinary life. The Greeks portrayed famous heroes and princes and -so did the Elizabethans, but rarely, except in comedy, was there -any presentation of the life of the middle classes of that time. -Sheridan and Ibsen, in common with most of the modern playwrights, -take the life of the mass of the people and draw their illustrations -of success and failure direct. The audience of to-day sees itself -walking and talking on the stage, playing the fool or the hero. - -Each style has its merits and its faults, each is powerful in the -hands of a genius and each fails when used by incompetents. The -average drama depends largely upon the actors for its success, it can -hardly be classed among literary efforts. Only the plays wrought by -masters of thought as well as of speech can be given a place in the -realm of literature. - - Æschylus - Calderon - Euripides - Goethe - Ibsen - Jonson - Lessing - Marlowe - Molière - Racine - Rostand - Schiller - Shakespeare - Sheridan - Sophocles - - -ORATORY - -The art of addressing a large gathering and winning their support, as -well as their attention, by sound argument and also by eloquence is -a study that is in danger of falling into a decline, owing perhaps -to the prevalence of newspapers and the rapidity with which an -argument or an idea can be spread broadcast over the world by the -telegraph and the press. In reading even the finest speeches of the -past or the present allowance must almost always be made for the -personal magnetism of the speaker, the appeal made by his presence, -his gestures, and his voice. For this reason it is difficult to form -a just estimate of the worth of a speech, especially at a date when -the subject has become less vital or even unfamiliar through the -passage of time. The sole bases of criticism under these conditions -must be the force of the argument and the eloquence of the style. -This is aptly illustrated in the case of Burke, whose arguments were -admitted to be irresistible in their strength, but who had so poor a -delivery that he was called the dinner-bell of the House of Commons, -in reference to the departure of the members when he rose to speak. -The most influential speakers have been those who combined skill in -argument with grace and eloquence and reinforced these qualities with -a commanding personality. These talents are needed to-day if we are -to maintain the standard set by Washington, Webster, and Lincoln. - - Bright - Brooks - Burke - Channing - Choate - Demosthenes - Henry - Lincoln - Mirabeau - Phillips - Robertson - Sumner - Washington - Webster - - -PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE - -The aim of philosophy, like that of science, is to probe the mystery -of life, to discover as far as possible the nature of man and of the -universe in which he dwells. These efforts began when men first asked -"What am I? What is this world?" Philosophy attempts the answer by -reasoning and meditation, while science uses inventions, such as the -telescope, mathematical calculation, and all other means of obtaining -accurate information regarding the physical environment and nature -of man. The former is concerned with the spirit, the unseen, the -motives of honor, love, and the like, and the infinite possibilities -of the mind and the soul; the latter deals with the actual, material -conditions of life. The best of scientific literature so closely -borders on philosophy that it has been included among the selections -that treat of philosophic problems. - - Aurelius - Bacon - Carlyle - Cicero - Darwin - Emerson - Epictetus - Galton - Hamilton - Kant - Lucretius - Machiavelli - Mill - More - Pascal - Plato - Rousseau - Ruskin - Schopenhauer - Seneca - Shaler - Smith, A. - Spencer - - -RELIGION - -Certain hymns will always linger in the memory from the days of -childhood; and certain sermons and devotional works have so feelingly -expressed the aspirations of Christian life that they have attained -enduring fame. These are here collected without reference to -denominational distinction. - -Also, as it is of interest to note the ideals of thinkers in other -than Christian lands, passages are included from the teachings of -Confucius, the Chinese scholar; Cleanthes, the Greek poet; the life -of Buddha, in Hindoo Literature; the Talmud, in Jewish Literature; -and the "Koran" of Mohammed. - - -HYMNS - - Bernard, St. - Bernard of Cluny - Bonar - Bowring - Cowper - Faber - Heber - Herbert - Jacopone - Keble - Luther - Lyte - Milman - Newman - Palmer - Thomas of Celano - Toplady - Watts - Wesley - - -SERMONS AND DEVOTIONAL WORKS - - Bowne - Brierley - Brooks - Browne, Sir T. - Bunyan - Channing - Hooker - à Kempis - Luther - Mazzini - Robertson - Wyclif - - - - -FROM SEVEN TO TWENTY-ONE - -Lists of readings for young and old. - -Showing how to acquire, by easy stages, a knowledge of the best in -literature, year by year. - - -Unlike poets, painters, and the rest of the world of artists, -booklovers are made, not born. But many a booklover has been spoiled -in the making, too; so that we must needs give thought to the process -of transforming everyday folk into _willing and skilful readers and -lovers of books_. Many boys and girls and many men and women have -lost all interest in the realm of books through lack of suitable -material for enjoyment and adequate opportunity for practice. What -books they could find round the house failed to meet their desires or -hold their attention; probably they were technical or 'dry-as-dust.' - -In other words the untrained reader, whether young or old, must be -trained and exercised on the right books at the right time. Not -that he should be coaxed and tempted with light fiction or showy -trash, quite the contrary; he must acquire _strength of mind and -intellectual habits_--he is to be trained to grasp serious thought as -well as highstrung romance. Conan Doyle's thrilling "White Company" -or Blackmore's tender "Lorna Doone" form excellent entertainment, but -they must be supplemented by sturdy common sense, such as one finds -in Franklin's "Autobiography," Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast," -or Bancroft's account of the Lexington and Concord fight. The young -mind, and the old one as well, cannot grow strong and able without -exercise. Just as tennis, football, swimming, or golf help to develop -and strengthen our physical powers, so the mind likewise must take -exercise that will ripen and enlarge the intellectual powers. The -joy of living is dependent upon full vigor of brain and brawn; the -weakling, whether in intellect or in muscle, loses the best that life -has to give. Our ideal must be not merely a sound mind in a sound -body but, rather, a strong mind in a strong body. - -The lists that follow have been devised to meet the requirements for -training the mind to a ready facility and enjoyment of books and -reading. Naturally, these groups are arbitrary, they definitely place -one author or selection in the eleven year old's list, another in -the fifteen; whereas either might well be transferred, in individual -cases. The object manifestly is to group writers and selections as a -means of guidance and help to the average reader whether parent or -child, but not to draw hard and fast lines. The sooner the reader -becomes ready to wander as he will, the sooner will he be a true -booklover. - -=Seven to Ten Years of Age.= At this time of life, as every one -knows, fairy tales are an unfailing delight and form the foundations, -moreover, of all thorough literary appreciation. In addition to -these, tales of adventure or of travel, such as Malory's Morte -Darthur, or Marco Polo's astonishing discoveries in China, serve as -admirable supplementary reading at this age. - - ÆSOP - Fables - - ANDERSEN - Fairy Tales - - GRIMM - Fairy Tales - - HARRIS - Uncle Remus - - IRVING - Rip Van Winkle - - KEY - Star Spangled Banner - - KINGSLEY - Water Babies - - LABOULAYE - Poucinet - - MALORY - Morte Darthur - - PERRAULT - Fairy Tales - - POLO - Travels - - RUSSIAN LIT. - The Water King - - SMITH, S. F. - America - - SWIFT - Gulliver's Travels - -=Eleven and Twelve Years of Age.= The next step consists in awakening -the sense of understanding, rousing the mind to grasp actual scenes -and situations. For this purpose the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Two -Years Before the Mast," "The Village Blacksmith," or "Horatius" are -especially suitable. For while the fairy tale element is continued -in "Cupid and Psyche," the "Odyssey," and "Undine," it is to these -more realistic selections that we must look for the stimulus to -imaginative growth that the children need. For this reason, -"Robinson Crusoe" is of paramount value at this time simply because -it trains the young mind to picture the scenes or events with the -utmost care for details; probably no other work of fiction in English -Literature can equal it for realistic vividness and precision. - - APULEIUS - Cupid and Psyche - - BROWN, J. - Rab - - BUNYAN - Pilgrim's Progress - - CARROLL - Alice in Wonderland, etc. - - COOPER - Pathfinder - - DANA - Two Years Before the Mast - - DEFOE - Robinson Crusoe - - FOUQUÉ - Undine - - GESTA ROMANORUM - - HAWTHORNE - Snow Image - - HEMANS - Casabianca - Pilgrim Fathers - - HERODOTUS - Legends - - HOMER - Iliad - Odyssey - - HOWE - Battle Hymn - - HUGHES - Tom Brown - - JAPANESE LIT. - The Ronins - - LIVY - Legends - - LONGFELLOW - Village Blacksmith - Hiawatha - Evangeline - - MACAULAY - Horatius - - MELVILLE - Typee - - MEREDITH - Shagpat - - RASPE - Baron Münchausen - - READ - Sheridan's Ride - - WHITTIER - Barbara Frietchie - -=Thirteen and Fourteen Years of Age.= This period should mark -the beginning of true reading power--the faculty of perceiving -and absorbing the pictures, the facts, the ideas that lie within -the printed page. The true joys of reading first-class fiction, -for example, "Don Quixote" or "The Cloister and the Hearth," are -usually first experienced in these years. And in the same manner -young readers delight in the more vivid pages of history, such -as "The Relief of Leyden," or "The Conquest of Peru," or--best -of all--Raleigh's telling account of the fight of the 'Revenge' -together with Tennyson's magnificent poem, built up from the prose -of Raleigh. For it is in such passages as these that the natural -tendency to hero-worship is roused and fostered. Jim Bludso, Sir -Launfal, Alexander the Great, John Halifax, Lorna Doone, and -Constantia, together with the splendid characters in the works -already mentioned, all establish in the minds of the average boy -and girl examples of courage, courtesy, and nobility that are never -forgotten. - - ADDISON - Mirza - Arabian Nights - - BLACKMORE - Lorna Doone - - BOCCACCIO - Constantia - Federigo - - BORROW - Lavengro - - BROWNE, C. F. - The Showman's Courtship - - CELLINI - Life - - CERVANTES - Don Quixote - - COLLINS, W. W. - A Terribly Strange Bed - - CRAIK - John Halifax - - DICKENS - David Copperfield - Pickwick - - FRENCH LITERATURE - Aucassin - - HALE - Man Without a Country - - HARTE - Truthful James - - HAY - Jim Bludso - - HENRY - Speech - - HOLINSHED - Princes in the Tower - - HOLMES - Nautilus - Old Ironsides - - HUNT - Abou Ben Adhem - - INGELOW - High Tide - - JEWISH LITERATURE - Tobit - - KINGLAKE - Eothen - - LE SAGE - Gil Blas - - LOWELL - Sir Launfal - - LYTTON - Pompeii - - MCMASTER - Settler Life in 1800 - - MOTLEY - Relief of Leyden - - NORSE LITERATURE - Discovery of Vinland - - PLUTARCH - Alexander the Great - - PRESCOTT - Conquest of Peru - - RALEIGH - The Fight of the "Revenge" - - READE - Cloister and the Hearth - - SOUTHEY - Inchcape Rock - - TENNYSON - The Revenge - The Light Brigade, Etc. - -=Fifteen and Sixteen Years of Age.= The appreciation of poetry is -one of the most subtle and difficult developments in the youthful -intellect. Yet some enjoyment of poetry, not merely narrative poems, -but contemplative verse as well, should manifest itself during these -next years. Furthermore, it is high time to form an acquaintance with -writers who will be met again and again in days yet to come. No one -will maintain for a moment that a sixteen year old lad will fully -understand and appreciate Milton's "L'Allegro," with its treasury of -allusion; yet, on the other hand, no one will pretend that this same -lad should not at least be granted the opportunity to listen for the -first time to those immortal lines. For this reason not only Milton, -but Lincoln, Cowper, Pepys, Tolstoi, Hodgkin, Gray, and several -others are included in the list. - -But apart from the more serious and contemplative side of the -reading that can be commenced at this age, there is much that will -fascinate and delight those who are looking for pastime rather than -deep thinking. Barham's "Ingoldsby Legends," of which "The Knight -and the Lady" is a most characteristic tale in verse, have long been -the joy of all who love laughter and nonsense; and so with Irving's -"Knickerbocker's New York," which in many respects is unequaled for -wit and delicate fun. Crawford's "The Upper Berth," Doyle's "White -Company," and Dumas's "Three Musketeers" furnish thrill enough for -the most eager adventure seeker. Tolstoi and Goldsmith will satisfy -a quieter mood with their gentle satire on the folly and stupidity -and vanity of everyday people, who none the less are the salt of the -earth, after all. - - AGASSIZ - Mountains - - AUDUBON - In the Woods - - BANCROFT - Lexington and Concord - - BARHAM - The Knight and the Lady - - BARRIE - Lads and Lasses - - BERNARD, ST. - Hymn - - NOTE. The reader should take care to read and even to reread - the majority of the selections in the previous lists before - attempting further progress. - - BERNARD OF CLUNY - Hymns - - BRONTË - Jane Eyre - - COLERIDGE - Poems - - COWPER - Poems - - CRAWFORD, F. M. - The Upper Berth - - DOYLE - The White Company - - DUMAS - Three Musketeers, - Monte Cristo, etc. - - EWALD - King Christian - - FRANKLIN - Autobiography - - FROUDE - A Cagliostro of the Second Century - - GILBERT - The Nancy Bell - - GOLDSMITH - Vicar of Wakefield - - GRAY - Elegy - - HAWTHORNE - The Old Manse - - HEINE - Travel Pictures - - HODGKIN - Attila the Hun - - HOOD - Poems - - IRVING - Knickerbocker's New York - - JOSEPHUS - Destruction of the Temple - - KINGSLEY - Poems - - LA FONTAINE - Fables - - LINCOLN - Gettysburg Speech - - LONGFELLOW - Poems - - MAHAFFY - Alexander the Great - - MILTON - L'Allegro - Il Penseroso - - PEPYS - Diary - - PHILLIPS - Toussaint L'Ouverture - - ROUGET DE LISLE - The Marseillaise - - SCOTT - Selections - - STOWE - Uncle Tom's Cabin - - TOLSTOI - Where Love Is - - WHITTIER - Poems - -=Seventeen and Eighteen Years of Age.= With increasing maturity we -may naturally expect the mind to enjoy the more calm and meditative -moods of life: for example, the essays of Addison and Lamb, the more -forceful historical reflections of such writers as Green, Froissart, -and Parkman, the "Utopia" of Sir Thomas More, Thoreau's "Walden," and -Washington's "Farewell Address." These form an excellent introduction -to the deeper thoughts which will shortly be forced upon youth as it -goes out into the world to fight for a career. - -At this time, too, interest is stirred to attempt an understanding of -the 'reason for things'--the mind endeavors to arrive at some law or -principle beneath the varied course of life and action in the world. -In other words, boyhood and girlhood are past, and an older view of -life and its responsibilities must naturally take the place of the -carefree spirit of earlier days. The qualities of friendship that -appear in "Tennessee's Partner" and the search for spiritual as well -as intellectual companionship and understanding that is emphasized -in Tennyson or Matthew Arnold are at this time beginning to be more -fully appreciated and understood. - - ADDISON - Punning - Good Nature - Westminster Abbey - - ALDRICH - Père Antoine - - ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE - Beowulf - - ARNOLD, M. - The Forsaken Merman - - BALZAC - The Purse - - BJÖRNSON - Railroad and Churchyard - - BROOKS - Lincoln - - CAINE - The Bondman - - CAMPBELL - Poems - - CREASY - Decisive Battles - - DAUDET - Tartarin - - EDGEWORTH - Castle Rackrent - - FIELD - Poems - - FROISSART - Battles of Otterbourne and Crécy - - GASKELL - Cranford - - GREEN - English History - - HARDY - The Three Strangers - - HARTE - Tennessee's Partner - - HINDOO LITERATURE - - HUGO - Selections - - JERROLD - Mrs. Caudle - - LAMB - Essays - - LEVER - Charles O'Malley - - LINCOLN - Second Inaugural - - LOWELL - The Courtin' - - MORE - Utopia - - OVID - Philemon and Baucis - - PARKMAN - La Salle - The Plains of Abraham - - POE - Tales - - SHORTHOUSE - John Inglesant - - STEELE - Essays - - SWIFT - Selections - - TENNYSON - Poems - - THOREAU - Walden - - TYNDALL - Ascent of Mont Blanc - - VOLTAIRE - Charles XII - - WASHINGTON - Farewell Address - -=Nineteen and Twenty Years of Age.= Unquestionably, as the years -pass on, we read again the books that have already given us so many -hours of happiness and amusement. For this reason it is well for the -young booklover to return to the lists for the previous years and -renew acquaintanceships there. No doubt some of the authors whom he -found but moderately amusing then will now win far more favor in his -sight. Meanwhile, among the fresh material history and criticism -naturally find a prominent place. Mommsen's estimate of Julius Cæsar -and Chesterton's appreciative critique of Dickens stand among the -foremost studies of great men that the world has yet produced. In -the field of poetry it is high time to spend some quiet hours with -Emerson, Browning, Shakespeare, Shelley, and Wordsworth. These five -poets represent perhaps the very best that English verse has produced -in the way of meditation--insight into the depths of nature and -humanity. - -At this point the reader will do well to consider other chapters -in this Handbook, notably that on Literary Criticism, and the rest -of Part II, which deals with the general principles underlying a -fuller comprehension of literature. Part III, Studies of Great -Authors, will be of even greater help to those readers who are -finding increased pleasure in reading as students rather than for -the sake of recreation or light reading alone. By following out the -lines of thought presented in Parts II and III, especially if one -does not attempt to carry too heavy a quantity of reading at a time, -the enjoyment of books and thought will be immensely stimulated and -broadened. - - ALDRICH - Poems - - ALFRED THE GREAT - Poems - - ASCHAM - The Schoolmaster - - AUSTEN - Pride and Prejudice - - BEECHER - Industry and Idleness - - BERANGER - Poems - - BOSWELL - Life of Johnson - - BROWNING, R. - Poems - - BURKE - Speech - - BYRON - Poems - - CHANNING - Self-culture - - CHESTERTON - Dickens - - DE QUINCEY - Dreams - Our Ladies of Sorrow - - ELIOT - Brother Jacob - Poems - - EMERSON - Poems - - FARRAR - Corruption of Rome - - FERRERO - Empire Building - - FIELDING - Selections - - FREEMAN - The World Romeless - - GIBBON - Roman Empire - - HAWKINS - Dolly Dialogues - - HEARN - In Japan - - HOLMES - The Autocrat - - HOWELLS - Essay - - HUNT - Autobiography - - JOHNSON - Rasselas - - KEATS - Poems - - KIPLING - Mandalay - Man Who Would be King - - LOCKHART - Life of Scott - - MACAULAY - Milton - - MILTON - Poems - - MIRABEAU - Franklin - - MOMMSEN - Julius Cæsar - - MORRIS, W. - Poem - - PAUSANIAS - Description of Greece - - PLATO - Trial of Socrates - - PLINY - Letters - - POE - Poems - - POPE - Poems - - RILEY - Poems - - ROSTAND - Cyrano - - SCHILLER - Wilhelm Tell - - SHAKESPEARE - Selections - - SHELLEY - Poems - - SHERIDAN - The Rivals - The School for Scandal - - STEPHEN - Hawthorne - - STEVENSON - Selections - - SUETONIUS - Roman Emperors - - SUMNER - Grandeur of Nations - - TACITUS - The Histories - - THACKERAY - Selections - - WHITMAN - O Captain - - WORDSWORTH - Poems - - -=Twenty-one and After.= During these years, through respect for -wisdom and experience, maturity rapidly quickens into being. Once -we get a few hard knocks in the battle of life, our regard for the -learning and understanding of our elders soon increases. We likewise -can enter more thoroughly into the work of such thinkers as Carlyle, -Galton, Emerson, Ruskin, Shaler, or of such poets as Chaucer and -Goethe. For these men have spent the best of their lives in studying -and probing into the causes and developments of our moods and -characters. Carlyle has given us the most terrific and stirring -account ever written of the battle that is waged in every man's soul -between the forces of good and evil. Goethe has dramatized this same -problem, revealing the wretchedness of him who only thinks of self, -who drags his nearest and dearest down to ruin simply to gratify his -lusts or his whims. Ruskin searches architecture, painting, or even -the workmanship of everyday trades in order to discover their true -merit--their greatness and their weakness. From such writings we can -learn more and yet more each time we peruse them. There is no end to -the richness and wealth of thought and experience to be gained from -these alone. - - ALCOTT - Thoreau's Flute - - ARNOLD, E. - Poems - - BACON - Essays - - BARNARD - Robin Gray - - BENSON - Games - - BLAKE - Poems - - BOURDILLON - Light - - BRYANT - Poems - - BURNS - Poems - - CARLYLE - Selections - - CHAUCER - Poems - - CHOATE - Webster - - DANTE - Divine Comedy - - EMERSON - Essays - - EVELYN - Diary - - FIELDS - Dickens - - FRANKLIN - Poor Richard's Almanac - - GOETHE - Faust, etc. - - GOLDSMITH - Deserted Village - - HAMERTON - Intellectual Life - - HARRISON - Choice of Books - - HAZLITT - Great and Little Things - - HEINE - The Romantic School - - HENLEY - Out of the Night - - IBSEN - A Doll's House - - JACOPONE - Stabat Mater - - JEWISH LITERATURE - The Talmud - - JOUBERT - Essays - - LANG - The Divining Rod - - LANIER - Marshes of Glynn - - LOWELL - Chaucer - - LUTHER - Table Talk - Ein Feste Burg - - MCCARTHY - Disasters of Cabul - - MARLOWE - Dr. Faustus - - MAUPASSANT - The Piece of String - - MILTON - Areopagitica - - MITCHELL - Dream Life - - MOLIÈRE - Imaginary Invalid - - ROSSETTI, D. G. - Poems - - RUSKIN - Selections - - SAINTE-BEUVE - Mme. de Staël - - SHALER - The Last of Earth and Man - - SIENKIEWICZ - Quo Vadis - - STERNE - Selections - - THOMAS OF CELANO - Dies Iræ - - WALTON - Compleat Angler - -Apart from the power to appreciate the thought itself, the reader -by this time is surely ready to take pleasure in the style of such -writers as Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Matthew Arnold, Walter Pater, -Herrick, and Spenser. And with respect to the matter, he surely will -profit in the company of Sir Thomas Browne, Thomas à Kempis, Mill, -and Plato, presenting four remarkably valuable points of view in -their studies of what is most worth man's consideration. Further -reading of interest in style and in matter will be found under the -headings of "Essay," "Travel," "Drama," "Oratory," "Philosophy," -etc., on pages 46-53 of this Handbook. - -One of the chief problems of the reader deals with the question of -foreign authors. Perhaps one man in a hundred thousand can find -time to learn to read more than four languages fluently. If he is -to get in touch with the great writers of other tongues than those -which he knows, he must perforce read translations. And for most of -us translations are the only resource. The modern writers have been -translated with but slight difficulty, mainly because their views of -life are so closely akin to ours that their thoughts may be put into -English with slight trouble. But the ancients, the masters of Greek -and Roman Literature, regarded life from other standpoints than ours. -They were mainly interested in interpreting fate and the mysteries -of life. Their work, then, is for the most part philosophic, even -when presented in the form of drama or of poetry. It is so great, so -lofty in tone and so profound in its perception of everlasting truths -that we cannot afford to neglect it. But it can only be grasped by -a mature mind and by calm and patient meditation. The tragedies of -Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, the poetry of Lucretius and -Cleanthes, and the meditations of Marcus Aurelius rank among the -grandest and most sublime works that mortal mind has ever achieved. -For complete lists of foreign authors, see the classified entries on -pages 28-35 of this Handbook. - - - - -THE INDEX AND THE BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES - - -=The Use of the Index.= The thoughtful and habitual use of the Index -will prove of more lasting benefit than any other practice associated -with reading. Not only is attention called to authors, to the titles -of selections, and to the opening lines of familiar and unfamiliar -poems, but hundreds upon hundreds of topics are there listed, dealing -with subjects of endless variety as viewed by the ablest minds of -the past and the present. Agriculture, for example, is dealt with by -ancients and moderns--among others, by Cicero and by Charles Dudley -Warner. America's development, we find, has been presented from such -diverse viewpoints as those of Ferrero, the modern Italian historian; -of Goethe, the master-poet of old Germany, as bitter a foe of Prussia -as any who live to-day; of Hamilton, the statesman-economist; of -McMaster, the historian; of Henry, the patriot orator; of Leslie -Stephen, the English critic, and other leaders of the world's -thought. The value of books, the use of chariots of war, the case -for and against Charles I of England, the nature of conversation, -the progress of the drama in ancient and in more recent times--these -topics suggest the amazing diversity of outlook. - -Whether for the sake of study or merely as a pastime, every moment -employed upon the Index will prove stimulating, will open trains of -thought and furnish additional means of enjoyment that otherwise will -lie undiscovered. - -These fifty pages provide an encyclopedia of intellectual -entertainment and cultivation. Through them the reader can pursue -a subject or a line of thought as nowhere else. Not the opinion of -one man, or of one nation, or of one era alone, but the best and -most valued reflections of the great men of all the ages are here -collected under every important heading on which they best expressed -themselves. - -Throughout this whole work, Opportunity lies in wait, needing only -to be recognized; then, she at once enriches your life and your -usefulness. Not a page but contains thoughts, suggestions, grave -and gay, old and new, matter-of-fact or sublime,--yet all of them -leading to a more sincere and purposeful understanding of the deeds -and thoughts that make up a sound and full career. But of all these -thousands of pages and selections not any contain more hints for the -reader than the pages of the Index. - - -=The Use of the Biographical Sketches.