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diff --git a/old/51213-0.txt b/old/51213-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3b80521..0000000 --- a/old/51213-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7860 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Art of Bookbinding, by Joseph W. Zaehnsdorf - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Art of Bookbinding - A practical treatise, with plates and diagrams - -Author: Joseph W. Zaehnsdorf - -Release Date: February 14, 2016 [EBook #51213] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF BOOKBINDING *** - - - - -Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, RichardW, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -THE ART OF BOOKBINDING. A PRACTICAL TREATISE. - -BY JOSEPH W. ZAEHNSDORF. - - - - -TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. - -ART OF BOOKBINDING. - - - - -TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. - - -1. DYEING AND TISSUE-PRINTING. By William Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. -_5s._ - -2. GLASS MANUFACTURE. INTRODUCTORY ESSAY, by H. J. Powell, B.A. -(Whitefriars Glass Works); CROWN AND SHEET GLASS, by Henry Chance, M.A. -(Chance Bros., Birmingham); PLATE GLASS, by H. G. Harris, Assoc. Memb. -Inst. C.E. 3_s._ 6_d._ - -3. COTTON SPINNING; Its Development, Principles, and Practice. By R. -Marsden, Editor of the “Textile Mercury.” With an Appendix on Steam -Engines and Boilers. 3rd edition, revised, 6_s._ 6_d._ - -4. COAL-TAR COLOURS, The Chemistry of. With special reference to their -application to Dyeing, &c. By Dr. R. Benedikt. Translated from the -German by E. Knecht, Ph.D. 2nd edition, enlarged, 6_s._ 6_d._ - -5. WOOLLEN AND WORSTED CLOTH MANUFACTURE. By Professor Roberts -Beaumont. 2nd edition, revised. 7_s._ 6_d._ - -6. PRINTING. By C. T. Jacobi, Manager of the Chiswick Press. _5s._ - -7. BOOKBINDING. By J. W. Zaehnsdorf. - -9. COTTON WEAVING. By R. Marsden. _In preparation._ - - - - -[Illustration: FLORENTINE. - -Small folio.] - - - - - _TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS._ - - - THE ART - OF - BOOKBINDING. - - A PRACTICAL TREATISE. - - BY - JOSEPH W. ZAEHNSDORF. - - WITH PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. - - - _SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED._ - - - LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, - YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - 1890. - - - - - CHISWICK PRESS:—C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, - CHANCERY LANE. - - - - - DEDICATED TO - - HUGH OWEN, ESQ., F.S.A., - - AS A SLIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS COUNSEL AND - - FRIENDSHIP, AND IN ADMIRATION OF HIS - - KNOWLEDGE OF - - BOOKBINDING. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. - - -The first edition of this book was written for the use of amateurs, but -I found that amongst the members of the trade my little volume had a -large sale, and in a short time the edition became exhausted. Repeated -applications for the book have induced me to issue this second edition. -I have adhered to the arrangement of the first, but a great deal of -fresh matter has been added, which I trust will be found useful. -Should any of my fellow-workmen find anything new to them I shall be -satisfied, knowing that I have done my duty in spreading such knowledge -as may contribute towards the advancement of the beautiful art of -bookbinding. - -I have to record my obligations to those gentlemen who have assisted me -by courteously describing the various machines of their invention with -which the book is illustrated. The object, however, of illustrating -this work with engravings of machines is simply to recognize the fact -that books are bound by machinery. To a mechanical worker must be left -the task of describing the processes used in this method. - - - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - - FLORENTINE … _Frontispiece_ - - GROLIER … xiv - - GASCON … xvi - - RENAISSANCE … 110 - - ANTIQUE WITH GOLD LINE … 112 - - DEROME … 114 - - GROLIER … 132 - - MAIOLI … 134 - - - - -CONTENTS. - -PART I.—FORWARDING. - - - CHAPTER I. Folding: Refolding — Machines — Gathering … 3–8 - - CHAPTER II. Beating and Rolling: Machines … 9–12 - - CHAPTER III. Collating: Interleaving … 13–19 - - CHAPTER IV. Marking up and Sawing in … 20–23 - - CHAPTER V. Sewing: Flexible — Ordinary … 23–32 - - CHAPTER VI. Forwarding: End Papers — Cobb Paper — Surface Paper — - Marbled Paper — Printed and other Fancy Paper — Coloured Paste Paper … - 33–36 - - CHAPTER VII. Pasting up … 36–37 - - CHAPTER VIII. Putting on the End Papers … 38–41 - - CHAPTER IX. Trimming … 41–44 - - CHAPTER X. Gluing up … 45–46 - - CHAPTER XI. Rounding … 46–48 - - CHAPTER XII. Backing … 48–51 - - CHAPTER XIII. Mill-boards … 51–57 - - CHAPTER XIV. Drawing-in and Pressing … 57–59 - - CHAPTER XV. Cutting … 59–66 - - CHAPTER XVI. Colouring the Edges: Sprinkled Edges — Colours for - Sprinkling — Plain Colouring — Marbled Edges — Spot Marble — Comb or - Nonpareil Marble — Spanish Marble — Edges — Sizing … 67–77 - - CHAPTER XVII. Gilt Edges: The Gold Cushion — Gold Knife — Burnishers — - Glaire Water or Size — Scrapers — The Gold Leaf — Gilt on Red — Tooled - Edges — Painted Edges … 78–83 - - CHAPTER XVIII. Head-Banding … 83–86 - - CHAPTER XIX. Preparing for Covering: lining up … 87–90 - - CHAPTER XX. Covering: Russia — Calf — Vellum or Parchment — Roan — - Cloth — Velvet — Silk and Satin — Half-bound Work … 90–97 - - CHAPTER XXI. Pasting Down: Joints — Calf, Russia, etc. … 97–100 - - CHAPTER XXII. Calf Colouring: Black — Brown — Yellow — Sprinkles — - Marbles — Tree-marbles — Dabs … 100–108 - - PART II. — FINISHING. - - CHAPTER XXIII. Finishing: Tools and Materials required for Finishing — - Polishing Irons — Gold-rag — India-rubber — Gold-cushion — Gold Leaf — - Sponges — Glaire — Cotton Wool — Varnish — Finishing — Morocco — Gold - Work — Inlaid Work — Porous — Full Gilt Back — Run-up — Mitred Back — - Pressing — Graining — Finishing with Dry Preparation — Velvet — Silk — - Vellum — Blocking … 111–153 - - GENERAL INFORMATION. - - CHAPTER XXIV. Washing and Cleaning: Requisites — Manipulation — - Dust — Water Stains — Damp Stains — Mud — Fox-marks — Finger-marks, - commonly called “Thumb-marks” — Blood Stains — Ink Stains (writing) - — Ink Stains (Marking Ink, Silver) — Fat Stains — Ink — Reviving - Old Writings — To Restore Writing effaced by Chlorine — To Restore - MSS. faded by time — To Preserve Drawings or Manuscripts — To fix - Drawings or Pencil Marks — To render Paper Waterproof — To render - Paper Incombustible — Deciphering Burnt Documents — Insects — Glue — - Rice Glue or Paste — Paste — Photographs — Albumen — To Prevent Tools, - Machines, etc., from Rusting — To Clean Silver Mountings — To Clean - Sponges … 157–172 - - GLOSSARY … 173 - - INDEX … 181 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Bookbinding carries us back to the time when leaden tablets with -inscribed hieroglyphics were fastened together with rings, which formed -what to us would be the binding of the volumes. We might go even still -further back, when tiles of baked clay with cuneiform characters were -incased one within the other, so that if the cover of one were broken -or otherwise damaged there still remained another, and yet another -covering; by which care history has been handed down from generation -to generation. The binding in the former would consist of the rings -which bound the leaden tablets together, and in the latter, the simple -covering formed the binding which preserved the contents. - -We must pass on from these, and make another pause, when vellum strips -were attached together in one continuous length with a roller at each -end. The reader unrolled the one, and rolled the other as he perused -the work. Books, prized either for their rarity, sacred character, -or costliness, would be kept in a round box or case, so that the -appearance of a library in Ancient Jerusalem would seem to us as if -it were a collection of canisters. The next step was the fastening of -separate leaves together, thus making a back, and covering the whole as -a protection in a most simple form; the only object being to keep the -several leaves in connected sequence. I believe the most ancient form -of books |xii| formed of separate leaves, will be found in the sacred -books of Ceylon which were formed of palm leaves, written on with a -metal style, and the binding was merely a silken string tied through -one end so loosely as to admit of each leaf being laid down flat when -turned over. When the mode of preserving MS. on animal membrane or -vellum in separate leaves came into use, the binding was at first only -a simple piece of leather wrapped round the book and tied with a thong. -These books were not kept on their edges, but were laid down flat on -the shelves, and had small cedar tablets hanging from them upon which -their titles were inscribed. - -The ordinary books for general use were only fastened strongly at the -back, with wooden boards for the sides, and simply a piece of leather -up the back. - -In the sixth century, bookbinding had already taken its place as an -“Art,” for we have the “Byzantine coatings,” as they are called. They -are of metal, gold, silver or copper gilt, and sometimes they are -enriched with precious stones. The monks, during this century, took -advantage of the immense thickness of the wooden boards and frequently -hollowed them out to secrete their relics in the cavities. Bookbinding -was then confined entirely to the monks who were the literati of the -period. Then the art was neglected for some centuries, owing to the -plunder and pillage that overran Europe, and books were destroyed to -get at the jewels that were supposed to be hidden in the different -parts of the covering, so that few now remain to show how bookbinding -was then accomplished and to what extent. - -We must now pass on to the middle ages, when samples of binding were -brought from the East by the crusaders, and these may well be prized by -their owners for their delicacy of finish. The monks, who still held -the Art of Bookbinding in their hands, improved upon these Eastern -|xiii| specimens. Each one devoted himself to a different branch: -one planed the oaken boards to a proper size, another stretched and -coloured the leather; and the work was thus divided into branches, as -it is now. The task was one of great difficulty, seeing how rude were -the implements then in use. - -[Illustration: Monastic.] - -[Illustration: Venetian.] - -The art of printing gave new life to our trade, and, during the -fifteenth century bookbinding made great progress on account of the -greater facility and cheapness with which books were produced. The -printer was then his own binder; but as books increased in number, -bookbinding became a separate art-trade of itself. This was a step -decidedly in the right direction. The art improved so much, that -in the sixteenth century some of the finest samples of bookbinding -were executed. Morocco having been introduced, and fine delicate -tools cut, the art was encouraged by great families, who, liking the -Venetian patterns, had their books bound in that style. The annexed -|xiv| woodcut will give a fair idea of a Venetian tool. During this -period the French had bookbinding almost entirely in their hands, and -Mons. Grolier, who loved the art, had his books bound under his own -supervision in the most costly manner. His designs consisted of bold -gold lines arranged geometrically with great accuracy, crossing one -another and intermixed with small leaves or sprays. These were in -outlines shaded or filled up with closely worked cross lines. Not, -however, satisfied with these simple traceries, he embellished them -still more by staining or painting them black, green, red, and even -with silver, so that they formed bands interlacing each other in a most -graceful manner. Opposite is a centre block of Grolier. It will be seen -how these lines entwine, and how the small tools are shaded with lines. -If the reader has had the good fortune to see one of these specimens, -has he not wondered at the taste displayed? To the French must -certainly be given the honour of bringing the art to such a perfection. -Francis I. and the succeeding monarchs, with the French nobility, -|xv| placed the art on such a high eminence, that even now we are -compelled to look to these great masterpieces as models of style. Not -only was the exterior elaborate in ornament, but the edges were gilded -and tooled; and even painted. We must wonder at the excellence of the -materials and the careful workmanship which has preserved the bindings, -even to the colour of the leather, in perfect condition to the present -day. - -[Illustration: GROLIER. - -Royal folio] - -[Illustration: Grolier.] - -There is little doubt that the first examples of the style now known as -“_Grolier_” were produced in Venice, under the eye of Grolier himself, -and according to his own designs; and that workmen in France, soon -rivalled and excelled the early attempts. The work of Maioli may be -distinctly traced by the bold simplicity and purity of his designs; and -more especially by the broader gold lines which margin the coloured -bands of geometric and arabesque ornamentation. - -All books, it must be understood, were not bound in so costly a manner, -for we find pigskin, vellum and calf in |xvi| use. The latter was -especially preferred on account of its peculiar softness, smooth -surface, and great aptitude for receiving impressions of dumb or blind -tooling. It was only towards the latter part of the sixteenth century -that the English binders began to employ delicate or fine tooling. - -During the seventeenth century the names of Du Sueil and Le Gascon -were known for the delicacy and extreme minuteness of their finishing. -Not disdaining the bindings of the Italian school, they took from them -new ideas; for whilst the Grolier bindings were bold, the Du Sueil -and Le Gascon more resembled fine lace work of intricate design, with -harmonizing flowers and other objects, from which we may obtain a great -variety of artistic character. During this period embroidered velvet -was much in use. Then a change took place and a style was adopted which -by some people would be preferred to the gorgeous bindings of the -sixteenth century. The sides were finished quite plainly with only a -line round the edge of the boards (and in some instances not even that) -with a coat of arms or some badge in the centre. - -Towards the end of the seventeenth century bookbinding began to -improve, particularly with regard to forwarding. The joints were -true and square, and the back was made to open more freely. In the -eighteenth century the names of Derome, Roger Payne, and others -are prominent as masters of the craft, and the Harleian style was -introduced. - -The plate facing may be fairly estimated as a good specimen of Derome. -Notice the extreme simplicity and yet the symmetry of the design; -its characteristic feature being the boldness of the corners and the -gradual diminishing of the scroll work as it nears the centre of the -panel. Morocco and calf were the leathers used for this binding. - -[Illustration: GASCON. - -8^{vo} - -T. Way, Photo-lith.] - -Hand coloured calf was at this period at its height, and |xvii| the -Cambridge calf may be named as a pattern of one of the various styles, -and one that is approved of by many at the present day—the calf was -sprinkled all over, save a square panel left uncoloured in the centre -of the boards. - -[Illustration: Harleian.] - -[Illustration: Roger Payne.] - -The Harleian style took its name from Harley, Earl of Oxford. It was -red morocco with a broad tooled border and centre panels. We have the -names of various masters who pushed the art forward to very great -excellence during this century. Baumgarten and Benedict, two Germans of -considerable note in London; Mackinly, from whose house also fine work -was sent out, and by whom good workmen were educated whose specimens -almost equal the work of their master. There were two other Germans, -Kalthoeber and Staggemeier, each having his own peculiar style. -Kalthoeber is credited with having first introduced painting on the -edges. This I must dispute, as it was done in the sixteenth century. To -him, however, must certainly be given the credit of having discovered -the secret, if ever lost, and renewing it on his best work. We must -now |xviii| pass on to Roger Payne, that unfortunate and erring man -but clever workman, who lived during the latter part of the eighteenth -century. His taste may be seen from the woodcut. He generally used -small tools, and by combining them formed a variety of beautiful -designs. He cut most of these tools himself, either because he could -not find a tool cutter of sufficient skill, or that he found it -difficult to pay the cost. We are told by anecdote, that he drank much -and lived recklessly; but notwithstanding all his irregular habits, -his name ought to be respected for the work he executed. His backs -were firm, and his forwarding excellent; and he introduced a class of -finishing that was always in accordance with the character or subject -of the book. His only fault was the peculiar coloured paper with which -he made his end papers. |xix| - -Coloured or fancy calf has now taken the place of the hand-coloured. -Coloured cloth has come so much into use, that this branch of the trade -alone monopolizes nearly three-fourths of the workmen and females -employed in bookbinding. Many other substitutes for leather have been -introduced, and a number of imitations of morocco and calf are in the -market; this, with the use of machinery, has made so great a revolution -in the trade, that it is now divided into two distinct branches—cloth -work and extra work. - -I have endeavoured in the foregoing remarks to raise the emulation of -my fellow craftsmen by naming the most famous artists of past days; men -whose works are most worthy of study and imitation. I have refrained -from any notice or criticism of the work of my contemporaries; but I -may venture to assure the lover of good bookbinding that as good and -sound work, and as careful finish, may be obtained in a first-rate -house in London as in any city in the world. - -In the succeeding chapters, I will endeavour in as plain and simple a -way as I can to give instructions to the unskilled workman _how to bind -a book_. - - - - -PART I. - -FORWARDING. - - -|3| - -THE ART OF BOOKBINDING. - -CHAPTER I. - -FOLDING. - -We commence with _folding_. It is generally the first thing the binder -has to do with a book. The sheets are either supplied by the publisher -or printer (mostly the printer); should the amateur wish to have his -books in sheets, he may generally get them by asking his bookseller for -them. It is necessary that they be carefully folded, for unless they -are perfectly even, it is impossible that the margins (the blank space -round the print) can be uniform when the book is cut. Where the margin -is small, as in very small prayer books, a very great risk of cutting -into the print is incurred; besides, it is rather annoying to see a -book which has the folio or paging on one leaf nearly at the top, and -on the next, the print touching the bottom; to remedy such an evil, -the printer having done his duty by placing his margins quite true, -it remains with the binder to perfect and bring the sheet into proper -form by folding. The best bound book may be spoilt by having the sheets -badly folded, and the binder is perfectly justified in rejecting any -sheets that may be badly printed, that is, not in register. |4| - -The sheets are laid upon a table with the signatures (the letters or -numbers that are at the foot of the first page of each sheet when -folded) facing downwards on the left hand side. A folding-stick is held -in the right hand, and the sheet is brought over from right to left, -the folios being carefully placed together; if the paper is held up to -the light, and is not too thick, it can be easily seen through. Holding -the two together and laying them on the table the folder is drawn -across the sheet, creasing the centre; then, holding the sheet down -with the folder on the line to be creased, the top part is brought over -and downwards till the folios or the bottom of the letterpress or print -is again even. The folder is then drawn across, and so by bringing each -folio together the sheet is completed. The process is extremely simple. -The octavo sheet is _generally_ folded into 4 folds, thus giving 8 -leaves or 16 pages; a quarto, into 2, giving 4 leaves or 8 pages, and -the sheets properly folded, will have _their signatures outside_ at the -foot of the first page. If the signature is not on the outside, one may -be certain that the sheet has been wrongly folded. - -I say _generally_; at one time the water or wire mark on the paper and -the number of folds gave the size of the book. - -There are numerous other sizes, but it is not necessary to give them -all; the process of folding is in nearly all cases the same; here are -however, a few of the sizes given in inches. - - Foolscap 8vo. 6-5/8 ×4-1/8 - Demy 12mo. 7-3/8 ×4-3/8 - Crown 8vo. 7-1/2 ×5 - Post 8vo. 8 ×5 - Demy 8vo. 9 ×5-1/2 - Medium 8vo. 9-5/8 ×5-3/4 - Small Royal 8vo. 10 ×6-1/4 - Large Royal 8vo. 10-1/2 ×6-3/4 |5| - Imperial 8vo. 11 ×7-1/2 - Demy 4to. 11 ×9 - Medium 4to. 11-3/4 ×9-5/8 - Royal 4to. 12-1/2 ×10 - Imperial 4to. 15 ×11 - Crown Folio. 15 ×10 - Demy Folio 18 ×11 - -As a final caution, the first and last sheets must be carefully -examined; very often the sheet has to be cut up or divided, and the -leaf or leaves placed in various positions in the book. - -It is also advisable to cut the head of the sheets, using the -folding-stick, cutting just beyond the back or middle fold; this -prevents the sheet running into a side crease when pressing or rolling. -Should such a crease occur the leaf or sheet must be damped by placing -it between wet paper and subjecting it to pressure; no other method is -likely to erase the break. - -_Refolding._—With regard to books that have been issued in numbers, -they must be _pulled to pieces_ or divided. The parts being arranged -in consecutive order, so that not so much difficulty will be felt in -collating the sheets, the outside wrapper is torn away, and each sheet -pulled singly from its neighbour, care being taken to see if any thread -used in sewing is in the centre of the sheet at the back; if so, it -must be cut with a knife or it will tear the paper. As the sheets are -pulled they must be laid on the left hand side, each sheet being placed -face downwards; should they be placed face upwards the first sheet will -be the last and the whole will require rearranging. All advertisements -may be placed away from the sheets into a pile; these will be found -very handy for lining boards, pasting on, or as waste. The title and -contents will generally be found in the last part; place them in their -proper places. The sheets must now be refolded, if improperly folded -in the first instance. |6| Turn the whole pile (or book now) over, -and again go through each sheet; alter by refolding any sheet that may -require it. Very often the sheets are already cut, and in this case -the section must be dissected and each leaf refolded and reinserted in -proper sequence, and placed carefully head-line to head-line. Great -care must be exercised, as the previous creasings render the paper -liable to be torn in the process. - -[Illustration: Knocking-down Iron screwed into Press.] - -Books that have been bound and cut would be rendered often worse by -refolding, and as a general rule they are left alone. Bound books are -pulled to pieces in the same manner, always taking care that the thread -is cut or loose before tearing the sheet away; should trouble arise -through the glue, etc., not coming away easily, the back may be damped -with a sponge lightly charged with water, or perhaps a better method is -to place the book or books in a press, screw up tightly, and soak the -backs with thin paste, leaving them soaking for an hour or two; they -will want repasting two or three times during the period; the whole of -the paper, glue, and leather can then be easily scraped away with a -blunt knife; a handful of shavings rubbed over the back will make it -quite clean, and no difficulty will be met with if the sections are -taken apart while damp. The sections must, as pulled, be placed evenly -one on |7| the other, as the paper at back retains sufficient glue -to cause them to stick together if laid across one another; the whole -must then be left to dry. When dry the groove should be knocked down -on a flat surface, and for this the knocking-down iron screwed up in -the lying press is perhaps the best thing to use. The groove is the -projecting part of the book close to the back, caused by the backing, -and is the groove for the back edge of the mill-board to work in by a -hinge; this hinge is technically called the “joint.” - -[Illustration: Martini’s Folding Machine.] - -_Machines._—There are many folding machines made by the various -machinists; the working of them, however, is in nearly all cases -identical. The machine is generally |8| fed by a girl, who places the -sheet to points, the arm lifting up at given periods to allow placing -the sheet. Another arm carrying a long thin blade descends, taking the -sheet through a slot in the table, where it is passed between rollers; -another set of rollers at right angles creases it again. The rollers -are arranged for two, three, or more creasings or folds. The sheets are -delivered at the side into a box, from which they are taken from time -to time. The cut is one of Martini’s, and is probably the most advanced. - -_Gathering._—A _gathering machine_ has been patented which is of a -simple but ingenious contrivance for the quick gathering of sheets. The -usual way to gather, is by laying piles of sheets upon a long table, -and for the gatherer to take from each pile a sheet in succession. -By the new method a round table is made to revolve by machinery, and -upon it are placed the piles of sheets. As the table revolves the -gatherer takes a sheet from each pile as it passes him. It will at once -be seen that not only is space saved, but that a number of gatherers -may be placed at the table; and that there is no possibility of the -gatherers shirking their work, as the machine is made to register the -revolutions. By comparing the number of sheets with the revolutions of -the table, the amount of work done can be checked. - -[Illustration] - - -|9| - -CHAPTER II. - -BEATING AND ROLLING. - -The object of beating or rolling is to make the book as solid as -possible. For beating, a stone or iron slab, used as a bed, and a heavy -hammer, are necessary. The stone or iron must be perfectly smooth, and -should be bedded with great solidity. I have in use an iron bed about -two feet square, fitted into a strongly-made box, filled with sand, -with a wooden cover to the iron when not in use. The hammer should be -somewhat bell-shaped, and weigh about ten pounds, with a short handle, -made to _fit the hand_. The face of the hammer and stone (it is called -a beating-stone whether it be stone or iron), must be kept perfectly -clean, and it is advisable always to have a piece of paper at the top -and bottom of the sections when beating, or the repeated concussion -will glaze them. - -[Illustration: Beating Hammer.] - -The book should be divided into lots or sections of about half an inch -thick, that will be about fifteen to twenty sheets, according to the -thickness of paper. A section is now to be held on the stone between -the fingers and thumb of the left hand; then the hammer, grasped firmly -in the right hand, is raised, and brought down with rather more than -its own weight on the sheets, which must be continually moved round, -turned over and changed about, in order that they may be equally beaten -all over. |10| By passing the section between the finger and thumb, it -can be felt at once, if it has been beaten properly and evenly. Great -care must be taken that in each blow of the hammer it shall have the -face fairly on the body of the section, for if the hammer is so used -that the greatest portion of the weight should fall outside the edge -of the sheets the concussion will break away the paper as if cut with -a knife. It is perhaps better for a beginner to practise on some waste -paper before attempting to beat a book; and he should always rest when -the wrist becomes tired. When each section has been beaten, supposing -a book has been divided into four sections, the whole four should be -beaten again, but together. - -I do not profess a preference to beating over rolling because I -have placed it first. The rolling machine is one of the greatest -improvements in the trade, but _all books should not be rolled_, and a -bookbinder, I mean a practical bookbinder, not one who has been nearly -the whole of his lifetime upon a cutting machine, or at a blocking -press, and who calls himself one, but a competent bookbinder, should -know how and when to use the beating hammer and when the rolling -machine. - -There are some books, old ones for instance, that should on no account -be rolled. The clumsy presses used in printing at an early date gave -such an amount of pressure on the type that the paper round their -margins has sometimes two or three times the thickness of the printed -portion. At the present time each sheet after having been printed is -pressed, and thus the leaf is made flat or nearly so, and for such work -the rolling machine is certainly better than the hammer. - -To roll a book, it is divided into sections as in beating, only not so -many sheets are taken—from six upwards, according to the quality of -the work to be executed. The sheets are then placed between tins, and -the whole passed |11| between the rollers, which are regulated by a -screw, according to the thickness of sections and power required. The -workman, technically called “Roller,” has to be very careful in passing -his books through, that his hand be not drawn in as well, for accidents -have from time to time occurred through the inattention of the Roller -himself, or of the individual who has the pleasure of applying his -strength to turning the handle. - -[Illustration: Rolling Machine.] - -I never pass or hear a rolling machine revolving very rapidly without -having vividly brought to my mind a very serious accident that happened -to my father. He was feeling for a flaw on one of the rollers, and -whilst his hands |12| were at the edge of the rollers the man turned -the handle, drawing the whole hand between the heavy cylinders. The -accident cost him many months in the hospital, and he never regained -complete use of his right hand. - -Great care must be used not to pass too many sheets through the machine -at one time; the same applies to the regulating screw. The amount -of damage that can be done to the paper by too heavy a pressure is -astonishing, as the paper becomes quite brittle, and may perhaps even -be cut as with a knife. - -Another caution respecting new work. Recently printed books, if -submitted to heavy pressure, either by the beating hammer or machine, -are very likely to “set off,” that is, the ink from one side of the -page will be imprinted to its opposite neighbour; indeed, under very -heavy pressure, some ink, perhaps many years old, will “set off;” this -is due in a great measure to the ink not being properly prepared. - -_Machines._—Of the many rolling machines in the market the principle -is in all the same. A powerful frame, carrying two heavy rollers or -cylinders, which are set in motion, revolving in the same direction, -by means of steam or by hand. In many, extra power is supplied by the -use of extra cog-wheels; the power is, however, gained at an expense of -speed. The pressure is regulated by screws at the top. - -[Illustration] - - -|13| - -CHAPTER III. - -COLLATING. - -To collate, is to ensure that each sheet or leaf is in its proper -sequence. Putting the sheets together and placing plates or maps -requires great attention. The sheets must run in proper order by -the signatures: letters are mostly used, but numbers are sometimes -substituted. When letters are used, the alphabet is repeated as often -as necessary, doubling the letter as often as a new alphabet is used, -as B, C, with the first alphabet,[1] and AA, BB, CC or Aa, Bb, Cc, with -the second repetition, and three letters with the third, generally -leaving out J, V, W. Plates must be trimmed or cut to the proper size -before being placed in the book, and maps that are to be folded must be -put on guards. By mounting a map on a guard the size of the page, it -may be kept open on the table beside the book, which may be opened at -any part without concealing the map: by this method the map will remain -convenient for constant reference. This is technically called “throwing -out” a map. - - [1] The text of a book always commences with B, the title and - preliminary matter being reckoned as A. - -To collate a book, it is to be held in the right hand, at the right top -corner, then, with a turn of the wrist, the back must be brought to the -front. Fan the sections out, then with the left hand the sheets must be -brought back to an angle, which will cause them when released to spring -forward, so that the letter on the right bottom |14| corner of each -sheet is seen, and then released, and the next brought into view. When -a work is completed in more than one volume, the number of the volume -is indicated at the left hand bottom corner of each sheet. I need -hardly mention that the title should come first, then the dedication -(if one), preface, contents, then the text, and finally the index. -The number on the pages will, however, always direct the binder as to -the placing of the sheets. The book should always be beaten or rolled -before placing plates or maps, _especially coloured ones_. - -[Illustration] - -Presuming that we have a book with half a dozen plates, the first thing -after ascertaining that the letter-press is perfect, is to see that -all the plates are there, by looking to the “List of Plates,” printed -generally after the contents. The plates should then be squared or -cut truly, using a sharp knife and straight edge. When the plates are -printed on paper larger than the book, they must be cut down to the -proper size, leaving a somewhat less margin at the back than there will -be at the foredge when the book is cut. Some plates have to face to the -left, |15| some to the right, the frontispiece for instance; but as -a general rule, plates should be placed on the right hand, so that on -opening the book they all face upwards. When plates consist of subjects -that are at a right angle with the text, such as views and landscapes, -the inscription should always be placed to the right hand, whether -the plate face to the right or to the left page. If the plates are on -thick paper they should be _guarded_, either by adding a piece of paper -of the same thickness or by cutting a piece from the plate and then -joining the two again together with a piece of linen, so that the plate -moves on the linen hinge: the space between the guard and plate should -be more than equal to the thickness of the paper. If the plate is -almost a cardboard, it is better and stronger if linen be placed both -back and front. Should the book consist of plates only, sections may be -made by placing two plates and two guards together, and sewing through -the centre between the guards, leaving of course a space between the -two guards, which will form the back. - -With regard to maps that have to be mounted, it is better to mount them -on the finest linen, as it takes up the least room in the thickness of -the book. The linen should be cut a little larger than the map itself, -with a further piece left, on which to mount the extra piece of paper, -so that the map may be thrown out as before described. The map should -first be trimmed at its back, then pasted with rather _thin paste_; -the linen should then be laid carefully on, and gently rubbed down and -turned over, so that the map comes uppermost; the pasted guard should -then be placed a little away from the map, and the whole _well rubbed -down_, and finally laid out flat to dry. To do this work, the paste -must be clean, free from all lumps, and used very evenly and not too -thickly, or when dry every mark of the brush will be visible. When the -map is dry it should be trimmed all round and folded to its proper -|16| size, viz.