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diff --git a/old/51196-0.txt b/old/51196-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 577dc81..0000000 --- a/old/51196-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10508 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, October 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, October 1883 - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: February 13, 2016 [EBook #51196] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAUTAUQUAN, OCTOBER 1883 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - A Monthly Magazine Devoted to the Promotion of True Culture. - Organ of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - - - VOLUME IV. - - FROM OCTOBER, 1883, TO JULY, 1884. - - - THEODORE L. FLOOD, D.D., Editor. - - - THE CHAUTAUQUA PRESS, - MEADVILLE, PA. - - - - -COPYRIGHTED BY THEODORE L. FLOOD, IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF -CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C., 1883-4. - - - - -INDEX TO VOLUME IV. - - - AGASSIZ. Prof. J. Tingley, Ph.D. 462. - - ALASKA—ITS MISSIONS. Rev. Wm. B. Lewis. 592. - - AMERICAN LITERATURE, Criticisms on. 503. - - AMERICAN LITERATURE, Selections From. - Aldrich, Thomas Bailey. 446. - Bancroft, George. 334. - Bryant, William Cullen. 208. - Bushnell, Dr. Horace. 145. - Channing, William Ellery. 79. - Dana, Richard Henry. 208. - Edwards, Jonathan. 16. - Franklin, Benjamin. 77. - Halleck, Fitz Greene. 207. - Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. 392. - Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 265. - Howells, William D. 394. - Irving, Washington. 146. - James, Jr., Henry. 393. - Jefferson, Thomas. 79. - Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 210. - Lowell, James Russell. 266. - Mather, Cotton. 14. - Motley, John Lothrop. 333. - Paulding, James Kirke. 147. - Porter, Dr. Noah. 146. - Prescott, William H. 335. - Sandys, George. 14. - Taylor, Bayard. 446. - Thaxter, Celia. 447. - Warner, Charles Dudley. 394. - Washington, George. 78. - Whittier, John G. 264. - - AMERICANS, ECCENTRIC. C. E. Bishop. 43, 95, 211, 275, 348, 510, 584. - - AMUSEMENTS OF THE LONDON POOR. Walter Besant. 457. - - ARDENT SPIRITS. B. W. Richardson, M.D. 347. - - ARNOLD, MATTHEW. Prof. A. B. Hyde, D.D. 270. - - ART, Readings in. 11, 75, 142, 204, 262, 330, 384, 442, 500. - - ASTRONOMY OF THE HEAVENS. Prof. M. B. Goff. - December, 183. - January, 218. - February, 278. - March, 346. - April, 405. - May, 455. - June, 528. - July, 569. - August, 570. - September, 571. - - - BANQUET TO CHAUTAUQUA TRUSTEES. 307. - - BLUE LAWS. 156. - - BOOK KNOWLEDGE AND MANNERS. Lord Chesterfield. 161. - - BOOKS RECEIVED. 127, 187, 249, 314, 496, 556, 612. - - BOTANICAL NOTES. Prof. J. H. Montgomery. 227, 287. - - - CALIFORNIA. Frances E. Willard, Pres. W. C. T. U. 222. - - CAÑONS OF THE COLORADO, The. Major G. W. Powell. 564. - - CHARACTER BUILDING. James Kerr. 153. - - CHARITY OF PARIS, A Private. 471. - - CHAUTAUQUA CHILDREN’S CLASS (1883). 62. - - CHAUTAUQUA FOR 1884. 543. - - CHAUTAUQUA TO CALIFORNIA. Frances Willard, Pres. W. C. T. U. 81. - - CHAUTAUQUA WINTER, Echoes from a. Rev. H. H. Moore. 419. - - CLASS OF ’85, To the. 356. - - CLIMATE SEEKING IN AMERICA. Geo. A. Townsend. 516. - - C. L. S. C. COURSE FOR 1884-’85. 600. - - C. L. S. C. IN CANADA, The. 481. - - C. L. S. C. IN THE SOUTH. 292. - - C. L. S. C. IN TORONTO, The. 167. - - C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS. - October, 57. - November, 120. - December, 183. - January, 243. - February, 304. - March, 370. - April, 432. - May, 491. - June, 551. - - C. L. S. C. REUNION. 104. - - C. L. S. C. TESTIMONY. 103, 606. - - C. L. S. C. WORK. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 44, 102, 165, 228, 287, 355, - 421, 477, 538, 600. - - C. L. S. C. ’84. 355. - - COMMENCEMENT, C. L. S. C. Class 1883. 20. - - COOPER INSTITUTE. J. M. Buckley, D.D. 398. - - COUNCIL OF NICE, The. 581. - - COURTS OF THREE PRESIDENTS—Thiers, MacMahon, Grévy. 566. - - - DEAD-LETTER OFFICE, The. Pattie L. Collins. 460. - - DREAMY OLD TOWN, A. Edith Sessions Tupper. 520. - - - EARTHQUAKES—ISCHIA AND JAVA. 83. - - EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. 54, 117, 180, 241, 302, 368, 430, 488, 548, 610. - - EDITOR’S OUTLOOK: - C. L. S. C. an Educational Necessity, The. 53. - C. L. S. C. Plan, The. 178. - C. L. S. C. Course for 1884-5, The. 607. - Chautauqua Outlook for 1884. 609. - College Reform, A. 116. - Complaint, An Unjust. 367. - Day, an Extra. 180. - Dress and Income. 300. - Efficiency and Tenure. 547. - Evangelists. 239. - Floods. 429. - Founder’s Day. 428. - General Conference, Some Points on the. 608. - Greece, History of. 116. - Greeting, To the Class of 1884. 546. - Headquarters of the C. L. S. C. 238. - Idea, Dr. Newman’s New. 487. - Ingenuity in Local Circles. 365. - Is Crime Interesting? 366. - Knowledge, Superfluous. 488. - Lawlessness, Two Kinds of. 485. - Letters of William Cullen Bryant. 367. - Luther, Martin. 179. - Negro, Dr. Haygood’s Battle for. 115. - Père Hyacinthe. 241. - Phillips, Wendell. 429. - Political Methods. 428. - Political Outlook, The. 115. - Political Outlook, Present. 300. - Rewards of Public Service. 486. - Shakspere Controversy, The. 53. - Social Life, A Drawback to. 366. - Spanish Bull Fights. 301. - Steam not an Aristocrat. 300. - Temperance Question, The. 179. - Tenth Assembly, The. 52. - Time Standards, The New. 240. - Wall Street Troubles, The. 608. - Workman, The Decline of Our. 547. - - EDITOR’S TABLE. 56, 119. - - EDUCATION OF NEGRO POPULATION. A. G. Haygood. 148. - - ELECTRICITY. 89. - - ENGLISH, British and American. R. A. Proctor. 410. - - ESTIVATION, or Summer Sleep. Rev. J. G. Wood, A.M. 273. - - ETIQUETTE. 99. - - EXPERIENCE, A C. L. S. C. 167. - - - FAILINGS. J. Mortimer-Granville. 39. - - FLOWERS, Early. Francis George Heath. 225. - - FRANCE, Republican Prospects in. Joseph Reinach. 80. - - FRENCH HISTORY, Readings in. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 315, 377. - - FROM THE BALTIC TO THE ADRIATIC. 36, 87. - - - GARDENING AMONG THE CHINESE. 215. - - GERMAN HISTORY. Rev. W. G. Williams. 1, 63, 129, 189, 251. - - GERMAN LITERATURE. 66. - - GERMAN LITERATURE, Extracts From. - Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. 194. - Heine, Heinrich. 253. - Humboldt, Alexander von. 253. - Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 134. - Luther, Martin. 134. - Sachs, Hans. 133. - Schiller, Friedrich von. 193. - Schleiermacher, Friedrich. 254. - Schopenhauer, Arthur. 255. - Schlegel, Friedrich. 195. - Walther von der Vogelweide. 132. - Winckelman, Johann Joachim. 193. - - GOING TO EUROPE. 598. - - GOSPELS, THE, Considered as a Drama. D. H. Wheeler, D.D. 412. - - GRADUATES C. L. S. C. 310. - - GREAT ORGAN AT FRIBOURG, The. Edith Sessions Tupper. 94. - - - HESITATION AND ERRORS IN SPEECH. J. Mortimer-Granville. 454. - - HIBERNATION. J. G. Wood, M.A. 150. - - HYACINTH BULBS. Grant Allen. 351. - - - INEBRIATES, What to do with the. W. W. Godding. 514. - - INTERMEDIATE NORMAL CLASS. 188. - - ISLAND PARK ASSEMBLY. 31. - - - LANDMARKS OF BOSTON. E. E. Hale. 572. - - LAKESIDE ASSEMBLY. 31. - - LAW, Commercial. E. C. Reynolds, Esq. 260, 327, 382, 439. - - LIFE OF A PLANET, The. Richard Proctor. 157. - - LOCAL CIRCLE, How to Conduct a. 107. - - LOCAL CIRCLE NOTICE. 47. - - LOCAL CIRCLES. 105, 169, 230, 288, 356, 422, 478, 539, 601. - - LONDON, Disraeli’s. 157. - - LONDON PREACHERS, Some. 536. - - LOW SPIRITS. J. Mortimer-Granville. 85. - - - MAN OF LEARNING, TELL ME SOMETHING. Margaret Meredith. 150. - - MENDELSSOHN’S GRAVE AND HUMBOLDT’S HOME. 339. - - MIGRATIONS ON FOOT. Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A. 353. - - MISSIONS, Christian. 221. - - MONONO LAKE ASSEMBLY. 30. - - MONTEAGLE ASSEMBLY. Rev. J. H. Warren. 29. - - MONTEREY ASSEMBLY. 28. - - MOUNTAIN LAKE ASSEMBLY. 31. - - MYTHOLOGY, Slavonic. A. H. Cummings. 34. - - - NAPOLEON’S MARSHALS. 100. - - NAVAL FORCE, Our. Lieut. G. W. Mentz. 595. - - NAVY, The. Lieut. G. W. Mentz. 524. - - NEW ENGLAND ASSEMBLY. 32. - - NEW ENGLAND BRANCH, Class of ’86. 103. - - NORMAL CLASS, Chautauqua Graduates (1883). 374. - - NORMAL CLASS, Chautauqua. J. L. Hurlbut, D.D., and R. S. Holmes, - M.A., Instructors. 112, 176, 236, 297, 364, 426, 484, 545. - - NURSES, Trained. Lulie W. Winchester. 466. - - - OCEAN MONARCH, An. G. Browne Goode. 582. - - OSTRICH HUNTING. Lady Florence Dixie. 220. - - OUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. READINGS. - October, 47. - November, 112. - December, 166. - January, 228. - February, 288. - March, 355. - April, 422. - May, 478. - June, 539. - - - PEKING, The Imperial College of. G. W. Smyth. 587. - - PHILLIPS, Wendell. Edward Everett Hale. 451. - - PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 3, 67, 135, 196, 255. - - PLANT NUTRITION. Maxwell T. Masters, M.D. 164. - - POACHERS IN ENGLAND. Jas. Turves. 90. - - POE, Edgar Allen. C. E. Bishop. 407. - - POLITICAL ECONOMY. G. M. Steele, D.D. 9, 73, 140, 202. - - POPULAR EDUCATION, C. L. S. C. Announcement. 48, 175. - - PRISONERS AND PRISONS, Military. O. W. Longan. 475. - - PROHIBITION IN MAINE. Hon. Neal Dow. 415. - - - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. A. M. Martin. 49, 109, 172, 234, 294, 362, - 425, 482, 544. - - - RECREATION. James Paget. 274. - - RECREATIONS OF PARIS WORKMEN. R. Heath. 153. - - REUNION AT MILWAUKEE. 166. - - ROMAN HISTORY, Readings in. W. C. Wilkinson. 437, 497. - - ROUND-TABLE, C. L. S. C. 171, 233, 292. - - RUSSIAN NOVELIST, A. Gabriel Monod. 154. - - - SCHOOLS OF BOSTON, Industrial. E. E. Hale. 417. - - SCOTT, WALTER, Eight Centuries with. Wallace Bruce. 91, 162, 216, - 284, 343, 403, 467, 533, 589. - - SEA AS AN AQUARIUM, The. C. L. Anderson, M.D. 279, 341. - - SKATING AND SKATERS. Robert MacGregor. 159. - - SOLDIERS’ HOME. O. W. Logan. 529. - - SPECULATION IN BUSINESS. Jonathan. 281. - - STATIONERY, C. L. S. C. 103. - - STEEL HORSE, Our. 523. - - SUMMER MEETINGS AT CHAUTAUQUA. 597. - - SUNBEAMS FROM THE CIRCLE. 167, 229. - - SUNDAY READINGS. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 6, 70, 137, 198, 257, 328, - 388, 440, 499, 560. - - SUN AND STRANGE SUNSETS, Green. 400. - - - TABLE-TALK OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 224, 269. - - TALK ABOUT BOOKS. 126, 248, 314, 436, 495, 556, 612. - - TEMPERATURE. J. Mortimer Granville. 158. - - TENEMENT HOUSE LIFE IN NEW YORK. Geo. A. Townsend. 561. - - TRICKS OF CONJURORS. Thomas Frost. 125. - - TROLLOPE’S (ANTHONY) AUTOBIOGRAPHY. 400. - - - UNITED STATES HISTORY. 267, 336, 395, 448, 506. - - UNIVERSITY, Chautauqua. 478. - - - VANISHING TYPES. Rev. Edward Sprague. 577. - - VEGETABLE VILLAINS. R. Turner. 33, 86. - - - WAVERLEY NOVELS. Wallace Bruce. 17. - - WHITE HOUSE, The. Mrs. Pattie L. Collins. 557. - - WINE AND WATER. Benj. W. Richardson, M.D. 283. - - WOMEN AS MISTRESSES OF HOUSEHOLDS, Duties of. F. P. Cobbe. 473. - - WOMEN, Work for. 219. - - WRECKAGE, Social. Ellice Hopkins. 40 - - -POETRY. - - AT REST. Sarah Doudney. 42. - AUTUMN SYMPATHY. E. G. Charlesworth. 80. - BLOSSOMS, To. R. Herrick. 529. - CHILLON, Sonnet on. Byron. 582. - CRACKED FIDDLE, A lay of. Fred. Langbridge. 155. - DIVINE SCULPTOR, The. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 451. - FIR TREE, The. Luella Clark. 347. - FLOTSOM (1492). J. Logie Robertson. 341. - FLOWERY FIELDS, In. Mary Harrison. 38. - GONE. E. G. Charlesworth. 40. - GROWTH. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 561. - HELEN’S TOWER. Chas. Blatherwick. 338. - HIS COLD. Foliot S. Pierpoint. 269. - HOW WE CAME TOGETHER. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. 32. - IVY, The. Henry Burton. 19. - LIGHT AT EVENTIDE. E. G. Charlesworth. 397. - LUTHER. Mrs. S. R. Graham Clark. 275. - MY YEARS. Ada Iddings Gale. 343. - NIGHT. Charles Grindrod. 510. - NIGHT. A. St. J. A. 211. - PRAYER OF SOCRATES, The. Stuart Blackie. 537. - RETURNING. Mary Harrison. 148. - RISE HIGHER. Helen G. Hawthorne. 571. - SABBATH CHIMES. Phebe A. Holden. 402. - SELF-DEPENDENCE. Matthew Arnold. 472. - STILL YOUNG. Ellen O. Peck. 412. - STORK, The. Translated from the Swedish. 214. - SUMMER, A Remnant of. E. O. P. 156. - TO MY BOOKS. Lady Sterling Maxwell. 83. - UNDER THE AUTUMN SKIES. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 161. - WHERE LIES THE MUSIC? Alice C. Jennings. 17. - ZENOBIA. Ada Iddings Gale. 152. - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. ORGAN OF -THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. IV. OCTOBER, 1883. NO. 1. - - -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -_President_—Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. - -_Superintendent of Instruction_—Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., New Haven, -Conn. - -_Counselors_—Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop -H. W. Warren, D.D.; Rev. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. - -_Office Secretary_—Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. - -_General Secretary_—Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - - -REQUIRED READING - -FOR THE - -_Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle for 1883-4_. - -OCTOBER. - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -By REV. W. G. WILLIAMS, A. M. - -I. - -The student of history has need of divisions. By their aid alone can -he hope to have command of the facts and events with which history in -so large part deals. It is well therefore to begin the study of any -particular history by noting such changes, such epoch-making events as -may form partition walls of boxes in which may be placed our classified -information. - -The history of Germany has been variously divided into periods by the -different authors. That which we have adopted here has the sanction of -the majority and will be found exceedingly natural, and hence simple -and convenient. The student should memorize it thoroughly, being -assured that though a very _general_ history of itself, nevertheless it -is more than many of supposed information could tell of the history of -this wonderful people. - - -DIVISION OF THE HISTORY OF THE GERMANS INTO TEN PERIODS. - -_First_—From the most ancient times to the conquests of the Franks, -under Clovis (A. D. 486). - -_Second_—From conquests of Clovis to Charlemagne (511-768). - -_Third_—Charlemagne to Henry I. (768-919). - -_Fourth_—Henry I. to Rodolphus of Hapsburg. The Saxon, Swabian, and -Hohenstaufen houses (919-1273). - -_Fifth_—Rodolphus I. of Hapsburg to Charles V. (1273-1520). - -_Sixth_—Charles V. to Peace of Westphalia (1519-1648). - -_Seventh_—Peace of Westphalia to French Revolution (1648-1789). - -_Eighth_—French Revolution to Peace of Paris (1789-1815). - -_Ninth_—Peace of Paris to Franco-Prussian War (1815-1870-1871). - -_Tenth_—From Franco-Prussian War to present time. - - -THE PRIMITIVE POPULATIONS OF GERMANY, THEIR ORIGIN, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, -ETC. - -“Germany, or Deutschland, occupies a large part of Central Europe. -Speaking roughly, it now reaches from the Alps to the Baltic and the -North Sea, and from the valleys of the Rhine and the Maes to the Danube -as far as the March and the Mur, and to the Prosna and the Lower -Niemen. The country is mountainous in the south, hilly in the center, -and flat in the north, where it forms part of the great plain which -takes in the whole of north-eastern Europe. The western part of this -plain takes in the country between the Teutoburg Wood and the North -Sea. As it passes eastward it widens till it reaches from the Erz and -Riesen Mountains to the Baltic. A part of South Germany slopes toward -the east, and is watered by the Danube; but the general slope of the -country is toward the north. Among the rivers flowing northward are the -Rhine, the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula.”—_Sime._ - -“Germany has varied very much in extent at different times. This is due -partly to the fact that it has no clearly-marked natural boundaries -on the east and west, but chiefly to the peculiarity of its position. -It is the central country of Europe. Being surrounded by most of the -leading nations of the Continent, the Germans have been involved, more -than any other people, in the general history of Europe. Of all their -neighbors, the Scandinavians are most nearly allied to the Germans. -Both are branches of the Teutonic race. But the Germans are also -connected, although not so closely, with the other surrounding peoples. -All, if we except the Magyars or Hungarians, who are Turanians, belong -to the great Aryan family.”—_Sime._ - -“Ancient authors mention several German tribes, as well as their -dwelling places, with greater or less precision. Several of them -also speak of the chief tribes, among which the single septs united -themselves. But their statements are not sufficiently unanimous or -precise to give us that clear view which we would so willingly obtain. -The origin of the Germanic nations, therefore, like that of all others, -is uncertain. To assign to them a distinct historical origin is to -make an assertion without evidence, though it is now indisputably -established that the Teutonic dialects belong to one great family with -the Latin, the Greek, the Sanscrit, and other European and Asiatic -tongues. All the positive knowledge that we have of the German nations, -previous to their contact with the Romans, is exceedingly vague and -mere conjecture.”—_Menzies._ - -“The Romans first heard the name ‘Germans’ from the Celtic Gauls, in -whose language it meant simply _neighbors_. The first notice of a -Germanic tribe was given to the world by the Greek navigator Pytheas, -who made a voyage to the Baltic in the year 330 B. C. Beyond the amber -coast, eastward of the mouth of the Vistula, he found the Goths, of -whom we hear nothing more until they appear, several centuries later, -on the northern shore of the Black Sea. For more than two hundred -years there is no further mention of the Germanic races; then, most -unexpectedly, the Romans were called upon to make their personal -acquaintance.”—_Bayard Taylor._ - -“At the time of their first contact with the Romans, these Germanic -tribes had lost even the tradition of their Asiatic origin. They -supposed themselves to have originated upon the soil where they dwelt, -sprung either from the earth or descended from the gods. According to -the most popular legend, the war-god Tuisko, or Tiu, had a son, Mannus -(whence the word _man_ is derived), who was the first human parent of -the German race. Many centuries must have elapsed since their first -settlement in Europe, or they could not have so completely changed the -forms of their religion and their traditional history.”—_Taylor._ - - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. - -“The early Germans were noted for their love of feasting, which was -carried to such excess that they would sometimes spend whole days and -nights at table, drinking and gaming, in consequence of which they -often quarreled and fought so that a convivial meeting frequently -terminated in bloodshed. They gambled with dice, as Tacitus, with -astonishment, informs us, in a sober state and as a serious occupation, -and with so much eagerness for gain, that when they had lost all they -hazarded their freedom, and even their very persons, upon the last -cast. The loser freely delivered himself up to slavery, although even -younger and stronger than his adversary, and patiently allowed himself -to be bound and sold as a slave; thus steadfastly did they keep their -word, even in a bad case. ‘They call this good faith,’ says the Roman -writer. There were various circumstances under which a German might -forfeit his liberty, such as marrying a bondwoman, or of not being able -to pay his debts; but the generality of the slaves were captives taken -in war. - -“The Germans did not all sit down at the same table, but each man had -his own seat and board, which were of a very rough description, being -merely a wooden stool and table, furnished with drinking horns, wooden -bowls, spoons, and platters. Each person of rank had his servant behind -him to hold his shield and spear. He kept his sword by his side, for on -no occasion would a German part with his arms, which was a proof that -he expected to have frequent need of them. - -“The wives and daughters of the Germans, we are told, shared in all -the public entertainments, for however rude and fierce these people -might be in other respects, they were distinguished, even in the most -barbarous ages, for their attention and respect to the female sex, whom -they consulted on the most important affairs, and by whose opinions -they were very often guided. The feasts of the Germans, like those of -the Gauls and Scandinavians, were always attended by a number of bards, -several of whom were attached to the family of every chief, and were -treated with the highest respect. They played on the harp and flute, -and when they sang of war, the company took part in the concert by -clashing their swords against their shields. - -“The Germans, in very remote ages, were dressed in skins of wild -animals, and afterward in a coarse kind of linen, made by the women; -but as they intermixed more with the Gauls, they learned from them to -make a finer sort of linen, and woolen also, and as soon as they were -acquainted with these useful arts, spinning and weaving became the -principal occupations of German women, and a more civilized costume -was adopted than that which was made from the skins of the elk and -reindeer. These animals, in the time of Julius Cæsar, were very -numerous in the forests of Germany, from which, however, they have long -since disappeared. - -“The Romans justly considered the German nation as an aboriginal, pure, -and unmixed race of people. They resembled themselves alone; and like -the specifically similar plants of the field, which, springing from a -pure seed, not raised in the hot-bed of a garden, but germinating in -the healthy, free, unsheltered soil, do not differ from each other by -varieties; so, also, among the thousands of the simple German race, -there was but one determined and equal form of body. Their chest was -wide and strong; their hair yellow, and with young children it was of a -dazzling white. Their skin was also white, their eyes blue, and their -glance bold and piercing. Their powerful gigantic bodies, which the -Romans and Gauls could not behold without fear, displayed the strength -that nature had given to this people; for, according to the testimony -of some of the ancient writers, their usual height was seven feet. From -their earliest youth upward they hardened their bodies by all devisable -means. New-born infants were dipped in cold water, and the cold bath -was continued during their whole lives as the strengthening renovator, -by both boys and girls, men and women. The children ran about almost -naked, and effeminate nations wondered how those of the Germans, -without cradles or swaddling bands, should grow up to the very fullest -bloom of health. - -“Cæsar, Tacitus, and Suetonius, with many others, have pointed to one -and the same characteristic of the Germans, as the secret of their -power and prosperity. The Kelt had everywhere yielded to the eagles -of Rome, while the Teuton everywhere checked their flight. Amazed, -and even alarmed, at those tall fair-haired, blue-eyed enemies, who -had to be conquered with gold instead of steel, Tacitus examines the -reasons of their prowess, and finds it in the soberness of their -blood, in their reverence for women and for the laws of nature, in -their deference to parental authority and their marriages of maturity. -‘Chastity is a custom with them,’ says the ‘De Moribus Germanorum,’ -and a passage to the same effect might be cited from Cæsar. Those -southern soldiers and statesmen saw, in truth, with a terrible sense -of overhanging fate, that race of hardy, chaste, home-loving, free and -fearless barbarians, of whom the Emperor Titus said, ‘Their bodies -are great, but their souls are greater.’ The tone of Tacitus is that -of a man who bitterly feels how much greater, after all, as a moral -being, the barbarian may be than the civilized man, when civilization -recognizes no higher aim than material splendor, and that utility which -subserves material wants. Other civilizations than that of the Empire -may read a lesson in those brief pages where the philosopher of a -worn-out world records his impression of the races from which the world -was hereafter to be reconstituted.”—_Menzies._ - -“The three principal vices of the Germans were indolence, drunkenness, -and love of gaming. Although always ready for the toils and dangers of -war, they disliked to work at home. The women ruled and regulated their -households with undisputed sway. They were considered the equals of the -men, and exhibited no less energy and courage. They were supposed to -possess the gift of prophecy, and always accompanied the men to battle, -where they took care of the wounded, and stimulated the warriors by -their shouts and songs. They honored the institution of marriage to an -extent beyond that exhibited by any other people of the ancient world. -Those who proved unfaithful to the marriage vow were punished with -death.”—_Taylor._ - - -RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND USAGES. - -“The worship of the ancient Germans coincided with their natural -character, and consequently was much more simple and elevated than that -of other peoples. Although uncultivated, they carried in their hearts -the sentiment of an infinite and eternal power, and they regarded it as -an affront to the divinity to enclose it within walls, or to represent -it under human form. They consecrated to it the woods and forests as -a spacious temple of which nature itself erected the pillars, and to -which the immensity of the heavens formed the roof. - -“The ancient Germans adored, like the Persians, the sun and fire, -but they regarded Wodan as their supreme god. They called him also -Alvater, father of all things. Their most beneficent goddess was the -mother of the earth (Hertha). The Germans attached great importance to -divinations and prognostics. The crow and the owl signified misfortune; -the cuckoo announced long life. They discovered the future by means of -the branches of fruit trees (runes). Various signs were cut upon each -rod, and afterwards the rods were thrown upon a white cloth; then the -priest, or father of the family, offered up a prayer to the divinity, -and thrice chose from among the rods those which were to give the -divine revelations. The clairvoyants were held in high estimation, and -history has preserved some of the names of those to which the belief -of the people had given a great influence over the decision of public -affairs.”—_Menzies._ - -“The people had their religious festivals at stated seasons, when -sacrifices—sometimes of human beings—were laid upon the altars of the -gods in the sacred groves. Even after they became Christians, in the -eighth century, they retained their habit of celebrating some of -these festivals, but changed them into the Christian anniversaries of -Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. - -“Thus, from all we can learn respecting them, we may say that the -Germans, during the first century before Christ, were fully prepared -by their habits, laws, and their moral development, for a higher -civilization. They were still restless, after so many centuries of -wandering; they were fierce and fond of war, as a natural consequence -of their struggles with the neighboring races; but they had already -acquired a love for the wild land where they dwelt, they had begun to -cultivate the soil, they had purified and hallowed the family relation, -which is the basis of all good government, and finally, although -slavery existed among them, they had established equal rights for free -men. - -“If the object of Rome had been civilization, instead of conquest and -plunder, the development of the Germans might have commenced much -earlier and produced very different results.”—_Taylor._ - - [To be continued.] - - - - -PHYSICAL SCIENCE. - - -I.—THE AIR. - -When we begin to look attentively at the world around us, one of the -first things to set us thinking is the air. We do not see it, and yet -it is present wherever we may go. What is this air? - -Although invisible, it is yet a real, material substance. When you -swing your arm rapidly up and down you feel the air offering a -resistance to the hand. The air is something which you can feel, though -you can not see it. You breathe it every moment. You can not get away -from it, for it completely surrounds the earth. To this outer envelope -of air, the name of _atmosphere_ is given. - -The air is not a simple substance, but a mixture of two invisible -gases, called nitrogen and oxygen. But besides these chief ingredients, -it contains also small quantities of other substances; some of which -are visible, others invisible. If you close the shutters of a room, and -let the sunlight stream through only one chink or hole into the room, -you see some of the visible particles of the air. Hundreds of little -motes, or specks of dust, cross the beam of light which makes them -visible against the surrounding darkness, though they disappear in full -daylight. But it is the invisible parts of the air which are of chief -importance; and among them there are two which you must especially -remember—the vapor of water and carbonic acid gas. You will soon come -to see why it is needful for you to distinguish these. - -Now what is this vapor of water? You will understand its nature if you -watch what takes place when a kettle boils. From the mouth of the spout -a stream of white cloud comes out into the air. It is in continual -motion; its outer parts somehow or other disappear, but as fast as they -do so they are supplied by fresh materials from the kettle. The water -in the kettle is all the while growing less, until at last, if you do -not replenish it, the whole will be boiled away, and the kettle left -quite dry. What has become of all the water? You have changed it into -vapor. It is not destroyed or lost in any way, it has only passed from -one state into another, from the liquid into the gaseous form, and is -now dissolved in the air. - -Carbonic acid gas is also one of the invisible substances of the -atmosphere, of which, though it forms no more than four parts in -every ten thousand, yet it constitutes an important ingredient. You -will understand how important it is when you are told that, from this -carbonic acid in the air, all the plants which you see growing upon the -land extract nearly the whole of their solid substance. When a plant -dies and decays, the carbonic acid is restored to the air again. On the -other hand, plants are largely eaten by animals, and help to form the -framework of their bodies. Animals in breathing give out carbonic acid -gas; and when they die, and their bodies decay, the same substance is -again restored to the atmosphere. Hence the carbonic acid of the air is -used to build up the structure both of plants and animals, and is given -back again when these living things cease to live. There is a continual -coming and going of this material between the air and the animal and -vegetable kingdoms. - -You know that though you can not see the air you can feel it when it -moves. A light breeze, or a strong gale, can be just as little seen by -the eye as still air; and yet we readily feel their motion. But even -when the air is still it can make itself sensible in another way, viz: -by its temperature. For air, like common visible things, can be warmed -and cooled. - -This warming and cooling of the air is well illustrated by what -takes place in a dwelling-house. If you pass out of a warm room, on -a winter’s day, into the open air when there is no wind, you feel a -sensation of cold. Whence does this sensation come? Not from anything -you can see, for your feet, though resting on the frozen ground, are -protected by leather, and do not yet feel the cold. It is the air which -is cold, and which encircles you on all sides, and robs you of your -heat; while at the same time you are giving off or radiating heat from -your skin into the air. On the other hand, if, after standing a while -in the chilly winter air, you return into the room again, you feel a -sensation of pleasant warmth. Here, again, the feeling does not come -from any visible object, but from the invisible air which touches every -part of your skin, and is thus robbed of its heat by you. - -Now, how is it that the atmosphere should sometimes be warm and -sometimes cold? Where does the heat come from? and how does the air -take it up? - -Let us return again to the illustration of the house. In winter, when -the air is keen and frosty outside, it is warm and pleasant indoors, -because fires are there kept burning. The burning of coal and wood -produces heat, and the heat thus given out warms the air. Hence it is -by the giving off or radiation of the heat from some burning substance -that the air of our houses is made warmer than the air outside. - -Now, it is really by radiation from a heated body that the air outside -gets its heat. In summer, this air is sometimes far hotter than is -usual in dwelling-houses in winter. All this heat comes from the sun, -which is an enormous hot mass, continually sending out heat in all -directions. - -But, if the sun is always pouring down heat upon the earth, why is -the air ever cold? Place a screen between you and a bright fire, and -you will immediately feel that some of the heat from the fire place -has been cut off. When the sun is shining, expose your hand to its -beams for a time, and then hold a book between the hand and the sun. -At first, your skin is warmed; but the moment you put it in the shade, -it is cooled again. The book has cut off the heat which was passing -directly from the sun to your hand. When the atmosphere is felt to -be cold, something has come in the way to keep the sun’s heat from -directly reaching us. - -Clouds cut off the direct heat of the sun. You must often have noticed -the change of temperature, when, after the sun has been shining for a -time, a cloud comes between it and the earth. Immediately a feeling of -chilliness is experienced, which passes off as soon as the cloud has -sailed on, and allowed the sun once more to come out. - -The air itself absorbs some of the sun’s heat, and the greater the -thickness of air through which that heat has to make its way, the more -heat will be absorbed. Besides this, the more the rays of heat are -slanted the weaker do they become. At noon, for example, the sun stands -high in the sky. Its rays are then nearest to the vertical, and have -also the least thickness of air to pass through before they reach us. -As it descends in the afternoon, its rays get more and more slanted, -and must also make their way through a constantly increasing thickness -of air. Hence the middle of the day is much warmer than morning or -evening. - -At night, when the sun no longer shines, its heat does not directly -warm the part of the earth in shadow. That part not only receives no -heat from it, but even radiates its heat out into the cold sky. Hence -night is much colder than day. - -Then, again, in summer the sun at noon shines much higher in the sky -with us, or more directly overhead, than in winter. Its heat comes down -less obliquely and has less depth of air to pass through, and hence is -much more felt than in winter, when, as you know, the sun in our part -of the world never rises high even at mid-day. - -If we were dependent for our warmth upon the direct heat of the sun -alone, we should be warm only when the sun shines. A cloudy day would -be an extremely cold one, and every night as intensely frosty as it -ever is in winter. Yet such is not the case. Cloudy days are often -quite warm; while we are all aware that the nights are by no means -always very cold. There must be some way in which the sun’s heat is -stored up, so that it can be felt even when he is not shining. - -In summer the ground gets warmed; in some parts, indeed, becoming -even so hot at times that we can hardly keep the hand upon it. In hot -countries this is felt much more than in this country. Soil and stones -absorb heat steadily, that is to say, soon get heated, and they soon -cool again. When they have been warmed by the sun, the air gets warmed -by contact with them, and keeps its heat longer than they do; so that -even when at night the soil and stones have become ice-cold, the air a -little above is not so chilly. On the other hand, when the surface of -the ground is cold, it cools the air next it. The ground parts easily -with its heat, and a vast amount of heat is in this way radiated at -night from the earth outward into the cold starry space. Much more -heat, however, would be lost from this cause did not the abundant -aqueous vapor of the atmosphere absorb part of it, and act as a kind of -screen to retard