= The reader who has once -grasped the inestimable value of reflecting on the books that -he meets, will naturally perceive the worth of the Biographical -Sketches that immediately precede the selections in the LIBRARY. For -although these are purposely terse, yet they have been painstakingly -constructed to supply two essential needs; first, an introduction to -the author, as well as to his best work; second, a guide to his other -works. - -As has elsewhere been pointed out (pages 19, 28, 55, etc., of this -Handbook), the true appreciation and enjoyment of a writer are -unquestionably increased by understanding his personality and his -outlook on the world. - -In the second place, the selections present the best and only the -best achievements of each writer. They obviously cannot include -thirty volumes of Scott's novels, for example; nor is it desirable -that the quotations from any author should extend beyond complete -passages of assured distinction. On the other hand, persons attracted -by an author's style or subject matter will naturally desire to -read more of his work and even to acquire several of his most -characteristic books. The Biographical Sketch lists his principal -writings so that you can send for them to bookseller or public -library. - -THE LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINMENT will thus form the nucleus of a -collection that can become unique, in that it will not contain an -author that you have not tested before purchase. To own books that -you value and esteem unfailingly leads to reading with increased -pleasure day by day; such reading forms the purpose that lies behind -these volumes. - - - - -LITERARY CRITICISM - - -Criticism is a term that is commonly misused and misunderstood. -It does not mean condemnation and disapproval. It does mean sound -judgment, a careful valuation of the work under discussion, weighing -its merits and its faults; therefore it follows that sincere -criticism may be wholly free from fault-finding, provided the subject -proves to be without blemish. The criticism of Milton's minor poems, -"L'Allegro," "Il Penseroso," and "Lycidas," must be an appreciation -of their beauty and power, since they are practically faultless. - -To form a trustworthy opinion regarding a piece of literature is -not difficult; all that is necessary is to make a definite, orderly -inquiry into certain essential facts. - -I. The first of these concern the author himself, his surroundings, -and the influences which shaped his thoughts. - -1. =The period when he lived.= Each of the great ages of literature -has its special characteristics and tendencies, without a knowledge -of which it is impossible to judge a writer's work. (These periods -are defined on p. 19 ff.) For example, if Dickens had lived in -Shakespeare's time his writings would have been very different in -form and in style; he would have probably written comedies for the -stage instead of novels. - -2. =His nation.= Nationality also has strong traits that must be -taken into account. (These are stated on p. 28 ff.) If Dickens had -been a Frenchman, he would have paid more attention to the grace and -clearness of his style; if he had been a German, he would have tended -to be more philosophical in his thought, his plots would have been -deeper, and his characters less vivid. - -3. =His life and immediate surroundings.= Equally significant are -the social conditions in which a man is reared, whether noble, -like Byron, or poor, like Burns; well-educated, like Macaulay, or -self-taught, like Bunyan; unfortunate and dissipated, like Poe, or -fortunate and happy, like Holmes. These facts all have a direct -bearing on the view we must take of the man's productions. Joel -Chandler Harris could never have written his amusing "Uncle Remus" -stories, if he had not spent his boyhood on a Southern plantation. -De Quincey would never have written "Our Ladies of Sorrow" if he had -not been the slave of opium. Stevenson's "Travels With a Donkey," one -of his most charming books, is due to the fact that his consumptive -tendencies compelled him to go on a walking trip in the pure and -bracing air of the mountains of southern France. - -II. A second group of facts deals with the work itself. - -1. =The form=; poetry, fiction, history, essay, drama, etc. (These -are discussed on p. 36 ff.) - -2. =The style.= The worth of the author's work as a piece of -composition is best decided by observing the following elements, -which taken all together make up the style and quality of his writing. - -What =words= does he use? Are they commonplace or do they express his -exact meaning? Are they simple, or unusual and even unintelligible? -Are they forceful or weak? etc. - -How are his =sentences= constructed? Are they straightforward or -confused? Do they express a simple, direct thought or do they contain -several ideas? If complex and lengthy, are they still powerful? etc. - -Are his =paragraphs= unified; that is, do they contain one leading -idea? Do they follow in systematic order, leading from one to the -other? Is the development of the author's subject easily followed? -etc. - -Are the =scenes= and =characters=, the =plots= and =purposes= clearly -shown? Does it require more than one reading to find out what the -writer is trying to say? Is his work convincing? Do the characters -change, and if so, is the change natural or does it seem unreal and -artificial? Are the incidents natural or do some of the events seem -forced? If the latter, do you think the author is justified? What -is the author's aim? Has he any further purpose than that which is -immediately evident? etc. - -What is the =tone= of his work? Realism? Imagination? Mystery? Charm? -Beauty? Accuracy? Delicacy? Pathos? Humor? Joy? Sarcasm? etc. - -3. =The effect.= What are =your feelings= regarding the work? Do you -like it or dislike it? Why? - -What is your cold =judgment= regarding it? Note that this is by no -means necessarily the same thing as what you may feel. Many people -do not care especially for Dickens or Kipling, yet they all grant -that both these authors have deserved their fame. They may not like -them, but their reason and their judgment compel admission of their -ability. It is accordingly important to ask what impression a book -makes on your feelings and on your judgment as well, and to ask why -that impression has grown upon you. - -The value of this systematic consideration of a passage of literature -is manifest. The reader's knowledge is increased, and, better still, -his ability to arrive at a wise judgment of other literature is -greater than before. Efficiency in habits of thought is encouraged, -his outlook on life is broader, he becomes more fit to take a -prominent part in social and in business life, wherever judgment and -thought are needed. - - - - -PART III - - - - -STUDIES OF GREAT AUTHORS - - -In making use of these Studies, the reader is advised to adopt the -following method: - -Read the sketches of the author in the Study and in front of the -selections and then read the selections themselves. Next answer the -questions in the Study, taking care to give reasons for each answer, -with illustrations carefully chosen from the author's work, wherever -possible. In making comparisons between authors or selections -remember that points of contrast as well as of likeness should be -considered. - -Be sure to keep in mind the essentials of PART II, and refer not only -to them but to the INDEX for references to national characteristics, -history, and authors. - -Further reading should be selected from the author's works given in -the notes which precede the selections and from the biographical and -critical works mentioned at the end of each Study. - - -ROBERT BURNS - -(1759-1796) - -Robert Burns was born and spent most of his life in Ayrshire, in -the lowlands of Scotland. Broad-minded, tolerant, and trusting, he -had a place in his heart for all men, whatever their failings. His -thoughtless love of good-fellowship was the principal cause of his -untimely end. - -His best songs, dealing with the common life of the Lowlands and -written in the Scottish dialect, were as a rule spontaneous; though -"The Cotter's Saturday Night," probably reminiscent of his boyhood -home, is a more finished and careful production. - -He is the greatest of Scotch poets. Since Shakespeare there has been -no better interpreter of the human heart. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Why is Burns called the Ayrshire Bard? Locate Ayrshire on the - map. - - 2. From what rank of society did Burns come? - - 3. What was his attitude toward the humbler classes of society? - II, 379. Toward men in general? - - 4. What can you say as to his patriotism? - - 5. Was he a favorite with the public? - - 6. See Carlyle's opinion of his reception by the public, III, 55; - of his worth, III, 102. - - 7. To what may we ascribe his rapid decline and early death? - - 8. What do you judge his views would be as to the merits of - Romanticism and Classicism? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What portion of Great Britain is the scene of most of Burns' - poems? - - 2. Were they the product of deliberate art or spontaneous impulse? - - 3. Have his poems any great influence at the present time? - - 4. Is his best work in English or in the Scotch dialect? Explain - why? - - 5. Do you consider it worth while to master the difficulties of - the dialect? - - 6. What is your opinion as to the love element in his poetry? - - 7. There have been but few better interpreters of nature. - - 8. Like many a Scotchman of his day he seems to have had a full - appreciation of the joys of conviviality. - - 9. Had Burns the element of humor in any marked degree? - - 10. Compare his songs with those of Shakespeare, Jonson, Byron, - Shelley, and Tennyson; for feeling, polish, and power. - - -"THE COTTER'S SATURDAY NIGHT" - - 1. Is the scene laid in the Highlands or the Lowlands? - - 2. Does the fact that the poem is written in the Scotch dialect - add to or detract from its beauty? The mingling of literary - language and dialect is intentional; discuss the value of this. - - 3. Would you judge Burns to have been at heart a religious man? - - 4. What comparison does the author draw between Scotch and - Italian songs? - - 5. What contrast is drawn between the worship of the poor and - that of the rich? - - 6. To what does Burns ascribe the grandeur of Scotland? - - 7. Compare with the "Deserted Village" and the "Elegy in a - Country Churchyard," in purpose and in style. Which of the three - breathes the greatest moral earnestness? - - 8. "The Cotter's Saturday Night" is a typical poem of the latter - half of the eighteenth century. What other poems of the period - resemble it in their treatment of rural life? VI, 94, 106. - - 9. Does the poem belong to the Age of Classicism or Romanticism - or both; in what respects? - - 10. For other pictures of Scotch life and character see the - selections from Barrie, Scott, and Watson. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Robert Burns."--CUNNINGHAM. - - "Modern Idols; Studies in Biography and Criticism."--THORNE. - - "Critical and Miscellaneous Essays."--CARLYLE. - - "The Burns Country."--DOUGALL. - - "The Ayrshire Homes and Haunts of Burns."--SHELLEY. - - -SIR WALTER SCOTT - -(1771-1832) - -Scott first achieved success as a poet; but as his fame began to pale -before the rising star of Byron, he wisely dropped verse and appeared -as a writer of fiction, in which he was far more successful. Some -critics consider "Ivanhoe" the greatest romance ever written. Many -of his early novels are of almost equal merit. With "Woodstock" and -"Anne of Geierstein," a decline in his powers is perceptible. - -Scott may be considered the founder of the historical novel, and it -is doubtful if he has ever been excelled. His scenes of medieval life -are somewhat overdrawn, it is true, though possibly no more so than -the requirements of successful fiction demanded. - -Several of his ancestors had taken a prominent part in the warfare of -the Border, a fact which largely accounts for his great interest in -Scottish legend. - -He earned more by his writings than any other literary man of -the period. At his country seat, Abbotsford, he entertained with -lavish hospitality. It became a resort of scholars; and Washington -Irving and many other Americans visited him there. He lived and -died practically without an enemy, even Byron, who assailed him so -bitterly at one time, being won over by his magnanimity. He refused -the post of poet laureate in favor of his friend Southey. - -His publishing house failing in 1828 with a shortage of over half a -million, Scott chivalrously devoted the last six years of his life to -the payment of the debt, a feat which he had almost accomplished when -death overtook him. - -Although among the first and best of the prose writers of the -Romantic period and a decided follower of the Romantic principles in -his work, yet Scott was so conservative in politics and so patriotic -a supporter of monarchy that the revolutionary spirit of the French -Revolution and the passion for liberty that inspired many authors of -the day had slight influence on him. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What fact in Scott's family history explains his great - interest in Scottish history and tradition? - - 2. What were his earnings from his writings as compared with - those of other writers of his time? - - 3. Would you consider his tastes democratic or the reverse? See - illustration opposite X, 388. See also Thackeray's account of him - under the title of the Baron of Bradwardine, XII, 66. - - 4. How did Scott bear himself toward contemporary poets? - - 5. Your opinion as to his hospitality? His charity? His industry? - VIII, 206. - - 6. What striking event in Scott's life conclusively shows him to - have been a man of honor? - - 7. By what appellation is he often known? XI, 289. - - 8. His fondness for dumb animals was proverbial. VIII, 208. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. In what branch of literature did Scott first achieve - distinction? Why did he abandon it for fiction? - - 2. Why did the revolutionary wave which so powerfully affected - his contemporaries, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, and Southey, - leave Scott unaffected? - - 3. In whose favor did Scott decline the honor of being appointed - poet laureate? - - 4. From what sources did he derive the materials for his poems? - I, 181. - - 5. Of his three best poems, "The Lay of the Last Minstrel" is - considered the most natural, "Marmion," the most powerful, and - "The Lady of the Lake," the most romantic and picturesque. - - 6. Which is esteemed his greatest novel? Mention two novels which - seem to indicate a decline in his powers. - - 7. Was he greater in verse or in fiction? - - 8. Do Scott's works give a true picture of the times to which - they relate? - - 9. Manzoni, Dumas, and Hugo all owe much to Scott. Compare their - work. - - 10. Is Scott more intent on his narrative and general scenes, or - on drawing characters clearly and describing their development - and change? - - 11. Compare Scott with Dickens, Eliot, and Balzac as regards the - traits mentioned in question 10. - - -"THE LADY OF THE LAKE" - - 1. Had Fitz-James formerly visited Roderick Dhu's dominions? - - 2. What was his errand this time? - - 3. What period in Scottish history do you understand to be - covered by the poem? - - 4. Is the sense of honor and hospitality towards strangers - characteristic of the Highland Scotch? - - 5. Draw a comparison between the fate of the Highlanders and that - of the American Indian. X, 385. - - 6. In what sense are the terms "Gael" and "Saxon" used? - - 7. Why does Fitz-James hesitate to fight with Roderick Dhu after - being safely led beyond the Coilantogle Ford? - - 8. In the combat was the victory won by physical strength or - skill in the use of weapons? - - 9. Which is the hero, Fitz-James or Roderick Dhu, and why? - - 10. Byron surpassed Scott in poetry; can you see how? Compare the - two. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Famous English Authors of the Nineteenth Century."--BOLTON. - - "Sir Walter Scott."--CROCKETT AND CAW. - - "Edinburgh under Sir Walter Scott."--FYFE. - - "Life of Sir Walter Scott."--LOCKHART. - - "In the Days of Scott."--JENKS. - - "Sir Walter Scott."--LANG. - - -WILLIAM WORDSWORTH - -(1770-1850) - -Wordsworth, the first of the English poets of Romanticism, came of -age just as the storm of the French Revolution broke over Europe. In -1791, after he had taken his degree at Cambridge University, he went -to France, where he spent nearly a year, fascinated by the struggle -for freedom, and only returned when his friends stopped his allowance -and so compelled him to withdraw from danger. - -He deliberately chose poetry as his profession, working with -Coleridge for the purpose of establishing new laws of poetic -composition. In 1798 they published a little volume, the "Lyrical -Ballads," which marked a radical departure from the artificial and -affected style of the latter days of the Classic Age. (See also notes -on Coleridge, p. 70 of this volume.) - -He eventually settled in the Lake District, in the north-west of -England, where Coleridge and Southey, the other two 'Lake Poets,' -spent many years. His income was a mere trifle, but he and his sister -Dorothy lived in tranquil simplicity on the borders of Grasmere -until his circumstances improved. In 1802 he was able to marry and -soon after he moved to Rydal Mount, a larger abode near by, and also -overlooking a stretch of water enclosed by the heathery mountains. -Here he spent the last thirty-eight years of his life, dying at the -age of eighty. Almost all the greater writers of his day were among -his friends and acquaintances. - -As a lover of nature, delighting in travel amid lovely scenery, he -found his answer to the problem of life in the tranquillity and ever -present spirit of law and duty which he perceived in all nature's -forms. For him the presence of God was manifest in fields and -mountains, in flowers and brooks, as much as in the lives of men and -women. - -Poetry, in his conception, was the preservation of impressions in -such form that when read it would again create those impressions. -Its language should be extremely simple, hardly departing from that -of everyday life and conversation. The petty incidents of daily -experience for him often contained such deep suggestions of beauty -and good that he recorded them at length. - -It was this utter simplicity of attitude and tone that made him the -object of slashing criticism for some time. An absolute innovator, -his work was as absurd in the eyes of the critics as the wildest -freaks of the cubists are to us. At last he became a subject of -discussion instead of ridicule, then of praise, and finally of -lasting fame. Yet much of his work is far better unread to-day; only -in his earlier verse, when the inspiration of youth and the freshness -of his message still urged him, is there any true greatness evident. -His later work, like his later years, is cold and conservative. He -made no further progress, once he had given expression to his first -radical ideas. This tendency was rebuked by Browning in "The Lost -Leader." - - -THE MAN - - 1. Did Wordsworth take an active part in the life of his time? I, - 180. - - 2. How did Browning look on this side of his character? II, 265. - - 3. What two poets were intimately associated with Wordsworth? - III, 310; XI, 221. - - 4. The following illustrations are closely associated with his - life and work: III, _Frontispiece_, 322; IV, 178; XI, 228; XII, - _Frontispiece_, 324. - - 5. What influences molded his ideas of poetry and life? - - 6. How does his length of life compare with that of his - contemporaries, Byron, Keats, Shelley, Southey, Lamb, and De - Quincey? - - 7. Is it customary for a person to grow more conservative with - age? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Are his poems uniformly of good quality? III, 265. - - 2. What peculiarly English characteristic is present in them? - VIII, 272. - - 3. State Wordsworth's historical position in literature. - - 4. Name some of his choicest short poems. - - 5. With what school of poets is he classed? - - 6. What element predominates in Wordsworth's poetry? - - 7. What elements detract from his power, in your opinion? - - 8. How do you rank him among nineteenth century poets? - - 9. Does he fulfil his idea of poetry in his work? - - 10. Read "The Daffodils," 339, and "Upon Westminster Bridge," - 354. These are two of his best short poems. Which do you prefer? - Why? - - -"ODE ON INTIMATIONS OF IMMORTALITY FROM RECOLLECTIONS OF EARLY -CHILDHOOD" - - 1. How does a child view his surroundings? - - 2. Why cannot an adult see the same objects in like manner? - - 3. Is the Soul in existence before the body which it is to - inhabit? - - 4. What forces are constantly at work to crush and suppress a - child's imaginative power? - - 5. In what way is the shepherd boy the embodiment of joy? - - 6. What phases of Nature are most attractive to all people in - general? - - 7. - - "Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player - That stands and frets his hour upon the stage - And then is heard no more." ("Macbeth") - - Find passages in Wordsworth's poem which contradict this - sentiment. - - 8. Is this the best of his poems here selected? Why? - - 9. Is the simplicity of style effective? How? - - 10. Contrast with "We are Seven"; why is there so marked a - simplicity in the lesser poem? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Wordsworth" ("English Men of Letters").--MYERS. - - "Story-Lives of Great Authors."--ROWBOTHAM. - - "Essays in Criticism."--ARNOLD. - - "Biographia Literaria."--COLERIDGE. - - "The Makers of Modern English."--DAWSON. - - "Essays on the Poets."--DE QUINCEY. - - "The Age of Wordsworth" ("Handbooks of English - Literature").--HERFORD. - - -SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE - -(1772-1834) - -A victim of the opium habit after the age of thirty and by nature -irresolute and dreamy, Coleridge led a wandering life, leaving his -family with his friend Southey. - -Most of his poetry, small in volume, though unexcelled in quality, -was written before he was thirty, "The Ancient Mariner," his first -poem, having been composed at the age of twenty-four. After this he -devoted himself for the most part to metaphysical speculation of no -permanent value. - -He excelled all other writers of his day in dealing with the -supernatural. "The Ancient Mariner," his masterpiece, is a successful -attempt to revive the metrical ballad of the middle ages. By the use -of rubrics the medieval effect is heightened, while the introduction -of the wedding guest relieves the credibility of the reader by making -of an improbable account simply 'a tale that is told.' - -He lived for some time at Keswick in Cumberland near its group -of celebrated lakes, where Wordsworth and Southey also resided, -and hence the appellation of "Lake Poets," given to the three -distinguished friends. - -Joining with Wordsworth in 1798 in the publication of a little volume -of verse, "Lyrical Ballads," he became one of the first to give voice -to the movement known as Romanticism. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What influence had Coleridge on the literature of his day? - - 2. What is said of him as a conversationalist? As a critic? III, - 92 ff. - - 3. Why is he known as one of the "Lake Poets"? - - 4. Was he more useful to his friends than they to him, or _vice - versa_? - - 5. To what do you attribute the early decline of his poetic - powers? - - 6. What other English writer of the same period was addicted to - the opium habit? IV, 171. - - 7. What great mental defect militated most against Coleridge's - success? III, 94. - - 8. What traits of character especially endeared him to his - friends? - - 9. What can you say of his religious faith? III, 91. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What poets constituted the "Lake School," and from what lakes - was the term derived? - - 2. Name his three principal poems. - - 3. What can you say as to the volume of his poetry? - - 4. Between what years was most of it written? - - 5. Are his other works--philosophical, religious, and - critical--quoted to-day? - - 6. In what one element does Coleridge outdistance the other poets - of his day? - - 7. Read the poems by Wordsworth, XII, 332-339; these were - published in the volume, "Lyrical Ballads," with "The Ancient - Mariner"; how are they characteristic of Romanticism? - - 8. "Kubla Khan," like Poe's "Raven," has frequently been - attributed to an opium vision. This cannot be proved, but it - is well known that he dreamed these lines and many more which - he forgot before he could write them down. In character it is - closely akin to De Quincey's account of opium dreams, IV, 171 ff. - - -"THE ANCIENT MARINER" - - 1. How old was Coleridge when he wrote the poem? - - 2. What led him to write it? - - 3. In writing the poem did Coleridge draw his inspiration from - classical, medieval, or modern sources? - - 4. Where is the scene laid? - - 5. What is the purpose of the rubrics or running commentary in - the margin? - - 6. Why is the wedding guest introduced, and what is the purpose - of the constant interruptions in the narrative? - - 7. Look up the term "albatross" in reference works. - - 8. What punishment was inflicted on the Ancient Mariner for - having shot the Albatross? - - 9. What broke the spell which had been cast upon him? - - 10. What would the repeated allusion to the mariner's "glittering - eye," seem to indicate? - - 11. The moral which this tale is supposed to teach? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Coleridge" ("Bell's Miniature Series.")--GARNETT. - - "Coleridge" ("Lives of Famous Poets.")--ROSSETTI. - - "Selected Poems of Samuel Taylor Coleridge."--GEORGE. - - "S. T. Coleridge; a Narrative of the Events of his - Life."--CAMPBELL. - - "Selections from the Poets; Coleridge."--LANG. - - "Table Talk" ("Bohn's Standard Library")--Ed. ASHE. - - -GEORGE GORDON, LORD BYRON - -(1788-1824) - -George Gordon, sixth Lord Byron, was born in London. His father, -a profligate captain of the guards, having squandered most of his -wife's property, she parted from him, retiring on a small income to -Aberdeen, Scotland. In his eleventh year, however, the son inherited -the title and estate of his grand-uncle, and the mother and son left -Scotland and settled down at Newstead Abbey, near Nottingham, in -Sherwood Forest. - -Byron prepared for the university at Harrow and then went to -Cambridge, where he published "Hours of Idleness," a volume of verse -of no merit that brought down the unduly savage review of Brougham, -to which Byron replied anonymously with "English Bards and Scotch -Reviewers," a dashing satire that he later suppressed, when he became -a friend of many whom he there held up to ridicule. - -Soon after receiving his M.A. he made a two years' tour of Portugal, -Spain, Albania, and Greece, composing meanwhile the first two -cantos of "Childe Harold," published in 1812. So immediate was its -success that he literally "woke up one morning and found himself -famous." Though not so fine as the last two cantos, yet they are -full of the new spirit of Romanticism. The poetic tales of "The -Giaour," "The Bride of Abydos," "The Corsair," and "Lara" followed -in quick succession. All this time he had felt financial pressure -and several of his friends had died, including his mother, whom he -loved notwithstanding her uncertain temper, so that his life had -by no means been happy, and the cynical tone of much of his verse -was a direct expression of his feelings. His health was also marred -by a tendency to corpulence which he tried to check by a rigid and -scanty diet, while a deformed foot gave him both pain and constant -embarrassment. - -It is true that he was given to the dissipation then so rife in -England, yet although a libertine from the modern point of view, -there is not sufficient reason for the bitterly relentless tone -adopted by many biographers and critics. He determined to remedy -matters by marrying, but the experiment proved unfortunate, the -couple separated and at the outburst of public indignation that -followed, though unjustified, Byron went into voluntary exile, never -to return. - -Most of his subsequent life was spent at various places in Italy, -where he completed "Childe Harold," and wrote "Don Juan" and a number -of shorter poems, and tried his hand at drama. For a time he worked -together with Leigh Hunt and Shelley at Pisa. - -His life in Italy was licentious, a tendency that colored his later -works, notably "Don Juan"; although his intellectual powers would -seem to have grown up to the time of his premature death. - -The close of his life went far toward redeeming his wayward career. -He flew to the assistance of the Greeks struggling for independence -from the barbaric Turkish rule, and devoted his means and his life -to their service. Finding them at sixes and sevens among themselves, -he showed the qualities of a statesman and soldier and soon brought -order out of chaos. But a few months' exposure led to a fever from -which he died. - - -THE MAN - - 1. To what is the so-called "satanic" element in his life to be - ascribed? - - 2. Where were Byron's early years spent? - - 3. In what manner did he acquire Oriental coloring for his poetic - romances? - - 4. What led to his withdrawal from England? - - 5. Among his intimate friends were Moore and Shelley; Leigh - Hunt, Scott, and Coleridge were also appreciative acquaintances. - Compare their work with his. - - 6. Give the circumstances of his death. - - 7. Goethe refers to Byron's love of exercise. IV, 398. - - 8. He seems to have been something of a dandy and a snob, but - with redeeming features. VII, 38; XII, 89. - - 9. Why is his life, as well as his work, typical of the extreme - tendency of the Romantic Period? - - 10. Read Hunt's account of Byron. VII, 217 ff. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Give Matthew Arnold's estimate of Byron. I, 190. - - 2. Was he as fully equipped as Tennyson for the position of the - supreme modern poet? I, 191. - - 3. Does Chesterton's estimate of Byron coincide with that of - Arnold? III, 267. - - 4. As to Goethe's views of Byron's pictorial powers, see IV, 388. - - 5. In his choice of themes, did he favor cheerful subjects? IV, - 388. - - 6. Was Byron's early death a real loss to literature? IV, 399. - - 7. Why were Byron's tragedies his least successful performances? - VIII, 357. - - 8. Is his fame destined to endure? I, 181. - - 9. Why did Byron fail, while Spenser succeeded, in applying the - spirit of his age to English literature? I, 180. - - 10. What characteristics of Romanticism appear in his work? - Contrast it with that of Pope and Goldsmith. Compare it with - Burns. - - -FROM "CHILDE HAROLD" - - 1. The selections from "Childe Harold" represent Byron at his - best in spirit and in style. - - 2. "Greece"; why does Byron use the phrase, "sad relic of - departed worth"? - - 3. "Waterloo"; show how the poet by skilful changes in wording, - as well as in choice of expressions, works steadily to the climax - of the last line. Note the breaks and varied measure of the - metrical rhythm. - - 4. Contrast the feeling in "Venice" and in "Rome"; in which is it - more melancholy; more profound; more sentimental; more forceful? - Why? - - 5. Which impresses you more, "The Dying Gladiator" or "Laocoon - and Apollo"? Which of these pieces of statuary do you think Byron - was most affected by? Why? - - 6. "Solitude" and "The Ocean" are famous examples of the Byronic - attitude toward nature. Is this the same as Wordsworth's or - Shelley's, apart from the difference in their styles? - - 7. Does Byron ever leave his own emotions and personality out - of his work? Compare him in this respect with Goldsmith, Gray, - Bryant, Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Longfellow. Write down the - dates of their births and draw conclusions. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Famous English Authors."--BOLTON. - - "Recollections of a Long Life."--BROUGHTON. - - "The Love Affairs of Lord Byron."--GRIBBLE. - - "Byron."--MAYNE. - - "With Byron in Italy."--MCMAHAN. - - "Essays in Criticism."--ARNOLD. - - "Byron and Byronism in America."--LEONARD. - - -PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY - -(1792-1822) - -Shelley was from his earliest youth equally distinguished by poetic -gifts of the highest order and by a reckless and ungovernable -disposition. After thorough preliminary education, he was sent to -Oxford, where he displayed rare literary talent, but from which he -was expelled for publishing a tract on "The Necessity of Atheism." - -After eloping with the sixteen-year-old daughter of a retired -tavern-keeper, Harriet Westbrook, whom he married in Scotland, he -led a wandering life for a time until his financial position was -improved upon his coming of age in 1813. By this time he and his -wife had become estranged, and Shelley eloped with Mary Godwin and -settled on the Continent. Two years later his wife committed suicide -by drowning, and when Shelley attempted to secure the custody of his -two children, it was denied him. Shelley now left England for good, -visited one Italian city after another, and finally settled down at -Pisa. Keats, Byron, and Hunt were among his close friends. "Adonais" -is an elegy to Keats's memory. - -His poems may be divided into two classes. In the first class we -have his three long poems, "Queen Mab," "The Revolt of Islam," and -"Prometheus Unbound," each an attempt to apply the revolutionary -principles of the period. In these he displays a progressive -improvement, appearing at his best in "Prometheus Unbound." - -The second class, embracing "Alastor," "Adonais," and many shorter -poems, includes his subjective works. They exceed in melody and -illusive and mysterious beauty anything else of the century. The -spirit of freedom and the spirit of beauty were the subjects of his -muse. - -With some faults he had much beauty of character. He was beloved -by all who knew him. He was kindness itself and spent much of -his time dispensing charity among the poor, even to the point -of self-deprivation. Easily excited to indignation at the least -suspicion of oppression or wrong, he was at other times the gentlest -of men. - - -THE MAN - - 1. In what respect was Shelley preëminently a child of the French - Revolution? - - 2. Compare his religious influence with that of Tennyson. XII, 6. - - 3. Give an account of his unfortunate marriages. - - 4. What may be said in his defense? - - 5. In what respect were the lives of Keats and Shelley similar? - - 6. Read Hunt's account of his death and cremation. VII, 220 ff. - - 7. Was Shelley irreligious? VII, 223 ff. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. In what three poems does Shelley outline his views on human - society? - - 2. Will his name outlast the interest in his writings? I, 181. - - 3. Why did Shelley fail in his attempt to apply freely the modern - spirit to literature? I, 180. - - 4. With what great poems is "Adonais" classified, and why? IX, - 105; XII, 47. - - 5. What qualities characterize his shorter poems? - - 6. In what respects does he outrank all subsequent poets? XI, 95. - - 7. State the qualities in which he resembles Keats. VII, 380. - - -"TO A SKYLARK" AND OTHER POEMS - - 1. Where does the skylark remain while singing? - - 2. Which of the numerous similes that Shelley uses do you think - most appropriate in a description of the skylark? - - 3. What are the qualities of the skylark's song which make it so - famous? - - 4. To what does Shelley ascribe the unexcelled beauty of the - bird's music? - - 5. Is the skylark a native of America? (See encyclopedia.) - - 6. Compare this with Wordsworth's "To a Skylark," XII, 340, in - language and style, and in spirit. - - 7. "The Ode to the West Wind" and "The Cloud" are especially - characteristic of Shelley in his loftier flights of imaginative - beauty. Compare them with Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode - on a Grecian Urn," VII, 381, 383. Which of these is most vivid; - which most musical? - - 8. "Arethusa" and "The Invitation," are among his more vigorous - light verse. - - 9. Compare the powerful sonnet, "England in 1819," with Milton's - sonnet "On His Blindness," IX, 119; and with Wordsworth's - sonnets, XII, 353, 354. - - 10. In his day Shelley was regarded by many as an atheist; an - opinion which is no longer generally held. Does his work indicate - atheism to your mind? - - 11. Much of his work is impalpable, has insufficient strength - to grip any but a mind with delicate powers of perception. Find - examples of this characteristic. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Famous English Authors."--BOLTON. - - "Shelley, the Man and the Poet."--CLUTTON-BROCK. - - "Romantic life of Shelley."--GRIBBLE. - - "Literary Studies."--BAGEHOT. - - "Studies in Poetry."--BROOKE. - - "Essays on the Poets."--DE QUINCEY. - - "Leigh Hunt's Relations with Byron, Shelley, and Keats."--MILLER. - - -JOHN KEATS - -(1795-1821) - -The son of an hostler in a livery-stable, with only a partial -education, John Keats certainly would not be chosen as a possible -equal of Shelley, Byron, Wordsworth, or Coleridge. Yet such was his -genius that he attained this position with no other training than -came from his love of reading, especially in the fields of mythology -and poetry. - -After a few years at school he was apprenticed to a surgeon, and -studied at the hospitals for a time, but disliking the profession -he gave himself up to reading and then to authorship. Shakespeare, -Wordsworth, the Italian poets, and later, Milton, were among his -favorites. He was well built and strong, yet exposure brought on -consumption in 1818, shortly after the publication of "Endymion." -Whether the decline in his health was due to the violent attacks upon -his poem by the reviewers or to the fact that he nursed a consumptive -brother for the three months preceding the latter's death is still -considered an open question by many. Shelley and Byron were bitter -against the reviews and attributed his steady decline to that source -alone. Meanwhile he worked on his last and greatest poems, while -his health went to pieces. When it was too late for hope he sailed -to Italy with his friend Severn, in whose arms he died a few months -later. Not quite two years afterward Shelley's remains were laid -beside him in the Protestant Cemetery at Rome, and in 1881 Severn, -too, found his last resting-place there. - -The epitaph which Keats had inscribed on his tomb, - - "Here lies one whose name was writ in water," - -is happily proved false. Even to-day it is probable that he has not -reached the highest recognition which he is to win in the world of -poetry. - -The one idea at the foundation of all his writings is the -much-quoted phrase which begins "Endymion,"--"A thing of beauty -is a joy forever," or as he expressed it in the "Ode on a Grecian -Urn,"--"Beauty is truth." He is the poet of the senses, luxuriant, -yet sublime. The Odes, "The Eve of St. Agnes," and "Hyperion" are -hardly to be matched in the whole realm of English poetry. Strange -to say Keats never studied Greek, leaving school before he reached -that subject. Yet his work is nearer that of the Greeks in its -exquisite balance of reason and feeling, in its absolute appreciation -of beauty, and in purity of tone and style, nearer than that of all -other English writers. But this is only true of his best work; in his -other verse he lacks in taste and proportion, lavishing description -without measure on every object of any charm. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What was Keats's origin and education? - - 2. How do you explain his poetic talent? - - 3. Who were his contemporaries? - - 4. What was the probable reason for his early death? - - 5. What other poets of his time also died at an early age? - - 6. Where is he buried and with whom? - - 7. Are modern book reviews commonly unjust or harsh? - - 8. Shelley's "Adonais" was written as an elegy on Keats, and is - more like Keats's own work than any other of his poems. See if - you can trace the resemblance in style. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Keats belongs to the Romantic school, yet he is so great as to - possess certain characteristics of the Classic. What are they? - - 2. What are the best lines in each of the selections? Why? - - 3. What are the leading differences between Keats and Shelley in - style and thought? - - 4. In the "Ode to a Nightingale" there are several lines which - might easily have been taken from Shakespeare, they are so - similar to his style: can you find any of them? - - 5. Have you ever seen a Grecian urn or vase? (See encyclopedia or - other reference work for illustrations.) - - 6. What English poet, much read by Keats, is suggested by - "Hyperion"? - - 7. Judging by "Hyperion," did Keats possess narrative power? - - 8. Compare Keats with Wordsworth and Swinburne. Which do you - prefer and why? - - 9. How does Arnold sum up Keats's work? I, 181. - - -"THE EVE OF ST. AGNES" - - 1. How many stanzas are introductory? - - 2. Trace the growing sense of action in these. - - 3. Is Porphyro like Romeo? How? - - 4. At what general period in history does the action occur? - - 5. Is the narrative or descriptive quality predominant? - - 6. Note that the poet appeals to each of the senses. - - 7. Give examples of Keats's eye for color. - - 8. Is this poem superior to the two Odes? Why? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Keats" ("English Men of Letters").--COLVIN. - - "Studies in Interpretation."--HUDSON. - - "Life, Letters, and Literary Remains."--MILNES. - - "John Keats: a Study."--OWEN. - - "John Keats. A Literary Biography."--HANCOCK. - - "Studies in Poetry."--BROOKE. - - -ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON - -(1809-1892) - -Alfred Tennyson, generally accounted the greatest English poet since -Milton, was born at Somersby, Lincolnshire, where his early studies -were for the most part personally directed by his father, the rector -of the parish. He then studied at Cambridge, where "The Lady of -Shalott" and "A Dream of Fair Women," were written. - -Criticism and the death of a dearly loved friend, Arthur Hallam, now -drove the tender-souled Tennyson into a retirement from which he -did not reappear for nine years. He was busy during all this time, -composing and perfecting "Locksley Hall," "Dora," "Morte D'Arthur," -and other poems whose publication placed him in the front rank as a -poet. "The Princess" followed in 1847 and "In Memoriam," his noblest -work, an elegy on the death of Arthur Hallam, in 1850, seventeen -years after his friend's decease. - -In the same year he was appointed poet laureate and married a Miss -Sellwood. Nine years later appeared his great epic cycle, "Idylls -of the King." In 1884 he was raised to the peerage. "Crossing the -Bar," published shortly before his death, was a fitting close to a -literary life nobly consecrated to the combat against skepticism and -materialism. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Would you place Tennyson among the aristocracy of England? He - is known as "Alfred, Lord Tennyson": was he of noble extraction? - - 2. What position did he hold at the Court of St. James? - - 3. Who preceded and who succeeded him as poet laureate? XII, 324; - I, 235. - - 4. How may we account for his strong religious bent? - - 5. Locate on the map two districts intimately connected with the - life of Tennyson, Lincolnshire and the Isle of Wight. - - 6. Compare England in his lifetime with conditions in the days of - Byron and Shelley. XI, 434 ff. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What poems are classed with "In Memoriam" as the great elegies - of English Literature? VI, 106; IX, 105; XI, 95. - - 2. What great contribution did Tennyson make to epic poetry? - - 3. From what sources did Tennyson derive the material for his - "Idylls of the King"? VIII, 262; IX, 15. - - 4. Which of his poems was instrumental in establishing his - reputation? XII, 5. - - 5. What poem indicates his religious feeling? - - 6. Name some of his best early poems. - - 7. In memory of whom was "In Memoriam" written? - - 8. Name three works based on the Arthurian legend; two dealing - with the romance of common life; and two dealing with immortality. - - 9. What are the principal excellences of his style? - - 10. Compare "The Revenge" with Raleigh's account of the battle, - X, 124, from which Tennyson took his facts and even his phrases. - What does this show with regard to Raleigh's power as an author? - - -FROM "IN MEMORIAM" - - 1. Find the two stanzas which contain the central thought on - which the poem is based. - - 2. What attitude did Tennyson take in regard to his friend's - death? - - 3. Why does nature fail to comfort human beings in this type of - sorrow? - - 4. Was Tennyson interested in social and political problems? - - 5. To what Scriptural event yet to be fulfilled does "Ring in the - Christ that is to be" refer? - - 6. What traits of character does Tennyson exhibit in this poem? - - 7. The marriage introduced toward the close of the poem helps - to present Tennyson's eventual reconciliation with the earthly - separation from his friend. - - 8. In this marriage scene is Tennyson addressing his dead friend, - or other persons? What phrases refer unmistakably to Hallam? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Tennyson and his Friends."--TENNYSON. - - "The Story of the Idylls of the King."--MCFEE. - - "Essays in Biography and Criticism."--BAYNE. - - "Tennyson, his Homes, his Friends and his Work."--CARY. - - "Literary Leaders of Modern England."--DAWSON. - - "Men I Have Known."--FARRAR. - - "Poets in the Pulpit."--HAWEIS. - - "Nature Knowledge in Modern Poetry."--MACKIE. - - "The Poetry of Tennyson."--VAN DYKE. - - "Tennyson" ("English Men of Letters Series").--LYALL. - - -ROBERT BROWNING - -(1812-1889) - -Of German descent, Browning was, like so many other famous English -writers, a native of London. His father was a ready versifier and -his mother an accomplished musician, and they encouraged in every -possible manner the appearance of like talent in their son. In -his youth he drank deep of those fountains of romanticism, Byron, -Shelley, and Keats. - -His schooling finished and the tour of the Continent made, he devoted -his life to literature, producing a number of dramatic poems of more -or less merit. It was not, however, until the period 1841 to 1846 -that, by the publication of the series of poems entitled "Bells -and Pomegranates," which included "Pippa Passes," he attained any -great literary fame. The latter play attracted the attention of Miss -Barrett, and led to an acquaintance which resulted in their marriage -in 1846. - -The Brownings left at once for Florence, Italy, where they led an -ideal married life until the death of Mrs. Browning in 1861. Like his -wife, he took a great interest in Italy, and after her death his time -was divided between England, where his son was being educated, and -Italy. In the years immediately following Mrs. Browning's death, he -composed "The Ring and the Book," a long epic poem commonly accounted -his masterpiece; he continued writing until his death in 1889, his -last work being published as he lay on his deathbed. - -Browning was a short, stocky, active man, mingling freely with all -classes of society and totally unlike the generality of poets. His -works largely reflect the man, one noticeable feature being the -entire absence of poetic melancholy. - -Browning and Tennyson loomed above all the other poets of their -day, and their comparative merits were a fertile source of argument -even then. Both men were, however, too large to be affected by such -considerations, and their relations were always of the most cordial -nature. - -Browning is deeply analytic, a trait perhaps derived from his German -ancestors along with his peculiarities of syntax and vocabulary and -his obscurity of expression. The latter characteristic has largely -discouraged the general public, so that the reading of Browning is -limited to people with a literary turn. His poetry is, however, well -worth the reading. He is by far the deepest poet of the nineteenth -century. He leaves environment to lesser poets and concentrates all -his energies upon man himself, his passions and emotions. His nature -is essentially dramatic, and had he devoted himself strictly to -drama, instead of lyric verse, he doubtless would have been far more -appreciated by the public. His poetic monologues, such as "Andrea del -Sarto," "Confessions," and "Prospice," dramatic in nature, are rather -hampered and confusing because of their form. - - -THE MAN - - 1. In what place was Robert Browning born? - - 2. Account for his musical and poetic proclivities. - - 3. What incident led to his union with Elizabeth Barrett Browning? - - 4. Florence has what connection with the lives of the Brownings? - - 5. Describe Browning's life after the death of his wife. - - 6. Give a description of his general appearance. - - 7. What personal relations did Browning and Tennyson sustain - toward one another? - - 8. Who were the leading American contemporaries of Browning? II, - 293; VIII, 253; XII, 301. - - 9. Give "Ouida's" opinion of Browning's moral courage. VIII, 107. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. When did Browning first begin to write poetry? - - 2. When were his last works written? - - 3. Upon what models were the poems of his youth written? - - 4. Which is considered his masterpiece? - - 5. In what characteristic is he preëminent among - nineteenth-century poets? - - 6. State the defects in his style. - - 7. Why is it proper to say that Browning is essentially dramatic? - - 8. State the limitations on Browning's popularity. - - 9. What form of verse in which Mrs. Browning was preëminent was - never attempted by Robert Browning? II, 239, 251. - - 10. Compare the styles of Browning and Tennyson as shown in - "Hervé Riel" and "The Revenge," XII, 39. - - -"ANDREA DEL SARTO" - - 1. In what country is this scene laid? - - 2. Can you name a few contemporaneous artists? - - 3. Had Andrea Del Sarto attained distinction as a painter yet? - - 4. How do an artist's circumstances very often affect his - paintings? - - 5. - "When the young man was flaming out his thoughts - Upon a palace-wall for Rome to see" - - What great work of Raphael's do these lines suggest? - - 6. Explain the following quotation of Agnolo's: - - "Friend, there's a certain sorry little scrub - Goes up and down our Florence, none cares how, - Who, were he set to plan and execute - As you are, pricked on by your popes and kings, - Would bring the sweat into that brow of yours!" - - 7. Account for the different spelling of the artist's names - (_e.g._ Rafael for Raphael, etc.). - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Browning, Poet and Man."--CARY. - - "Robert Browning."--DOWDEN. - - "The Brownings, Their Life and Art."--WHITING. - - "Browning's Verse-Form."--BEATTY. - - "Browning and the Christian Faith."--BERDOE. - - "Literary Leaders of Modern England."--DAWSON. - - "Robert Browning."--CHESTERTON. - - -ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING - -(1809-1861) - -Elizabeth Barrett Browning, easily first among English poets of -her sex, was born in Durham. The daughter of a rich retired India -merchant, she was remarkably precocious, reading Homer in the -original, and writing verse at the age of eight years. - -In 1836 the family removed to London, where she commenced her -life-work. Despite the fact that she was a chronic invalid, she -was familiar with the language and literature of several nations. -Her poems of this period reflect her deep interest in social and -humanitarian questions. - -At this very time, when her fame far exceeded his, Robert Browning -called on her to thank her for a compliment paid him in one of her -poems. It seems to have been a case of love at first sight. They were -married in 1846 and soon removed to Florence, Italy. - -The "Sonnets from the Portuguese," among the world's noblest love -poems, contain the record of her courtship and marriage. - -In Italy she regained her health somewhat, and it was here that most -of her best works were written. She took a great interest in the -cause of Italian independence, as appears from "Casa Guidi Windows," -and many lesser poems. - -Although she began to write at an early age, she reached maturity -slowly, producing her best works only after her fortieth year. She -died in 1861. - -Her characteristic note is that of sympathy, but her insight into -human character was not particularly deep. The greatest faults in -her style are vagueness and lack of self-restraint, probably to be -attributed to her extremely sensitive temperament and overflowing -imagination. - -In the "Sonnets" these faults are not so noticeable, the rigid rules -of that species of verse restraining her within bounds. - - -THE WOMAN - - 1. How does she rank among the women writers and especially the - poets of the nineteenth century? - - 2. What can you say as to the early development of her faculties; - and when did she reach her full poetic power? - - 3. What was her attitude toward questions of the day? - - 4. What qualities would make her as much admired at the present - time as during the period in which she lived? - - 5. How were Robert and Elizabeth Browning brought together? - - 6. Where did they make their home? - - 7. Which was the better known at the time of their first meeting, - Robert or Elizabeth? - - 8. Where was most of her best poetry written? - - 9. Why are her writings after marriage colored with Italian hopes - and aspirations? - - 10. With what essentially feminine attribute was she abundantly - endowed? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Name her leading works. - - 2. What unique position in the English language is filled by the - "Sonnets from the Portuguese"? - - 3. For what purpose did she write "Casa Guidi Windows"? - - 4. Had she a profound knowledge of man? - - 5. What particular defects strike one in her style? - - 6. Why is she at her best when writing in the sonnet form? - - 7. Compare her verse with that of Mrs. Hemans, Lucy Larcom, - Shelley, Keats, and Longfellow. - - -"THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN" - - 1. What protest does "The Cry of the Children" voice? - - 2. Since this poem was written have steps been taken to improve - the condition of children who work? Name some of the limitations - of child labor in your state. - - 3. To what country does "our happy Fatherland" refer? - - 4. What potent evil now partially remedied by law was prevalent - in the factories and mines of those days? - - 5. Were the sanitary conditions of the factories regulated by - law, such as light, cleanliness, etc.? (See encyclopedia.) - - 6. How is the moral and physical life of a child affected by such - close and continuous application to work of this character? - - 7. What would Mrs. Browning make the guiding principle in the - solution of economic ills? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "The Book of Noble Englishwomen."--BRUCE. - - "Elizabeth Barrett Browning" ("Famous Women.")--INGRAM. - - "The Brownings; Their Life and Art."--WHITING. - - "Florence in the Poetry of the Brownings."--MCMAHAN. - - "The Letters of E. B. Browning."