—a trifle smaller than the book will be when cut. If -it is left larger the folds will naturally be cut away, and the only -remedy will be a new map, which means a new copy of the work. For all -folded maps or plates a corresponding thickness must be placed in the -backs where the maps go, or the foredge will be thicker than the back. -Pieces of paper called guards, are folded from 1/4 inch to 1 inch in -width, according to the size of the book, and placed in the back, -and sewn through as a section. Great care must be taken that these -guards are not folded too large, so as to overlap the folds of the -map, if they do so, the object of their being placed there to make the -thickness of the back and foredge equal will be defeated. - -[Illustration: Shewing Book with Map thrown out.] - -In a great measure, the whole beauty of the inside work rests in -properly collating the book, in guarding maps, and in placing the -plates. When pasting in any single leaves or plates, a piece of waste -paper should always be placed on the leaf or plate the required -distance from the edge to be pasted, so that the leaf is pasted -straight. It takes no longer to lay the plate down upon the edge of -a board with a paper on the plate, than it does to hold the plate in -the left hand, and apply the paste with the right hand middle finger; -by the former method a proper amount of paste is deposited evenly on -the plate and it is pasted in a straight line; by the latter method, -it is pasted in some |17| places thickly, and in some places none -at all. I have often seen books with the plates fastened to the book -nearly half way up to its foredge, and thus spoilt, only through the -slovenly way of pasting. After having placed the plates, the collater -should go through them again when dry, to see if they adhere properly, -and break or fold them over up to the pasting, with a folding stick, -so that they will lie flat when the book is open. I must again call -attention to coloured plates. They should be looked to during the whole -of binding, especially after pressing. The amount of gum that is put -on the surface, which is very easily seen by the gloss, causes them to -stick to the letter-press: should they so stick, do not try to tear -them apart, but warm a polishing iron and pass it over the plate and -letter-press, placing a piece of paper between the iron and the book to -avoid dirt. The heat and moisture will soften the gum, and the surfaces -can then be very easily separated. By rubbing a little _powdered French -chalk_ over the coloured plates _before_ sticking them in, these _ill -effects will be avoided_. - -It sometimes happens that the whole of a book is composed of single -leaves, as the “Art Journal.” Such a book should be collated properly, -and the plates placed to their respective places, squared and broken -over, by placing a straight edge or runner about half an inch from -its back edge, and running a folder under the plate, thus lifting it -to the edge of the runner. The whole book should then be pressed for -a few hours, taken out, and the back glued up; the back having been -previously roughed with the side edge of the saw. To glue such a back, -the book is placed in the lying press between boards, with the back -projecting about an eighth of an inch, the saw is then drawn over it, -with its side edge, so that the paper is as it were rasped. The back is -then sawn in properly, as explained in the next chapter, and the whole -back is glued. When dry, the |18| book is separated into divisions or -sections of four, six, or eight leaves, according to the thickness of -the paper, and each section is then overcast or over sewn along its -whole length, the thread being fastened at the head and tail (or top -and bottom); thus each section is made independent of its neighbour. -The sections should then be gently struck along the back edge with a -hammer against a knocking-down iron, so as to imbed the thread into the -paper, or the back will be too thick. The thread should not be struck -so hard as to cut the paper, or break the thread, but very gently. Two -or three sections may be taken at a time. - -After having placed the plates, the book should be put into the press -(standing or otherwise) for a few hours. A standing press is used in -all good bookbinding shops. - -The Paris houses have a curious way of pressing their books. The books -are placed in the standing press; the top and bottom boards are very -thick, having a groove cut in them in which a strong thin rope is -placed. The press is screwed down tightly, when, after some few minutes -has elapsed, the cord or rope is drawn together and fastened. The -pressure of the screw is released, the whole taken out en bloc, and -allowed to remain for some hours, during which time a number of other -batches are passed through the same press. - -When taken out of the press the book is ready for “marking up” if for -flexible sewing, or for being sawn in if for ordinary work. - -_Interleaving._—It is sometimes required to place a piece of writing -paper between each leaf of letter-press, either for notes or for a -translation: in such a case, the book must be properly beaten or -rolled, and each leaf cut up with a hand-knife, both head and foredge; -the writing paper having been chosen, must be folded to the size of the -book and pressed. A single leaf of writing paper is now to be fastened -in the centre of each section, and a folded leaf |19| placed to every -folded letter-press leaf, by inserting the one within the other, a -folded writing paper being left outside every other section, and all -being put level with the head; the whole book should then be well -pressed. - -If by any chance there should be one sheet in duplicate and another -missing, by returning the one to the publisher of the book the missing -sheet is generally replaced; this, of course, has reference only to -books of a recent date. - -[Illustration: Boomer Press.] - -There is a new press of American invention that has come under my -notice. It will be seen that it acts on an entirely new principle, -having two horizontal screws instead of one perpendicular. The power is -first applied by hand and finally by a lever and ratchet-wheel in the -centre. A pressure guage is affixed to each press, so that the actual -power exerted may be ascertained as the operation proceeds. The press -can be had from Messrs. Ladd and Co., 116, Queen Victoria Street, E.C.; -and they claim that it gives a pressure equal to the hydraulic press, -without any of the hydraulic complications. - -[Illustration] - - -|20| - -CHAPTER IV. - -MARKING UP AND SAWING IN. - -The books having been in the press a sufficient time, say for a night, -they are taken out, and run through again (collated) to make sure that -they are all correct. A book is then taken and knocked straight both -head and back and put in the lying press between boards, projecting -from them about 1/8 inch; some binders prefer cutting boards, I prefer -pressing boards, and I should advise the use of them, as the whole can -be knocked up together. They should be held between the fingers of each -hand, and the back and head knocked alternately on the cheek of the -press. The boards are then drawn back the required distance from the -back of the book: the book and boards must now be held tightly with the -left hand, and the whole carefully lowered into the press; the right -hand regulating the screws, which should then be screwed up tightly. -The book is now quite straight, and firmly fixed in the press, and we -have to decide if it is to be sewn flexibly or not. If for _flexible_ -binding the book is _not to be sawn in_, but marked; the difference -being, that with the latter the cord is _outside the sheets_; with the -former the cord is _imbedded in the back_, in the cut or groove made -by the saw. We will take the flexible first, and suppose that the book -before us is an ordinary 8vo. volume, and that it is to be cut all -round. - -The back should be divided into six equal portions, leaving the bottom, -or tail, half an inch longer than the rest, simply because of a -curious optical illusion, by which, |21| if the spaces were all equal -in width, the bottom one would appear to be the smallest, although -accurately of the same width as the rest. This curious effect may be -tested on any framed or mounted print. A square is now to be laid upon -the back exactly to the marks, and marked pretty black with a lead -pencil; the head and tail must now be sawn in to imbed the chain of the -kettle stitch, at a distance sufficient to prevent the thread being -divided by accident in cutting. In flexible work great accuracy is -absolutely necessary throughout the whole of the work, especially in -the marking up, as the form of the bands will be visible when covered. -It will be easily seen if the book has been knocked up straight by -laying the square at the head when the book is in the press, and if -it is not straight, it must be taken out and corrected. If the book -is very small, as for instance a small prayer book, it is usually -marked up for five bands, but only sewed on three; the other two being -fastened on as false bands when the book is ready for covering. There -would be no gain in strength by sewing a small book on five bands. - -[Illustration: A. Saw marks for catch-up stitch.] - -When the book is to be “sawn in,” it is marked up as for flexible -work, but the back is sawn, both for the bands and kettle stitch, with -a tennon saw. In choosing the saw, it should be one with the teeth -not spread out too much; and it is advisable to have two of different -widths. Care must be taken that the saw does not enter too deeply, and -one |22| must, in all cases, _be guided in the depth by the thickness -of the cord to be used_. The size of the book should determine the -thickness of the cord, as the larger the book, the stronger and -thicker must be the cord. Suitable cord is to be purchased at all the -bookbinder’s material shops, and it is known by the size of the book, -such as 12mo., 8vo., 4to. cord. - -[Illustration: Sawing-in Machine.] - -I think nothing looks worse than a book with great holes in the back, -sometimes to be seen when the book is opened, which are due to the -inattention of the workmen. Besides, it causes great inconvenience to -the forwarder if the cords are loose, and the only thing he can do in -such a case is to cram a lot of glue into the grooves to keep the cord -in its place. If, on the other hand, the saw cuts are |23| not deep -enough, the cord will stand out from the back, and be distinctly seen -when the book is finished, if not remedied by extra strips of leather -or paper between the bands when lining up. It is better to use double -thin cord instead of one thick one for large books, because the two -cords will lie and imbed themselves in the back, whereas one large one -will not, unless very deep and wide saw cuts be made. Large folios -should be sawn on six or seven bands, but five for an 8vo. is the right -number, from which all other sizes can be regulated. - -Saw benches have been introduced by various firms. They can be driven -either by steam or foot. It will be seen that the saws are circular, -and can be shifted on the spindle to suit the various sized books. -As the books themselves are slid along the table on the saws, the -advantage is very great in a large shop where much work of one size is -done at a time. - - -CHAPTER V. - -SEWING. - -_Flexible Work._—The “sewing press” consists of a _bed_, _two screws_, -and a _beam_ or _cross bar_, round which are fastened five or more -cords, called _lay cords_. Five pieces of cord cut from the ball, in -length, about four times the thickness of the book, are fastened to the -lay cords by slip knots; the other ends being fastened to small pieces -of metal called keys, by twisting the ends round twice and then a half -hitch. The keys are then passed through the slot in the bed of the -“press,” and the beam screwed up rather tightly; but loose enough to -allow the lay cords to move freely |24| backwards or forwards. Having -the book on the bed of the press with the back towards the sewer, a few -sheets (better than only one) are laid against the cords, and they are -arranged exactly to the marks made on the back of the sections. When -quite true and perpendicular, they should be made tight by screwing the -beam up. It will be better if the cords are a little to the right of -the press, so that the sewer may get her or his left arm to rest better -on the press. - -[Illustration: Sewing Press.] - -If when the press is tightened one of the cords is loose, as will -sometimes happen, a pencil, folding-stick or other object slipped under -the lay cord on the top of the beam will tighten the band sufficiently. -The foreign sewing presses have screws with a hook at the end to hold -the bands, the screws running in a slot in the beam: in practice they -are very convenient. - -[Illustration: - -Ordinary sewing. 2 sheets on 2 bands. - -Ordinary sewing. 2 sheets on 3 bands. - -Ordinary sewing. 2 sheets on 5 bands. - -The thick lines shewing the direction of the thread.] - -The first and last sections are overcast usually with cotton or very -fine thread. The first sheet is now to be laid against the bands, and -the needle introduced through the kettle stitch hole on the right of -the book, which is the |25| head. The left hand being within the -centre of the sheet, the needle is taken with it, and thrust out _on -the left_ of the mark made for the first band; the needle being taken -with the right hand, is again introduced on _the right_ of the same -band, thus making a _complete circle_ round it. This is repeated with -each band in succession, and the needle brought out of the kettle -stitch hole on the left or tail of the sheet. A new sheet is now placed -on the top, and treated in a similar way, by introducing the needle -at the left end or tail; and when taken out at the right end or top, -the thread must be fastened by a knot to the end, hanging from the -first sheet, which is left long enough for the purpose. A third sheet -having been sewn in like manner,[2] the needle must be brought out -at the kettle stitch, thrust between the two sheets first sewn, and -drawn round the thread, thus fastening each sheet to its neighbour by -a kind of chain stitch. I believe the term “kettle stitch” is only a -corruption of “catch-up stitch,” as it catches each section as sewn in -succession. This class of work must be done very neatly and evenly, -but it is easily done with a little practice and patience. This is the -strongest sewing executed at the present day, but it is very seldom -done, as it takes three or four times as long as the ordinary sewing. -The thread must be drawn tightly each time it is passed round the -band, and at the end properly fastened off at the kettle stitch, or -the sections will work loose in course of time. Old books were always -sewn in this manner, and when two or double bands were used, the thread -was twisted twice round one on sewing one section, and twice round the -other on sewing the next, or once round each cord. In some cases even -the “head-band” was worked at |27| the same time, by fastening other -pieces of leather for the head and tail, and making it the catch-up -stitch as well. When the head-band was worked in sewing, the book was, -of course, not afterwards cut at the edges. When this was done, wooden -boards were used instead of mill boards, and twisted leather instead -of cord, and when the book was covered, a groove was made between each -double band. This way is still imitated by sticking a second band or -cord alongside the one made in sewing, before the book is covered. The -cord for flexible work is called a “flexible cord,” and is twisted -tighter and is stronger than any other. In all kinds of sewing I advise -the use of Hayes’ Royal Irish thread, not because there is no other of -good manufacture, but because I have tried several kinds, and Hayes’ -has proved to be the best. The thickness of the cord must always be in -proportion to the size and thickness of the book, and the thickness of -the thread must depend on the sheets, whether they be half sheets or -whole sheets. If too thick a thread is used, the swelling (the rising -caused in the back by the thread) will be too much, and it will be -impossible to make a proper rounding or get a right size “groove” in -backing. If the sections are thick or few, a thick thread must be used -to give the thickness necessary to produce a good groove. - - [2] As each thread is terminated, another must be joined thereto, - so that one length of thread is, as it were, used for a book. The - knots must be made very neatly, and the ends cut off, or they - will be visible in the sheet by their bulk. - -[Illustration: Flexible sewing.] - -If the book is of moderate thickness, the sections may be knocked down -by occasionally tapping them with a piece |28| of wood loaded at one -end with lead, or a thick folding-stick may be used as a substitute. I -must again call particular attention to the kettle stitch. The thread -must not be drawn _too tight_ in making the chain, or the thread -_will break in backing_; but still a proper tension must be kept or -the sheets will wear loose. The last sheet should be fastened with a -double knot round the kettle stitch two or three sections down, and -that section must be sewn all along. The next style of sewing, and most -generally used throughout the trade, is the ordinary method. - -_Ordinary Sewing_ is somewhat different, inasmuch as _the thread is -not_ twisted round the cord, as in flexible work, when the cord is -outside the section. In this method the cord fits into the saw cuts. -The thread is simply passed over the cord, not round it, otherwise -the principle of sewing is the same, that is, the thread is passed -right along the section, out of the holes made, and into them again; -the kettle stitch being made in the same way. This style of work has -one advantage over flexible work, because the back of the book can be -better gilt. In flexible work, the leather is attached with paste to -the back, and is flexed, and bent, each time the book is opened, and -there is great risk of the gold splitting away or being detached from -the leather in wear. Books sewn in the ordinary method are made with a -hollow or loose back, and when the book is opened, the crease in the -back is independent of the leather covering; the lining of the back -only is creased, and the leather keeps its perfect form, by reason of -the lining giving it a spring outwards. Morocco is generally used for -flexible work; calf, being without a grain, is not suitable, as it -would show all the creases in the back made by the opening. This class -of sewing is excellent for books that do not require so much strength, -such as library bindings,[3] but for a dictionary or the like, where -constant |29| reference or daily use is required, I should sew a book -flexibly. Some binders sew their books in the ordinary way, and paste -the leather directly to the back, and thus pass it for flexible work; -but I do not think any respectable house would do so. _A book that has -been sewed flexibly will not have any saw cut in the back_, so that on -examination, by opening it wide, it will at once be seen if it is a -_real flexible binding or not_. - - [3] This is not to be confounded with public library bindings. - -Intelligence must, however, be used; a book that has already been cased -(or bound and sewn on cords) must of necessity have the saw cuts or -holes, and such a book would show the cuts. - -There is another mode called “_flexible not to show_.” The book is -marked up in the usual way as for flexible, and is also slightly -scratched on the band marks with the saw; but not deep enough to go -through the sections. A thin cord is then taken doubled for each band, -and the book is sewn the ordinary flexible way; the cord is knocked -into the back in forwarding, and the leather may be stuck on a hollow -back with bands, or it may be fastened to the back itself without -bands.[4] - - [4] See chapter on Lining up. - -However simple it may appear in description to sew a book, it requires -great judgment to keep down the swelling of the book to the proper -amount necessary to form a good backing groove and no more. In order to -do this, the sheets must from time to time be gently tapped down with a -piece of wood or a heavy folding-stick, and great care must be observed -to avoid drawing the fastening of the kettle stitch too tight, or the -head and tail of the book will be thinner than the middle; this fault -once committed has no remedy. - -If the sections are very thin, or in half sheets, they may, if the book -is very thick, be sewn “_two sheets on_.” The needle is passed from -the kettle stitch to the first band of |30| the first sheet and out, -then another sheet is placed on the top, and the needle inserted at the -first band and brought out at band No. 2, the needle is again inserted -in the first sheet and in at the second band and out at No. 3, thus -treating the two sections as one; in this way it is obvious that only -half as much thread will be in the back. With regard to books that have -had the heads cut, it will be necessary to open each sheet carefully up -to the back before it is placed on the press, otherwise the centre may -not be caught, and two or more leaves will be detached after the book -is bound. - -The first and last sections of every book should be overcast for -strength. With regard to books that are composed of single leaves, -they are treated of in Chapter III. They are to be overcast, and each -section treated as a section of an ordinary book, the only difference -being, that a strong lining of paper should be given to the back before -covering, so that it cannot “throw up.” - -When a book is sewn, it is taken from the sewing press by slackening -the screws which tighten the beam, so that the cord may be easily -detached from the keys and lay cords. The cord may be left at its full -length until the end papers are about to be put on, when it must be -reduced to about three inches. - -Brehmer’s patent wire book and pamphlet sewing machine is an -introduction well adapted to the use of the stationer, where thick and -hand-made paper will bear such a method. It will not, in my opinion, -ever be found eligible for library or standard books. Its high price -will debar it from the trade generally; but it is to be feared that a -sufficient number of really good books may be sewn with it to cause -embarrassment to the first-rate binder, who will be baffled in making -good work of books which may have been damaged by the invention of -sewing books with wire. |31| - -[Illustration: Smythe’s Sewing Machine.] - -The novelty of this machine is, that the book is sewn with wire instead -of thread. The machine is fed with wire from spools by small steel -rollers, which at each revolution supply exactly the length of wire -required to form little staples with two legs. Of these staples, the -machine makes at every revolution as many as are required |32| for -each sheet of the book that is being sewn—generally two or three, or -more, as necessary. These wires or staples are forced through the -sections from the inside of the folds; and as the tapes are stretched, -and held by clasps exactly opposite to each staple-forming and -inserting apparatus, the legs of each staple penetrate the tapes, and -project through them to a sufficient distance to allow of their being -bent inwards towards each other, and pressed firmly against the tapes. -With pamphlets, copy-books, catalogues, &c., no tape is used, the -staples themselves being sufficient. About two thousand pamphlets or -sheets can be sewn in one hour. - -Another machine, and I believe the latest, is the “Smythe.” The sewer -sits in front of the machine and places the sheets, one at a time, on -radial arms which project from a vertical rod. These arms rotate, rise, -and adjust the sheets, so as to bring them in their proper position -under the curved needles. As each arm rises, small holes are pierced, -by means of punches in the sheets, from the inside, to facilitate the -entrance and egress of the needles. The loopers then receive a lateral -movement to tighten the stitch, and this movement is made adjustable, -in order that books may be sewn tight or loose, as required. About -20,000 sheets can be sewn in a day, and no previous sawing is required. -Thread is used with this machine. - -[Illustration] - - -|33| - -CHAPTER VI. - -FORWARDING. - -_End Papers._—The end papers should always be _made_, that is, the -coloured paper pasted to a white one; the style of binding must decide -what kind of ends are to be used. I give a slight idea of the kinds of -papers used and the method of making them. - -_Cobb Paper_ is a paper used generally for half-calf bindings, with -a sprinkled edge, or as a change, half-calf, gilt top. The paper is -stained various shades and colours in the making, and I think derives -its name from a binder who first used it. Being liked by the trade, -they have distinguished the paper by calling it “Cobb paper,” which -name it has kept. - -_Surface Paper._—This is a paper, one side of which is prepared with -a layer of colour, laid on with a brush very evenly. Some kinds are -left dull and others are glazed. The darker colours of this paper are -generally chosen for Bibles or books of a religious character, and the -lighter colours for the cloth or case work. There are many other shades -which may be put into extra bindings with very good effect, and will -exercise the taste of the workman. For example, a good cream, when of -fine colour and good quality, will look very well in a morocco book -with either cloth or morocco joints. - -_Marbled Paper._—This paper has the colour disposed upon it in -imitation of marble; hence its name. It is produced by sprinkling -properly prepared colours upon the surface of a size, made either of -a vegetable emulsion, |34| or of a solution of resinous gum. It is -necessary, in either preparing an original design or in matching an -example, to remember that the veins are the first splashes of colour -thrown on the size, and assume that form in consequence of being driven -back by the successive colours employed. - -We have it on the authority of Mr. Woolnough,[5] that the old Dutch -paper was wrapped round toys in order to evade the duty imposed upon -it. After being carefully smoothed out, it was sold to bookbinders at -a very high price, who used it upon their extra bindings, and if the -paper was not large enough they were compelled to join it. After a time -the manufacture was introduced into England, but either the colours are -not prepared the same way, or the paper itself may not be so suitable, -the colours are not brought out with such vigour and beauty, nor do -they stand so well, as on the old Dutch paper. Some secret of the art -has been lost, and it baffles our ablest marblers of the present day to -reproduce many of the beautiful examples that may be seen in some of -the old books. - - [5] “The Whole Art of Marbling as applied to Paper.” C. W. - Woolnough. Bell and Sons, 1881. - -For further remarks on marbled paper and marbling see chapter on -colouring edges. - -_Printed and other Fancy Paper_ may be bought at fancy stationers; the -variety is so great that description is impossible, but good taste and -judgment should always be used by studying the style and colour of -binding. Of late years a few firms have paid some attention to this -branch, and have placed in the market some very pretty patterns in -various tints. - -The foreign binders are very fond of papers printed in bronze, and some -are certainly of a most elaborate and gorgeous description. Many houses -have their own favourite pattern and style. All papers having bronze on -|35| them should be carefully selected and the cheaper kinds eschewed, -the bronze in a short time going black. - -_Coloured Paste Paper._—This kind the binder can easily make for -himself. Some colour should be mixed with paste and a little soap, -until it is a little thicker than cream. It should then be spread upon -two sheets of paper with a paste brush. The sheets must then be laid -together with their coloured surfaces facing each other, and when -separated they will have a curious wavy pattern on them. The paper -should then be hung up to dry on a string stretched across the room, -and when dry glazed with a hot iron. A great deal of it is used in -Germany for covering books. Green, reds, and blues have a very good -effect. - -There are many other kinds of paper that may be used, but the above -five different varieties will give a very good idea and serve as points -to work from. The many bookbinders’ material dealers send out pattern -books, and in them some hundreds of patterns are to be found. - -Before leaving the subject of ends, it may be as well to mention that -morocco, calf, russia, silk, etc., are often used on whole bound work; -these must, however, be placed in the book when has been covered. - -After having decided upon what kind of paper is to be used, two pieces -are cut and folded to the size of the book, leaving them a trifle -larger, especially if the book has been already cut. Two pieces of -white paper must be prepared in the same way. Having them ready, -a white paper is laid down, folded, on a pasting board (any old -mill-board kept for this purpose), and pasted with moderately thin -paste very evenly; the two fancy papers are laid on the top quite even -with the back or folded edge; the top fancy paper is now to be pasted, -and the other white laid on that: they must now be taken from the -board, and after a squeeze in the press between pressing boards, taken -out, and hung up separately to dry. This will cause one half of the -white |36| to adhere to one half of the marble or fancy paper. When -they are dry, they should be refolded in the old folds and pressed for -about a quarter of an hour. When there are more than one pair of ends -to make, they need not be made one pair at a time, but ten or fifteen -pairs may be done at once, by commencing with the one white, then two -fancy, two white, and so on, until a sufficient number have been made, -always pressing them to ensure the surfaces adhering properly; then -hang them up to dry. When dry press again, to make them quite flat. As -this is the first time I speak about _pasting_, a few hints or remarks -on the proper way will not be out of place here. Always draw the brush -well over the paper and away from the centre, towards the edges of the -paper. Do not have too much paste in the brush, but just enough to make -it slide well. Be careful that the whole surface is pasted; remove all -hairs or lumps from the paper, or they will mark the book. Finally, -never attempt to take up the brush from the paper before it is well -drawn over the edge of the paper, or the paper will stick to the brush -and turn over, with the risk of the under side being pasted. While the -ends are pressing we will proceed with further forwarding our book. - - -CHAPTER VII. - -PASTING UP. - -The first and last sheet of every book must be pasted up or down,—it -is called by both terms; and if the book has too much swelling, it -must be tapped down gently with a hammer. Hold the book tightly at the -foredge with the left hand, knuckles down; rest the back on the press, -and hit |37| the back with the hammer to the required thickness. If -the book is not held tightly, a portion of the back will slip in and -the hollow will always be visible; so I advise that the back be knocked -flat on the “lying press” and placed in it without boards, so that the -back projects. Screw the press up tightly, so that the sheets cannot -slip. A knocking-down iron should then be placed against the book on -its left side, and the back hammered against it; the “slips” or cords -must be pulled tight, each one being pulled with the right hand, the -left holding the slips tightly against the book so that they cannot be -pulled through. Should it happen that a slip is pulled out, nothing -remains but to re-sew the book, unless it is a thin one, when it may -possibly be re-inserted with a large needle. But this will not do the -book any good. - -The slips being pulled tight, the first and last section should be -pasted to those next them. To do this, lay the book on the edge of the -press and throw the top section back; lay a piece of waste paper upon -the next section about 1/8 or 1/4 inch from the back, according to the -size of the book, and paste the space between the back and the waste -paper, using generally the second finger of the right hand, holding the -paper down with the left. When pasted, the waste paper is removed, and -the back of the section put evenly with the back of the book, which -is now turned over carefully that it may not shift; the other end is -treated in the same manner. A weight should then be put on the top, or -if more than a single book, one should lie on the top of the other, -back and foredge alternately, each book to be half an inch within the -foredge of the book next to it, with a few pressing boards on the top -one. When dry the end papers are to be pasted on. - -[Illustration] - - -|38| - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PUTTING ON THE END PAPERS. - -Two single leaves of white paper, somewhat thicker than the paper used -for making the ends, are to be cut, one for each side of the book. The -end papers are to be laid down on a board, or on a piece of paper on -the press to keep them clean, with the pasted or made side uppermost, -the single leaves on the top. They should then be fanned out evenly -to a proper width, about a quarter of an inch for an 8vo., a piece of -waste paper put on the top, and their edges pasted. The slips or cords -thrown back, the white fly is put on the book, a little away from the -back, and the made ends on the top even with the back, and again left -to dry with the weight of a few boards on the top. - -If, however, the book or books are very heavy or large, they should -have “joints” of either bookbinders’ cloth or of leather of the same -colour as the leather with which the book is to be covered. Morocco is -mostly used for the leather joints. If the joints are to be of cloth, -it may be added either when the ends are being put on, or when the book -is ready for pasting down. If the cloth joint is to be put on now, -the cloth is cut from 1 to 3 inches, according to the size of book, -and folded quite evenly, the side of the cloth which has to go on the -book being left the width intended to be glued; that is, a width of 1 -inch should be folded 3/4 one side, leaving 1/4 the other, the latter -to be put on the book. The smallest fold is now glued, the white fly -put on, and the fancy paper on the top; the difference being, that the -paper instead of being made double or folded is single, or instead of -taking a paper double the |39| size of the book and folding it, it is -cut to the size of the book and pasted all over. It will be better if -the marble paper be pasted and the white put on and well rubbed down, -and then the whole laid between mill-boards to dry. A piece of waste -or brown paper should be slightly fastened at the back over the whole, -(turning the cloth down on the book) to keep it clean and prevent it -from getting damaged. - -The strongest manner is to overcast the ends and cloth joint to the -first and last section of the book, as it is then almost impossible -either for the cloth or ends to pull away from the book. - -If, however, the cloth joint is to be put on after the book is covered, -the flys and ends are only edged on with paste to the book just -sufficient to hold them while it is being bound; and when the book is -to be pasted down, the ends are lifted from the book by placing a thin -folding-stick between the ends and book and running it along, when they -will come away quite easily. The cloth is then cut and folded as before -and fastened on, and the ends and flys properly pasted in the back. - -Morocco joints are usually put in after the book is covered, but I -prefer that if joints of any kind are to go in the book they should be -put in at the same time as the ends. Take great care that the ends are -quite dry after being made before attaching them, or the dampness will -affect the beginning and end of the book and cause the first few leaves -to wrinkle. - -When the ends are quite dry the slips should be unravelled and scraped, -a bodkin being used for the unravelling, and the back of a knife for -the scraping. The object of this is, that they may with greater ease be -passed through the holes in the mill-board, and the bulk of the cord be -more evenly distributed and beaten down, so as not to be seen after the -book has been covered. |41| - -[Illustration: Method of sewing Ends on to Book that cannot tear away. -First and last sheet are not overcasted when treated in this manner.] - -Many houses cut away the slip entirely, in order that the work may look -better. This should never be done; with large and heavy books it is -better to allow the bulk of the cord to be seen rather than sacrifice -strength. To a certain extent this may be avoided by cutting a small -portion of the mill-board away to allow the cord to lodge in. - -There is another way of putting on the end papers, that is, to sew the -ends on with the book when sewing. The paper is folded at the back with -a small fold, the sheet placed in the fold, and the whole sewn through. -It is at once apparent that under no circumstances can there be any -strain on the ends, and that there is hardly any possibility of the -ends breaking away from the sheets. - -For books subjected to very hard wear (school books, public library -books, etc.) this method of placing the ends is by far the best. See -opposite page. - - -CHAPTER IX. - -TRIMMING. - -Is the book to have a gilt top? marbled or gilt edges? or is it to be -left uncut? These questions must be settled before anything further is -done. If the book is to be uncut or have a gilt top, the rough edges -should be taken away with a very sharp knife or shears: this process is -called “trimming.” - -The book having been knocked up straight, is laid on a piece of wood -planed smooth and kept for this purpose, called a “trimming board.” It -is then compassed from the back, a straight edge laid to the compass -holes, and the foredge cut with a very sharp knife. If the knife is -not |42| sharp the paper will yield to the slight pressure required -and will not be cut. It is therefore absolutely necessary that a good -edge be given to the blade, and, if possible, to keep a special knife -for the purpose. Such knives, called trimming knives, are sold, the -probable cost being about two shillings. They have a very broad blade. - -The object of trimming is to make the edges true; the amount taken off -must be only the rough and dirty edges, the book being thus left as -large as possible. - -The French put their books in the press between boards and rasp the -edges, but this method has not only the disadvantage of showing all the -marks of the rasp, but also of leaving a roughness which catches and -retains the dust in proportion to the soft or hard qualities of the -paper. - -[Illustration: Cardboard Machine used for trimming.] - -Another method is to put the book into the cutting press, and cut the -overplus off with a plough, having a circular knife, called a “round -plough.” This is used when a number of books are being done together. I -prefer to use the straight edge and knife for the foredge and tail, and -to cut the top when the book is in boards. - -It is, however, not necessary to go to the expense of a round plough, -it is only advisable to have one when “plough trimming” is of daily -occurrence; an ordinary plough knife, ground to a circular edge, will -answer in most cases. - -Another excellent plan is to set the gauge of the |43| mill-board -machine, or a _card-cutting machine_, and to cut or trim each section, -foredge and tail, by the machine knife. In a large number of books this -plan is to be recommended; the whole is cut more even and in less time; -trimming by this method must, however, be done before sewing. This -method is also adopted by some French houses. - -Before leaving the subject of trimming, I will insert a few lines -from that well-known paper the “Athenæum,” as to how a book should -be trimmed; and so much do I agree with its writer, that I have the -quotation, in large type, hung up in my shop as a constant caution and -instruction to the workmen:— - -(_No. 2138, Oct. 17th, 1868._) - - “Mr. EDITOR,—If you think that the ‘Athenæum’ is read or seen by any - members of that class of ruthless binders, who delight in destroying - the appearance of every pamphlet and book that comes into their hands, - by trimming or ploughing its edges to the quick (and almost always - crookedly), I beg you to insert this appeal to the monsters I have - named, to desist from their barbarous practices, to learn to reverence - the margin of a book, and never to take from it a hair’s breadth more - than is absolutely needful. The brutality with which the fair margins - of one’s loved volumes are treated by these mangling wretches with - their awful plough knives is shocking to behold. The curses of book - lovers are daily heaped on their backs, but they go on running-a-muck, - heedless of remonstrance, remorseless, ever sacrificing fresh victims. - Had we a paternal government, one might hope for due punishment of - some of these offenders: one at least might be ploughed up the back, - another up the front, as an example and a terror to the trade; but as - this wholesome correction cannot unhappily be administered, will you - give expression to the indignation of one amongst a million sufferers - for years from these |44| trimmers’ savageries, and let them know - what feelings their reckless cruelty awakens in many breasts? One of - the largest houses in London has just sent me home fifty copies of an - essay, intended as a present for a friend. They have been trimmed, and - been ruined. Would that I could have the trimming of their trimmer’s - hair and ears; also his nose! I don’t think his best friend would know - him when I had done with him. - - “But, Sir, we live in a philanthropic age, and are bound to forgive - our enemies and try to reform the worst criminals. I therefore propose - a practical measure to win these book trimmers from their enormities; - namely, that fifty at least of your readers, who care for book - margins, should subscribe a guinea each for a challenge cup, to be - competed for yearly, and held by that firm which, on producing copies - of all books and pamphlets trimmed by it during the year, shall be - adjudged to have disfigured them least. I ask you, Sir, if you will - receive subscriptions for this challenge cup? If you will, I shall be - glad to send you mine. - - “M. A. - - “P.S.