the radiation. This is the reason why in hot climates, -where the air is very dry—that is, contains a small proportion of the -vapor of water—the nights are relatively colder than they are in other -countries where the air is moister. In like manner, clouds serve to -keep heat from escaping; and hence it is that cloudy nights are not so -cold as those which are clear and starry. - -The atmosphere, then, is heated or cooled according as it lies upon a -warm or cold part of the earth’s surface; and, by means of its aqueous -vapor, it serves to store up and distribute this heat, keeping the -earth from such extremes of climate as would otherwise prevail. - -The air lying next to a hot surface is heated; the air touching a cold -surface is cooled. And upon such differences of temperature in the air -the formation of winds depends. - -Hot or warm air is lighter than cold air. You have learned how heat -expands bodies. It is this expansion of air, or the separation of its -particles further from each other which makes it less dense or heavy -than cold air, where the particles lie more closely together. As a -consequence of this difference of density, the light warm air rises, -and the heavy cold air sinks. You can easily satisfy yourselves of this -by experiment. Take a poker, and heat the end of it in the fire until -it is red-hot. Withdraw it, and gently bring some small bits of very -light paper, or some other light substance, a few inches above the -heated surface. The bits of paper will be at once carried up into the -air. This happens because the air, heated by the poker, immediately -rises, and its place is taken by colder air, which, on getting warmed, -likewise ascends. The upward currents of air grow feebler as the iron -cools, until, when it is of the same temperature as the air around, -they cease. - -This is the principle on which our fire-places are constructed. The -fire is not kindled on the hearth, for, in that case, it would not get -a large enough draft of air underneath, and would be apt to go out. It -is placed some way above the floor, and a chimney is put over it. As -soon as the fire is lighted, the air next it gets warmed, and begins to -mount, and the air in the room is drawn in from below to take the place -of that which rises. All the air which lies above the burning coal gets -warmer and lighter; it therefore flows up the chimney, carrying with it -the smoke and gases. You will understand that though a bright blazing -fire is a pleasant sight in winter, we do not get all the heat which -it gives out. On the contrary, a great deal of the heat goes up the -chimney; and, except in so far as it warms the walls, passes away and -warms the outer air. - -What happens in a small way in our houses takes place on a far grander -scale in nature. As already pointed out, the sun is the great source of -heat which warms and lightens our globe. While the heat of the sun is -passing through the air, it does very little in the way of warming it. -The heat goes through the air, and warms the surface of the earth. You -know that in summer the direct rays of the sun are hot enough to burn -your face, and yet, if you put even a thin sheet of paper over your -head, enough to cut off these rays, the sensation of burning heat at -once goes off, although the same air is playing about you all the time. - -Both land and water are heated by the sun’s rays, and the same change -in the air then takes place which we find also at our firesides. The -layer of air next the warmed earth becomes itself warmed. As it thereby -grows lighter it ascends, and its place is taken by colder air, which -flows in from the neighborhood to take its place. This flowing in of -air is wind. - -One of the most important ingredients in the air is the vapor of water. -Let us try to see, first of all, how it gets into and out of the air. -And in this case, as before, you will find that great questions in -science often admit of being simply and readily illustrated by the most -familiar things. - -You may have noticed that on very cold nights the windows of -sitting-rooms, or crowded public halls, are apt to be found streaming -with water on the inside. - -Now, in such cases, where does the moisture come from? Certainly not -out of the glass. It is derived from the vapor of water present in the -air. This word vapor is often used to describe some kind of visible -mist or fog. But these visible forms of moisture are not properly vapor -in the sense in which the term is used in science. The aqueous vapor of -the air is always invisible, even when the air is saturated with it, -and only when it passes back into the state of water do you actually -see anything. - -When the invisible vapor dissolved in the air becomes visible, as in -mists, clouds, dew, or rain, it is said to be condensed, and this -process of liquefaction is called condensation. - -The quantity of vapor which the air can contain varies according to -temperature, warm air being able to hold more than cold air. - -As the air is cooled, its power of retaining vapor diminishes. When it -becomes colder than the temperature at which it is able to keep its -supply of vapor dissolved, the excess of vapor is condensed and becomes -visible. The temperature at which this takes place is the point of -saturation, or dew-point. - -Perhaps you may ask how it is that the vapor so universally present -gets into the atmosphere, and where it comes from. If you pour a little -water into a plate, and set it down in the open air, you will note in -the course of a day or two, that the water has sensibly diminished. The -air has drunk up part of it, and will drink up the whole, if the water -is allowed to stand long enough. What takes place from a small quantity -of water goes on from every surface of water on the face of the earth, -from every brook and river and lake, and from the great sea itself. -Water is constantly passing off into vapor, which is received and -retained by the air. This process is called evaporation, and the water -which passes off into vapor is said to evaporate. - -Since warm air can hold more vapor than cold air, evaporation must be -more vigorous in sunshine than at night, and during summer than during -winter. - -On a dry, bracing day, evaporation goes on rapidly, because the air has -not nearly got all the quantity of vapor it can hold in solution. On a -damp day, however, when the air contains about as much vapor as it can -hold at that particular temperature, evaporation is quite feeble, or -ceases altogether. This varying capacity of the air for vapor is the -reason why laundresses find so much difference between days, in the -ease with which they can have their clothes dried. - -After sunset, when the sky is clear, you know that the grass gets wet -with dew. In the morning you may see mists hanging over woods, and -streams, and hills, and gradually melting away as the sun mounts in -the sky. At all times of the year you may watch how clouds form and -dissolve, and form again, ever changing their size and shape as they -move through the air. Now these are all examples of the condensation of -vapor. Let us see how the process takes place. - -Condensation, as we have seen, results from a cooling of the air. When -vapor is condensed, it does not at once take the form of running water. -The cold glass brought into the warm room has first a fine film of mist -formed upon it, and then by degrees the clear drops of water come. In -reality mist is made up of exceedingly minute particles of water, and -it is the running together of these which makes the larger drops. So -in nature on the great scale, when condensation occurs the vapor first -appears as a fine mist. This is always the result of cooling; so that, -whenever you see a mist or cloud forming, you may conclude that the air -in which it lies is being cooled. - -Dew is the name given to the wetness which we notice appearing in the -evening, or at night, upon grass, leaves, or stones, or even sometimes -on our hair. In the morning you have, no doubt, often watched the -little dewdrops sparkling upon the foliage and the delicate threads of -gossamer. Now this wetness does not come out of the leaves or stones, -nor out of your hair. It is all derived from the air by condensation, -exactly as we see the film of mist form upon the cold tumbler in the -warm moist air of a room. In fact, that film of mist was really dew, -and all dew is formed in the same way, and from the same cause. - -At night, when the sky is clear, the earth radiates heat rapidly; that -is to say, it gives off into cold space a great part of the heat which -it has received from the sun during the day. Its surface consequently -becomes cold, as you may have felt when you put your hand upon leaves -or stones after nightfall. The layer of air next the cooled ground is -chilled below its point of condensation, and the excess of vapor is -deposited as dew upon the grass, twigs, stones, and other objects. -Hence it is that the temperature at which this condensation begins to -take place is called the dew-point. - -Another way in which a cold surface of the earth may produce -condensation is shown by what takes place among mountains. When a warm -moist wind blows upon a chill mountain top, the air is cooled, and its -vapor becomes visible in the form of a mist or cloud. You can often -see that the cloud is quite solitary, and even shapes itself to the -form of the ground, as if it were a sort of fleecy cap drawn down over -the mountain’s head. This is often well marked in the morning. As day -advances, the ground, warmed by the sun, no longer cools the air, and -hence the mist is gradually re-absorbed into the atmosphere. But by and -by, at the coming on of night, when the ground is once more cooled by -radiation, if there should be vapor enough in the air, the mist will -re-form, and the mountain put on his cap again. - -Cold air, as well as cold ground, condenses the vapor of warmer air. If -you watch what goes on along the course of a river, you will often see -examples of this kind of condensation. The ground on either side of the -river parts with its heat after sundown sooner than the river itself -does, and consequently cools the air above it more than the air above -the river is cooled. So when this colder air from either side moves -over to take the place of the warmer damp air lying on and rising from -the river, condensation ensues in the form of the mist or river-fog, -which so commonly hangs at night and early morning over streams. - -A cloud is merely a mist formed by the cooling of warm moist air, when -it loses its heat from any cause, such as expansion during ascent, -or contact with currents of cooler air. If you watch what goes on in -the sky, you may often see clouds in the act of forming. At first a -little flake of white appears. By degrees this grows larger, and other -cloudlets arise and flock together, until at last the sky is quite -overcast with heavy clouds, and rain begins to fall. The vapor which -is thus condensed in the air has all been obtained by the evaporation -of the water on the earth’s surface. It rises with the warm air, which -losing its heat as it ascends, and coming too in contact with colder -layers of the atmosphere, can not hold all its vapor, and is obliged to -get rid of the excess, which then condenses into cloud. - -On a summer morning the sky is often free from cloud. As the day -advances, and the earth gets warmed, more vapor is raised; and as this -vapor, borne upward by the ascending air-currents, reaches the higher -and colder parts of the atmosphere, it is chilled into the white fleecy -clouds which you see forming about mid-day and in the afternoon. Toward -evening, when less evaporation takes place, the clouds cease to grow, -and gradually lessen in size until at night the sky is quite clear. -They have been dissolved again by descending and coming in contact with -the warm air nearest to the earth. Again, you have often noticed that -clouds move across the sky. They are driven along by upper currents of -air, and of course the stronger these currents are the faster do the -clouds travel. In this way the sky is sometimes completely overcast -with clouds which have come from a distance. - -You are well aware that rain always comes from clouds in the sky. When -the sky is clear overhead, no rain falls. Only when it gets overcast -does the rain come. You can watch a dark rain-cloud gather itself -together and discharge a heavy shower upon the earth. When a cold -glass is brought into a warm room, you will remember that the film of -mist formed upon the glass is found by degrees to gather into drops, -and trickles down the cold surface. Now the mist on the glass and -the cloud in the sky are both formed of minute particles of water, -separated by air. It is the running together of these particles which -gives rise to these drops. In the one case, the drops run down the cold -glass. In the other case, they fall as drops of rain through the air. -Rain, therefore, is thus a further stage in the condensation of the -aqueous vapor of the atmosphere. The minute particles of the cloud, as -condensation proceeds, gather more moisture round them, until at last -they form drops of water, too heavy to hang any longer suspended in the -air. These then fall to the earth as rain-drops. - -But there is another important form in which the moisture of the clouds -may descend to the surface of the earth. When the weather is cold -enough, there fall to the ground not drops of rain, but flakes of snow. - -If you bring snow indoors, it soon melts into water. If you expose this -water for a time it evaporates. Snow, water, and aqueous vapor are -thus only different forms of the same substance. We say that water can -exist in three forms—the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid. Snow is an -example of the solid condition. - -On a frosty night pools of water are covered with a hard, transparent -crust, of what is called ice. You may break this crust into pieces, but -if the cold continues, a new crust will soon be formed with bits of the -old one firmly cemented in it. And the greater the cold the thicker -will the crust be, until perhaps the whole of the water in the pools -may become solid. If you take a piece of this solid substance, you find -it to be cold, brittle, and transparent. Brought into a warm room it -soon melts into water, and you may drive off the water as before into -vapor. Ice is the general name given to water when it is in the solid -state, such forms as snow and hail being only different appearances -which ice puts on. Whenever water becomes colder than a certain -temperature it passes into ice, or freezes, and this temperature is -consequently known as the freezing-point. - -The upper layers of the atmosphere are much colder than the -freezing-point of water. In the condensation which takes place -there, the clouds do not resolve themselves into rain. The vapor of -the up-streaming currents of warm air from the earth’s surface is -condensed and frozen in these high regions, and passes into little -crystals, which unite into flakes of snow. Even in summer the fine -white cloudlets which you see floating at great heights are probably -formed of snow. But in those countries, such as ours, where in winter -the air even at the surface is sometimes very cold, the snow falls to -the ground, and lies there as a white covering, until returning warmth -melts it away. - -Besides rain and snow, the moisture of the air takes sometimes the form -of hail, which consists of little lumps of ice like frozen rain; and -of sleet, which is partially melted snow. But rain and snow are the -most important, and it is these two forms which we must follow a little -further. - -Before doing so, let us gather together the sum of what has been said -about the aqueous vapor of the air. We have learned that, as every -sheet of water on the face of the globe evaporates, the air is full -of vapor; that this vapor is condensed into visible form, and appears -as dew, mist, and cloud. We have learned further, that the vapor of -which clouds are formed is resolved into rain and snow, and, in one -or other of these forms, descends to the earth again. There is thus -a circulation of water between the solid earth beneath and the air -above. This circulation is as essential to the earth in making it a -fit habitation for living things, as the circulation of blood is in -keeping our bodies alive. It mixes and washes the air, clearing away -impurities, such as those which rise from the chimneys of a town. It -moistens and quickens the soil, which it renders capable of supporting -vegetation. It supplies springs, brooks, and rivers. In short, it is -the very mainspring of all the life of the globe. So important a part -of the machinery of the world deserves our careful consideration. Let -us next attend, therefore, to what becomes of the rain and the snow -after they have been discharged from the air upon the surface of the -earth. - - [To be continued.] - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -SELECTED BY REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - - - -[_October 7._] - -“TENDENCIES TO ERROR.” - -By REV. WILLIAM FRASER, LL.D. - - “Let no one, upon a weak conceit of sobriety or an - ill-applied moderation, think or maintain that a man - can search too far, or be too well studied in the book - of God’s word, or in the book of God’s works—divinity - or philosophy—but rather let men endeavor an endless - progress or proficiency in both; only let them - beware that they apply both to charity and not to - arrogance; to use, and not to ostentation; and again, - that they do not mingle or confound these learnings - together.”—_Bacon._ - - -Many have lost their early faith in the Bible and are following its -guidance with faltering footstep. Between them and hitherto accepted -truths the sciences have been placing apparently insurmountable -obstacles. The trustful simplicity with which they once read the -sacred record has almost perished. Inferences by the man of science, -conflicting with the interpretations of scripture by the theologian, -have rudely shaken their most cherished convictions. They are not -infidels, they are not skeptics, for doubt is distasteful to them, they -long for more definite expositions and a firmer faith. - -Such, possibly, may be some of you. In the midst of such discussions -as are at present in progress, perplexity is not unnatural. Your most -anxiously sustained investigations have hitherto only multiplied -difficulties, and a sense of responsibility alone constrains you -to linger over conclusions from which your judgment recoils. This -hesitancy of belief may be at the outset disheartening; yet it may be -inseparable from that clearness of insight and that force of character -which, in the end, commonly create the stablest convictions, and evoke -adequate proof to shield them. To shun or to denounce you because you -can not acquiesce in what we believe is inconsistent, not only with the -lessons of philosophy, but with his example to “bear witness to the -truth.” - -What is your duty, with the natural sciences on the one hand, appealing -so largely to your reason, and the scriptures on the other hand, -appealing so constantly to your faith? Obviously, to depreciate -neither, but to welcome both the sciences and the scriptures, to -ascertain their harmony, to note their differences, and to accept -all the treasures of truth which they may bring. Indifference is -inexcusable as is excessive zeal, and apathy as antagonism. - -The Bible, free to us as are the fields of science, challenges the -severest scrutiny. It is the boldest of books, and demands the -application of every test. As it is the most comprehensive history -in the world, and gives amplest scope for research; as its earliest -records are the oldest in existence, and its latest prophecies shed -light far into the future; as it touches depths and reaches heights -which no other book can approach; as it brings into closest connection -the visible and invisible, natural law and supernatural force, the -condition of man and the character of God, it is exposed to assaults -which no other book can bear. - -Systematic and persistent study is required at your hand, that you -may estimate aright not only the facts and arguments brought against -the Bible, but those also which are adduced in its favor. The task -may be arduous, but this price is not too great for the settlement of -questions so momentous; and if the solution of some of them may have -to be for a season postponed, yours will be the satisfaction which the -conscientious improvement of every opportunity invariably fosters. - -Different lines of investigation may be profitably followed, but we may -suggest the following as exhaustive, or nearly exhaustive, of the most -prominent questions which modern research has raised. - -As the Bible is confessedly related to the natural sciences, -archæology, history, and modern civilization, let it be placed -successively in the midst of their facts, and let us see to what extent -its statements can bear their light. - -There are many questions which none of us can honestly avoid; and while -some may remain unsettled, the unbiased review of those solutions which -have been already offered, and which have been generally accepted, will -be found to confirm scripture instead of confuting it. - -1. As to science. Have astronomy and geology given evidence for or -against the eternity of the visible universe? Has biology determined -the origin of life? Whence it is? Have comparative anatomy and -physiology, psychology and ethics, established more than one origin for -the human race? Are the incidental allusions in scripture contradicted -or confirmed in natural science? - -2. As to archæology. Can the Bible confront prehistoric revelations? -Antiquity is pouring over the oldest records, increasing light. Ruins, -monuments, inscriptions, parchments, have been emitting their wondrous -testimonies, parallel with scripture histories. Assyria, Egypt, -Palestine, Greece, Rome, in their histories, revolutions, and domestic -episodes, have all been interwoven with the statements of scripture as -with those of no other book. To what purpose has historic criticism -dealt with the sacred page? Is the Bible yielding or is it growing -brighter in the crucible of archæology? - -3. As to modern history and civilization. By its claim to uplift and -bless the human race, the Bible is separated from all other books. It -proposes to revolutionize man’s moral history here, and to prepare him -for a future whose course it in part delineates. Has it failed, or is -it failing? Has it been enfeebled by the lapse of ages? Has it become -effete amid changes which have given intellect new instruments and -reason new spheres? Has it lost its former hold of the human mind, and -is it sinking amid the tumult of bitterly conflicting opinions? Has -ever tribe been found which it could not raise and enlighten? Or has -ever civilization outshone, in any land, its intellectual and moral -splendor? - -4. As to the supernatural. If the Bible is the book which it professes -to be, and which we hold it is, the ordinary and the extraordinary, -the natural and the supernatural, must be associated in its character -and history. What is the warrant which men of science adduce for -repudiating the supernatural while they accept the natural? And by -what reason does the Christian apologist attempt to preserve their -connection? Is there no evidence around us in the contrasts of -barbarism and civilization, as well as in the histories of nations, in -their relation to prophecy? And are there no facts in the strangely -revolutionized lives of thousands in the Christian church, which -proclaim the singular moral force of the word of God? - - -[_October 14._] - -Assuming that you are willing to follow such a course of study as -we have sketched, either to remove doubts which may be lingering in -your own mind, or to aid some brother in his struggle to win the -repose which you have gained, we shall, at the outset, offer some -suggestions as to the spirit and the method by which your work should -be characterized. It is of much importance to know, what is, and what -is not, within our reach. - -1. Do not assume the possibility, in the present state of our -knowledge, of demonstrating a perfect agreement between science and -scripture, or rather between the inferences of the philosopher and -the interpretations of the theologian. Much remains to be ascertained -before that result can be realized. The natural sciences are -confessedly incomplete; some of them are only in their infancy, and -can teach us little. Many years may pass before they can be brought -into perfect accord with the Bible. As the facts of natural science -have not been all ascertained and classified, as its laws have not been -all recognized, and as the inferences of to-day may be modified by -the discoveries of to-morrow, it is absurd to be demanding immediate -evidence of a perfect agreement between science and scripture. Apparent -contradictions are, at the present stage unavoidable. There must first -be an exact and exhaustive examination of all those points at which the -scriptures and the sciences touch each other; for so long as a single -fact or a single law remains unknown, some important or essential -truth, intimately related to the Bible, may be concealed. While the -natural sciences continue incomplete, natural theology must necessarily -have an imperfect foundation. As confessedly dependent on what is -incomplete, natural theology can have neither the comprehensiveness -nor the definiteness which characterizes supernatural theology, as -dependent on what is now complete and unvarying. We can not force the -legitimate yet somewhat incoherent teachings of the one book—the works -of God—of which but a few leaves have been separated, scanned and -paged, into perfect harmony with the teachings of the other book, whose -revelation of truth has been finished, accredited, and closed. - -2. Wait patiently, while you work persistently, for the solution of -difficulties which may be continuing to press upon you. The experience -of the past is an encouragement for the future. The sciences have -again and again become their own interpreter, and rejected erroneous -inferences. Many examples might be given, but one or two may in the -meantime suffice. Human skeletons were found in what seemed old -limestone, on the northeast coast of the mainland of Guadaloupe; and -after bold attacks on the Bible, which were met by some very weak and -irregular defenses, it was ascertained that the whole was a mistake, -that the limestone was of very recent formation, that the skeletons -were of well-known Indian tribes, and agitation ceased. A similar -commotion was raised when the supposed imprints of human feet on -limestone had been figured and described in the _American Journal of -Science_; and Christians met strange infidel hypotheses by feeble -assertions, until Dr. Dale Owen proved the imprints to have been -sculptured by an Indian tribe. Thereafter, for a season, the scientific -inquirer and the theological student prosecuted their respective -investigations in peace. There are important lessons for us in these, -and in many similar facts. Christian apologists have often egregiously -erred, not only in hastily accepting statements as to supposed facts, -but in admitting the validity of the reasoning which has been eagerly -founded on them, and in making a fruitless attempt to twist scripture -into harmony with what science itself has subsequently disowned. Facts -ill observed, and afterward misstated, have drawn many of our best -and most candid students into unnecessary collision with biblical -critics; and, after much heat in controversy, and the waste on both -sides of much intellectual energy, the obstacle lying between them has -unexpectedly vanished in the fuller light of science. The evil to be -deplored is, that after the errors have disappeared their influence -remains. The imprint often lingers after the counterfeit die has been -broken. - -3. There is a constant tendency on the part of discoverers to invest -new facts with a fictitious interest, and those who are hostile to -the Bible eagerly parade them for the discomfiture of Christians. -Every fact is to be welcomed, but it is to be treasured up only that -it may be adjusted to other facts, and become in part the foundation -of a new truth. Isolated and unexplained facts have been too often -unceremoniously dragged in to give testimony against some scripture -statement, and have too easily been held sufficient to push aside -those accumulated evidences to its truth, which history, or science, -or both, had indisputably established. It is not, indeed, surprising -that the faith of many young men has failed, when they have observed -the too ready acquiescence of prominent Christian writers in theories -which necessitate the abandonment of some of the impregnable fortresses -which have been raised by exact scholarship around those portions of -scripture which had longest been exposed to the fiercest assaults. Were -this method common, no permanent foundation could be laid, and progress -in any science would be impossible. Is it not absurd to be displacing -cornerstones, and disowning, at random, first principles? No system -of philosophy, no science, not even mathematical, the exactest, and -in one sense the most permanent of all the sciences, could have any -weight or make the least progress if subjected to such changes in both -its principles and their applications, as have marked the history of -Bible assaults, concessions and defenses. When facts, which are utterly -inexplicable are presented, we should retain the fact in science and -also the relative statement in scripture, assured that in due time the -solution will come. - - - - -[_October 21._] - - -4. Neither accept nor offer apologies for the Bible. It has, of late, -become common on the part of those who are alarmed by the temporary -triumphs which scientific investigation has given to those who are -avowedly hostile to the Bible, to demand that its propositions be -altogether disassociated from both science and philosophy, on the plea -that the Bible was not given to teach either the one or the other. -The proposal is plausible, but it is really unnecessary, for although -not given to teach physical science, the Bible can not contradict -either its facts or its legitimate inferences. The word of God can not -be regarded as by any possibility contradicting the just lessons of -his works. Like every other book, the Bible must bear all the light -that can fall on its pages; and it must not only stand the tests of -criticism and history, but vindicate all its claims as the “more sure -word of prophecy.” Otherwise, appeals for leniency are profitless. -True, in its highest connections, the Bible is unapproachable by other -books; it is easily distinguishable from them all; yet in its human -relations it must submit to all the ordinary appliances of scholarship. -No apologies can justify a single error in either its science or its -history, and its propositions are obviously inadmissable if they -contradict human reason; they may be above, but they can not be opposed -to it. - -5. Akin to an easy escape from difficulties, through apologies for the -Bible, is the tendency to glide into conclusions directly hostile. -The prevailing activity of the age is so unfavorable to leisurely -investigations as to facilitate the subtle advances of error. While -many writers of the present day are as preëminently gifted, and as -distinguished in the different departments of learning, as those of -any preceding age; and while their reasonings and their conclusions -are borne by the daily and the serial press to every man’s door, -multitudes think and decide by substitute. They want leisure, and trust -to others. Rapidity of locomotion, the chief physical feature of our -time, betokens also its intellectual tendencies. Men read cursorily and -decide rapidly. The daily newspaper is making book-study rarer than -hitherto. It is felt in ten thousand instances to be distasteful or -difficult. The subtle influence of the daily newspaper is telling on -our thoughtfulness. We really seem to be approaching the fulfillment -of Lamartine’s prediction, “Before this century shall have run out, -journalism will be the whole press, the whole of human thought. Thought -will not have had time to ripen, to accommodate itself into the form -of a book. The book will arrive too late; the only book possible soon, -will be a newspaper.” - -As one result of this process, truth and error are often imperceptibly -mingled. So swift is the transition from one fact and inference to -another, that truth and error, like different colors blent into one -by rapid motion, become so much alike, that few can separate them. -Thus with every advance of truth, error is wafted forward. The seeds -of future tares and wheat are being profusely scattered. It can not -be denied, that while to almost every man’s door are daily wafted -accurate records of passing history, of the discoveries of science, -of the triumphs of art, and of the generalizations of philosophy, the -same messengers no less sedulously exhibit, now faintly and now in -the strongest light, every difficulty connected with the Bible, both -real and imaginary, the boldest objections of historic criticism, -the theories of speculative philosophy, the apparent contradictions -of science and scripture, and the saddening conflicts of professing -Christians. The constant diffusion of such influences does tell in the -long run, not only on less active minds, but on the most energetic, and -it renders easier of acceptance every erroneous conclusion. - -But this incessant activity is a symptom of health. It augurs good. -Rightly directed, it may strengthen character while it develops mental -power, and gives a more exquisite appreciation of the just and true. -But remember that everything depends on this rightness of direction; -and to secure this, unfailing caution is required. The wind and tide -which, rightly used, would hasten the voyager to his harbor, may, -if unheeded, strand him on an unexpected shore; and those subtle -forces, and those under-currents, which should have aided in guiding -us to a satisfying intellectual and moral repose, may, through the -thoughtlessness or the indolence that at the outset disregarded -a slight divergence from the truth, almost but not altogether -imperceptible, destroy our happiness through the shipwreck and the -ultimate abandonment of our Christian faith. - -6. Another common tendency in the wrong direction claims your -attention. It manifests itself in repugnance to controversy or -discussion in every form. Many shrink from it as unseemly, and -seek escape in either solitude or study. While peace is in itself -desirable, it is not always attainable. You cannot escape conflict -by letting go the Bible; nor can you traverse any fields of science -without entanglement in the intellectual struggles of disputants whose -reasonings have sometimes but little of the calmness of philosophy. Nor -is this to be regretted. The repose of meditation is not so bracing as -the discipline of occasional contest for the truth. - - - - -[_October 28._] - - -There are other advantages. The attrition of discussion often -reveals and beautifies truths which would otherwise have remained -unrecognized. Apathy or silence may shelter error without preserving -truth. Intellectual indolence, bad for the world, is still worse for -the Church. The highest life is demanded by the Bible, and, therefore, -also the greatest activity. From intellectual warfare, the sciences -and the scriptures have nothing to lose, but everything to gain. -On Christian or skeptic, on prophet true or false, the Bible never -enforces silence. It seals no thinker’s lip. “The prophet that hath a -dream, let him tell a dream; and he that hath my word, let him speak -my word faithfully. What is the chaff to the wheat? saith the Lord.” -In the field of thought, nothing save the chaff perishes. Lost truths -spring up again; and, beneath their spreading branches, vitiated -reasoning, unsound criticism, and erroneous conclusions, ultimately -decay as briers beneath the spreading oak. - -There are those also who deplore discussion only because it raises -questions hostile to the scriptures, and alarms the weak. This anxiety, -though laudable, is fruitless. Vital questions are already discussed on -all hands, and in every variety of aspect. There are disadvantages, but -they are generally inseparable from the progress of truth. - -It will be admitted on both sides, that while the extension of exact -knowledge contracts the sphere of superstition, it enlarges at the same -time the sphere of skepticism. Superstition may be displaced without -Christianity becoming its substitute; there may be a high and an -attractive civilization, based