--Ed. KENYON. - - -WASHINGTON IRVING - -(1783-1859) - -Washington Irving has the distinction of being the only one of our -early writers of eminence born in the metropolis; and, with the -exception of Cooper, the only one born outside of New England. - -The youngest son of a well-to-do New York merchant, he was born -in 1783, just after the close of the Revolutionary War. He was, -therefore, very properly christened "Washington." It is said that -some years after, he was brought to President Washington, who, -on being told that he was a namesake, laid his hand upon him and -bestowed his blessing. Little could the Father of His Country have -realized that the benediction would bear fruit and that the recipient -thereof was to become the Prince of American Letters. - -Like many other authors he studied for the bar, but found neither -law nor politics congenial. Though well-read, his education was -unsystematic. His first literary endeavors appeared in "Salmagundi," -a semimonthly periodical in which he collaborated with his brother -and James Kirk Paulding. This was followed by his inimitable -"Knickerbocker's History of New York," still among the greatest -masterpieces of American humor, which established his reputation. - -In 1814 he sailed for Europe, where the next seventeen years of his -life were spent. Several years were divided between Great Britain -and France, where the "Sketch-Book," "Bracebridge Hall," and "Tales -of a Traveler" were written. Afterwards he spent some years in Spain -writing his striking series of works descriptive of Spanish history -and antiquities--"The Conquest of Granada," "The Alhambra," etc. - -Returning to America, he built a beautiful home at "Sunnyside" -(rightly named for one who always looked on the sunny side of life), -where he resided continuously during the remaining twenty-seven years -of his life, with the exception of four years spent as minister of -the United States at the Court of Spain. These latter years were full -of labor, the most notable results being his lives of Goldsmith and -Washington. - -His writings are distinguished by an easy grace, a flowing rhythm, -a light play of fancy and humor, a delicate and tender sentiment -sometimes suffused with a gentle melancholy, smooth and unaffected -narrative, picturesque description, and graphic delineation of -character. - -Thackeray describes him as being in his family "gentle, generous, -good-humored, and self-denying;" and in society "a delightful example -of complete gentlemanliness." - - -THE MAN - - 1. What peculiarity of birth distinguishes Irving from all other - ante bellum writers? - - 2. What was his education; his social position? - - 3. Note points of resemblance between his life and that of Bryant. - - 4. In what countries was a considerable portion of his life spent? - - 5. Where did he spend his days after his return from Europe? - - 6. What public service did Irving render his country? - - 7. Summarize his character. - - 8. In view of the many years he voluntarily spent abroad, would - you consider him a patriotic man? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What work established his reputation? - - 2. What writing did he do abroad? - - 3. What are his principal serious works? - - 4. State the prevailing characteristics of his style. - - 5. Contrast Irving's humor with that of Dickens. - - 6. Is his humor "American"? Why? - - 7. Compare his style with Hawthorne's. Which do you prefer? Why? - - -FROM "KNICKERBOCKER'S NEW YORK" - - 1. In proportion to its population, how would the record of crime - to-day in New York compare with that in the administration of - Governor Van Twiller? - - 2. Give reasons for this difference. - - 3. What was the Dutch ideal of family life? - - 4. Judging from this account, was the social distinction between - the different classes as great as it is to-day? - - 5. What was the style of dress worn by the ladies of those days? - - 6. Discuss its merits or inconveniences as compared with the - style of dress to-day. - - 7. To what extent would you consider this history authoritative? - - 8. Wherein lies the charm of Irving's power as a writer? - - 9. Compare the tone of this selection with that of "Rip Van - Winkle." - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Washington Irving."--BOYTON. - - "Four Famous American Writers."--CODY. - - "Irving" ("American Men of Letters").--WARNER. - - "Literary Likings."--BURTON. - - "Literary and Social Essays."--CURTIS. - - "Backgrounds of Literature."--MABIE. - - -EDGAR ALLAN POE - -(1809-1849) - -Although born in Boston, Poe was of Southern descent and received his -early education in England and Virginia. He belonged to no school -of writers. His works are _sui generis_ and bear no local color or -imprint. - -Though a loving husband, he was throughout his life practically -without friends, his caustic criticism in particular making him -many enemies in the world of letters, with disastrous effect on -the reception of his writings. His life was consequently one long -struggle for bare necessities, in spite of which, working with -unflagging energy, he left behind several volumes of poems, tales, -and criticism of a high order. - -The wonderful technique, faultless form, and painstaking choice of -detail, combined with the grotesque and morbid beauty of both his -poetry and his prose have secured for Poe an abiding place in our -literature. It is the perfection of literary style that has given -him his great popularity abroad and especially in France. Indeed, -Poe's neglect of the moral point of view and his constant achievement -of artistic perfection of form are French rather than English or -American characteristics. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Poe was born in Boston. Would you class him with the New - England school of writers? - - 2. Where did he receive his early education? Does this account - for certain peculiarities in his writings? - - 3. Was Poe a man of warm sympathies? - - 4. What were his relations with other writers of his day? - - 5. Was the circle of his friendship extensive? What effect had - this on his ultimate success as a writer? - - 6. Compare Scott and Poe as money-makers. - - 7. What is your opinion of Poe as a husband? - - 8. He was not a hard drinker as compared with men of his time. - The malevolence of his literary executor is responsible in part - for the belief to the contrary. On the other hand his will was - not strong enough to resist the insidious craving for alcohol and - opium, and his high-strung temperament was affected by a slight - quantity of either poison. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What rank do you assign to Poe among American poets? Among - short-story writers? - - 2. Wherein lay his strength? - - 3. What elements of weakness do you observe? - - 4. In "The Fall of the House of Usher" notice how the atmosphere - of horror is fixed in the opening paragraph by a series of - adjectives and adverbs expressive of ever increasing gloom and - culminating in the word "torture." - - 5. Compare the nightmare dread that is attained both at the - end of "The Fall of the House of Usher" and in "The Cask of - Amontillado" with De Quincey's description of the dreams caused - by opium and the attendant melancholia. IV, 171-181. - - 6. However, Poe was not merely recording fragments of opium - dreams; the earliest prose work of the romantic period, now - forgotten because of its many weaknesses and imperfections, - consisted largely of just such tales of horror. Bürger's - "Lenore," Walpole's "Castle of Otranto," Mrs. Radcliffe's - "Mysteries of Udolpho," and Mrs. Shelley's "Frankenstein" were - among the foremost of these. - - 7. Can you discover any suggestions of religious or moral feeling - in either of these tales? If so, do they impress you as Poe's - actual conviction or as a part of the picture which he is drawing? - - 8. Is this type of tale worth preserving apart from its - excellence in style? Do you think it easy or difficult to tell - such a story? Why? - - 9. Is Poe immoral or unmoral? - - -"THE RAVEN" - - 1. Why is the raven chosen as the bird of ill omen? - - 2. Compare the raven with the albatross in Coleridge's "Ancient - Mariner." - - 3. It has been often claimed that the poem was written by Poe in - a fit of delirium. As a matter of fact it was composed during his - wife's illness and then polished into its present shape during - subsequent months of grief. "The Bells" was written at the same - time. - - 4. "Annabel Lee" is another expression of his passionate love for - his wife. - - 5. "The Raven" is written in the first person. Is this - characteristic of Poe? Does he gain anything by it? What does he - lose? - - 6. Whence was the name, Lenore, derived? - - 7. What do you understand by the reference to "the Night's - Plutonian shore"? - - 8. As "The Raven" may be said to be the masterpiece of American - poetry, so the stanza, "Then methought the air grew denser," is - considered the supreme moment in the poem. Can you see why? - - 9. For a critical analysis of the structure of this poem see - Poe's essay, "The Philosophy of Composition," in the complete - editions of his works. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Four Famous American Writers."--CODY. - - "Life and Letters of Edgar Allan Poe."--HARRISON. - - "Edgar Allan Poe; the Man, the Master, the Martyr."--LEIGH. - - "The Home Life of Poe."--WEISS. - - "Poe" ("American Men of Letters").--WOODBERRY. - - "The Mind and Art of Poe's Poetry."--FRUIT. - - -NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE - -(1804-1864) - -Nathaniel Hawthorne, by general repute the greatest of American -novelists, was of sound New England lineage, and his forefathers -had for generations followed the sea. After graduating from Bowdoin -College, where he had formed a close friendship with Longfellow and -Pierce, he returned to Salem, resolved to take up literature as a -life-work. - -Here he wrote for years, but with so little success that he was -glad to accept of George Bancroft, the historian, the offer of a -subordinate position in the Boston Custom House. He had, however, -just previously published his first work, "Twice-Told Tales," to be -followed, upon his retirement from the custom house with the change -of administration, by "Grandfather's Chair." - -Some years after he was appointed surveyor of customs at Salem, then -an important port, and the succession of tales which had come from -his pen for so many years suddenly ceased. But during the following -four years of apparent cessation of literary endeavor, he was but -husbanding his forces for a final effort, and the year 1850 witnessed -the publication of his masterpiece, "The Scarlet Letter," the epic of -sin and remorse, by common consent the best American romance and by -many held without an equal, either here or abroad. - -His old schoolmate, Franklin Pierce, having become President of the -United States, Hawthorne was appointed Consul to Liverpool, and upon -the expiration of his term spent two years traveling in France, -Switzerland, and Italy. The "English Note Books" and "Our Old Home" -tell of his life in England, and "The Marble Faun," one of his -greatest works, is the product of his wanderings in Italy. - -His writings are distinguished by a wonderful power of analysis, and -a singularly graceful diction. He seems in a way the incarnation of -the old Puritan spirit, probes the innermost recesses of the heart, -and appears to take a strange delight in the darker side of life. -But he is in no sense morbid; his musings are merely the offspring -of a solitary but eminently manly spirit. All through his works one -realizes the dominating and all-pervading supremacy of conscience. - - -THE MAN - - 1. With what historic towns do we associate the name of Hawthorne? - - 2. What led to his deep interest in New England lore? - - 3. Would you judge him to be a good business man? Why? - - 4. How did he happen to visit Europe? - - 5. Under what circumstances was "The Scarlet Letter" produced? - - 6. How does Hawthorne rank among American writers? - - 7. To what trait of character must his slow acceptance by the - public be attributed? - - 8. Was he a Puritan? Why? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Which was the first of Hawthorne's works to attract public - attention? - - 2. What rank does "The Scarlet Letter" hold in American - literature? In world literature? - - 3. Wherein lies its great hold upon the human heart? - - 4. Name his works dealing with English life. - - 5. What elements of strength do you discover in his style? - - 6. In what respects does he resemble Poe; wherein does he differ - from him? - - 7. Is his work indicative of his education as well as of his - character? How? - - -"THE OLD MANSE" - - 1. How long did Hawthorne live in the "Old Manse"? - - 2. Does Hawthorne show a detailed knowledge of nature? - - 3. What qualities must a book possess to retain its interest and - value for centuries beyond its time of writing? - - 4. According to Hawthorne's views, what is the best remedy for a - troubled mind or worn body? - - 5. What qualities does Hawthorne's style possess which make an - otherwise uninteresting subject have such charm? - - 6. Notice the passages which bring out the personal character of - the author. From these give a complete character sketch of the - man. - - 7. What places of interest in Concord attract visitors? VI, - 312, 316, also _Frontispiece_ and illustrations, 310, 338; V, - _Frontispiece_, 82; XII, 116. - - 8. Does this selection offer good material for illustration? Find - several scenes especially beautiful in color or shading. - - 9. What was Hawthorne's view of Emerson? Do you agree with it? - Why? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Nathaniel Hawthorne and his Wife."--HAWTHORNE (JULIAN). - - "Memories of Hawthorne."--LATHROP. - - "Nathaniel Hawthorne."--FIELDS. - - "Hawthorne" ("English Men of Letters").--JAMES. - - "Life and Genius of Nathaniel Hawthorne."--STEARNS. - - "American Prose Masters."--BROWNELL. - - -WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT - -(1794-1878) - -William Cullen Bryant was born among the Berkshire hills, in Western -Massachusetts, the son of a country physician of limited means. He -did not complete his college course, and after devoting several -years to the practice of law, he removed to New York, where for -nearly fifty years he remained as editor of one of the principal -metropolitan papers. He took a leading part in all public affairs, -and was a most uncompromising abolitionist. - -In appearance patriarchal, a "grand old man," he was lofty, -self-contained, and cold. He died at the age of 83, his mental powers -still in full vigor. - -He was the first poet of high rank which America produced; and above -all, the first to paint American scenes with a discerning eye. His -poems are American in subject, imagery, and spirit. The volume of his -poetry is not large, nor is its range wide, but it is characterized -by a dignity and simplicity which imparts a peculiar charm. - -His "Thanatopsis," written at the remarkably early age of eighteen, -was the first poem written on the American continent destined to win -enduring fame. - -His works are almost entirely devoted to nature. Man is generally -treated merely in the abstract. In all his verse the tendency to -moralize is strongly apparent; but his writings, though instinct with -morality and religion, never rise above the teachings of natural -theology. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What were his antecedents? - - 2. To what extent was he an educated man? - - 3. What was Bryant's calling? - - 4. Where did Bryant's political sympathies lie? - - 5. Was his personal appearance in keeping with his profession? - - 6. What celebrity of antiquity would you say he most resembled in - this respect? - - 7. For what reason does Bryant lack in popularity? - - 8. Though his first poem was his greatest, can we say that there - was any decline in Bryant's mental powers? - - 9. Does he belong to the New England authors or to the New York - group? Why? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. At what age did he write "Thanatopsis"? - - 2. What unique position does "Thanatopsis" occupy in American - literature? - - 3. Were his literary remains extensive? - - 4. What pleasing qualities characterize his style? - - 5. His rank as a poet of nature? - - 6. For what scenes does Bryant appear to have a special - predilection? - - 7. In which was Bryant more deeply versed, nature or man? - - 8. What other poets does his work suggest? - - -"THANATOPSIS" - - 1. What is the connection between the title of the poem and its - subject-matter? - - 2. How does communion with nature affect the thought of death? - - 3. Is the description of death effective? - - 4. What consolation is derived from the manner of our burial? - - 5. Does Bryant consider preparation for death essential? - - 6. Are there indications of youthfulness in the poem? - - 7. Do any passages suggest Bryant's early home? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Atlas Essays."--PALMER. - - "William Cullen Bryant" ("American Authors").--HILL. - - "Throne Makers."--THAYER. - - "Bryant and His Friends."--WILSON. - - "Studies in Bryant" ("Literature Primers").--ALDEN. - - -HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (1807-1882) - -Longfellow was born at Portland, Maine, a lineal descendant of -"Priscilla, the Puritan Maiden." He was educated at Bowdoin -College, in which he was subsequently offered a professorship. To -prepare himself for the position he traveled extensively in Europe, -acquainting himself with its languages and institutions. - -After some years at Bowdoin he was appointed to the chair of -modern languages and literature at Harvard. He now settled down at -Cambridge, which remained his home till the day of his death, though -he made several trips to Europe. - -After several ineffectual essays at authorship, he won recognition -with his "Voices of the Night." Some years later appeared a second -collection of poems, "Poems of Slavery," which, with Whittier's poems -and Mrs. Stowe's works, were largely instrumental in stirring up New -England to the evils of slave-holding. Finally, in 1847, appeared -the greatest of all his works, "Evangeline." It is also remarkable -as introducing the dactylic hexameter of the ancients, ever since -popular in America. - -In his choice of subjects Longfellow oscillated between America and -Europe, and, although he doubtless was not conscious of the fact, -his American poems were easily best; especially "Hiawatha" (based on -a Finnish epic, the "Kalevala"), "The Courtship of Miles Standish," -and the "Tales of a Wayside Inn,"--all three of which may vie with -"Evangeline" for excellence. He was less successful with his European -poems, though "The Golden Legend," and his translation of the "Divine -Comedy" are good. - -Longfellow made several attempts at writing prose fiction, notably in -"Hyperion" and "Kavanaugh," but none of his prose works proved to be -of any permanent value. - -Longfellow was neither original nor deep. He attempts to discover no -new secrets in nature. But, like Scott, he was a lover of the heroic, -of the spirit of self-sacrifice. His poems, whatever their form, are -ever subjective, have ever a moral to teach. And so, like Scott, he -has ever been and ever will be popular. In England and Canada he is -said to be even more popular than Tennyson. - -Of all American authors, Longfellow was the model Christian; noted -for his superabundant sympathy, love, and charity. It is recorded -that when Poe lashed him with his merciless criticism, he was -delivering enthusiastic discourses on Poe's poetry to his classes. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What was Longfellow's origin; his education? - - 2. In what respect does his life resemble that of Irving? - - 3. His profession was literature. What chair did he occupy, and - in what colleges? - - 4. What interest, if any, did Longfellow take in public affairs? - - 5. Give the salient points in his character. - - 6. Was his foreign experience as significant as that of Irving, - Hawthorne, and Lowell? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. With what collection of poems did Longfellow first win public - notice? - - 2. What work links his name with those of Whittier and Harriet - Beecher Stowe? - - 3. Name his best poems. - - 4. In which is the dactylic hexameter popularized? - - 5. From what two sources was his "Hiawatha" derived? - - 6. How is Longfellow's name connected with that of Dante? - - 7. What are the merits of his style; the defects? - - 8. Longfellow is easily the most popular American poet. Why? - - 9. What British poet does he most resemble in his shorter poems? - In what respects? - - 10. What can you say as to his popularity abroad? - - -FROM "EVANGELINE" - - 1. Who were the Druids, and why are they appropriately associated - with the "forest primeval"? - - 2. What is the present name of the territory once called Acadie? - - 3. What lines express the central thought underlying the tale? - - 4. What is there peculiarly appropriate in the words "turbulent - tides"? (See geography on Bay of Fundy, etc.) - - 5. Select a few of the most beautiful similes or metaphors which - illustrate the poet's power of imagination. - - 6. Is the cruelty of the English exaggerated? - - 7. During what period of history did this event occur? - - 8. What picture of Acadian life pleases you most? - - 9. Compare this narrative style with that of the narrative poems - of Scott, Tennyson, Macaulay, and Homer. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Longfellow."--LONGFELLOW (SAMUEL). - - "Henry W. Longfellow, Life, Works, Friendships."--AUSTIN. - - "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow."--CARPENTER. - - "Four American Poets."--CODY. - - "Longfellow's Country."--CLARKE. - - "Authors and Friends."--FIELDS. - - "Old Cambridge."--HIGGINSON. - - "Longfellow."--NORTON. - - -JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER - -(1807-1892) - - -Whittier was born at Haverhill, Mass., the son of a poor Quaker -farmer. His boyhood was spent at work on his father's farm and he -had few opportunities for schooling. But he showed his talent for -verse at an early age, and in this manner attracted the interest -and friendship of William Lloyd Garrison. Determined to obtain an -education, he learned the trade of making slippers, and with this as -a means of support was able to attend two years at Haverhill Academy. - -For some years after this he led a shifting life, sometimes editing -one of a number of periodicals with which he was successively -connected, and at other times working the ancestral farm. In 1836 -the farm was sold and the Whittiers removed to Amesbury, destined to -remain his home until his death in 1892, fifty-six years after. - -Whittier was a Quaker, and, like most of that sect, a zealous -champion of abolition. To that cause he sacrificed ambition and love; -and, like most of the early abolitionists, he suffered for his faith. -While editor of the "Pennsylvania Freeman," at Philadelphia, his -printing plant was sacked and burned by the mob. - -Whittier never married. His sister Elizabeth, who became his lifelong -companion, and whose verse is preserved with his own, shared likewise -in the war he made on slavery. - -His poems may be divided into two classes: those descriptive of -rural life and scenery, among which the best are "Snow Bound," his -masterpiece, "The Tent on the Beach," "Maud Muller," and "Among -the Hills"; and his polemics against slavery, including "Voices of -Freedom," "Barbara Frietchie," and "The Slaves of Martinique." He -also collaborated with Lucy Larcom in the compilation of "Child -Life," "Child Life in Prose," and "Songs of Three Centuries." - -Poetry was no fine art with him, and his verse seldom rises above -the ballad; but his style is characterized by great simplicity, -sincerity, directness, and fervor. The elements of passion and -sturdier humor are lacking, but he was the master-painter of New -England scenery, as evidenced in his "Snow Bound," the best verse of -that kind since "The Deserted Village," and "The Cotter's Saturday -Night." Rustic winter scenes have never been more beautifully -described. - - -THE MAN - - 1. From what rank in life did Whittier come? - - 2. What can you say of his childhood? - - 3. How would his education compare with that of most of the - authors of his day? - - 4. The formation of what friendship had a lasting effect on his - life? - - 5. What profession did he enter in common with many other - American authors? - - 6. Of what faith was he an adherent? - - 7. At what place did he live during the greater part of his life? - - 8. Explain the part taken by him in political matters. - - 9. What can you tell of his sister Elizabeth? - - 10. Why is he called "The Quaker Poet," and "The Amesbury Sage"? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Wherein does his style resemble that of Mrs. Browning? - - 2. What great poems of Burns and Whittier are properly classed - together, and why? - - 3. Name four poems descriptive of New England life and scenery. - - 4. What are his best poems on slavery? - - 5. In what field do he and Longfellow meet? VIII, 222. - - 6. State what shows his great interest in children. - - 7. What form did his verse generally take? - - 8. How does he compare as to form with Poe and Bryant? - - 9. Why is he esteemed the New England poet _par excellence_? - - 10. In the description of what particular scenes does he excel? - - 11. Give the elements of strength in his style. - - -"MAUD MULLER" - - 1. What is meant by the "mock-bird" in the third couplet? Are - these mocking birds in New England? - - 2. Of what class is Maud with her "vague unrest" a type? - - 3. Is city life still as attractive to country girls and boys? - - 4. Is the Judge's aimless talk well worked out by the poet? - - 5. Had Maud and the Judge married, would they have been happier - in the end? - - 6. Have lawyers changed with the flight of years? - - 7. Is it true that "humming" is a telltale habit? - - 8. What do you understand by "spinnet," "astral," and "chimney - lug"? - - 9. Point out a couplet which has passed into a proverb. - - 10. What "sweet hope" is intended in the next to the last stanza? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of John Greenleaf Whittier" ("Great Writers - Series").--LINTON. - - "John Greenleaf Whittier" ("American Men of letters").--CARPENTER. - - "Whittier-Land."--PICKARD. - - "Reminiscences of Whittier's life at Oak Knoll."--WOODMAN. - - "Biographic Clinics."--GOULD. - - "Authors and Friends."--FIELDS. - - "John Greenleaf Whittier" ("English Men of Letters").--HIGGINSON. - - -JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL - -(1819-1891) - -JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL, the son of a Unitarian minister, was born in -Cambridge, Massachusetts, the home of so many of our eminent authors. -Educated at Harvard University, where he also prepared for the -practice of law, he entered that profession, but finding it little to -his taste quickly abandoned it for literature. In 1855 he succeeded -Longfellow in the chair of modern languages at Harvard, a position -which he held for the following twenty-two years. During this period -he was for a time editor of the _Atlantic Monthly_, and the _North -American Review_. In 1877 he was appointed minister to Spain, and in -1880 was transferred to the Court of St. James, where he remained -five years. He died in 1891 at the age of seventy-two years. - -Lowell was a many-sided character, eminent as a poet, an essayist, -a critic, and a public speaker. His friends included all the New -England writers of his day and many English authors, who for the -first time appreciated America's intellectual standing. His poetry -is very uneven; this is due largely to the fact that he wrote -principally for immediate effect, and, while his poems sparkle -with wit and humor, they very commonly lack polish and form. This -criticism would hardly apply to "The Vision of Sir Launfal," his best -poem, or to the "Commemoration Ode." - -Lowell is probably better known as an essayist and critic, his best -works in this line being "Fireside Travels," "My Study Windows," and -"Among my Books." He was the leading American critic of his time. - -In closing, two anomalous works should be mentioned. His "Biglow -Papers" are two series of satirical poems, ordinary verse rather than -actual poetry, but very fine as satire. The former series, published -in 1846, was directed against the Mexican war, and the latter, -published during the Civil War, against the slavery party. They -served to popularize the 'Yankee dialect,' here used for the first -time. - -The second is the "Fable for Critics," a criticism in verse of his -leading contemporaries, like the "Biglow Papers," full of wit and -striking puns and keenly critical, though lacking in true poetic -value. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What similarity between Lowell's antecedents and those of - Emerson? - - 2. How does his first choice of a profession resemble that of - Bryant and Irving? - - 3. Whom did he succeed at Harvard and what chair did he fill in - that institution? - - 4. Give his connection with journalism. - - 5. What diplomatic missions did he fill, and what other famous - American authors had filled the same positions? - - 6. Did he, like Irving, Prescott, and Hawthorne, make any great - use of his European experience for literary purposes? - - 7. What impression did he make in England? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Mention seven different lines along which Lowell directed his - energies. - - 2. What is the principal defect in his style? - - 3. What are his strong points? - - 4. Mention his three best poems. His three best collections of - essays. - - 5. Against what evil were the "Biglow Papers" directed? - - 6. What new element did they bring into American literature? - - 7. Name a favorite poem in the Yankee dialect. - - 8. Why is some of his verse scarcely to be considered poetry? - - -FROM "THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL" - - 1. Compare "druid wood" with the opening lines of Longfellow's - "Evangeline," VIII, 231, and explain the allusion. - - 2. Point out the best couplet in the extract. - - 3. What beautiful metaphor is near the close of the poem? - - 4. What analogy may we draw between the tide and the year-cycle? - - 5. What is the purpose of the first stanza? - - 6. Explain the line "Each ounce of dross costs its ounce of - gold," and find examples in life to verify it. - - 7. What are the signs of summer? - - 8. How does this season of the year affect the human heart? - - 9. Compare the second stanza with the theme and the style of - Wordsworth's "Ode on Immortality," XII, 324. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Four Famous American Writers."--CODY. - - "James Russell Lowell."--SCUDDER. - - "American Prose Masters."--BROWNELL. - - "James Russell Lowell."--CURTIS. - - "Essays in London and Elsewhere."--JAMES. - - "Nature Knowledge in Modern Poetry."--MACKIE. - - "Stelligeri, and other Essays."--WENDELL. - - -OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES - -(1809-1894) - -The "genial Autocrat" was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was -the son of a Congregational minister. After graduating at Harvard, he -began the study of law, but, like so many other authors, not finding -it to his taste, changed to medicine. After finishing his studies in -Paris he returned to America, and opened office in Boston. Despite -his fondness for literature, he gained a fair practice. - -In 1847, however, he was elected Professor of Anatomy in Harvard -University, a position he held for thirty-five years. His duties were -far from arduous, so that like Emerson, he was able to devote much of -his time to lecturing and poetry. - -The founding of _The Atlantic Monthly_ was an important event in his -life. He was engaged to write for it, and the result was his greatest -work, "The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," a series of talks on -many subjects, interspersed with some poems. Of the same nature are -"The Professor at the Breakfast Table," "The Poet at the Breakfast -Table," and "Over the Teacups," written at intervals of many years. -They are distinguished by careless grace and irrepressible humor. The -"Autocrat" is the most original and brilliant, and the series became -successively more serious as the doctor grew older. - -These are the works by which he will be remembered, but, like Lowell, -he was a man of many parts, and chose to work in several fields. He -was eminent as a physician, lecturer, poet, and essayist, as we have -seen, and he even tried his hand at fiction. "The Guardian Angel," -his best novel, "Elsie Venner," and "A Mortal Antipathy," have been -called 'medicated novels,' dealing as they do with questions of -heredity and prenatal influence. - -He also appeared in the rôle of biographer, with the lives of his -friends, Motley and Emerson. - -Holmes was a lovable man, genial, brilliant, witty, and yet deeply in -earnest for all that. He was a thoroughly religious man and a firm -believer in immortality, holding his life to be merely the avenue or -vestibule to a greater beyond. He was, however, conservative, and -took little part in the abolitionist movement which so agitated his -brethren. - -He died at the advanced age of eighty-five, having outlived all his -companions in the field of letters. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Give a brief account of Holmes's birth and antecedents. - - 2. Where was he educated, and on what lines? - - 3. What connection did he subsequently form with Harvard - University? - - 4. In what respect does his life resemble that of Emerson, and - how does he resemble Lowell? - - 5. Mention several different fields in which he achieved - distinction. - - 6. Give a summary of his character. - - 7. According to Holmes, what is it that makes life worth living? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Which is esteemed to be Holmes's best work? - - 2. Enumerate the four books of the Autocrat series. - - 3. What is the general character of these books? - - 4. What progressive difference is noted in the successive books - of the series? - - 5. Give the main elements of his style. - - 6. Name three novels written by Holmes. - - 7. For what biographies are we indebted to him? - - 8. As a humorist compare him with Lowell, VIII, 255; with Irving, - VII, 271; with Lamb, VIII, 73, 86. - - -FROM "THE AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST TABLE" - - 1. Is there a moral to the poem "The Wonderful One-hoss-shay"? If - so, what is it? - - 2. When is slang permissible, according to Holmes? - - 3. To whom does the title of this selection refer? - - 4. Account for the sudden changes of topic and their diversity of - character. - - 5. What is the effect of the quotation connected with the poem - "Contentment"? - - 6. Is the intermingling of poetry and prose common? How is it - peculiarly suitable here? - - 7. What are Holmes's views concerning the literary talent of the - United States? - - 8. If the works of an author portray his character, how would you - classify Oliver Wendell Holmes as a man? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Holmes: The Autocrat and his Fellow Boarders."--CROTHERS. - - "Authors and Friends."--FIELDS. - - "Old Cambridge" ("National Studies in American - Letters").--HIGGINSON. - - "The Poet Among the Hills."--SMITH. - - -HOMER - -(1000 B.C.) - -The ancient Greek tradition assigned the authorship of the "Iliad" -and the "Odyssey" to the blind bard, Homer, of whose origin and -personality nothing is known, although seven cities claimed to be his -birthplace. More than a century of the closest study and research, -including the investigation of ancient Troy, has shown that these -two immortal epic poems are hardly to be called the work of one man, -but that they have been compiled and unified by one poet from several -shorter works, dealing with incidents leading to the fall of Troy and -the wanderings of Odysseus. - -The site of Troy, close to the entrance to the Dardanelles, has been -occupied by nine cities, excavations showing their remains resting -in distinct layers, five of which belong to the pre-Homeric times, -the sixth being the city of the "Iliad," sacked in the year 1184 B.C. -Its fall was due, originally, to a dispute among the gods as to which -was the fairest, Hera, the wife of Zeus, goddess of earthly dominion, -Athene, goddess of wisdom, or Aphrodite, goddess of love. Paris, the -son of Priam, king of Troy, was chosen judge and awarded the prize to -Aphrodite, tempted by her offer of the most beautiful woman in the -world for his wife and rejecting the bribes of empire and of wisdom -which were offered by the others. - -Helen, the wife of Menelaus, whose beauty was acclaimed as divine, -accordingly was abducted by Paris. Menelaus and his brother, both -powerful kings in Greece, collected an army with the aid of several -other Greek princes and set sail at once for Troy, which they -besieged in vain for nine years and finally captured by the stratagem -of the Trojan horse. This was a huge wooden figure of a horse, in -which certain of the Greek leaders lay hid while the rest sailed -away, apparently giving up the siege and leaving the horse as an -offering to the gods. The Trojans, rejoicing, dragged the monster -within their walls, broken down to admit it, and at nightfall the -concealed Greeks came out and opened the gates to the rest of their -army, which had landed again under cover of darkness. - -Helen's life was spared, as she seems to have been regarded as a -being of another world, guiltless of wrong intent, driven by fate -into these misfortunes. The tragedies that befell upon the return -of Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus form the subject of the great -dramas of Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles. - -The "Iliad" narrates events in the course of the siege, in which -Achilles is the Greek hero, angered by Agamemnon and refusing to -lead the troops to battle, until roused by the death of his friend -Patroclus he rushes to the fray and slays Hector, the Trojan prince -and leader, with whose funeral rites the poem closes. - -The fall of Troy is not treated by Homer; in fact it did not receive -the consideration due its dramatic possibilities until a thousand -years later, when Vergil, the Roman poet, described it in his -"Æneid." This may be explained by the fact that the Greeks desired -to hear the tale of their heroism and their leader's triumph rather -than the sorrows of the enemy, while the Roman emperor Augustus, at -whose request Vergil composed the "Æneid," wished to glorify Rome by -tracing her origin back to the son of the Trojan prince, Æneas, who -fled to Italy after Troy's downfall. - -The "Odyssey" recounts the wanderings of the Greek prince, Odysseus, -detained by various casualties on his way home round the south of -Greece to Ithaca, his island home in the Adriatic, and also deals -with his vengeance on the suitors whom he found endeavoring to win -the hand of his faithful wife Penelope. - -The "Iliad," as a piece of literature, seems to belong to a somewhat -earlier day than the "Odyssey." The latter is more unified in -construction, and shows greater knowledge of travel and a higher -religious and social standard. - -The selections of the former are from the two great metrical -translations of Pope and of Chapman. Pope's work (1715) is in -the full flower of the Age of Classicism, and is thoroughly -characteristic of that period. Chapman's (1611), less polished, -belongs to the late Renaissance, whose rugged, adventurous spirit was -far nearer that of the Homeric age and is preferred by many on this -account. - -The prose translation, from which the passages of the "Odyssey" -are taken, is better suited to present-day taste, trained by prose -fiction rather than verse. It retains as far as has ever been done -the Greek feeling and ideas, with all its richness of imagery and -none of the affectation which we feel to-day in lengthy verse. - - -THE MAN AND THE AGE - - 1. Who was Homer? - - 2. What is the history of Troy? - - 3. What was the value of its geographical situation in those - days? (Consult an atlas, classical, if possible.) - - 4. What was the character of social conditions in those days? See - V, 432. - - 5. Apart from scientific progress, what distinctions can you make - between this era and that of Homer? - - 6. The fall and sack of Troy is told by whom, in what epic? - Explain why Homer did not deal with this dramatic episode. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Why has Achilles' fame lasted two thousand years? III, 266. - - 2. What is one of Homer's leading merits? VIII, 356. - - 3. What was Alexander the Great's opinion of the "Iliad"? IX, 8. - - 4. Which do you prefer, the prose or the verse translation? Why? - - 5. In what respects are the verse translations molded by the - spirit of the periods when they were made? - - 6. How is it that the Renaissance, when Chapman made his - translation, was more like the Homeric period than the twentieth - century? - - -FROM THE "ODYSSEY" - - 1. What phrases suggest the Greek love of beauty? - - 2. Do you conclude that the poet was observant of life in times - of peace as well as in times of war? - - 3. Had he ever lived on a farm? What makes you think so? - - 4. How did Odysseus treat the minstrel? Was the writer himself - probably just such a bard? - - 5. Compare Circe's palace and the home of Odysseus; what was the - probable status of the hero, king or chieftain? Why? - - 6. Note the use of sulphur for purifying the house. What does - this show you regarding early Greek civilization? - - 7. Outline the social and political conditions of life in the - Homeric period as shown in the "Odyssey." - - -FOR REFERENCE - - The "Iliad," translated by LANG, LEAF, and MYERS. - - The "Odyssey," translated by BUTCHER and LANG. - - "Homer and his Age."--LANG. - - "The World of Homer."--LANG. - - "On Translating Homer."--ARNOLD. - - "Ethics of the Heroic Age."--GLADSTONE. - - "Life in the Homeric Age."--SEYMOUR. - - -VERGIL - -(70 B.C.-19 B.C.) - -Unlike most distinguished Roman writers, Vergil was country born, -coming from the district of Andes, near Mantua--hence 'the Mantuan,' -as he was known to the scholastics. - -After studying at Cremona and Rome, he returned to his father's small -estate and wrote pastoral poetry; but being obliged to flee when the -lands of Italy were assigned by the Triumvirs to their adherents, he -again visited Rome, where he speedily became a favorite of Augustus. -The liberality of Augustus and his own thrift enabled him to live in -comparative opulence. Most of his life he spent in retirement on his -estate in Campania. Here his time was given wholly to his art, except -in so far as he was taken up with scientific and antiquarian studies, -which he thought essential to elevate his thought and strengthen his -grasp of profound subjects. - -His character is universally commended. He was gentle, innocent, -modest, and of a singular sweetness of disposition. He is generally -conceded to be the greatest Roman poet and the most patriotic. -Like other epic poets he was of a philosophic nature, and unlike -the generality of Roman writers, he was reserved as to his personal -feelings. He never married. - -Before coming to Rome he had written his "Eclogues," the first of -Latin pastorals, in imitation of Theocritus. His next poems, the -"Georgics," were written to create fresh interest in agriculture, -which had been the mainstay of republican Rome but was fast falling -into decay. But his enduring fame rests upon the "Æneid," written -at the request of Augustus, which treats of the founding of Rome -by a colony from ancient Troy under the leadership of Æneas. In it -Vergil sums up the glory of Rome and its culmination under Augustus. -The "Æneid," the "Divine Comedy," and "Paradise Lost" enjoy the -distinction of being the only great epics written in the full light -of civilized society, and the inspiration of the latter works was -largely drawn from Vergil. - -He was a master of literary form, seen at its best in the "Georgics" -and the "Æneid," though the latter is an unfinished work with which -Vergil was so little satisfied that in his will he directed its -destruction. This wish was rightly regarded as the fastidious, -nervous whim of the poet and was therefore unheeded. - -The "Messianic Eclogue" prophesies the birth of a child under -whose rule the Golden Age with prosperity and happiness should be -restored to the earth. It is not certain what child the poet had in -mind, though the phrase, "a world by righteous father tamed," would -indicate a flattering reference to Antony or Augustus, who then -shared the control of the world. In the Middle Ages it was firmly -believed by the scholars that Vergil had been divinely inspired with -the knowledge of the coming of Christ, and his fame as a magician was -partly based on this idea. - - -THE MAN - - 1. In what part of Italy was the childhood of Vergil spent? - - 2. Why do subsequent epic poets refer to him as 'the Mantuan' and - 'father Vergil'? - - 3. Of what court may we call him the poet laureate? - - 4. Did Vergil realize that in the reign of Augustus the Roman - world had reached its zenith? XII, 188, 189. - - 5. Where was most of his literary work done? - - 6. Give the salient points in Vergil's character. - - 7. What element in his character especially fitted him for the - post of Rome's epic poet? - - 8. Did he enjoy "a long life's evening" to sing the praises of - Pollio? XII, 190. - - 9. Compare the civilization of Vergil's time with that of the - Homeric age. V, 143, 432. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What rank is generally accorded Vergil among Roman poets? - - 2. Name his three principal productions. - - 3. The "Eclogues" or "Bucolics" were written in imitation of what - Greek author? - - 4. What field of literature did the Romans cultivate, which is - best treated in the "Georgics," and almost entirely neglected by - the writers of the other nations of antiquity? - - 5. Give Montaigne's opinion of the "Georgics." IX, 209. - - 6. Why was Vergil regarded as an enchanter in the Middle Ages? - VIII, 95. Give another reason. - - 7. What two good qualities of Vergil's character ennoble his - verse? - - -FROM THE "ÆNEID" - - 1. Æneas, after fleeing from Troy, sacked by the Greeks, - encountered various misfortunes, like Odysseus, and at last - arrived at Carthage, recently founded by Dido, of Phœnicia. He - narrates his adventures to her, and she, doomed by the gods, who - desire to keep Æneas out of Italy, is consumed with love for him. - Warned by friendly divinities to sail for Italy at once, Æneas - has already begun preparations for departure. - - 2. The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were composed and listened to - by men of action, familiar with battlefield, shipwreck, and the - whole outdoor struggle for existence. The "Æneid" was written in - a library by a gentle scholar for an audience whose culture was - far advanced beyond that of Homer's warriors. In the main this - fact is not immediately apparent, for Vergil was a consummate - artist and took pains to prevent his work from 'smelling of the - lamp'; that is, from showing its bookish and studied origin. - But his phrases are hackneyed by comparison with Homer's - "rosy-fingered Dawn" and "Odysseus of many counsels." - - 3. Find contrasting passages from Vergil and Homer, VII, 79, - illustrating the comparison in 2. - - 4. Is Dido true to life; is her rash self-destruction - convincingly handled by the poet? - - 5. Æneas figures in this episode as the villain; what excuse - could Vergil make for him which would be valid in the eyes of the - Romans? - - 6. What series of wars that almost overwhelmed Rome was carried - on by Carthage centuries later? VIII, 198 ff. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "The World's Leading Poets."--BOYNTON. - - "Stories from Vergil."--CHURCH. - - "The Æneid of Vergil" ("Everyman's Library").--TAYLOR. - - "The Story of the Æneid."--BROOKS. - - "The Country of Horace and Vergil."--BOISSIER. - - "Roman Poets of the Augustan Age."--SELLAR. - - "Old Pictures of Life."--SWING. - - "Great Writers."--WOODBERRY. - - -DANTE ALIGHIERI - -(1265-1321) - -Dante Alighieri, who ranks with Homer and Shakespeare as one of the -three greatest poets of all time, was a citizen of the Republic of -Florence. Though we commonly think of him only as a poet, his youth -was distinguished by gallant feats of arms, and he was later one of -the principal officers of the republic. But it was impossible to -hold office long under the turbulent city states of that age. Two -factions, the Whites and the Blacks, contended for the supremacy at -Florence, and in 1302 Dante, with many of his followers, was banished -from the city. - -The remaining nineteen years of Dante's life were spent in exile, the -victorious party at Florence steadily refusing to remove the ban. He -appears to have spent the years wandering from one seat of learning -to another, and from one court to another, though but little is -actually known relative to the matter. His last years were certainly -spent at Ravenna, at the court of his friend, Guido da Polenta. - -Upon his death the fickle republic attempted to secure the return of -the remains of its first citizen, but the request was denied, and he -still lies at Ravenna. - -His great poem, the "Vita Nuova" (new life) would well have served to -immortalize him, but it does not compare with his "Divine Comedy," an -account of his journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven. It is one -of the world's greatest epics. The machinery of the poem was largely -derived from the medieval legends and passion plays. But whether this -be so or not, we know that Dante was thoroughly competent to have -originated everything which the work contains. He calls Vergil his -master, but while Vergil may have been his equal in style, he was far -inferior to Dante in constructive genius. - -When about nine years of age Dante met and was filled with poetic -love for Beatrice Portinari. She married another, and after her -death a couple of years later, Dante married Gemma Donati, by whom -he had several children. Gemma, it seems, was something of a shrew, -and perhaps she cannot be blamed for not sympathizing with Dante's -continued love for Beatrice. At any rate, she seems to have been -a competent person, and when Dante was banished she successfully -claimed a part of his property as dower and maintained the family in -comfort. - -We cannot of course know at this time whether Beatrice was a person -worthy of the adoration so abundantly bestowed. However this may -be, the undying devotion of Dante, whose nature neither time nor -adversity could change, has sufficed to immortalize her name. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Of what stock was Dante descended? VIII, 263. - - 2. Of what state was he a citizen? - - 3. Under what circumstances did he leave Florence? - - 4. How did he spend the last nineteen years of his life? - - 5. What one element is most conspicuous in Dante's character? - VIII, 368. - - 6. State the facts in regard to Beatrice. - - 7. Read Michelangelo's sonnet on Dante. IX, 93. - - 8. Where are his remains interred, and why? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Compare Dante's view of life with that of Chaucer. VIII, 263. - - 2. Whence did he derive the precision which characterizes his - narrative? VIII, 263. - - 3. Did Dante have a broad outlook on the life of his day? III, - 253. - - 4. Compare Dante with Petrarch. VIII, 262. - - 5. What was Dante's opinion of the Arthurian legends? VIII, 262. - - 6. What was the effect of Dante's work on the language of Italy? - VIII, 267. - - 7. Compare the different modes in which Milton and Dante handle - the imagery of their epics. VIII, 361. - - 8. Why does Dante enter into such minute detail in describing the - scenes he attempts to depict? VIII, 362. - - 9. Which succeeded best in introducing the agency of supernatural - beings? VIII, 363. - - 10. In what sense is Dante's description of supernatural beings - picturesque? VIII, 366. - - 11. In what two respects do Dante and Milton present an exact - parallel? VIII, 368. - - -FROM THE "PARADISO" - - 1. The "Singer" is an appellation given to what Biblical - character? - - 2. According to this poem, are all souls of equal rank in heaven? - - 3. What determines a person's rank there? - - 4. Find verses which describe Adam and St. Peter. - - 5. To whom does the following refer: - - "That leader under whom on manna lived - The people ingrate, fickle, and stiff-necked." (See Exodus - XXXII, 9.) - - 6. How was Dante's life connected with the life of Beatrice? - - 7. What do the "three circles" represent which Dante saw when he - looked on Christ? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "The World's Leading Poets."--BOYNTON. - - "Witnesses of the Light."--GLADDEN. - - "Dante and the Divine Comedy."--WRIGHT. - - "The Moral System of Dante's Inferno."--READE. - - "Introduction to the Study of Dante."--BOTTA. - - "Dante, his Times and his Work."--BUTLER. - - "Aids to the Study of Dante."--DINSMORE. - - -JOHN MILTON - -(1608-1674) - -John Milton, the son of a scrivener of some means, was born in -London. He studied in succession at St. Paul's School, London, -and Christ's College, Cambridge, and on account of his beauty, -and the purity of his morals, was known as the "lady of Christ's -Church." Upon graduation from Cambridge he went to live with his -father (who had in the meantime removed to the village of Horton, -Buckinghamshire), determined to devote his life to literature. -At Horton he wrote his early poems, "L'Allegro," "Il Penseroso," -"Lycidas," and "Comus." "Lycidas" is an elegy in memory of his -intimate friend Henry King, drowned off the Welsh coast. - -After six years at Horton, he spent fifteen months making the -Continental tour, and would have stayed longer; but the civil -war breaking out, he returned, considering it dishonorable to be -enjoying himself abroad while his countrymen were striking a blow -for freedom. He laid aside all thought of belles lettres and devoted -his pen to the cause of Puritanism, writing many pamphlets in -defense of regicide, freedom of the press, divorce, etc. In 1849 he -was appointed Latin Secretary to the Council of State, and became -the recognized literary champion of the Government in the fierce -controversies of that age. - -Upon the restoration of the monarchy Milton was for a time in hiding, -but after 1660 was permitted to go unmolested. In his blind old age -he again reverted to poetry, and wrote the immortal epics, "Paradise -Lost," "Paradise Regained," and the tragedy, "Samson Agonistes." - - -THE MAN - - 1. What political opinions did Milton hold? VIII, 390. - - 2. Give your impression of his morals and personal appearance. - - 3. Account for the three main divisions of his works--lyric - poems, prose, and epic poems, with their differing tone--by his - condition in life at different times. - - 4. In what remarkable respect does Milton's character resemble - that of the Satan of his epic? VIII, 367, 369. - - 5. With what religious and political party did he ally himself? - - 6. What office did he hold under the Commonwealth? - - 7. In what virtues was he preëminent? - - 8. State two circumstances illustrating the heroism of his nature. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What was the extent of Milton's education? VIII, 354. - - 2. In what field does "Comus" stand among the foremost? VIII, 359. - - 3. Which did Milton consider his best poem? VIII, 360. - - 4. Compare "Paradise Lost" with the "Divine Comedy" as to the - different modes pursued by Milton and Dante in exciting the - imagination. VIII, 361. - - 5. Are Milton's grand visions the result of inspiration or of - industry? I, 404. - - 6. Why is Milton so little read at the present time? VI, 279. - - 7. Were the civilization with which he was surrounded and the - learning which he had acquired helps or hindrances to the - composition of a great epic poem? VIII, 350. - - 8. Characterize the style of his prose writings. VIII, 394. - - -"LYCIDAS" - - 1. What qualities are attributed to laurel, myrtle, and ivy by - the 'language of the flowers'? - - 2. Lycidas is the poetic appellation of what deceased friend of - Milton? - - 3. Who were the "sisters of the sacred well"? - - 4. To what circumstance does the allusion to "the remorseless - deep" closing o'er the head of Lycidas refer? And what is the - propriety of referring to Druids and Mona in that connection? - - 5. Who is meant by "The pilot of the Galilean lake"? Note the - symbols of his office which he carries, "two massy keys." - - 6. "Shepherd" and "sheep" are used in a metaphorical sense. - Explain their real meaning. To whom do these terms refer in the - Bible? - - 7. Why are the pansy, primrose, jessamine, violet, etc., used as - emblems of mourning? - - 8. Tennyson's "In Memoriam," XII, 47; Shelley's "Adonais," XI, - 95; and Gray's "Elegy," VI, 106, are all laments of the same - nature. Compare the four in style, mood, etc. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "The World's Leading Poets."--BOYNTON. - - "Story-Lives of Great Authors."--ROWBOTHAM. - - "Criticisms on Paradise Lost."--ADDISON. - - "Literary Studies."--BAGEHOT. - - "Great Books."--FARRAR. - - "Among my Books."--LOWELL. - - "Essay on Milton" (VIII, 347).--MACAULAY. - - "The Age of Milton" ("Handbooks of English Literature - ").--MASTERMAN. - -Masson's annotated edition of Milton's poems is invaluable for the -student's use. - - -WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE - -(1564-1616) - -Comparatively little is known of Shakespeare's life. His education -was slight, with but "small Latin and less Greek," as his friend Ben -Jonson puts it. There is little doubt that the financial depression -of the times brought poverty upon his family, that he was charged -with deer-stealing by a local landlord, Sir Thomas Lucy, and that -he soon after went to London to seek his fortune, at the age of -twenty-one, in 1585. There he seems to have held horses at the -theater entrances, then to have served as "call-boy" for the players, -and by 1592 had begun to patch and revise plays. By 1594 he was an -actor, and made more money than by play-writing, although he is -nowhere mentioned as more than passable on the stage. Original plays -had already appeared from his pen, comedies and historical drama -first, followed by the tragedies, and ending with "A Winter's Tale," -and "The Tempest"; the order of appearance as usually accepted is -given in X, 424. What with the success of his dramatic work, his -acting, and the patronage of the Earl of Southampton, to whom he -dedicated "Venus and Adonis" and "Lucrece," he was able to take -shares in the Globe theater, invest in land and houses at Stratford, -and at last retire, as he long had wished, to New Place, his -Stratford residence, there to spend his last years as a prosperous -landlord. He died in 1616 and was buried in the chancel of Trinity -Church, on the banks of the Avon. On the stone floor over his grave -is the familiar inscription: - - "Good friend, for Jesus sake forbeare - To digg the dust encloased heare; - Blest be the man that spares thes stones, - And curst be he that moves my bones." - -What books did Shakespeare read? Few, as compared with the average -author of his or any other age. Apart from the plays which he remade, -he gleaned material and plot from Plutarch (North's translation), -Holinshed, Geoffrey of Monmouth's history of British kings, now -almost forgotten because of its mythical medley and inaccuracy, -Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Montaigne. But the book of human life spread -open before him is the source of his characters and the descriptive -touches that lend vividness to his scenes. Falstaff, Lear, Rosalind, -Antony, Macbeth, and Hamlet are all taken from his knowledge and -observation of human nature in the living flesh. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What can be said as to Shakespeare's private life and - anecdotes in reference thereto? VI, 132. - - 2. Did he take to the stage from choice? VI, 133. - - 3. What was his reputation among his fellow playwrights? VI, 134. - - 4. Of what faith was Shakespeare, and what was his attitude - toward Puritanism? VI, 138. - - 5. What led him to turn from comedy to tragedy after his fortieth - year? VI, 142. - - 6. Through what occupations did Shakespeare pass to reach the - position of dramatist? - - 7. Was he able to turn his experience to practical account? - Explain. - - 8. Was Shakespeare what would be called in these days a man of - the world? - - 9. Why do you suppose he wrote plays if acting was more lucrative? - - 10. Show his application of business sense to his poetry. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Did Shakespeare make any considerable use of the pun? I, 13. - - 2. To what do Shakespeare and his contemporaries owe their unique - greatness in English literature? I, 180. - - 3. Are his dramas all of the first quality? III, 265. - - 4. Was it ever necessary for Shakespeare to 'court the muse' - before writing? IV, 397. - - 5. Give a classification of his works. (See encyclopedia.) - - 6. Name his first poetic productions, and state when they were - published. VI, 135. - - 7. What is known as to the order of publication of his dramas? - VI, 135. - - 8. Which of Shakespeare's plays have endeared him most with his - countrymen? VI, 137, 138. - - 9. What plays were written in the retirement of his latter years - at Stratford? VI, 143. - - 10. Compare Marlowe's "Faustus," IX, 43, with "King Lear," XI, 3; - and Jonson's "Every Man in his Humor" and "The Alchemist," VII, - 346-354, with "Henry IV," X, 424. What are the divergences in - style; in method of portraying character? - - -FROM "KING LEAR" - - 1. This act from "King Lear" is the most masterful passage in all - Shakespeare's work. The characters are all of them tense with - emotion, either grief-stricken or insane. Lear himself, at first - vexed, then infuriated (XI, 7), broken with anguish (11), and - apprehending madness (16), collapses and goes completely insane - (19). Kent, his faithful retainer, whom he had previously sent - into exile, watches him with a sorrow that is almost more than he - can bear. The Fool, crack-brained and simple, is the blending of - idiocy and shrewdness sometimes known as 'an innocent.' Edgar, - Gloucester's good son, cast out by his shortsighted father, - feigns madness for the sake of disguise. Each of these four - characters represents a different psychological condition. Such - a task as the dramatic manipulation of these personalities has - never been attempted before or since. Madness, though a common - subject with Shakespeare's contemporaries, has not elsewhere been - handled with success. - - The use of prose indicates disorder of the mind; thus Lear speaks - in blank verse until his intellect gives way (19), and thereafter - only when showing the power of reasoning, as in the speech (35) - on which Edgar makes the comment: "O, matter and impertinency - mix'd!" The Fool uses prose or nonsense rhyme throughout; Edgar - while playing the madman does the same, and assumes blank verse - when he drops the disguise. - - -FROM "AS YOU LIKE IT" - - 1. How is the title of the play appropriately suggestive of its - tenor? - - 2. Compare Rosalind of this play with Juliet of "Romeo and - Juliet." - - 3. What is Rosalind's object in deceiving Orlando concerning her - identity? - - 4. What part does Touchstone take in the play? - - -FROM "ROMEO AND JULIET" - - 1. Select several lines which indicate the outcome of this - youthful passion. - - 2. Both "As You Like It" and "Romeo and Juliet" have the same - theme--young lovers; compare the style of treatment of each. - - 3. In each case does the language used suit the scene in which - the play is laid? - - 4. What difficulties does Romeo have to encounter to see Juliet? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Shakespeare, a Critical Study of his Mind and Art."--DOWDEN. - - "William Shakespeare."--WENDELL. - - "Introduction to Shakespeare."--DOWDEN. - - "Studies in Shakespeare."--COLLINS. - - "The Age of Shakespeare."--SECCOMBE AND ALLEN. - - "On Ten Plays of Shakespeare."--BROOKE. - - "Shakespeare" ("English Men of Letters").--RALEIGH. - - "Shakespeare."--SWINBURNE. - - "Tales from Shakespeare."--LAMB. - - -JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE - -(1749-1832) - -The greatest literary genius that Germany has produced was born and -spent his early years at Frankfort-on-the-Main, then capital of the -German confederation. His later youth was spent in preparation for -the bar at Leipsic and Strasburg. - -By 1775 he had rendered himself famous by his drama "Götz von -Berlichingen" and his novel, "The Sorrows of Werther." In that -year he removed to Weimar, which soon because of him became the -intellectual Mecca of Germany. He found a true friend in Karl August, -Duke of Weimar, and throughout his long life occupied one after -another of the chief offices of that little state. In the succeeding -years appeared many dramas and other works, principal among the -former being "Iphigenia," "Tasso," and "Egmont." - -The year 1789 witnessed the beginning of his acquaintance with -Schiller, then professor of history at Jena. Schiller had established -a literary journal "Die Horen," to which Goethe contributed his -"Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship." And in the same year, 1796, -Goethe and Schiller wrote between them some six hundred "Xenien," -pithy sayings on the philosophic tendencies of the age. The next -year Goethe published his "Hermann and Dorothea," a romance in verse -and one of his best works. Schiller removed to Weimar in 1799, and -Germany's two foremost poets worked together until the death of -Schiller in 1805. - -Until his death, twenty-seven years later, Goethe was unceasingly -busy. Not satisfied with being preëminent in literature, he plunged -into anatomy, vegetable physiology, and optics, in each of which, far -from simply playing the amateur, he rendered permanent service to -science. - -Throughout his whole life he labored at that greatest of all German -dramas, "Faust." Begun as early as 1774, it first appeared in 1790 -and then only as a 'fragment.' Urged by Schiller, he took it up -again, and in 1808 the First Part was issued; the Second Part, only -after his death, in 1833. This Second Part is as deep in its thought -and philosophy as any poetic work that has been written; it has been -the subject of study and meditation by all the great thinkers since -its publication. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Give Heine's description of Goethe's personal appearance. VI, - 389. - - 2. What was Goethe's education? - - 3. Were Goethe's love affairs limited to his youth? IV, 372. - - 4. What part did Goethe take in scientific research? VI, 237. - - 5. What part did he take in political affairs? - - 6. Name three eminent writers who visited Goethe at Weimar. VI, - 377; VIII, 174, 180. - - 7. How late in life did Goethe retain his physical vigor? IV, 403. - - 8. Did Goethe conceive of God as a personal being? I, 392. - - 9. What great composer was among his intimate friends? I, 418. - - 10. See Goethe's forecast of the construction of the Panama Canal - by the United States. IV, 385. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Give Goethe's own statement of his influence upon German - poetry and institutions. I, 170. - - 2. For what reason is Faust not fully appreciated by the reading - public? IV, 382. - - 3. What was Napoleon's opinion of Goethe's works? IV, 401. - - 4. During what portion of Goethe's life was "Faust" written? - - 5. Name three other dramas of note by Goethe. - - 6. The position assigned to "Hermann and Dorothea"? - - 7. Who was the continuator of Goethe's work? I, 168. - - 8. What was Heine's opinion of Goethe? I, 169. - - 9. Was he the author of any prose works? - - 10. From what you read of him in I, 168-171; IV, 371 ff.; VI, - 388-390; VIII, 172 ff.; do you think he belonged to the Age of - Classicism or of Romanticism, or both? What conclusion do you - draw from his work, its subject-matter, and its style? - - -FROM "FAUST" - - 1. The selection from "Faust" includes practically the whole - tragedy of Margaret's temptation, and forms a complete drama in - itself. This is the central theme of the First Part of "Faust"; - in the Second Part Faust saves himself from damnation by - abandoning selfishness and solitude and becoming a worker for the - good of humanity, at one with the world. - - 2. What is Faust's first purpose? - - 3. Mephistopheles is to be regarded either as an evil spirit or - else as Faust's own baser side, endeavoring to defeat the ideals - of his better self. - - 4. What does the character of Martha add to the drama? - - 5. Compare with Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus," IX, 43, ff. - - 6. Which is the more immediately powerful? Both are derived from - a medieval tale and are related to the medieval morality plays, - in which virtues and vices are represented struggling for the - souls of men. Does Goethe or Marlowe come nearer to this simple - form of drama in style? in spirit? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Goethe."--BIELSCHOWSKY. - - "Goethe and Schiller."--BOYESEN. - - "The World's Leading Poets."--BOYNTON. - - "Goethe and his Woman Friends."--CRAWFORD. - - "Critical and Miscellaneous Essays."--CARLYLE. - - "Conversations with Goethe."--ECKERMANN. - - "Life of Goethe."--LEWES. - - -FRIEDRICH VON SCHILLER - -(1759-1805) - -Schiller, the most beloved of German poets, was a native of the Duchy -of Würtemberg. Abandoning the study of the law for that of medicine, -he gave vent to his literary powers by writing the romantic drama of -"The Robbers," produced in 1782. Meanwhile he had become regimental -surgeon and was obliged to leave his regiment without permission in -order to witness the performance. As a result he was put under arrest -and involved in further trouble, fleeing at last into hiding, under a -false name. - -Drifting through the literary centers of Germany, studying history -and writing drama the while, he came in 1787 to Weimar, where he was -received kindly by the duke, Goethe's patron and friend, and soon -after met Goethe himself. Through the latter's influence Schiller -received a post at the University of Jena as professor of history, -and devoted himself to that subject; his "History of the Thirty -Years' War" belongs to this period. - -By 1795 he had become intimate with Goethe and renewed his poetic -work, his principal dramas and "The Song of the Bell," all -belonging to this period. Of the former, "Maria Stuart" and "The -Maid of Orleans" deserve high praise beside his masterpieces, the -"Wallenstein" trilogy, and "Wilhelm Tell," his last and most popular -play. - -His character was noble and lovable, and his work possesses a -high finish in style and a lofty vein of idealism which gives it -a resemblance to those passages and plays of Shakespeare in which -princes and potentates appear. He was a lover of the Bard of Avon -and translated several of his plays into German. But Schiller did -not attempt the many-sided portrayal of life that was Shakespeare's -forte; for him the presentation of high ideals and a majestic plot -involving the great motives of human action was sufficient. - -Yet his thought is not so profound as Goethe's, and its expression, -on the other hand, is not so simple. The story of Margaret's tragedy, -in "Faust," is bare as compared with the plots of "Tell" or "Maria -Stuart" and the character development therein; but the lesson which -Goethe drove home to the hearts of men was more forcible than any of -Schiller's. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What terms of intimacy existed between Goethe and Schiller? - VIII, 182. - - 2. Was his education calculated to fit him for the calling of a - poet? - - 3. Was Jean Paul Richter right in supposing Schiller to be of a - strong nature? VIII, 175. - - 4. What was the nature of his connection with Jena? - - 5. In what respect did he resemble Shelley? VII, 222. - - 6. Where, and in whose company, were his latter years spent? - - 7. Compare Goethe and Schiller in character and in work. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. In what two departments of literature did Schiller attain - eminence? - - 2. Which works treat of scenes outside of Germany? - - 3. Name his four greatest dramas. - - 4. Which of these is esteemed the masterpiece? - - 5. Which first brought him to public notice? - - 6. For what two great historical works are we indebted to him? - - -FROM "WILHELM TELL" - - 1. What are the social and political conditions in Switzerland - at the beginning of the play? How did they compare with those of - other lands? - - 2. From what class in society do the characters come? Is their - style of speech consistent with their social position? Is - absolute adherence to realism desirable? Why, and also why not? - - 3. What is the date of this play and what great social upheavals - had recently taken place? - - 4. Why is Tell's son introduced? - - 5. Is the character of Gessler too harshly drawn? - - 6. The scene on p. 363 occurs at the close of the play; meanwhile - previous acts have shown the development of the spirit of freedom - in the hearts of the people and the determination to do away with - tyranny. Does this justify Tell's act? - - 7. "The Robbers" was one of the first products of Romanticism; is - "Tell" also a good example of this age? - - 8. Compare the style in "Tell" with that of Shakespeare and - Goethe, making allowance for loss in translation. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Friedrich Schiller."--CARLYLE. - - "Biographical Essays."--DE QUINCEY. - - "Goethe and Schiller."--BOYESEN. - - -CHARLES DICKENS - -(1812-1870) - -Charles Dickens was born at Portsmouth, England. His parents were -poor and luckless. His early years were spent in moving from place -to place, and as a boy he performed the services of a drudge and was -rewarded with a mere pittance. Such education as he received was -gained in the severe school of experience. - -Hence it is not surprising that, after having been connected with -various newspapers in a subordinate capacity, when he finally tried -his hand at serial fiction he astounded the world in "Pickwick -Papers" by his wonderful descriptions of middle and lower class -English life; a work also unexcelled in its good-natured merriment. - -"Pickwick Papers" and its successors were among the first of those -social novels which form so marked a feature of modern literature. -They waged open and successful warfare against many of the crying -evils of the day, such as the work-houses, the barbarous school -system in vogue, and the legal and prison systems. - -Dickens was too kind-hearted to sneer, but his mocking humor was -quite as effective. He won the hearts of high and low alike, and the -sale of his novels was phenomenal. - -In addition to rollicking humor, touches of satire and a pronounced -tendency toward exaggerated pathos appear in his work, the latter -quality especially in "The Old Curiosity Shop" and "Dombey and Son." - -His creative powers were immense, the numbers of his characters -running into the hundreds. Though some of these serve the purpose -of lay figures, yet they are redeemed from mere puppetry by some -whimsical oddity that stamps the character indelibly on one's mind. -"David Copperfield," "Bleak House," and "Pickwick Papers" are usually -held to be the best of his work. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Where did Dickens receive his education? Compare it with that - of other novelists. - - 2. Give the sources of his intimate acquaintance with conditions - among the lower class. - - 3. What moral characteristic of the man took the sting out of his - satire? - - 4. What great quality will ever endear him to the public? - - 5. Where did Dickens make his home after his reputation had - become established? V, 220. - - 6. What was his attitude toward the poor after he had become a - man of substance? - - 7. Have social conditions in England improved since his day? In - what lines and how? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. In what is Dickens related to the period of Romanticism? Is he - characteristically English? Compare him with Dumas, Daudet, and - Harte. - - 2. What beneficial effect has the reading of his novels had on - everyday life? - - 3. Explain his custom of running several stories at the same time - in a novel. III, 254, 259. - - 4. What is the true secret of his popularity? III, 250. - - 5. Whence did Dickens obtain the numerous characters that crowd - his pages? - - 6. What art lies at the bottom of his comic masterpiece? III, 258. - - 7. To what extent have Dickens's characters become common - property of the race? III, 248. - - 8. How does Dickens compare with the other novelists of the - nineteenth century? III, 264. - - 9. Does Dickens's continued popularity prove the contention that - the public likes bad literature? III, 252. - - 10. Which novel will endure the longer, that in which the - characters are exaggerated and impossible, as his often are, or - that in which the characters are carefully and realistically - drawn? III, 266. - - 11. Which is more popular at the present time, Dickens or - Kipling? III, 249. - - 12. What work brought Dickens into public notice? - - 13. Name three novels in which pathos predominates. - - 14. Which is considered his greatest work? - - 15. Dickens and Hood were masters of both humor and pathos, the - one as a novelist, the other as a poet. Compare them in these - qualities. - - -FROM "PICKWICK PAPERS" - - 1. Is this style clear and forcible? Why? - - 2. Is Mr. Magnus a common character of to-day whom one may meet - while traveling? - - 3. Would you expect to see the White Horse Inn at Ipswich if you - were in England? - - 4. Draw a character sketch of Mr. Pickwick. - - 5. When reading a story is it more effective when dialect is - introduced? How far may the use of dialect be carried? - - 6. Do you notice any exaggeration in incident or description? If - so what purpose does it serve? - - 7. Contrast the description of the temperance meeting with - Dickens's attitude on other social reforms. - - 8. Is this satire justified on any grounds then or now? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "The Life of Charles Dickens."--FORSTER. - - "Charles Dickens."--CHESTERTON. - - "Life of Charles Dickens as Revealed in his - Writings."--FITZGERALD. - - "Great English Novelists."--DAWSON. - - "Charles Dickens and His Girl Heroines."--MOSES. - - "Dickens" ("English Men of Letters").--WARD. - - "Masters of the English Novel."--BURTON. - - -WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY - -(1811-1863) - -The novelist was born in Calcutta, India; he was sent to Cambridge -University. Here he was an intimate friend of Tennyson and Fitzgerald -(translator of the "Rubáiyát"). After losing his money in various -newspaper deals, he settled down in London as a literary hack. His -genius soon attracted the attention of "Punch," which welcomed his -sketches and satires against snobbery. - -"Vanity Fair" in 1847 finally raised him to the highest rank among -writers of fiction. "Pendennis" followed, and a little later "Henry -Esmond," the equal of "Vanity Fair." Its sequel, "The Virginians," -was not so powerful. - -Thackeray came to the United States in 1852 and delivered his -lectures on "The English Humorists." So pleased was he with the -country that he returned again three years later and lectured on -"The Four Georges." During these trips he became acquainted with the -leading American writers of the day. - - -THE MAN - - 1. With what noted English periodical was he connected? - - 2. Did he soon show an aptitude for fiction? - - 3. What authors were numbered among his most intimate friends? - - 4. What other eminent English writer was born in India? VIII, 3. - - 5. Describe his American visits. - - 6. Is the vein of cynicism which runs through his writings - indicative of his real character? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Was Thackeray a realist? III, 266, 267. - - 2. Upon what was his creation of character based? - - 3. What great service did he render English society? - - 4. Which of his works were delivered in America in the form of - lectures? - - 5. Which were particularly aimed at British snobbery? - - 6. Why is Dickens more popular than Thackeray? III, 248. - - 7. For which may we expect the more enduring fame? III, 264. - - 8. Read his metrical translations from Beranger. I, 428-431. - - 9. Which two novels are considered his masterpieces? - - 10. Was his work characteristically English, as contrasted with - that of other nations? - - -"CLUB SNOBS" - - 1. Why should bachelors be excluded from the luxuries of Clubs? - - 2. To whom should the privilege of attending these institutions - be given and during what hours? - - 3. What evils are attributed to these institutions; wrongly or - otherwise? - - 4. In general do women's clubs or men's clubs exert a more - beneficial influence on the surrounding community? - - 5. How serious is the author? - - -"THE SNOB ROYAL" - - 1. What queen of England is alluded to by "her present Majesty"? - (See the dates of Thackeray's life.) - - 2. How does Thackeray's definition of a "Snob" compare with your - conception of this type of person? - - 3. From your own knowledge of Charles II, do you consider him - worthy of the title "snob"? - - 4. Compare Chesterfield's ideas of a gentleman with Thackeray's. - III, 240-247. - - 5. Thackeray wrote several parodies of successful novels; which - type does he satirize in the opening paragraph of this essay? - - 6. 'The Baron of Bradwardine' refers to Scott; do you agree with - Thackeray's condemnation of Scott's conduct? Why? Why not? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Thackeray."--BENJAMIN. - - "Thackeray."--CHESTERTON. - - "Great English Novelists."--JACKSON. - - "Literary Studies."--BAGEHOT. - - "The Thackeray Country."--BENJAMIN. - - "Victorian Prose Masters."--BROWNELL. - - "Thackeray's Haunts and Homes."--CROWE. - - "With Thackeray in America."--CROWE. - - -SAMUEL JOHNSON - -(1709-1784) - -Johnson was born at Lichfield, Staffordshire, and studied at Oxford. -His early years were one continuous struggle with poverty, first as a -teacher at Lichfield and other places and afterwards as a hack writer -in London. During the latter period, besides his ordinary duties as -an editor of various magazines, he found time to turn his hand to the -most diverse forms of literature. He wrote poems, "London" and the -"Vanity of Human Wishes"; a drama, "Irene"; a philosophic romance, -"Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia"; two series of essays, the "Rambler" -and the "Idler," after the model of Addison's "Spectator"; and -prepared the first English dictionary. - -In 1862 he was granted a pension of £300 by Lord Bute, from which -time dates his literary dictatorship. His only subsequent works of -importance were his "Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland" and -his "Lives of the Poets." The latter is his best work and one of the -monuments of English criticism in spite of its prejudiced tone. - -During the latter half of his life he gathered about him a coterie -of the most intellectual men of the day, nearly all of whom belonged -to the literary society known as the Club. Burke, Goldsmith, Gibbon, -Garrick, Reynolds, and Boswell were among his intimates. - - -THE MAN - - 1. To see Johnson, the thinker and the man, read Boswell's - "Life," II, 100 ff., and then take up the following questions: - - 2. What attitude did Johnson maintain toward religious questions? - - 3. Quote Goldsmith on his roughness of manner. - - 4. What was Johnson's opinion of the married state? - - 5. Would you judge him to have been of a harsh or tender - disposition? - - 6. See Frances Burney's account of his sociability. II, 339 ff. - - 7. In what respect was the Doctor a typical Anglo-Saxon? VIII, - 259. - - 8. What distinguishes Boswell from most biographers? II, 100. - - 9. Where did Johnson win his fame, in writing, or in society? - - 10. Is he a true follower of the spirit of Classicism? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What peculiar position did Johnson occupy in the literary - world of his day? - - 2. If Johnson is to be called heroic for having kept at his - dictionary until its completion, why should not the term be - applied to later lexicographers, whose dictionaries are much more - extensive? - - 3. Under what circumstances does Johnson justify dissimulation? - - 4. Was his criticism of Milton fair? VIII, 350. - - 5. Why was he a poor critic of the Latin productions of modern - writers? VIII, 354. - - 6. Give Johnson's view of death. - - 7. By what works is he best known? - - 8. Is he comparable with Addison as an essayist in your opinion? - Why? - - -"THE VALLEY OF HAPPINESS" - - 1. 'The father of waters' is an appellation applied to what - African stream? - - 2. Can man be truly happy with luxury alone? - - 3. What occupations give the greatest pleasure to the normal - person? - - 4. How long is the active life of the average man or woman? - - 5. The power to enjoy our blessings is enhanced by what knowledge - or experience? - - 6. In the description of the Valley of Happiness, find some - combinations of setting which would not hold in real life. - - 7. Judging from this selection, would the human race be contented - in utter idleness? - - 8. What moral did Johnson wish to teach by this piece? - - 9. Would Johnson deserve immortality simply on the merits of - this, one of his best pieces of literary work? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Johnson."--BOSWELL. - - "Dr. Johnson" ("Bell's Miniature series").--DENNIS. - - "Life of Johnson."--MACAULAY. - - "Six Essays on Johnson."--RALEIGH. - - "Doctor Johnson and Mrs. Thrale."--BROADLEY. - - "Essay on Boswell's Johnson."--CARLYLE. - - -OLIVER GOLDSMITH - -(1728-1774) - -Goldsmith was born in central Ireland, where his father was a -clergyman of the Established Church of England. His youth gave little -promise of future eminence. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, -after various escapades he was sent by his uncle to study medicine in -Edinburgh. After a few months of study he started on a four years' -vagabond trip, during which he made the tour of Western Europe on -foot, paying his way with his flute. - -Returning to England he was by turns a physician, proofreader, -teacher, and hack writer. In the latter capacity he came in contact -with Dr. Johnson, and was one of the nine charter members of the -Club, a literary society over which Johnson held genial sway. The -next year appeared his first work of any value, the poem, "The -Traveler." A year later he published his only novel, "The Vicar of -Wakefield," still one of the most popular of stories. From this he -turned to the drama and produced "The Good-Natured Man," and "She -Stoops to Conquer," the latter unsurpassed among later English -comedies. At some time prior to this appeared his greatest poem, "The -Deserted Village." - -In character he was a strange mixture of generosity and vanity; the -butt and yet the envy of his many friends, uncouth in appearance and -yet gifted with so lucid a style. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Goldsmith was educated at the same college as Burke: did he - benefit as greatly? - - 2. Under what circumstances did he make the tour of the Continent? - - 3. Were his habits of dress eccentric? II, 115. - - 4. He was a member of what celebrated literary coterie? - - 5. What were his principal traits? - - 6. What was his opinion of his friend Johnson? II, 110, 122. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Give Johnson's estimate of the "Good-Natured Man." II, 103. - - 2. Was Goldsmith a productive poet? See Goethe's statement to - Eckermann. IV, 393. - - 3. Name the principal prose writers of his time. II, 100, 331; V, - 193, 406; VII, 334; XI, 294. - - 4. What other poet wrote at this period? VI, 106. - - 5. The style of Goldsmith is in imitation of what poet? X, 64. - - 6. What defects mar his writings? - - 7. Name three of his works in different departments of - literature, any one of which would have served to establish his - reputation. - - 8. What poem brought him into public notice? - - -"THE DESERTED VILLAGE" - - 1. What is the economic effect on a community when one large - landholder possesses the entire land? - - 2. The "bold peasantry" of England are similar to what class in - America? - - 3. What was Goldsmith's ideal of a happy old age? - - 4. To what qualities of character was the attracting power of the - village preacher due? - - 5. What were the qualifications of a rustic school teacher in - Goldsmith's time? - - 6. Why is wealth a barren possession? - - 7. Name some of the disagreeable surroundings of a life in the - tropics. - - 8. What plan does Goldsmith recommend to remedy the evils of the - present social system? - - 9. What is your judgment of the style of this poem? - - 10. Does Goldsmith's description ring true? - - 11. As an example of the influence of Classicism, compare it - with Milton's "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," IX, 110, of the - Renaissance, and "The Cotter's Saturday Night," II, 343, of the - Romantic Period. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Goldsmith" ("English Men of Letters").--BLACK. - - "Oliver Goldsmith" ("Bell's Miniature Series").--BUCKLAND. - - "Biographical Essays."--MACAULAY. - - "Story-Lives of Great Authors."--ROWBOTHAM. - - "Essays on the Poets."--DE QUINCEY. - - "A Paladin of Philanthropy."--DOBSON. - - -THOMAS GRAY - -(1716-1771) - -After studying at Eton and at Cambridge University, Gray made -the customary tour of the Continent and then settled down to a -retired life among his books. His circle of friends was small but -intellectual. He spent most of his life at Cambridge, reading and -thinking. - -In disposition he was very reserved, seldom revealing his feelings. -As he was sensitive and also rather melancholy it was natural that he -should find few intimates. Always a student, he none the less applied -himself to those topics only which attracted him, neglecting such -portions of the subject as did not appeal to him, so that although -one of the most learned men of his time he did not receive public -recognition until his appointment as regius professor of history and -modern languages at Cambridge, three years before his death. - -The Age of Classicism, in which he lived, was repugnant to him; its -formal standards, as expressed especially by the poetry of Pope, -offended his fastidious taste, which was charmed by the wild beauty -of nature and longed for freedom of expression and avoidance of -convention in literary art. - -He was the forerunner of the Romantic spirit. Had he lived forty -years later he would have been far more productive; the poetry of -Wordsworth, Byron, and the rest of that dazzling group of poets would -have strengthened and enthused him. - -What little he wrote bears witness to the scholarship, refinement, -and depth of feeling of the recluse. His "Elegy," meditated in Stoke -Pogis churchyard near his mother's home, where he spent the summer, -is probably the most thoroughly English poem ever written. It was -begun in 1742 and finished in 1750; during the interval it was -polished and revised so effectively that not a word can be altered -without detracting from its symmetry and splendor. The dignity of -the classic spirit and the wistful grace of Romanticism are both -apparent, but the keynote is quiet, simple love of everyday life -tinged with moral reflection, the note sounded again and again in -English poetry and prose. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What was Gray's education; did he travel? - - 2. What was his nature? - - 3. How did he spend his life? - - 4. What was the character of the age in which he lived? - - 5. What influence did this period have upon Gray? - - 6. In what period would he have been more active? - - 7. How did he show national tendencies in his work? - - -"ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD" - - 1. Select stanzas representative of the Romantic spirit. - - 2. Select stanzas that are Classic in tone. - - 3. Point out the ideas or phrases in each which lead you to make - the classification. - - 4. Sketch roughly on separate sheets of paper the outlines of the - pictures in each stanza. - - 5. Compare the pictures in the poem with those in Milton's - "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," IX, 110. - - 6. Compare the poem also with Goldsmith's "Deserted Village," VI, - 94. - - 7. What phrases or passages impress you as being especially - English in tone? Why? - - 8. What changes would you expect to find in a modern English - village neighborhood? - - 9. Where do you observe traces of Gray's scholarship? - - 10. Select the best stanzas and explain their superiority. - - 11. Do any lines suggest Gray's sensitive dislike of the spirit - of his times and the melancholy reserve in his nature? Which - lines? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Gray."--MASON. - - "Life of Gray" ("English Men of Letters").--GOSSE. - - "Gray and his Friends."--TOVEY. - - "Essays."--LOWELL. - - "Letters."--Ed. RIDEOUT. - - -EDMUND BURKE - -(1729-1797) - -Edmund Burke was a native of Dublin, Ireland. After a careful -preparatory training, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he -showed marked ability in eloquence, history, poetry, and philosophy. -After receiving his master's degree, he went to England, with the -intention of becoming a barrister, but found the profession not to -his taste. He accordingly spent the next six years making the tour of -Great Britain and the Continent, and forming the acquaintance of the -leading literary men. - -The first years after his return to England were devoted to literary -work, resulting in two philosophical essays, "Vindication of Natural -Society," and "The Sublime and Beautiful." He also collaborated with -his cousin William Burke in "An Account of the European Settlements -in America." - -But he soon turned his attention to politics. In 1766 he was elected -to Parliament, of which he remained a member for twenty-eight years. -He held many other positions under the Government, and his actions -were always distinguished by the strictest integrity. He labored -earnestly in the cause of humanity, against the slave trade and the -oppression of India and the American Colonies. His most widely read -works are his "Speech at the Trial of Warren Hastings," and the -speech on "Conciliation with America." But owing to his increasing -conservatism he failed to appreciate the causes of the French -Revolution and his "Reflections on the Revolution in France" is of -little critical value. - -Burke was distinguished by great nobility of mind and purity of -life, both public and private. He possessed great oratorical powers, -a vigorous imagination, a rare gift of observation, and prodigious -industry. - -Yet on the other hand, he appears not to have known how to contain -himself, but scattered his eloquence on all occasions, until the -public ear became dulled. He was also of a passionate and intractable -disposition, qualities which in the course of time left him in -political isolation. - -Among his friends were Dr. Johnson, Goldsmith, Boswell, Sir Joshua -Reynolds, the famous painter, and Garrick, the great actor. These -were members of the Club, a society of the most brilliant intellects -in England at that day. Burke's learning and power were greatly -venerated by them, and by none more than by Johnson, who admitted -that he must be at his best to meet Burke in argument. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Of what city was Burke a native? - - 2. In what branches of learning did he achieve distinction? - - 3. State the mode he adopted for completing his education. - - 4. Were his first years in England devoted to oratory? - - 5. What was the extent of his connection with the British - Parliament? - - 6. Give his views with regard to contemporary conditions in - India, France, and the American Colonies. - - 7. Where did he die? - - 8. What was his social environment? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What qualities distinguished Burke's oratory? V, 424. - - 2. Taking his utterances out of their forensic setting, how would - they compare with the finest of Milton's prose passages? VIII, - 394. - - 3. Were his rhetorical sallies always in good taste? XI, 199. - - 4. What great service did he render to the British Constitution? - XI, 204. - - 5. Aside from his oration on Conciliation with the Colonies, what - evidence have we that Burke was thoroughly informed on American - affairs? - - 6. What great works did he compose in addition to speeches? - - 7. What are the principal elements of beauty and power in his - productions? - - 8. What characteristics detracted from permanent popularity? - - 9. Is his work characteristic of the Age of Classicism? - - -FROM "CONCILIATION WITH THE AMERICAN COLONIES" - - 1. What reasons does Burke give for concession on England's part - toward the American colonies? - - 2. Why did this statesman consider the use of force impractical? - - 3. What nation was very likely meant by "foreign enemy"? - - 4. Account for the excessive spirit of liberty which predominates - in the character of most Americans. - - 5. In what respect was England at a great disadvantage in - governing her colonies? How is this remedied now? - - 6. How was religion instrumental in making the colonists more - dissatisfied with English rule? - - 7. What was the condition of education in America at this time? - - 8. If England had followed Burke's plan of conciliation, is it - likely that the American Colonies would have revolted either then - or in a subsequent generation? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Posthumous Essays."--COLLINS. - - "Obiter Dicta."--BIRRELL. - - "Edmund Burke; an Historical Sketch."--MORLEY. - - "Appreciations and Addresses."--ROSEBERY. - - -DANIEL WEBSTER - -(1782-1852) - -Born at Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, Daniel Webster -received his education at Dartmouth College. He afterward studied law -and then removed to Massachusetts, where he soon obtained distinction -as a politician, and was in 1812 sent to Congress. He championed the -New England cause against the embargo and the other measures of the -administration, yet although his great oratorical powers were already -manifest, he displayed little of that breadth of character which -afterwards distinguished him. - -To the years which followed we owe some of his most popular forensic -efforts and public addresses, the "Dartmouth College Case," the -"Girard Will," and the addresses at Plymouth and Bunker Hill. - -In 1827 he was elected to the United States Senate. Three years later -he delivered his masterpiece, "The Reply to Hayne," on the floor of -the Senate. Under Presidents Harrison and Tyler he was Secretary -of State, and was instrumental in negotiating the celebrated -"Webster-Ashburton Treaty." - -For many years the leading man of the Whig party, his presidential -aspirations were doomed to disappointment. His last years in the -Senate were, like those of Clay, consecrated to the effort to -preserve the Union. But his pleas for compromise fell in the North on -dull ears, and his pleas for concessions to the South were looked on -as treason. The time for compromise was passing. - -The Whigs being returned to power in 1850, Webster again became -Secretary of State, but again failing to secure the nomination for -President, he returned to Marshfield, where, after a brief illness, -he died in October, 1852. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Of what college was Webster a graduate? - - 2. State the extent to which he filled the public eye at the time - of his death. III, 271. - - 3. In what respect did he "wear the double wreath of professional - and public supremacy"? III, 273. - - 4. What ties bound him to New Hampshire, and what to - Massachusetts? III, 275. - - 5. As a statesman, what division of the country did Webster - especially represent? - - 6. To what political party did he adhere? - - 7. To what do you ascribe the unpopularity which embittered his - declining years? - - 8. What important public positions did he fill? - - -FROM "REPLY TO HAYNE" - - 1. State the "nullification doctrine" propounded by Senator Hayne. - - 2. Why does Webster defend Massachusetts against the charge of - having formerly attempted to nullify an act of Congress? - - 3. Explain the impracticality of state nullification. - - 4. Was the federal government created by the States? - - 5. State how the mere existence of the federal constitution - implies the subordination of the States. - - 6. Show how Webster brings ridicule of his opponent to the aid of - his argument. - - 7. What would be the inevitable and direct result of - nullification? - - 8. Do you think the statement of Webster that he was "drawn into - the debate, with no previous deliberation," etc., to be literally - true? - - 9. Read carefully the peroration, pp. 281-283; one of the - grandest passages in American eloquence. - - 10. Does Webster show the influence of the classics as well as - the moderns? Compare his style with that of Demosthenes, IV, 161. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Famous American Statesmen."--BOLTON. - - "The True Daniel Webster."--FISHER. - - "Daniel Webster."--MCCALL. - - "John Adams, and Other Essays."--CHAMBERLAIN. - - "Daniel Webster, the Expounder of the Constitution."--WHEELER. - - "American Literature and other Papers."--WHIPPLE. - - -PLATO - -(427 B.C.-347 B.C.) - -An Athenian by birth, Plato's youth was spent in the midst of the -tumult and gloom in which Athens, the flower of Greek civilization, -fell victim to her greed and arrogance and succumbed to the sturdy, -rising power of Sparta. But his maturity and later years saw the -growth of a purified and enlightened spirit of culture which raised -Greek thought above local pettiness and prepared for the day of -alliance with Roman enterprise. - -His youth was passed under the inspiring guidance of Socrates, -whose searching inquiries into the depths of human nature marked -the beginning of the loftiest philosophy of ancient times. Plato, -and Aristotle, his pupil, carried on the work begun by Socrates, -involving the discussion of the entire experience of Greek life and -the criticism of its principles. - -Upon the condemnation and death of Socrates in 399 B.C. the circle of -his disciples was broken up, Plato fleeing with others to Megara. He -spent the next twelve years in travel, visiting most of the centers -of learning of the ancient world. On his return to Athens about 388 -B.C. he founded the famous school of the Academy, and settled down to -the study and teaching of philosophy. - -His teachings have come down to us in the form of dialogues between -Socrates and his disciples, but as they were written for the purpose -of setting forth Plato's system of philosophy, which differed in some -respects from that of Socrates, we do not of course know to what -extent the narrative is colored. It would appear, however, that in -the simpler dialogues, such as the "Apology," "Crito," "Laches," and -"Charmides," we may possess the unvarnished teachings of Socrates. - -In some of his later dialogues the speculative interest is allowed to -become so absorbing that the dialogue form is rather inappropriate; -but the others have been generally acknowledged as comprising the -greatest masterpieces of dialogue that literature has to show, -in the skill with which the scene is suggested, the charm of the -conversation, and the artistic truth with which the characters are -set forth in the changing course of the discussion. - -The "Republic" is the best summing up of his philosophy. In it is -best represented his Theory of Ideas, which has made his work the -great type of idealistic philosophy. - -He ranks with Aristotle and Kant as one of the three greatest -thinkers of all ages. - - -THE MAN - - 1. During what period of the world's history did Plato live? - - 2. From what sources did he derive the principles set forth in - his teachings? - - 3. Of whom was he the disciple, and who in turn was his disciple? - - 4. What rank is generally accorded him as a philosopher? - - 5. How did Plato look upon pleasure? III, 291. - - 6. What is said to have been the manner of his death? III, 281. - - 7. By what name is his school of philosophy known? - - 8. Who are the three greatest philosophers of the ages? - - 9. What was the nature of his education? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Are Plato's writings addressed to the select few, or to the - people of all classes? III, 253. - - 2. Give Milton's estimate of the "Republic." IX, 126. - - 3. What were Plato's views as to the proper age for marriage? IX, - 190. - - 4. And what his views anent the right of the owner of property to - devise or bequeath it, as he sees fit? IX, 200. - - 5. Did the use of dialogue render his writings more effective - than they otherwise would have been? - - 6. Which of his dialogues are most read at the present day, and - why? - - 7. Would Plato have made a successful dramatist if he had turned - his energies in that direction? Your reason for so thinking? - - 8. Which is his greatest work from a philosophical point of view? - - 9. Explain his parable of the cave, in the selection from the - "Republic." - - -"THE TRIAL OF SOCRATES" - - 1. Why was Socrates brought to trial? - - 2. What was his refutation to these charges? - - 3. What was Socrates's view of death? - - 4. Does it seem likely that he might have been acquitted if he - had used ordinary methods of defense? - - 5. Wherein did Socrates's methods of teaching differ from - ordinary methods of to-day? - - 6. What were the customary penalties inflicted for serious crimes? - - 7. Did Socrates practise what he preached? - - 8. How do the teachings of Socrates compare with those of - Christianity? - - 9. What is the fundamental difference, in your understanding, - between philosophy and religion? - - 10. Did Socrates believe in one God or in many? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Plato" ("The World's Epoch-Makers").--RITCHIE. - - "Dialogues," translated by JOWETT. - - "Plato the Teacher."--BRYAN. - - "Representative Men."--EMERSON. - - "The Myths of Plato."--STEWART. - - "Plato's Republic" ("Historical and Critical Essays").--DE - QUINCEY. - - -AURELIUS - -(121 A.D.-180 A.D.) - -Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), emperor and philosopher, was the child -of noble parents. His wonderful character, both intellectual and -moral, early attracted the attention of the emperor, Hadrian, who, -when Marcus had attained his seventeenth year, adopted Antoninus Pius -as his successor, upon the condition that the latter adopt Marcus. - -Accordingly Marcus was adopted by Pius, who proceeded to lavish upon -him as heir presumptive to the Empire every position for which his -high character and thorough education fitted him; and upon the death -of Pius he ascended the throne, at the age of forty. - -His reign covered a period of nineteen years, over two-thirds of -which he spent on the borders of the empire in ceaseless struggles -to sustain the tottering empire against the ravages of the outer -barbarians. - -It was during these campaigns that his "Meditations," or "Thoughts," -his only work, was written. In its present form, at least, it was -never intended for publication, nor is it probable that it was, as -some think, written for the instruction of his son, Commodus. It -was written in Greek, and consists of mere memoranda, disconnected -thoughts, and confessions, evidently hastily noted, a circumstance -which accounts for its repetitions, its obscurity, and its elliptical -form of expression. But in spite of this it has been an inspiration -to the despondent in all ages. Its tone and temper are sweet yet -dignified, courageous yet resigned, philosophical and speculative yet -intensely practical. It stands preëminent among those world-books -which teach men how to live and how to die. - -The great blots on his memory, in popular estimation, are the -massacres of Christians in his reign, and his blindness to the -frailty of his wife and the worthlessness of his son. But the -Christians were in those days commonly looked upon as a pernicious -secret cult, and those who comprehend his philosophy will know why he -could see only good in the members of his family. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What circumstance illustrates the great value he set upon time? - - 2. Was he considered a man of letters by his contemporaries? - - 3. What two others deserve to be remembered with him as Roman - stoics? V, 90; X, 419. - - 4. Why would one hardly expect to find a great philosopher in - Marcus Aurelius? - - 5. Under what circumstances did he become Emperor of Rome? - - 6. How were his early years spent? - - 7. What was the extent of his education? - - 8. Why did he permit the persecution of the Christians? - - 9. What circumstances indicate the nobility of his character? - - 10. What other author wrote a work for the instruction of his - son, and, like Aurelius, was blind to the son's faults? III, 240. - - 11. Summarize his character. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. To what are his literary remains confined? - - 2. Were they written in Latin? - - 3. Under what circumstances were the "Meditations" composed? - - 4. For what purpose were they written? - - 5. In what form have they come down to us? - - 6. Does Aurelius consider that the absence of an overruling - Providence would relax moral obligations? - - 7. What position do the "Meditations" hold in the world's - literature? - - 8. What is the spirit of the philosophy which they breathe? - - 9. Probably no other book of the ancients is as widely read - to-day. Why is this? - - 10. Do its defects of form detract from its value? - - -FROM "MEDITATIONS" - - 1. From the viewpoint of this philosopher, are poverty, death, - and sickness inflicted on people as punishment for sins? - - 2. To what frame of mind does a righteous person school himself? - - 3. What prescription is given for the making of a happy man? - - 4. Would Marcus Aurelius have been in sympathy with the medieval - custom of pious people who shut themselves up in monasteries or - other secluded places? - - 5. Explain the relationship of man to his fellow beings. - - 6. Does this environment have an influence in the altering of an - adult's character? - - 7. Why does each of us live a complete life, whether we die young - or old? - - 8. Judging the Emperor's character from his writings, would you - consider him a wise ruler? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Essays in Criticism."--ARNOLD. - - "Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics."--BUSSELL. - - "Seekers after God."--FARRAR. - - "Glimpses of Truth."--SPALDING. - - "Excursions in Art and Letters."