—Any one who will cut out this letter, and get it pasted up in - any binder’s or printer’s trimming room, will confer a favour on the - writer.” - -A very good trimming machine has been invented by Messrs. Richmond and -Co., of Kirby Street, Hatton Garden. The bed rises and falls, with the -books upon it, instead of the knife descending upon the work, as in -the cutting machines; and the gauges are so arranged, that the foredge -of one pile of books, and the tails of another, can be cut at one -operation, and it is guaranteed by the makers that the knife will leave -a clean and perfectly trimmed edge. - - -|45| - -CHAPTER X. - -GLUEING UP. - -The book must now be glued up; that is, glue must be applied to the -back to hold the sections together, and make the back firm during -the rounding and backing. Knock the book perfectly true at its back -and head, and put it into the lying press between two pieces of old -mill-board; expose the back and let it project from the boards a -little, the object being to hold the book firm and to keep the slips -close to the sides, so that no glue shall get on them; then with glue, -not too thick, but hot, glue the back, rubbing it in with the brush, -and take the overplus off again with the brush. In some shops, a -handful of shavings is used to rub the glue in, and to take the refuse -away, but I consider this to be a bad plan, as a great quantity of glue -is wasted. - -The Germans rub the glue into the back with the back of a hammer, and -take away the overplus with the brush; this is certainly better than -using shavings. The back must not be allowed to get too dry before it -is rounded, or it will have to be damped with a sponge, to give to the -glue the elasticity required, but it should not be wet, this being -worse than letting it get too dry. The book should be left for about an -hour, or till it no longer feels tacky to the touch, but still retains -its flexibility. A flexible bound book should first be rounded, a -backing board being used to bring the sheets round instead of a hammer, -then the back glued, and a piece of tape tied round the book to prevent -its going back flat. |46| - -But all books are not glued up in the press; some workmen knock up a -number of books, and, allowing them to project a little _over_ their -press, glue the lot up at once; others again, by holding the book in -the left hand and drawing the brush up and down the back. These last -methods are, however, only practised in cloth shops, where books are -bound or cased at very low prices. The proper way, as I have explained, -is to put the book in the lying press. The book is then laid on its -side to dry, and if more than one, they should be laid alternately back -and foredge, with the back projecting about half an inch, and allowed -to dry spontaneously, and on no account to be dried by the heat of a -fire. _All artificial heat in drying in any process of bookbinding is -injurious to the work._ - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ROUNDING. - -The word “rounding” applies to the back of the book, and is preliminary -to backing. In rounding the back, the book is to be laid on the press -before the workman with the foredge towards him; the book is then to -be held with the left hand by placing the thumb on the foredge and -fingers on the top of the book pointing towards the back, so that by -drawing the fingers towards the thumb, or by pressing fingers and thumb -together, the back is drawn towards the workman at an angle. In this -position the back is struck with the face of the hammer, beginning -in the centre, still drawing the back over with the left hand. The -book is then to be turned over, and the other side treated in the -same way, and continually |47| changed or turned from one side to -the other until it has its proper form, which should be a part of a -circle. When sufficiently rounded, it should be examined to see if one -side be perfectly level with the other, by holding the book up and -glancing down its back, and gently tapping the places where uneven, -until it is perfectly true or uniform. The thicker the book the more -difficult it will be found to round it; and some papers will be found -more obstinate than others, so that great care must be exercised both -in rounding and backing, as the foredge when cut will have exactly the -same form as the back. Nothing can be more annoying than to see books -lop-sided, pig-backed, and with sundry other ailments, inherent to -cheap bookbinding. |48| - -[Illustration: Rounding Machine.] - -The back when properly rounded should be about a third of a circle, -according to the present mode, but in olden times they were made almost -flat. They were not rounded as now done, but the swelling caused by -the thread used made quite enough rounding when put in the press for -backing. - -Flat back books have a certain charm about them, the more so if in -other respects they are properly forwarded. The theory is altogether -averse to practical binding. I have always been given to understand -that we round our books in order to counteract the tendency of a book -to sink in and assume a convex back. Any old well-used book bound with -a flat back will show at once this defect. - -Messrs. Hopkinson and Cope, of Farringdon Road, London, manufacture a -rounding machine. They claim that this machine will round 600 books per -hour, and that any desired “round” may be given to the book with great -uniformity. - - -CHAPTER XII. - -BACKING. - -The boards required for backing, called backing boards, should always -be the same length as the book. They are made somewhat thicker than -cutting boards, and have their tops planed at an angle, so that the -sheets may fall well over. - -[Illustration: Backing Hammer.] - -[Illustration: Before Backing. After Backing.] - -Hold the book in the left hand, lay a board on one side, a little -away from the back, taking the edge of the top sheet as a guide, the -distance to be a trifle more than the thickness of the boards intended -to be used. Then |49| turn over the book, with the backing board, -holding the board to the book by the thumb, so that it does not shift, -and lay the other board at exactly the same distance on the other side. -The whole is now to be held tightly by the left hand and lowered into -the press. The boards may possibly have shifted a little during the -process, and any correction may now be made whilst the press holds the -book before screwing up tight, such as a slight tap with the hammer to -one end of a board that may not be quite straight. Should the boards -however be not quite true, it will be better to take the whole out -and readjust them, rather than lose time in trying to rectify the -irregularity by any other method. If the rounding is not quite true it -will be seen at once, and the learner must not be disheartened if he -has to take his book out of the press two or three times to correct any -slight imperfection. - -The book and boards having been lowered flush with the cheeks of the -press, screw it up as tightly as possible with the iron hand-pin. -The back of the book must now be gently struck with the back of the -hammer, holding it slanting and beating the sheets well over towards -the backing boards. Commence from the centre of the back and do |50| -not hit too hard, or the dent made by the hammer will show after the -book has been covered. The back is to be finished with the face of -the hammer, the sheets being brought well over on the boards so that -a good and solid groove may be made. Each side must be treated in the -same way, and have the same amount of weight and beating. The back must -have a gradual hammering, and the sheets, when knocked one way, _must -not be knocked back again_. The hammer should be swung with a circular -motion, always away from the centre of the back. The book, when opened -after backing, should be entirely without wrinkles; _their presence -being a sign that the workman did not know his business_, or that it -was carelessly done. Backing and cutting constitute the chief work in -forwarding, and if these two are not done properly the book cannot be -square and solid—two great essentials in bookbinding. - -Backing flexible work will be found a little more difficult, as the -slips are tighter; but otherwise the process is exactly the same, only -care must be taken not to hammer the cord too much, and to bring over -the sections very gently, in order not to break the sewing thread. - -The backing boards may be replaned from time to time, as they become -used, but boards may be had having a double face of steel to them; -these may be used from either side. The edges of the steel must not be -sharp, or they will cut the paper when backing. The ordinary boards -may also have a face of steel screwed to them, but I prefer to use the -wood—one can get a firmer back without fear of cutting the sheets. - -[Illustration: Two-edged Backing Boards.] - -There are several backing machines by different makers but they are -all of similar plan. The book being first rounded is put between the -cheeks, and the roller at the |51| top presses the sheets over. I am -sorry to say that a great number of sheets get cut by this process, -especially when a careless man has charge of the machine. - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -MILL-BOARDS. - -There is no occasion to wait for the book to be advanced as far as -the backing before the workman sees to his boards; but he should take -advantage of the period of drying to prepare them, to look out the -proper thickness of the board, and to line them with paper either on -one side or on both. - -There are now so many kinds of mill-boards made that a few words about -them may not be out of place. The best boards are made of old rope, -and cost about £30 per ton. The various mills make each a different -quality, the prices ranging down to £14 per ton; about this price the -straw boards may be said to commence, they going as low as £7, and even -less. - -A new board has lately appeared called leather board; it is exceedingly -hard and durable. I made several experiments with this board, but up to -the present have not succeeded in getting it to lay flat on the book. - -Boards are made to the various sizes in sheets varying from pott -(17-1/4 × 14-1/4 inches) to double elephant (40 × 28 inches). The -thickness is known as 6_d._, 7_d._, 8_d._; 8x, or eightpenny one cross; -8xx, eightpenny two cross; X for tenpenny. Here is a list in full of -all the boards likely to be used:—|52| - - KEY TO TABLE. - A=“inches.”; B=“Dozens in a Bundle.”; C=“Weight Per Bundle, lb.” - - DESCRIPTION. SIZE. 6d. 7d. 8d. 8x. 8xx. X. - A B C B C B C B C B C B C - - Pott 17-1/4 ×14-1/4 6 28 6 40 5 48 5 56 4 60 3 58 - - Foolscap 18-1/2 ×14-1/2 6 32 6 44 5 50 5 58 4 62 3 58 - - Crown 20 ×16-1/4 6 36 6 50 5 62 5 72 4 74 3 72 - - Small Half Royal 20-1/4 ×13 6 30 6 44 5 50 5 60 4 62 3 58 - - Large Half Royal 21 ×14 6 30 6 48 5 60 5 62 4 70 3 72 - - Short 21 ×17 6 38 6 55 5 70 5 78 4 78 3 78 - - Sm. Half Imperial 22-1/4 ×15 6 36 6 50 5 64 4 70 3 62 2 60 - - Half Imperial 23-1/2 ×16-1/2 6 40 6 60 5 66 4 70 3 66 2 64 - - Mdle. or Sm.Demy 22-1/2 ×18-1/2 6 45 6 60 5 66 4 74 3 72 2 66 - - Large Middle or - Large Demy 23-3/4 ×18-1/2 6 48 6 68 5 66 4 76 3 74 2 60 - - Large or Medium 24 ×19 6 48 6 70 5 65 4 76 3 74 2 60 - - Small Royal 25-1/2 ×19-1/2 6 52 6 78 5 78 4 84 3 84 2 68 - - Large Royal 26-3/4 ×20-3/4 6 52 6 78 4 68 3 76 2 68 2 86 - - Extra Royal 28-1/2 ×21-1/2 6 56 6 82 4 74 3 80 2 74 2 92 - - Imperial 32 ×22-1/2 6 72 4 72 3 72 2 72 2 96 2 120 - -[Illustration: Mill-board Shears.] - -Having chosen the board, it is necessary to cut it up to the size -wanted. If the book is 8vo., the board is cut into eight pieces; if -4to., into four; using a demy board for a demy book, or a royal for -a royal book. To cut up the board, first mark up, as a guide for the -mill-board shears. These are very large shears, in shape somewhat like -an enlarged tin shears. To use the shears, screw up one arm in the -laying press, hold the board by the left hand, using the right to work -the upper arm, the left hand meanwhile guiding the board. Some little -tact is required |53| to cut heavy boards. It will be found that it -is necessary to press the lower arm away with the thigh, and bring the -upper arm towards the operator whilst cutting. - -[Illustration: Mill-board Machine.] - -A mill-board cutting machine is now in all large shops. The cut fairly -well explains itself; the long blade descending cuts the boards, which -are held fast on the table by the clamp. The gauges are set either on -the table or in front. The board is put on the table and held tight -by pressure of the foot on the treadle; the knife descending upon the -exposed board cuts after the principle of the guillotine blade. Another -kind, introduced by Messrs. Richmond, of Kirby Street, Hatton Garden, -is made for steam work, and is no doubt one of the best that can be -made. Instead of a knife to descend, a number of circular cutters are -made to revolve on two spindles, the one cutter working against the -other (see woodcut); but I give Messrs. Richmond’s own description, it -being more explicit than any I could |54| possibly give: “The machine -accomplishes a surprising amount of superior work in a very short time, -and the best description of the ordinary lever mill-board cutting -machine cannot be compared with it. The machine is very strongly and -accurately constructed. It is furnished with an iron table having a -planed surface, and is also provided with a self-acting feed gauge. -The gear wheels are engine cut, and the circular cutters, which are of -the best cast steel, being turned and ground “dead true,” clean and -accurate cutting is insured. The machine will therefore be found to be -a most profitable acquisition to any bookbinding establishment in which -large quantities of mill-board are used up.” - -[Illustration: Steam Mill-board Cutting Machine.] - -The boards being cut, square the edge which is to go to the back of the -book. This must be done in the cutting press, using a cutting board for -one side termed a “runner,” and another called a “cut-against” for the -other side. |55| These are simply to save the press from being cut; -and a piece of old mill-board is generally placed on the cut-against, -so that the plough knife does not cut or use up the cut-against too -quickly. The boards are now, if for whole-binding, to be lined on both -sides with paper; if for half-binding only on one side. The reason for -lining them is to make the boards curve inwards towards the book. The -various pastings would cause the board to curve the contrary way if it -were not lined. If the boards are to be lined both sides, paper should -be cut double the size of the boards; if only one side, the paper cut -a little wider than the boards, so that a portion of the paper may be -turned over on to the other side about a quarter of an inch. The paper -is now pasted with not too thick paste, and the board laid on the paper -_with the cut edge towards_ the portion to be turned over. It is now -taken up with the paper adhering, and laid down on the press with the -paper side upwards, and rubbed well down; it is then again turned over -and the paper drawn over the other side. It is advisable to press the -boards to make more certain of the paper adhering, remembering always -that the paper must be pasted all over very evenly, for it cannot be -expected to adhere if it is not pasted properly. - -When the books are very thick, two boards must be pasted together, not -only to get the proper thickness, but for strength, for a made board is -always stronger than a single one. If a board has to be made, a thick -and a somewhat thinner board should be fastened together _with paste_. -Paste both boards and put them in the standing press for the night. -Great pressure should not be put on at first, but after allowing them -to set for a few minutes, pull down the press as tight as possible. -When placing made boards to the book, _the thinner one should always be -next the book_. It may be taken as a general rule that a thinner board -when pasted will always draw a thicker one. |56| - -When boards are lined on one side only it is usual to turn half an inch -of the paper over the square or cut edge, and the lined side must be -placed next the book. - -Many binders line the mill-board all over with paper before cutting; -this may save time, but the edge of the board at the joint is liable to -be abraised, and the resulting joint uneven. - -The boards when lined should be laid about or stood up to dry, and when -dry, cut to the proper and exact size for the book. As a fact, the -black boards now sold are much too new or green to be used direct by -the binder, they should be stocked for some months. - -The requisite width is obtained by extending the compass from the back -of the book to the edge of the smallest bolt or fold in the foredge. It -is advisable not to measure less than this point, but to leave a leaf -or two in order to show that the book is not cut down. The compasses -being fixed by means of the side screw, the boards are to be knocked -up even, compassed up, and placed in the lying press, in which they -are cut, using, as before, the “cut-against,” and placing the runner -exactly to the compass holes. When cut they are to be tested by turning -one round and putting them together again; if they are the least out -of truth it will be apparent at once. The head or top of the boards is -next to be cut by placing a square against the back and marking the -head or top with a bodkin or point of a knife. The boards being quite -straight are again put into the press and cut, and when taken out -should be again proved by reversing them as before, and if not true -they must be recut. The length is now taken from the head of the book -to the tail, and in this some judgment must be used. If the book has -already been cut the measure must be somewhat larger than the book, -allowing only such an amount of paper to be cut off as will make the -edge smooth. If, however, the book is to |57| be entirely uncut, -the size of the book is measured, and in addition the portion called -_squares_ must be added. - -When a book has not been cut, the amount that is to be cut off the head -will give the head or top square, and the book being measured from the -head, another square or projection must be added to it, and the compass -set to one of the shortest leaves in the book. Bearing in mind the -article on trimming, enough of the book _only_ should be cut to give -the edge solidity for either gilding or marbling. A few leaves should -always be left not cut with the plough, to show that the book has not -been cut down. These few leaves are called _proof_, and are always a -mark of careful work. - -About twenty years ago it was the mode to square the foredge of the -boards, then lace or draw them in, and to cut the head and tail of the -boards and book together, then to turn up and cut the foredge of the -book. - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -DRAWING-IN AND PRESSING. - -The boards having been squared, they are to be attached to the book -by lacing the ends of the cord through holes made in the board. The -boards are to be laid on the book with their backs in the groove and -level with the head; they must then be marked either with a lead pencil -or the point of a bodkin exactly in a line with the slips, about half -an inch down the board. On a piece of wood the mill-board is placed, -and holes are pierced by hammering a short bodkin through on the line -made, at a distance from the edge in accordance with the size of the -book. About half an inch away from the back is the right distance for -an |58| octavo. The board is then to be turned over, and a second hole -made about half an inch away from the first ones. The boards having -been holed, the slips must be scraped, pasted slightly, and tapered or -pointed. Draw them tightly through the hole first made and back through -the second. Tap them slightly when the board is down to prevent them -from slipping and getting loose. When the cords are drawn through, cut -the ends close to the board with a knife, and well hammer them down -on the knocking-down iron to make the board close on the slips and -hold them tight. The slips should be well and carefully hammered, as -any projection will be seen with great distinctness when the book is -covered. The hammer must be held perfectly even, for the _slips will be -cut_ by the edge of it if _used carelessly_. - -The book is now to be examined, and any little alteration may be made -before putting it into the standing press. With all books, a tin should -be placed between the mill-board and book, to flatten the slips, and -prevent their adherence. The tin is placed right up to the groove, -and serves also as a guide for the pressing board. Pressing boards, -the same size as the book, should be put flush with the groove, using -the pressing tin as guide, and the book or books placed in the centre -of the press directly under the screw, which is to be tightened as -much as possible. In pressing books of various sizes, the largest -book must always be put at the bottom of the press, with a block or a -few pressing boards between the various sizes, in order to get equal -pressure on the whole, and to allow the screw to come exactly on the -centre of the books. - -The backs of the books are now to be pasted, and allowed to stand for -a few minutes to soften the glue. Then with a piece of wood or iron, -called a cleaning-off stick (wood is preferable), the glue is rubbed -off, and the backs are well rubbed with a handful of shavings and left -to dry. Leave them as long as possible in the press, and if the volume -is |59| rather a thick one a coat of paste or thin glue should be -applied to the back. Paste is preferable. - -If the book is very thick a piece of thin calico may be pasted to the -back and allowed to dry, the surplus being taken away afterwards. - -In flexible work care must be taken that the cleaning-off stick is -not forced too hard against the bands, or the thread being moist will -break, or the paper being wet will tear, or the bands may become -shifted. The cleaning-off stick may be made of any piece of wood; -an old octavo cutting board is as good as anything else, but a good -workman will always have one suitable and at hand when required for use. - -When the volumes have been pressed enough (a day’s pressing is none -too much) they are to be taken out, and the tins and pressing boards -put away. The book is then ready for cutting. Of the numerous presses, -excepting the hydraulic, Gregory’s Patent Compound Action Screw Press -is to my mind the best, and I believe it to be one of the most powerful -presses yet invented; sixty tons pressure can be obtained by it. - - -CHAPTER XV. - -CUTTING. - -In olden times, when our present work-tools did not exist and material -aids were scarce, a sharp knife and straight edge formed the only -implements used in cutting. Now we have the plough and cutting machine, -which have superseded the knife and straight edge; and the cutting -machine is now fast doing away with the plough. There are very few -shops at the present moment where a cutting |60| machine is not in -use, in fact I may say that, without speaking only of cloth books, for -they must always be cut by machinery owing to the price not allowing -them to be done otherwise, there are very few books, not even excepting -extra books, that have escaped the cutting machine. - -[Illustration: Cutting Press and Plough.] - -[Illustration: Sliding Knife.] - -All cutting “presses” are used in the same way. The plough running over -the press, its left cheek running between two guides fastened on the -left cheek of the press. By turning the screw of the plough the right -cheek is advanced towards the left; the knife fixed on the right of -the plough is advanced, and with the point cuts gradually through the -boards or paper secured in the press, as already described in preparing -the boards. There are two kinds of ploughs in use—in one the knife -is bolted, in the other the knife slides in a dovetail groove—termed -respectively |61| “bolt knife” and “slide knife.” The forwarder will -find that the latter is preferable, on account of its facility of -action, as any length of knife can be exposed for cutting. But with a -bolt knife, being fastened to the shoe of the plough, it is necessarily -a fixture, and must be worn down by cutting or squaring mill-boards, or -such work, before it can be used with the truth necessary for paper. - -[Illustration: Bolt Knife.] - -To cut a book properly it must be quite straight, and the knife must be -sharp and perfectly true. Having this in mind, the book may be cut by -placing the front board the requisite distance from the head that is to -be cut off. A piece of thin mill-board or trindle is put between the -hind board and book, so that the knife when through the book may not -cut the board. The book is now to be lowered into the cutting press, -with the back towards the workman, until the front board is exactly on -a level with the press. The head of the book is now horizontal with the -press, and the amount to be cut off exposed above it. Both sides should -be looked to, as the book is very liable to get a twist in being put -in the press. When it is quite square the press is to be screwed up -tightly and evenly. Each end should be screwed up to exactly the same -tightness, for if one end is loose the paper will be jagged or torn -instead of being cut cleanly. - -The book is cut by drawing the plough gently to and fro; each time it -is brought towards the workman a slight amount of turn is given to the -screw of the plough. If too much turn is given to the screw, the knife -will bite too deeply into the paper and _will tear instead of cutting -it_. If the knife has not been properly sharpened, or has a burr |62| -upon its edge, it will be certain to cause ridges on the paper. The -top edge being cut, the book is taken out of the press and the _tail_ -cut. A mark is made on the top of the hind or back board just double -the size of the square, and the board is lowered until the mark is on a -level with the cut top. The book is again put into the press, with the -back towards the workman, until the board is flush with the cheek of -the press; this will expose above the press the amount to be taken off -from the tail, as before described, and the left hand board will be, if -put level with the cut top, exactly the same distance above the press -as the right band board is below the cut top. The tail is cut in the -same way as the top edge. - -To cut a book properly requires great care. It will be of great -importance to acquire a methodical exactness in working the different -branches, cutting especially. Always lay a book down one way and take -it up another, and in cutting always work with the back of the book -towards you, and cut from you. Give the turn to the screw of the plough -as it is thrust from you, or you will pull away a part of the back -instead of cutting it. - -[Illustration: Section of Book and Press, book partly cut.] - -In cutting the foredge, to which we must now come, always have the head -of the book towards you, so that if not cut straight you know exactly -where the fault lies. The foredge is marked both back and front of the -book by placing a cutting board under the first two or three leaves as -a support; the mill-board is then pressed firmly into the groove and a -line is drawn or a hole is pierced head and tail, the foredge of the -board being used as a guide. The book is now knocked with its back on -the press quite flat, and trindles (flat pieces of steel in the shape -of an elongated U, about 1-1/2 inch wide and 3 or 4 inches long, with a -slot nearly the whole length) are placed between the boards and book by -letting the boards fall back from the book and then passing one trindle -at the head, the other at |63| tail, allowing the top and bottom slip -to go in the grooves of the trindles. The object of this is to force -the back up quite flat, and by holding the book when the cut-against -and runner is on it, supported by the other hand under the boards, it -can be at once seen if the book is straight or not. The cut-against -must be put quite flush with the holes on the left of the book, and -the runner the distance under the holes that the amount of square is -intended to be. The book being lowered into the press, the runner is -put flush with the cheek of the press and the cut-against just the same -distance _above_ the press as the runner is _below_ the holes. The -trindles must be taken out from the book when |64| the cutting boards -are in their proper place, and the mill-boards will then fall down. The -book and cutting boards must be held very tightly or they will slip -and, if the book has been lowered into the press accurately, everything -will be quite square. The press must now be screwed up tightly, and -the foredge ploughed; when the book is taken out of the press it will -resume its original rounding, the foredge will have the same curve as -the back, and if cut truly there will be a proper square all round the -edges. This method is known as “cutting in boards.” - -If the amateur or workman has a set of some good work which he wishes -to bind uniformly, but which has already been cut to different sizes, -and he does not wish to cut the large ones down to the smaller size, he -must not draw the small ones in, as he may possibly not be able to pull -the boards down the required depth to cut the book, but he must leave -the boards loose, cut the head and tail, then draw the boards in, and -turn up and cut the foredge. - -“Cutting out of boards” is by a different method. The foredge is cut -before gluing up, if for casing, taking the size _from the case_, from -the back to the edge of the board in the foredge. The book is then -glued up, rounded, and put into the press for half an hour, just to set -it. The size is again taken from the case, allowing for squares head -and tail. The book having been marked is cut, and then backed. Cloth -cases are made for most periodicals, and may be procured from their -publishers at a trifling cost, which varies according to the size of -the book and the amount of blocking that is upon them. - -This method of cutting out of boards is adopted in many of the cheap -shops (even leather shops). It is a method, however, not to be -commended. - -To test if the book be cut true it is only necessary to turn the top -leaf back level to the back of the book and |65| even at the head; if -it be the slightest bit untrue it will at once be seen. - -[Illustration: Cutting Machine.] - -A few words about the various cutting machines that are in the market. -Each maker professes his machine the best. In some the knife moves with -a diagonal motion, in others with a horizontal motion. - -The principle of all these machines is the same: the books are placed -to a gauge, the top is lowered and clamps |66| the book, and, on the -machine being started, the knife descends and cuts through the paper. - -[Illustration: Registered Cutting Machine.] - -Another machine by Harrild and Son, called a registered cutting -machine, is here illustrated. Its operation is on the same principle as -a lying press, the difference being, that this has a table upon which -the work is placed; a gauge is placed at the back so that the work may -be placed against it for accuracy, the top beam is then screwed down -and the paper ploughed. A great amount of work may be accomplished with -this machine, and to anyone that cannot afford an ordinary cutting -machine this will be found invaluable. - - -|67| - -CHAPTER XVI. - -COLOURING THE EDGES. - -The edges of every book must be in keeping with the binding. A half -roan book should not have an expensive edge, neither a whole bound -morocco book a sprinkled edge. Still, no rule has been laid down -in this particular, and taste should regulate this as it must in -other branches. The taste of the public is so changeable that it is -impossible to lay down any rule, and I leave my reader to his own -discretion. - -Here are various ways in which the edges may be coloured. - -_Sprinkled Edges._—Most shops have a colour always ready, usually a -reddish brown, which they use for the whole of their sprinkled edge -books. The colour can be purchased at any oil shop. A mixture of -burnt umber and red ochre is generally used. The two powders must be -well mixed together in a mortar with paste, a few drops of sweet oil, -and water. The colour may be tested by sprinkling some on a piece of -white paper, allowing it to dry, and then burnishing it. If the colour -powders or rubs, it is either too thick, or has not enough paste in it. -If the former, some water must be added; if the latter, more paste: -and it will perhaps be better if the whole is passed through a cloth -to rid it of any coarse particles. The books may be sprinkled so as -to resemble a kind of marble by using two or three different colours. -For instance, the book is put in the lying press and a little sand -is strewn upon the edge in small mounds. Then with a green colour a -moderate |68| sprinkle is given. After allowing it to dry, more sand -is put on in various places, a dark sprinkle of brown is put on, and -the whole allowed to dry. When the sand is shaken off, the edge will be -white where the first sand was dropped, green where the second, and the -rest brown. - -A colour of two shades may be made by using sand, then a moderately -dark brown sprinkled, then more sand, and lastly a deeper shade of same -colour. - -[Illustration: Sprinkling Brush and Sieve.] - -There are a few of the “_Old Binders_” who still use what is called the -“finger brush,” a small brush about the size of a shaving brush, made -of stiff bristles cut squarely. They dip it into the colour, and then -by drawing the finger across it jerk the colour over the edge. Another -method is to use a larger brush, which being dipped in the colour is -beaten on a stick or press-pin until the desired amount of sprinkle is -obtained. But the best plan is to use a nail brush and a common wire -cinder sifter. Dip the brush in the colour and rub it in a circular -direction over the cinder sifter. This mode has the satisfactory result -of doing the work quicker, finer, and more uniformly. The head, foredge -and tail must be of exactly the same shade, and one end must not have -more sprinkle on it than the other, and a set of books should have -their edges precisely alike in tone and colour. - -_Colours for Sprinkling._—To give an account of how the various colours -are made that were formerly used would be only waste of time, as so -many dyes and colours that |69| answer all purposes may be purchased -ready for instant use. I may with safety recommend Judson’s dyes -diluted with water. - -_Plain Colouring._—The colour having been well ground is to be mixed -with paste and a little oil, or what is perhaps better, glaire and -oil. Then with a sponge or with a brush colour the whole of the edge. -In colouring the foredge the book should be drawn back so as to form a -slope of the edge, so that when the book is opened a certain amount of -colour will still be seen. It is often necessary to give the edges two -coats of colour, but the first must be quite dry before the second is -applied. - -A very good effect may be produced by first colouring the edge yellow, -and when dry, after throwing on rice, seeds, pieces of thread, fern -leaves, or anything else according to fancy, then sprinkling with some -other dark colour. For this class of work body sprinkling colour should -always be used. It may be varied in many different ways. - -_Marbled Edges._—The edges of marbled books should in almost every -instance correspond with their marbled ends. - -In London very few binders marble their own work, but send it out of -the house to the _Marblers_, who do nothing else but make marbled edges -and paper. One cannot do better than send one’s books to be marbled; it -will cost only a few pence, which will be well spent in avoiding the -trouble and dirt that marbling occasions; nevertheless I will endeavour -to explain; it is, however, a process that may seem very easy, but is -very difficult to execute properly. - -The requisites are a long square wooden or zinc trough about 2 inches -deep to hold the size for the colours to float on; the dimensions to -be regulated by the work to be done. About 16 to 20 inches long and 6 -to 8 inches wide will probably be large enough. Various colours are -used, such as lake, rose, vermilion, king’s yellow, yellow ochre, |70| -Prussian blue, indigo, some green, flake white, and lamp black. The -brushes for the various colours should be of moderate size, and each -pot of colour must have its own brush. Small stone jars are convenient -for the colours, and a slab of marble and muller to grind them must -be provided. The combs may be made with pieces of brass wire about -two inches long, inserted into a piece of wood; several of these will -be required with the teeth at different distances, according to the -width of the pattern required to be produced. Several different sized -burnishers, flat and round, will be required for giving a gloss to the -work. - -[Illustration: Marbling Trough.] - -The first process in marbling is the preparation of the size on which -the colours are to be floated. This is a solution of _gum tragacanth_, -or as it is commonly called, gum dragon. If the gum is placed over -night in the quantity of water necessary it will generally be found -dissolved by the morning. The quantity of gum necessary to give proper -consistency to the size is simply to be learned by experience, and -cannot be described; and the solution must always be filtered through -muslin or a linen cloth before use. - -The colours must be ground on the marble slab with a little water, as -fine as possible; move the colour from time to time into the centre -of the marble with a palette knife, and as the water evaporates add a -little more. About one oz. of colour will suffice to grind at once, and -it will take about two hours to do it properly. - -Having everything at hand and ready, with the size in |71| the trough, -and water near, the top of the size is to be carefully taken off with a -piece of wood the exact width of the trough, and the colour being well -mixed with water and a few drops of _ox gall_, a little is taken in the -brush, and a _few very fine_ spots are thrown on. - -If the colour does not spread out, but rather sinks down, a few more -drops of gall must be carefully added and well mixed up. The top of the -size must be taken off as before described, and the colour again thrown -on. - -If it does not then spread out, the ground or size is of too thick -consistency, and some clean water must be added, and the whole well -mixed. - -If the colour again thrown on spreads out, but looks rather greyish or -spotty, then the colour is too thick, and a little water must be added, -but very carefully, lest it be made too thin. If the colour still -assumes a greyish appearance when thrown on, then the fault lies in the -grinding, and it must be dried and again ground. - -When the colour, on being thrown on, spreads out in very large spots, -the ground or size is too thin and a little thicker size should be -added. Now, if the consistency or the amount of gum water be noticed, -by always using the same quantity the marbler cannot fail to be right. - -If the colours appear all right on the trough, and when taken off on a -slip of paper adhere to it, the size and colours are in perfect working -order. - -The top of the size must always be taken off with the piece of wood -before commencing work, so that it be kept clean, and the colours must -always be well shaken out of the brush into the pot before sprinkling, -so that the spots may not be too large. The marbler must always be -guided by the pattern he wishes to produce, and by a little thought he -will get over many difficulties that appear of greater magnitude than -they really are. - -_Spot Marble._—The size is first to be sprinkled with a |72| dark -colour, and this is always termed the “ground colour,” then the other -colours; bearing in mind that the colour that has the most gall will -spread or push the others away, and this colour should in spot marbling -be put on last. - -With very little variation all the other kinds of marbling are done; -but in every case where there are more books or sheets of paper to be -done of the same pattern than the trough will take at once, the same -order of colours must be kept, and the same proportion of each, or one -book will be of one colour and the second entirely different. - -_Comb or Nonpareil Marble._—The colours are to be thrown on as before, -but as fine as possible. Then if a piece of wood or wire be drawn -backwards and forwards across the trough, the colours, through the -disturbance of the size, will follow the motion of the stick. A comb -is then to be drawn the whole length of the trough in a contrary -direction. The wire in the comb will draw the colour, and thus will be -produced what is termed comb or nonpareil marble. - -The size or width of the teeth of the comb will vary the size of the -marble. - -_Spanish Marble._—The ground colour is to be thrown on rather heavily, -the others lighter, and the wavy appearance is caused by gently drawing -the paper in jerks over the marble, thus causing the colour to form -small ripples. - -A few drops of turpentine put in the colours will give them a different -effect, viz.,—causing the small white spots that appear on the _shell -marble_. - -There are various patterns, each being known by name: old Dutch, -nonpareil, antique, curl, Spanish, shell. An apprentice would do well -to go to some respectable shop and ask for a sheet or two of the -various kinds mentioned, and as each pattern is given to him, write the -name on the back, and always keep it as a pattern for future use and -reference. |73| - -_Edges_ are marbled, after making the desired pattern on the trough by -holding the book firmly, pressing the edge on the colour and lifting it -up sharply. The foredge must be made flat by knocking the book on its -back, but the marbler had better tie his book between a pair of backing -boards, so that it may not slip, especially with large books. Care -must be taken with books that have many plates, or if the paper is at -all of a spongy nature or unsized. If a little cold water be thrown on -the edges it will cause the colours to set better. In marbling writing -paper, a sponge with a little alum water should be used to take off the -gloss or shine from the edge, occasioned by the cutting knife, and to -assist the marbling colour to take better. - -Paper is marbled in the same way by holding it at two corners; then -gently putting it on the colour and pressing it evenly, but gently all -over, so that the colour may take on every part. It must be lifted -carefully, as the least shake by disturbing the size will spoil the -regularity of the pattern. Paper should be damped over night and left -with a weight on the top. When the paper has been marbled and is dry, a -rag with a little bee’s wax or soap should be rubbed over it, so that -the burnisher may not stick, and may give a finer gloss; this applies -also to the edges in burnishing. Marble paper manufacturers burnish -the paper with a piece of polished flint or glass fixed in a long pole -working in a socket at the top, the other end resting on a table which -is slightly hollowed, so that the segment of the circle which the flint -takes is exactly that of the hollow table. The paper is laid on the -hollow table, and the burnisher is worked backwards and forwards until -the desired gloss is attained. By the best and latest method, the paper -is passed between highly polished cylinders. It is more expensive, on -account of the cost of the machinery, but insures superior effect. - -A great deal of paper is now being made by means of a |74| mechanical -process. It has a very high gloss; it is used on very cheap work. - -_Sizing._—Paper should be always sized after being marbled. The size is -made by dissolving one pound of best glue in five gallons of water with -half a pound of best white soap. This is put into a copper over night, -and on a low fire the next morning, keeping it constantly stirred to -prevent burning. When quite dissolved and hot it is passed through a -cloth into a trough, and each sheet passed through the liquor and hung -up to dry; when dry, burnish as above. - -But it will be far cheaper to buy the paper, rather than make it at the -cost of more time than will be profitable. The charge for demy size is -at the rate of 20_s._ to 95_s._ per ream, according to the quality and -colour; but to those to whom money is no object, and who would prefer -to make their own marbled paper, I hope the foregoing explanation will -be explicit enough. - -The “English Mechanic,” March 17th, 1871, has the following method of -transferring the pattern from ordinary marble paper to the edges of -books:— - -“Ring the book up tightly in the press, the edge to be as flat as -possible; cut strips of the best marble paper about one inch longer -than the edge, make a pad of old paper larger than the edge of the -book, and about a quarter inch thick; then get a piece of blotting -paper and a sponge with a little water in; now pour on a plate -sufficient spirits of salts (muriatic acid) to saturate the paper, -which must be placed marble side downwards on the spirit (not dipped in -it); when soaked put it on the edge (which has been previously damped -with a sponge), lay your blot paper on it, then your pad, now rap it -smartly all over, take off the pad and blot, and look if the work is -right, if so, take the book out and shake the marble paper off; when -dry burnish.” - -At a lecture delivered at the Society of Arts, January, |75| 1878, by -Mr. Woolnough, a practical marbler, the whole process of marbling was -explained. Mr. Woolnough has since published an enlarged treatise on -marbling,[6] and one that should command the attention of the trade. A -copy of the Society’s journal can be had, describing the process, No. -1,314, vol. XXVI., and will be of great service to any reader, but his -work is more exhaustive. - - [6] George Bell and Sons, York Street, Covent Garden. - -[Illustration: Leo’s Mechanical Marblers.] - -A transfer marble paper may now be had, and from examples sent me the -process seems fairly workable. The following is the method of working -sent by the importers of the paper:— - -“Place the book in the press. The book edge which is to be marbled -has to be rubbed with pure spirits of wine; the dry strip of transfer -marble is then to be put on the edge. The white back or reverse side, -whilst being pressed hard against the book edge, is to be moistened -carefully with boiling water, by dabbing a saturated sponge on it; -this dabbing process to be continued so long till the colour will show -through the white back—a proof that it is loosened from the paper. Then -remove the white paper, and let the edge dry slowly. When quite dry -burnish.” - -[Illustration: Leo’s Mechanical Marblers.] - -Another invention is to marble the edges by means of one or more -rollers. The top roller or rollers holds the colour, which is -distributed on the under rollers; these, in turn, ink the edge on being -passed over it. The books are naturally held in the press whilst this -is being done. |76| - -[Illustration: Cut from Book “School of Arts,” 1750.] - -From a book, the “School of Arts,” third edition, 1750, which has a -chapter on marbling, the following, with cut, is taken:— - - “When thus you have your colours and all things in good order, then - take a pencil, or the end of a feather, and sprinkle or put first your - red colour; then the blue, yellow, green, etc. Begin your red from - No. 1, and go along your trough to No. 2, also the blue from No. 3, - all along to No. 4; the yellow and green put here and there in the - vacant places. Then with a bodkin or a small skewer draw a sort of a - serpentine figure through the colours, beginning from No. 1 to No. - 2; when this is done, then take your comb and draw the same straight - along from |77| No. 1 to No. 2. If you have some turnings or snail - work on your paper, then with a bodkin give the colours what turns you - please. (See the plate.) - - [Illustration: Leo’s Marbling Set.] - - “Thus far you are ready in order to lay on your paper, which must be - moistened the day before, in the same manner as book-printers do their - paper for printing; take a sheet at a time, lay it gently upon your - colours in the trough, press it slightly with your finger down in such - places where you find the paper lies hollow; this done, take hold at - one end of the paper, and draw it up at the other end of the trough; - hang it up to dry on a cord; when dry, glaze it, and it is done. - You may also embellish your paper with streaks of gold, by applying - mussel gold or silver, tempered with gum water, among the rest of the - colours.” - -This last paragraph shows that the gold vein which is now in such -demand is really over 150 years old. - -Messrs. Leo, of Stuttgart, have put together a complete marbling -apparatus, containing colours, gall, cups, combs, sticks, filter, -brushes, etc., the whole in a box. To a small country bookbinder this -is indispensable. - - -|78| - -CHAPTER XVII. - -GILT EDGES. - -A gilt edge is the most elegant of all modes of ornamenting edges, -and this branch of bookbinding has from time to time been so greatly -extended, that at the present day there are many ways in which a book -may have the edges gilt; but some methods are not pursued, either from -ignorance on the binder’s part, or with a view to save expense. - -First we have the “_plain gilt_,” then “_gilt in the round_”; then -again some colour under the gold, for instance, “_gilt on red_,” or -whatever the colour may be, red being mostly used, especially for -religious books. Some edges are “_tooled_,” and some have a gilt edge -with landscape or scene appropriate to the book painted on the edge, -only to be seen when the book is opened. “_Marbling under gilt_” may -also be used with good effect; but still better “_marbling on gilt_.” - -The room where gilt edge work is done should be neither dirty nor -draughty, and the necessary materials are:— - -_1st. The Gold Cushion._—This may be purchased ready for use, or if the -binder wishes to make one, it may be done by covering a piece of wood, -about 12 inches by 6, with a piece of white calf, the _rough side_ -outwards, and padding it with blotting paper and cloth. The pieces -underneath should be cut a little smaller than the upper one, so that -it will form a bevel at the edge, but quite flat on the top. The calf -to be neatly nailed all round the edge. If the pile of the leather is -too rough, it can be reduced with a piece of pumice stone, by rubbing -the stone on the calf with a circular motion. |79| - -_2nd. Gold Knife._—This should be a long knife of thin steel, the blade -about one to one and a half inch wide. - -_3rd. Burnishers._—These are made of agate stone, and can be purchased -of any size. A flat one, and two or three round ones, will be found -sufficient. They should have a very high polish. - -_4th. Glaire Water or Size._—The white of an egg and a tea-cup full -of water are well beaten together, until the albumen is perfectly -dissolved. It must then be allowed to stand for some hours to settle, -after which it should be strained through a piece of linen which has -been washed; old linen is therefore preferred to new. - -_5th. Scrapers._—Pieces of steel with the edge or burr made to turn up -by rubbing the edge flat over a bodkin or other steel instrument, so -that when applied to the edge a thin shaving of paper is taken off. The -beauty of gilding depends greatly on proper and even scraping. - -_6th. The Gold Leaf._—This is bought in books, the price according to -quality; most of the cheap gold comes from Germany. I recommend the use -of the best gold that can be had; it being in the end the cheapest, as -cheap gold turns black by the action of the atmosphere in course of -time. - -The method of preparing the gold[7] is by making an alloy: gold with -silver or copper. It is drawn out into a wire of about six inches in -length, and by being passed again between steel rollers is made into a -ribbon. This ribbon is then cut into squares and placed between vellum -leaves, about four or five inches square, and beaten with a hammer -somewhat like our beating hammer, until the gold has expanded to the -size of the vellum. The gold is again cut up into squares of about one -inch, and again |80| interleaved; but gold-beaters’ skin is now used -instead of vellum; and so by continual beating and cutting up, the -proper thickness is arrived at. If the gold is held up to the light, -it will be found to be beaten so thin that it is nearly transparent, -although when laid on any object it is of sufficient thickness to hide -the surface underneath. It has been estimated that the thickness of the -gold leaf is only 1/280000 of an inch. - - [7] Although this has practically nothing to do with the art - of bookbinding, it is always advisable for a workman to know - something about the tools and materials he uses. - -To gild the edges, the book should be put into the press straight and -on a level with the cheeks of the press between cutting boards, the -boards of the book being thrown back. The press should be screwed up -very tightly, and any projection of the cutting boards should be taken -away with a chisel. If the paper is unsized or at all spongy, the edge -should be sized and left to dry. This may be ascertained by wetting a -leaf with the tongue: if spongy, the moisture will sink through as in -blotting paper. The edge should be scraped quite flat and perfectly -even, care being taken to scrape every part equally, or one part of the -edge will be hollow or perhaps one side scraped down, and this will -make one square larger than the other. When scraped quite smoothly and -evenly, a mixture of black lead and thin glaire water is painted over -the edge, and with a hard brush it is well brushed until dry. - -The gold should now be cut on the gold cushion. Lift a leaf out of -the book with the gold knife, lay it on the gold cushion, and breathe -gently on the centre of the leaf to lay it flat; it can then be cut -with perfect ease to any size. The edge is now to be glaired evenly, -and the gold taken up with a piece of paper previously greased by -drawing it over the head. The gold is then gently laid on the edge, -which has been previously glaired. The whole edge or end being done, it -is allowed to get perfectly dry, which will occupy some two hours. - -[Illustration: Book-edge Burnishers.] - -Before using the burnisher on the gold itself, some gilders |81| -lay a piece of fine paper on the gold and gently flatten it with the -burnisher. Books are often treated in this manner, they then become -“dull gilt.” When intended to be bright, a waxed cloth should be gently -rubbed over the surface two or three times before using the burnisher. -The beauty of burnishing depends upon the edge presenting a solid and -uniform metallic surface, without any marks of the burnisher. The -manner of burnishing is to hold a flat burnisher, where the surface -is flat, firmly in the right hand with the end of the handle on the -shoulder, to get better leverage. Work the burnisher backwards and -forwards with a perfectly even pressure on every part. When both -ends are finished, the foredge is to be proceeded with, by making it -perfectly flat. It is better to tie the book, to prevent it slipping -back. The foredge is to be gilt exactly in the same manner as the ends; -it will of course return to its proper round when released from the -press. This is done with all books in the ordinary way, but if the book -is to have an extra edge, it is done “solid” or “in the round.” For -this way the book must be put into the press with its proper round, -without flattening it, and scraped in that position with scrapers -corresponding with the rounding. The greatest care must be taken in -this kind of scraping that the sides |82| are not scraped away, or the -squares will be made either too large or lop-sided. - -_Gilt on Red._—The edges are coloured by fanning them out as explained -in colouring edges, and when dry, gilt in the usual way; not quite -such a strong size will be wanted, through there being a ground in -the colour; nor must any black lead be used. The edges should in this -process be scraped first, then coloured and gilt in the usual way. - -_Tooled Edges._—The book is to be gilt as usual, then while in -the press stamped or worked over with tools that are of some open -character; those of fine work being preferable. Some design should be -followed out according to the fancy of the workman. The tools must be -warmed slightly so that the impression may be firm; the foredge should -be done first. Another method is to tool the edge before burnishing, or -the different portions of the tooling may be so managed in burnishing -that some parts will be left bright and standing in relief on the -unburnished or dead surface. - -_Painted Edges._—The edge is to fanned out and tied between boards, and -whilst in that position some landscape or other scene, either taken -from the book itself or appropriate to the subject of it, painted -on the foredge, and when quite dry it is gilt on the flat in the -usual manner. This work of course requires an artist well skilled in -water-colour drawing. The colours used must be more of a stain than -body colour, and the edges should be scraped first. - -After the edges have been gilt by any of the foregoing methods, the -rounding must be examined and corrected; and the book should be put -into the standing press for two or three hours, to set it. The whole of -the edges should be wrapped up with paper to keep them clean during the -remainder of the process of binding. This is called “capping up.” - - -|83| - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -HEAD-BANDING. - -Few binders work their own head-bands in these times of competition -and strikes for higher wages. It takes some time and pains to teach a -female hand the perfection of head-band working, and but too often, -since gratitude is not universal, the opportunity of earning a few -more pence per week is seized without regard to those at whose expense -the power of earning anything was gained, and the baffled employer is -wearied by constant changes. Owing to this, most bookbinders use the -machine-made head-band. These can be purchased of any size or colour, -at a moderate price. - -Head-banding done by hand is really only a twist of different coloured -cotton or silk round a piece of vellum or cat-gut fastened to the -back every half dozen sections. If the head-band is to be square or -straight, the vellum should be made by sticking with paste two or three -pieces together. Damp the vellum previously and put it under a weight -for a few hours to get soft. Vellum from old ledgers and other vellum -bound books is mostly used. The vellum when quite dry and flat is to -be cut into strips just a little under the width of the squares of the -books, so that when the book is covered, the amount of leather above -the head-band and the head-band itself will be just the size or height -of the square. - -If, however, a round head-band is chosen, cat-gut is taken on the same -principle with regard to size, and this is further advanced by using -two pieces of cat-gut, the one |84| being generally smaller than the -other, and making with the beading three rows. The round head-band is -the original head-band, and cord was used instead of cat-gut. The cords -were fastened to lay-cords on the sewing press, and placed at head and -tail, and the head-band was worked at the same time that the book was -sewn. I am now speaking of books bound about the 15th century; and in -pulling one of these old bindings to pieces, it will compensate for -the time occupied and the trouble taken, if the book be examined to -see how the head-band was worked, and how the head-band then formed -the catch-up stitch; the head-band cords were drawn in through the -boards, and thus gave greater strength to the book than the method used -at the present day. To explain how the head-band is worked is rather -a difficult task; yet the process is a very simple one. The great -difficulty is to get the silks to lie close together, which they will -not do if the twist or beading is not evenly worked. This requires time -and patience to accomplish. The hands must be clean or the silk will -get soiled; fingers must be smooth or the silk will be frayed. - -[Illustration: Head-banding.] - -Suppose, for instance, a book is to be done in two colours, red -and white. The head-band is cut to size, the |85| book is, for -convenience, held in a press, or a plough with the knife taken out, so -that the end to be head-banded is raised to a convenient height. The -ends of the silk or cotton are to be joined together, and one, say the -red, threaded through a strong needle. This is then passed through the -back of the book, at about the centre of the second section, commencing -on the left of the book. This must be passed through twice, and a loop -left. The vellum is put in this loop and the silk drawn tightly, the -vellum will then be held fast. The white is now to be twisted round the -red once, and round the head-band twice; the red is now to be taken in -hand and twisted round the white once, and the head-band twice; and -this is to be done until the whole vellum is covered. The needle must -be passed through the back at about every eight sections to secure the -head-band. The beading is the effect of one thread being twisted over -the other, and the hand must be kept exactly at the same tightness or -tension, for if pulled too tightly the beading will go underneath, or -be irregular. The fastening off is to be done by passing the needle -through the back twice, the white is then passed round the red and -under the vellum, and the ends are to be tied together. - -_Three Colours Plain._—This is to be commenced in the same way as with -two, but great care must be taken that the silks are worked in rotation -so as not to mix or entangle them. The silks must be kept in the left -hand, while the right twists the colour over or round, and as each is -twisted round the vellum it is passed to be twisted round the other -two. In fastening off, both colours must be passed round under the -vellum and fastened as with the two colour pattern. - -The head-bands may be worked intermixed with gold or silver thread, or -the one colour may be worked a number of times round the vellum, before -the second colour has |86| been twisted, giving it the appearance of -ribbons going round the head-band. - - * * * * * - -With regard to stuck-on head-bands, the binder may make them at little -expense, by using striped calico for the purpose. A narrow stripe is -to be preferred of some bright colour. The material must be cut into -lengths of about one-and-a-half inch wide, with the stripes across. -Cords of different thickness are then to be cut somewhat longer than -the calico, and a piece of the cord is to be fastened by a nail at one -end on a board of sufficient length. The calico is then to be pasted -and laid down on the board under the cord, and the cord being held -tightly may be easily covered with the striped calico, and rubbed with -a folder into a groove. - -When this is dry, the head and tail of the book is glued and the proper -piece of the head-band is put on. Or the head-band may be purchased, as -before stated, worked with either silk or cotton ready for fastening -on, from about 2_s._ 3_d._ to 4_s._ 6_d._ a piece of twelve yards, -according to the size required: it has, however, the disadvantage of -not looking so even as a head-band worked on the book. I have lately -seen some specimens of as good imitations of hand-worked ones as it is -possible for machinery to manufacture. - -After the head-band has been put on or worked, the book is to be “lined -up” or “made ready for covering.” - - -|87| - -CHAPTER XIX. - -PREPARING FOR COVERING. - -Nearly all modern books are bound with hollow backs, except where the -books are sewn for flexible work or otherwise meant to have tight backs. - -Much of the paper used at the present day is so hard, that the binder -is almost forced to make a hollow back, in order that the book may open. - -The head-band is first set with glue, if worked, by gluing the head and -tail, and with a folder the head-band is made to take the same form -as the back. This is to be done by holding the book in the left hand -with its back on the press, then a pointed folder held in the right -hand is run round the beading two or three times to form it; the silk -on the back is then rubbed down as much as possible to make all level -and even, and the book is allowed to dry. When dry it is put into the -lying press to hold it, and the back is well glued all over; some -paper, usually brown, is now taken, the same length as the book, put -on the back, and rubbed down well with a thick folder: a good sized -bone from the ribs of beef is as good as anything. The overplus of the -paper is now to be cut away from the back, except the part projecting -head and tail. A second coat of glue is now put on the top of the brown -paper and another piece is put on that, but not quite up to the edge on -the left hand side. When this is well rubbed down it is folded evenly -from the edge on the right side over to the left, the small amount of -glued space left will be found sufficient to hold it down; the top is -again glued |88| and again folded over from left to right, and cut -off level by folding it back and running a sharp knife down the fold. -This is what is generally termed “two on and two off,” being of course -two thicknesses of paper on the back and two for the hollow; but thin -or small books need only have one on the back and two for the hollow. -Thick or large books should have more paper used in proportion to their -size. Books that have been over-cast in the sewing should have rather -a strong lining-up, so that there be not such a strain when the book -is opened. When the whole is dry, the overplus of the paper, head and -tail, is to be cut off close to the head-band. - -I need hardly say that the better the paper used the more easy will be -the working of it. Old writing or copy-book paper will be found to be -as good as any, but good brown paper is, as I have said before, mostly -used. - -The book is now ready for putting the bands on. These are prepared -beforehand by sticking with glue two or three pieces of leather -together or on a piece of paper, well pressing it, and then allowing -it to dry under pressure. The paper must then be glued twice, allowing -each coat to dry before gluing again. It should then be put on one side -for future use, and when wanted, the proper thickness is chosen and -cut into strips of a width to correspond with the size of the book. -The book is now to be marked up, five bands being the number generally -used, leaving the tail a little longer than the other portions. The -strips of band are then to be moistened with a little hot water to -cause the glue upon the paper to melt. Each piece is then to be -fixed upon the back just under the holes made with the compasses in -marking-up. This will be found to be a far better plan than to first -cut the strips and then to glue them. By the latter plan the glue is -liable to spread upon the side, where it is not wanted, and if the book -has to be covered with light calf, it will certainly be stained black: -|89| so the coverer must be careful that _all glue is removed_ from -the back and sides before he attempts to cover any of his books with -calf. It is rather provoking to find some favourite colour when dry, -having a tortoiseshell appearance, which no amount of washing will take -out. When dry the ends of the bands are to be cut off with a _bevel_, -and a little piece of the boards from the corners nearest the back also -taken off on the bevel, that there may not be a sharp point to fret -through the leather when the book is opened. This is also necessary -so that the head-band may be properly set. A sharp knife should be -inserted between the hollow and should separate it from the back at -head and tail on each side so far as to allow the leather to be turned -in. Morocco may have the back glued, as it will not show through, and -will facilitate the adhesion of the leather. - -_Flexible Work._—This class of work is not lined up. The leather -is fastened directly upon the book; the head-band is set as before -explained, and held tight by gluing a piece of fine linen against it, -and when quite dry, the overplus is to be cut away, and the back made -quite smooth. The bands are then knocked up gently with a blunt chisel -to make them perfectly straight, being first damped and made soft with -a little paste to facilitate the working and to prevent the thread from -being cut. Any holes caused by sawing-in, in previous binding, must be -filled up with a piece of frayed cord, pasted. Any holes thus filled up -must be made quite smooth when dry, as the least unevenness will show -when the book is covered. - -In “throw up” backs, or in “flexible not to show,” a piece of thin -linen (muslin) or staff called _mull_ is glued on the back first, and -one piece of paper on the top. For the hollow, three, four, or even -five pieces are stuck one on the other, so that it may be firm; whilst -the book itself will be as if it had a flexible back. The bands, if -any, are then |90| to be fastened on, and the corners of the boards -cut off. It is then ready for covering. “Mock flexible” has generally -one piece of paper glued on the back, and when marked-up, the bands are -put on as before, and the book covered. - - -CHAPTER XX. - -COVERING. - -Books are covered according to the fancy of the binder or customer. The -materials used at the present day, are—leather of all sorts, parchment -or vellum, bookbinder’s cloth, velvet, needle-work, and imitation -leather, of which various kinds are manufactured, such as leatherette -and feltine. - -Each kind requires a different manner of working or manipulation. For -instance, a calf book must not be covered in the same manner as a -velvet one: I will take each in the above order and explain how they -are managed. - -Under the class of leather, we have moroccos of all kinds; russia; -calf, coloured, smooth, and imitation; roan, sheep, and imitation -morocco. - -[Illustration: French Paring Knife.] - -[Illustration: Method of Holding French Knife.] - -[Illustration: German Paring Knife.] - -The _morocco_ cover, indeed any leather cover, is to be cut out by -laying the skin out on a flat board, and having chosen the part or -piece of the skin to be used, the book is laid on it and the skin is -cut with a sharp knife round the book, leaving a space of about 3/4 -of an inch for an 8vo, and more or less according to the size of the -book and thickness of board for turning in. The morocco |91| cover -should now have marked upon it with a pencil the exact size of the book -itself, by laying the book on the cover, and running the point of a -black lead pencil all round it. The leather must then be “pared,” or -shaved round the edges, using the pencil marks as a guide. This paring -process is _not_ so difficult, especially if a French knife is used, -such as may now be purchased at most material dealers. The chief point -being that a very sharp edge is to be kept on the knife, and that the -_burr_ is on the cutting edge. The knife is to be held in the right -hand, placing two fingers on the top with the thumb underneath. The -leather must be placed on a piece of marble, lithographic stone, or -thick glass, and held tightly strained between finger and thumb of the -left hand. Then by a series of pushes from the right hand, the knife -takes off more or less according to the angle given. The burr causes -the knife to enter the leather; if the burr is turned up the knife -will not cut but run off. If the knife is held too much at an angle -it will go right through the leather, a rather unpleasant experience, -and one to be carefully avoided. The leather should from time to time -be examined, by turning it over, to see if any unevenness appears, for -every cut will show. Especial attention should be given to where the -edges of the board go. The turning in at the head and tail should be -pared off as thin as possible, as there will be twice as much thickness -of leather on the back where turned in, the object of this care being, -that it must not be seen. The _morocco_ |92| cover should now be -wetted well, and grained up by using either the hand or a flat piece -of cork. This is to be done by gently curling it up in all directions; -and when the grain has been brought up properly and sufficiently, the -leather should be pasted on the flesh side with thin paste, and hung up -to dry. Should the leather be “straight grain,” it must only be creased -in the one direction of the grain, or if it is required to imitate any -old book that has no grain, the leather should be wetted as much as -possible, and the whole of the grain rubbed out by using a rolling pin -with even pressure. - -[Illustration: Method of Holding Ordinary Knife.] - -The Morocco leather first brought from _that_ country, had a peculiar -grain, and was dyed with very bright colours. It is now largely -manufactured in London and Paris; the French manufacture is the finest. -Russia and calf require no setting up of the grain, but russia should -be well rolled out with the rolling pin. - -When the cover (morocco) is dry, it is to be well pasted, the squares -of the book set, so that each side has its proper portion of board -projecting. The book is then laid down evenly on the cover, which -must be gently drawn on; the back is drawn tight by placing the book -on its foredge and drawing the skin well down over it. The sides are -next drawn tight, and the bands pinched well up with a pair of _band -nippers_. The four corners of the leather |93| are cut off with a -sharp knife in a slanting direction, a little paste put on the cut -edge, and the operation of turning in may be commenced. The book must -be held on its edge, either head or tail, with a small piece of paper -put close to the head-band to prevent any paste soiling the edge or -head-band, and with the boards extended, the hollow is pulled a little -away from the back and the leather neatly tucked in. The leather is -next to be tightly brought over the boards and well rubbed down, both -on the edge and inside, with a folding stick, but on no account must -the outside be rubbed, or the grain will be taken away. The foredge is -to be treated in like manner, by tucking the corners in for strength. -The head-band is now to be set, by tying a piece of thread round the -book between the back and the boards in the slots cut out from the -corners of the boards; this thread must be tied in a knot. The book -being held in the left hand, resting on its end, the leather is drawn -with a pointed folding-stick, as it were, towards the foredge, and -flattened on the top of the head-band. When this is done properly it -should be exactly even with the boards, and yet _cover_ the head-band, -leaving that part of the head-band at right angles with the edge -exposed. With a little practice the novice may be able to ascertain -what amount of leather is to be left out from the turning-in, so that -the head-band can be neatly covered. The perfection in covering a book -depends upon the leather being worked sharp round the boards, but with -the grain almost untouched. - -[Illustration: Band Nippers.] - -Paste should be always used for morocco, calf, russia and vellum, in -fact for all kinds of leather; but in my humble opinion, all leather -with an artificial grain should be glued; the turning-in may be -with paste. The glue gives more |94| body to the leather, and thus -preserves the grain. _White_ morocco should be covered with paste -made _without any alum_, which causes it to turn _yellow_, and if the -leather is washed with lemon juice instead of vinegar when finishing, -the colour will be much improved. - -_Russia_ is to be pared in the same way as morocco. It should be -damped, and rolled with a rolling-pin before covering, or stretched out -with a thick folding-stick. - -_Calf_, either coloured or white, need be pared only round the -head-band. Calf should be covered with paste and the book washed when -covered with a clean damp sponge. In putting two books together, when -bound in calf of two different colours, a piece of paper should be -placed between, as most colours stain each other, especially green. -Care should be taken to handle calf as little as possible whilst wet, -and touching it with iron tools, such as knives and band nippers, will -cause a black stain. Morocco will bear as much handling as you like, -but the more tenderly calf is treated the better. - -_Vellum or Parchment._—The boards should be covered with white paper, -to avoid any darkness of the board showing through. The vellum or -parchment should be pared head and tail, and the whole well pasted and -allowed to stand for a short time so that it be well soaked and soft. -The book should then be covered, but the vellum must not on any account -be stretched much, or it will, when dry, draw the boards up to a most -remarkable extent. It will perhaps be better if the book be pressed, -to make the vellum adhere better. The old binders took great pains in -covering their white vellum books. The vellum was lined carefully with -white paper and dried before covering: this in some degree prevented -the vellum from shrinking so much in drying, and enabled the workman to -give the boards a thin and even coat of glue, which was allowed to dry -before putting on the covering. |95| - -_Roan_ should be covered with glue and turned in with paste. Head and -tail only need be pared round the head-band. - -_Cloth_ is covered by gluing the cover all over and turning in at once: -gluing one cover at a time, and finishing the covering of each book -before touching the next. - -Smooth cloth, cloth with no grain, may be covered with paste: great -care must be taken that no paste be on the fingers, or the cloth will -be marked very badly when dry. - -_Velvet_ should be covered with clean glue not too thick; first glue -the _back_ of the book and let that set before the sides are put down. -The sides of the _book_ should next be glued, and the velvet laid down, -and turned in with glue. The corners should be very carefully cut or -they will not meet, or cover properly when dry. When the whole is dry -the pile may be raised, should it be finger marked, by holding the book -over steam, and if necessary by carefully using a brush. - -_Silk and Satin_ should be lined first with a piece of thin paper -cut to the size of the book. The paper must be glued with thin clean -glue, rubbed down well on to the silk, and allowed to get dry, before -covering the book. When dry, cover it as with velvet. - - * * * * * - -Dr. Dibdin, whose knowledge of libraries and great book collectors must -stamp him as an authority, says that:— - -“The general appearance of one’s library is by no means a matter -of mere foppery or indifference: it is a sort of cardinal point, -to which the tasteful collector does well to attend. You have a -right to consider books, as to their outsides, with the eye of a -painter; because this does not militate against the proper use of the -contents. . . . . Be sparing of red morocco or vellum, they have each so -|96| distinct, or what painters call spotty, an appearance, that they -should be introduced but circumspectly.” - -I cannot agree entirely with the Doctor with regard to being sparing -with the red morocco. A library without colour is dark, dreary, -and repulsive. The library should be one of the most inviting and -cheery rooms in a house, and even if one cannot aspire to a room -entirely devoted to literature and study, let the bookcase, whatever -its position or however humble, be made as cheerful and inviting as -possible. What colour will do this so well as red? But it should be -judiciously dispersed with other colours. - -If some standard colour were chosen for each subject, one might -recognize from some little distance the nature of the book by its -colour. For instance, all books relating to Military matters might be -in bright red; Naval affairs in blue; Botany in green; History in dark -red; Poetry in some fancy colour, such as orange, light blue, light -green, or olive, according to its subject; Divinity in dark brown; -Archæology in dull red, and Law in white as at present. This would give -a pleasing variety, and a light and cheerful appearance to a library. - -An imitation russia leather is imported from America, of far greater -strength than the real. It is made from buffalo skins, and tanned in -the same way as the russia hides. This fact, combined with the price, -has doubtless caused this material to be received with favour in the -English market. It is to be had from nearly all leather sellers. - - * * * * * - -_Half-bound Work._—The title speaks for itself, the book has its back, -a part of the sides, and the corners covered with leather. The sides -are, after the leather is perfectly dry, covered either with cloth or -paper according to fancy, turned over the boards as with leather. The -book is then to be pasted down. Before the paper is put on the sides, -|97| all unevenness of the leather is to be pared away. This style has -gained its reputation very much on account of its economy; the amount -of leather required is less, and the work is as strong and serviceable -as in a whole-bound book. It will be better if the back be finished -before the corners are put on, as there is great likelihood that the -corners may get damaged to some extent during the process of finishing. -The outside paper may either match the colour of the leather, or be -the same as the edge or end papers. This, like many other rules in -bookbinding, is quite a matter of taste. - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -PASTING DOWN. - -This is to cover up the inside board by pasting down the end papers to -the boards. - -The white or waste leaf, that has till this process protected the end -papers, must