on science and its applications, which, -in acknowledging the intellectual and moral supremacy of the Bible, and -nothing more, may for a season destroy credulity, only to give fuller -scope to no-belief, and to evoke ultimately an opposition to the Bible -hitherto repressed or unknown. For such results we must be prepared; -they are collateral, not essential or direct. They are, in fact, the -price which we pay for our intellectual freedom. We are neither to -falter nor hesitate because the increasing light, which is dissipating -ignorance and extending the boundaries of truth, is at the same time -indirectly opening to error a wider field for the distribution of her -forces, revealing new weapons for her armory, and enabling her to seize -and for a season to retain, positions hitherto unknown and unassailed. -In the history of the physical sciences, and of archæological -discovery, error has often rushed to the battlements of truth, and, -seizing some detached or imaginary facts, has wielded them against the -Bible, until the sciences have themselves expelled her, and repudiated -her reasoning. Such agitation is not to be deplored; it conducts to -stability, it evokes more good than evil, and not unfrequently has it -happened that the superstition which long benumbed the Church, and the -infidelity which aroused her, have yielded to the unexpected sway of -some Bible truth, when a more definite meaning has been given to some -natural law or Providential dispensation. - -Those misunderstand the character of the Bible who suppose its safety -lies in keeping it as far as possible from the rigorous investigations -and the exact conclusions of science or philosophy. Such a method is -indispensable. To pursue truth in one department, implies, or should -imply, not only a love of truth in every department, but also a -resolute purpose to discover and dislodge every error. Which of the -sciences, as preserved from controversy, is entitled to cast the first -stone at the others, or their students? “Philosophy and literature,” -says Lord Kinloch, in an admirable work, “while professing to pursue -truth in the composure of unruffled seclusion, and to be desirous of -having it elicited by the healthy excitement of friendly debate, will -protest against the dishonor of soiling their hands, or disarranging -their robes in the turmoil of heated controversy; and least of all -will they consent to be defiled with the mire or exposed to the perils -of religious strife. This plea is false in fact, as it is futile -in philosophy. It is in fact false; for literary and philosophical -controversies have neither been few in number nor wanting in a keen -and rancorous spirit. And, admitting that religious contentions have -been still more rancorous and embittered, it is only what might be -reasonably expected, on account of the higher interests at stake. -The plea is, moreover, worthless on philosophical principles; for it -eviscerates the distinction between truth and error of all meaning -and value. Better not to admit the distinction at all, than, having -admitted it in one instance, deny it in another; or, what is worse, -depreciate its significance even to thought, and that too in the most -important of its applications. All argument and all effort are forever -at an end, unless truth,—yea, all truth,—be precious; so precious, -that in the legitimate pursuit of it we may and ought to put forth our -utmost strength; and in defense of it, when found, incur the utmost -hazard.” - -Do not be discouraged by apparently insurmountable obstacles. The -boldest assertions and the most plausible reasonings need not disturb -you. Difficulties seemingly insuperable have, in the past, suddenly -evanished in the light of unexpected discoveries; and every science, -you may rest assured, will hereafter show strength enough and light -enough to purify its own temple and be its own interpreter. The past -may be held to be prophetic of future solutions; and the sciences will -be found not only correcting the mistakes and the arrogance of many of -their students, but rebuking the too hasty concessions of Christian -apologists, and either directly or indirectly revealing, at the same -time, the impressiveness and the majesty of scripture truth. - - - - -POLITICAL ECONOMY. - -By G. M. STEELE, D.D. - - -I. - -I. DEFINITIONS—UTILITY OF THE SUBJECT. - -1. Social science comprises the statement and explanation of the -natural laws which govern men in their mutual relations. Political -economy is the application of that portion of those laws which pertain -to the production and distribution of wealth. Now we are not to be -discouraged by this term _wealth_, as though the subject were one which -concerns only rich men, and in which a poor man could have no interest. -The man who has a little property, worth only one or two hundred -dollars, is just as really a possessor of wealth as one who has one or -two millions; and to be able to acquire and rightly use these small -fortunes is, in the aggregate, of more importance than the acquisition -and management of the greater riches of the few. - -2. But what is meant by _wealth_? For the present it is enough to -say that _it comprises all things which have value_. A more complete -definition will follow by and by. What, then, do we mean by _value_? -This, too, has many forms of definition, but they for the most part -have one element in common. The general notion concerning it is that -it has reference to the amount of one commodity that may be equitably -given in exchange for a designated amount of another; this is a correct -notion. Thus a bushel of wheat may be exchanged for two bushels of -oats, or a cord of wood for twenty yards of cloth. That is, the value -of a bushel of wheat is that of two bushels of oats, and the value of -twenty yards of cloth is the same as that of a cord of wood. It is thus -seen to be a _relative_ term, and not indicative of any quality of any -one thing considered by itself. But in all instances of relationship -there must be some ground of the relation. Let us try to determine -what it is in this case. A superficial thinker might decide that it is -_money_, from the fact that value is generally estimated in money. But -money is itself in the same relation to all other commodities in this -respect as they are to one another, and its value rests upon the same -basis. - -3. The chief element in value, and that constitutes its original -standard, is the _cost of production_; and by _cost_ is meant the -amount of labor involved. _Labor is the voluntary effort put forth by -man to secure some desired object._ But when we say this, a little -caution is needed. We are not to infer that the present value of an -article is estimated by the amount of labor required at the time of its -production, especially if that was a long time ago. A hundred years -since, it required the labor of a man for days to produce a yard of -cotton cloth. A dozen yards of better cloth can now be produced by -the same amount of labor; of course the present value of the latter -is superior to the present value of the former, even if this were as -good as new. It is the labor that would be required to _reproduce_ or -replace an article which determines its value. - -4. But there is another element which is essential to value; this is -_utility_. It comprises all those qualities in an object which make it -available to gratify any desire. It will readily be seen that there are -objects which have utility and at the same time are without value. They -are such objects as cost nothing; that is, such as involve no labor in -their acquisition. Thus air, and sunshine, and rain, have no value; but -they are of immeasurable utility. Value is often in the inverse ratio -of utility. Iron is a far more useful metal than gold, but gold is -vastly more valuable than iron. Still, though utility may exist where -there is no value, there can be no value where there is no utility; -because no one would put forth effort for that which could not gratify -any desire, and it is the ability to gratify desire that constitutes -utility. Sometimes utility becomes the paramount element in determining -value; but ordinarily it is subordinate to the cost of production. When -the article is one for which there is a very great demand, and of which -there is a great scarcity, the value may increase many times beyond the -cost. In such case the utility rather than cost rules. But where the -demand is readily and fully met by the supply, the cost controls. - -5. But valuable things can not be produced very largely without tools, -implements, and various contrivances. These constitute _capital_. -_Capital is the result of previous labor reserved and employed in -further production._ This implies self-denial. A man can not consume -what he has secured by labor and at the same time preserve it to aid -in additional production. Hence he must restrain his desires if he -would save something for this purpose. This capital is sometimes called -pre-existent labor. The point to be observed is that its existence -is due, not to labor alone, but to _abstinence_ as well. The two -elements in the cost of production are labor and abstinence, and we -may combine these in the one term, _sacrifice_. Sacrifice and utility, -then, are the two essential conditions of value; and we may complete -our definition of value by saying that _value is man’s estimate of the -amount of sacrifice requisite to the attainment of a desired object_. - -6. Hence, if wealth comprises all valuable objects, and if every -desirable object which involves sacrifice has value, it would be a -proper definition to say that _wealth consists of all those objects and -qualities useful to man, the attainment of which involves sacrifice_. -This includes not only material objects and qualities, but also all -those human powers acquired by sacrifice, which enable man to master -nature. This is not admitted by many writers. But Mr. Carey states, -in a broad way, that “Wealth is the power to command the always -gratuitous services of nature.” When man is at his weakest nature does -nothing for him. Every infant, if dependent on nature alone, would -inevitably perish. So in the infancy of society, it is only by the -most strenuous exertion that a precarious existence is secured. But -with every increment of power in man, nature multiplies her services. -They are not bought but freely given, and given as soon as man is -able to command them. In the most advanced civilization the forces of -nature have become so subservient to man that in thousands of cases -one can accomplish what a score, or sometimes even a hundred, could -not formerly have done. It is this increase of power more than that of -material commodities which constitutes the real wealth of the world. - -7. From this it follows that the proper subject of political economy -is MAN. The laws pertaining to the underlying science are found in -the nature and character of man—in his tastes, his desires, in the -motives influencing him and in the limitations to which he is subject. -The results to be achieved are his prosperity and freedom, his mastery -over nature, and his happiness. Here, then, is the prime reason why -every person who aspires to any intelligence at all should have some -acquaintance with this subject. It has to do more than any other study -with his temporal welfare, and with the welfare of society, without the -prosperity of which his individual prosperity will suffer. - -8. A second reason is implied in the meaning of the terms used. Economy -is from a Greek compound signifying _husbandry_. It has reference to -the prudent management by a householder of his means so as to secure -the largest measure of prosperity for his family. It does not mean -parsimony, nor even mere frugality; that is, it does not consist -in mere abstinence for the sake of saving. It is rather a wise use -of means and forces, so as to make them as effective as possible. -There is an old proverb which says, “There is more in calculation -than in hard work,” and though sometimes perverted in the interest -of human laziness, it is nevertheless full of philosophy. It is this -“calculation” which such a study greatly aids. - -9. _Political_ economy, as the term implies, has reference to man -in society,—to “the body politic.” The social element in man is as -imperative as any part of his constitution. Man’s greatest need is -_association_. The solitary individual is only a minute constituent of -man in man’s relation to the main purposes of life. No man is complete -in himself. He must be supplemented by others, generally by many -others, and he must find a large part of his own completeness in this -association. Each has something that others lack, and we are designed -to be sources of mutual supply to our several wants. - -Here emerges another vital fact. _Individuality_ is as indispensable as -association. A superficial thinker might regard these characteristics -as antagonistic. The fact is so far otherwise that each is really -dependent on the other. Men must _differ_ in order to be of any use to -one another. It is the difference that makes the individuality. Mutual -aid is the object of association. Hence the greater the difference, -the greater the individuality; and the greater the individuality, the -greater the association. No man would associate with another unless the -one had something which the other lacked. But for this there would be -no commerce. Two farmers producing nothing but wheat would have nothing -to exchange with each other. Two men of precisely the same mental -possessions, habits and aptitudes, would never be companions for each -other. - -On the other hand it is only by association that individuality becomes -the most highly developed. Only by such development do the differences -among men become great and numerous. In the lower grades of humanity -there is comparatively little difference between individuals, and there -is little association. It is only in advanced civilization that a -strongly marked individuality exists, and that we find those numerous -differences which make the mutual dependence the greatest. Here is -a potent reason for the study of this subject. It is impossible to -estimate the power of association in production alone. It is known -in a general way that the combination of men gives greatly increased -results as compared with those of men working separately. Yet it is not -nearly realized that a hundred men properly associated in an industrial -enterprise will often effect two or three hundred times as much as all -the very same men working separately. - -10. Again, this subject intimately concerns man in his governmental -relations. For governments must furnish many of the conditions for the -best economical results. Then, too, the great moral enterprises of the -age, and of all ages, have to do with the principles here involved; -education, pauperism, vicious social usages, the dangerous classes, -have to be considered, and can only rightly be considered in the light -of these truths. It is wonderful how closely this study is connected -with all the great interests of humanity. Whole communities which have -been impoverished and demoralized by neglecting some of the obvious -principles of political economy, have revived and prospered under their -application. Portions of our own country are examples of both these -kinds of effects, and that, too, within the memory of men now living. - -We shall follow the usual plan of the division of the subject under the -heads of _production, consumption, exchange and distribution_. - - -II. PRODUCTION—LABOR. - -1. _Production is the creation of value by rendering the utilities of -nature available to man._ The creation, it will be noticed, is not of -matter but of value. There are two great agencies which must co-operate -in production—_nature_ and _man_. Man furnishes labor; nature furnishes -materials and forces. The former would be useless without the latter. -There must be soils, and mines, and trees, and animals, or no matter -how much labor there may be, there can be no grain, nor fruit, nor -metals, nor lumber; no houses and no meat, nor hides nor leather. So -also there may be all kinds of material, but without labor they are of -no available service to man. - -2. But nature furnishes not only materials but also forces to aid man -in his productive efforts. The more obvious and palpable of these are -gravitation, especially in falling water, wind, the explosive property -of gunpowder and dynamite, the expansive power of steam, magnetism, -electricity, and the forces of vegetation. There are also numerous -passive powers, or properties of matter which, when adapted by man, -give him much advantage; such are the mechanical powers of the lever, -inclined plane, wheel and axle, pulley and wedge, and those qualities -of the metals which render them capable of taking an edge for cutting -purposes, as also malleability, ductility, elasticity, etc. It is a -beneficent fact of nature that she furnishes these materials and forces -gratuitously. She is not churlish nor parsimonious in this respect. The -more we avail ourselves of her help, the more ready she is to help us; -and the greater the advantage we obtain, the more lavishly she bestows -her gifts upon us. - -It is thus seen that labor consists not in creating things but in -_moving_ them; that is, in effecting changes. It directs the natural -forces to the service of man, and it is in this that production -consists. It can move materials into position where these forces can -act upon them with the desired effect. Thus an agricultural laborer can -effect such changes in the soil as are requisite to the growth of corn; -he can place the seed in the ground, but he can not make the crop. It -is as impossible for him to create a kernel of grain as to create a -planet. Labor may move the fuel to the fire-place and properly dispose -it for kindling. It may move a match, which by a previous movement has -taken fire, to the prepared fuel; but all this would be useless but for -the conditions and forces which nature furnishes. - -3. The application of labor to production is of two kinds, _direct_ -and _indirect_. The direct changes effected by labor may be embraced -under the three heads of _transmutation_, _transformation_, and -_transportation_. The first comprises elementary changes, as when under -required conditions ingredients of the soil and of the atmosphere are -changed into grain and vegetables, and fruit. The second is where there -is simply a change in the form of the material, as when boards are -made into a table, or leather into shoes. The third implies merely a -change of place, as when coal in a mine, where it has no value, becomes -valuable by being brought within reach of those who desire it for fuel. - -4. The greater part of labor is indirect; in some cases so much so -that its relation to the product is unseen. For instance, the man who -makes your shoes is not the only laborer concerned in that product. -Some previous labor produced the leather, and before that some labor -produced the hide from which the leather was made; some persons made -the tools, some the house or shop, and some provided sustenance for the -shoemaker. All these are conditions, without which no shoes can be -made, and all who provide them furnish a part of the labor on which the -product of the shoes depends. - -Of this indirect labor there are several kinds. (1) Those who provide -the materials, and there may be many grades of these; (2) those -who furnish the implements and the machinery; (3) those who supply -the sustenance and shelter, and raiment for the laborers; (4) the -government agencies for protecting the workman; (5) organizers and -managers of business enterprises, without whom production would often -fall far short of what it now accomplishes; (6) the labor of raising -children who are subsequently to become laborers; (7) all those engaged -in the work of education, by which men are prepared for the most -efficient work—this includes not only teachers, but writers, clergymen, -etc.; (8) professional men, who devote themselves to matters essential -to the interests of the community and thus not only save the time of -the laborers, but often their property and their health, and their -lives; (9) inventors and discoverers, who ascertain new conditions of -more efficient production. These are the principal, though there are -also others. - - - - -READINGS IN ART. - - -I.—SCULPTURE: ITS VARIETIES AND MATERIALS. - -All work cut out in a solid material, in imitation of natural objects, -is called sculpture. Thus carvings in wood, ivory-stone, marble, metal, -and works moulded from wax and clay, come under the head of sculpture. - -But sculpture, as we are about to consider it, is to be distinguished -by the term _statuary_ from all carved work belonging to ornamental -art and glyptics. It must be borne in mind, however, that the sculptor -does not ordinarily carve his work directly out of the marble; he first -makes his statue, or bas relief, in clay or wax. This method enables -him to “sketch in clay” and perfect his work in this obedient material. -Michael Angelo, and many great masters could dispense with this and -carve at once the statue from the block. The modeling in clay is, -however, generally the primary work. The “model,” as it is called, is -afterward moulded, and by means of this mould a cast of the original -clay statue, or bas-relief, is taken by the use of liquid plaster. The -clay model is, therefore, like the original drawing of a painter—a -master work. - -The model completed, most of the carving is done by a skilled laborer, -the sculptor taking it up to give the finish, which a master-hand -alone can bestow. The copying of the model into marble is accomplished -by means of a method of mechanical measurement, or “pointing.” The -model and the block of marble are both fastened to a base called a -“scale-stone,” to which a standard vertical rod can be attached at -corresponding centers, having at its upper end a sliding needle, so -adapted by a movable joint as to be set at any angle and fastened by -a screw when so set. The master sculptor having marked the governing -points with a pencil on the model the instrument is applied to these -and the measure taken. The standard being then transferred to the -block-base, the pointer, guided by his measure, cuts away the marble, -taking care to leave it rather larger than the model, so that the -general proportions are kept, and the more important work is then left -for the master hand. - -The character of work is influenced by the nature of the material in -which the sculptor carves; the harder the stone the more difficult -to give it the pliant forms of life. It is remarkable that the most -ancient and perfect Egyptian statues should have been formed of very -hard stones; and, as the ancient Egyptians were not acquainted with -steel, they must have been dependent upon bronze, of various degrees of -hardness, for their cutting tools. These works are remarkable for their -excellence, both of form and proportion, and in the finish given to the -details of feature, the dress, and the ornaments. - -Assyrian sculpture was in softer stones, limestones and alabaster; -only small objects, such as seals, being worked in hard stones. - -Greek and Roman sculptors made many statues and bas-reliefs in hard -stones, such as basalt, granite, and porphyry. The extreme difficulty -of such work may be understood when it is seen that the ordinary method -of the chisel and mallet, in the most skillful hands, would be quite -unavailing in this hard material. The treadle-wheel, the drill, and the -file, are brought to aid the chisel, and even these require the use -of emery upon the wheel of the lapidary, in the manner in which the -hardest stones are cut. - -Clay modeled and dried in the sun, or hardened by the fire, was -naturally one of the early forms in which sculpture was developed. At -once ready to hand, and easily modeled, it was adopted for the same -reasons that made clay convenient for the ordinary vessels of every-day -use. We find countless numbers of these baked, or sun-dried clay -figures. They have escaped destruction because of the little value of -the material and because they resist decay. The Egyptians and Assyrians -applied a vitreous glaze to terra-cotta objects, which made them more -decorative and more durable. - -Terra-cotta was chosen by many sculptors to preserve the spirit and -freedom of the original. Although some shrinking under the action of -the fire must be allowed for, yet what is well baked is certain to -possess the excellence of the fresh clay. It escapes the chances of -over-finish, which too often befalls marble and bronze. - -Another form of sculpture to be noticed is called _chryselephantine_, -on account of the combined use of gold and ivory; the nude parts of the -figure being of ivory, probably with color applied to the features and -the drapery of gold. The statue was substantially but roughly made in -marble, with wood, perhaps, upon it; the ivory being laid on in thick -pieces. - -Statues of wood, of various kinds, were made by the most ancient -sculptors. Many small figures in wood, the work of the Egyptian -carvers, are to be seen in the museums, and the mummy cases show the -practice of carving the head, while the trunk is left only partly -shaped out of the block. - -Bronze was one of the most important forms of ancient statuary. It must -be remembered that bronze is an entirely different alloy from brass, -the former being an alloy of copper and tin, while brass is of copper -and zinc. Small proportions of gold, silver, lead, and iron, were mixed -with the bronze by ancient metal-workers to give various colors to -their work; thus a blush of shame was produced by allowing the iron -in the bronze to rust. Plutarch mentions a face which was pale, the -sculptor having mixed silver with the bronze. - -The primitive bronze-workers, before they arrived at the knowledge of -casting, began by hammering solid metals into shapes. The _toreutic_ -art, although not definitely known at present, was probably that -of hammering, punching, and chiseling plates of metal, either -separately or with a view of fixing them upon stone or wood. Both the -solid hammered work and the hollow-plate work is mentioned by the -authorities. The hollow statues were built up in pieces, fastened -together with nails, rivets, and dove-tails, and it is not improbable -that some system of welding was practiced. - -The casting of metals in moulds must have followed the discovery that -they could be melted. As the sculptor improved in his art of modeling -he would be able to make better moulds. He would soon observe that the -solid statue was not only very costly, but so very heavy that the whole -figure would collapse from sheer weight. - -This trouble was corrected by the discovery of a contrivance for -casting metals in a hollow mould. It was done pretty much as it is at -the present day, by fixing within the mould a _core_, which did not -touch the sides, except at certain small points necessary for support. -The space between this and the surface of the mould was to be filled by -the molten metal. - -There is still another method, less common in modern times, but -employed by the ancients, for some of their smaller works. This is -when a wax model is encased in clay or plaster of Paris and the molten -metal then poured into it to melt the wax, and take the form of the -work precisely as it left the hand of the sculptor. The original model -is thus destroyed and the bronze takes its place. Some very large and -important works have recently been cast in this method, but with the -core. In bronze casting with a core, this contrivance must be made -with great care. The mould, which is obliged to be formed of pieces -fitted together, in order that the model may be taken out, is first -well soaked in oil, then melted wax is applied to the inner side of -the moulded parts in such thickness as may be required in the metal -of the completed statue. But as a hollow metal statue would not be -strong enough to support its own weight, a sort of skeleton of iron -bars is made to take the general form of the figure, and this strong -frame-work is firmly fixed within the mould. We have then the mould, -with its wax lining, enclosing the iron skeleton, or _armature_, as it -is called, with an opening left in the proper place to allow of pouring -in the liquid plaster of Paris mixed with pounded brick, which fills -the space about the armature. Therefore, if at this stage, the mould -were taken to pieces again, the sculptor would behold his statue as -one of apparently solid wax. Practically this is done in order that he -may satisfy himself of the success of his work, and correct it where -necessary. The model is then again placed in the mould preparatory to -casting. - -_Galvano-plastique_, or the use of electricity, to deposit a thin layer -of metal in a pure state upon a model, is an important invention or -application of science to art. - -Having described the various materials and methods employed in -sculptured art, we are ready to classify the different forms adopted -and arrange them under the proper terms. - -Sculpture in relief is the first division. There are four varieties. -_Bas-relief_, or _basso-relievo_, is the term used when the work -projects from the plain surface, the forms being rounded as in -nature. If the work is very little raised, the forms being not so -projecting as in nature, it is called _flat-relief_, or _stiacciato_. -If more raised, but not free from the ground in any place, it is -_half-relief_ or _mezzo-relievo_. If the relief is still higher it -becomes _full-relief_, or _alto-relievo_, in which parts of the human -figure are entirely free from the ground of the slab. In _sunk-relief_, -or _cavo-relievo_, the work is recessed within an outline, but still -raised in flat relief, not projecting above the surface of the slab. -Much of the renaissance and modern sculpture combines the first-named -kinds of work on different planes in degrees of distance, with some -under-cutting. The beauty and character of bas-relief depend much upon -the representation of outline. - -Statuary proper is sculpture in the round. The statue is therefore seen -on every side. - -Statues are, (1) standing; (2) seated; (3) recumbent; (4) equestrian. - -Statues are classed into five forms as to size: Colossal, above the -heroic standard; heroic, above six feet but under the colossal; -life-size; small life-size; statuettes, half the size of life and -smaller. - -To know the proper proportions of the figures is a matter of the utmost -value in all sculpture, even more so than in painting, as the statue -is measurable on every side and in every direction. It would have -been impossible for the ancient Egyptians to carve out of the living -rock their tremendous figures unless they had arrived at a rule of -proportion for their figure. Without this their colossi would have been -only rude monsters. Such a rule they had discovered and laid down in -a canon, as it is called, similar to that which was followed by the -Greek sculptors after them, and especially made known by Polycletus, -whose name it received. Though there is some doubt about the precise -terms of the canon, there can be no doubt that it had for its unit of -measurement some part of the human figure. The version of Vitruvius -Pollio is supposed to be the correct one. He says: “Nature has so -composed the human body that the face, from the chin to the top of the -forehead, and the roots of the hair, should be a tenth part; also the -palm of the hand from the wrist-joint to the tip of the middle finger; -the head from the chin to the highest point, an eighth; from the top of -the chest to the roots of the hair, a sixth.” - -The rule of ten faces, or eight heads, derived from this, has remained -to the present time. Several sculptors of a later period, who have -given much attention to the subject of proportion, differ slightly from -the canon of Polycletus, though it is commonly accepted. - -That strict rules of symmetrical proportion should be followed is -necessary in all statuary, but especially in that which serves as a -decoration for architecture. The knowledge of the figure acquired by -eminent sculptors inspired them with admiration for the beautiful, -and enabled them to express in the creation of their art an ideal of -grand beauty, which was guided by a taste and feeling which rarely -failed to direct them aright. It was the greatest sculptor of modern -times, Michael Angelo, who said that the sculptor should carry “his -compasses in his eye.” Some one comments on this that, “Sculptors, and -painters especially, dread the rule of geometry. They regard rule as a -fetter upon their invention, not dreaming that this great man (Michael -Angelo), before he expressed himself thus, had for so long a time had -the compasses in his hand.” This points to a profound truth in all -practical art, that no man can be a great artist unless he have the -power of drawing in the true proportions of the beautiful. - -Having pointed out the leading points in the technic of sculpture, we -take up its history, beginning naturally with the earliest forms as -found in Egypt. - -The Egyptians, inhabiting a flat, uniform country, of pure and -salubrious climate, working as sculptors before a written language -was invented, carved their colossal sphinx almost entirely out of the -living rock; an amazing example of symbolic sculptural representation, -combining the human with the brute form of the lion. The date of -this first great work is probably earlier than that of the earliest -pyramids—that built by Chofo, King of Memphis, the Cheops of Herodotus, -and the larger one by Nef Chofo, his son. M. Renan, speaking for M. -Mariette, states that a tablet was found by him recording that Nef -Chofo did certain repairs to the sphinx; so that since it required -repairs, it must already have existed for a considerable time. All -small barbaric or archaic work of the ancient Egyptians in sculpture -has perished in the vast lapse of time. But this one monument, raised -at least 4,000 years before the Christian era, stands to prove, with -its companion pyramids, the wonderful power of conception, the energy -and practical skill which characterized the early Egyptians. What they -lacked in ideas of beauty, they made up for by the simple grandeur in -the colossal size and perfection in execution. - -The intention of producing a monument to last forever was shown in an -equally striking manner in the construction of the pyramids, and with -an exercise of science and skill even more remarkable. - -Egyptian art, in the form of architecture, was, after the pyramids of -Ghizeh, further developed about 1650 B. C., under Osirtesen I., who -built the oldest of the temples at Thebes. Columns and obelisks were -then invented, and the _cavi relievi_ were largely used. Statuary, -however, did not advance until after the Phœnician Shepherd Kings—a -body of wandering Arabs, so called, who conquered Upper Egypt for a -time—were driven out by Amosis, King of Thebes, about 1450 B. C. - -Passing over Amunothph I. and his successor Thothmosis I., of whom -there is a fine statue in the Turin Museum, we come to Thothmosis II., -whose reign marks a period of vast development, as he married Nitocris, -the last Queen of Memphis, capital of Lower Egypt, and thus united the -two kingdoms, about 1340 B. C. The great avenue of sphinxes, leading -to the temple of Karnak, was made in her reign, and there is a statue -of Thothmosis II., a seated figure seven feet nine inches high, in good -proportions, of about seven heads high, the fingers and toes straight, -not showing the knuckles, and the legs sharply chiseled at the shins, -not showing the small bone on the outside of the leg, as in the statues -of the later time of Amunothph III. (about 1260 B. C.). - -The famous colossus, called the musical Memnon, one of the two still -standing in the desert near Thebes, more than fifty feet high, is of -this period. These statues are not in good proportion, being too short -in the waist. The two fine lions, carved in red granite, belonging to -this time, which Lord Prudhoe brought over and presented to the British -Museum, are remarkable as examples of fine typical treatment of the -lion. They show much grandeur of feeling, and, compared with the modern -naturalistic sculpture of lions, they are superior as examples of -monumental art. - -In 1170 B. C. reigned Ramses II., the greatest of the Egyptian kings, -under whom was invented all the wonderful adaptation of the lotus and -papyrus plant to the design of columns, as seen in the famous colonnade -of the hall of Karnak. His statue, in the Turin Museum, is in the -finest style of ancient Theban art; it is a seated figure carved out -of a block of black granite, and is not colossal, being only five feet -seven inches high. The