--STORY. - - -FRANCIS BACON - -(1561-1626) - -Francis Bacon was born three years before his great contemporary, -William Shakespeare, but survived him many years. He was born in high -station and had every educational advantage which the times afforded. -He was the nephew of William Cecil, Elizabeth's great minister, and, -entering public life, himself became the favorite minister of James -I and Lord High Chancellor of England. But his character was not -in keeping with his literary merits and ability. He was venal and -corrupt, took bribes as a judge and sold justice for a price. He has -been called the wisest and meanest of mankind. - -By the introduction of the inductive method in logic, Bacon overthrew -the scholastic system and facilitated the study of modern science. -It is true the inductive method was known before Bacon, but it had -been in general neglected. The great philosophical works which -accomplished this revolution were the "Advancement of Learning," and -the "Novum Organum." The latter and others of his metaphysical works -were written in Latin in order to reach a wider circle of readers! - -His "Essays" are the best known and most popular of his writings. -The style is all his own; elaborate, sententious, often witty, often -metaphorical, and possessing a degree of conciseness rarely found in -the compositions of the Elizabethan age. Every sentence is pregnant -with thought. He alone of the writers of his time strikes straight at -the root of the matter. - -What peculiarly impresses one in his "Essays" is the undoubted -truthfulness of the propositions advanced, and the manner in which he -illuminates his thought by the form in which he casts it. The slight -tinge of casuistry noticeable in his writings is in keeping with the -times. - -The "Essays" were at first mere jottings down of desultory ideas, -mere note-book memoranda. They were revised and expanded from time to -time until they reached their present shape. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Of what great English poet was Bacon a contemporary? - - 2. From what walk of life did Bacon come? What can you say of his - preparation for literature? - - 3. What were his political connections? - - 4. How do Bacon's moral qualities compare with his intellectual - ability? - - 5. As a judge, did Bacon have a high regard for justice and the - 'judicial ermine'? - - 6. What popular saying aptly describes his character? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What services did Bacon render to the scientific world? - - 2. Was Bacon the first to make use of the inductive method in - investigations? - - 3. Name his leading philosophical works. - - 4. Why are his philosophical works not accessible to the ordinary - reader? - - 5. Which of his works are most read at the present day? - - 6. Does Bacon imitate any former authors or borrow from any - former school of thought? - - 7. What are the distinguishing characteristics of Bacon's style? - - 8. Contrast his style with that of his contemporaries. - - 9. Why is it that the matters stated in the "Essays" strike you - as being things which you have always known? - - 10. Knowing as we do in advance the truth of most of what he - says, why do we derive such peculiar pleasure from reading his - works? - - 11. What can you say as to the suggestiveness of his writings? - - 12. What trait, constantly appearing in his writings, is - displeasing to the modern reader? - - 13. How can you account for the lack of system in the choice of - subjects treated in the "Essays"? - - -"THE PRAISE OF KNOWLEDGE" - - 1. Which are the greater and truer pleasures, those of the - intellect or those of the affections? - - 2. What is Bacon's method of reasoning, and what are its - advantages over the method of Aristotle? - - 3. Did Aristotle have many followers in the universities of - Europe in Bacon's day? - - 4. What was Bacon's criticism of Greek philosophy and science? - - 5. What arguments does Bacon give to show the importance of - knowledge above all other possessions? - - 6. What sarcasm do you detect in Bacon's reference to the - universities? - - 7. What great intellectual movement resulted in part, at least, - from the three inventions mentioned, viz., printing, artillery, - and the compass? - - 8. What familiar quotation do you note in this essay? - - 9. Does Bacon attain as high intellectual levels as Plato? As - Marcus Aurelius? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Bacon" ("English Men of Letters").--CHURCH. - - "Francis Bacon; a Sketch of His Life, Works, etc."--STEEVES. - - "Bacon" ("Critical and Miscellaneous Essays").--MACAULAY. - - "Account of the Life and Times of Lord Bacon."--SPEDDING. - - -THOMAS CARLYLE - -(1795-1881) - -Carlyle was the son of a stone mason. He entered the University -of Edinburgh at the age of thirteen and remained there five -years, proving himself an omnivorous reader but impractical in -many respects, so that he took no degree. After several years of -hardship in Scotland as a teacher and a hack writer he married Jane -Welsh, whose intellect was almost the equal of his own and whose -eccentricity of temper was also similar to his, with the result -that much of their life was marred by bickering; yet there is no -question of their mutual affection. After a long fight against -poverty in London, he eventually won the esteem of Europe for his -bold personality and titanic literary power and died full of years -and honors, but sensitive and harsh to the last. It is only fair to -mention that he was the victim of lifelong dyspeptic trouble and the -depression resultant therefrom. - -His writings all make a study of life, seeking the answer in the -lives of the great men, the Heroes, whether of literature or of -history. His early studies in German literature, especially the work -of Goethe, influenced him not only in his outlook on the universe -but in his literary style. Sacrificing everything to force, he adopts -every expedient to drive home each point in the lesson he wishes to -convey. This intense earnestness and unprecedented unconventionality, -although united with phenomenal descriptive powers, resulted in -an ungainly style, yet so filled with sincerity and the hatred of -shams and falsity as to hold and inspire not merely a select circle -of readers but a whole nation. His influence was that of a living -personality, a prophet to all English-speaking peoples. - -"Sartor Resartus" expresses the doubts and hesitancies of youth, -when confronted with the materialism and apparent relentlessness of -nature, together with the bold, sturdy defiance which youth's courage -creates for its protection. In "Heroes and Hero-Worship," the "Essay -on Burns," "The French Revolution," and the "History of Frederick the -Great" he holds up examples of heroism as he sees them, searchingly -and vividly. So in the "Life of John Sterling," he studies the -character of one of his dearest friends, recently dead, and there -finds the same qualities of manly nobility. His work becomes not only -biographical but historical, obviously, and such volumes as "Past and -Present" and "Latter-Day Pamphlets" attack flagrant weaknesses of his -day. Work that is so daring and furious in tone could not be utterly -free from error; his conclusions are not always justified. Yet he -will always remain the prophet and seer of his century. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Of what extraction was Carlyle? - - 2. What was the nature of his education? - - 3. What occupations did he follow? - - 4. What places were the scenes of his literary life? - - 5. Do you think he can be called a genial soul? - - 6. Would you call him a typical or an exceptional Scotchman? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. What was the purpose of his writings? Is he a philosopher? - - 2. What particular phase of history interested him most? - - 3. Is he at his best in narration or description? - - 4. What is the source and the cause of his style? - - 5. Account for the distinct feeling of reality which arises from - a reading of his descriptive passages. - - 6. What work best illustrates his element of strength? - - 7. What defects are apparent in much of his writing? - - 8. Are his accounts of Coleridge, Burns, and Mahomet sympathetic? - Which do you prefer? Why? - - 9. Is he religious or unreligious in your opinion? Why do you - think so? - - 10. Among what people have his writings the greatest vogue? Why? - - 11. What trait renders Carlyle unreliable as a critic? I, 168. - - 12. Into what did Carlyle transmute the principles of German - philosophy? XI, 445. - - -"THE FALL OF THE BASTILLE" - - 1. What act on the part of Louis XVI caused the smouldering flame - of revolution to break out in this demonstration of violence? - - 2. How is the term Eumenides appropriate when applied to the - Parisian mob of the French Revolution? (Consult a classical - dictionary.) - - 3. Contrast the French and the English in revolutions. - - 4. Why did Carlyle choose the subject of the French Revolution? - - 5. What was the form of government at Paris during the Revolution? - - 6. Briefly describe the condition of the lower classes as - indicated in this account. - - 7. Are any of the other selections from Carlyle equal to this? - Why? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Reminiscences."--CARYLE, ed. NORTON. - - "Carlyle, Personally and in his Writings."--MASSON. - - "Literary Remains."--JAMES. - - "Thomas Carlyle."--CONWAY. - - "Thomas Carlyle."--FROUDE. - - -JOHN RUSKIN - -(1819-1900) - -The son of a Scotch millionaire who had settled in London, Ruskin -received from private masters the best possible preparation for his -future and also traveled extensively with his father and mother. -Shortly after his graduation from Oxford he astonished the world with -the first volume of "Modern Painters," a work designed primarily to -show the superiority of Turner, and a few other modern artists, over -the older painters of landscape; in later volumes he wanders over the -whole field of art criticism, the burden of his advice being a return -to the study of nature itself. - -"The Seven Lamps of Architecture" discusses the moral principles -which should underlie architecture. This subject was suggested to him -by his continual studies of the work of painters and architects in -Italy and France while in pursuit of material for his earlier work. -"The Stones of Venice" carries on the task set in both these works, -namely the problem of the moral basis underneath all art, the purpose -which should lie at the back of the artist's mind. - -As he grew older his religious views, formerly rather narrow, became -broader, in common with the progress of the times, yet he laid more -and more stress on the need of upright and godly character in all who -have any purpose of attempting good work. - -His later volumes, then, are filled with this moral teaching and also -take up the errors of the social conditions of the period. Old age -pensions, state education, radical improvements in the houses and -home life of the common people were among the needs which he saw, now -accomplished, but then regarded as rampant and foolish socialism. - -In his style, as in his theories, there is a tendency to exaggerate, -a fault that is common among reformers, as in the cases of Dickens -and Carlyle. But the lofty ideals which he maintained and the grace -and power of his style far more than atone for the occasional error -of overstatement. In "Præterita," a brilliant autobiographical -fragment, he accounts for the rare clarity and beauty of his style, -for it was his custom for many years during his childhood and youth -to read the Bible through aloud to his mother every year in daily -selections. The simplicity and majesty of the Biblical language left -its impress on his own prose. - -His economic theories have not been adopted in England or elsewhere, -but he himself lived up to them and spent his whole fortune in the -philanthropic endeavor to put his plans for the betterment of the -working classes into operation. In spite of the fact that his fortune -was great and that he received as much as $20,000 a year royalty from -the sale of his works in his latter days, his property at the time of -his death was inconsiderable. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What was Ruskin's education; his position in the world? - - 2. In what two rôles did he appear? - - 3. What cardinal doctrine did he preach? - - 4. What extraneous elements did he attempt to read into art? - - 5. At what university was he successively student and professor? - - 6. Was he merely a theorist in the matter of public reform? - - 7. Did he justify his economic teaching in his own conduct? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Which of his works treats of the effect of human traits upon - architecture? - - 2. Name four works treating of Italian art specifically. - - 3. In what work does he seek to demonstrate the superiority of - modern over classical painters? - - 4. Had Ruskin any practical knowledge of the technique of art? - - 5. Which of his works is autobiographical? - - 6. Where did he get the inspiration for his style? - - 7. How, then, can his style be called original? - - 8. Is his style clear; logical; powerful? Why? - - -FROM "THE STONES OF VENICE" - - 1. What two orders of architecture are fundamental? - - 2. From what country are they primarily derived? - - 3. What is the distinguishing character of each? - - 4. How did Christianity affect architecture? - - 5. When the progress of advancement in architecture was losing - its vitality with the Romans, who took up their work? - - 6. What two nations played the most important part? - - 7. Describe the effects of each upon the older forms of - architecture. - - 8. Why is Venice the best place to study the different forms of - architecture? - - -"THE LAMP OF TRUTH" - - 1. Is falsity permissible under any circumstances? - - 2. Upon what does the pardonableness of a fault depend? - - 3. Which temptation is the harder to resist, that to tell a - "little lie," or a great one? - - 4. Is all imagination or fiction reprehensible as being - untruthful? - - 5. How may truth be violated in Architecture? - - 6. What three forms does architectural deceit take? - - 7. Give examples of each. - - 8. Why are machine work and cast work bad? - - 9. Concrete was unknown in Ruskin's day; what are its faults and - its values? - - 10. Explain the decay and deterioration of Gothic tracery. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of John Ruskin."--COLLINGWOOD. - - "Ruskin and his Circle."--EARLAND. - - "Studies in Ruskin."--COOK. - - "Witnesses of the Light."--GLADDEN. - - "Essays in Biography and Criticism."--BAYNE. - - "Literary Leaders of Modern England."--DAWSON. - - "John Ruskin" ("English Men of Letters").--HARRISON. - - -RALPH WALDO EMERSON - -(1803-1882) - -Emerson, the 'Sage of Concord,' was born a Bostonian, of the -ecclesiastical class. He prepared for the ministry and for some time -occupied a Unitarian pulpit; but, disagreeing with his congregation -as to the nature of the Lord's Supper, he resigned his charge and -became a public lecturer, a popular profession in ante-bellum days -when every community had its Literary Society, or else its Debating -Club. His home from 1833, or for the last fifty years of his life, -was at Concord, Massachusetts. He shares with Longfellow the -distinction of being the best known abroad of all American writers. -No other American has measurably approached him as an essayist. - -He is a transcendentalist of the most advanced school. Where he -wishes to be clear, no one can be clearer, but he often chooses -to clothe his thoughts in mystery. This trait is also noticeable -in his poems, some of which glitter like diamonds, while others -are enigmatic and baffling. His poetry is like his essays in being -pointed and laconic, but while this may be a merit in the essay, it -is not so in poetry, and his verse can hardly be considered first -class. Few people read his poetry except as an adjunct to the study -of his essays. - -He had no reasoned and complete system of philosophy, but, like -Bacon, merely gave birth to grand principles from which a new -philosophy was to spring. He resembles Bacon also in that he -oftentimes does not reason, but utters the truth oracularly. - - -THE MAN - - 1. Where was Emerson born? - - 2. What can you say of his antecedents? - - 3. With what religious denomination was he at one time connected? - - 4. What part did Emerson take in public life? - - 5. What pseudonym is often applied to him? - - 6. For what two things is Concord equally famous? I, 340; V, 59. - - 7. How do the circumstances of his life contrast with Ruskin's, - Carlyle's, Plato's, Marcus Aurelius's? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. To what school of philosophy did Emerson belong? - - 2. What effect had Emerson on the thinkers of his generation? VI, - 332-334. - - 3. Did Hawthorne prize his philosophy highly? His poetry? VI, 333. - - 4. How does he rank as an essayist? - - 5. Why are some of Emerson's thoughts so hard to grasp? - - 6. To what may his poems be compared? - - 7. Does he rank high as a poet? - - 8. What standing has Emerson among foreign critics as compared - with other American authors? - - 9. How does his style compare with Ruskin's and Carlyle's? with - Plato's? - - -"WORKS AND DAYS" - - 1. How does Emerson define the nineteenth century? Why? - - 2. "Works and days were offered us and we took works;" does - Emerson belittle the value of work? - - 3. Name some of the 'illusions' that hide values from us at the - present time. - - 4. "'Tis the measure of a man,--his apprehension of a day;" how - is this true? - - 5. Does Emerson prove his statements, or do you think that he is - playing the oracle in this essay? - - 6. "What has been best done in the world ... cost nothing;" do - you agree wholly with this doctrine? - - 7. Do we live up to the teaching of the last paragraph; should we - attempt to do so? - - -"FRIENDSHIP" - - 1. Give Emerson's definition of friendship. - - 2. Why are most so-called friendships of short duration? - - 3. Does age, sex, individual character, or circumstance influence - the formation of this compact? - - 4. What are the two most important elements in friendship? - - 5. Can a perfect friendship exist between more than two people at - one time? - - 6. Does friendship necessarily require an intimate personal - association of the participants in their home life? - - 7. Must friendship be reciprocal? - - 8. Would you accept Emerson's views on this subject for your own - use? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Emerson; his Life, Writings and Philosophy."--COOKE. - - "Four American Leaders."--ELIOT. - - "Leading American Essayists."--PAYNE. - - "Ralph Waldo Emerson" ("Beacon Biographies").--SANBORN. - - "Emerson" ("English Men of Letters").--WOODBERRY. - - "Discourses in America."--ARNOLD. - - "Emerson as a Poet."--BENTON. - - "American Prose Masters."--BROWNELL. - - "On Emerson, and Other Essays."--MAETERLINCK. - - -HEINRICH HEINE - -(1799-1856) - -Heinrich Heine, the nephew of a rich Hamburg Jew, is the most gifted -German lyric poet since Goethe. Intended for the bar, he studied at -Bonn, Göttingen, and Berlin. He then traveled extensively for some -years, until publication of his "Journey in the Hartz Mountains" and -"Book of Songs" brought him to public notice. - -But his tactless attacks on various authors, and upon several of the -petty German governments of the day began to make his native country -an uncomfortable place, and in 1831 he removed to Paris. His chief -occupation there was as correspondent for German newspapers. His -long poems, "Deutschland" and "Atta Troll," were written during this -period. For the last eight years of his life he was confined to his -bed, suffering terrible agonies from a disease of the spinal column. - -Though born a Jew and baptized into the Christian faith, he was -neither Jew nor Christian; and his character was marred by many -defects. - - -THE MAN - - 1. In what city was he born? I, 171. - - 2. When did he take up his residence in Paris? I, 176. - - 3. What great faults stained his character? I, 190. - - 4. And how have they affected the character of his writings? I, - 191. - - 5. See Heine's account of his first interview with Goethe. VIII, - 174. - - 6. What caused his exile from Germany? - - 7. How does his early life resemble that of Goethe? - - 8. What position does he occupy among the German lyric poets of - the nineteenth century? - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. Upon what service to modern society does Heine's fame rest? I, - 167. - - 2. Of what great German writer is he the continuator? I, 168. - - 3. Did he have a true conception of Goethe's work? I, 169. - - 4. Upon what grounds did Heine prefer the French spirit to that - of the Germans and English? I, 172, 173. - - 5. Why has his fame proved more lasting than that of Byron and - Shelley? I, 181. - - 6. To what school of poetry did he belong? I, 178. - - 7. State the form which most of his poetry assumes. I, 183. - - 8. Is his Hebrew extraction apparent in his verse? I, 186. - - -FROM "TRAVEL PICTURES" - - 1. The German nation as a whole is noted for what special - qualities of character? - - 2. In connection with what great event would you associate the - name of Blücher? IV, 37. - - 3. Of what cause do the Swiss claim to be the champions? - - 4. During Heine's life was Germany politically at rest? - - 5. Would you consider the carousing scene of this selection - typical of Germany, or has Heine exaggerated it to make the - situation more ridiculous? - - 6. What impression of the author's personal character do you - receive from these selections? - - 7. Characterize Heine's wit. - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Life of Heinrich Heine."--SHARP. - - "Poems and Ballads," translated by MARTIN. - - "Wrecked lives; or, Men who have Failed."--ADAMS. - - "Old Love Stories Retold."--LE GALLIENNE. - - -PLINY - -(61 A.D.-113? A.D.) - -Pliny the Younger was born in the year A.D. 61, at Como, Italy. Like -most famous Roman writers whose works have come down to us, he was -of high station. He accompanied his uncle, Pliny the Elder, when the -latter was summoned to Rome by the Emperor Vespasian in A.D. 72, and -devoted several years to the study of Roman and Greek literature -under the best instructors. - -After the death of his uncle, in 79, he made his appearance as an -advocate, a profession in which he won great eminence. Ten years -later he entered upon an official career of remarkable success, -holding in succession most of the great offices of the Roman State, -until in 111 he was selected by Trajan as Governor of Bithynia. -His correspondence ceases in 113, and nothing is known of his life -thereafter. - -While moving in the highest circles, the intimate of Tacitus, -Suetonius, Martial, and all of the senatorial class, he was -distinguished by great conscientiousness and public spirit, endowing -temples, baths, libraries, and schools. He was humane and even -affectionate toward his slaves and courteous to his dependents. - -He sought fame as a poet and orator, as well as letter-writer, but -neither his "Panegyric on Trajan," nor the two sets of verses which -alone have escaped the ravages of time, would indicate that the world -is much the worse for the loss of the remainder of his orations and -poems. - -But in his "Letters" he conferred an inestimable boon on future ages. -They are voluminous, in ten books, and covering almost every topic -of the times, our most valuable commentary upon Roman life in the -second century after Christ. They were undoubtedly written with a -direct view to publication, for he is careful to confine each one to -a single topic, and generally closes it with an epigrammatic point. -But they are models of graceful thought and refined expression. -Only twice is any one of whom an unfavorable opinion is expressed -mentioned by name. - -The tenth book, the "Correspondence with Trajan," is valuable for -another reason--for the light it throws on early Christianity. It -reflects the greatest credit on the strict and almost punctilious -conscientiousness of Pliny, and on the assiduity and high principle -which animated the Emperor. - - -THE MAN - - 1. What does Pliny the Elder say of the form of money used in - early Rome? XI, 189. - - 2. To what class of society did Pliny the Younger belong? - - 3. Give a brief account of the death of his uncle. - - 4. What other author do you associate with the Lake of Como? I, - 8, illustration. - - 5. What regular profession did Pliny follow during the earlier - years of his life? The latter? - - 6. Locate Bithynia on the map. Also Lake Como. (See classical - atlas.) - - 7. What authors were intimate associates of Pliny? - - 8. Enumerate the good points in his character. - - -STYLE AND WORKS - - 1. In what way does Pliny say we may add to the length of our - lives? V, 71. - - 2. Are his writings confined to his "Letters"? - - 3. Of what special use are the "Letters" to us? - - 4. How do we know that Pliny wrote his letters with publication - in mind? - - 5. What does he say of Phidias's attention to detail in his - sculpture? VI, 359. - - 6. Why should his correspondence with Trajan be of special - interest to us? - - 7. What do we glean from the correspondence as to the character - of Trajan? - - 8. Compare his account of the destruction of Pompeii with that of - Lytton. VIII, 285. - - 9. State what proficiency the Romans had attained in the art of - landscape gardening. - - 10. What would you judge to have been the climate of Tuscany, - from the allusion to plane, cypress, and other trees and plants - mentioned? - - 11. What reason lay behind the persecution of the Christians? Do - you think it was entirely religious? - - 12. What was the social condition of Rome at this time? - - 13. Did persecution lessen the number of adherents to - Christianity? - - 14. What was Pliny's estimate of this religion? - - 15. Was Trajan a just ruler, if his short letter be taken as an - indication of his character? - - -FOR REFERENCE - - "Roman Life in Pliny's Time."--PELLISON. - - "Letters."--Ed. BOSANQUET. - - "Roads from Rome."--ALLINSON. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] These authors represent the transition from the Renaissance to -Classicism. - -[2] Josephus is a remarkable example of the authority and influence -of Rome. He was a Jew, whose work might be classed as Hebrew and -hence as Oriental literature, and likewise as Greek literature -since he wrote in Greek. But he was educated at Rome and trained so -thoroughly upon Roman ideas and thought that his writings must be -included under this head. - -[3] See Latin Lit., _note_. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Footnote [1] is referenced multiple times from page 25. - - Footnote [3] ("See Latin Lit., _note_") is in fact referencing - Footnote [2]. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, - death-bed, deathbed; Snow Image, Snow-Image; skilful; unexcelled; - unreligious; unmoral; enigmatical. - - Pg 8, 'Knights Templars' replaced by 'Knights Templar'. - Pg 24, 'inelegancies' replaced by 'inelegances'. - Pg 48, 'sublety' replaced by 'subtlety'. - Pg 54k, 'Dies Irae' replaced by 'Dies Iræ' for consistency. - Pg 135, '428-31' replaced by '428-431' for consistency. - Pg 147, 'impracticability' replaced by 'impracticality'. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Entertainment Handbook, by -John Chilton Scammell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINMENT *** - -***** This file should be named 51248-0.txt or 51248-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/2/4/51248/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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