now be taken away or torn out. The joint of the board must -be cleaned of any paste or glue that may have accumulated there during -the course of either gluing up or covering, by passing the point of a -sharp knife along it, so that when the end is pasted down, the joint -will be quite straight and perfectly square. Morocco books should be -filled in with a smooth board or thick paper, the exact substance of -the leather. This thickness must be carefully chosen, and one edge -be cut off straight, and fastened to the inside of the board very -slightly, in fact only touching it in the centre with a little glue or -paste, just sufficient to hold it temporarily. It must be |98| flush -with the back-edge of the board. When dry, this paper or board is to -be marked with a compass about half an inch round, and both paper and -leather cut through at the same cut with a sharp knife. The overplus -board will fall off and the outside of the leather may be easily -detached by lifting it up with a knife. The paper or board, which will -now fit in exactly, should be glued and well rubbed down with a folding -stick, or it may be pressed in the standing press if the grain of the -morocco is to be polished, but not otherwise. - -As morocco books only have morocco joints, I may as well explain at -once how they are made. Morocco of the same colour is cut into strips -the same length as the book, and about one inch and a half in breadth -for 8vo.; a line is drawn or marked down each strip about half an -inch from one edge, either with a pencil or folder, as a guide. The -leather is now to be pared from the mark made to a thin edge on the -half inch side, and the other side pared as thin as the leather turned -in round the board, so that there will be two distinct thicknesses on -each piece, the larger half going on the board to correspond with the -leather round the three sides, and the smaller and thinly pared half -going in the joint and edge on to the book. The end papers, only held -in with a little paste, are to be lifted out from the book, and the -leather well pasted is to be put on the board, so that the place where -the division is made in the leather by paring will come exactly to the -edge of the board; the thin part should then be well rubbed down in the -joint, and the small thin feather edge allowed to go on the book. - -Great care must be taken to rub the whole down well, that it may adhere -properly; the grain need not be heeded. With regard to the overplus at -the head and tail, there are two ways of disposing of it: first, by -cutting both leathers slanting through at once, and making the two |99| -meet; or, secondly, by cutting the cover away in a slant and doing the -same to the joint, so that the two slant cuts cover each other exactly. -This requires very nice paring, or it will be seen in the finishing. -The book should be left till quite dry, which will take some five or -six hours. The boards are then to be filled in by the same method as -above described, and the end papers fastened in again properly. - -_Cloth Joints._—If the cloth has been fastened in when the ends were -made, after cleaning all unevenness from the joints, the boards are to -be filled in as above, and the cloth joint stuck down with thin glue, -and rubbed down well. The marble paper may now be put on the board by -cutting it to a size a little larger than the filling in of the board, -so that it may be well covered. When cloth joints are put in, the board -paper is generally brought up almost close to the joint; but with -morocco joints, the space left all round should be even. - -_Calf, Russia, etc._—After having cleaned the joint, the leather must -be marked all round a trifle larger than the size intended for the end -papers to cover. Then with a knife, the leather is cut through in a -_slanting direction_ by holding the knife slanting. The boards should -be thrown back to protect the leather, and the book placed on a board -of proper size, so that both book and board may be moved together, -when turning round. When the leather is cut, a piece of paper should -be pasted on the board to fill up to the thickness of the leather, -and to curve or swing the board back; the boards otherwise are sure -to curve the contrary way, especially with calf. When this lining is -dry, the end papers may be pasted down. As there are two methods of -doing this, I give the most exact but longest first. The paper is to be -pasted all over, and being held in the left hand, is to be well rubbed -down, particularly in the joint. The paper is then marked all round—the -head, foredge, |100| and tail, with a pair of compasses to the width -required for finishing inside the board. With a very sharp knife the -paper is to be cut through to the _depth_ of the _paper only_, by -laying the straight edge on the marks made by the compasses. This has -the advantage of procuring an exact margin round the board, but it must -be done quickly or the paper will stick to the leather round the board -from the paste getting dry, the leather absorbing the watery particles -in the paste. - -The other way is to lay the paper back, and down on the board, and then -to mark it. A tin is then to be placed between the book and paper, -and the paper cut to the marks made. The paper is then pasted down as -above. When pasted down, the book should be left standing on its end, -with boards left open until thoroughly dry, which will be about six -hours. A tin should be kept especially for cutting on, and the knife -must be as sharp as possible. This latter method is used for all half -bindings. - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -CALF COLOURING. - -Although coloured calf-skins may be bought almost as cheaply as smooth -calf (the term given to uncoloured ones), yet there are so many reasons -why coloured calf should not be used, that I give such instructions as -will enable any one to colour, sprinkle, and marble his own leather. - -The skins may, however, be procured already sprinkled or marbled at -most leather shops. This plan of sprinkling and marbling the whole -skin is good enough for cheap or |101| half-bound work, but for extra -work it is far better to sprinkle, marble, or otherwise colour the -leather when on the book. Hand-colouring is coming again into use, -and by degrees getting known more and more throughout the trade; but -a great many secrets in the art have been lost. Before giving the -names of the chemicals to be used, I must give a general caution, that -if any acid be used on the leather, it is essential to wash as much -as possible of it out with water _immediately after it has done its -work_, or after a few months the surface of the leather will be found -to be eaten away and destroyed. It is a fault of some of our binders -at the present day, that if they use any chemical, either on their -leather or on their paper, they are not satisfied to use their acid -weak, and allow it to do its work slowly, and when the proper moment -has arrived stop its further action, they frequently use the acids as -strong as possible, and, either to save time or through ignorance of -their chemical properties, do not wash out the residue. The consequence -is, the leather or the paper rots. In order to avoid this, I will -not recommend any chemicals that will destroy the leather, but give -instructions for harmless preparations, by the use of which as great a -variety of different styles may be executed as will, I trust, satisfy -any reasonable expectation. - -_Black._—Sulphate of iron or copperas is the chief ingredient in -colouring calf black. Used by itself, it gives a greyish tint, but if a -coat of salts of tartar or other alkali be previously used it strikes -immediately a rich purple black. The name copperas is probably from the -old and mistaken idea that the crystals contain copper. They have a -pale greenish blue colour. It can be purchased at the rate of one penny -per pound from any drysalter. - -1. Into a quart of boiling water, throw a 1/4-lb. of sulphate of iron, -let it re-boil, and stand to settle, and then bottle the clear liquid -for use. |102| - -2. Boil a quart of vinegar with a quantity of old iron nails or steel -filings for a few minutes. Keep this in a stone jar, and use the clear -liquid. This can from time to time be boiled again with fresh vinegar. -An old iron pot must be kept for boiling the black. - -_Brown._—1. Dissolve a 1/4-lb. of salts of tartar in a quart of boiling -water, and bottle it for use. - -This liquid is mostly used for colouring; it has a very mellow tone, -and is always used before the black when a strong or deep colour is -required. It is poisonous, and must not be used too strong on the calf -or it will corrode it. - -2. For a plain brown dye, the green shells of walnuts may be used. They -should be broken as much as possible, mixed with water, and allowed to -ferment. This liquid should then be strained and bottled for use. A -pinch of salt thrown in will help to keep it. This does not in any way -corrode the leather, and produces the best uniform tint. - -_Yellow._—1. Picric acid dissolved in water forms one of the sharpest -yellows. It is a pale yellow of an intense bitter taste. It must not -be mixed with any alkali in a dry state, as it forms a very powerful -explosive compound. It is a dangerous chemical and should be carefully -used. It may be bottled for use. - -2. Into a bottle put some turmeric powder, and mix well with methylated -spirit; the mixture must be shaken occasionally for a few days until -the whole of the colour is extracted. This is a very warm yellow, and -produces a very good shade when used after salts of tartar. - - * * * * * - -For all the following, a preparation or ground of paste-water must -be put on the calf, that the liquids may not sink through too much. -The calf must be paste-washed all over equally, and allowed to get -thoroughly dry. It will then be ready for the various methods. Perhaps -to wash it over night and let it stand till next morning will |103| be -the best and surest plan. It matters very little whether the calf is on -the book or in the skin. - -_Sprinkles._—There are so many sprinkles, that it would be useless for -me to enumerate a number, they are all worked in the same manner, by -throwing the colour on finely or coarsely, as it may be wanted light or -dark. - -Presuming that the paste or ground-wash be thoroughly dry, take liquid -salts of tartar and dilute with cold water, one part salts to two of -water, in a basin; wash the calf with this liquid evenly, using a soft -sponge. The calf will require the wash to be applied two or three -times, until a proper and uniform tint be obtained. Each successive -wash must be allowed to get thoroughly dry before the next be applied. - -The next process will be to sprinkle the book, with the boards extended -or open. Two pieces of flat wood, about three feet long, four inches in -width, and half an inch thick, will be found very useful for supporting -the book. These rods must be supported at each end, so that the book -may be suspended between them, with the boards resting on the rods -nearly horizontally. Now put into a round pan some of the copperas -fluid, and into another some of the solution of salts of tartar. Use -a pretty large brush for each pan, which brush must be kept each for -its own fluid. The sprinkling may be commenced. The brushes being -well soaked in the fluids, should be well beaten out, using a piece -of broomstick or a hand pin to beat on before beating over the book, -unless a coarse sprinkle is desired. Whilst beating over the book, the -hands should be held up high, and also moved about, so that a fine and -equal spray may be distributed; and this should be continued until the -desired depth of colour is attained. - -This may be varied by putting some geometrical design, cut out of thin -mill-board, on the cover; or if the book is on any special subject, the -subject itself put on the cover |104| will have a very pretty effect, -and may be made emblematical. A fern or other leaf for botanical work -as an instance. The sprinkle must in these cases be very fine and dark -for the better effect. The leaf or design being lifted from the cover -when the sprinkle is dry, will leave the ground dark sprinkle with a -light brown leaf or design. _Cambridge calf_ is done in this way by -cutting a square panel of mill-board out and laying it on the sides. -The square on the cover may be left brown or may be dabbed with a -sponge. - -_Marbles._—As the success of marbling depends upon the quickness with -which it is executed, it is important that the colours, sponges, -brushes and water, should be previously disposed in order and at hand, -so that any of them can be taken up instantly. Another point to which -attention must be directed is the amount of colour to be thrown on, and -consequently the amount that each brush should contain. If too much -colour (black) is thrown on, the result will be an invisible marble, -or, as I once heard it expressed by a workman, “it could not be seen on -account of the fog;” if too little, no matter how nicely the marble is -formed, it will be weak and feeble. - -Marbling on leather is produced by small drops of colouring liquids, -drawn, by the flowing of water down an inclined plane, into veins and -spread into fantastic forms resembling foliage—hence, often called -_tree-marble_. It is a process that requires great dexterity of hand -and perfect coolness and decision, as the least hurry or want of -judgment will ruin the most elaborate preparation. - -To prepare the book paste-wash it evenly all over, and to further -equalize the paste-water, pass the palm of the hand over the board -after washing it. When dry, wash over with a solution of salts of -tartar two or three times to get the desired tint. When dry, glaire the -whole as even as possible, and to diminish the froth that the sponge -may |105| occasion, put a few drops of milk into the glaire. Again -allow it to dry thoroughly. Put some fresh copperas into a pan, and -some solution of salts of tartar into another, and soak each brush in -its liquid. Place the book upon the rods, the boards extending over and -the book hanging between. Should it be desired to let the marble run -from back to foredge the back must be elevated a little, and the rods -supporting the boards must be level from end to end. If the marble is -to run from head to tail, elevate the ends of the rods nearest to the -head of the book. The elevation must be very slight or the water will -run off too quickly. - -Place a pail of water close at hand, in it a sponge to wash off; and -a bunch of birch to throw the water with. A little soda should be -added to soften the water. Charge each brush well, and knock out the -superfluous colour until a fine spray comes from it. A little oil -rubbed in the palm of the hand, and the brush well rubbed into it, will -greatly assist the flow of colour from the brush, and also prevent the -black colour from frothing. Throw some water over the cover in blotches -with the birch, just sufficient to make them unite and flow downwards -together. Now sprinkle some black by beating the black brush on a press -pin, as evenly and as finely as possible. When sufficient has been -thrown on, beat the brown in like manner over the extended boards. When -the veins are well struck into the leather, sponge the whole well with -clean water. Have no fear in doing this as it will not wash off. Then -set the book up to dry. - -_Tree-marbles._—The cover is to be prepared and sprinkled in the same -manner as stated in marbling; the boards, however, must be bent a -little, and a little water applied by a sponge in the centre of each -board to give the necessary flow of water; when the water is thrown on, -it will flow towards the centre or lowest part of the boards, and when -the sprinkle is thrown on, a _tree_, as it were, will be |106| formed. -The centre being white forms the stem, and from it branches will be -formed by the gradual flow of the streams of water as they run down. - -For marbling, every thing must be ready at hand before any water is -thrown on, so that the water may not have time to run off before the -colour is applied. The water must run at the same time that the spray -is falling, or a failure will be the result. - -It has been said that marbling was discovered by an accident; that a -country bookbinder was sprinkling some books, when a bird, which was -hung up in the shop, threw or splashed some water down on his books; -the water running, took some of the colour with it and formed veins. -Liking the form it gave, the workman improved upon it and thus invented -marbling. There is, however, no doubt that it had its origin in Germany. - -Tree calf seems to be coming into general use again, and to meet the -demand for cheapness, a wood block has been cut resembling as closely -as possible one done by the water process, and blocked in black on the -calf; but, as might have been expected, it has not found much favour. - -_Dabs._—This is a process with a sponge, charged with the black or -the brown liquid, dabbed on the calf either all over the cover or in -successive order. Give the proper preparation to the calf, and be very -careful that the ground tint of brown be very even. Take a sponge of -an open nature, so that the grain is pleasant to the eye; fill it with -black and squeeze out again, now dab it carefully over the calf. Repeat -the operation with another sponge charged with brown. Cat’s paw, French -dab, and other various named operations all emanate from the sponge. -When done properly this has a very good effect, and gives great relief -to the eye when placed with a number of other books. - -All these marbles and sprinkles require practice, so that |107| a -first failure must not be regarded with discouragement. When one’s -hand has got into the method with these two or three colours it is -astonishing how many different styles may be produced. In all this -manipulation a better effect is obtained if a yellow tint be washed -over the leather after the sprinkle or marble has been produced. Again, -by taking _coloured calf_ and treating it in the same manner as white, -some very pleasant effects are brought out; and when the colours are -well chosen the result is very good. Take for instance a green calf and -marble a tree upon it, or take a light slate colour and dab it all over -with black and brown. - -In all operations with the copperas care must be taken that it does not -get on the clothes, as it leaves an iron stain that cannot be easily -got rid of. Keep a bason for each colour, and when done with wash it -out with clean water. The same with the sponges: keep them as clean -as possible; have a sponge for each colour, and use it only for that -colour. A piece of glass to put the sponges on will be of great use, -and prevent the work-table or board from catching any of the colour. A -damp book or damp paper laid on a board that has been so stained will -most probably be damaged, even though it has waste paper between the -work-board and book. No amount of washing will ever take away such a -stain. - -When the book has been coloured, the edges and inside are to be blacked -or browned according to taste, or in keeping with the outside. The book -is then ready for finishing. - -Some very good results may be obtained if the binder, using coloured -calf of a light brown, treats it as if it were white calf, marbling -with the usual colours; or a yellow calf, splashing it all over with -salts of tartar only, the boards being placed in a slanting direction -to allow the colour to gently run down. |108| - -Or the whole of a cover may be blacked with tartar and copperas, then -with a diluted solution of acid it may be sprinkled, this will give -grey-white spots on black or slate ground: if, after washing, the cover -be sponged over with some colouring liquid, such as analine dyes, the -spots will be of the colour used. - - * * * * * - -I do not give many methods or receipts for producing colours for calf, -because, as before stated, the introduction of fancy calf has rendered -obsolete the old-fashioned way of boiling and preparing the different -woods for making colours, and the above will be found useful for -colouring calf in many different ways. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PART II. - -FINISHING. - - -[Illustration: RENAISSANCE. - -Roy folio. - -T. Way, Photo-Lith.] - - -|111| - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -FINISHING. - -Finishing is the art of embellishing the covers of books with different -designs. Finishing comprises the embellishment of the covers either -with blind work, gold, silver or platina leaf, or with metal ornaments -fastened through the boards, or by only a lettering on the back of the -book. - -The art of finishing does not comprise any embellishment done with -the “blocking press.” Therein the art is more that of the block or -tool cutter, who, working in concert with the artist who drew the -design, cuts the metal accordingly. The binder’s use of these blocks is -mechanical only. - -The monks who cultivated all the arts, and enriched their _Hours_ and -their _Missals_ with marvellous miniatures, gave great zeal to the -occupation of binding. So charmingly were the bindings ornamented with -tools and small blocks reproduced from the text, that we must regret -that so few of these monastic bindings are now left to us. - -A great number of these books were executed in Germany, where this -mode of decoration remained a long time in use; and we find that other -countries borrowed from the printer this primitive mode of decoration. -As the art progressed the binder’s mark was impressed on the cover as -an ornament, or as a distinction, such as we find at the present day at -the end or after the title of books to denote by what printer the work -was executed. Later on, when the Renaissance shone in all its glory and -beauty, we find that it freed itself from this limited practice. A new -mode |112| of decoration came into use, which we may well study, even -at the present day; a style at once rich and varied. If we follow the -bold interlacing lines which form the skeletons of those infinite and -varied designs, we catch the imaginative caprices of their authors; and -the details of their transformation gives us a guide to the different -schools and art of their time. The execution of these linear designs -is extremely difficult. It can be easily seen that they have not been -done by a block engraved in one piece, but with small segments.[8] The -art of putting together these small pieces, so as to form one complete -and artistic pattern, is the skill of the _finisher_. Many books are -now finished by means of the blocking press; but on close examination, -these imitations may be readily distinguished. A blocked cover never -has the life and spirit that a hand-finished one has. Of blocking I -must speak in subsequent pages. - - [8] There are a few exceptions to this on a few old books of - 12mo. size. One may now and then see such designs worked in one - piece certainly by a block. - -[Illustration: Monastic Tools.] - -[Illustration: ANTIQUE WITH GOLD LINE. - -Imperial 8^{vo}. - -T. Way, Photo Lith.] - -[Illustration: Venetian.] - -[Illustration: Grolier.] - -These intrinsic designs were very much used by the |113| binders -contemporary with _Grolier_, and the use of lined or azuré tools are a -distinctive mark of the period. This is the connecting link with the -Italian bindings. It will be observed that the Italian or Venetian -tools are solid, while in the other style the tools, although of the -same shape, are lined or azuré. A little later on other artists, not -satisfied with this modification, dispensed with the |114| fine cross -lines, and retained their outlines only. France, during the reign of -Henry II., left Italy far behind, and executed those grand compositions -of _Diane_ bindings. They are marvellous subjects, and are sometimes -imitated at the present day, but are never surpassed in their wonderful -originality. - -[Illustration: Le Gascon.] - -[Illustration: DEROME. - -4^{to} - -T. Way, Photo-lith.] - -After these masterpieces we find the curious bindings of Henry III., -which instantly mark a distinct transformation. The interlacings are -less bold and free, but more geometrically traced. The absence of -filling in with small tools gives a coldness, which is increased by a -heavy coat of arms on the sides. This form of decoration exercised a -great influence, and from this epoch another school sprung up. Later -on in time these interlacings served as a ground plan only for the -brilliant fantasies of _Le Gascon_, a master who no doubt has had the -least number of imitators. Although he followed and to a certain extent -kept the shapes, the aspect of his bindings was very much changed -by the application of pointed tools. _Le Gascon_ rests for ever as -the most renowned master of the 16th century. The number of tools -necessary for the execution of a composition like one of _Le Gascon’s_ -is large; and when one considers that these tools are repeated, -perhaps a thousand |115| times on each side of the book, a fair -idea may be formed of the magnitude of such a work. I am of opinion -that _Le Gascon_ brought bookbinding to its highest point of richness -and finish. His drawings are always pure and correct; his squares, -lozenges, triangles, and ovals are so brought together as to form a -series of compartments interlacing the one within the other, with an -incomparable boldness and perfect harmony; above all, one must remark -with what richness the compartments are filled. There is no doubt the -ground work of the style was _Grolier_, but he never filled his panels -with such richness or with such taste as that displayed by _Le Gascon_. -The difficulty of adapting such designs to the different sizes of books -has no doubt deterred the various masters from imitating such works, -so that we see less of _Le Gascon’s_ style than of any other ancient -master. - -[Illustration: Derome.] - -From _Le Gascon’s_ period the tools became thicker and thicker, until -we have the heavy tools of _Derome_, which are much in keeping for -books of a serious character. They are original in shape, but their -employment was only in borders, leaving the centre of the book free -from ornament. |116| I do not pretend to give a history of the various -masters, but rather a practical description of the art of bookbinding. -Much has already been written about the various works executed by these -grand old masters; my endeavour has been to show, that whilst the -various masters of the art of bookbinding worked with tools but little -altered from their original forms, they so modified and changed them -in their character and use, as to form a distinctive mark of style for -each artist, by which his work may be recognized. - -A pamphlet, published in Paris, 1878, says: “One of the branches of -artistic industry in which France possesses unquestionable superiority -is certainly bookbinding; the International Exhibitions, and still -more the sales of private or other collections, have each day given -evident proof of this. Italy, which initiated herself so perfectly in -the Renaissance style, and Holland, once her rival in the 17th century, -have long ceased to produce any work worthy of remark; everywhere books -are being bound, but the ‘art’ of bookbinding is practised only in -France.” - -I cannot agree with its authors that one must go to France now to have -a book bound properly. The method of bookbinding is quite differently -managed and worked there than it is here. I have witnessed both -methods, and prefer the English one as being more substantial. - -HAND-FINISHING.—We were first taught to work the gold leaf on books by -a method not now employed, except, perhaps, by a novice, who wishes to -get his books done before his glaire has dried. This method was to damp -the cover well with water, either with a wet sponge or by other means. -The gold leaf was then laid on, and the tool worked rather warm on the -gold. Through the heat or steam generated the gold was burnt in, and -the overplus washed off with a damp sponge or rag, the gold being left -only in the impressions. If, however, any block or centre |117| was -used, it was impressed with heat upon the side in a small lying press -in use at the period. This press was known then as an _arming press_, -because used commonly for impressing armorial bearings and monograms on -the sides. The term arming press is still used for the lighter kinds of -blocking presses. - -Hand-finishing, as before stated, is really an _art_. The finisher -should be able to draw, or at least have some knowledge of composition, -and also know something about the harmony of colours. The workman -not having any knowledge of drawing cannot expect to be a good -finisher; because he cannot possibly produce any good designs, or by -a combination of the small tools form a perfect and correct pattern. -Taste has no small influence in the success of the workman in this -branch of the art. It is better to finish books plainly, rather than -put on the least portion of gold more than is necessary. If the -intentions of the books’ owner is to put some special style or design -into his bookcase, it will be well to think over the various styles -before deciding upon any particular one. Before going thoroughly into -the working details a few preliminary words may be permitted. - -Let the tools be always in keeping with the book, both in size and -character. Large ones should be used only on a large book, and those of -less size for smaller works. A book on Natural History should have a -bird, insect, shell, or other tool indicative of the contents. A flower -should be used on works on Botany, and all other works be treated in -the same emblematical manner; so that the nature of the book may be -understood by a glance at the back. In lettering, see that the letters -are of a size proportionate to the book—legible, but not too bold. -They should neither be so large as to prevent the whole of the title -being read at one view, nor so small as to present a difficulty in -ascertaining the subject of a book when on the shelf. |118| Amongst a -large number of books there should be an agreeable variety of styles, -so that the effect may be in harmony with the colours around, and -produce as pleasing a contrast as possible. - -[Illustration: Type-holder.] - -[Illustration: Pallet.] - -[Illustration: Fillet.] - -_Tools and Materials required for Finishing._—_Rolls_, _fillets_, -_pallets_, centre and corner tools of every possible class and -character; type of various sizes for the lettering of books or labels. -The type may be either of brass or of the usual printer’s metal; if the -latter be chosen, care must be taken that it be not left at the fire -too long, or it will melt. Type-holders to hold the type, which are -made to fit the respective sizes are necessary, but one or two with a -spring side, adjusted by screw at the side, will be found convenient -for any sized type. In England it is the custom to letter books with -_hand letters_, each letter being separate and fixed in a handle. I -have, however, little doubt that these will in time be laid aside, and -that the type and type case will be found in every bookbinder’s shop. - -_Polishing irons._ Of these two are necessary—one for the sides and one -for the backs. There is generally a third |119| kept for polishing -the board end papers when pasted down, which should be kept for this -purpose only. - -[Illustration: Polishing Iron.] - -_A gold-rag_, to wipe off the surplus gold from the back or side of a -book. It should have a little oil well worked into it, so that when it -has been wiped over the back or side the gold may adhere and remain in -it. This rag when full of gold will be of a dirty yellow, and may then -be melted down by any of the gold-refiners and the waste gold recovered. - -_India-rubber_, cut up very small—the smaller the better—and steeped -in turpentine, so as to render it as soft as possible, to be used for -clearing away any gold not taken off by the gold-rag. This should also -be melted down when full.[9] - - [9] Messrs. Cow and Co., Cheapside, have lately prepared my - rubber ready for use. I find it of great convenience. - -_Gold-cushion_, for use as explained in Chapter XVII. - -_Gold leaf._ The best should be used, it keeps its colour better, and -is much more easy to work than the commoner metal usually sold. - -_Sponges_, both large and small—the large ones for paste-washing, the -smaller for glairing and sizing. - -_Glaire_ may be purchased already prepared, or it may be made from the -white of egg, which must be very carefully beaten up to a froth with -an egg whisk. In breaking the egg care must be taken not to let any of -the yolk get amongst the white. A little vinegar should be mixed with -the white before beating up, and a drop of ammonia, or a grain or two -of common table salt, or a small piece of camphor, will in some measure -prevent it from turning putrid, |120| as it is liable to do. Some -workmen always have a stock of “good old glaire,” as they term it, by -them, fancying that it produces better work, but this is a mistaken -notion, often productive of annoyance, and destructive to the comfort -of the workmen. I advise the finisher to beat his glaire from an egg -as he may require it. When well beaten, allow it to stand for some -hours, and then pour the clear liquid into a bottle for use. I have -had some dried albumen sent me, but its working has not given me such -satisfaction as that freshly prepared; it may answer the purpose in -other hands, but with me the gold appears to have been burnt in. - -_Cotton wool_, for taking up the gold leaf and pressing it firmly on -the leather. - -_Varnish_ should always be used on that part where glaire has been -applied, after it has been polished; the object being to retain the -brilliancy, and to preserve the leather from the ravages of flies and -other insects which are attracted by the glaire; these pests do great -damage to the covers of books which have been prepared with glaire, -by eating it off. They also take away the surface of the leather and -spoil the good appearance of the books. Varnish may be purchased at all -prices: use only the best, and be very sparing with it. - -A small pair of spring _dividers_, some _lard_, _sweet oil_, and -lastly, but most important, the _finishing stove_. Before gas was -introduced the finishing stove in use was the now almost extinct -charcoal fire. A bookbinder’s gas stove can now be purchased at almost -any gas-fitter’s shop or bookbinders’ material dealers. The price -varies according to size. - -[Illustration: Leo’s Oil Finishing Stove.] - -A stove burning paraffin oil may now be had from Leo of |121| -Stuttgart, which he guarantees smokeless and free from soot; where gas -is not obtainable, this will be found very handy. - -[Illustration: Finishing Press. The reverse side is quite flat, used -when sides of books are being finished.] - -Many still prefer the charcoal fire. To such a stove a pipe should be -fixed to conduct the fumes away into the open air or up a chimney. To -make such a stove any old tin may be utilized. Make a number of large -holes through the sides; fill it with some live charcoal, and place a -perforated tin plate on the top. It will keep alight for hours, and -impart quite enough heat for any purpose required. This primitive -stove, however, must be placed on a stand or on a piece of thick iron, -lest it become dangerous. - -A _finishing press_ is a small press, having two sides of solid wood -with wooden screws at each end, the cheeks should be of width enough to -allow the sides of a book to be finished comfortably when the boards -are extended, the book itself being held by the press which is screwed -up tightly. The press should, however, be light enough to enable the -finisher to easily turn it round, as it frequently must be, while -finishing a book. - -Mr. Leo has a press (patented) which he claims gives more freedom for -finishing a book, but with it one can only finish the back of a book; -there are, however, many good points that our English makers may well -study. |122| - -_Finishing_ is divided into two classes—_blind_ or _antique_, or, as it -is sometimes called, _monastic_ and _gold-finished_. - -The term antique is mostly known in the trade; and when _morocco -antique_ or _calf antique_ is mentioned, it means that the whole of the -finishing is to be done in blind tooling. Not only this, but that the -boards should be very thick and bevelled, and the edges either dull -gilt or red, or gilt over red. This class of work is used extensively -for religious books. A gold line introduced and intermixed with blind -work gives a great relief to any class of antique work. - -It is not necessary that a special set of tools be kept for antique -work, although some would look quite out of keeping if worked in gold. -As a general rule antique tools are bold and solid, such as Venetian -tools, whilst those for gold work are cut finer and are well shaded. -The greater number work equally well in gold and in blind, but when a -special style has to be followed the various tools and their adaptation -to that style must be studied. - -[Illustration: Leo’s Finishing Press.] - -The general colour of the blind work is dark brown, and the proper way -of working these antique tools is to take them warm and work them on -the damp leather a number of times, thus singeing or burning as it were -the surface only, until it has assumed its proper degree of colour. -|123| Antique work, as a decoration, requires quite as much dexterity -and care as gold work. Every line must be straight, and the tools must -be worked properly on the leather, both in colour and depth; and as -the tools have to be worked many times on the same spot, it requires a -very steady hand and great care not to double them. Some consider blind -work as preparatory to gold work, and that it gives experience in the -method of handling and working the various tools, and the degree of -heat required for different leathers without burning them through. The -leather on which this work is mostly executed is morocco and calf. - -[Illustration: Antique Stamps.] - -In finishing the back of a book it must always be held tightly in the -“finishing press.” When in the press, mark the head and tail as a -guide for the pallets by running a folding-stick along the edge of a -piece of parchment or vellum held by the finger and thumb of the left -hand against the sides of the volume across the back at the proper -place. When two or more books of the same character and size are to -range together, the backs must be compassed up so that the lines head -and tail may run continuous when finished. In using the pallet, hold -it firmly in the right hand, and let the working motion proceed from -the wrist only, as if it were a pivot. It will be |124| found rather -difficult at first to work the pallets straight over the back and even -to the sides of the bands, but after a little practice it will become -easy to accomplish. - -_Morocco_. Flexible work, as a rule, has blind lines, a broad and a -narrow one, worked close to the bands. Damp the back with a sponge and -clean water, and work the moisture evenly into the leather with a hard -clean brush. Take a pallet of a size suitable to the book, warm it over -the stove, and work it firmly over the back. As the leather dries, make -the pallet hotter; this will generally be found sufficient to produce -the required dark lines. Sometimes it will be necessary to damp the -different places two or three times in order to get the proper colour -in the blind tooling. - -The tools may have a tendency to stick to the leather and possibly burn -it. To obviate this, take 1-1/4 oz. of white wax and 1 oz. of deer fat -or lard, place them in a pipkin over a fire or in a warm place, so that -they may be well mixed together; when mixed allow them to cool. Rub -some of this mixture upon the rough or fleshy side of a piece of waste -morocco, and when working any tools in blind, rub them occasionally -over the prepared surface. This mixture will be found of great service -in getting the tools to _slip_ or _come away_ from the leather in -working. Lard alone is sometimes used, but this mixture will be found -of greater service to any finisher, and the advantage of adding the wax -will be apparent. - -The lines impressed on the back must now have their gloss given to -them. This is done by _giggering_ the pallets over them. Make the -pallet rather hot, rub it over the greased piece of leather, and work -it backwards and forwards in the impression previously made. Great -care must be taken that the pallet be kept steadily in the impressions -already made, or they will be doubled. The back is now ready for -lettering. This will be found further on, classed under gold work. -|125| - -To blind tool the side of a book it must be marked with a folder and -straight edge, according to the pattern to be produced, and as a guide -for the rolls and tools to be used. These lines form the ground plan -for any design that has to be worked. Damp the whole of the side with -a sponge, and brush it as before directed; then work the fillets along -the lines marked. Run them over the same line two or three times. When -dry, make the fillet immovable by driving a wooden wedge between the -roll and fork, and gigger it backwards and forwards to produce the -gloss. If tools are to be worked, make them slightly warm, and as the -leather dries make the tool hotter and hotter. This must be repeated -as often as is necessary, until the desired depth of colour and gloss -is obtained. In using a roll that has a running or continuous pattern, -a mark should be made upon the side with a file, at the exact point -that first comes in contact with the leather, so that the same flower, -scroll, or other design, may always fall in the same place in the -repeated workings. It is impossible for a roll to be cut so exactly -that it may be worked from any point in the circumference without -doubling the design. All blind work is done in the same manner, whether -in using a small or a large tool, _viz._, the leather must be damped -and repeatedly worked until the depth of colour is obtained. It is -then allowed to dry, and re-worked to produce the gloss. The beauty of -blind work consists in making the whole of the finishing of one uniform -colour, in other words, avoiding the fault of having any portion of the -work of lighter tint than the rest. - - * * * * * - -_Gold Work_ is far more complicated than blind or antique work, so that -it will be better if one practises upon some spare pieces of roan, -calf, or morocco before one attempts to finish a book. Gold work is -not more difficult than blind tooling, it is only more complicated. -The |126| different kinds of leather require such different degrees -of heat, that what would fail to make the gold adhere upon one leather -would burn through another. The various colours each require their -different degrees of heat; as a rule, light fancy colours require less -heat than dark ones. The finisher has not only to contend with these -difficulties, but he must also become an adept in handling the gold -leaf and in using the proper medium by which the gold is made to adhere -to the leather. This medium is used in two ways—wet and dry. The wet is -used for leather, the dry for velvet, satin, silk, and paper. - -The wet medium is again divided into two classes, one for non-porous -and another for porous leather. Morocco is the principal of the -non-porous leathers, with roan and all other imitation morocco. - -The porous varieties consist of calf of all kinds, russia, and sheep. - -The non-porous leathers need only be washed with thin paste-water or -vinegar, and glaired once; but if the glaire be thin or weak it will be -necessary to give them a second coat. - -The porous varieties must be paste-washed carefully, sized all over -very evenly, and glaired once or twice; care being taken that the size -and glaire be laid on as evenly as possible. - -All this, although apparently so simple, must be well kept in mind, -because the great difficulty that apprentices have to contend with is, -that they do not know the proper medium for the various leathers, and -one book may be prepared too much, while another may have a deficiency, -and as a consequence, one book will be spoilt by the preparation -cracking, and the gold not adhere to the other. By following the -directions here given the finisher will find that his gold will adhere -without much trouble, beyond the practice necessary in becoming -accustomed to an accurate use of the various tools. |127| - -Suppose that a half morocco book is before us to be neatly finished and -lettered. Take a broad and narrow pallet of a suitable and proper size, -and work it against the bands in blind as a guide for finishing in -gold. As the impression need be but very slight, warm the pallet on the -gas stove but very little. Choose some suitable tool as a centre piece -to go between the bands. Work this also lightly on the back exactly in -the centre of each panel. This must be worked as truly as possible and -perfectly straight. A line made previously with a folding-stick along -the centre of the back will greatly assist in the working of a tool in -its proper position. Now wash the back with vinegar, and brush it well -with a hard brush to disperse the moisture and drive it equally into -the leather; some use paste-water for this purpose instead of vinegar. -Paste-water has a tendency to turn grey in the course of time, and this -is avoided in using vinegar; vinegar also imparts freshness to the -morocco, and keeps it moist a longer time, which is very desirable when -finishing morocco. - -The impressions made by the broad and narrow pallet and the centre tool -are now to be pencilled in with glaire; when dry, pencil in another -coat; allow this again to dry, then rub them very slightly with a piece -of oiled cotton wool. Take a leaf of gold from the book and spread it -out evenly on the gold cushion; cut it as nearly to the various shapes -and sizes of the tools as possible. Now take up one of the pieces of -gold upon a large pad of cotton wool, previously greased slightly by -drawing it over the head. (There is always a sufficient amount of -natural grease in the hair to cause the gold to adhere to the cotton -when so treated.) Lay the gold gently but firmly on the impressed -leather. See that the whole of the impression is covered, and that the -gold is not broken. Should it be necessary to put on another piece of -gold leaf, gently breathing on the first will make the second adhere. -When all the impressions are covered |128| with gold leaf, take one -of the tools heated to such a degree that when a drop of water is -applied it does _not hiss_ but _dries_ instantly; work it exactly in -the blind impressions. Repeat this to the whole of the impressions, and -wipe the overplus of gold off with the gold rag. The impressions are -now supposed to be worked properly in gold; but if there are any parts -where the gold does not adhere, they must be re-glaired and worked in -again. A saucer should be placed near at hand, with water and a piece -of rag or a sponge in it, to cool any tool and reduce it to its proper -heat before using. If the tool be used too hot, the gold impression -will be dull; if too cold, the gold will not adhere. To use all tools -of the exact degree of heat required is one of the experiences of the -skilled workman. The back is now ready for the title. Set up the proper -words in a type-case, of a type sufficiently large and suitable to the -book. The chief word of the title should be in somewhat larger size -than the rest, the others diminishing, so that a pleasant arrangement -of form be attained. In order to adjust the length of the words, it -may be necessary to _space_ some of them—that is, to put between each -letter a small piece of metal called a _space_. Square the type, or -make the face of the letters perfectly level, by pressing the face of -them against a flat surface before tightening the screw. They must be -exactly level one with another, or in the working some of them will be -invisible. Screw up the type-case, warm it over the finishing stove, -and work the letters carefully in blind as a guide. Damp the whole of -the lettering space with vinegar. When dry, pencil the impressions in -twice with glaire. Then lay the gold on and work them in gold. - -But with lead type and a spring type-case (a method more suitable for -some binders on account of its relative cheapness and the convenience -of the case fitting itself to the different sizes of the type, of -which the binder will want |129| a selection of various sizes), the -type-case must be warmed before the type is put in. The heat of the -case should impart sufficient heat for the type to be worked properly. -If the case and type be put on the stove, the type will probably be -melted if not watched very narrowly. Hand letters are letters fixed in -handles, each used as a single tool. The letters should be arranged in -alphabetical order round the finishing stove, and as each letter is -wanted it is taken from the order, worked, and replaced. They are still -very much used in England, but where two or more books are to have the -same lettering, brass type is very much better. It does its work more -uniformly than hand letters, however skillfully used. - -[Illustration: Showing progressive Stages of Finishing. - -Pallets. - -Panel entirely finished. - -Band. - -Panel mitred in gold, with title and small corners. - -Band. - -Panel mitred and cornered with centre tool. - -Band. - -Panel mitred and cornered. - -Band. - -Panel mitred. - -Band. - -Panel marked out in blind for finishing. - -Small tail panel with date. - -Pallet.] - -[Illustration: Cut showing the use of Mitrepiece.] - -When this simple finishing can be executed properly and with ease, a -more difficult task of finishing may be attempted, such as a _full -gilt back_. This is done in two ways, a “run-up” back and a “mitred” -back. As a general rule morocco is always mitred. Place the book on -its side, lift up the mill-board, and make a mark head and tail on the -back, a little away from the hinge of the back. Then with a folder -and straight edge mark the whole length of the back: this is to be -done on both sides. Make another line the whole length down the exact -centre of the back. With a pair of dividers take the measurement of -the spaces between the bands, and mark the size, head and tail, for -the panels from the top and bottom band; with a folder and strip of -parchment make a line across the back, head and tail, at the mark made -by the dividers. Work a thin broad and narrow pallet alongside the -bands in blind. Prepare the whole of the back with vinegar and glaire, -as above described, but lay the glaire on with a sponge. When dry, -lay the gold on, covering the whole of the back with it, mending any -breaks. For mitreing, take a two-line pallet that has the ends cut at -an angle of 45°, so that the joint at that angle may be perfect. Work -this on the side at the |131| mark made up the back, and up to the -line made in blind across the back. Repeat this to each panel. The -two-line pallet must be worked across the back and up to the lines -made in gold; the cutting of the pallet at the angle will allow of the -union or mitre, so that each panel is independent of the other. There -will be a space left, head and tail, which may be filled up with any -fancy pallet or repetition of tools. The corners should be in keeping -with the centre, and large enough to fit the panel. Work these from -the sides of the square made, or from the centre of the panel, as will -be found most convenient, according to the thickness of the book and -style of finishing, and then fill in any small stops. When the whole is -done, rub the gold off with the gold-rag, and use the india-rubber if -necessary. The title has now to be put on, which is done in the same -manner as before described. - -It is not always necessary that the finishing be done in blind first. -I have explained it, and advocate its being so worked first as easier -for a learner. One who is accustomed to finishing finds that a few -lines marked previously with a folding-stick is all that is required. -When working the title, a thread of silk drawn tightly across the gold -produces a line sufficient, and is the only guide that an experienced -workman requires. - -To finish a side, make a mark with the folder and straight edge as a -guide for any rolls or fillets. Prepare the leather as before described -where the ornamentation is to come; but if the pattern is elaborate -it must be worked first in blind. As a greater facility, take a piece -of paper of good quality and well sized. Draw the pattern you wish -to produce on the paper, and if any tools are to be used, hold them -over the flame of gas; this will smoke them so that |132| they may be -worked on the paper in black. When the pattern is complete in every -detail, tip the four corners of the paper with a little paste, then -work the pattern through the paper on to the leather, using the various -sized gouges as the scrolls require, and a single line fillet where -there are lines. Work thus the complete pattern in blind. This being -done completely, take the paper off from the four corners, place it on -the other side, and work it in the same way. Prepare the leather with -vinegar, and pencil out with glaire the whole of the pattern. If the -whole side be glaired with a sponge it will leave a glossy appearance -that is very undesirable. The whole of the side is now to be laid on -with gold, and the pattern worked again with the warm tools, in the -previous or blind impressions. - -The inside of a book is generally finished before the outside. This -should be done as neatly as possible, carefully mitreing the corners -when any lines are used. Most frequently a roll is used, thus saving a -great deal of time. A style was introduced in France called “doublé,” -the inside of the board being covered with a coloured morocco different -to the outside, instead of having board papers. This inside leather -was very elaborately finished; generally with a “dentelle” border, -while the outside had only a line or two in blind. It is a style which, -although very good in itself, is not now in great request, many prefer -to have the finishing outside rather than to have it covered up and not -seen when the book is shut. - -[Illustration: GROLIER. - -Demy folio.] - -The edges of the boards and the headbands must be finished either in -gold or blind, according to fancy, but in keeping with the rest of -the embellishment. A fine line worked on the centre of the edge of -the board by means of a fillet looks better, and of course requires -more pains than simply running a roll over it. If it is to be in gold, -simply glairing the edge is sufficient. Lay on the gold and work the -fillet carefully. Place the book on its ends in the |133| finishing -press to keep it steady, or it will shake and throw the fillet off. If -a roll is used, take the gold up on the roll, but grease it first a -little, by rubbing the gold rag over the edge to make the gold adhere. -Then run the roll along the edge of the boards: the roll generally used -for this purpose is called a _bar roll_—that is, one having a series of -lines running at right angles with the edge of the roll. - -Imitation morocco is generally used for publishers’ bindings, where -books are in large numbers and small in price, and the finishing is all -done with the blocking press: To finish this leather by hand, it is -advisable to wash it with paste-water and glaire twice. - -Roan is generally used for circulating library work, and is very seldom -finished with more than a few lines and the title across the back. This -leather is prepared with paste-wash and glaire, and, when complete, -varnished over the whole surface. - -_Inlaid Work._—Inlaid, or mosaic work, is used only in the higher -branches of bookbinding. Formerly books were not inlaid, but painted -with various colours. Grolier used a great deal of black, white, and -green. Mr. Tuckett, the late binder to the British Museum, took out a -patent for extracting one colour from leather and substituting another -by chemical action. This method, however, was in use and known long -before he turned his attention to the subject, although he improved -greatly upon the old practice. As the patent has long expired, it may -not be out of place to give an extract from the specification: “Take -dark chocolate colour, and after the design has been traced thereon, it -is then to be picked out or pencilled in with suitable chemicals, say -diluted nitric acid; this will change the chocolate, leaving the design -a bright red on a chocolate ground.” But to lay on the various colours -with leather is, no doubt, by far the better plan. Paint has a tendency -in time to crack, and, if acids are used, they will, to a certain -|134| extent, rot or destroy the leather; but if leather is used -it will always retain both colour and texture. To choose the proper -colours that will harmonize with the ground, give tone, and produce a -pleasing effect, requires a certain amount of study. Morocco is the -leather generally used, but in Vienna calf has been used with very good -results. If the pattern to be inlaid be very small, steel punches of -the exact shape of the tools are used to punch or cut out the patterns -required. To do this, work the pattern in blind on the side of the -book; take morocco of a different colour to the ground it is required -to decorate, and pare it down as thin as possible. Lay it on a slab of -lead. Lead is better than anything else on account of its softness; -the marks made by the punch can always be beaten out again, and when -quite used up it may be re-melted and run out anew. Now take the steel -punch of an exact facsimile of the tool used that is to be inlaid, and -punch out from the leather the required number. These are to be pasted -and laid very carefully on the exact spot made by the blind-tooling; -press each down well into the leather, either with a folding-stick or -the fingers, so that it adheres properly. When dry, the book should be -pressed between polished plates, in order that the pieces that have -been laid on, may be pressed well into the ground leather. When it has -been pressed, the whole of the leather must be prepared as for morocco, -and finished in gold. The tools in the working will hide all the edges -of the various inlaid pieces, provided they are laid on exactly. - -[Illustration: MAIOLI. - -Royal folio. - -T. Way, Photo Lith.] - -If interlacing bands are to be of various colours, the bands must be -cut out. Pare the leather thin, and after working the pattern through -the paper on to the sides of the book, lay it on the thinly pared -leather; with a very sharp and pointed knife cut through the paper and -leather together on a soft board. Or the design may be worked or drawn -on a thin board, and the various bands cut out |135| of the board as -patterns. Lay these on the thin leather and cut round them. Keep these -board templates for any future use of the same patterns. The various -pieces are to be well pasted, carefully adjusted in their places, and -well rubbed down. The leather is then to be prepared and worked off in -gold. - -Another method is to work the pattern in blind on the sides. Pare the -morocco thin, and while damp place it upon the portion of the pattern -to be inlaid, and press it well with the fingers, so that the design -is impressed into it. Lay the leather carefully on some soft board, -and cut round the lines made visible by the pressure with a very sharp -knife. When cut out, paste and lay them on the book and prepare as -before, and finish in gold. I do not recommend this last method as -being of much value; I give it only because it is sometimes chosen; -but for any good work, where accuracy is required, either of the plans -mentioned previously are to be preferred. - -The Viennese work their calf in quite a different manner, in fact, in -the same way that the cabinet-makers inlay their woodwork. With a very -sharp and thin knife they cut right through two leathers laid the one -on the other. The bottom one is then lifted out and replaced by the top -one. By this method the one fits exactly into the other, so that, if -properly done, the junctions are so neatly made that no finishing is -required to cover the line where the two colours meet. - -The frontispiece to this treatise is a copy of a book bound by my -father for one of the Exhibitions. The ground is of red morocco, -inlaid with green, brown, and black morocco. The pattern may be called -“Renaissance.” The inside of the boards are “Grolier,” inlaid as -elaborately as the outside. Seven months’ labour was expended on the -outside decoration of this volume. - -_Porous._—_Calf_, as before described, requires more and |136| -different preparation than morocco, on account of its soft and -absorbing nature. As a foundation or groundwork, paste of different -degrees of strength is used, according to the various work required. - -Calf books have generally a morocco lettering piece of a different -colour to the calf on the back for the title. This is, however, -optional, and may or may not be used, according to taste. Leather -lettering pieces have a great tendency to peel off, especially if the -book be exposed to a hot atmosphere, or if the paste has been badly -made, so that it is perhaps better if the calf itself be lettered. -There is no doubt that a better effect is produced in a bookcase when -a good assortment of coloured lettering pieces are placed on the -variously coloured backs, and the titles can be more easily read than -if they were upon light or sprinkled calf; but where wear and tear have -to be studied, as in public libraries, a volume should not have any -lettering pieces. All such books should be lettered on their natural -ground. - -For lettering pieces, take morocco[10] of any colour, according to -fancy, and having wetted it to facilitate the work, pare it down as -thin and as evenly as possible. Cut it to size of the panel or space it -is intended to fit. When cut truly, pare the edges all round, paste it -well, put it on the place and rub well down. Should the book require -two pieces—or one for the title, and one for the volume or contents—it -is better to vary the colours. I must caution the workman not to allow -the leather to come over on to the joint, as by the frequent opening -or moving of the boards the edge of the leather will become loose. -A very good plan as a substitute for lettering pieces is to colour -the calf either dark brown or black, thus saving the leather at the -expense of a little more time. When the lettering |137| pieces are -dry, mark the back, head and tail, for the pallets or other tools with -a folding-stick. Apply with a brush paste all over the back. With a -thick folding-stick, or with the handle of an old tooth brush, which is -better, rub the paste into the back. Before it has time to dry, take -the overplus off with rather a hard sponge, dipped in thin paste-water. -The learner will perhaps wonder why paste of full strength should be -used for the back, and only paste-water for the sides. The reason is, -that through the stretching of the leather over the back in covering, -the pores are more open, and consequently require more filling up to -make a firm ground. Much depends upon the groundwork being properly -applied; and a general caution with regard to the working in general -may not be here amiss. Finishing, above all other departments, demands -perfect cleanliness. A book may have the most graceful designs, the -tools be worked perfectly and clearly, but be spoiled by having a dirty -appearance. See that everything is clean—paste-water, size, glaire, -sponges, and brushes. Do not lay any gold on until the preparation be -perfectly dry, or the gold will adhere and cause a dirty yellow stain -where wiped off. - - [10] Other leathers are often used instead of morocco, even - paper; in fact a specially prepared paper is largely sold in - Germany for this purpose. - -Should the calf book be intended to have only a pallet alongside the -bands, it is only necessary, when the paste-wash is quite dry, to -glaire that portion which is to be gilt: this is usually done with a -camel’s hair brush, by laying on two coats. When dry, cut the gold into -strips, and take one up on the pallet and work it on the calf. This is -what is termed calf neat. The band on each side is gilt, leaving the -rest of the leather in its natural state. Some binders polish their -backs instead of leaving them dead or dull. This, however, is entirely -according to taste, whether so large a space be left polished only. - -[Illustration: Samples of Backs suitable for Calf Work.] - -_Full Gilt Back._—_Run-up._ Make a mark up the back on both sides a -little away from the joint with a folder and |139| straight edge. -Put on lettering piece. When dry, paste and paste-wash the back. When -again dry, take some of Young’s patent size, melt it in a pipkin with -a little water and apply it with a sponge. Lay this on very evenly -with a very soft sponge, and be particular that it is perfectly clean, -so that no stains be left. When the size is done with, put it on one -side for future use. This size should not be taken its full strength, -and when warmed again some more water should be added to make up for -evaporation. When the coat of size has dried, apply two coats of -glaire. The first must be dry before the second is applied, and great -care must be taken that the sponge is not passed over the same place -twice, or the previous preparation will be taken off. It is now ready -for finishing. Cut the gold to proper size; rub a little lard over -the whole of the back with a little cotton wool. This requires great -attention. Very little must be put on light or green calf, as these -colours are stained very readily. Take the gold up on a cotton pad; -lay it carefully down on the back; breathe on the gold, and press down -again. If there be any places where the gold is broken, they must be -mended. Now take a two-line fillet; heat it so that it hisses when -placed in the cooling pan or the saucer with the wet rag in it, and run -it the whole length of the back on the line made before paste-washing. -Do this on both sides, and rub the gold off with the gold-rag up to the -line on the outside. Take a two-line pallet, and work it on each side -of the bands. Work the morocco lettering piece last, as it requires -less heat. The centre piece of each panel must now be worked. Impress -the tools firmly but quickly. The corner tools next; work them from -the centre or sides, using the right hand corners as a guide, and -judging the distance by the left ones. The press must be turned when -it is required to bring the left side to the right hand in working the -corners. The requisite pallets may now be worked to finish the book -|140| head and tail. As a rule these are worked when the two-line -pallet is imprinted. - -Calf requires very quick working. The tools should not be held over -the various places too long, or the heat will destroy the adherent -properties of the albumen. With morocco time does not signify so much, -as the heat used is not so great. - -_Mitred back_ must be prepared the same way as for “run-up back,” and -the mitreing is to be done as explained in working morocco. As before -stated, this is superior work and requires more skill; takes longer, -but looks much better: each panel should be an exact facsimile of the -rest. If the tools do not occupy precisely similar places in each -panel, the result will be very unsatisfactory, and an evidence of a -want of skill. When the backs are finished, rub the gold off with the -gold-rag, and clear off any residue with the india-rubber. Be very -careful that every particle of the surplus gold be cleaned off, or -the delicate lines of the ornaments will be obscure and ragged in -appearance. - -The book is now ready for lettering. Set the type up in the case, and -work it carefully in a perfectly straight line over the back. The whole -of the back is now to be polished with the polishing iron, which must -be perfectly clean and bright before it is used. Prepare a board from -an old calf binding, by rubbing some fine emery or charcoal and lard -over the leather side of it. By rubbing the iron over this prepared -surface it will acquire a bright polish. It must be used over the back -by holding it lightly, and giving it an oblong circular motion. Go over -every portion of the back with very even pressure, so that no part may -be made more glossy than another. The polishing iron should be used -rather warmer than the tools. If the iron be too hot the glaire will -turn white; if too cold the polish will be dull. The grease upon the -leather will be quite sufficient to make |141| the polisher glide -easily over the surface, but the operation must be rapidly and evenly -done. All light and green calf require less heat than any other kinds. -These will turn black if the iron be in the least degree too hot. - -It is in finishing the sides that the workman can show his good taste -and skill. The sides should be always in keeping with the back; or, -more strictly speaking, the back should be in keeping with the sides. -Before the sides can be finished, the inside of the boards must occupy -our attention. With a “run-up” back, the edge of the leather round -the end papers is to be worked either in blind or have a roll round -it in gold. In any case it should be paste-washed. If for blind, the -roll is to be heated and worked round it; if for gold, it must be -glaired twice. The gold, cut into strips, is to be taken up on the roll -and worked, and the overplus taken off with the gold-rag as before -directed. Extra work, such as mitred work, should have some lines, -or other neat design impressed. Paste-wash the leather, and when dry -glaire twice. When again dry lay on the gold all round, and work the -roll or other fillets, or such other tool that may be in keeping with -the exterior work. When the gold has been wiped off, the leather should -be polished with the polishing iron. - -The outside must now be finished. Are the sides to be polished, or left -plain? If they are not to be polished, paste-wash the whole of the side -up to the edge of the back carefully, then glaire only that portion -which is to be gilt. Generally a two-line fillet only is used round the -edge, so that the width of the fillet or roll must determine the width -to be glaired. When glaired twice and dry, take up the gold on the -fillet or roll and work it evenly and straightly round the edge. The -corners where the lines meet are next to be stopped by working a small -rosette or small star on them. Clean off any gold that may be on the -side, and |142| work a small dotted or pin-head roll at the edge of -the glaire. This will cover and conceal the edge. - -Extra calf books generally have the sides polished. Paste-wash the -sides all over, and when dry size them. Hold the book, if small, in the -left hand, if large, lay it on the press and work the sponge over the -side in a circular direction, so that the size may be laid on as evenly -as possible. Be very careful that it does not froth; should it do so, -squeeze the sponge out as dry as possible, and fill it anew with fresh -size. Some workmen work the sponge up and down the book, but if this -be not done very evenly it produces streaks. The finisher will find -he can lay a more even coating on by using the sponge in a circular -direction. Allow this to dry by leaving the book with boards extended. -When perfectly dry glaire once. This will be found sufficient, as -the size gives body to the glaire. When sizeing and glairing, be -assured that the book be laid down with the boards extended on a level -surface; if the book be not level, the size or glaire will run down to -the lowest portion of the surface, and become unequally distributed. -The gold is now to be laid on the respective places, either broad -or narrow, according to the nature of the finishing or width of the -rolls. As a general rule, the sides of the better class of calf books -have nothing more than a three-line round the edge and mitred in the -corners. This is, however, quite a matter of taste. Some have a border -of fancy rolls, but never any elaborate pattern as in morocco work. -To finish the sides, place the book in the finishing press with the -boards extended, so that they may rest on the press. This will afford -greater facility for working the fillets, rolls, and tools necessary -to complete the design on each side. The finishing press being a small -one, can be easily turned round as each edge of the border is finished. - -To polish the sides, place the book on its side on some |143| soft -surface, such as a board covered with baize, and kept for the purpose. -Use the large and heavy polishing iron, hot and clean. Rub or work the -iron quickly and firmly over the sides, first from the groove towards -the foredge, and then in a contrary direction, from the tail to the -head, by turning the volume. The oil or grease applied to the cover -previous to laying on the gold will be sufficient to allow the polisher -to glide easily over the surface. Polishing has also the effect of -smoothing down the burr formed on the leather by the gilding tools, and -bringing the impressions slightly to the surface. The iron must be held -very evenly, so that the centre of the iron may be the working portion. -If held sideways the edge of the iron will indent the leather. The heat -must be sufficient to give a polish. It must be remembered that if the -iron is too hot it will cause the glaire to turn white. The temperature -must be well tested before it be applied to the cover. A practised -finisher can generally tell the proper heat on holding the iron at some -little distance from his face, by the heat radiated from the iron. Calf -books should be pressed, whether polished or not. - -_Pressing._—Plates of japanned tin or polished horn are proper for -this purpose. Put pressing tins between the book and the mill-boards: -the tins must be up to the joint. Now place one of the japanned plates -on the side level with the groove; turn book and japanned plate over -carefully together, so that neither shifts; place another of the -polished plates on the top of the book, thus placing the book between -two polished surfaces. Put the book into the standing press, and screw -down tightly. Leave in for some hours. When pressed sufficiently, take -the book out, and if the sides be polished, varnish them. - -Make a little pad of cotton wool, saturate the lower portion with -varnish; rub it on a piece of waste paper to equalize the varnish, then -work the pad over the side as |144| quickly as possible in a circular -direction. Renew the wool with varnish for the other side. Enough must -be taken on the pad to varnish the whole side, or the delay caused by -renewing the varnish on the cotton will cause a streaked surface. When -the varnish is perfectly dry—a few minutes will suffice—the book must -be again pressed. To do this, rub the gold-rag, which is greased, over -the sides, this will prevent the sides from sticking to the polished -plates. Place the book between the plates as before, leaving out the -pressing tins, and place in the standing press. Only little pressure -must now be given; if the press be screwed down too tightly the plates -will stick to the book. The varnish must be of good quality, and -perfectly dry, or the result will be the same. Half an hour in the -press will be found quite long enough. Should the plates stick, there -is no other remedy than washing off the varnish with spirits of wine, -and the glaire and size with warm water, and carefully re-preparing the -surface as before. This is, however, an accident that cannot happen if -due care and judgment be exercised. - -_Graining._—Graining is now used very much on calf books. It may be -properly considered as a blind ornament. It is done by means of wooden, -or, better still, copper plates cut out in various patterns, so as -to form small squares, scales of fish, or an imitation of morocco. -Place the volume between two of these plates, level to the groove of -the back, in the standing press; screw down tightly. The pressure -should be equal over the whole surface. Nothing looks worse than a -bold impression in one place and a slight one in another, so that it -is rather important that it be evenly pressed; a second application -of the plates is impracticable. Graining has the advantage of hiding -any finger-marks that may accidentally be on the calf, and also partly -conceals any imperfections in the leather. |145| - -The state of the weather must in a great measure guide the finisher as -to the proper number of volumes he ought to prepare at one time. The -leather should always be a little moist, or, in other words, rather -_fresh_. In winter double the number of books may be prepared, and the -gold laid on, than the dryness of a summer’s day will permit. If books -are laid on over night the tools must be used very hot in working them -the next morning, or the gold will not adhere. During summer, flies -will eat the glaire from various places while the book is lying or -standing out to dry, so that constant vigilance must be kept to avoid -these pests. - -Russia is prepared in the same way as calf, but is usually worked with -more blind tools than gold, and the sides are not as a rule polished, -so that the size and glaire are dispensed with, except on those parts -where it is to be finished in gold; those portions need be only -paste-washed and glaired once, without any size. - -_Finishing with Dry Preparation._—The dry preparation is used for silk, -velvet, paper, or any other material that would be stained by the -employment of the wet process. There are a number of receipts in the -trade and in use. - -Take the white of eggs, and dry by spreading it somewhat thickly over -glass plates, taking care to preserve it from dust. When dry it will -chip off readily, if the glass has been previously _very slightly_ -oiled or greased. It must not be exposed to more heat than 40° Reaum., -or the quality of the albumen will be destroyed. The dried mass is to -be well powdered in a porcelain mortar. - -Or, take equal portions of gum mastic, gum sandrac, gum arabic, and -powder them well in a mortar. This powder, if good work be desired, -must be ground into an impalpable powder. When powdered put it into a -box or bottle, and tie three or four thicknesses of fine muslin over -the mouth. By tapping the inverted box, or shaking |146| it over the -lines or letters, the dust will fall through in a fine shower. The -powder should fall only on the part to be gilt. Cut the gold into -strips, take it up upon the tool, and work rather hot. The overplus -of the powder can be brushed away when the finishing is completed. -Finishing powder is now sold commercially. - -_Velvet_ is very seldom finished beyond having the title put on, and -this should be worked in blind first and with moderately large letters, -or the pile will hide them. - -_Silk_ is finished more easily, and can, if care be taken, have rather -elaborate work put upon it. In such a case, the lines or tools, which -must be blinded-in first, may be glaired. For this purpose the glaire -must be put in a saucer or plate in the free air for a day or two, -so that a certain amount of water or moisture of the glaire may be -evaporated; but it must not be too stiff so as to prevent the brush -going freely over the stuff. Great care, however, must be taken, or -the glaire will spread and cause a stain. A thin coat of paste-water -will give silk a body and keep the glaire from spreading to a certain -extent, but I think the best medium for silk is the dry one, and it -is always ready for instant use. In using glaire the gold is laid on -the silk, but on no account must any oil or lard be rubbed on it for -the temporary holding of the gold. Rub the parts intended for the gold -with the finger (passed through the hair), or with a clean rag lightly -oiled, and when the tools are re-impressed a clean piece of flannel -should be used to wipe off the superfluous gold. - -Blocking has been used lately on silk with some success in Germany. -The blocking plate is taken out of the press, and the gold is laid on -it, and then replaced in the press. The finishing powder is freely -distributed over the silk side, which is laid on the bed of the press. -On pulling the lever over, the block descends and imprints the design -in gold on the silk. This process may be applied to velvet, |147| but -velvet never takes the sharpness of the design on account of the pile, -so that as a rule it is left in its natural state. - -_Vellum._—The Dutch, as a nation, appear to have been the