point to be noticed in this statue is the effort -at action, which is not seen in earlier works. The right hand is raised -to the breast holding the short sort of crosier of the god Osiris; -the left hand resting on the knee, strongly clenched. The colossal -statue of Ramses, as Osiris, may be taken as examples, with that of -the Memnon, in the British Museum, of the sculpture of this time. The -large sphinx in the Louvre bears the name of Ramses II. The four-seated -colossi, carved out of the living rock at the entrance of the great -temple of Abou Simbel in Ethiopia, represent the same king. They are -between sixty and seventy feet high, and wonderfully well sculptured, -but the proportions are not so good as in some smaller statues, as -they are six heads only in height, and short in the waist and thick -in the limbs, showing no attempt at any close or correct imitation of -nature. They look straight before them with a calm smile of confident -power and contentment. These statues, and others which are to be seen -in the museums, are not equal to those of the time of Amunothph III., -previously referred to; they are not so well carved, and the features -are heavy, with thick noses and lips, while the limbs are clumsy, and -without any attempt at accurate modeling. - -It will be observed, therefore, that Egyptian sculpture may be classed -broadly into three styles. (1) the Egyptian proper, reaching its finest -period in the reign of Amunothph III.; (2) the Ethiopic Egyptian; (3) -the later Egyptian, leading to the decline of that style of sculpture. -Of the first it should be noticed that the general proportions of the -figure were more accurately considered than the relative proportions -of hands and feet to the limbs, which are generally incorrect. There -are, however, some examples of excellent proportion, as in a colossal -arm and fist in the British Museum. This arm belonged to a statue of -Thothmes III., and came from Memphis. It is about ten feet long. The -fist also came from Memphis, and measures four feet across. The heads -of statues of this period are of the pure Coptic type, with a nose -somewhat aquiline, and the lips comparatively thin. The eyes, however, -were always carved in full in profile representations; the feet, one -in advance of the other on the same plane. The details of form at the -knuckles and legs are well indicated. - -In the Ethiopic-Egyptian statues, general proportion is lost sight of; -the figures become dumpy, being only six heads high; the limbs are -clumsy and wanting in modeling; the hands and feet stiff and not marked -by details at the joints; nor do they show the small bone of the leg. -The heads are more of the Negro type, with turned-up noses and thick -lips. - -In the later Egyptian it is remarkable that with more attempt to -imitate nature in the modeling of the muscles, the forms of the -trunk and limbs become unnaturally puffed. More is added in symbolic -attributes; heads of the cat, the hawk, and the ape, are placed on the -human body; the dress is more elaborate, that of the head especially, -on which a disc for the sun was often placed, as on the god Osiris. -From the fall of Thebes, about 1000 B. C., to the conquest of Egypt by -the Persians, 523 B. C., sculpture became more and more degraded, and -soon lost its original style of simplicity and grandeur of form. - -After some two centuries of rule, the Persians were conquered by -Alexander the Great, 332 B. C., but there are no statues of Greek style -of this date found in Egypt; under the Ptolemies, his successors for -300 years, new temples of inferior but still Egyptian style were built, -such as those at Phile, Edfou, and Denderah, and many statues were -made, but nearly all have been destroyed, and there is not one of any -king or queen of the Ptolemies. - -After Egypt became a Roman province, in 38 B. C., Egyptian sculpture, -in a debased form, was still continued upon the decoration of the -temples, but the statues were then in the hands of Greek artists. Still -later, there is the well-known statue of Antinous as an Egyptian, the -work of a Greek sculptor of the time of the Emperor Hadrian (A. D. -117-138). - -Assyrian sculpture is a discovery of recent times, first made in 1842-3 -by Botta, the French consul at Mosul on the banks of the Tigris, and -almost simultaneously by Mr. Layard, who though he had seen the ruins -of Nineveh in 1840 did not get permission to examine and excavate till -1845. The sculptures differ widely from any in Egypt in being nearly -all in bas-relief and high relief. There are very few statues, carved -in the round, that stand either with a support practically or on the -legs. There are no colossi nearly approaching in size the Egyptian and -Greek colossal statues, none being higher than eighteen feet, while -as we have seen sixty feet was a moderate height for an Egyptian or -Greek colossal figure, and some were higher. The colossal human-headed -bulls and lions with wings, at the portals of the king’s palace, are -in high relief on huge slabs, one on each side, facing outwards, and -one on each side on the wall, with the head turned to look to the -front. It does not appear that any principal figure was set up in an -interior, either of these compound animals, or of any deity or king. -No colossal seated figures like the Egyptian statues have been found. -The standing figures carved in relief differ entirely in the expression -of the countenance and motive of the figure from the Egyptian. They -have all some action; the king grasps a captured lion, or as chief -priest he walks with his staff which he holds firmly, while the left -hand rests on the hilt of his sword. It is true that the legs are -on one plane, and the feet in a position that could not support the -body; still the intention to show action and life is there. There -is none of the desire to express majestic, calm, eternal repose and -content which is so characteristic of Egyptian sculptured statues. -Throughout the great number of slabs in the British Museum and in the -Louvre there is a very vigorous descriptive power displayed in carving -figures of men, horses, chariots, battles, sieges of cities, hunting -scenes, processions, rivers with men swimming on inflated skins, with -fish and boats; implements, weapons, chairs, baskets, trees, birds, -buildings, with a close resemblance to the real objects that is very -distinctive of the Assyrian style. The quadrupeds and birds are much -better done than the human figures; the character of some of the mules -is faithfully given, and there is much feeling for nature in some of -the lions in the hunting-scenes. There is no doubt, also, that this -naturalistic realism was carried further by painting the sculptures. -In none of these painted reliefs, however, is there anything of -the careful carving and delicate delineation of the Egyptian _cavi -relievi_; they are all boldly done, and with a good deal of skill, but -by hands that would seem to have been self-taught, and at liberty -to represent as they pleased so that the conventional attributes and -symbolic objects were duly made clear. There is scarcely any regulated -use of typical forms; and in the proportions of the figures especially -there is no rule. The principal figures are about 6½ heads high, and -in others the heads are often larger, while the arms and legs are out -of all proportion gigantic, the muscles being exaggerated into masses -at the calf and knee, and the shin-bone absurdly prominent. All truth -seems to have been sacrificed for the sake of conveying a violent -look of immense strength. The battle scenes remind us of some of the -puerile representations by mediæval workmen of a poor style, or the -debased Roman work seen on sarcophaguses. The Assyrians, unlike the -Egyptians, were “mighty hunters,” consequently horses were favorites -with the Assyrian carvers, as they were with the Greek sculptors -afterwards; they seldom have more than one fore-leg and one hind one, -but their heads are carefully carved, and all the trappings show the -same intention to obtain exact resemblance as is displayed in the -dress and ornaments of the kings and other figures. It is important -to observe that these sculptures are very equal in merit; there is no -sign of improvement and little of falling off. As to the date of these -sculptures, they are much later than all the Egyptian work of the finer -style. - -It may be concluded that the Assyrian palaces, with their sculptured -walls, took a much shorter time to build than the Egyptian, as they -were built of sun-baked bricks, with ornamental slabs below, and wooden -beams and columns above, all which structures have perished leaving -only the stone slabs. The soft nature of the stone, which is a kind of -grey alabaster, extremely suited to carving in the manner employed, -afforded the facility that influenced the style and enabled the carvers -to indulge their inclination for realistic detail. They do not appear -to have sought for fine colored hard stones as the Egyptians did, nor -do they show the same desire to make their work monumental and enduring. - -Assyrian sculpture was always archaic, though at the same time more -vigorous in what might be called graphic sculpture, and truer in -imitation of nature than Egyptian, which rarely attempted action in the -figure or facial expression. There is, however, no alliance between the -two styles, and there was never likely to be, as the Assyrians were not -a people of poetic and abstract ideas, but of facts, circumstances, -and action. They thought of the present glory, and did not trouble -themselves about the future. The same characteristics will partly -account for the absence of any kind of reference to a future state. The -tree of life with the priest ministering before it and holding fruit is -to be seen; but it is remarkable that no sepulchral monuments have been -found; no tomb or mark of regard in any shape for the welfare of the -dead hereafter has been discovered. - -Bearing in mind that the Assyrians were never a statue-making people, -and never attempted to follow the example of the Egyptians—do we find -them influencing the sculptural art of any other people in work like -that of the Assyrians? This question is answered at once by the remains -found at Persepolis, where there are to be seen similar winged and -human-headed lions and bulls, and sculptured slabs, but no statues -either in the round or in alto-relievo. - -The ruins of the palaces of Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes, the date of -which is from 560 B. C. to the conquests of Alexander the Great (331 B. -C.), show only sculptural remains left, after all the soft brick walls -and the wooden beams and rafters have long perished. Persian sculptural -art since those days never advanced to the dignity of statuary, but -like its Assyrian predecessor stopped short where Greek art began -to develop. The same is to be observed of that ramification of the -Assyrian arts which is to be traced in the building of the temple of -Jerusalem under Solomon, which, however, was some five centuries before -the time of Cambyses, and about the same length of time after the -settling of the Israelites in the Delta of the Nile (1550 B. C.). The -law of Moses was sufficient to prevent any sculpture in the likeness of -living things; but the cherubim, with their wings, seem to have been -borrowed from the Assyrians. The temple was, no doubt, built of stone -and cedar-wood after the manner of the Assyrians, and with a profusion -of ornament in carving, of valuable marbles, wood, and embossed work in -precious metals. - -The colossal sculptures in the rock-cut temples of India, whether taken -as derived from the Assyrian centre or not, may be classed with that -style as semi-barbaric and naturalistic, with a superadded symbolism -which only led to the most extravagant deformities of the human figure -to express the power and attributes of a deity. Statuary proper never -existed in any shape of beauty like the human form, throughout Persia, -India, and China, and there is no sign of any disposition amongst the -Asiatics to learn the art from their European conquerors; it is not in -their nature. - - - - -SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE. - - - - -MODERN STATE OF ANCIENT COUNTRIES. - -By GEORGE SANDYS. - -The parts I speak of are the most renowned countries and kingdoms; -once the seats of most glorious and triumphant empires; the theaters -of valor and heroical actions; the soils enriched with all earthly -felicities; the places where Nature hath produced her wonderful works; -where arts and sciences have been invented and perfected; where wisdom, -virtue, policy, and civility, have been planted, have flourished; and, -lastly, where God himself did place his own commonwealth, gave laws and -oracles, inspired his prophets, sent angels to converse with men; above -all, where the Son of God descended to become man; where he honored the -earth with his beautiful steps, wrought the works of our redemption, -triumphed over death, and ascended into glory; which countries, once -so glorious and famous for their happy estate, are now, through vice -and ingratitude, become the most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; -the wild beasts of mankind having broken in upon them, and rooted out -all civility, and the pride of a stern and barbarous tyrant possessing -the thrones of ancient and just dominion. Who, aiming only at the -height of greatness and sensuality, hath in tract of time reduced -so great and goodly a part of the world to that lamentable distress -and servitude, under which (to the astonishment of the understanding -beholders) it now faints and groaneth. Those rich lands at this present -remain waste and overgrown with bushes, receptacles of wild beasts, -of thieves, and murderers; large territories dispeopled or thinly -inhabited; goodly cities made desolate; sumptuous buildings become -ruins; glorious temples either subverted or prostituted to impiety; -true religion discountenanced and oppressed; all nobility extinguished; -no light of learning permitted, nor virtue cherished; violence and -rapine insulting over all, and leaving no security except to an abject -mind, and unlooked-on poverty; which calamities of theirs, so great and -deserved, are to the rest of the world as threatening instructions. For -assistance wherein, I have not only related what I saw of their present -condition, but, so far as convenience might permit, presented a brief -view of the former estates and first antiquities of those peoples and -countries; thence to draw a right image of the frailty of man, the -mutability of whatever is worldly, and assurance that, as there is -nothing unchangeable saving God, so nothing stable but by his grace and -protection. - - - - -THE DESIGN OF THE NEW ENGLAND PLANTATIONS. - -By the REV. COTTON MATHER. - -There were more than a few attempts of the English to people, to settle -and improve the parts of New England which were to the northward of -New Plymouth, but the designs of those attempts being aimed no higher -than the advancement of some worldly interests, a constant series of -disasters confounded them, until there was a plantation erected on the -nobler designs of Christianity, and that plantation, though it has -had more adversaries, perhaps, than any one upon earth, yet, having -obtained help from God, it continues to this day. There have been -very fine settlements in the northeast regions, but what is become -of them? I have heard that one of our ministers, once preaching to a -congregation there, urged them to approve themselves a religious people -from this consideration: that otherwise they would contradict the main -object of planting this wilderness, whereupon a well-known person, then -in the assembly, cried out: “Sir, you are mistaken, you think you are -preaching to the people at the Bay; our main end was to catch fish.” -Truly ’twere to have been wished that something more excellent had been -the main end of the settlements in that brave country, which we have, -even long since the arrival of that more pious colony at the Bay, now -seen dreadfully unsettled, no less than twice, at least, by the sword -of the heathen, after they had been replenished by many hundreds of -people who had thriven to many thousands of pounds, and all the force -of the Bay, too, to assist them in maintaining their settlements. But -the same or like inauspicious things attended many other endeavors to -make plantations, on such a _main end_, in several other parts of the -country, before the arrival of the Massachusetts colony, which was -formed on more glorious aims. - - -REMARKS ON THE CATALOGUE OF PLANTATIONS. - -(1) There are few towns to be now seen on our list but what were -existing in this land before the dreadful Indian war which befell us -twenty years ago; and there are few towns broken up within the then -Massachusetts line by that war but what have revived out of their -ashes. Nevertheless the many calamities which have ever since been -wasting the country have so nip the growth of it, that its later -progress hath held no proportion with what was from the beginning; but -yet with such variety, that while the trained companies of some towns -are no bigger than they were thirty or forty years ago, others are as -big again. - -(2) The calamities that have carried off the inhabitants of our several -towns have not been all of one sort. Pestilential sicknesses have made -fearful havoc in divers places, where the sound have not perhaps been -enough to tend the sick, while others have not had one touch from the -Angel of Death, and the sword hath cut off scores in sundry places, -when others, it may be, have not lost a single man by that avenger. - -(3) ’Tis no unusual, though no universal experiment, among us, that -while an excellent, laborious, illuminating ministry has been continued -in a town, the place has thriven to admiration; but ever since that -man’s time they have gone down the wind in all their interests. -The gospel has evidently been the making of all our towns, and the -blessings of the Upper have been accompanied with the blessings of the -Nether Springs. Memorable also is the remark of Slingsby Beibel, Esq., -in his most judicious “Book of the Interests of Europe:” “Were not the -cold climate of New England supplied by good laws and discipline, the -barrenness of the country would never have brought people to it, nor -have advanced it in consideration and formidableness above the other -English plantations exceeding it much in fertility and other inviting -qualities.” - -(4) Well may New England lay claim to the name it wears, and to a room -in the tenderest affections of its mother, the happy island. For as -there are few of our towns but what have their namesakes in England, so -the reason why most of our towns are called what they are, is because -the chief of the first inhabitants would thus bear up the names of the -particular places there from whence they came. - -(5) I have heard an aged saint, near his death, thus cheerfully -express himself: “Well, I am going to heaven, and I will there tell -the faithful who are gone long since from New England thither, that -though they who gathered in our churches are all dead and gone, yet the -churches are still alive, with as numerous flocks of Christians as were -ever among them.” Concerning most of the churches in our catalogue, -the report thus carried unto heaven, I must now also send through the -earth; but if with “as numerous,” we could in every respect say as -gracious, what joy to all the saints, both in heaven and on earth, -might be from thence occasioned.—_Magnalia Christi Americana._ - - - - -EXTRACTS FROM “ESSAYS TO DO GOOD.” - -By the REV. COTTON MATHER. - -To take a poor child, especially an orphan left in poverty, and bestow -a liberal education on it, is an admirable charity, yea, it may draw -after it a long train of good, and may interest you in all the good -done by him whom you have educated. Hence, also, what is done for -schools, for colleges, and for hospitals is done for the general good. -The endowment and maintenance of these is at once to do good to many. - -But alas, how much of the silver and the gold is buried in hands where -it is little better than if conveyed back to the mines whence it came. -How much of it is employed to as little purpose as what arrives at -Hindoostan, where a great part of it, after some circulation, is by the -Moguls lodged in subterraneous caves never to see the light again. The -Christian whose faith and hope are genuine, acts not thus. - -Sometimes elaborate compositions may be prepared for the press, works -of great bulk, and of greater worth, by which the best interests of -knowledge and virtue might be considerably promoted, but they lie, -like the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda, in silent neglect, and -are likely to continue in that state, till God inspires some wealthy -persons nobly to subscribe to their publication, and by this generous -application of their property to bring them abroad. The names of -such noble benefactors to mankind ought to live as long as the works -themselves live; and when the works do any good, what these have done -towards the publishing of them, ought to be “told for a memorial of -them.” He urges gentlemen of leisure to seek “some honorable and -agreeable employments,” and says, “I will mention one: The Pythagoreans -forbade men’s eating their own brains, or keeping their good thoughts -to themselves.” The incomparable Boyle observes that as to religious -books in general, “those that have been written by laymen, and -especially by gentlemen, have (_cæteris paribus_) been better received -and more effectual than those published by clergymen.” Mr. Boyle’s -were certainly so. Men of quality have frequently attained such -accomplishments in languages and science that they become prodigies -of literature. Their libraries also have stupendous collections -approaching toward Vatican or Bodleian dimensions. It were much to be -wished that persons of wealth and station would qualify themselves for -the use of the pen, as well as of the sword, and deserve this eulogium: -“They have written excellent things.” An English person of quality in -his treatise entitled “A view of the soul,” has the following passage: -“It is certainly the highest dignity, if not the greatest happiness of -which human nature is capable in the vale below, to have the soul so -far enlightened as to become a mirror, conduit or conveyor of God’s -truth to others.” It is a bad motto for a man of capacity to say, “My -understanding is unfruitful.” Gentlemen, consider what subjects may -most properly and usefully fall under your cultivation. Your pens may -stab atheism and vice more effectually than other men’s can. If out of -your tribe there come those who handle the pen of the writer, they will -do uncommon execution. One of them has ingenuously said, “Though I know -of some _functions_, yet I know no _truths_ of religion that like the -shew-bread belong to the priests alone.” * * * - -To do good is a sure and pleasant way effectually to bespeak God’s -blessings on ourselves. Who so likely to find blessings as the men who -are blessings? While we work for God, he certainly will work for us, -and ours—will do for us more than we have done for him; “more than we -can ask or think.” A good action is its own reward. - -But what shall be done for the good man in the heavenly world? His part -and work in the city of God are at present incomprehensible to us, but -the kindness which his God will show him in the strong city will be -truly marvelous. The attempts which the Christian has made to fill this -world with righteous things, are so many tokens for good to him, that -he shall have a portion in that world wherein shall dwell nothing but -righteousness. He will be welcomed with “Well done, good and faithful -servant.” - -I will conclude with a declaration which I will boldly maintain. It -is this: Were a man able to write in seven languages, could he daily -converse with all the sweets of the liberal sciences to which the -most accomplished make pretensions; were he to entertain himself with -all ancient and modern history; and could he feast continually on the -curiosities which the different branches of learning may discover to -him, all this would not afford the ravishing satisfaction which he -might find in relieving the distresses of a poor, miserable neighbor, -nor would it bear any comparison with the heartfelt delight which he -might have by doing service to the kingdom of our great Savior in the -world. - - - - -SPIRITUAL KNOWLEDGE. - -By JONATHAN EDWARDS. - - -There is a kind of taste of the mind, whereby persons are guided -in their judgment of the natural beauty, gracefulness, propriety, -nobleness, and sublimity of speeches and action, whereby they judge, -as it were, by the glance of the eye, or by inward sensation, and the -first impression of the object; so there is likewise such a thing as -a divine taste, given and maintained by the Spirit of God, in the -hearts of the saints, whereby they are in like manner led and guided -in discerning and distinguishing the true spiritual and holy beauty of -actions; and that more easily, readily, and accurately, as they have -more or less of the Spirit of God dwelling in them. And thus “the sons -of God are led by the Spirit of God, in their behavior in the world.” - -A holy disposition and spiritual taste, where grace is strong and -lively, will enable a soul to determine what actions are right and -becoming Christians, not only more speedily, but far more exactly, -than the greatest abilities without it. This may be illustrated by -the manner in which some habits of mind, and dispositions of heart, -of a nature inferior to true grace, will teach and guide a man in his -actions. As for instance, if a man be a very good natured man, his good -nature will teach him how to act benevolently amongst mankind, and will -direct him, on every occasion, to those speeches and actions which are -agreeable to rules of goodness, than the strongest reason will a man -of a morose temper. So if a man’s heart be under the influence of an -entire friendship, and most endeared affection to another, though he -be a man of an indifferent capacity, yet this habit of his mind will -direct him, far more readily and exactly, to a speech and deportment, -or manner of behavior, which shall in all respects be sweet and kind, -and agreeable to a benevolent disposition of heart, than the greatest -capacity without it. He has, as it were, a spirit within him, that -guides him; the habit of his mind is attended with a taste by which -he immediately relishes that air and mien which is benevolent, and -disrelishes the contrary, and causes him to distinguish between one -and the other in a moment, more precisely, than the most accurate -reasonings can find out in many hours. As the nature and inward -tendency of a stone, or other heavy body, that is let fall from aloft, -shows the way to the center of the earth more exactly in an instant -than the ablest mathematician, without it, could determine, by his most -accurate observations, in a whole day. Thus it is that a spiritual -disposition and taste teaches and guides a man in his behavior in the -world. So an eminently humble, or meek, or charitable disposition, -will direct a person of mean capacity to such a behavior, as is -agreeable to Christian rules of humility, meekness and charity, far -more readily and precisely than the most diligent study and elaborate -reasonings of a man of the strongest faculties, who has not a Christian -spirit within him. So also will a spirit of love to God, and holy fear -and reverence toward God, and filial confidence in God, and an heavenly -disposition, teach and guide a man in his behavior. - -It is an exceedingly difficult thing for a wicked man, destitute of -Christian principles in his heart to guide him, to know how to demean -himself like a Christian, with the life and beauty, and heavenly -sweetness of a truly holy, humble, Christ-like behavior. He knows not -how to put on these garments; neither do they fit him. - -The saints in thus judging of actions by a spiritual taste, have not -a particular recourse to express rules of God’s word, with respect -to every word and action that is before them, the good or evil of -which they thus judge: But yet their taste itself, in general, is -subject to the rule of God’s word, and must be tried by that, and a -right reasoning upon it. As a man of a rectified palate judges of -particular morsels by his taste; but yet his palate itself must be -judged of, whether it be right or no, by certain rules and reasons. But -a spiritual taste of soul mightily helps the soul in its reasonings -on the word of God, and in judging the true meaning of its rules: -As it removes the prejudices of a depraved appetite, and naturally -leads the thoughts in the right channel, casts a light on the word of -God, and causes the true meaning, most naturally, to come to mind, -through the harmony there is between the disposition and relish of -a sanctified soul, and the true meaning of the rules of God’s word. -Yea, this harmony tends to bring the texts themselves to mind, on -proper occasions; as the particular state of the stomach and palate -tends to bring particular meats and drinks to mind, as are agreeable -to that state. “Thus the children of God are led by the Spirit of -God” in judging of actions themselves, and in their meditations upon, -and judging of, and applying the rules of God’s holy word: And so God -“teaches them his statutes and causes them to understand the way of his -precepts;” which the Psalmist so often prays for. - -But this leading of the spirit is a thing exceedingly diverse from -that which some call so; which consists not in teaching them God’s -statutes and precepts, that he has already given; but in giving them -new precepts by immediate inward speech or suggestion, and has in it -no tasting the true excellency of things, or judging or discerning the -nature of things at all. They do not determine what is the will of -God by any taste or relish, or any manner of judging of the nature of -things, but by an immediate dictate concerning the thing to be done; -there is no such thing as judgment or wisdom in the case. Whereas, in -that leading of the spirit which is peculiar to God’s children, is -imparted that true wisdom and holy discretion, so often spoken of in -the word of God; which is high above the other way, as the stars are -higher than a glow worm; and that which Balaam and Saul (who sometimes -were led by the spirit in that other way) never had, and no natural man -can have without a change of nature. - - [End of Required Reading for October, 1883.] - - * * * * * - - MAN is only a reed, the weakest plant of nature, but - he is a thinking reed. It is not necessary that the - whole universe should be in arms to crush him. A - vapor, a drop of water is sufficient to put him out of - existence. But even though the universe could crush him - to atoms, man would still be more noble than that which - kills him, because he is conscious that he is dying, - and of the advantage which the universe has over him; - the universe knows nothing.—_Pascal._ - - * * * * * - - NOTHING is so dangerous as an ignorant friend; a wise - enemy is worth much more.—_La Fontaine._ - - - - -WHERE LIES THE MUSIC? - -By ALICE C. JENNINGS. - - [When Paganini once rose to amuse a crowded auditory - with his music, he found that his violin had been - removed, and a coarser instrument substituted for it. - Explaining the trick, he said to the audience, “Now I - will show you that the music is not in my violin, but - in me.”