first to -bind books in vellum. It was then a simple kind of casing, with hollow -backs. A later improvement of theirs was that of sewing the book on -double raised cords, and making the book with a tight back, similar to -the way in which our flexible books are now done, showing the raised -bands. The ornamentation was entirely in blind, both on the back and -sides, and the tools used were of a very solid character. - -This art of binding in vellum seems to be entirely lost at the present -day; its imperishable nature is indeed its only recommendation. It has -little beauty; is exceedingly harsh; and little variety can be produced -even in the finishing. - -There are two or three kinds of vellum prepared from calf skins at the -present day, thanks to the progress of invention. First, we have the -prepared or artist’s vellum, with a very white artificial surface; -then the Oxford vellum, the surface of which is left in its natural -state; the Roman vellum, which has a darker appearance. Parchment is an -inferior animal membrane prepared from sheepskins after the manner of -vellum, and this is very successfully imitated by vegetable parchment, -made by immersing unsized paper for a few seconds in a bath of diluted -oil of vitriol. This preparation resembles the animal parchment so -closely that it is not easy to distinguish the difference. It is -used very extensively in France for wrappering the better class of -literature, instead of issuing them in cloth as is the custom here. - -The method of finishing vellum is altogether different to leather. -On account of its very hard and compact nature, it requires no other -ground or preparation than glaire for gold work. |148| - -The cover should be very carefully washed with a soft sponge and -clean water, to clean off any dirt or finger-marks, and to make the -book look as fresh as possible. This washing must be very carefully -done by going over the surface as few times as possible. This caution -applies particularly to the prepared or artist vellum, as each washing -will take off a certain amount of the surface, so that the more it -is damped and rubbed the more the surface will be disturbed and the -beauty destroyed. It requires some experience to distinguish the flesh -and leather surfaces of prepared vellum, but this experience must be -acquired, because it is absolutely necessary that the leather side -should be outward when the book is covered, for two reasons: the flesh -side is more fibrous, and adheres better to the boards than the leather -side, and the leather side is less liable to have its surface disturbed -in the process of washing. - -The parts that are to be gilt must be glaired, but as the glaire will -show its presence, or, more strictly speaking, leave rather a dirty -mark, the tools should first be worked in blind, and the glaire laid on -carefully up to their outer edge. When dry, lay the gold on and work -the tool in. Let the tools be only moderately warm; if too hot they -will go through to the mill-board, leaving their mark as if they had -been cut out with a knife. - -As a rule no very heavy tooling is ever put on vellum, the beauty -lies in keeping the vellum as clean as possible. The tooling being, -comparatively speaking, on the surface, owing to the thinness of the -skin, requires a very competent and clean workman to produce anything -like good work on vellum. - -Vellum is of so greasy a nature that, if a title-piece of leather has -to be put on, it will be found that there is a great difficulty in -making it adhere properly unless some special precaution be taken. The -best plan is to scrape |149| the surface where the leather is intended -to be placed with the edge of a knife. This will produce a rough and -fibrous ground on which to place the pasted leather. This _leather_, -when dry, must be prepared with paste-water and glaire, in the same -manner as with other books. - -In the foregoing instructions for finishing a book, the most that can -be looked for towards teaching either the apprentice or the unskilled -workman is to give him an idea how it is accomplished by practised -hands. Pure taste, a correct eye, and a steady hand, are not given to -all in common. The most minute instructions, detail by detail, cannot -make a workman if Nature has denied these gifts. I have known men whose -skill in working a design could not be excelled, but who could not be -trusted to gild a back without instructions. Others, whose ideas of -design were not contemptible, could not tool two panels of a back in -perfect uniformity. Some also have so little idea of harmony of colour, -that without strict supervision they would give every volume the coat -of a harlequin. In a word, a first-rate bookbinder is _nascitur non -fit_, and although the hints and instructions I have penned may not -be sufficient to _make_ a workman, I trust they will be found of some -value to the skilled as well as to the less practised craftsman. - -_Blocking._—The growing demand for books that were at once cheap and -pretty, became so strong, that mechanical appliances were invented to -facilitate their ornamentation; and thus we have the introduction of -the present blocking press. - -I will not follow too closely the various improvements introduced at -different periods, but roughly describe the blocking press, without -which cheap bookbinding cannot be done at the present day. There can be -no doubt that this press owes its extensive use to the introduction of -publishers’ cloth work. - -Formerly, when the covers of books were blocked, a |150| small lying -or other press was used. The block, previously heated, was placed on -the book, and the screw or screws turned to get a sufficient pressure. -It often happened that the pressure was either too much or too little: -the block either by the one accident sank into the leather too deeply, -or by the other the gold failed to adhere, and it required a good -workman to work a block properly. - -The first press to be noticed is a Balancier, having a moveable bed, -a heating box, heated by means of red-hot irons, two side pillars to -guide the box in a true line, and attached to it a screw connected at -the top with a bar or arm, having at each extremity an iron ball. The -block, having been fixed to a plate at the bottom of the heated box, -the side of the book was laid down on the bed, and by swinging the arm -round the block descended upon the book. The arm was then swung back, -and the next book put into place. It will be seen that this incurred a -great loss of time. - -The next improvement consisted in having a press that only moved -a quarter circle, with almost instantaneous action; and another -improvement connected with the bed was, that by means of screws and -gauges, when the block was once set, a boy or an inexperienced hand -might with ease finish off hundreds of copies, all with equal pressure. -By referring to the woodcut opposite, the press and its action will -be seen and understood. The box may be heated with gas, and kept at a -constant and regulated temperature the whole time of working. It can -be adjusted to any amount of pressure, as it is regulated by the bed -underneath. - -The next step in progress was the introduction of printing in different -colours upon the cloth, and intermixing them with gold. Messrs. -Hopkinson and Cope’s machines may be mentioned. They are made to be -driven by steam, and will print and emboss from 500 to 600 covers per -|151| hour, and are heated by steam or gas. The inking apparatus is -placed at the back of the press, so that while the workman is placing -another cover, the ink roller, by automatic action, inks the block -ready for the next impression. The inking or printing of the covers is -done without heat, so, to avoid loss of time, an arrangement is made -that the heating box can be cooled immediately by a stream of water -passed through it. - -[Illustration] - -Messrs. Kampe and Co. have just brought out a blocking machine, which -they claim to be superior to any in the trade. It will block at the -rate of 700 to 800 covers per hour. The pressure is obtained by one of -the most powerful of mechanical appliances, and it can be adjusted to -block either paper or leather. - -The tools required for blocking are called blocks or stamps. These may -be composed of very small pieces, or may be of one block cut to the -size of the book. In any case, the block has to be fastened to the -moveable plate at the bottom of the heating box. To block the sides -of a book, take a stout piece of paper and glue it upon a moveable -plate.[11] Then take the book, and having set the blocks upon the side -in exact position, place the side or board upon which are placed the -blocks upon the bed of the blocking press, leaving the volume hanging -down in front of the press. The bed is now to be fixed, so that the -centre of the board is exactly under and in the centre of the heating -box. When quite true, the sides and back gauges are fixed by screws. -Pull the lever so that a slight pressure upon the plate be given: -release |152| the press, and take out the book and examine if all be -correct. Some of the blocks may require a small piece of paper as a -pad, so as to increase the pressure, others to be shifted a little. -Now glue the back of the stamps and replace them in their respective -places. Place the whole under the top plate in the press, heat the -box, and pull the lever over; and let the book remain for some little -time to set the glue. Take out the book, examine if perfectly square -and correct, but replace it with a soft mill-board under the stamps, -and pull down the press. The lever must remain over, and the blocks be -under pressure until the glue is hardened. - - [11] The moveable plate is also called the _platen_. - -Another method is to glue upon the plate a piece of thick paper and -mark upon it the exact size of the book to be blocked. Strike upon the -plate from the size the centre, and from that any other lines that may -assist in placing the blocks. Arrange the blocks upon the plate so as -to form the design; when correct, paste the blocks on their backs and -replace them on the plate. When the paste adheres a little, turn the -plate over and put it into the press. Apply heat to the box; pull the -lever over, and when the paste is set, regulate the bed and gauges. - -When the press is properly heated, throw back the lever; take out the -mill-board from under the stamp, and regulate the degree of pressure -required by the side-screw under or over the bed. Place upon the bed -the side to be stamped, hold it firmly against the guides with the left -hand, and with the right draw the lever quickly to the front. This -straightens the toggels and forces down the heating box, causing a -sharp impression of the stamp upon the leather or other material. Throw -or let the lever go back sharply, and take out the book. If the block -be of such a design that it must not be inverted, the whole of the -covers must be blocked on one side first, and the block turned round -for the other side, or the design will be upside down. |153| - -Work for blocking in gold does not require so much body or preparation -as if it were gilt by hand. Morocco can be worked by merely washing the -whole surface with a little urine or weak ammonia, but it is safer to -use a coat of glaire and water mixed in proportion of one of the former -to three of the latter. The heat should not be great, and slowly worked. - -Calf should have a coat of milk and water or thin paste-water as a -ground, and when dry another of glaire. Both should be laid on as -evenly as possible; but if only portions are to be gilt, such as a -centre-piece, and the rest dead, the centre-piece or other design -should be pencilled in with great care. The design should be first -slightly blocked in blind as a guide for the glairing. The edge of the -glaire generally leaves a black or dark stain. The heat required for -calf is greater than for morocco, and the working must be done more -quickly. - -Cloth requires no preparation whatever, the glue beneath and the -coloured matter on the cloth gives quite enough adhesiveness when the -hot plate comes down for the gold to adhere. - -A great deal of taste may be displayed in the formation of patterns -in this branch, but as publishers find that books that are tawdrily -gilt are better liked by the public, they are, of course, very well -satisfied if their books are well covered with gold. It would be well -if those who have the principal charge of this work would strive, by -the cultivation of elegant design, to correct the vitiated taste of the -public, and seek by a study of classic ornamentation to please the eye -and satisfy the judgment rather than to attract the vulgar by glitter -and gaudy decoration. - -However, of late years a great advancement has been made with -publishers’ block work; the samples given in the trade paper (“The -Bookbinder” now “Bookmaker”) will prove this. - -[Illustration] - - - - -GENERAL INFORMATION. - - -|157| - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -WASHING AND CLEANING. - -The binder is often called upon to clean books; to many he is a sort -of Aladdin, who makes old books into new; the consequence is that he -often has placed in his hands a lot of dirty, miserable-looking books, -and is expected to turn them into first-class copies. To renovate such -books requires time and experience, and unfortunately very little is -known among binders as a body about cleaning. Outside the trade, I am -sorry to say, even less is known, for if a book be received from a -binder bleached, it seems to satisfy the owner, and to be all that is -desired. By such treatment of bleaching a quantity of lime is generally -left in the paper, the goodness is destroyed, and naturally the paper -must suffer in a short time. To test such treatment one has only to -apply the tongue to the paper, it will at once absorb any moisture, as -blotting paper does, and often the lime can be distinctly tasted. - -But books are often washed and given out to the binder to rebind in -this state. In such a case it remains with the binder not to associate -himself with the book; for if he rebinds such a book the stigma will -attach itself to him when the period of rotting, falling to pieces, and -other misfortunes has arrived. - -It is the practice of many who profess to wash books or prints to use -chlorine at every washing; this is not necessary; often a simple bath -of hot water, with perhaps the |158| addition of a little alum, is all -that is required. An important thing is to know the different kinds of -stains when looking through the book; there may be many in one book, -each from a different cause. In such a case it will be best to go -for the majority, and to use the bath that will move them. Often the -one bath is sufficient, but should there be any stains that are not -touched, these leaves must be treated again. - -When there are stains of different character in the one book, such as -oil stains on a few leaves, and, say, coffee stains in other parts, the -oil must be first removed; the one bath will not touch both stains. - -Often when the bath is used wrongly it will fix the stain in the paper, -and not remove it, the chemical used acting as a mordant. - -It is impossible for me to describe the various stains, the -intelligence of the workman must be brought to bear on the subject; and -I advise a small memo. book be used to jot down the difficulties that -may occur from time to time, and so to act as a guide for future work; -to the use of such a book I am enabled to lay before my readers the -methods of working with the various receipts collected in France and -Germany, and used by me in my business. - -To wash a book it is absolutely necessary to pull it to pieces. Should -there be much glue on the back, and difficulty arise in the pulling, -the book may be treated as given in Chapter II.: or sections of six -or eight sheets may be left together; the hot water and soaking to -which the book will be subjected in the washing will dissolve the glue -or paste that may be on the back, and the sheets will readily part -whilst in the solution. Washing must be conducted with great care; the -handling of the wet sheets will demand the most delicate touch, for -one can reasonably understand that paper left in water for twelve or -more hours is likely to be very tender. In nearly every case when a -book has been washed it will be found necessary to size it: the size -|159| gives back the body or goodness that the hot water and chemical -has extracted. Often the virtue is extracted by damp, through the book -being left in some damp situation, or by imperfect sizing the paper -has first received; in such cases, although the book may not require -washing, sizing will be of benefit. - -_Requisites._—The necessary articles required for washing, etc., are -dishes. Those of porcelain are perhaps the best; they may be bought -at any photographic material dealers. If much work is done, it is -advantageous to have a set or sets of two or three sizes. In using -the various dishes, ample room should be given to allow the hands to -enter the water and pick up the sheets or leaves without any danger of -tearing. Should the pans be of such a size as to be too heavy to move -when full of water, they may be emptied by means of a syphon, the short -end of the syphon placed, in preference, at one of the corners of the -dish, so as not to touch the sheets. The dishes may also be made of -wood, lined with zinc or lead: for very large work these must be used, -the porcelain are not made above a certain size. - -A _kettle_ for boiling water in. - -A _gas-stove_, or substitute, for heating purposes. - -A _peel_, made of wood, to hang the sheets on the lines. The sheets are -placed on the peel, from which they are transferred to the lines. - -_Chloride of lime for solution of chloride of lime._—Make a saturated -solution of chloride of lime by mixing intimately the lime with water -in a large jar. When clear the solution may be used. To every gallon of -hot water take from this stock solution two or three ounces. - -NOTE.—_Chlorine bleaches all vegetable matter._ - -_Hydrochloric acid_, also known as muriatic acid or spirits of salts -(poison). - -_Oxalic acid_ (poison). - -_Powdered alum._ |160| - -A _hair sieve_. This is not absolutely necessary, as a fine piece of -linen will answer as well. - -_Size_:— - - (1.) 1 quart of water. - 1/2 ounce of powdered alum. - 1 ounce of isinglass. - 1 scruple of soap. - -Simmer the whole for about one hour, then pass through a fine hair -sieve or piece of linen. Use this whilst warm. - - (2.) 1 gallon of water. - 1/2 lb. of best glue. - 2 ounces of powdered alum. - -Simmer and use as above. - - (3). 1 quart of water. - 2-1/2 ounces of isinglass. - 2 drachms of alum. - -Simmer the whole for about one hour, strain as above. - -It must be remembered that a size too strong in glue or isinglass is -liable to make the paper too brittle; again, some papers require a -stronger size than others. - -(4). A size that may be used cold, and is recommended in France, to -keep at hand and to use when only a single leaf requires sizing, such -as when a name has been erased from a title-page, is as follows:—Boil -about a quart of water in a saucepan. Whilst boiling, add about two oz. -of shellac and 1/2 oz. of borax; the borax will dissolve the shellac, -which will be held in suspension; the whole must then be passed through -a fine hair sieve, or piece of linen, to rid it of all pieces or -impurities. This will keep a very long time, and may be used over and -over again. - -Great care must be exercised that not too much shellac is used, or the -paper will be rendered transparent. |161| - - -MANIPULATION. - -_Dust._—The careful application of india-rubber or bread will generally -take away all dust. In using india-rubber, hold the sheet or leaf down -by the left hand, and rub gently away from it. If the rubber is used -in a to and fro motion, there is great danger of the sheet doubling -back and breaking. The bread may be used in a circular motion; and if a -book be cleaned from dust by this means without pulling to pieces, all -crumbs must be brushed away from the back very carefully before closing -the book. - -_Water stains._—If the stains be from water, the application of boiling -water and alum will take them out. This stain is the one most usually -found in books, it may be distinguished from other stains by leaving a -mark having a sharp edge. - -To take such a stain away, pull the book to pieces, strew on the bottom -of the pan a handful of powdered alum, on this pour a quantity of -boiling water. Immerse each section leaf by leaf in the liquid, and -allow to remain for some hours. It may be found rather difficult to get -the sheets to go under the water; and as one cannot press them under by -hand, on account of the heat, make a substitute by wrapping strips of -linen on the end of a piece of wood; keep this handy, it will be found -very useful; being round at the end, and soft, it does not tear or go -through the paper, as will anything sharp. - -The alum water will, after a time, become very discoloured; this is -only the stain and other dirt extracted from the paper; throw this away -by tipping the dish, or by the use of the syphon; add fresh water, -either warm or cold, but preferably warm, to dissolve any excess of -alum that may have soaked into the paper, and to further clear it. -After a time the whole book may be taken out, placed between pressing -boards, and excess of water pressed away by the laying |162| press. -The sections are then carefully opened, and hung upon lines or cords -stretched across the workshop to dry. When dry, should the paper -require it, pass the whole book, section by section, or leaf by leaf, -through a size, press, and again hang up to dry. When dry, it will be -ready for re-binding. It may happen that only a single leaf is stained; -do _not cut_ this out as is usually done, but wet a piece of fine -string, which lay on the leaf as far in the back as possible; close the -book and allow to remain a few minutes; the leaf may then be readily -drawn out, the moisture of the string having made the paper soft where -it was placed. It may then be cleaned, and when dry and pressed, -replaced. - -_Damp stains_ may be treated as for water stains, but, as a rule, -a book damaged by damp has little or no chance of being made good -again. A book so damaged can only be strengthened by re-sizing or some -artificial means. To re-size leaves that cannot be plunged into the -solution, the sizing may be done with a soft brush. Place the leaf on a -piece of glass or marble, and use the brush to the leaf as one would do -in pasting; when sized, lift the leaf up very gently and lay it out on -paper to dry; when dry, the reverse side is treated in like manner; or -a thin paper of a transparent character may be pasted over the pages, -either on one or both sides. - -_Mud._—Luckily a book stained with mud is not of frequent occurrence. -Mud seems to be a combination of all that is objectionable, generally -it is a mixture of iron and grease. Wash the leaf well in cold water, -then in a weak solution of muriatic acid, after which, plunge in a weak -solution of chloride of lime. Rinse well, dry, and size. Sometimes -it will be necessary to wash the leaf with soap water. Make a soap -solution, and gently go over the whole sheet with a soft brush, a -shaving brush for instance; this may be done by laying the leaf on a -slab of glass: use great care with |163| the brush, or the surface of -the paper will be abraised; after which, rinse well with water. - -Very often such stains, if fresh, will disappear if a fine jet of -water be allowed to play on the parts dirtied, the water being ejected -through a fine rose jet. - -_Fox-marks._—Books so stained may generally be cleaned by immersing the -leaves into a weak solution of hydrochloric acid; one must not make -the bath too strong, 1/2 ounce of the acid to 1 pint of water, using -the bath hot, will be found about right. Should the marks not give to -this treatment, plunge the book, sheet by sheet, into a weak bath of -chlorine water. The book may be left in for some hours, taken out and -replaced in the hydrochloric bath; after a half hour it may be rinsed -with cold water, hung up to dry, and sized. - -_Finger-marks, commonly called “thumb-marks.”_—These are the most -difficult to erase, the dirt being generally of a greasy nature, and -forced into the fibres of the paper. Make a jelly of white or curd -soap, apply to the stain, and leave it on for some time, then wash away -gently by means of a soft brush _while the leaf is in cold water_; this -will, as a rule, take all, or nearly all, away. A slight rinsing in -very weak acid water, again with cold water, and when dry size. - -_Blood stains._—The leaves stained must be plunged into cold water; -when thoroughly soaked, the stains may be washed with a soft brush -charged with soap, then well rinsed with water again. Dry. - -If hot water be used, the heat renders the albumen of the blood -insoluble, and the stain will be difficult to erase. - -_Ink stains (writing)._—Some inks are more difficult to erase than -others. As a rule ink gives way if the writing be treated with a -solution of oxalic acid, and afterwards to a weak solution of chloride -of lime. It is perhaps better to immerse the whole leaf in the -solution, as the lime is likely to bleach and leave a mark; the leaf -should in any |164| case be plunged in warm water afterwards, to wash -away the lime and acid, and, after drying, it should be sized. - -_Ink stains (marking ink, silver)_ may be removed by a solution of -tincture of iodine; nitrate of silver, the basis of the ink, is changed -into iodide of silver, this is then treated with a solution of cyanide -of potassium. It may perhaps be necessary to repeat this two or three -times; when quite dissolved out, it must be well washed. As the cyanide -is a deadly poison, one may substitute _hyposulphite of sodium_. - -_Fat stains._—(1.) Place a piece of blotting-paper on each side of -the stain, apply a hot polishing iron very carefully to the paper; -this will, in most cases, melt the fat, which will be absorbed by the -blotting-paper. - -(2.) Scrape pipe clay, or French chalk, which place on the stain, then -use the hot iron. The iron must not be used too hot, or the paper will -be scorched; a piece of paper should always be placed between the iron -and the leaf stained. The powder may be afterwards brushed away. - -(3.) May be removed by washing the leaf with ether, or benzoline, -placing a pad of blotting-paper under and over the leaf, dabbing the -benzoline or ether on the spot with a piece of cotton wool. This -process must not be conducted near a flame, both are highly inflammable. - -(4.) A mixture of 1 part nitric acid, 10 parts water, is useful in many -instances for oil stains. When erased, plunge the whole sheet or leaf -into water, changing the water several times. Dry and size. - -_Ink._—When the writing-paper has been made from inferior rags bleached -with excess of chlorine the best ink becomes discoloured. - -_Reviving old writings._—(1.) Brush the paper over carefully with a -solution of sulpho-cyanide of potassium (1 in 20). Then, while still -damp, hold over a dish containing hot muriatic acid; the writing will -develop deep red. |165| - -(2.) Wash the writing with a very weak solution of hydrochloric acid, -then carefully apply infusion of galls. - -(3.) For letters that have been in sea water, wash with warm water to -remove the salt, then soak in weak solution of gallic acid, about 3 -grains to the ounce. If this does not make the writing legible enough, -wash thoroughly in clean water, and soak in a solution of protosulphate -of iron, 10 grains to the ounce. - -_To restore writing effaced by chlorine._—(1.) Expose the writing to -the vapour of sulphuret of ammonia, or dip it into a solution of the -sulphuret. - - (2.) Ferro-cyanide of potassium, 5 parts. - Water, 85 parts. - -Dissolve and immerse the paper in the fluid, then slightly acidulate -the solution with sulphuric acid. - -Guitaud discovered that sulphuret of ammonia and prussiate of potash -revives writing effaced by oxymuriatic acid. - -_To restore MSS. faded by time._—A moderately concentrated solution of -tannin washed over the paper. The MS. to be carefully dried. - -_To preserve drawings or manuscripts._—Mix with every 100 parts -of collodion 2 parts of sterine. Place the paper in question on a -perfectly level and even surface, such as a marble table or large slab -of glass. Give the paper a thin coat of this collodion, and in about -twenty minutes it will be protected by a transparent, brilliant, and -imperishable envelope. - -_To fix drawings or pencil marks._—Pass the paper through a bath of -thin size, made either from gelatine or isinglass; or a bath of skim -milk. - -_To render paper waterproof._—Take of borax 100 parts, water 2,250 -parts; boil, and while stirring, gradually add powdered shellac 300 -parts. When the whole is dissolved, strain through muslin. This will -keep a long time and may be bottled. |166| - -_To render paper incombustible._—Pass the paper through a strong -solution of alum, and hang up to dry. - -The following, taken from the “English Mechanic,” June 19th, 1874, is, -I think, of great use to the professional restorer of old books, and -will give the binder an idea of what has to be done sometimes:— - - “DECIPHERING BURNT DOCUMENTS. - - “M. Rathelot, an officer of the Paris Law Courts, has succeeded in an - ingenious manner in transcribing a number of the registers which were - burnt during the Commune. These registers had remained so long in the - fire that each of them seemed to have become a homogeneous block, more - like a slab of charcoal than anything else; and when an attempt was - made to detach a leaf it fell away into powder. - - “He first cut off the back of the book; he then steeped the book in - water, and afterwards exposed it, all wet as it was, to the heat at - the mouth of a warming pipe (_calorifère_). The water as it evaporated - raised the leaves one by one, and they could be separated, but - with extraordinary precaution. Each sheet was then deciphered and - transcribed. The appearance of the pages was very curious—the writing - appeared of a dull black, while the paper was of a lustrous black, - something like velvet decorations on a black satin ground, so that the - entries were not difficult to decipher.” - -_Insects._—A library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded -against, viz.: insects, dampness, and rats or mice.[12] - - [12] Blades, in his “Enemies of Books,” includes bookbinders. - -Everyone is supposed to know how to guard against dampness and rats or -mice. Several means are known how to keep insects at a distance. The -first consists in the |167| proper choice of woods for the book-case: -these are cedar, cypress, mahogany, sandal, or very dry and sound oak. -All these are compact or of very strong aroma, and are such as insects -do not like to pierce. Another source of danger is the use of chemicals -in the binding of books. - -The insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly, and very -few libraries are free from them. The microscopic eggs that are left -by the female give birth to a small grub, which pierces the leather -boards and book for its nourishment, and to get to the air. These are -familiarly called bookworms, but by the scientific world they are -known as _hypothenemus eruditus_ which eats the leather, and _anobium -striatum_ which bores through the paper. The larvæ of the _dermestes_ -also attack wood as well as books. - -An instance of how these insects were once managed:—M. Fabbroni, -Director of the Museum of Florence, who possessed a magnificent -library, found, after a year’s absence, in the wood and furniture, -great havoc made by insects, and his books spoilt by the larvæ, so -much so that it gave a fair promise of the total destruction of the -whole, unless he could find a method to exterminate the pests. He -first painted the holes over with wax, but shortly after he found new -worms which killed every particle of wood they touched. He plunged the -ordinary wood in arsenic and oil, and other portions he anointed once -every month with olive oil, in which he had boiled arsenic, until the -colour and odour announced that the solution was perfect. The number -then diminished. But a similar method could not be employed for books. -M. Fabbroni resolved to anoint the back and sides with aquafortis; in -an instant the dermestes abandoned their habitation, and wandered to -the wood; the oil having evaporized they commenced to develop again, -and again began their attacks on the newly bound books. He saw amongst -the many spoilt books one |168| remaining intact, and on inquiry -found that turpentine had been used in the paste. He then ordered that -for the future all paste should be mixed with some such poison. This -precaution had the _beneficial_ result. - -It is not only in Europe that these worms make such ravages in -libraries. In the warmer climes they appear to be even more dangerous. -And it is a fact that certain libraries are almost a mass of dust, by -the books (and valuable ones) falling to pieces. Nearly all authors -on this subject agree that the paste which is used is the first -cause, or a great help, to all the waste committed by these dangerous -_bibliophobes_. Then something must be put into the paste which will -resist all these insects and keep them at a distance. The most suitable -for this is a mineral salt, such as alum or vitriol; vegetable salts, -such as potash, dissolve readily in a moist air and make marks or -spots in the books. From experience, it is most desirable to banish -everything that may encourage worms, and as it is very rare that -persons who occupy themselves with books are not in want of paste, -for some repairs or other, either to the bindings or to the books, -subjoined is a method of preserving the paste and keeping it moist and -free from insects. - -Alum, as employed by binders, is not an absolute preservative, although -it contributes greatly to the preservation of the leather. Resin as -used by shoemakers is preferable, and in effect works in the same -way; but oil of turpentine has a greater effect. Anything of strong -odour, like aniseed, bergamot, mixed perfectly but in small quantities, -preserves the paste during an unlimited time. - -Or, make the paste with flour, throw in a small quantity of ground -sugar and a portion of _corrosive sublimate_. The sugar makes it pliant -and prevents the formation of crust on the top. The sublimate prevents -insects and fermentation. This salt does not prevent moisture, but as -two or |169| three drops of oil are sufficient to prevent it, all -causes of destruction are thus guarded against. This paste exposed to -the air hardens without decomposition. If it is kept in an air-tight -pot or jar, it will be always ready, without any other preparation. - -Books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three -times a year, not only to keep them in all their freshness, but -also to prevent any development of insects and to examine for signs -of dampness. The interior of a book also asks that care, which -unfortunately is neglected very often. After having taken a book from -the shelves it should not be opened before ascertaining if the top edge -be dusty. If it is a book that has had the edge cut, the dust should be -removed with a soft duster, or simply blown off. If it is a book which -has uncut edges it should be brushed with rather a hard brush. By this -method in opening the volume one need not be afraid that the dirt will -enter between the leaves and soil them. - -_Glue._—The best glue may be known by its paleness, but French glue is -now manufactured of inferior quality, made pale by the use of acid, but -which on boiling turns almost black. Good glue immersed in water for a -day will not dissolve, but swell, while inferior will partly or wholly -do so, according to quality. - -In preparing glue, a few cakes should be broken into pieces and placed -in water for twelve hours, then boiled and turned out into a pan to get -cold; when cold, pieces may be cut out and placed in the glue-pot as -wanted. This naturally refers to when large quantities are used, but -small portions may be boiled in the glue-pot after soaking in water. - -Glue loses a great deal of its strength by frequent re-melting. It -should always be used as hot as possible. - -_Rice glue or paste._—By mixing rice flour intimately with |170| cold -water, and then gently boiling it, a beautifully white and strong paste -is made. It dries almost transparent, and is a most useful paste for -fine or delicate work. - -_Paste._—For ordinary purposes paste consists simply of flour made into -a thin cream with water and boiled. It then forms a stiffish mass, -which may be diluted with water so as to bring it to any required -condition. It is sometimes of advantage to add a little common glue to -the paste. Where paste is kept for a long time, various ingredients may -be added to prevent souring and moulding. A few cloves form perhaps the -best preservative for small quantities; on the larger scale carbolic -acid may be used; salicylic acid is also a good preservative, a few -grains added to the freshly prepared paste will entirely prevent -souring and moulding. - -Paste is now made on a commercial scale by various Paste Cos., who send -it out to all parts. The paste is exceedingly good, and keeps a long -time. - -_Photographs._—A few words respecting the treatment of photographs may -not be out of place here. - -To remove a photograph from an old or dirty mount, the surplus of the -mount should be cut away; it should then be put into a plate of cold -water and be allowed to float off. A little warm water will assist in -its coming away more easily, but should it not do so, the photograph -has probably been mounted with a solution of india-rubber, and in that -case, by holding it near the fire, the rubber will soften, and the -print may easily be peeled off. - -Very hot water is likely to set up a reaction if the prints were not -well washed by the photographer when first sent out. - -In mounting photographs, white boards should, as a rule, be avoided, -because the colour of the boards is more pure than the lights of the -photograph, and deaden the effect. A toned or tinted board is more -suitable. |171| - -They should be damped, and evenly trimmed and pasted all over with thin -best glue or starch, and well rubbed down with a piece of clean paper -over the print. If any of the glue or starch oozes out from the sides, -it should be wiped off with a clean damp sponge. As photographs lose -their gloss in mounting, they must be rolled afterwards in order to -restore it. A special machine is used for this. - -But it may be wished to introduce the silver print without mounting on -a board. To do so, and to keep the print straight, paste a very thin -paper on the back, stretching the paper well; this will counteract -the pulling power albumen has, and the print will, if this be done -properly, remain perfectly straight and not curl up. - -_Albumen._—Desiccated egg-albumen is now well known in the market -in the form of powder. Three teaspoonfuls of cold water added to -every 1/2 teaspoonful of powder represents the normal consistency of -egg-albumen.[13] - - [13] See Chapter on Finishing—“Albumen.” - -The manufacture of egg-albumen in the neighbourhood of Moscow is -carried on in the houses of the country people. The albumen however is -generally roughly prepared and of bad appearance, and often spoils. -But egg-albumen is also produced on a manufacturing scale in the -neighbourhood of Korotscha, the largest establishment there numbering -sixty to seventy workwomen, using about eight million eggs yearly, -other establishments using less in proportion. - -Albumen is also largely manufactured from blood; 5 oxen or 20 sheep or -34 calves are said to yield the same quantity of dry albumen, viz., 2 -lbs. In producing blood-albumen for commerce, the objects borne in mind -are the attainment of a substance whose solution is free from colour, -possesses coagulation, and which is cheap. - -_To prevent tools, machines, etc., from rusting._—Boiled linseed -oil, if allowed to dry on polished tools, will keep them |172| from -rusting; the oil forms a coat over them which excludes contact from air. - -Dissolve 1/2 oz. of camphor in 1 lb. of lard; take off the scum, and -mix as much blacklead as will give the mixture an iron colour. All -kinds of machinery, iron or steel, if rubbed over with this mixture, -and left on for 24 hours, and then rubbed with a linen cloth, will keep -clean for months. - -_To clean silver mountings._—To restore the colour of tarnished silver -clasps, etc., boil the goods, either silver or plated, in enough -water to cover them. For every pint of water put into it 2 ounces of -carbonate of potash and a 1/4 lb. of whiting. After boiling them for -about a quarter of an hour, clean with a leather, brush, and whiting. -They will then look as good as new. - -_To clean sponges._—Soak the sponge well in diluted muriatic acid for -twelve hours. Wash well, then immerse in a solution of hyposulphate of -soda to which a few drops of muriatic acid has been added a few moments -before. When sufficiently bleached, wash well, and dry in a current of -air. - - - - -|173| - -GLOSSARY - -OF THE - -TECHNICAL TERMS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN BOOKBINDING. - - -ALL-ALONG.—When a volume is sewed, and the thread passes from -kettle-stitch to kettle-stitch, or from end to end in each sheet, it is -said to be sewed “all-along.” - -ARMING PRESS.—A species of blocking press used by hand; so called from -the use of it to impress armorial bearings on the sides of books. - -ASTERISK.—A star used by printers at the bottom of the pages meant to -supply the places of those cancelled (_see also_ CANCEL). - -BACKING BOARDS.—Used when backing and for forming the groove. They are -made of very hard wood, and sometimes faced with iron; are thicker -on the edge intended to form the groove than upon the edge that goes -towards the foredge, so that the whole power of the lying press may be -directed towards the back. - -BACKING HAMMER.—The hammer used for backing and rounding; it has a -broad flat face similar to a shoemaker’s hammer. - -BACKING MACHINE.—A machine for backing cheap work. - -BANDS.—The cord whereon the sheets of a volume are sewn. When a book is -sewn “flexible” the bands appear upon the back. When the back is sewn -so as to imbed the cord in the back, the appearance of raised bands is -produced by gluing narrow strips of leather across the back before the -volume is covered. - -BAND DRIVER.—A blunt chisel used in forwarding, to correct any -irregularities in the bands of flexible backs. - -BAND NIPPERS.—Flat pincers used for nipping up the band in covering. - -BEADING.—The small twist formed when twisting the silk or cotton in -head-banding. - -BEATING HAMMER.—The heavy short-handled hammer used in beating -(generally about 10 lbs.). - -BEATING STONE.—The bed on which books are beaten. - -BEVELLED BOARDS.—Very heavy boards with bevelled edges; used for -antique work. - -BLEED.—When a book has been cut down into the print it is said to have -been bled. - -BLIND-TOOLED.—When a book has been impressed with tools |174| without -being gilt, it is said to be “blind-tooled” or “antique.” - -BLOCKING PRESS.—Another and more general term for the arming press; one -of the chief implements used in cloth work. Used for finishing the side -of a cover by a mechanical process. - -BLOCKS OR BLOCKING TOOLS.—An engraved stamp used for finishing by means -of the blocking press. - -BOARDS.—Are of various kinds, each denoting the work it is intended -for, such as pressing boards, backing, cutting, burnishing, gilding, -etc. - -BODKIN.—A strong and short point of steel fixed in a wooden handle, for -making the holes through the mill-boards. The slips upon the back of -the book are laced through the holes for attaching the mill-board to -the book. - -BOLE.—A red earthy mineral, resembling clay in character, used in the -preparation for gilding edges. - -BOLT.—The fold in the head and foredge of the sheets. The iron bar with -a screw and nut which secures the knife to the plough. - -BOSSES.—Brass or other metal ornamentations fastened upon the boards of -books; for ornament or preservation. - -BROKEN OVER.—When plates are turned over or folded a short distance -from the back edge, before they are placed in the volume, so as to -facilitate their being turned easily or laid flat, they are said to be -broken over. When a leaf has been turned down the paper is broken. - -BURNISH.—The gloss produced by the application of the burnisher to the -edges. - -BURNISHERS.—Pieces of agate or bloodstone affixed to convenient handles. - -CANCELS.—Leaves containing errors which are to be cut out and replaced -by corrected pages (_see_ ASTERISK). - -CAP.—The envelope of paper used to protect the edges while the volume -is being covered and finished. - -CASE-WORK.—When the cover is made independent of the book, the book -being afterwards fastened into it. Refers principally to cloth and -bible work. - -CATCH-WORD.—A word used and seen in early printed books at the bottom -of the page, which word is the first on the following page. To denote -the first and last word in an encyclopædia or other book of reference. - -CENTRE TOOLS.—Independent tools cut for the ornamentation of the centre -of panels and sides. - -CLASP.—The hook or catch used for fastening the boards together when -the book is closed; used formerly on almost every book. - -CLEARING-OUT.—Removing the waste-paper, and paring away any superfluous -leather upon the inside, preparatory to pasting down the end-papers. - -CLOTH.—Prepared calico, sometimes embossed with different patterns, -used for cloth bindings. - -COLLATING.—Examining the sheets by the signatures after the volume has -been folded, |175| to ascertain if they be in correct sequence. - -COMBS.—Instruments with wire teeth used in marbling. - -CORNERS.—The triangular tools used in finishing backs and sides. The -leather or material covering the corners of half-bound books. The metal -ornaments used usually in keeping with clasps. - -CROPPED.—When a book has been cut down too much it is said to be -cropped. - -CUT DOWN.—When a plough-knife dips downward out of the level it is -said to “cut down”; on the contrary, if the point is out of the level -upwards it is said to “cut up.” - -CUT UP.—Same as the last explanation. - -DIVINITY CALF.—A dark brown calf used generally for religious books, -and worked in blind or antique. - -DENTELLE.—As the word expresses. A style resembling lace work, finished -with very finely cut tools. - -DOUBLED.—When in working a tool a second time it is inadvertently not -placed exactly in the previous impression, it is said to be “doubled.” - -EDGE-ROLLED.—When the edges of the boards are rolled, either in blind -or in gold. - -END-PAPERS.—The papers placed at each end of the volume and pasted down -upon the boards. - -FILLET.—A cylindrical tool used in finishing, upon which a line or -lines are engraved. - -FINISHING.—The department that receives the volumes after they are put -in leather. The ornaments placed on the volume. The person who works at -this branch is termed a finisher. - -FINISHING PRESS.—A small press, used for holding books when being -finished. - -FINISHING STOVE.—A heating box or fire used for warming the various -tools used in finishing. - -FLEXIBLE.—When a book is sewn on raised bands, and the thread is passed -entirely round each band. It is the strongest sewing done at the -present time. This term is often misused for limp work, because the -boards are limp or flexible. - -FOLDER.—A flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding sheets, and in -many other manipulations; called also a folding stick. A female engaged -in folding sheets. - -FOLDING MACHINE.—A machine invented to fold sheets, generally used in -newspaper offices. - -FOREDGE.—The front edge of a book. - -FORWARDING.—The branch that takes the books after they are sewed, and -advances them until they are put into leather ready for the finisher. -The one who works at this branch is called a forwarder. - -FULL-BOUND.—When the sides and back of a volume are covered with -leather it is said to be full-bound. - -GATHERING.—Collecting the various sheets from piles when folded, so -that the |176| arrangement follows the sequence of the signature. - -GILT.—Applies to both the edges and to the ornaments in finishing. - -GLAIRE.—The white of eggs beaten up. - -GOLD CUSHION.—A cushion for cutting the gold leaf on. - -GOLD KNIFE.—The knife for cutting the gold; long and quite straight. - -GOUGE.—A tool used in finishing; it is a line forming the segment of a -circle. - -GRAINING BOARDS.—Boards used for producing a grain on calf and russia -books. Grain of various form is cut in wood, and by pressure the -leather upon which the boards are laid receives the impression. - -GRAINING PLATES.—Metal plates same as above. - -GUARDS.—Strips of paper inserted in the backs or books intended for the -insertion of plates, to prevent the book being uneven when filled; also -the strips upon which plates are mounted. - -GUIDES.—The groove in which the plough moves upon the face of the -cutting press. - -GUILLOTINE.—A machine used for cutting paper. - -GUINEA-EDGE.—A roll with a pattern similar to the edge of an old guinea. - -HALF-BOUND.—When a volume is covered with leather upon the back and -corners; and the sides with paper or cloth. - -HAND-LETTERS.—Letters fixed in handles; used singly for lettering. - -HEAD AND TAIL.—The top and bottom of a book. - -HEAD-BAND.—The silk or cotton ornament worked at the head and tail of a -volume, as a finish and to make the back even with the boards. - -IMPERFECTIONS.—Sheets rejected on account of being in some respect -imperfect, and for which others are required to make the work complete. - -IN BOARDS.—When a volume is cut after the mill-boards are attached, it -is said to be cut in boards. - -INSET.—The inner pages of a sheet, cut off in folding certain sizes; to -be inset in the centre of the sheet. - -JOINTS.—The projection formed in backing to admit the mill-boards. The -leather or cloth placed from the projection on to the mill-board is -called a joint. - -KETTLE-STITCH.—The chain-stitch which the sewer makes at the head and -tail of a book. A corruption of either chain-stitch, or catch-up stitch. - -KEYS.—Little metal instruments used to secure the bands to the sewing -press. - -KNOCKING-DOWN IRON.—A piece of iron having a small leg in the centre by -which it is secured in the lying press. When fastened there it is used -to pound or beat with a hammer the slips into the boards after they are -laced in, so that they do not show when the book is covered. - -LACED IN.—When the mill-boards are attached to the volume by means of -the slips being passed through holes |177| made in the boards, they -are said to be laced in or drawn in. - -LAW CALF.—Law books are usually bound in calf left wholly uncoloured, -hence the term for white calf. - -LETTERING BLOCK.—A piece of wood, the upper surface being slightly -rounded, upon which side labels are lettered. - -LETTERING BOX.—A wooden box in which hand-letters are kept (_see_ -HAND-LETTERS). - -LINING-PAPERS.—The coloured or marbled paper at each end of the volume. -Called also end-papers. - -MARBLER.—One who marbles the edges of books and paper. - -MARBLING.—The art of floating various colours on a size, from which it -is transferred to paper or book edges. To stain or vein leather like -marble. - -MARKING-UP.—When the back of a book is being marked for flexible sewing. - -MILL-BOARD.—The boards that are attached to the book. Various kinds are -in use now; the most common is made of straw, the best of old naval -cordage. - -MITRED.—When the lines in finishing meet each other at right angles -without overrunning each other, they are said to be mitred. Joined at -an angle of 45°. - -MUTTON-THUMPING.—A term used in bygone days, indicating the common -binding of school books in sheep-skin. - -MUTTON-THUMPER.—An old term indicating a bad workman. - -OFF-SET.—The impression made by the print against the opposite page, -when a book has been rolled or beaten before the ink be dried. (_Also_ -SET-OFF.) - -OUT OF BOARDS.—When a volume is cut before the boards are affixed, it -is done out of boards. Nearly the whole of common work is done out of -boards. - -OUT OF TRUTH.—When a book is not cut square. - -OVERCASTING.—An operation in sewing, when the work consists of single -leaves or plates. Over-sewing. - -PALLET.—The tools used for finishing across backs. - -PANEL.—The space between the bands. - -PAPERING-UP.—Covering the edges after they are gilt, to protect them -while the volume is being covered and finished (_see_ CAP). - -PARING.—Reducing the edges of the leather by forming a gradual slope. - -PARING KNIFE.—The knife used for paring. - -PASTE-WASH.—Paste diluted with water. - -PEEL.—A wooden instrument used to hang up damp sheets for drying. - -PENCIL.—A small brush of camel’s hair used for glairing. - -PIECED.—Any space that has another leather upon it, as a lettering -piece. - -PLOUGH.—The instrument used for cutting the edges when the book is in -the lying press. - -PLOUGH KNIFE.—The knife attached to the plough. |178| - -POLISHER.—A steel instrument for giving a gloss to the leather after -finishing. - -PRESS.—Of various kinds, viz.: lying, cutting, standing, blocking, -finishing, etc. - -PRESS PIN.—A bar of iron used as a lever for standing presses; a -smaller kind for lying presses. - -PRESSING BLOCKS.—Blocks of wood used for filling up a standing press -when there are not enough books. - -PRESSING BOARDS.—Boards used for pressing books between. - -PROOF.—The rough edges of certain leaves left uncut by the plough, are -“proof” that the book is not cut down (_see also_ WITNESS). - -RASPED.—The sharp edge taken off mill-boards. - -REGISTER.—The ribbon placed in a volume for a marker. A list of -signatures attached to the end of early-printed books for the use of -the binder. In printing—when on looking through a leaf the print on -the recto and verso is not exactly opposite, it is said to be _out of -register_. - -ROLLING MACHINE.—A machine introduced to save the labour of beating, -the sheets being passed between two revolving cylinders. - -ROLLS.—Cylindrical ornamental tools used in finishing. - -RUNNER.—The front board used in cutting edges. - -RUN-UP.—When the back has a fillet ran from head to tail without being -mitred at each band, it is said to be “run-up.” - -SAWING-IN.—When the back is sawn for the reception of the cord in -sewing. - -SAWING MACHINE.—A machine for sawing the backs of books quickly. - -SETTING THE HEAD-BAND.—Adjusting the leather in covering so as to form -a kind of cap to the head-band. - -SEWER.—The person who sews the sheets together on the sewing -press—generally a female. - -SEWING MACHINE.—A recent invention for the sewing of books with wire -and thread. - -SHAVING TUB.—The paper cut from the edges of a volume are called -shavings. The receptacle into which they fall while the forwarder is -cutting is termed the shaving tub. - -SHEARS.—Large scissors used for cutting up mill-boards. - -SHEEP.—An old term for all common work covered in sheep-skin. - -SIGNATURE.—The letter or figure under the footline of the first page of -each sheet, to indicate the order of arrangement in the volume. - -SIZE.—A preparation used in finishing and gilding, formerly made with -vellum, but can now be bought ready for use. When used on paper a thin -solution of glue. - -SLIPS.—The pieces of twine that project beyond the back of the volume -after it is sewn. - -SQUARES.—The portions of the boards that project beyond the edges after -the book is cut. - -STABBING.—The term used formerly for piercing the boards with a bodkin -for the slips to pass through; more generally |179| known now as -“holeing.” The operation of piercing pamphlets for the purpose of -stitching. - -STABBING MACHINE.—A small machine used for making the holes through the -backs of pamphlets. - -STANDING PRESS.—A fixed heavy press with a perpendicular screw over the -centre. - -START.—When any of the leaves are not properly secured in the back, and -they project beyond the others, they are said to have started. When the -back has been broken by forcing the leaves they start. - -STIFFENER.—A thin mill-board used for various purposes. - -STITCHING.—The operation of passing the thread through a pamphlet for -the purpose of securing the sheets together. - -STRAIGHT-EDGE.—A small board having one edge perfectly straight. - -STOPS.—Small circular tools, adapted to “stop” a fillet when it -intersects at right angles; used to save the time mitringmitreing would -occupy. - -TENON SAW.—A small saw used by bookbinders for sawing the books for -sewing. More strictly speaking a carpenter’s tool. - -TITLE.—The space between the bands upon which the lettering is placed. -The leaf in the beginning of a book describing the subject. - -TOOLS.—Applied particularly to the hand stamps and tools used in -finishing. - -TRIMMING.—Shaving the rough edge of the leaves of a book that is not to -be cut. - -TRINDLE.—A thin strip of wood or iron. - -TURNING-UP.—The process of cutting the foredge in such a manner as to -throw the round out of the back until the edge is cut. All books that -are cut in boards have a pair of trindles thrust between the boards and -across the back to assist the operation. - -TYING-UP.—The tying of a volume after the cover has been drawn on, so -as to make the leather adhere better to the sides of the bands; also -for setting the head-band. - -TYPE.—Metal letters used in printing and lettering. - -TYPE-HOLDER.—An instrument for holding the type when used for lettering. - -VARNISH.—Used as a protection to the glaire when polished on the covers -of books. - -WHIPPING.—Another term for overcasting, but when longer stitches are -made. - -WITNESS.—When a volume is cut so as to show that it has not been so cut -down, but that some of the leaves have still rough edges. These uncut -leaves are called “Witness” (_see_ PROOF). - -WRINKLE.—The uneven surface in a volume, caused by not being properly -pressed or by dampness, also caused by improper backing. - - - - -|181| - -INDEX. - - -Acids, effect of, on leather, 133. - -Advantage, comparative, of paste and glue, 93. - -—— of flexible binding, 28. - -—— of graining calf, 144. - -—— of vinegar over paste water when finishing, 127. - -Albumen, 171. - -Antique finishing, 122. - -—— tools, method of working, 122. - -Arming press, 117. - -Artificial heat, 46. - -Artists’ vellum, 147. - -Athenæum letter on trimming, 43. - -Azuré tools, 113. - - -Back, calf, polishing a, 140. - -—— finishing a (cut), 130. - -—— full gilt, 129. - -—— mitred, 129–139. - -—— run up, 129–140. - -Backs, flat, 48. - -—— suitable for calf work (cut), 138. - -Backing, 48. - -—— (cut), 49. - -—— boards (cut), 48, 50. - -—— flexible work, 50. - -—— hammer (cut), 49. - -—— machines, 50. - -Band nippers (cut), 93. - -Bands, putting on, 88. - -Bar roll, 133. - -Bath, effect upon stains of wrong, 158. - -Beating, 9. - -—— hammer (cut), 9. - -—— gold books, 10. - -Beating stone, 9. - -Bibles, etc., edges of, 122. - -—— end papers for, 33. - -—— finishing of, 122. - -Bindings, monastic, 111. - -Blind finishing, 122. - -—— —— beauty of, 125. - -—— —— colour of, 122. - -Blocking, 149. - -—— calf, 153. - -—— cloth, 153. - -—— in gold, 153. - -—— morocco, 153. - -—— old method of, 116. - -—— press, 150. - -—— sides, 151. - -—— silk, 146. - -—— velvet, 146. - -Blocks, 151. - -Blood stains, removing, 163. - -Board, backing, 48. - -—— cutting, 54. - -—— trimming, 41. - -Boards, cutting in, 64. - -—— cutting out of, 64. - -—— made, 55. - -—— for photographs, 170. - -Bolt knife (cut), 61. - -Books, enemies of, 166. - -Book-worms, 167. - -—— to keep away, 168. - -Brass type, 129. - -Bread, cleaning with, 161. - -Bronze end paper, 34. - -Brush, finger, 68. - -—— sprinkling, 68. - -Burnishers, 79. - -—— edge (cuts), 81. - -Burnishing edges, 81. - -—— marbled paper, 73. - -Burnt documents, deciphering, 166. - -Burr on knife, 79. - - -Calf, back polishing, 137. - -—— blocking, 153. - -—— Cambridge, 104. - -—— colouring, 100. - -—— colouring, preparing for, 102. - -—— colouring, black, 101. - -—— colouring, brown, 102. - -—— colouring, yellow, 102. - -—— covering in, 94. - -—— dabbing, 106. - -—— effect of glue on, 89. - -—— extra, 142. - -—— finishing, 135. - -—— graining, 144. - -—— graining, advantage of, 144. - -—— green and light, 139–141. - -—— handling, 94. - -—— lettering, 140. - -—— marbling, 105. - -—— marbling, preparing for, 104. - -—— neat, 137. - -—— pasting down, 99. - -—— sides, finishing, 141. - -—— sides, polishing, 142. - -—— work, backs suitable for (cut), 138. - -—— sprinkling, 103. - -—— sprinkling, emblematic, 103. - -—— sprinkling, preparing for, 103. - -Cambridge calf, 104. - -Capping up edges, 82. - -Cat’s paw, 106. - -Charcoal fire for finishing, 121. - -Chemical colouring of leather, 133. - -Chloride of lime solution, 159. - -Chlorine, restoring writing effaced by, 165. - -Cleaning, 157. - -—— off stick, 58–59. - -—— removing single leaf for, 162. - -Cleaning silver mountings, 172. - -—— sponges, 172. - -—— with india-rubber, 161. - -—— with bread, 161. - -Cloth blocking, 153. - -—— covering with, 95. - -—— joints, 38. - -—— smooth, 95. - -Cobb paper, 33. - -Collating, 13. - -Colour of blind work, 122. - -Colours for books, suggested, 96. - -—— for marbling, 69. - -—— for sprinkling, 68. - -Coloured edges, fancy, 69. - -—— paste paper, 35. - -—— plates, 17. - -Colouring calf, 100. - -—— calf preparing for, 102. - -—— calf, black, 101. - -—— calf, brown, 102. - -—— yellow, 102. - -Colouring edges, 67. - -—— of leather, chemical, 133. - -—— plain, for edges, 69. - -Comb marble, 72. - -Cord, sizes of, 22. - -Cords, lay, 23. - -Cotton wool, 120. - -Covers, cutting leather, 90. - -Covering, 90. - -—— half bound work, 96. - -—— preparing for, 87. - -—— with calf, 94. - -—— with cloth, 95. - -—— with morocco, 90. - -—— with parchment, 94. - -—— with roan, 95. - -—— with russia, 94. - -—— with satin, 95. - -—— with silk, 95. - -—— with vellum, 94. - -—— with velvet, 95. - -Cut against, 54. - -—— true, to tell if boards are, 56. - -—— to tell if book is, 64. - -Cushion, gold, 78. - -Cutting, 59. - -—— in boards, 64. - -—— out of boards, 64. - -—— board, 54. - -—— foredge, 62. - -—— gold leaf, 80. - -—— head, 61. - -—— leather covers, 90. - -—— machines (cuts), 65, 66. - -—— mill-board, 52. - -—— press and plough (cut), 60. - -—— tail, 62. - - -Dabbing calf, 106. - -Damp stains, 162. - -—— repairing books damaged by, 162. - -Deciphering burnt documents, 166. - -Dentelle border, 132. - -Derome tools (cuts), 115. - -Dibdin, Dr, 95. - -Disadvantage of backing machines, 51. - -—— flat backs, 48. - -—— lettering pieces, 136. - -—— wire sewing, 30. - -Dishes for washing, 159. - -Documents, deciphering burnt, 166. - -Doublé, 132. - -Down, pasting, 97. - -Dragon, gum, 70. - -Drawing in, 57. - -Drawings, fixing, 165. - -—— preserving, 165. - -Dry preparation, 145. - -—— making, 145. - -Drying, artificial heat in, 46. - -Duplicate sheets, 19. - -Dust, removing, 161. - -Dutch marble paper, 34. - - -Edge burnishers (cuts), 81. - -Edges of bibles and religious books, 122. - -—— of boards, finishing, 132. - -—— burnishing, 81. - -—— capping up, 82. - -—— coloured, fancy, 69. - -—— coloured, plain, 69. - -—— colouring, 67. - -—— gilding, 80. - -—— gilt, 78. - -—— gilt, dull, 81. - -—— gilt, painted, 82. - -—— gilt, on red, 82. - -—— gilt, in the round, 81. - -—— gilt, solid, 81. - -—— gilt, tooled, 82. - -—— marbled, 69. - -—— marbled, paper, transferring to, 74–75. - -—— marbling, 73. - -—— marbled, on gilt, 78. - -—— marbled, under gilt, 78. - -—— sprinkled, 67. - -—— sprinkled marble, 67. - -—— transferring marbled paper to, 74–75. - -—— uncut, 41. - -Effaced by chlorine, restoring writing, 165. - -—— by oxymuriatic acid, restoring writing, 165. - -Emblematic sprinkling, 103. - -—— tooling, 117. - -End papers, 33. - -—— papers, bronze, 34. - -—— papers, cobb, 33. - -—— papers, coloured paste, 35. - -—— papers, making, 35. - -—— papers, marbled, 33. - -—— papers, printed and fancy, 34. - -—— papers, putting on, 38. - -—— papers, surface, 33. - -—— papers, for bibles, etc., 33. - -—— papers, for school and public library books, 41. - -Ends, sewing (cut), 40. - -Enemies of books, 166. - -Extra, calf, 142. - - -Faded MSS., restoring, 165. - -—— writing, restoring, 165. - -Fat stains, removing, 164. - -Fillet (cut), 118. - -Filling up, 137. - -—— up, saw cuts, 89. - -Finger brush, 68. - -Finger-marks, 163. - -—— removing, 163. - -Finishing, 111. - -—— ancient, 117. - -—— a back (cut), 130. - -—— a back, calf, 135. - -—— a back, full gilt, 137. - -—— a back, run up, 139. - -—— blind, antique or monastic, 122. - -—— blind, tools for, 122. - -—— calf sides, 141. - -—— charcoal fire for, 121. - -—— edges of boards, 132. - -—— extra calf sides, 142. - -—— flexible work, 124. - -—— gold, 125. - -—— gold, tools for, 122. - -—— half morocco book, 127. - -—— inside of a book, 132–141. - -—— medium, 126. - -—— medium, importance of proper, 126. - -—— morocco sides, 131. - -—— morocco imitation, 133. - -—— paper, 144. - -—— press (cuts), 121–122. - -—— religious books, 122. - -—— roan, 133. - -—— russia, 145. - -—— sides calf, 135. - -—— sides calf extra, 142. - -—— sides morocco, 131. - -—— sides, morocco imitation, 133. - -—— silk, 146. - -—— stove (cuts), 120. - -—— taste in, 117. - -—— tools, 118–122. - -—— tools, heat for, 128. - -—— vellum, 147. - -—— velvet, 146. - -—— with dry preparation, 145. - -Fixing drawings, 165. - -Flat backs, 48. - -Flexible binding, advantages of, 28. - -—— how to tell, 29. - -—— not to show, 29, 89. - -Flexible work, backing, 50. - -—— work, cleaning off, 59. - -—— work, covering, preparing for, 89. - -—— work, finishing, 124. - -—— work, gluing up, 45. - -—— work, marking up, 20. - -—— work, mock, 90. - -—— work, sewing, 23. - -—— work, sewing (cut), 27. - -Folding, 3. - -—— stick, 4. - -—— machine (cut), 7. - -—— maps, 15. - -Folio, 4. - -Foredge, cutting, 62. - -Forwarding, 33. - -Fox-marks, 163. - -—— marks, removing, 163. - -French, dab, 106. - -—— method of pressing, 19. - -—— method of trimming, 42. - -—— paring knife (cut), 90. - -—— paring knife, method of using (cut), 91. - -Full gilt back, finishing, 137. - - -Gall, ox, for marbling, 71. - -Gascon, 115. - -—— tools (cuts), 114. - -Gathering, 8. - -—— machine, 8. - -German, method of gluing up, 45. - -—— paring knife (cut), 91. - -—— paring knife, method of using (cut), 91. - -Giggering, 124. - -Gilding edges, 80. - -Gilt back, full, 129. - -—— edges, 78. - -—— edges, dull, 81. - -—— edges, painted, 82. - -—— edges, solid, 81. - -—— edges, tooled, 82. - -—— in the round, 81. - -—— marbling on, 78. - -—— marbling under, 78. - -—— on red, 82. - -—— top, 41. - -Glaire, 119. - -—— how to make, 119. - -—— water, 79. - -Glue, 169. - -—— comparative advantages of paste and, 93. - -—— effect on calf of, 89. - -—— rice, 169. - -—— to tell good, 169. - -Gluing up, 45. - -—— up flexible work, 45. - -—— up, German method of, 45. - -Gold, blocking in, 153. - -—— cushion, 78. - -—— finishing, 125. - -—— finishing, tools for, 128. - -—— knife, 79. - -—— leaf, 79–119. - -—— leaf, cutting, 80. - -Grain, treatment of straight, 92. - -—— treatment of leather with no, 92. - -Graining calf, 144. - -—— advantage of, 144. - -Graining up, 92. - -Grolier tools (cuts), 113. - -Groove, 7. - -Guarding plates, etc., 15. - -Guards, object of, 16. - -Gum Tragacanth (Gum Dragon), 70. - - -Half binding, 96. - -—— binding, covering, 96. - -—— binding, lining for, 53. - -—— binding, pasting down, 100. - -Hammer, beating (cut), 9. - -Hand finishing, 116. - -—— letters, 118. - -Handling calf, 94. - -Head band, setting, 93. - -—— bands, stuck on, 80. - -—— banding, 83. - -—— banding (cut), 84. - -—— banding on old books, 84. - -—— of book cutting, 61. - -Heat, artificial, 46. - -—— for finishing tools, 128. - -—— for polishing tools, 140. - -Henry III., bindings of, 114. - -Holes in back, filling up, 89. - -Hollow backs, 87. - - -Imitation morocco, finishing, 133. - -Importance of proper finishing medium, 126. - -Incombustible, to render paper, 166. - -India rubber, 119. - -—— rubber, how to use, 161. - -Ink stains, removing, 163. - -—— stains, marking, 164. - -Inlaid work, 133. - -Inlaying, 134. - -—— Viennese method of, 135. - -Insects, 166. - -—— poison for, 168. - -Inside of book, finishing, 132–141. - -Interleaving, 18. - -Iron, knocking-down (cut), 6. - -—— polishing (cut), 119. - - -Joint, 7. - -Joints, cloth, 38–99. - -—— morocco, 98. - - -Kettle stitch, 25–28. - -Keys (sewing), 23. - -Knife, bolt (cut), 61. - -—— burr on, 79. - -—— gold, 79. - -—— paring, French (cut), 90. - -—— paring, method of holding, (cut), 91. - -—— paring, German (cut), 91. - -—— paring, German, method of holding (cut), 92. - -—— sliding (cut), 60. - -—— trimming, 42. - -Knocking down iron (cut), 6. - - -Lard, 124. - -Lay cords, 23. - -Lead type, 129. - -Leaf, gold, 79. - -—— gold, cutting, 80. - -—— gold, thickness of, 80. - -—— removing single, 162. - -Leather covers, cutting, 90. - -—— kinds of, 90. - -—— non-porous, 126. - -—— porous, 126. - -Leaves, re-sizing, 162. - -Lettering, 117. - -—— calf, 140. - -—— pieces, 136. - -—— pieces, disadvantages of, 136. - -—— pieces, for vellum books, 148. - -—— pieces, substitute for, 136. - -Letters, hand, 129. - -Lining boards, 55. - -—— boards, half binding, 55. - -—— boards, whole binding, 55. - -—— paper for, 88. - -—— up, 87. - - -Machine, backing, 50. - -—— cutting (cuts), 65, 66. - -—— folding (cut), 7. - -—— gathering, 8. - -—— mill-board cutting (cuts), 54. - -—— mill-board cutting, steam, (cut), 54. - -—— rolling (cut), 11. - -—— rounding, (cut), 47. - -—— sawing in (cut), 22. - -—— sewing (cut), 31. - -—— sewing, 32. - -—— sewing wire, 32. - -Machines, to prevent, rusting, 171. - -Making end papers, 35. - -Maps, mounting (cut), 14. - -—— throwing out, 13. - -Marble comb, 72. - -—— edges, sprinkled, 67. - -—— nonpareil, 72. - -—— shell, 72. - -—— Spanish, 72. - -—— spot, 72. - -—— tree, 105. - -Marbled edges, 69. - -—— paper, 33. - -—— paper, burnishing, 73. - -—— paper, old Dutch, 34. - -—— paper, transferring to edges, 74–75. - -Marblers, mechanical (cuts), 75. - -Marbling, 34–71. - -—— ancient instructions for, 76. - -—— calf, 105. - -—— colours for, 69. - -—— edges, 73. - -—— edges, on gilt, 78. - -—— edges, under gilt, 78. - -—— ox gall for, 71. - -—— paper, 73. - -—— preparing for, 104. - -—— requisites for, 69. - -—— set, 77. - -—— size for, 70. - -—— trough (cut), 70. - -Margins, 3–43. - -Marking ink stains, removing, 164. - -—— up, 20. - -Mechanical marblers (cuts), 75. - -Medium for finishing, 126. - -—— importance of proper, 126. - -Mill-board, cutting, 52. - -—— cutting machine (cut), 53. - -—— cutting machine, steam, (cut), 54. - -—— shears, 52. - -Mill-boards, 51. - -—— made, 55. - -—— name of, 51. - -—— sizes of, 52. - -—— price of, 51. - -Missing sheets, 19. - -Mitre piece (cut), 131. - -Mitred back, 129. - -Mock flexible binding, 90. - -Monastic, bindings, 111. - -—— finishing, 122. - -—— tools (cuts), 112. - -Morocco, blocking, 153. - -—— imitation, finishing, 133. - -—— joints, 98. - -—— pasting down, 97. - -—— sides, finishing, 141. - -Mosaic work, 133. - -Mounting, maps, 15. - -—— photographs, 171. - -Mountings, cleaning silver, 172. - -MSS., preserving, 165. - -—— restoring faded, 165. - -Mull, 89. - -Mud stains, 162. - -—— removing, 162. - - -Neat, calf, 137. - -Nippers, band (cut), 93. - -Nitric acid, effect upon leather, 133. - -Nonpareil marble, 72. - -Non-porous leathers, 126. - - -Object of guards, 16. - -—— of trimming, 42. - -Old books, beating, 10. - -—— head-banding in, 84. - -—— sewing, 25. - -Old writing, reviving, 164. - -Opening books, care in, 169. - -Overcasting, 18. - -Oversewing, 18. - -Ox gall for marbling, 71. - -Oxford vellum, 147. - -Oxymuriatic acid, restoring writing effaced by, 165. - - -Painting covers, 133. - -Pallet (cut), 118. - -—— using the, 123. - -Paper, bronze end, 34. - -—— burnishing marbled, 73. - -—— Cobb, 33. - -—— finishing, 145. - -—— for lining up, 88. - -—— incombustible, to render, 166. - -—— marbled, 33. - -—— marbled, old Dutch, 34. - -—— marbling, 73. - -—— paste, 35. - -—— printed and fancy end, 34. - -—— surface, 33. - -—— waterproof, to render, 165. - -Papers, end, 33. - -—— end, making, 35. - -Parchment, 147. - -—— covering with, 94. - -—— vegetable, 147. - -Paring, 91. - -—— knife, French (cut), 90. - -—— knife, French, method of using (cut), 91. - -—— knife, German (cut), 91. - -—— knife, German, method of using, 92. - -Paste, 170. - -—— and glue, comparative advantages, 93. - -—— for white morocco, 94. - -—— for paper, 35. - -—— rice, 169. - -—— to prevent, moulding and souring, 170. - -—— water, effect upon leather, 127. - -Pasting, 36. - -—— calf, 99. - -—— down, 97. - -—— down half bindings, 100. - -—— Russia, 99. - -—— single sheets, 17. - -—— up, 36. - -Peel, 159. - -Photographs, boards for, 170. - -—— mounting, 171. - -—— removing, 170. - -Pieces, lettering, 136. - -—— lettering, disadvantages of, 136. - -—— lettering, substitute for, 136. - -Plates, 14. - -—— coloured, 17. - -—— guarding, 15. - -Plough, round, 42. - -Polishing calf back, 140. - -—— calf sides, 142. - -—— heat for, 140. - -Polishing iron (cut), 119. - -Porous leathers, 126. - -Preparation, dry, 145. - -Preparing for covering, 87. - -—— for covering flexible work, 89. - -—— for covering flexible work, not to show, 89. - -—— for covering mock flexible work, 90. - -Preserving drawings, MSS., etc., 165. - -Press, arming, 117. - -—— blocking, 150. - -—— cutting (cut), 60. - -—— finishing (cut), 121–122. - -—— lying, 7, 37. - -—— sewing (cut), 24. - -—— standing, 18. - -—— standing, American (cut), 19. - -Pressing, 58, 143. - -—— Parisian, mode of, 19. - -—— various sized books, 58. - -Proof, 57. - -Public library books, 41. - -Pulling, 5. - -Putting on bands, 88. - -—— on end papers, 38. - - -Refolding, 5. - -Register, 3. - -Religious books, edges, 122. - -—— books, end papers, 33. - -—— books, finishing, 122. - -Removing blood stains, 163. - -—— damp stains, 162. - -—— dust, 161. - -—— fat stains, 164. - -—— finger-marks, 163. - -—— fox-marks, 163. - -—— ink stains, 163. - -—— marking ink stains, 164. - -—— mud stains, 161. - -—— single leaf for cleaning, 162. - -—— photographs, 171. - -—— water stains, 161. - -—— writing, 163. - -Repairing books damaged by damp, 162. - -Re-sizing leaves, 162. - -Restoring faded MSS., 165. - -—— writing effaced by chlorine, 165. - -—— writing effaced by oxymuriatic acid, 165. - -—— writing effaced by sea water, 165. - -—— writing faded by time, 165. - -Reviving old writing, 164. - -Rice glue or paste, 169. - -Roan, covering with, 95. - -—— finishing, 133. - -Roll, bar, 133. - -Rolling, 10. - -Rolling machine (cut), 11. - -Round plough, 42. - -Rounding, 46. - -—— machine, 47. - -Roman vellum, 147. - -Runner, 54. - -Run up back, 129, 139. - -Russia, finishing, 145. - -—— imitation, 96. - -—— pasting down, 99. - -—— treatment of, 94. - -Rusting, to prevent, tools, etc., 171. - - -Satin, covering with, 95. - -Saw cuts, depth of, 22. - -—— cuts, filling up, 89. - -—— marks (cut), 21. - -—— tennon, 21. - -Sawing in, 21. - -—— in machine (cut), 22. - -School books, end papers for, 41. - -Scrapers, 79. - -Set, marbling, 77. - -Set off, 12. - -Setting head band, 93. - -Sewing, 23. - -—— disadvantage of wire, 30. - -—— ends, mode of (cut), 40. - -—— flexible (cut), 27. - -—— flexible work, 23. - -—— keys, 23. - -—— machine, 32. - -—— machine (cut), 31. - -—— old books, 25. - -—— ordinary (cuts), 26. - -—— press (cut), 24. - -—— thread, 27. - -—— wire, 30. - -—— machine, 32. - -Shears, mill-board, 52. - -Sheets, 3. - -—— duplicate, 19. - -—— missing, 19. - -Shell marble, 72. - -Sides, blocking, 151. - -—— calf, finishing, 141. - -—— calf, extra finishing, 142. - -—— calf, polishing, 142. - -—— morocco, finishing, 131. - -—— siding, 142. - -—— tooling, 125. - -Sieve, sprinkling, 68. - -Signatures, 4. - -Silk blocking, 146. - -—— covering with, 95. - -—— finishing, 146. - -Silver mountings, to clean, 172. - -Single sheets, pasting, 17. - -Size, 74–79, 160. - -—— for marbling, 70. - -Sizes of books, 4–5. - -—— of cord, 22. - -—— of mill-boards, 52. - -Sizing, 74–159. - -Siding sides, 142. - -Sliding knife (cut), 60. - -Smooth cloth, covering with, 95. - -Spanish marble, 72. - -Sponges, 119. - -—— cleaning, 172. - -Spot marble, 72. - -Sprinkled edges, 67. - -—— marble edges, 67. - -Sprinkling brush, 68. - -—— calf, 103. - -—— calf, fancy, 103. - -—— calf, preparing for, 103. - -—— colours, 68. - -—— sieve, 68. - -Stains, blood, removing, 163. - -—— damp, 162. - -—— effect of wrong bath upon, 158. - -—— fat, removing, 164. - -—— ink, removing, 164. - -—— mud, removing, 162. - -—— removing, 158. - -—— removing, different, 158. - -—— water, how to tell, 161. - -—— water, removing, 161. - -Stamps, 151. - -Standing press, 18. - -—— press, American (cut), 19. - -Steel-faced backing boards, 50. - -Stick, folding, 4. - -—— cleaning off, 58, 59. - -Stone, beating, 9. - -Stove, finishing (cut), 120. - -Straight grain leather treatment, 92. - -Stuck on head bands, 86. - -Substitute for lettering pieces, 136. - -Surface paper, 33. - -Swelling, 27. - - -Tail, cutting, 62. - -Taste in finishing, 117. - -Tennon saw, 21. - -Thread, sewing, 27. - -Throw up backs, 89. - -Throwing out maps (cut), 16. - -Thumb marks, removing, 163. - -Time, restoring writing faded by, 165. - -Title, 128. - -Tools, Derome, 115. - -—— finishing, 118. - -—— for antique finishing, 122. - -—— for gold finishing, 122. - -—— Grolier, 113. - -—— Le Gascon, 114. - -—— monastic, 112. - -—— to prevent, rusting, 171. - -—— Venetian (cuts), 113. - -Tooled gilt edges, 82. - -Tooling, emblematic, 117. - -—— sides, 125. - -Top, gilt, 41. - -Tree marble, 105. - -Trimming, 41. - -—— board, 41. - -——French method of, 42. - -—— knife, 42. - -—— letter on, 43. - -—— machine, 44. - -—— machine (cut), 42. - -—— object of, 42. - -Trindles, 62. - -Trough, marbling (cut), 70. - -—— two sheets on, 29. - -Type, 118–128. - -—— brass, 129. - -—— holder (cut), 118. - -—— lead, 129. - - -Uncut edges, 41. - -Unsized paper, to tell, 80. - - -Varnish, 120. - -Varnishing, 143. - -—— object of, 120. - -Vegetable parchment, 147. - -Vellum artists, 147. - -—— binding, lettering pieces, 149. - -—— binding, old, 94. - -—— covering with, 94. - -—— finishing, 147. - -—— Oxford, 147. - -—— Roman, 147. - -Velvet, blocking, 146. - -—— covering with, 95. - -—— finishing, 146. - -Venetian tools (cuts), 113. - -Viennese method of inlaying, 135. - -Vinegar, advantage of, 127. - - -Washing, 158. - -—— dishes for, 159. - -—— requisites for, 159. - -Water, glaire, 79. - -—— stains, how to tell, 161. - -—— stains, removing, 161. - -Waterproof, rendering paper, 165. - -White morocco, paste for, 92. - -Whole binding, lining boards for, 55. - -Wire sewing, 30. - -—— sewing, disadvantage of, 30. - -—— sewing, machine, 32. - -Writing effaced by chlorine, restoring, 165. - -—— effaced by oxymuriatic acid, restoring, 165. - -—— faded by sea water, reviving, 165. - -—— faded by time, reviving, 165. - -—— removing, 164. - -—— reviving old, 164. - -Wrong bath, effect upon stains of, 158. - - - - -CHISWICK PRESS:—C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE. - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - -Original printed spelling and grammar are retained, with a few -exceptions noted below. Small caps are changed to all capital letters. -Italics _look like this_. Many illustrations have been moved from -their original locations to nearby places between paragraphs. Original -printed page numbers look like this: “|81|”. - -Page 21. In “by sewing a small book on fine bands”, changed “fine” to -“five”. - -Page 46. Changed “spontanenusly” to “spontaneously”. - -Page 52. A new KEY has been added to the table, so that the table can -be displayed properly in this ebook edition. Furthermore, each pair of -columns with headings “6d.”, “7d.”, “8d.”, “8x.”, “8xx.”, and “X.” was -originally printed with an illustration of a black rectangle showing -the relative size referred to. These illustrations are included in the -html and epub editions. - -Page 107. Changed “bason” to “basin”. - -Page 121. A new paragraph break was inserted between “become dangerous” -and “A _finishing press_ is”. - -Page 164. Changed “subsitute” to “substitute”. - -Page 179, Glossary, Entry “Stops”. Changed “mitring” to “mitreing”. - -Page 182, Index, Entry “Covering”. In “preparing f r, 87”, changed -“f r” to “for”. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Art of Bookbinding, by Joseph W. 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