—CHAUTAUQUAN _for December, 1882_.] - - - An artist once, whose magic could command - That sound its deepest secrets should unfold, - Had found his instrument by evil hand - Exchanged for one of meaner, coarser mould. - - Yet, like the clashing tongue of vibrant bells, - The hindrance but a greater power revealed. - “See, I will show thee that the music dwells - In _me_, and not the instrument I wield.” - - He turns, and sweetly, grandly, at his call, - The violin its richest music flings. - The instrument is naught—the player all— - The power is in the touch, and not the strings. - - A coarse, rude instrument, this world, at best: - Its strings made tense by selfishness and pride; - If by its discords music be expressed, - The music in our fingers must reside. - - Remember this: in tune keep heart and hand, - And to earth’s music thou shalt hold the key, - And from its discords sweetest tones command, - Unknown and unimagined, save by thee. - - - - -WAVERLEY NOVELS. - -By WALLACE BRUCE. - - -When Walter Scott, one morning before breakfast, while looking for -fishing-tackle, came upon his long neglected manuscript of Waverley, -and decided to publish it, he baited his hook, so to speak, with a -plump literary angle-worm, and carefully concealing himself, dropped it -cautiously into one of the quiet and almost stagnant pools which here -and there break the flow of the eighteenth century. - -Not to carry the figure further he wakes up one morning to find the -“Author of Waverley” famous; but no one knew _who_ the “Author of -Waverley” was. Romances, relating alike to the history of Scotland, -England, France, Switzerland and Palestine, covering a wide range -of life and character, with a varied record of eight hundred years, -followed each other so rapidly that the reading world opened its eyes -in wonder, until the “great unknown” was finally regarded the “great -magician.” His books, as they came wet from the press, were literally -devoured by the story-loving people of England and Scotland; and -packages, shipped across the Atlantic, were regarded the most valuable -part of the cargo. I have heard elderly people of New England speak of -anxiously waiting for the next ship which was to bring to their hands -a new novel by the “Author of Waverley.” Never before had the pen of -any man awakened such responsive interest in his own generation. The -publication of Waverley marked a new era in romantic literature. - -During the eighty years that have followed that publication mankind -has had its hopes, longings, ambitions and jealousies mirrored in -works of fiction. Hundreds, ay, thousands of novels—most of them -unworthy of their high lineage—have contended with each other for the -world’s approbation; writers without number have flooded the century -with romance; but through all these years Walter Scott stands the -acknowledged master, the purest-hearted, the noblest-minded of them -all; the man who could say upon his death-bed: “I have not written one -line which I would wish blotted.” - -No words of re-invitation are necessary to those who have once read -the pages of Sir Walter, but it will be a “consummation devoutly to be -wished” if I can turn the coming generation of your readers away from -the sickly sentiment of the day to the works of him, whose influence, -like that of King Arthur of the Round Table, inspires the soul with - - “High thoughts and amiable words, - And courtliness, and the desire of fame, - And love of truth, and all that makes a man.” - -Some years ago, while preparing a lecture on “The Landmarks of Scott,” -I found myself confronted with twenty-six novels and five well-known -poems, besides innumerable essays and histories, all demanding at -least a passing word. I saw that two minutes devoted to each would -more than fill my lecture hour, and leave no room for the frame-work, -viz: Loch Katrine, Loch Lomond, the Trosachs, Melrose, Edinboro, the -Yarrow, the Ettrick, the Tweed, and the Border Country, where the -Percy and the Douglas fought. It then occurred to me that Scott had -unconsciously prepared a panoramic history of Europe from the time of -the Crusades to the year 1812. Acting upon this suggestion I examined -the novels and poems and found to my great delight, that with here -and there an absent link of fifty or a hundred years the chain was -almost perfect. I condensed the prominent features of eight hundred -years, tracing their connection with Scott’s graphic pictures into a -pen-sketch of ten minutes, and I have been gratified to see that this -idea of chronological order has been recently followed by one of the -leading New York publishers. It is my object in a series of articles to -elaborate this historical sequence from the time of “Count Robert of -Paris” (1094) down to “St. Ronan’s Well” (1812), and to point out in -passing some of the beauties of the great author. - -If the reader of these articles will follow with me the romances to -which I refer, I think he will say, at the close of the series, that -he has found in the Waverley Novels a vivid picture of the events -and customs of Europe, from the days of the crusades down to a time -within the memory of men still living. M. Augustin Thierry, one of the -most philosophical essayists of France, has eloquently said: “There -are scenes of such simplicity, of such living truth, to be found, -that notwithstanding the distance of the period in which the author -places himself, they can be realized without effort. It is because in -the midst of the world which no longer exists, Walter Scott always -places the world which does, and always will exist; that is to say, -human nature, of which he knows all the secrets. Everything peculiar -to the time and place, the exterior of men, and aspect of the country -and of the habitations, costumes and manners, are described with the -most minute truthfulness; and yet the immense erudition, which has -furnished so many details, is nowhere to be perceived. Walter Scott -seems to have for the past that second sight, which, in times of -ignorance, men attributed to themselves for the future. To say that -there is more real history in his novels on Scotland and England than -in the philosophically false compilations, which still possess that -great name, is not advancing anything strange in the eyes of those who -have read and understood “Old Mortality,” “Waverley,” “Rob Roy,” the -”Fortunes of Nigel,” and the “Heart of Mid Lothian.” - -Allison says in his essay on Chateaubriand, published in _Blackwood’s -Magazine_, March, 1832: “We feel in Scott’s characters that it is not -romance, but real life which is represented. Every word that is said, -especially in the Scotch novels, is nature itself. Homer, Cervantes, -Shakspere, and Scott, alone have penetrated to the deep substratum of -character, which, however disguised by the varieties of climate and -government, is at bottom everywhere the same; and thence they have -found a responsive echo in every human heart. He has carried romance -out of the region of imagination and sensibility into the walks of -actual life. He has combined historical accuracy and romantic adventure -with the interest of tragic events; we live with the heroes, and -princes, and paladins of former times, as with our own contemporaries; -and acquire from the splendid coloring of his pencil such a vivid -conception of the manners and pomp of the feudal ages, that we confound -them, in our recollections, with the scenes which we ourselves have -witnessed. The splendor of their tournaments, the magnificence of -their dress, the glancing of their arms, their haughty manners, daring -courage, and knightly courtesy; the shock of their battle-steeds, the -splintering of their lances, the conflagration of their castles, are -brought before our eyes in such vivid colors, that we are at once -transported to the age of Richard and Saladin, of Charles the Bold and -Philip Augustus.” - -The four novels, which deal with the history of the Crusades, are -“Count Robert of Paris,” “The Betrothed,” “The Talisman,” and -“Ivanhoe.” It is a singular fact that the one occupying the first -place in chronological order was written last, and hardly completed -by the author when he died. “Ivanhoe” is, without doubt, the great -favorite. I have often thought that “Ivanhoe” bears the same relation -to Scott’s novels that “The Merchant of Venice” does to the dramas of -Shakspere. “Old Mortality,” and “Hamlet,” may show deeper insight; but -neither Scott nor Shakspere ever surpassed the two I have associated in -dramatic interest. The three novels which precede “Ivanhoe” in point of -time will give us a complete knowledge of the times and manners of the -Crusades, and lead us, as it were, from one picture-gallery to another, -until we come to the master-piece of the great artist. - -“Count Robert of Paris” opens with a description of the court of -Alexius Commenus—a wily monarch, who had ample need of all his strategy -in dealing with foes that menaced him from every side: the Franks -from the west, the Turks from the east, the Scythians from the north, -the Saracens from the south. The wealthy city on the Bosphorous, -enriched by the spoils of nations, whose golden gate symbolized the -wealth and magnificence of seven hundred years of prosperity, was on -the great highway of travel, where, so to speak, the “cross-roads” -of Europe met, and presented a tempting prize to the restless and -barbarous hordes from the shores of the Caspian to the German Ocean. -“The superb successor of the earth’s mistress,” decked in borrowed -splendor, gave early intimations of that speedy decay to which the -whole civilized world, then limited within the Roman Empire, was -internally and imperceptibly tending. Intrigue and corruption in the -palace had compelled the Greek sovereigns of Constantinople, for -many years, to procure foreign soldiers to quell insurrections and -defend any traitorous attempt on the imperial person. These were known -as Verangians—a word signifying barbarians—and formed a corps of -satellites more distinguished for valor than the famed Prætorian Bands -of Rome. - -The second chapter of the book reveals the hatred and jealousy existing -between these foreign soldiers and the crafty civilians. The Verangian, -to whom the reader is introduced, is an Anglo-Saxon too proud to bow -his head to a Norman conqueror, a wanderer from his father-land, -a soldier in search of better fortune, soon to discover by lucky -chance among the crusaders the fair Bertha of his early love. Upon -this slender thread the novelist hangs the romantic elements of the -story. But Count Robert of Paris is in no sense a love drama; in fact -it can hardly be termed a romance. It is rather a historic sketch, -placing in sharp contrast the wild enthusiasm of western Europe, her -castles of rude masonry, her mud hovels, her rude simplicity, with -the over-refined manners and tapestried chambers of the eastern court -hastening to its decay. It is living Europe confronting the dead -centuries. - -The third chapter introduces us to a richly furnished drawing room, -where the Princess Anna Commena—the first lady historian—sits reading -to a sleepy group her prolix history of the glory of her father’s -reign. At this gathering Scott brings together with great art all the -leading actors of the drama; the Emperor Alexius and his wife Irene; -Nicepherous Briennius, the intriguing son-in-law, husband of the fair -historian; the crafty philosopher Agelastes; Achilles Tatius, master of -the guards, and the faithful Verangian. This is the real commencement -of the story, and to this gathering the news is announced of another -body of the great Crusade, consisting not of the ignorant or of the -fanatical like those led on by Peter the Hermit, but an army of lords -and nobles marshaled by kings and emperors. Against this mass of -steel-clad warriors the East had no power to oppose save the inherent -cunning and strategy of Commenus. Craft and wealth meet stupidity and -avarice. The more powerful chiefs of the Crusades are loaded with -presents, feasted by the emperor with the richest delicacies, and -their thirst slaked with iced wine; while their followers are left -at a distance in malarial districts, and intentionally supplied with -adulterated flour, tainted provisions, and bad water. Neglected by -friends and insulted by foes, they contracted diseases and died in -great numbers “without having once seen a foot of the Holy Land, for -the recovery of which they had abandoned their peace, their competence, -and their native country. Their misfortunes were imputed to their -own wilfulness, and their sickness to the vehemence of their own -appetites for raw fruits and unripened wines.” By promises of wealth -and long-practiced arts of diplomacy, the Emperor Commenus at last even -induces the leaders of the crusade individually to acknowledge him—the -Grecian Emperor—originally lord paramount of all these regions, as -their liege lord and suzerain. - -Scott takes advantage of this historical fact to draw one of his -matchless pictures, which in color and incident rivals the best pages -of his more dramatic romances; and it is here that Count Robert, when -the emperor left his throne for a single moment, dismounted from his -horse, took the seat of royal purple, and indolently began to caress -a large wolf-hound, which had followed him, and which, feeling as -much at ease as his master, reposed its grim form on the carpets of -gold and silk damask which tapestried the imperial footstool. It was -a picture of modern liberty looking worn-out despotism in the face. -That sublime audacity revealed the mettle of the race which was to -make individual conscience supreme; and his haughty and fearless -speech was the prologue of Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and the -Declaration of Independence. We must pass over the meeting in the -garden of Agesilaus, the entertainment at the palace, the drugged cup, -the dungeon experience of the count, and his miraculous release, the -fortitude and virtue of his Countess Brenhilda, the meeting of the -Verangian with Bertha in the garden of the philosopher, the treachery -of Briennius, his imprisonment and death-decree, and many other -incidents of interest, for the remaining space of this article must -be given to a brief consideration of “The Betrothed;” but the reader -will be happy to know that, after the conquest of Jerusalem, Count -Robert of Paris returned to Constantinople _en route_ to his native -kingdom. Upon reaching Italy the marriage of the Verangian and Bertha -was celebrated in princely style; and on his return to England a large -district, adjacent to the New Forest, near the home of his ancestors, -was conferred upon him by William Rufus, where it is presumed they -spent their declining years in peace and happiness. - -“The Betrothed” opens with the year 1187—the time of the Third -Crusade—when Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, preached the crusade -from castle to castle, from town to town, awaking the inmost valleys -of his native Cambria with the call to arms for the recovery of the -Holy Sepulcher. As a connecting link between the stories we will say -that the soldiers of the First Crusade, after years of hardship and -suffering, at last accomplished their vows. Antioch and Jerusalem -yielded to their arms, the Holy Sepulcher was redeemed from infidels. -Those who returned to their homes recounted their triumphs, and all -Europe was aglow with new zeal. Forty-five years later, in the year -1142, a Second Crusade was organized against the impending dangers -which threatened Palestine and Jerusalem. The warlike West was again -in arms; but this crusade was more unfortunate than the first. The -crusaders were again compelled to endure the outrages and perfidies of -the Greek. As in the First Crusade, the Christian armies dragged in -their train a great number of children, women, and old men, who could -do nothing toward victory but greatly augmented the disaster of defeat. -The piety and heroism of the First Crusade had degenerated into a love -of show and military splendor. “That which was still more injurious to -discipline,” to quote from the admirable “History of the Crusades,” by -J. F. Michaud, “was the depravity of manners in the Christian army, -which must be principally attributed to the great number of women -that had taken arms and mixed in the ranks of the soldiery. In this -crusade there was a troop of Amazons, commanded by a general, whose -dress was much more admired than her courage,” and whose gilded boots -procured her a name which we will not copy from the historian’s pages. -Forty years of struggle pass away in Palestine, and at the time of the -opening of our story Henry the Second of England, Richard the First, -and Philip of France, determine on renewing the Holy War. Moved by the -eloquence and enthusiasm of Baldwin, there is a general cessation of -hostilities between the Welsh princes and their warlike neighbors on -the Marches of England. But one castle, known as the Garde Doloureuse, -was not so fortunate. Its owner was Raymond Berenger. The hand of his -daughter was asked in marriage by one of the Welsh chieftains. The -compliment was declined. Raymond Berenger, in accordance with a rash -promise, gave battle upon the plain and was slain. The castle was -assaulted, but faithfully defended by an honest Fleming, inspired by -the heroism of the orphaned daughter. Before the battle, Scott gives -us a fine picture of the Welsh bards, and an admirable idea of life in -the mountain fastnesses of Wales. His description of the defense of -the castle is so graphic that we seem to walk the ramparts with the -soldiers, and listen to the counsel of its defenders. Hugo De Lacy, -Constable of Chester, arrives in time to raise the siege of the castle, -and at once lays siege to the heart of the fair Eveline, to whom it -seems she had been promised, when a child, by her father. From a sense -of duty, rather than love, she accepts his proposal. She visits her -Saxon aunt—a cruel and demented relic of the house of Baldringham; and -is compelled to sleep in a haunted chamber, known as the “Room of the -Red Finger.” The picture of Saxon life here presented is in strong -contrast with the life of the Norman nobles. The century that had -followed the Norman invasion of England had irritated wounded pride. -Overcome by superstition and terror, Eveline sees in her dreams the -spectre, and hears the fatal couplet, which gives name to the romance: - - “Widowed wife and married maid, - Betrothed, betrayer, and betrayed.” - -Eveline goes from her aunt’s to the abbess of a convent, a near -relative, and Hugo De Lacy, having signified his intention of going -to the Holy Land, asks a remission of his vow for two years; but the -rigid prelate Baldwin was inexorable: “The advancement of the crusade -was the chief business of Baldwin’s life, and the liberation of the -Holy Sepulcher from the infidels was the unfeigned object of all his -exertions. The successor of the celebrated Becket had neither the -extensive views, nor the aspiring spirit of that redoubted personage; -but on the other hand, saint as the latter had become, it may be -questioned whether, in his professions for the weal of christendom, he -was half so sincere as was the present archbishop.” - -The interview between De Lacy and Baldwin shows the great power of the -Church in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was compelled to leave -Eveline before wedlock had united them indissolubly, and the first line -of the couplet: “Widowed wife and married maid,” seemed already in the -course of fulfillment. Hugo de Lacy sets sail for Palestine with these -good-by words: “If I appear not when three years are elapsed let the -Lady Eveline conclude that the grave holds De Lacy, and seek out for -her mate some happier man. She can not find one more grateful, though -there are many who better deserve her.” - -Eveline returns to the castle of her father; the care of the country -against Welsh invasion is assigned to Damian de Lacy, who had already -by acts of bravery won the esteem of Eveline. The days and months of -indolent castle life wear slowly away, with the occasional visit of -a strolling harper, or a hawking expedition near the castle, which -Scott, with his love for out-door amusements, enters into with apparent -relish. On one of these excursions Eveline is made prisoner by a -party of Welsh soldiers, and she is led away blindfolded through the -recesses of the hills. She is rescued by Damian de Lacy, who however -is seriously wounded, and taken against the advice of friends to the -castle. Unfounded rumors poison the minds of the people, the castle is -attacked by the king’s forces, led on by a traitor of Hugo’s family. -Damian is taken prisoner and condemned to death. More than three years -had passed away, and now Hugo returns in poverty, and completely broken -in spirit. Damian is released, and Hugo waives his claim to the hand -of Eveline, and Damian wins one of the noblest women that Scott has -made immortal in the world. So much for the brief outline of the story, -which reveals the manner of life on the Welsh borders during the time -of the Third Crusade. The two novels which follow, “The Talisman” and -“Ivanhoe,” portray even in more vivid colors the sufferings of the -crusaders in Palestine, and the every day life of Merrie England. - - - - -THE IVY. - -By HENRY BURTON. - - - Pushing the clods of earth aside, - Leaving the dark where foul things hide, - Spreading its leaves to the summer sun, - Bondage ended, freedom won; - So, my soul, like the ivy be, - Rise, for the sunshine calls for thee! - - Climbing up as the seasons go, - Looking down upon things below, - Twining itself in the branches high, - As if the frail thing owned the sky; - So, my soul, like the ivy be, - Heaven, not earth, is the place for thee. - - Wrapping itself round the giant oak, - Hiding itself from the tempest’s stroke; - Strong and brave is the fragile thing, - For it knows one secret, how to cling: - So, my soul, there’s strength for thee, - Hear the Mighty One, “Lean on me!” - - Green are its leaves when the world is white, - For the ivy sings through the frosty night; - Keeping the hearts of oak awake, - Till the flowers shall bloom and the spring shall break; - So, my soul, through the winter’s rain, - Sing the sunshine back again. - - Opening its green and fluttering breast, - Giving the timid birds a nest; - Coming out from the winter wild, - To make a wreath for the Holy Child; - So let my life like the ivy be, - A help to man and a wreath for Thee! - —_Good Words._ - - - - -C. L. S. C. COMMENCEMENT.[A] - -CLASS OF 1883. - - -A special dispensation of weather seemed to have been prepared for the -accommodation of the second graduating class of the Chautauqua Literary -and Scientific Circle on Saturday. A bright warm day was benevolently -shaded and cooled by nature’s great sunshade of cloud during all the -out-door exercises, and promptly upon the entry of the multitude under -the cover of the Amphitheater it began to rain to still further cool -the air. Everything was opportune, and the surroundings faultless. - -The management terrestrial was equally good. There were four different -processions, in five divisions, moving from different rendezvous in -the grounds and converging and articulating with each other. Each of -them started on time “to a tick,” got to and dropped into place, and -everything moved with the smoothness and precision of a well-adjusted -machine. The program, as prepared, was carried out to the letter and -second. - -The attendance was as immense, the feeling as good as the day and -management. The unprecedented crowd of the night before was augmented -in the morning by boat-loads and train-loads, and when the signal-bells -for beginning the day’s movement sounded the avenues were thronged. - -Punctually at the hour the “Guard of the Gate,” H. S. Field, J. J. -Covert, Miss E. E. Tuttle, W. H. Rogers, Charles B. Wood, S. J. M. -Eaton, Miss Myrtie Hudson, A. M. Martin, J. G. Allen, A. M. Mattison, -and the “Guard of the Grove,” Miss Annie E. Wilcox, A. Wilder, Miss M. -F. Wells, Miss E. Irvin, Miss Eleanor O’Connell, E. C. Norton, Mrs. -E. Howe, De Forest Temple, Mrs. Isaiah Golding, George Seebrick, in -charge of Marshal S. J. M. Eaton, formed at the cottage of Lewis Miller -(Auditorium), the right resting on Hedding Avenue. - -The keys of the Golden Gate having been delivered by President Miller -to the Messenger, Rev. A. H. Gillet, the division marched up Hedding -Avenue to Clark, and out Clark to the Hall of Philosophy, and were -distributed to their proper positions in charge of the inclosure of St. -Paul’s Grove. - -The second division, consisting of fifty-two little girls, the -youngest, Jennie Templeton, four years of age, heading the procession, -beautifully garlanded and bearing artistic baskets laden with flowers -to their very brim, conducted by Mrs. Frank Beard, superintendent, -assisted by Miss M. E. Bemis, Miss Minnie Barney, Messrs. Garret E. -Ryckman, and W. H. Burroughs, and Miss Blanche Shove, was formed at -the Children’s Temple, the right resting on Clark Avenue. The “Society -of the Hall in the Grove,” (the graduates of the class of 1882, C. L. -S. C.) were thus escorted by this beautiful company of prospective -Chautauquans through Clark Avenue to Hedding, down Hedding to Simpson, -through Simpson to Park Athenæum, through Park Athenæum to Lake Avenue, -to Dr. Vincent’s cottage. - -The sixth division, consisting of the graduates of the class of 1883, -and the graduates of the class of 1882, who had not last year passed -through the Golden Gate, and under the Arches, met at the gate of -St. Paul’s Grove, on Merrill Avenue, each provided with a ticket, a -garnet badge, and a copy of the commencement service. A portion of -the Guard of the Grove stood within the gate, and a portion stood in -waiting without. The Messenger stood at the portal, holding the keys -of the gate. The Guard of the Gate took their places in order, near -the Messenger, while the leaders of the graduating class, Rev. H. C. -Farrar, chairman, and Rev. George C. Wilding, took their stations, one -on the right and the other on the left of the gateway, that at a given -signal the class might read responsively the form of service provided. -The classes were arranged in parallel columns stretching from the -portal itself to the middle of Miller Avenue, a block and a half. - -At precisely 9:45 the Chautauqua Band, headed by Frank Wright, Marshal, -marching up Lake Avenue, reached the cottage of Dr. Vincent. Here the -banner of the C. L. S. C., with the “Guard of the Banner,” Mrs. M. -Bailey and Mrs. Delos Hatch, were escorted to their places in the line. -Four little children, Chippie Firestone, Edna McClellan, Nellie Mallory -and Bobbie Davenport were conducted to their places as “streamer -bearers,” while the beautiful fabric itself was borne by Mr. W. E. H. -Massey and Mr. Will Butler. The Superintendent of Instruction, Dr. -Vincent, took his place in the line. - -The procession took its order of march, moving through Lake Avenue to -Haven Avenue, and up Haven to the Hall of Philosophy, which it entered, -and the band departed to escort thither “The Chautauqua Procession.” -(Division V.) This division formed at the Hotel Athenæum, Frank Wright, -Marshal, the right resting on the north main front of the hotel, in the -following order: - - Band. - - Chautauqua Board of Trustees, led by Lewis Miller, - Esq., President. - - The Faculty and Students of the “Chautauqua School of - Languages,” J. H. Worman, Marshal. - - The Normal Alumni, carrying their banners for the - various years since 1874, Frank Beard, Marshal. - - The members of the classes of the C. L. S. C. for the - years 1887, 1886, 1885, 1884, Mr. Copeland, Marshal. - - The guests of the Assembly, Rev. Frank Russell, Marshal. - -The procession, thus constituted, moved at ten o’clock from the piazza -of the Hotel Athenæum, across the north side of the Park Athenæum, to -Lake Avenue, out Lake Avenue to Cookman Avenue, up Cookman to Clark, -halting on Cookman, the right resting on Clark, in open order, the Hall -of Philosophy being on its right flank. - -At this time the entire neighborhood of the “Hall in the Grove” was -filled with interested crowds of spectators, whose eyes saw for the -second time the “Recognition Services” of the immense class in the -“People’s University.” - -More than a hundred and fifty of the “Society of the Hall in the Grove” -(graduates of the preceding year), entered the Hall, and were seated in -its western side. - -Precisely at ten o’clock, as the booming of the great bell at the Point -indicated the hour, the members of the Class of 1883, with such members -of the Class of 1882 as had not last year passed the Arches, standing -at the gate of St. Paul’s Grove, read responsively the devotional -services, Rev. George C. Wilding acting as precentor of the first -section, and Rev. H. C. Farrar as the precentor of the second section. - -The “Messenger,” Rev. A. H. Gillet, in slow and solemn utterance gave -the announcement as follows: - - I come to inform all candidates for enrollment in - the “Society of the Hall in the Grove” that the hour - appointed for your reception has arrived; the Hall - has been set in order; the Path through the Grove has - been opened; the Arches under which you must pass have - been erected; the Key which will open this Gate has - been placed in my hands. And to you who, as members of - the CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE, have - completed the four years’ Course of Reading, and now - hold in your hands a pledge of the same, I extend, in - the name of the authorities, a welcome into St. Paul’s - Grove, under the First Arch—and let the watchman guard - carefully the Gate. - -After the announcement by the Messenger, he turned and opened the gate. -The first to enter was Mr. Miner Curtis, an invalid, borne in a wheeled -carriage by the advance members of the class of ’83, and accompanied by -his wife and son, who were graduates of last year. - -Having entered the Gate, and the Gate having been closed, the class -proceeded very slowly toward the Hall, passing the second and third -Arches. As they walked up the beautifully decorated way, the “Choir of -the Hall in the Grove” stationed at the fourth Arch, and led by Prof. -C. C. Case, sang “A Song of To-day:” - - “Sing peans over the Past! - We bury the dead years tenderly.” - -At the entrance to the Hall stood the Superintendent of Instruction to -welcome the coming class, and as they passed by the Arch nearest the -Hall, the fifty-two little girls standing in double columns, scattered -the way of the coming graduates with the beauteous flowers, emblematic -of the flower-strewn paths of intellectual light which they may hope to -tread in the coming years. - -On entering the building the “Society of the Hall in the Grove” -received their brothers and sisters with the most marked tokens of good -cheer, waving their handkerchiefs and vocally expressing the kindly -feeling of the seniors of the year agone. - -At precisely 10:20 the “C. L. S. C. Glee Club,” Prof. W. F. Sherwin, -conductor, led the classes (which filled the Hall to repletion), as -they sang - - “A sound is thrilling thro’ the trees - And vibrant thro’ the air.” - -After the reading of the responsive services came the “Recognition,” by -the Superintendent of Instruction, Dr. J. H. Vincent, as follows: - - _Fellow Students of the Chautauqua Literary and - Scientific Circle of the Class of 1883_: - -DEARLY BELOVED—You have finished the appointed and accepted course -of reading. You have been admitted to this sacred Grove. You have -passed the Arches dedicated to “Faith,” “Science,” “Literature” and -“Art.” You have entered in due form this Hall, the center of the -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle; and now, as Superintendent -of Instruction, in behalf of my associates, the counselors, who are -this day absent, I greet you, and hereby announce that you, and your -brothers and sisters absent from us this day, who have completed -with you the prescribed course of reading, are accepted and approved -graduates of the “Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle,” and that -you are entitled to membership in the “Society of the Hall in the -Grove.” The Lord bless and keep thee; the Lord make his face to shine -upon thee and be gracious unto thee; the Lord lift up his countenance -upon thee, and give thee peace. - -I may say on behalf of the only counselor who is on the ground, Dr. -Lyman Abbott, that his indisposition renders it unsafe for him to be -here, but at my cottage he will join the procession, and go with you to -the Amphitheater. We will now unite in singing - - “Bright gleams again Chautauqua’s wave, - And green her forest arches.” - -During the singing of the ode, according to the direction of the -Superintendent of Instruction, the class of 1882, under the marshalship -of W. A. Duncan, quietly marched from the Hall in double column, -taking their position on Haven, Clark, and Cookman avenues, that the -graduating class might pass through their ranks at the close of the -service of recognition. - -The Superintendent of Instruction, Dr. Vincent, Lewis Miller, the -Messenger, the Secretary of the C. L. S. C., preceded by the children -(flower bearers) and the Banner of the C. L. S. C., headed the -procession, which passed out of the south side of the Hall, around -Clark to Cookman Avenue, and passed down through the opened ranks of -the classes of the C. L. S. C., from whom they received constant marks -of recognition and affection, the classes in some cases waving their -Chautauqua salute to the Chief as he passed by. - -When the head of the procession reached the cottage of Dr. Vincent, a -halt was made for a few moments, during which Dr. Lyman Abbott, one of -the counselors of the C. L. S. C., and the orator of the day, took his -place in the ranks. - -As the procession marched up the long walk to the north door of the -Amphitheater, immense throngs filled all the available standing room -on the slopes of the ravine, and the “Blooming of the Lilies” (the -Chautauqua salute) was given by all the opened ranks of the classes as -the head of the procession passed through. - -The Chautauqua Band, stationed at the entrance of the north gate, -discoursed sweet music during the passage of the long _cortege_. - -All the officers, invited guests, members of the board of Chautauqua -trustees, officers and members of the Chautauqua School of Languages, -the Normal Alumni, and the various classes of the C. L. S. C., passed -into the great Amphitheater, when the ropes were dropped, and sooner -than we write it, all the remaining seating space was filled to -overflowing. - -The platform was filled with distinguished Chautauquans and others; the -organ gave forth its sweet harmonies under the manipulation of Prof. -Andrews; the Chautauqua Banner of the C. L. S. C. was stationed in full -view of the vast throng; and after the devotional exercises Dr. Vincent -introduced Dr. Lyman Abbott, who delivered the Commencement oration, as -follows: - - -THE DEMOCRACY OF LEARNING. - -_Fellow Chautauquans_:—I see in some of your eyes triumph. You have -run in four years a race with uncertainty whether you could ever -reach the goal. You have carried on your work under difficulties and -discouragements, such as are never known to him who has perfect and -continual leisure for the pursuit of studies; but in the midst of -employments which were incessant and imperative in their demands upon -you; and your courage, your patience, your hope, have vanquished the -obstacles, and you are here to-day to receive the outward sign and -symbol of your inward victory. In other eyes I see expectation. You -have commenced a course and you are hopeful of achieving a result, -which has been made possible to you within the last few years, that -the fruits and results of study might be yours though you could not -give yourself to a life of study, still less to the persistent and -professional pursuit of scholarship. In other eyes I see desire dimmed -by fear and doubt; you do not know whether this great realm is open to -you or not; you wish that you could be assured that it is. Is this all -a mistake? Is your triumph a false one, your expectation a delusive -one, your hope and your desire one impossible of attainment? This is -so asserted. There are not a few in our times who are of the opinion -that learning is of necessity only for the few, or at all events if the -many can enter a little upon the realm, they must always live upon the -border and never can enter into the heart of the country. - -I desire, if I may this morning, to meet and to answer this objection -of skepticism, and to show that learning is within the possible reach -to-day of the great body of industrious, hard-working, perplexed, and -driven people of America; that it is not the privilege of the few; that -it is the prerogative of the many. I desire to show you that we are -entering into an epoch which I may call the “Democracy of Learning.” -We have already entered into the epoch of democracy in religion. The -time has gone by, at least for all Protestant people, of believing that -religion is for the few, or that even the higher and larger privileges -of religious life are for the few. It has been established for all -those who believe in an open Bible and in the universal religion of -Jesus Christ that the innermost sanctuary of the temple is for every -one. The great wall that before separated the court of Israel from the -court of the priests has been broken down; there is but one court. The -great veil that hung between the holy of holies and the court of the -priests has been torn asunder, and every one of us is not only priest -but high-priest, free to enter into the very holy of holies. And we -have entered into the epoch of democracy in public affairs. The time -has gone by when political power belonged to the few, and political -intelligence was believed to be the prerogative of the few. We have -come into an epoch in which political power is lodged in the hands -of the great masses of the people; and it is lodged there because -we believe that, on the whole, political intelligence is lodged in -the hands of the great masses of the people. I desire to show you -this morning that we are entering upon an epoch of the Democracy of -Learning, in which the highest and best fruits of scholarship are also -the privilege and the prerogative of the many. When we have entered -upon that land, then we shall be ready to enter upon the last and -the completest phase of the triumphant democracy, the Democracy of -Industry. Then, when intelligence shall be universally diffused, and -when all men shall have the power at least of acquiring the largest and -the best and the ripest fruits of knowledge and of intelligence, we -shall come into that epoch in which no longer the few will control the -industries of the many, but in which industry will be the controlling -power, and wealth will be its servant. - -I have a three-fold object this morning—I desire in the first place to -show you that the fruits of learning are fruits which hang on the lower -boughs of the tree where we may all pluck them; to show you not only -that, but that the ripest and the best fruits of learning hang there. I -desire to show you that it is not necessary that men should go through -a college course and should have four years of leisure and of quiet for -college study in order to reap the best fruits of a college education. -The _process_ of investigation must always be carried on by the few. -The _results_ of education may be, yea! are already becoming the -property of the many. Only a few explorers can bear the perils of the -Arctic Sea and investigate the mystery of the North Pole; but we can -all have the fruits of their investigation. Only a few men can labor -and toil in the great libraries searching out the course and progress -of history and its sacred events, but we can all have the garnered -fruits of their toil and their industry. Not only may we pluck a single -blossom, and here and there a single half-ripened fruit from this -tree; but the ripest, the best, that which has hung the longest in the -sun-light, that whose cheeks are painted the most rosy red, and whose -heart has in it the most saccharine juice, that is ready to-day to fall -into our open palm if we will but extend it. - -In endeavoring to show you this, I shall also necessarily ask you to -consider with me what are the ripest and best fruits of learning. What -is the object of education? It is not an end, it is a means to an end. -It is a great pity that our colleges do not understand this better; for -if they did better comprehend that education is a means, and that the -end lies behind, fewer students would come out with empty diplomas when -the college course is ended. - -And incidentally I shall hope also to answer one argument which is -sometimes used, and oftener, I think, lies secretly in the minds of -people, against a popular and universal education. Some satirist has -said that “Ignorance is the mother of devotion.” If that were true, -we might well doubt whether universal education is worth the price we -should have to pay for it. If it were true that God held out in one -hand devotion to us and in the other hand education, and said, “You -must choose between these two; if you become educated you must be -skeptical, if you would be devoted you must remain ignorant”—it would -be a difficult question for most of us to decide whether we would have -intelligence without piety or piety without intelligence. I shall show -you that it is not learning, but a little learning which is a dangerous -thing; and that if our work is thorough, the broader the culture, the -profounder the piety. - -For our purpose this morning, learning may be divided into four -provinces: literature, history, science and philosophy, to which must -be added in any complete topography of the realm, pure mathematics. By -pure mathematics I mean arithmetic, algebra, geometry, logarithms, the -calculus and the like. But pure mathematics is simply an instrument -by which the scientific mind reaches certain results. I shall not -therefore consider this department at all; it is not necessary for our -purpose. Some one must look through the telescope, some one must know -how to use the spectroscope in order to tell us what is the size of -the sun and its constituent elements; but we do not need to examine -the telescope or the spectroscope. Some one must be skilled in pure -mathematics in order to tell us how many miles the sun is distant -from our own earth, but we may take the result without going through -the process. This instrument must always be left in the hand of the -specialist. I wish to show you that all that is best, highest and most -important in literature, history, science and philosophy lies within -the power of your acquisition. I wish to show you the spirit with which -you must study, and the purpose with which you must acquire it; and -I wish to show you that if you acquire in that spirit and with that -purpose you can not but gain in your religious nature. - -I. In the first place, then, what is literature, and why do we study -it? Literature is the expression of human life, in its innermost -experiences, and in its outward forms. Sometimes it is the expression -of social life, sometimes of the intellectual life, sometimes of the -emotional life; but always and everywhere literature is a mirror held -up either before society or before the human heart; no, not a mirror, -but the sensitized plate in a photographic apparatus; and the picture, -now of society, now of the brain, now of the palpitating heart with -its fears, hopes, joys and experiences, is given upon the plate; and -literature is the picture brought out for us to examine. To study -literature is not to study language. Language is merely the instrument -which we use for the study of literature. To study literature is -to study life—life in its outward semblance or life in its inward -experiences. It is to study the life of the community and of society as -we study it in Thackeray; or it is to study the life of the brain and -the thought as we study it in Plato and Bacon; or it is to study the -life of the inward emotions as we study it in Tennyson or Wordsworth. -Now, in order to study life as it is portrayed in literature it is -not necessary to know the original language in which that life was -portrayed. Some one must have studied the Greek language in order to -bring Homer to our intelligence; some one must have studied Latin and -brought Horace within our horizon; some one must have studied French -and brought Molière within our knowledge; some one must have studied -Italian in order to introduce Dante to our acquaintance; but it is -not necessary for us to do so. Some one must have taken the negative -and printed the picture on the paper for us; but we need not all be -photographers in order to get the picture for our own enlightenment. I -hold a silver dollar in my hand. Some one must have gone to the mines -and dug out the ore with a pick; some one must have put it under the -great stampers and beaten it out in the stamping mill; some one must -have put it in the sieve and shaken it and shaken it until the grosser -dross was washed away; some one must have put it into the furnace and -heated it until the finer dross was eliminated; some one must have -carried it to the mint and put the stamp of the United States authority -upon it; but we need not all be miners digging in the mines; we need -not all be workers in the stamping mill; we need not all be toilers in -the furnace room; we need not all be masters or mechanics in the mint. -The money was coined by those who have wrought for us, and to whom our -gratitude is due, but the coin is ours; it is not merely for those who -worked in producing it. - -I hold in my hand an extract from Taine which expresses that which I -desire to express better than I can perhaps express it myself. Let me -read it: “What is your first remark on turning over the great leaves -of a folio, the yellow sheets of a manuscript, a poem, a code of laws, -a confession of faith? This, you say, did not come into existence all -alone, it is but a mould like a fossil-shell, an imprint, like one of -the shapes embossed in stone by an animal which lived and perished. -Under the shell there was an animal; and behind the document there -was a man. Why do you study the shell, except to bring before you the -animal? So you study the document only to know the man. The shell and -the document are lifeless wrecks, valuable only as a clue to the entire -and living existence. We must get hold of this existence and endeavor -to re-create it. It is a mistake to study the document as if it were -isolated. This were to treat things as a simple scholar, to fall into -the error of the bibliomaniac.” - -You do not need to have traversed the ocean beach or climbed the -mountain-top and gathered the shells; you may go into the museum where -they have already been gathered, and study their history there. You do -not need, with dictionary and grammar, to work out the secrets of the -language; you may take the products of those who have thus wrought, and -learn the man that lies behind the document. - -Not only is it not necessary that a man should study language in order -to study literature; in innumerable cases the study of the language has -absolutely interfered with the study of the literature. In innumerable -cases, men at college have ground away, day after day, and month after -month, and year after year, over cases and nouns and parts of speech, -and rules of syntax and rules of grammar—working only at the grammar, -and utterly oblivious of the great light that lay behind it. Mr. -Adams, of Massachusetts, has recently told us how hard a man may study -Greek and how little he may know of it after he gets through with it, -for he assures us that he does not know the Greek alphabet to-day, -although he studied Greek six years, four years before college and -two in it. I confess I should not have thought it possible for a man -to have studied so much and yet know so little when he got through; -but I am very certain of this, that my own experience reflects the -experience of many college students. I learned more of Homer—of his -life, of his character, of the lessons he has to teach, of the man -himself—from reading in the “Ancient Classics for English Readers,” -the Iliad and the Odyssey, and from reading Bryant’s translation, than -I ever received from reading Homer himself in the original Greek in -my college class. That which is highest, and supremest, and best in -literature, you may obtain without a college education. You may learn -the life, you may learn the man, you may learn the sacred truth; and -you can not do that without broadening your sympathies and developing -your charity. When you have read Homer and Virgil and Horace; when you -have read Dante and Milton; when you have read Molière and Shakspere; -when you have read Wordsworth and Tennyson, and when, out of all this -reading, you have gathered their fruits, you will find this to be true, -that, though you have one picture of Greek life, one of Italian life, -one of French life, one of English life, one portraying the life of -four centuries before Christ, and one portraying the life of eighteen -centuries after; yet in all these languages, in all these epochs, in -all these civilizations the great heart of hope and joy and love and -fear and reverence and faith was one. And you will learn to know that -humanity, in all its nationalities, in all its epochs, in all its -civilizations,—aye, and under all the varied forms of its religions, -true and false—that humanity is one in all its brotherhood, and one in -its great Father in heaven. - -II. What is the object of studying history? What is history? It is not -a mere record of dates, not the mere annals of actions, not merely -the account of what men have performed or what nations have wrought. -A man does not know history because he can recite glibly, beginning -with Alfred the Great and coming down to the present time, the dates -of the chief events and the chief epochs in English history. History -is the record of God’s dealing with the human race. History is the -account of the great laws under which this human race has been evolved -from its lowest condition to its highest condition. As the tree grows -from the seed planted in the ground—first the little bud peering above -the surface, then the stalk, and then the branches, and by and by the -completed oak; as the child grows from the babe in the cradle, taking -on one new faculty and one power after another till he comes into as -yet incompleted manhood—for the completion of manhood lies afar off in -the dim, distant and invisible future—so the nations of the earth, and -so the whole race of man has been developed from the seed to the oak -and from the babe in the cradle to manhood in its maturity; and to read -history is to read the process of this development. - -What, for example, is English history? To know English history is to -know that in the Bible, way back years and years before the birth -of Christ—fourteen centuries before—were planted all the seeds of a -free representative government; to know that in the Mosaic statutes -is to be found the outline of a perfect political economy; to know -that the Mosaic commonwealth had in it all the elements of those -institutions which have made America a free nation; popular suffrage, -representative assemblies, political government divided into three -departments, executive, legislative, and judicial; a carefully framed -system of laws, with a carefully framed system of penalties, a -universal system of education, and a religion that was national. To -know history is to know that Alfred the Great was a devout believer -in the Bible as the word of God, that he studied it and found in this -Old Testament, fourteen centuries before the birth of Christ, these -seeds of a free government buried and forgotten. It is to know that -he gathered them out of this old book, as men have gathered wheat -seeds out of old mummies in the tombs of Egypt, and planted them in -the more fertile soil of an Anglo-Saxon community. It is to know how -the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemote grew to be an English Parliament; it is -to know how the people came to be represented in it under Simon de -Montfort; and how they came to be supreme in it under Charles the -First, and Cromwell. It is to know how the nation was at first a -congeries of conflicting tribes, partially brought together by Alfred -the Great, and consolidated together under one national sovereignty by -William the Conqueror, and growing thence into unity under successive -statesmen, until these latter days, when William Gladstone, the -greatest statesman of them all, is perfecting the Christian unity of -the empire by Christian justice and equity. It is to know how, in the -earlier history of this nation, the Pope of Rome assumed authority and -control over the nations. It is to know how, through the centuries, -the war went on between the Anglo-Saxon love of liberty and this claim -of the Church of Rome; how it was begun under Augustine, continued -under Thomas à Becket, brought to the beginning of the end under King -Henry the Eighth, until finally under Elizabeth the bonds that bound -England to Rome were severed forever, and England was made free from -every foreign prince and potentate. It is to know how this seed—the -sovereignty of the people in the nation, the sovereignty of the nation -against the anarchy of feudalism, and the liberty of the nation -against the Pope—grew into a tree, as yet but a young sapling; it is -to know how then God carefully dug this sapling up, and transported it -three thousand miles across the ocean and planted it in the yet more -fertile soil of America. It is to know that because of the battle and -bloodshed, and the long suffering endured on that soil, to-day there -floats over us the banner of liberty and justice. The seeds were there -in that old Bible, the culture was there in that English history; the -fruit we rejoice in here to-day. - -One does not need to work in the Spanish libraries with Prescott, nor -in the Dutch libraries with Motley, nor among the old manuscripts of -the British museum with Froude, nor among the pamphlets of English -literature with Macaulay, in order to gather for himself these -highest and supremest fruits of historical learning. The processes -of historical research must always be carried on by the few; we must -always have in this country some men who have leisure to pursue -them. Alas for us, if the time ever comes when we grow careless or -indifferent respecting our colleges or universities, and the kind of -culture which they give; but they give culture that the cultured may -give us fruit. The few garner; the heaviest are for all. - -Nor is it possible for one thus to study the history of the human race, -to see how, little by little, liberty has grown, education has grown, -humanity has grown, and not grow himself in faith in an overruling -Providence, and in hope in the Supreme God. - -As the broad, comprehensive, interior study of literature will give -breadth of sympathy, so the broad, comprehensive, and large study of -history will give hope. When the fog covers the ocean, and the mariner -befogged knows not where he is, and can not tell whence his course -has been, nor where it shall be, he sometimes goes aloft and from the -top-mast, looking above the fog, discerns the coast in the distance and -the entrance into the harbor. In history we rise out of the fog that -environs all in the lower level; we look above the fog and over it, and -know then the courses we have traced, and see the harbor and the haven -not far before us. - -III. What is science, and for what purpose do we study it? I use, of -course, the word science in its restricted sense, meaning natural -science. For two purposes. Nature is a vast and wonderful machine; its -mechanism may well arouse both our astonishment and our admiration. If -you have a watch that keeps time so that it does not vary more than two -or three minutes in a year you are proud of it, and if you should by -chance have a watch that did not vary more than one minute in a year -you would be a remarkably humble man if you did not boast of it to -your acquaintances. But in the heavens the sun and the planets round -it have been keeping time for the centuries, and as yet astronomy has -not detected an appreciable variation in its time. What a wonderful -mechanism is this! If an inventor should construct a furnace which -would keep us warm in winter and cool in summer, no manufacturer -would be able to supply the orders. But you have within you a furnace -such that although you may go from the land of the Esquimaux with -the thermometer 40° below zero, to the tropics with the thermometer -110° above zero, this furnace does not allow the habitation in which -you dwell to vary more than four or five degrees. What a wonderful -mechanism is this nature which we study! And we study this mechanism -partly that we may use it, that we may lay hold on these great forces -of nature and make them subservient to our will by understanding the -laws which regulate and govern them. But nature is more than a machine; -nature is also a book, and a wonderful book, written all over in -hieroglyphics that require study for their apprehension. It is more -than a mechanism. It is a revelation; and it reveals wondrous things to -him who knows how to read it aright. Edison and Morse, Copernicus and -Newton—they have interpreted nature on the one side; but Wordsworth, -and Longfellow, and Bryant—they have interpreted nature on the other, -and the one class of interpretations is as valuable as the other. We -study nature as a mechanism that we may know how to use it; we study -nature as a book that we may know how to read it. - -Now, all that which is most valuable in nature, as a mechanism, we -lay hold of and use without going through the labor necessary in the -original examination by the first investigator. We do not need to -understand the laws of heat and steam to use them; some one has learned -the laws, and has brought fire and water together and has pronounced a -nuptial blessing over them, and a child has been born of the marriage, -and we take steam for our slave without knowing the ritual which -married the father and mother. Some one must have learned how to reach -his hand to the cloud, and bring down the electricity, make it run our -errands and serve the purpose of our illumination; but we do not need -to know the processes in order to sit under the light. Not only is it -true that the mechanical uses that come from natural sciences we get -without going through the processes, but the literary and spiritual we -get also. Others have been turning over the pages of this marvelous -book and have been reading it to us, and unconsciously, unknowingly, -almost without the sense that we have been learning anything, we have -learned great lessons in this book of nature. Scientists on the one -side and theologians on the other have put science and religion into -antagonism with one another. But they are sister teachers of the race; -science has received all its life from the late comprehended revelation -of the first chapter of Genesis that nature is man’s servant, not -his god; and theology has learned some of its profoundest lessons -from the book of nature which science has interpreted. Consider for -one moment what a fundamental religious lesson we have learned in the -school-room of science almost without knowing that she was our teacher. -The ancient Hebrews believed that Palestine was the world; all the -rest was a mere outlying district environing it, the back yard as it -were. The Mediterranean was the Great Sea, the little pond of Galilee -was the Sea of Galilee, the sun and moon and stars were torches for -man’s illumination—that was their conception of the universe. With that -conception it is not strange that they had an equally insignificant -and unworthy conception of the God of the world, a conception against -which the inspired writers were continually struggling, and from which -they were continually endeavoring to lift the people up. When the -Philistines fought against the Israelites and captured the ark of God -they were in triumph. “We have captured God,” they thought; and the -Israelites were almost equally in despair, for they also half thought -that Jehovah had been carried off a prisoner. Now, science, even more -than revelation, has been enlarging our conceptions of this universe. -The Holy Land, a province about as large as Vermont, is no longer the -earth; the Atlantic and the Pacific are the great seas; this globe on -which we live is but one of the smaller globes of the planetary system; -and the great planetary system itself is but a smaller one of the great -planetary systems which are circling around some vast and distant sun. -Science has taught us too that all this universe is linked together, -bound together by a common law, bound together by a common order of -phenomena. It has investigated the sun and the stars, it has analyzed -their light, it has shown us that the substances of these bodies are -identical with the substances of ours. It has taught us the unity of -nature, it has taught us the vastness of nature. There are stars in -the firmament which you can see with the naked eye, on which if a -man were standing with a telescope fine enough and powerful enough -to see what is transpiring on this globe, and should look through it -to-day, he would see not this congregation assembled under this roof, -but the first outbreaking of the revolution, so long does it take -light to traverse from our globe to the stars, light that takes but -eight minutes to travel from the sun to the earth. There are stars so -distant that he would see not Chautauqua gathered here to-night, but -the crucifixion of Christ taking place on the hill of Calvary; stars -so distant, that with a telescope powerful enough to carry the message -of this world to his sight, he would see Abraham coming out of the -land of his idolatry into the promised land; stars so distant that he -would see this earth first taking on its brightness in the birth-day -of its glory. So vast is our universe that the mind can not attempt -to comprehend its majestic distances. It is not theology, it is not -religion, it is not even the Bible that has unfolded this vastness; it -is science. It is impossible that men who have once learned anything -of this greatness of creation, or anything of this unity of creation, -should ever bow down again before idols of wood and stone. So long as -men thought that the laws of the material universe were antagonistic -and anarchic, that the universe was made up of warring tribes and -provinces, so long it was not strange that they should worship many -gods. So long as they thought that it was a little province on which -they lived, the boundaries of which they could themselves measure with -their tape-line, they might well worship before images they had formed -with their utterances or with their hands. But to-day you might burn -every Bible in the land, you might burn every church and Sunday-school -house, you might put all the priests and ministers in America on the -great bonfire, and consume them as well, and then you might erase -from every mind every lesson that had been learned from church or -Sunday-school, from priest or minister, and this nation could not go -back to idolatry, unless it went back to the utter barbarism of utter -ignorance. That which is highest and supremest in science you can -learn without becoming a scientist; and you can not learn it without -learning the large reverence that is the very foundation of religion. - -IV. What is philosophy? The study of philosophy is the study of the -laws which govern the spiritual realm, as the study of natural science -is the study of the laws which govern the natural and the physical -realm. It is not studying Hegel, and Kant, and Schleiermacher; it is -not studying Hickock or Hopkins; it is not studying what philosophers -have thought—they are the mere translators, the mere “ponies.” -Philosophy is the law of humanity, either social or individual. The -study of philosophy is the study of the laws which God has ordained -for the binding of men together into a common organism, or for the -government of their individual lives. Men believed that the foundation -of the State was a compact, and that each citizen gave up something of -his rights for the common welfare; they believed that the foundation of -the Nation was a compact in which each State gave up something which it -had of right to secure the advantage of a commonwealth. So believing, -they concluded that any State might withdraw from its allegiance, and -they might have easily concluded that any individual might withdraw -from his allegiance. It is only as we learned that we are born into -the government and made a part of the State from the beginning by -the ordinance of God, that we have learned what is the bond that has -bound the nation together. Revolting from the Romish doctrine that -marriage is a sacrament, Protestantism has been teaching for years -that it is merely a civil contract. We are reaping the result of this -false teaching. To-day in Puritan Connecticut, the minister can not -tie the marriage bond much faster than the courts across the street -can dissolve it. We have yet to learn that marriage is more than a -civil contract, that it is an ordinance of God; that he who made man -and woman made them that these twain should become one flesh, and made -the home to be the first Church and the first State. When we have -learned that, we shall have learned the foundation of the home as we -have learned the foundation of the State. To study philosophy is to -study the laws which govern society in its organism. All text-books -are only instructions to teach us how to study life itself, which is -the great text-book. To study philosophy is also to study the laws -which govern the individual. It is to know that God has made you body, -soul and spirit; that he has given you a physical organism, wonderful, -but simply a mechanism in your hands; that he has given you a mental -power wonderful in its reasoning qualities, but with its partial -parallels in the animals about you; it is to know that far above the -body and the mind is the spirit—reverence, and love, and hope, and a -living faith—that makes you one with God, and that points you to your -eternal habitation. This it is to study mental and moral philosophy. -It is to know how to read the secrets of your own soul. It is to know -how to read the inner life of the souls of others. Books will help; -scholarship will help; but the great book is the human soul, and we -need not have scholarship to read that book. Burns and Shakspere were -not great scholars; but no scholar ever surpassed Burns and Shakspere -in the reading of the human soul. - -No one ever exerted so profound an influence on the life of humanity as -Jesus of Nazareth. You may think that Jesus was simply a man; you will -not doubt that from the teachings of Jesus have gone forth an influence -greater by far than went forth from Plato, or Socrates, or Confucius, -or Buddha. You may think with me that he was the Son of God; you surely -will not doubt the potency of the influence that proceeded from the -incarnate Son of God. Jesus, the son of the carpenter, what did he -know of literature, of science, of philosophy? Rather, what knowledge -did he employ? He was thoroughly familiar with the literature of his -day—that is, the Bible; but he never displayed or employed any critical -or literary knowledge respecting it. He never discussed questions of -authorship, he never debated questions of origin or date, he did not -touch that which lay on the surface. He read the interior and spiritual -truth. He saw in that which to their mind was a mere annal, and a -mere law the beating heart of the inspired prophet telling of God. He -tore off the wrapping and made the world see it. He plucked from the -psalm of David this bud, “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want,” -and in his hand it blossomed into the parable of the Good Shepherd. -He plucked from the psalm of David this utterance, “Like as a father -pitieth his children,” and in his hand it blossomed into the parable of -the Prodigal Son. He knew the life back of literature. He invented no -machine, gave no hint of any, suggested no steam engine, no steam boat, -no electric light. What he _knew_ I say not. I may say what he used, -and knowledge of nature as a mechanism he never used; but he looked -into nature as a book, read her teachings, and interpreted them; in the -sower going forth to sow, in the fisher gathering his fish from his -net; in the bird’s song in the air he heard the sweet note of trust; -in the flowers blossoming from the ground he read the sweet promise of -God’s providing care. Things which men having eyes saw not and ears -heard not be brought to their vision and their hearing. He propounded -no scheme of political philosophy, none of psychology, or theology, but -he taught that “One is your father, even God in heaven, and ye all are -brethren;” and the great laws that are to bind together, rather the one -great law of order, the law of love, this law he expounded. The son of -the carpenter lived that he might teach, among the other lessons, this -lesson of the democracy of learning; that learning, in its higher and -more valued forms, is for the mechanic busy at his bench, for the smith -grimy with toil at his forge, for the mother busiest of all, with hands -and brain and heart filled with her children. - -Kings of the earth have fought that they might hold the power in their -own hands, and the many might be subject to them. The people have -risen, and grown strong, until at last they have trampled the king -and the army under their feet, and have rushed into the citadel and -the palace and taken possession, and the citadel of oppression and -the palace of luxury have become the temple of liberty. The priests -have fought long that they might keep the people out of the temple and -hold the mysteries of religion an exclusive possession. But the people -have surged up against the priests and trampled them under foot, and -occupied the temple of religion. The temples of earning are open; the -kings of learning stand at the door, and with their scepters beckon -you to come and share their coronation and their crown. The priests -of learning bid you come, that they may open to you the mysteries of -literature. For in the republic of letters there is no aristocracy but -that of service. And they only are great who have learned how best to -serve their fellow-men. - -The triumph that I read in your eyes is not a false triumph. You have -plucked the first fruits, and all the other brightest and best are -before you for your plucking. The expectation that I read in your eyes -is not a delusive expectation. The fruit is yours. The desire that -I read in your eyes is not a cheating desire. The aspiration that -burns within you for learning may have its gratification. You have no -money? Literature is cheap. You have no time? You have as much time as -Schliemann had, who stood in the long line before the postoffice and -studied his Greek while waiting for the letters. You have as much time -as Mary Somerville had, who wrote the volume which gave her a princely -reputation among astronomers, while tending with motherly care the -children in the nursery pulling at her skirts. The forces of nature -come out of the ground and offer themselves to you to do the drudgery -which aforetime was left to human hands, that you may have time to -learn the truth of God, and the works of God, and the will of God. We -stand to-day on the mountain height. We look just across the valley. -The Jordan is no longer overflowing its banks, but is a narrow and -shallow stream. The promised land lies there in all its richness and -brilliance, and God’s providence utters its promise to us Americans in -this nineteenth century: “Be strong and of good courage; be not afraid, -neither be thou dismayed; for the Lord thy God has given thee this -land for a possession forever.” - - * * * * * - -Another immense audience assembled in the Amphitheater at two o’clock -to listen to the addresses delivered to the graduating class by -President Lewis Miller, and Dr. J. H. Vincent. - - -ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT LEWIS MILLER. - -_Chautauquans_:—In these days of popular education, it may be -profitable to examine the different sources of culture and development. -First among these are books—the treasures that lie hidden in them may -well awaken our inquiry and admiration, may well be worth the many -hours of toil spent in preparing the mind, so that it can converse -with the masters of the past and present. I do not wonder at hunger -after the hidden treasures of books, for in them are power, wealth and -pleasure. We need but watch the interested audiences that gather in -this Amphitheater, to realize the power there is in the rostrum, how -in all ages peoples have been confirmed or changed in their opinions -by that mere persuasive power of words. Your mind now runs over the -histories you have studied, and you recall the orators who, through the -power of speech alone, have revolutionized empires, advanced or checked -civilization. What pleasure to the mind and heart, to be able in our -leisure hours to sit with Herodotus, Macaulay, Motley, Bancroft, and -a host of others, and hear them tell their historic stories! or with -David, Homer, Shakspere, Whittier and Bryant, and let them fill our -minds with the beautiful and soothing words of poetry! Does not art, in -a still more condensed form, give us the history of the nations of the -past? Does it not give us a clearer idea of thought? What descriptive -words could give us so clear a view of the golden candlestick, around -which clusters so much of interest to the Bible student, as can be had -by a look at the plaster mould of the arch of Titus, in the Museum? -What more rapidly moulds, and more powerfully influences, the present -age than do the pictures on the walls, and the books in the libraries -of our homes? - -May I venture to bring before your mind that other phase of art, known -as the mechanic art? That art, on which the educator has placed so -small an estimate that when an apparently dull boy is found in the -school or family, he is turned over to it, in the notion that stupidity -can here find subsistence and compensation. - -Now, give this art the power to express itself in words and in the fine -arts, and I will bring back to you the days of Raphael and Michael -Angelo, in which thought was expressed in words and on canvas and -stone, in such purity that the student in the schools of to-day is -carried back to these times, to study the perfection and beauty of -expression. In the line of a better educated labor lies the settlement -of the great labor question. Will it be as Garfield suggests, for -Chautauqua to provide not only for the leisure, but secure the leisure -by some system of education that will make it possible? - -If by any means the mental energies can be combined with the muscles, -the product of labor will be greatly increased, and the time producing -the same quantity lessened. Struggling labor hardly sees that in -the short space of about thirty years the time has been lessened -from thirteen and fourteen hours to ten hours per day, and the wages -enhanced from fifty and seventy-five cents per day to an average of two -dollars per day. In most of the prominent manufacturing establishments -throughout the North we are at a near approach to a reduction of -time to eight hours—_and may God speed the day_. Take the advance in -quantity of products for ten years only, and by the aid of machinery, -and more intelligent labor, we have gained more than two hours. Why -should not labor get its due proportion? We are fast turning the -drudgery of labor to pleasure. You need but visit the dish-washing and -laundry-rooms at the Hotel Athenæum to witness the truth of what I -state. - -Some years ago I made an estimate of the number of inhabitants it would -require to do by hard labor that which was done at that time by twelve -thousand inhabitants by the use of steam and water power. It reached -the enormous number of three hundred thousand inhabitants. From this we -may learn that it will not be a great hardship to give to labor more -leisure and more pay, not rashly as by strikes, but by prudent and -gradual measures. - -Ah, the wealth of nations rests in this art! The power to subdue -forests and belt empires with railroads and telegraphs, and ignore -distance is in its hands. - -This art sends forth its missionary in its manufactured products to all -quarters of the globe; every different product is a copy of a volume on -some subject, carrying with it some Christian’s impress and prayer. So -true is this that it needs no great expert to tell an article made by -Christian hands from that made by heathen. - -This power of the individuality impresses with interest and wonder. -How readily thoughts in words are detected from others, even on the -same subject. Every workman of a manufactured article in some such -sense makes his individual impress on the work he performs, and it is -as readily told. The Christian, liberty-loving intelligence is pressed -into every article and sent forth on its mission of preaching the -gospel to every creature, even gaining entrance where the missionary -is refused. With this truth in mind, with what renewed pleasure must -the liberated laborer make still greater impress of his individual -mind. This thought can be carried into all that we do. Our walk, our -talk, and the expression of our faces all enter into our products of -whatever kind. How important that it should be imbued with the spirit -of intelligent Christianity. - -Class of ’83, you have only opened the doors to wider range, to fields -of greater usefulness. All about you lie sleeping elements to be -quickened into activity. Have your accumulated mental development well -stored, and constantly add more. The purpose of the study was more to -create an appetite for knowledge than to give a thorough or finished -education. - -We are glad as officers of the C. L. S. C. to present you with diplomas -having places for many seals. May there be no laxity of effort until -the crowning seal will emblazon over the whole its rays. - - * * * * * - -The Rev. Dr. Vincent said: - -A large number of salutations from members of the C. L. S. C. have -been received, some of them breathing a simple prayer of benediction -on the Circle and its officers, others testifying to the value of the -Circle to them intellectually, socially, and spiritually; many are too -long to read at this time, but every line has been carefully read by -the Superintendent of Instruction, and a few of the sentences are here -reported: - -From Sacramento, Cal.: “We long to be with you at the Assembly; but -since we can not be, be assured that as we read of Commencement Day our -hearts beat in sympathy with those of the C. L. S. C.” - -From Washington, D. C.: “Hearty thanks for so splendid an opportunity -of living more abundantly, as I have enjoyed through the noble -conception and sensible management of the C. L. S. C. I hope to add -many of its seals to my diploma.” - -From St. Paul, Minn.: “The day in which ’83 passes through the Golden -Gate you, who are present amidst the jubilee, will most likely forget -the distant ones; but I for one will put on my C. L. S. C. badge, take -out two faded maple leaves, kept in remembrance of last summer, and in -imagination march with the proud class under the Arches, while I will -pray the good Lord to bless Chautauqua.” - -From Brooklyn, N. Y.: “The salutation, as recorded in Malachi iii:16, -‘Then they that feared the Lord spake often one to another, and the -Lord hearkened and heard it; and a book of remembrance was written -before him for them that feared the Lord and thought upon his name.’” - -From San Francisco: A New Yorker writes: “I found THE CHAUTAUQUAN on -a planter’s table in the Sandwich Islands, and learned of a circle in -Honolulu.” - -A member writes: “The royal road to learning is no _terra incognita_. -Our _route en roi_ is called _via_ Chautauqua.” - -From Amsterdam, N. Y.: A poem closes: - - “I would like very much to Chautauqua to go; - It would certainly give me great joy; - But my duties are such that I linger at home: - I’ve a year-old Chautauqua boy.” - -From Elkhorn, Wis.: One who sees through the lenses of the C. L. S. -C., the Chautauqua University of the future, writes: “In 1904, A. D., -I shall be fifty years old. At that time I hope to graduate at the -Chautauqua University. This will give me just twenty-five years from -the beginning of my course in 1876 to complete the work, and I intend -to work diligently every year.” - -From Massachusetts: “Language would be left a beggar if I were to tell -you all that the C. L. S. C. has been to me. It has been a song and a -poem, when life was beginning to read like prose. It has been sunshine -on many a cloudy day. God bless our alma mater, and make her days long -in the land.” - -From New York: “When the history of the successful men and women of -the next generation shall be written, may it be found that the members -of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle of 1883 are among the -number.” - -From Santa Barbara, Cal., comes the greeting of Mrs. M. P. Austin, who -prays that “the C. L. S. C. may do as much for others as it has done -for me.” - -From St. Paul, Minn., a graduate writes: “Although in middle life, I -have rejoiced like a child at the prospect of graduating. My studies -have been precious to me; and, although I have carried them on alone, -the enthusiasm has never grown less. May I boast of the dozen recruits -whom I have brought into the work, not for the name of it, but because -I want everybody to be benefited as I have been. Saturday will find me -in a white dress and blue ribbon, and I shall try to catch the spirit -which ascends to our Father, and have something of the blessings which -are invoked upon the graduates of that day. May his blessed spirit be -with you, and may he be precious not only to them who believe, but to -many who never before have called on his name.” - -From Massachusetts a member writes: “I have heard this objection to -the C. L. S. C., that it leads to neglect of Bible study. My personal -experience has been that I never spent more time in Bible study or -loved it more than during the past four years.” - -From Dakota a mother writes: “Although my boy is but eleven years old, -he has done the greater part of my reading this year, and dear little -Maggie, nine years of age, is greatly interested in what she calls -mamma’s course. She also often reads for me, patiently spelling out the -hard words.” - -William C. Wilkinson, of Tarrytown, New York, writes: - - “I send greeting, congratulation and God-speed to the - class of 1883. A persistence on your part of four years - in a course of volunteer reading and study has not only - created character in you, but also proved that you - possessed character to begin with. It was not perfectly - easy for you to do what you have done. There have been - times, more than once, during these four years, when - the temptation was strong to abandon your undertaking. - But you did not abandon it, simply because you would - not abandon it. Your will was strong enough to overcome - the strong temptation. Now your will is stronger for - having been strong. Go forward in this added strength - to add strength again. The will conquers by conquering, - until it becomes at length unconquerable. Conquer is a - proud word. Let us change it and say something meeker - and truer. Let us say, obey. We conquer only when we - obey. You have obeyed your conscience in accomplishing - your appointed course. That obedience is your victory. - When the will is perfectly obedient to conscience, - conscience being at the same time perfectly enlightened - by the Word and by the Spirit of God, then we are - omnipotent. We reign then with Christ. All things are - ours. Go on, alumni of Chautauqua. Carry forward the - banner. Let it float in your hands ever farther and - higher. I do not say _plant_ it anywhere. I say _bear_ - it onward and upward. There is always, amid the Alps of - our glorious endeavor and struggle, a peak above and - beyond. Climb that, and then—forward still. The goal - is never attained, but the race itself is better than - would be rest at the goal. Remember the ranks that are - behind you, year after year, in the future. Give them a - generous lead. Remember the one pioneer rank in advance - of you. Tread close on their heels. Follow, so that it - will be hard for your leaders to lead. Lead, so that it - will be hard for your followers to follow. - - “God bless and crown the Class of 1883! - - “W. C. WILKINSON.” - -Bishop Henry W. Warren writes: - - “TOP OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, August 1, 1883. - - “_Dear Chautauquans_:—Pausing to take a farewell - look at the Atlantic slope before going down that - of the Pacific, my mind passes over many a place of - interest and rests on Chautauqua. There is no more - interesting place on the continent. How many faces rise - for recognition! But I can not indulge in personal - greetings, for the friends are so many and so dear that - time would fail me to speak of the institution that - is the outcome of the inspiration and labor of all - these friends. William Cullen Bryant said Chautauqua - exemplified the spirit of mutual encouragement. - President Garfield said that it taught what to do with - the result of civilization’s first fight, leisure; and - Bishop Wiley said it was a Christian center, able to - save the gospel if there was nothing else left. - - “Unquestionably, Chautauqua is the grandest inspiration - and quickening of mind in this century or any other. It - is the consummate flavoring of our Christian republican - principles. It offers all opportunities for growth to - all men. It seems to present as good a chance to every - man as comes to any man. This development of mind is - our chief wealth. We turn auriferous quartz into coin, - iron ore into a body for the soul of electricity, - but mind had to be developed and refined first. Rome - sought wealth by the robbery of other nations, but she - never gained as much wealth in a decade as we develop - from nature in a year. What we need as a nation is - a perpetual push and effort of the masses of men to - rise. They drag down none of the few that are already - eminent, but, by surpassing them, incite to greater - attainments. Let there be no fear that there will - be too many great men, or men too great. These vast - glittering snow-peaks about me find room enough, as - well as the mole hills. ‘There is always room at the - top,’ for the top is larger than the bottom, as these - bending heavens are larger than the earth, and eternity - longer than time. - - “Would that I could set one of these mountains near - Chautauqua and let its grassy base, its wooded slopes, - its masses of ore, its glittering crown of glorious - light say to every beholder: Here is an object lesson - worthy of God’s giving to his child, here is a symbol - of the eternal power of the God-head of your Father, - here are hints of what his child may be. All things are - for all men; whosoever will, let him come and take. - - “Dear members of the C. L. S. C. of 1883, I commend you - to the baccalaureate sermon of Dr. Vincent to-morrow - for higher and grander utterances than these heights - can give; to Dr. Abbott also for grander foundations - than those of these mountains; even those of the - Christian faith, for the mountains shall melt with - fervent heat, but the word of God standeth forever. - - “Yours in Christian knowledge and faith, - - “HENRY W. WARREN.” - -Dr. Vincent then read the following: - - Let Framingham Chautauqua hail, - The child the mother greet! - O’er intervening hill and dale, - Oh, courier, be fleet! - - Say, “Brothers, fellow-students, friends, - Ne’er turn to look behind; - For they whose pathway upward tends, - The sun-crowned summits find. - - “The outlook broadens, even now, - A vision rare and grand; - Hope in each heart, light on each brow, - Join welcome hand to hand! - - “And while the kindly grasp gives strength, - Repeat along the line: - ‘We’ll turn from earthly lore, at length - Beloved, to things divine. - - “‘Bright with perennial health and youth, - When that glad time shall be, - Our guide the way, the life, the truth, - Immortal pupils we!’” - -After the reading of the congratulations and greetings, Dr. Vincent -and President Miller presented the members of class ’83, present at -Chautauqua, their well-earned diplomas. Out of this wonderful class of -graduates, numbering nearly 1,400, over 300 were present. The class has -representatives in all of the following States and Territories: - -California, Maine, Virginia, Florida, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, -Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Minnesota, Maryland, Iowa, Illinois, -Georgia, Indiana, Michigan, Kansas, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, New -Jersey, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia, Connecticut, Missouri, District -of Columbia, New Hampshire, Colorado, Dakota, Kentucky. - -Canada is also represented, and in far-away China there is one -graduate. Thirteen different denominations are represented, as follows: -Methodist, Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopal, Baptist, Christian, -United Presbyterian, Reformed, Unitarian, Universalist, Friends, Roman -Catholics, Seventh-day Baptists. - -The following occupations were represented: Teachers, housekeepers, -ministers, lawyers, clerks, students, mechanics, farmers, merchants, -dressmakers, milliners, music-teachers, and stenographers. - - * * * * * - - -SOCIETY OF THE HALL IN THE GROVE. - -At 4 o’clock p. m., the Society of the Hall in the Grove assembled -in the Hall for counsel in regard to its future work. It was clearly -seen by all that the prosperity of the organization, if not its -very existence, required accommodations for its meetings, such as -Chautauqua could not now supply. After considerable discussion of many -suggestions, the following committee was appointed to consider plans -for the erection of a building, or of a series of buildings, in the -near future for the use of the society: R. S. Holmes, of Auburn, N. -Y.; A. M. Martin, of Pittsburgh, Pa.; A. H. Gillet, Prof. Mattison, -and S. J. M. Eaton, D.D. A committee on constitution, aims and plans -of the organization was appointed, consisting of J. H. Vincent, D.D.; -J. R. Pepper, of Memphis, Tenn.; L. C. Peake, of Toronto, Canada; R. -S. Holmes and J. G. Allen. J. G. Allen and A. D. Wilder were appointed -additional members of the Guard of the Banner. - -After the Society of the Hall in the Grove had completed the business, -a social followed, and song and chat ruled the hour. - -About 9 o’clock, under the direction of A. M. Martin, the camp fires -were lighted. In the midst of a light which was nearly as bright -as day, R. S. Holmes, I. I. Covet, of Pittsburgh; J. H. Kellogg, -of Troy, N. Y.; Lewis C. Peake, of Toronto; Rev. J. H. Warren, of -Tennessee, and A. M. Martin, of Pittsburgh, made speeches, containing -reminiscences of the past, interspersed with song, and the great crowd -appeared to listen as attentively as if it had not heard a speech -during the day. - -But the fires have burnt low, the people surround a bed of hot coals, -and the time for corn roasting has come. The boys are ready, and some -not boys in years are equally eager for the “green corn dance.” Without -coarseness or rudeness the fun commenced, and continued till the night -bells called to repose. Thus closed the graduating exercises of the C. -L. S. C. Class of 1883. From morning till night the tide of life ran -high, shared in by ten thousand people of all ages, from the tiny girl -to the veteran of many years. - - * * * * * - - -ORDER OF THE WHITE SEAL. - -A meeting of the members of the Order of the White Seal was held on -Saturday evening at 7:30 o’clock in the Hall, Rev. Dr. Eaton in the -chair. In the absence of the secretary, the minutes of last meeting -were read by the chairman. On motion, the Rev. S. J. M. Eaton, D. D., -Franklin, Pa., was elected president for the ensuing year, and Mr. -L. C. Peake, Toronto, Can., secretary. Rev. W. H. Rogers reported -on behalf of the Committee on Individual Effort, Mrs. E. F. Curtiss -for that on Local Circles, and Miss Carrie C. Ferrin for that on the -Round-Table. On motion these reports were accepted. Committees for the -ensuing year were appointed as follows: On Individual Effort, Rev. W. -H. Rogers, Sodus, Wayne County, N. Y.; Miss Emily Raymond, Toledo, -O., and Miss C. Dickey, Geneseo, N. Y. On Local Circles, Mrs. E. F. -Curtiss, Geneseo, N. Y.; Miss Fannie E. Roy, Atlanta, Ga., and Clarence -H. Bean, Varysburg, N. Y. On the Round-Table, Miss Carrie C. Ferrin, -Ellington, N. Y.; Mrs. A. W. Briggs, Elma, N. Y., and Miss M. C. -McGowan, Cincinnati, O. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[A] At Chautauqua, Saturday, August 18, 1883. - - - - -MONTEREY ASSEMBLY. - - -The Pacific Grove Assembly, held near Monterey, California, devoted -Friday, July 13, to the commencement exercises of the C. L. S. C. We -give a full report of the celebration: - -Friday was a perfect Monterey day. The Chautauquans gathered according -to program in the large public parlor of the railroad building and -fell into line for a procession. The choir sang a cheerful Chautauqua -song, in which many others joined, and then “processed.” First came -the president and officers of the society, then the graduates, then -all members of the C. L. S. C.—then everybody. All members wore an oak -leaf, which is the regulation badge, but members of the graduating -class wore for a decoration a broad badge of dark garnet-colored -ribbon, fringed with bullion, and with the unfailing “C. L. S. C.” and -the figures “1883” printed upon it in gold. They marched toward the -Assembly Hall, passing under the motto-inscribed and garlanded arches, -and entering the building proceeded to the front seats, which had been -reserved. The hall, under the care of the decorative committee, had -broken out into fresh verdure and bloom, while the letters “C. L. S. -C.” and the class dates, “1879-1883,” had blossomed out in gold and -scarlet upon the white wall behind the speakers’ platform. - -The hall was full to overflowing. Everybody on the grounds had been -invited to be present, and the greatest interest was manifested by all. -The exercises began with an inspiring Chautauqua song. An earnest and -appropriate prayer was offered by Rev. Dr. Heacock, of San Jose, and -then a beautiful letter of greeting from Dr. Vincent, the founder of -the society, was read. It was full of cordial friendliness, outlined -briefly the benefits which he trusted all had received from pursuing -the C. L. S. C. studies, and pointed out the catholicity and wide -helpfulness of the Chautauqua Idea. It closed with words of stimulus -and encouragement, as well as congratulation. Prof. Norton now made a -brief but admirable introductory address. He spoke of the Chautauqua -enthusiasm and interest as an intellectual revival. It is a work for -the masses, differing from that of the great universities of whose -benefits only a few favored ones can avail themselves. It goes to homes -of poverty, to workshops and kitchens as well as the libraries and -parlors. It is food for the hungry wherever they may be. It comes to -lives which have been arid and desolate through monotonous toil. He -spoke of the great increase of insanity among our farming population, -owing, no doubt, to the lack of healthful mental occupation. The C. L. -S. C. course of reading and plans for neighborhood circles may help -these lonely, overworked people to new and broader horizons of thought -and life. Prof. Norton closed with a pathetic and poetic comparison -between our real lives and our temporary sojourn by the great sea -which tosses and surges before us. Our footsteps on the shore here -are washed away by every incoming tide, so with our “footsteps on the -sands of time.” The great sea of eternity will soon efface all our -little earthly deeds. Let us live for eternal things. Let to-day be a -commencement indeed—a beginning of grander and better living, of deeds -which shall survive in the long years of God. - -The quartet choir sang another beautiful song, and then three essays -were read from the graduates. - -A delicate little prose-poem called “Childhood in Literature,” by Miss -Myrtie Hudson, of San Jose (a post-graduate of our society), was read -by Miss Lydia Bean. The diplomas were presented by Dr. Stratton, who -remarked when giving them that these diplomas do not confer degrees, -but something better than a degree, for they represent mature study, -habits of fixed thought and life-long intellectual growth. - -There were more than forty C. L. S. C. graduates in our State this -year. The following were present: Mrs. Lydia A. French, Stockton; -Mrs. H. J. Gardener, Rio Vista; Miss E. A. Wood, Riverside; Mrs. A. -J. Bennett, San Jose; Mrs. M. E. McCowen, Ukiah; Mrs. E. M. Reynolds, -San Jose; Miss M. McBride, Dixon; Mrs. C. C. Minard, Evergreen; Mrs. -Estelle Greathead, San Jose; Mrs. Lucy N. Crane, San Lorenzo; Mrs. -S. E. Walton, Yuba City; Miss Cornelia Walker, San Jose; Mrs. S. F. -Gosbey, Santa Clara; Mrs. F. W. Pond, Los Angeles; Miss Alice M. Wells, -Dixon; Mrs. M. H. McKee, San Jose; Miss Henrietta Stone, Mrs. Mira E. -Miller, Santa Barbara; Dr. C. C. Stratton, San Jose. - -After the commencement exercises the crowd dispersed, and the friends -of the graduates gathered around them to congratulate and exchange -friendly greetings. But it was late lunch-time, and the keen demands -of appetite were never keener than here at Pacific Grove. So, with the -understanding that all were to reassemble at 2 o’clock p. m., those -who had lingered hastened away. The hour for meeting soon arrived, -and the Chautauquans mustered in force at the beautiful cove near -Prospect Park. After a lively social time, President Stratton called -the meeting to order and pointed out a suggestive-looking traveling -photographer, armed with the usual camera and other implements, who had -been hovering about a neighboring cliff, and evidently had intentions -of immortalizing the C. L. S. C. Assembly. Everybody was requested to -assume a graceful attitude and a pleased expression, which they made -haste to do. The beach was covered with people, standing, sitting, -reclining. It was very hard work to be sober and proper, and look as -dignified as future ages will demand. Our president reclined upon the -sand, as befitted “the noblest Roman of us all;” the secretary sat -upright and faced the music; the modest vice-president tried to get -away, but was restrained by his numerous admiring friends; the small -boys in front were entreated to keep still; the photographer removed -the pall-like black cloth, and the deed was done. The result was quite -successful, and the picture may yet hang in the “Hall in the Grove,” -that eastern Chautauquans may see how their transcontinental comrades -look when disporting themselves by the sunset sea. - -The photograph business being disposed of, the next thing in order was -the Round-Table. There was no table to speak of, but a great deal of -“round”—an informal all ’round talk in a pleasant, familiar fashion. -Everybody was seated upon the shining white sand, a soft gray sky -overhead, a mild, warm atmosphere enfolding all, and the illimitable -sea stretching out before us and breaking in soft murmurs at our feet. -Members from all over the State gave, in brief conversational style, -cheering reports of their various circles, and the utmost interest -was manifested by all in the common weal. The tone of the meeting was -decidedly inspiring, and all seemed ready to promise improvement and -renewed effort. - -The next evening was the mussel-bake. A blazing fire had been built -upon the sand, but far from the assemblage, and much vigorous _muscle_ -was displayed in stirring the embers and piling on driftwood and -resinous pine cones, but as to the _mussels_, perhaps the less said -about them the better. There were, indeed, mussels baked, and they were -passed around upon a board in the most approved style, but it must be -confessed the supply was not very abundant. The whole mussel-bake was a -little like Hamlet, with the part of Hamlet left out. The explanation -lay in the fact that mussels can only be gathered in certain places -and at very low tide, and there had been a little misunderstanding. -Nevertheless, brethren, we had a grand time, an unlimited supply of -apples and freshly-roasted peanuts, and we fully propose to have a -mussel-bake every year! - -At a business meeting held during the assembly, Rev. Dr. Stratton was -re-elected to the presidency of the Pacific Coast C. L. S. C.; Dr. C. -L. Anderson, of Santa Cruz, was elected vice-president; Mrs. M. H. -Field, of San Jose, general secretary and treasurer; Miss Mary Bowman, -of San Jose, secretary of the Assembly, and Mrs. Eloise Dawson, of -San Jose, treasurer of the Assembly. Votes of thanks were given to -many benefactors and to retiring officers, especially to Miss M. E. B. -Norton, who has given our Branch the most faithful and untiring service. - -Our newly elected executive committee consists of Rev. C. C. Stratton, -D.D., San Jose, president; C. L. Anderson, M.D., vice-president, Santa -Cruz; Mrs. M. H. Field, general secretary, San Jose; Mrs. Eloise -Dawson, San Jose, treasurer; Rev. J. H. Wythe, D.D., Oakland; Prof. -H. B. Norton, San Jose; Rev. I. H. Dwinelle, Sacramento; G. M. Ames, -Oakland; Miss Lucy Washburn, San Jose; Prof. Josiah Keep, Alameda; Mrs. -L. J. Nusbaum, Sacramento; Rev. C. D. Barrows, San Francisco; Mrs. S. -E. Walton, Yuba City; Mrs. Julia Leal, Los Angeles; Mrs. E. M. McCowen, -Ukiah; Clarke Whittier, M.D., Riverside; Mrs. E. A. Gibbs, Santa Rosa; -Miss M. E. B. Norton, San Jose. - - - - -MONTEAGLE ASSEMBLY. - -By REV. J. H. WARREN. - - -Monteagle Assembly is located at Monteagle, Grundy County, Tenn., on -the top of Cumberland Mountain, fifteen miles from Cowan, between -Sewanee and Tracy City, immediately on the railroad owned and managed -by the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company. Cowan is a small -village on the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, eighty-four miles -from Nashville and sixty-four miles from Chattanooga. The ride up -the mountain from Cowan to the Assembly grounds is one of the most -picturesque in this country. The ascent for the first nine miles is -1,100 feet. The Assembly owns a hundred acres of land, which have -been laid out into parks, drives, avenues, and building lots. About -twenty-five acres have already been improved, and quite a number of -lots have been sold to individuals upon which to build cottages. An -amphitheater, capable of seating 2,000 persons, on the plan of the one -at Chautauqua, has been erected. Within a very short distance of the -Assembly grounds is some of the most magnificent mountain scenery to be -found in any country. The elevation is 2,140 feet above the sea level. -The Assembly is strictly undenominational. Each Christian denomination -is entitled to four members in the board of trustees, provided they -have as many members of the Assembly. The charter prohibits it from -being managed for the pecuniary interest of any person or persons. - -The first annual meeting of the Assembly has closed. It was a success -beyond our most sanguine expectation. The Normal School and Teachers’ -Retreat opened July 2, and closed August 4. These schools were all -well attended. More than one hundred and fifty teachers attended the -Normal alone. About fifty-two studied elocution. These teachers were -from several States, and a more intelligent class I have never seen -collected together anywhere. - -The Assembly opened July 17, and closed August 6. At the opening -service there were 1,000 people present. The attendance was good during -the entire Assembly. At one time on the grounds there were twenty-one -States and nineteen Christian denominations represented. - -In the program, two days were given to temperance, one day to Y. M. C. -A. work, two days to missions, foreign and domestic, and two days to -education. The meetings throughout were of great interest. - -Out of the large number of speakers on the program only four or five -failed to attend. - -The Sunday-school normal instruction, the children’s meetings, and Mr. -Van Lennep’s “Oriental and Biblical Museum” were interesting features -of the Assembly. - -But I desire to call special attention to the work of the C. L. S. C. -at Monteagle. We recognize this as an institution in this country. It -is fast finding its way into many of our Southern homes, and bringing -sunshine and blessings to many hearts. - -At our solicitation, Dr. J. H. Vincent was present two or three days of -the Assembly, and represented the C. L. S. C. His words of wisdom and -cheer were a joy to many hearts. There were twenty members of the C. L. -S. C. present to greet him. This number was increased to seventy before -the Assembly adjourned. - -A permanent organization was perfected, with Miss Emma Brown, Memphis, -Tenn., president, and Miss Anna W. Thomas, Memphis, Tenn., secretary. -The idea is to have annual meetings at Monteagle. - -Each member went away determined to organize local circles at their -homes, so that when we return next year, if permitted to do so, the -members will have swelled from fifty to five hundred. We hope Dr. -Vincent will favor us with his presence each year. - -During the Assembly a number of C. L. S. C. Round-Tables were held, -which were profitable, socially and intellectually. - -On the evening of July 21 was held the first C. L. S. C. camp-fire at -Monteagle, under the leadership of Dr. Vincent. The speeches and songs -were full of inspiration and good cheer. We only regret that hundreds -of our people in the South were not present to enjoy the meetings with -us, and take fresh courage and inspiration for the work of life. - -Miss Thomas, our secretary, has been instructed to correspond with all -members of the C. L. S. C., who were at Monteagle, and all others whose -names and post-office addresses she can get. She would be glad to have -the names of all who are interested in this work. We desire to arrange -for some organized effort to push this work out into the many homes -of our country. Let every city, town, and village, and neighborhood, -organize a circle. - -Those members of the C. L. S. C., who were at Monteagle, have -determined to erect a Hall of Philosophy, that we may have a place in -which to hold our meetings each year. This can be done very easily by a -little co-operative effort. - -All things considered, the Assembly was quite a success. The outlook -is encouraging. Although located in the South, it is not a Southern -institution, it is for the public good. Let the people come from the -North, South, East, and West; all will be equally welcome. Life is too -short to harbor animosities. Let us enter the struggles and conflicts -of life like heroes and heroines. As a nation, we have a grand work -before us to elevate our people socially, morally, religiously, and -intellectually. Monteagle proposes to do her part. Will the good people -of this country stand by us in this noble work? If you will, success is -sure. There is no other enterprise of the kind in the South. The people -are united. Give us your prayers and co-operation. If you desire to do -good with your money, take hold of Monteagle Assembly. - -To the sister assemblies over the land, we send words of greeting. To -all the members of the C. L. S. C. throughout this broad land we extend -the right hand of fellowship. For the unity, peace, and the uplifting -of our people, and the establishing of Christ’s kingdom, may we all be -united, heart and hand, in Christian love and sympathy. - - - - -MONONA LAKE ASSEMBLY. - - -No one can estimate the extent to which the C. L. S. C. is growing. One -State after another surrenders to its influence. During the past year -Wisconsin has taken hold of the work, and is now showing a wonderful -interest in the studies of the “home college.” The little text-books -have found their way into many a quiet family, and are beginning to -revolutionize society in every city, village, and country neighborhood. - -This fact was shown very clearly at the Assembly held at Monona Lake, -near Madison, Wisconsin. Many local circles sent representatives to -this gathering to receive, through them, inspiration and strength -for the work of the coming year. The total attendance from various -localities was nearly two hundred. C. L. S. C. Day was the best of the -whole session. Although an entirely new feature, yet the people became -so enthused that about a thousand called for circulars of information, -and many joined the Circle before they left the grounds. - -Rev. A. H. Gillet, the president of the Monona Lake Branch, delivered -the annual address, in which he explained most admirably the object and -aim of the Circle. Twelve persons, who had completed the four years’ -course, were present to receive their diplomas, and notwithstanding the -absence of the “Golden Gate” and the “Hall of Philosophy,” everything -had the Chautauqua appearance, and the very atmosphere was filled with -classic odors. - -The camp-fire in the evening was a feature that will never be forgotten -by those present. After the feast of solid food during the day, this -evening hour was filled with real enjoyment, and many humorous speeches -that were made as the flames ascended and the sparks disappeared in the -starry dome above, served to lighten every heart, and to close the day -with the feeling that it was indeed the best of the season. - -The round-table conferences, conducted by Rev. A. H. Gillet, were full -of interest. Some very important questions were discussed, and the -members present prepared for successful work in their respective homes. -The Chautauqua Songs were sung at all of these meetings, and never did -“Day is Dying in the West” sound more sweetly than at Monona Lake. - -But of all the exercises connected with the Circle, the Sunday evening -vesper services were the best. Here was shown the real secret of -Chautauqua success. Nearly every member, engaged during the week in -gathering knowledge of art, science and literature, was found in his -place on Sunday evening, lifting his heart to God, and showing thereby -that we “keep our Heavenly Father in our midst.” - -The organization of Monona Lake Branch was perfected by the election of -Rev. A. H. Gillet as president, and Mrs. William Millard, of Milwaukee, -secretary. An executive committee was appointed to arrange the plans -for next year. We look forward to good reports from this daughter of -Chautauqua, and give her a hearty welcome. - - - - -ISLAND PARK ASSEMBLY. - - -Unusual interest was manifest this season at Island Park, near Rome -City, Indiana. The Assembly, conducted by Rev. A. H. Gillet, of -Cincinnati, Ohio, was a great success. The place is growing in favor -each year, and the fire kindled there will not only continue to burn, -but to spread, until every hamlet within a radius of many miles -shall receive the light and warming influences that come from such -gatherings. The attendance this year was larger than ever before, the -people were of a better class, and the program, as carried out, gave -universal satisfaction. The singing of the Wilberforce Concert Company -delighted everybody. Among the lecturers were Drs. O. H. Tiffany and -C. H. Fowler, of New York City; Dr. Justin D. Fulton, of Brooklyn, N. -Y.; Drs. Stocking and Alabaster, of Detroit, Michigan, and Dr. P. S. -Henson, of Chicago, Illinois. Dr. W. C. Richards, of Chicago, gave -several very interesting lectures on “Electricity.” The Island Park -Branch of the C. L. S. C. was regularly organized this year, with Rev. -A. H. Gillet as president, and J. L. Shearer, of Fort Wayne, Indiana, -secretary. There were over two hundred members in attendance. The -daily round-table conferences, conducted by Rev. Gillet and Dr. J. L. -Hurlbut, of Plainfield, N. J., were highly appreciated by the members -present, and many valuable suggestions given and received by these -mutual discussions. The circle is enlarging continually in Indiana and -Michigan, so that there is scarcely a town or village in which there -is not a local circle, or at least a few individual members. Many have -joined the class of ’87, and quite a large number, having completed the -four years’ course, were present to receive their diplomas. C. L. S. C. -day was the best of the session. Dr. C. H. Fowler, of New York City, -delivered the annual address. The camp-fire was the grandest ever seen -at Island Park. - -Plans for the erection of a C. L. S. C. building are under -consideration, a reading-room for the benefit of the Circle, an Island -Park lecture association, and many other novel features are things of -the near future. - -The Music College, under the direction of Prof. C. C. Case, of Akron, -Ohio, the school of languages, the department of elocution, the art -school, and the secular teachers’ normal were also well attended. It is -the intention of the managers to lengthen the time of these departments -next year, and to offer additional facilities to those who wish to -improve their vacation by carrying on some line of study. On the whole, -we can say that Island Park Assembly is a fixed fact, a thing that -has come to stay, and we are glad that the people are beginning to -appreciate and to value the educating and refining influences of these -gatherings. - - - - -LAKESIDE ASSEMBLY. - - -A regular “C. L. S. C. Day” was provided for in the program at the -Lakeside, Ohio, Sunday-school encampment, and the “recognition of the -Class of ’83” arranged for. The absence of Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., -was an unexpected and greatly lamented interruption to our plans. But -the inspiration of the “Chautauqua Idea,” which Lakeside has caught and -thoroughly incorporated into its own fiber, did not allow a dampening -of ardor, and so the “day” went on as days will, and especially such -sunny days by Lake Erie as that was. Happily Lewis Miller, Esq., -President of the C. L. S. C., was persuaded to remain a while and lend -his cheery face, his wise words and his authoritative presence to the -occasion. - -A large audience, filling the capacious Auditorium, assembled, the -members of the Class of ’83 took seats on the platform, and President -Miller occupied the chair. After opening exercises in the use of the -responsive services provided, copies of which were distributed among -the audience, addresses were delivered by Rev. Dr. Hartupee, Rev. -Dr. Worden, Prof. Frank Beard, and Rev. B. T. Vincent. After these -had concluded, President Miller called the members of the class to -their feet, and in a neat and appropriate address “recognized” them -thereby as graduates of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, -as part of the great class of fourteen hundred for the current year. -A round-table was also held, conducted by Rev. B. T. Vincent, at -which the subject of C. L. S. C. work was taken up by those present, -and treated in a most practical manner. Representatives from several -local circles gave outlines of their plans of work, and questions from -interested students as to methods, etc., brought forth suggestive -answers, awakening new interest in the subject of study, and stirring -the uninitiated, of whom many were present, into an interest in the -work. A Sunday evening C. L. S. C. vesper service was also most -interesting. On the last evening of the encampment, Bishop Hurst, who -was present, applied the subject of general reading as represented -in the C. L. S. C. in its relation to a firmer religious texture -in Christian character, in a ringing address which did much toward -awakening new interest in this great work. The enthusiasm excited by -the meetings in this behalf was cordially felt by Lakeside people, -and it is determined to make the “recognition” of the class of the -current year, and also the round-table, features of the annual program -hereafter. - -Surrounded as Lakeside is by an immense area filled with studious and -enterprising people who are taking hold of the C. L. S. C. readings, -and who are finding their special center of summer gathering there, -this provision will be a source of great gratification to them, and a -means of extending these benefits to many who only thus are brought -into contact with this agency of Christian intelligence and popular -culture. - - - - -MOUNTAIN LAKE PARK ASSEMBLY. - - -The fifth annual session of this Assembly lasted ten days, August -7-17. Some will recall the fact that the institution was established -in the Cumberland Valley, Pennsylvania, and was held there for three -successive years. Last year the experiment was made of holding the -meeting in the Glades, at the new resort called Mountain Lake Park, -Maryland. The new field was so full of promise and hope that it was at -once determined to make it the center of the movement henceforth. The -place is unique in some of its features, situated in the midst of a -series of table-land glades, between the peaks of the Alleghenies, in -the vicinity of some most romantic and stirring scenery, and possessing -an atmosphere abounding in stimulation and vigor. Two years ago the -region was an uninhabited wilderness, with the Baltimore and Ohio -Railroad resort, Deer Park, on one side three miles away, and Oakland, -the county seat of Garrett County, two miles to the west. Now it is a -summer settlement abounding in picturesque cottages, beautiful drives, -and linked to a Sunday-school Assembly and to “summer schools” of -various sorts for all time to come. - -The lecture course of the session just past was of a high order. -It included three superb addresses from Dr. Lyman Abbott, full of -vigorous thought, religious ardor, and primed and charged with -suggestiveness—“Why I believe in God, in Christ, and in the Bible.” -Prof. Cumnock gave two magnificent entertainments in the shape of -readings and recitations. Prof. Young, of Princeton, delighted us with -three illustrated astronomical lectures; and the Rev. Jesse Bowman -Young gave three tours, illustrated also with the stereopticon: “The -Marvels of Colorado,” “London and Paris,” and “From Dan to Beersheba.” -Prof. Harris, on the “Wrong side of the Moon,” Dr. Huntley, on the -“Amen Corner,” Bishop Andrews, on “The Method of the New Testament -Law,” and Dr. Payne, with two lectures, all did their best work, and -earned and received high appreciation. - -The normal classes were under the instruction of Rev. J. B. Young, -Rev. J. T. Judd, Rev. J. Vance, and Prof. Elliott of Baltimore. The -lessons were chosen in part from Dr. Vincent’s “Normal Outlines,” and -in part were prepared by Mr. Judd. - -Rev. Mr. Young conducted two enthusiastic and interesting services -during the closing days of the Assembly, developing the “Chautauqua -Idea.” Drs. Frysinger, Van Meter, and Leech, Messrs. Judd, Vance, -Baldwin, Lindsey, and others, made capital addresses, bringing out as -phases of this “Idea” the following elements: home study, Bible study, -normal work, study of the classics, of literature, of the sciences. - -On the last night of the Assembly at Mountain Lake Park the C. L. S. C. -was organized, with over fifty members, Rev. J. T. Judd, of Harrisburg, -Pa., being elected president, and Miss Jennie M. Jones, of the same -city, secretary. - -Thus from the tip-top of the Alleghenies we send out greetings to other -Chautauquans, and join in the glorious work which is in marvelous -measure leavening the land. - - - - -NEW ENGLAND ASSEMBLY. - - -The “Chautauqua Idea” is taking deep root in the soil of New England. -Four years ago the first Assembly was held on the grounds of the -Framingham Campmeeting Association. There was a fair attendance, and -considerable enthusiasm. Each year has been an improvement. The number -in attendance has been greater, and the interest has been on the -increase. This year has been the best of all. Almost from the first the -lodging accommodations were taxed to their utmost in providing for the -unexpectedly large numbers. The gentleman in charge of the dormitory -stated to the writer that he had a greater rush the first day of the -Assembly, this year, than he had the first week of last year. Thus it -continued during the ten days. It is therefore safe to conclude, that -in a financial way, the meeting was a success beyond its predecessors. - -The work of the various departments was done efficiently by Dr. -Vincent, in charge, assisted by Dr. Hurlbut, and Prof. Holmes, at -the head of the normal classes; Prof. Sherwin at the front with a -magnificent chorus of nearly two hundred voices; Frank Beard with a -drawing class of one hundred and fifty; and the platform occupied by -such men as Prof. Richards, Dr. Lyman Abbott, Dr. Angell, Wallace -Bruce, Dr. Hull, Dr. J. B. Thomas, Dr. Tiffany, Prof. Young, A. O. Van -Lennep, and others. A feast of good things was to be expected, and we -were not disappointed. - -One of the enjoyable features of the Assembly was Rev. O. S. Baketel’s -lecture on “Sights and Insights at Chautauqua,” illustrated with eighty -stereopticon views. They were shown with the calcium light, and an -audience of four thousand people sat for an hour and three quarters, -hearing and seeing. It created a great deal of interest, both with old -Chautauquans and the many who have never seen Chautauqua. - -Prof. Sherwin had several very excellent soloists, and his chorus was -exceptionally fine. - -One of the new buildings this year is the C. L. S. C. office. This is a -very neat structure, and greatly appreciated by those having in charge -the C. L. S. C. It was usually crowded during office hours. About five -hundred members of the Circle were present during the Assembly. One -hundred and sixty-five joined the Class of 1887. Thirty-eight members -of the graduating class were present and received their diplomas from -the hands of Dr. Vincent. The Class of 1884 are thoroughly organized, -and are looking forward to a grand time when next year’s bells shall -ring in their festal day. - -As usual, Mrs. Rosie M. Baketel had charge of the C. L. S. C. office. -This is her third year in this position. She is one of the hardest -workers on the grounds. - -The presence of Dr. Vincent is always an inspiration to a Framingham -audience. Though compelled to return to Chautauqua after the opening, -he gave us a grand “send-off,” and his presence and labors when he -returned again were greatly enjoyed. - - ONE OF 1882. - - - - -HOW WE CAME TOGETHER. - - [The following poem, from Counselor W. C. Wilkinson’s - volume, recently published by Messrs. Charles - Scribner’s Sons, tells the story of the author’s first - meeting with a friend of his, who is also a friend - of every reader of THE CHAUTAUQUAN—the Rev. John H. - Vincent, D.D. The friendship thus formed, not less - than twenty years ago, endures yet between the two as - vivid as ever. It is bearing fruit not then anticipated - in the associated labors which they perform for the - Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.] - - - Thorwaldsen’s Lion, gray and grim, - Rock in his rocky lair, - On who would rend his lily from him, - Glowered out with dying glare. - - I mused awhile the sculptured stone, - My pilgrim staff in hand; - Then turned to hold my way alone, - And lone, from land to land. - - But God had other hap in store: - Even as I turned I met - A manly eye ne’er seen before— - I seem to see it yet! - - Vanish the changeful years between, - Like morning-smitten rack; - As, morning-like, that crescent scene - Comes dawning swiftly back. - - Again, above, that mellow noon - And soft Swiss heaven doth yearn; - Frowns still on us in pilgrim shoon - The Lion of Lucerne. - - Once more each other’s hands we take, - The pass-words fly betwixt; - Though slack the speed that speech may make, - When heart with heart is mixed. - - I see the green Swiss lake asleep - With Righi in her dream; - We cross the lake, we climb the steep - To watch the world agleam. - - The paths are many up the slope, - And many of the mind, - We catch the flying clue of hope, - And wander where they wind. - - The paths are fresh, the pastures green, - In walk or talk traversed; - The Alpland meadow’s grassy sheen - With many a streamlet nursed, - - And the fair meadows of the soul - Forever fresh with streams - From the long heights of youth that roll, - The Righi-Culm of dreams. - - We speak of summits hard to gain, - And, gained, still hard to keep; - Of pleasure bought with glorious pain, - Of tears ’twas heaven to weep; - - And of a blessed Heavenly Friend - Who, struggling with us still, - Would break the blows else like to bend - The lonely human will; - - Or with some sudden vital touch, - At pinch of sorest need, - Would lift our little strength to much, - And energize our deed. - - Our talk flows on, through strain or rest, - As up the steep we go; - Each untried track of thought seems best - In hope’s prelusive glow. - - We loiter while the sun makes haste, - But we shall yet sit down - To watch the gleams of sunset chased - From mountain crown to crown. - - Too long, too late—the splendor went - Or e’er we reached the goal; - But a splendor had dawned that will never be spent - That day on either soul. - - - - -VEGETABLE VILLAINS. - -By R. TURNER. - - -THE PLANT COMMUNITY AND ITS VILLAINS. - -No paradise could be complete for us without a pervading freshness -of green in wood and field. In lazy moods and calm sunshiny weather -there are few men who will not condescend to stretch out their limbs -under a spreading beech, or at least to envy one who is taking life -easily for a time in the shade. We all know what a pleasant faint -rustle of leaves there is above, and what a flickering of mellowed -sunlight comes over the eyes, and how these steal into the heart -with a sense of soft content, till we are apt to become like little -children, enjoying without much thought, yielding ourselves up to the -delight of the mere living, letting our consciousness float along -lazily on the current of being. But if we can in such circumstances -nerve ourselves to reflect just a little, we shall—if we possess even -a very slight knowledge of the processes of nature—become conscious -that there are great silent energies and activities at work around us -in every blade of grass, and above us in the cool green foliage. The -leaves have myriads of invisible little mouths eagerly drinking in the -unseen air, and the minute grains that give the green color to these -leaves are all the while laying hold of the infinitesimal percentage of -carbonic acid impurity in that air, and, invigorated by the quickening -sunlight, are able to tear this gaseous impurity to pieces, to wrench -the two elements that form it asunder, making the one into nutriment -for themselves, and letting the other go free in its purity into the -wide atmosphere. What man—with all his sound and fury, his hammering -and clanking—has never achieved, is thus quietly done in summer days -by every green leaf in God’s world, and inorganic matter is forced -to live. While the sun shines these honest workers are striving with -all their might to lay hold of every atom of this gas that fouls the -atmosphere for animals, and thus, while finding food for themselves, -they are keeping the air sweet and pure for other living things. The -necessity is laid on them to maintain themselves by honest work; and -it is interesting to reflect how massive are the material results that -gather round their task. We are apt to forget that by far the greater -part of the solid matter of vegetation—of the giant trees of California -as well as of the tiniest grasses and green herbs—is thus gathered atom -by atom from the atmosphere. One eats his potato thankfully, usually -without bothering himself much as to how it came to be a potato; how -the green leaves labored away, seizing the scanty atoms of an invisible -gas and making them into starch; how this insoluble starch became a -soluble thing, and melting away into the sap flowed through the stem -to the tubers, there to form again into little grains and be laid up -for future use. The rest of the nourishment of such honest plants is -usually derived from the soil. The more stimulating food—within certain -limits—that crops, for instance, take up by the roots, the harder do -their green parts work in the sunlight, making starch and kindred -substances out of what they can snatch from the atmosphere. Hence -the value of manures; they are stimulants to increased endeavor. Such -honest, hard-working plants form by far the greater bulk of vegetation, -and of those that grow on land nearly all are conspicuously green. -Sometimes—but rarely—the green is disguised a little by another color -associated with it, or some tint that is but skin-deep. Take a leaf of -the copper beech, for instance, scratch the surface, and you will find -the honest green beneath. Even the despised field-weeds, that come up -wherever man digs or plows, and linger lovingly about his agriculture, -so be it that they are green, are honest in their way, and only take -hold of what earth they can find to root in, that they may participate -with their fellows in the blessings to be got and given by keeping the -atmosphere pure. Man wants to grow grain, or something of the kind, -where they prefer to grow, and so, as they foul his husbandry, he -ruthlessly roots them out, or tries at least. It is their misfortune -that man does not wish them there; but still, contemned creatures as -they are, they have honest ways about them, and every green grain in -their being is struggling hard to do something genuinely useful. It -is only an earnest striving to hold their own against man and brute, -that makes humble nettles clothe themselves with stings full of formic -acid and fury, and rude thistles bristle with a sharp _nemo me impune -lacessit_ at every prickle point. They are armed for defense, not -aggression. It is not of stuff such as this that vegetable villains are -made. - -Since there is so much honesty, however, in the plant world, rogues, -and thieves, and pilferers must abound. Consider the animal kingdom. -Where herds of deer roam in the wilds there beasts of prey are on the -prowl, or sportsmen stalk with murderous guns in hand. Where herrings -and pilchards crowd in shoals clouds of gulls and gannets hover, and -porpoises with rapacious maws tumble and roll about. Where earthworms -abound there moles with ravenous appetite are furiously driving mines, -or birds that have sharp, quick bills keep watch with keen eyes. And so -in this honest plant community, preying on it and pilfering from it, -live and flourish hosts of vegetable villains; some without a trace of -green in their whole being, living by theftuous practices alone; some -with just the faintest suspicion of green and the slightest indications -of a true nature; others with a good deal of the better color about -them, but still only indifferently honest. There is something of marvel -and mystery about these plant pilferers—of strange peculiarities in -their modes of life, and in their adaptations for plundering and -preying, which can hardly fail to interest intelligent minds, even when -brought before them in a sketch such as this, which does not profess to -take in more than the outermost fringe of a wide field. Without terms -and technicalities and a strange jargon of crabbed words that would -be dry as dust, and meaningless to most readers, little professing -to be thorough can be done; yet, after all, something more generally -comprehensive may ooze through in comparatively plain English. - -With regard to their pilfering habits, such plants are usually -proportioned off into two great groups. They either attach themselves -to other beings and absorb their juices, in which case they form a -mighty host of plants of prey usually known as _parasites_; or they -seek their nurtriment, and find it, in dead and decaying organisms, -and are then known as _saprophytes_, a somewhat hard word to begin -with, for which I can not find a popular equivalent, but which merely -signifies plants that grow on decomposing matter. All land plants that -are not blessed with a true green color belong to one or other of these -groups, and are villains in their various degrees. They make no effort -to free the air from the gaseous impurity that haunts it, but, like -animals, they keep fouling it instead. With a very few exceptions, all -of them subsist on organic matter in some form, and this they usually -draw from the plants, living or dead, on which they grow, or from -decaying matter in the soil. But many of these vegetable villains run -into half-honest vagaries, and succeed in raising themselves slightly -above the common ruck. If they can not seize and break up carbonic -acid gas, they may do a little toward atmospheric purification of a -kind by laying fast hold on such organic particles as are floating in -the air or brought to them in falling moisture. Plants such as these -are sometimes found growing on barren sand, on hard gravel, on parapets -of bridges, on leaden cisterns, on plastered walls, on slag, and in -like inhospitable places, where they are compelled to turn mainly to -the atmosphere and trickling moisture for food. Some such haunt mines -like phosphorescent ghosts, others make themselves at home on places -like the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral. In a mass two feet in length, -similar strange plants were one morning long ago found by a smith on a -piece of iron that he had taken, on the previous night, red-hot from -his fire, and laid on his water trough. Many similar vagaries they -run into that would in the telling sound almost incredible. Indeed, -the whole group of the saprophytes is not to be accounted so utterly -abandoned as that of the parasites. To these they are certainly nearly -related, but there is more of the useful scavenger about them than -of the useless thief. No sooner has death overtaken any plant than a -host of them set to work to clear away the now useless organism from -the world, breaking down herbaceousness into putrescence, timber into -touchwood, and all at last into vegetable mould. Their mission is to -seize upon decaying matter and endow it with life in a new form; and -thus out of rottenness often comes wholesomeness, decay moulding itself -into pleasant mushrooms, or into things unfit for human food perhaps, -but that may bring the blessings of abundance to many little living -creatures. If such as are edible are to be considered villains, then -people of delicate palate who smack their lips over some of them have a -right to insist that these should be specially classed as dainty little -rogues. - -Still this useful scavengering habit is nearly allied to the pilfering -one. Decay attacks part of a tree, for instance, and saprophytes set to -work at the dead branch, but they are apt to extend their operations -to the adjoining living tissues, which die, too, and decay, till in -the end the tree may be entirely destroyed. The scavenger, we can -thus understand, is apt on occasion to relapse into the thief and the -out-and-out villain. - -To one or other of these two great groups, or occasionally to both, -belong, besides a few flowering plants, the whole extensive division -of the fungi, and it is to be noted that none of this curious class of -plants is ever blessed with leaf-green or starch in any part of its -substance. Whether minute even under powerful microscopes or measuring -several feet across; whether hard as wood or a mere mass of jelly; -whether horny, fleshy, or leathery; whether resisting the action of the -elements for years or hardly able to outlive a puff of wind; whether -beautiful, commonplace, or ugly; whether sweet-scented or otherwise, in -this they agree, that in all of them is wanting that greenness which -makes honest work possible, and those little grains of starch that come -from honest work done.—_Good Words._ - - * * * * * - -I AM afraid that a lightsome disposition and a relish for humor are not -so common in those whose benevolence takes an active turn as in people -of sentiment, who are always ready with their tears and abounding -in passionate expressions of sympathy. Working philanthropy is a -practical specialty, requiring not a mere impulse, but a talent, with -a peculiar sagacity for finding its objects, a tact for selecting its -agencies, an organizing and arranging faculty, a steady set of nerves, -and a constitution such as Sallust describes in Catiline, patient of -cold, of hunger, and of watching. Philanthropists are commonly grave, -occasionally grim, and not very rarely morose. Their expansive social -force is imprisoned as a working power, to show itself only through -its legitimate pistons and cranks. The tighter the boiler, the less it -whistles and sings at its work.—_Oliver Wendell Holmes._ - - - - -SLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY.[B] - -By ADLEY H. CUMMINGS. - - -The mythology of various tribes and races has of late attracted much -attention, while that of our own ancestors of the North has been -studied with the greatest care. - -Little attention, however, has been devoted to the religious belief of -the ancient Slavonic race, and yet it is replete with interest for all -who yield to the fascination of ancient myth. - -We unfortunately possess no Slavic Edda, or Veda, to throw illumination -upon the ancient creed of the tribes, but a few scattered facts have -come down to modern times—principally contained in popular songs—but -sufficient to enable us to observe the similarity between Slavonic -mythology and that of the other members of the Indo-European stock—all -pointing to that immensely ancient time when the ancestors of the -combined race could have been gathered within the circuit of the -same camp; when they passed the same lives and worshiped the same -divinities; wept when the “serpents of the night” strangled the god -appointed to preside over the day, and rejoiced together with an -exceeding great joy when the day-god, victorious over his foes, gilded -the hills again. - -In Slavonic tradition Swarog is represented as the most ancient of -their gods, as the one who was originally—before Perkunas—the supreme -deity of those tribes, corresponding to Sanskrit Surya, like Helios in -Greece, the dweller in the orb of the sun. Swarog was the pervading, -irresistible luminary, the solar deity, _par excellence_, of the race, -and vague recollections of him still exist. In some places Swarog -seems to have yielded to another solar deity, Dazhbog, the god of -fruitfulness, represented as the son of Swarog. - -The etymological signification of Dazhbog is the “day-god.” With -him, as a representative of the sun, was a god named Khors—probably, -however, but another name of the day-god. - -Ogon, answering closely to Sanskrit Agni, Latin, _ignis_ (fire), was -the god of fire, brother of Dazhbog; his worship was principally -connected with the domestic hearth. - -But the deity who stands out most prominently, who became the supreme -divinity of the race, though corresponding to the Scandinavian Thor, -was Perkunas, or Perun, whose name, yielding to certain laws of -phonetic change, may correspond to Greek Keraunos (thunder), but more -closely to Sanskrit Parjanya, called in the Rig-Veda, “The thunderer, -the showerer, the bountiful, who impregnates the plants with rain.” -This god was forgotten by the Hellenic Aryans, who exalted Dyaus (Zeus, -Jove) to the supreme position, but the Letto-Slavonic tribes bestowed -upon him the endearing appellation of the “All-Father,” a title which -they only conferred upon the creator of the lightnings. It is said that -the Russians still say, when the thunder rolls, “_Perkuna gromena_;” in -Lithuanian, “_Perkuns grumena_.” - -The South-Slavic term for the rainbow is “Perunika,” “Perun’s flower,” -or “beauty.” - -“White-Russian traditions,” says Afanasief,[C] “describe Perun as tall -and well shaped, with black hair and a long golden beard. He rides in a -flaming car, grasping in his left hand a quiver full of arrows, and in -his right a fiery bow.” - -He is also represented as carrying a mace, answering to Thor’s hammer, -mjolnir. - -After the introduction of Christianity the prophet Elijah became -credited with many of the honors and functions of Perkunas. He was -termed, “Gromovit Ilija” (Thunder Elijah), and the origin of the -notion, and the strange metamorphosis of that sweet spirit into a -Boanerges, undoubtedly lie in his flight to heaven in a chariot of -fire, and in his power, when on earth, of calling down fire from -heaven, and of bringing the rain. Thus, II. Kings, i:10, he says, “If -I be a man of God, then shall fire come down from heaven and consume -thee and thy fifty.” Again, Kings, i., 18:41, “And Elijah said unto -Ahab: Get thee up; eat and drink, for there is a sound of abundance of -rain.” - -The Slavs considered that the thunder and lightning were given into -the prophet’s hands, and that he closed the gates of heaven, _i. e._, -the clouds, to sinful men, who thus might not share in his blessed -reign. There is evidence of the same belief among the Teutonic tribes, -and in the old High-German poem, “Muspilli,” a form of that saga which -prevailed throughout all the middle ages with regard to the appearance -of anti-Christ shortly before the end of the world. Elijah takes the -place which Thor assumes in Scandinavian myth at Ragnarok, and fights -the evil one: - - “Daz hôrtih rahhôn dia werol trehtwison, - Daz sculi der anti-Christo mit Eliase pâgan.” - - I have heard the very learned say, - That anti-Christ shall with Elijah fight. - -The poem then proceeds to say that Elijah shall be wounded, and -recounts the many signs and wonders that shall occur before the -Muspell-doom, the Judgment Day. - -Volos, or Veles, was another solar deity. It has been held that the -Greek Helios appears in this name, while others have identified him -with Odin, or Woden, pronounced with an epenthetic _l_, and with other -changes, but the etymology seems far-fetched. - -He was the special protector of cattle. The name survives to Christian -times in St. Blasius. Mr. Ralston says: “In Christian times the honors -originally paid to Volos were transferred to his namesake, St. Vlas, -or Vlasy (Blasius), who was a shepherd by profession. To him the -peasants throughout Russia pray for the safety of their flocks and -herds, and on the day consecrated to him (February 11) they drive -their cows to church, and have them secured against misfortune by -prayer and the sprinkling of holy water.... Afanasief considers that -the name was originally one of the epithets of Perun, who, as the -cloud-compeller—the clouds being the cattle of the sky—was the guardian -of the heavenly herds, and that the epithet ultimately became regarded -as the name of a distinct deity.” - -By the names of Volus and Perun the Russians used to swear and confirm -their sayings and treaties by oath. - -Stribog was the wind-god. According to Russian ideas the four winds -are the sons of one mother, and in the Old-Russian Igor song the wind -is addressed as Sir. These winds are called Stribog’s grandsons. So -in India, the winds are regarded as sentient beings; thus in the -Nalopákhyánam: - - “Thus adjured, a solemn witness, spake the winds from out the air. - - * * * * * - - Even as thus the wind was speaking, flowers fell showering all around, - And the gods’ sweet music sounded on the zephyr light.” - -Byelbog and Chernobog, the representatives of light and darkness, are -of antagonistic nature—the warring principles of good and evil. Byelbog -is the white, shining god, the bringer of the day, the benignant -Phœbus, while Chernobog, a black god, belongs to the diabolical order. - -The goddess of spring and love was Lada—corresponding closely to Freya -in the Scandinavian traditions. Lovers and the newly married addressed -their prayers to her, praising her name in songs. Lado, the Slavonic -counterpart of Norse Freyr, has many of the same attributes as the -goddess Lada, to whom the same adoration and praise were offered. Mr. -Ralston says that “one Lithuanian song distinctly couples the name Lado -with that of the sun. A shepherd sings, ‘I fear thee not O wolf! The -god with the sunny curls will not let thee approach. Lado, O Sun-Lado!’ -In one of the old chronicles Lado is mentioned as the god of marriage, -of mirth, of pleasure, and of general happiness, to whom those about to -marry offered sacrifices in order to secure a fortunate union.” - -Kupàlo was the god of harvests, and before the harvest—on the 23d of -June—sacrifices were offered to him. Young people lighted fires and -danced around them in the evening, adorned with garlands of flowers, -singing harvest ditties to the god. This custom still survives in the -fires kindled on St. John’s eve, through which sometimes the people -jump and drive their cattle. The Poles and other Slavonians, especially -in remote districts, keep up many of their ancient heathen rites. - -The 24th of December was sacred to the goddess Kolyada, a solar deity, -to whom songs were sung in celebration of the renewed life of the sun -after the winter solstice “when the gloom of the long winter nights -begins to give way to the lengthening day.” This festival became -blended with the Christmas celebration upon the advent of Christianity, -and songs are still to be heard at that time containing the name of the -goddess, as - - Kolyada! Kolyada! - Kolyada has arrived - On the eve of the Nativity. - -These ditties are called Kolyadki. - -Inferior deities were believed in and many supernatural beings were -supposed to haunt the woods and waters. The Russalkas, which are -naiads, though no more seen, are still believed in, and are of a -nature similar to the elves and fairies of western nations. “They are -generally represented under the form of beauteous maidens, with full -and snow-white bosoms, and with long and slender limbs. Their feet are -small, their eyes are wild, their faces are fair to see, but their -complexion is pale, their expression anxious. Their hair is long and -thick and wavy, and green as is the grass.” The Russians are very -superstitious in regard to them, fearing to offend them, while the -maidens go into the woods and throw garlands to them, asking for rich -husbands in return. - -Then there are Mavkas, or Little-Russian fairies and water-nymphs, wood -demons, house spirits and numerous other minor spirits and powers which -teem in the folk songs of the peasants. - -Among the eastern Slavs there seem to have been no temples or priests, -while the contrary was true of the west. They burned their dead -and greatly reverenced the spirits of the departed, in whose honor -festivals were held. - -A form of Sutteeism undoubtedly prevailed, widows destroying themselves -in order to accompany their husbands to the spirit land, while slaves -were sometimes sacrificed upon the same occasions—a practice common to -most barbarous states of society. - -Upon a general view of ancient Slavonic mythology we observe the same -characteristics as among all the other Indo-European tribes—the same -nature-worship and inclination to personify the powers of the air and -sky; to worship the beneficent sun, which brings to man prosperity, -light and happiness; to execrate the night, the enemy of the bright, -the beautiful god of day. Men in the childhood of the human race were -as simple as children ever have been. The same characteristics mark -them. When the mother leaves her child for a moment, the babe with -piteous cries calls on her to return. Why is this so? Because in the -mind of the child there is no connecting link between the ideas of her -going and returning; in other words, the child cannot reason enough -to consider it possible—not to say probable, _certain_—that she will -return. - -Thus in the simple pastoral days of extreme antiquity, when the -glorious sun, the light of men’s eyes, the joy of their hearts, sank -below the horizon, the idea of its return failed to suggest itself to -their minds. Each sun-setting was a grief, each rising of the blessed -orb a joy unspeakable. - -And thus upon the plains of Iran, in the flowery meads of Asia Minor -and on the Russian steppes, when man beheld the sun, his joy appeared, -he fell on his face and thanked the regent of the sky for his light -again. - -Had the earth been nearer to the sun the face of Comparative Mythology -had been changed; the sun-myth would have had to seek a different -origin and home, and the history of that greatest of all studies—the -study of man—would have had a different course. - -It is sincerely to be hoped that the future of the Slavonic tribes may -be such as God and nature have intended for them, and that their name -may be changed again from _slaves_ to _Slavs_—“men of glory”—is the -aspiration of all who have hopes for the race; in short, of all who -wish well to our common humanity. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[B] Extract from a lecture delivered at Pacific Grove Assembly, July, -1883, Monterey, California. - -[C] Ralston, “Songs of the Russian People,” from whom much information -contained in this sketch is gained. - - - - -FROM THE BALTIC TO THE ADRIATIC. - -By the Author of “German-American Housekeeping,” etc. - - -We hesitated quite awhile before deciding to expend fifty thalers for -a trip from Berlin to Danzig, finally concluding that the historical -interest of Marienburg, through which we would pass on our return, and -the reputed picturesqueness of Danzig would compensate us for the time -and money. At an early hour one September morning we drove across the -busiest portion of Berlin (and most unknown to the traveler), to take -our train at the _ost bahn_. I had seen this portion of the large city -once before, when we started to visit the country of the Wends, the -original people in all the region by the Baltic. - -The tedious stretch of sand (broken here and there by a peasant’s house -with red tile roof), was the same we had traversed so often in leaving -Berlin for a neighboring town or city, the inevitable “plains of Moab” -which discouraged Frederick the Great’s French gardeners. How such -a thriving, populous city as Berlin has ever asserted itself in the -sand, is a curious study. We passed Bismarck’s estate in Pomerania, -“Schönhausen,” and one of the party reflected upon the great statesman, -the largest factor in German political life; while the other remembered -the sad and dejected royal pair which was driven by Napoleon’s fury to -take this same route to Memel. The lovely Queen Louise and Frederick -William III. were there with their royal children, praying that the -tyrant’s hand might be stayed, and they brought back to their rightful -kingdom. Alas! death claimed the beautiful queen before the peace for -which she prayed was restored to Prussia. But in her son, the present -emperor, there has been perpetuated the spirit of his mother. Prussia’s -high position to-day has been secured not altogether by the might of -her great army, nor the tremendous genius of her great statesmen, nor -the ambition of her king, but by the growth of sentiment during the -reigns of Frederick William III. and IV., and by the precept Queen -Louise instilled into her sons during those dark and sorrowful days of -exile in Memel: “My sons, let the spirit of Frederick the Great animate -you,” etc. - -Memel, Tilsit, and Königsberg were passed, and finally the blue Baltic -and Danzig were in sight. We had almost looked for amber-colored water, -so long had we associated the beautiful display of amber jewels in the -Berlin shop windows with the Baltic, from which it is taken. Even Homer -refers to the Baltic as the resting place of amber, its bed being laid -with the sunny stone. - -A multitude of ship-masts rose from the coast, and from beyond the -pointed gables of the old city, lessening in altitude as the vista -lengthened. This first glimpse was a more fascinating picture than we -were afterward able to find. Yet the hotel helped the preconceived idea -that Danzig was really a second Nuremberg. - -The broad stone steps, or stairway, which started from the -_portecochère_, were whitened by ashes, as one so often sees them in -Germany—a pretty state of things for a lady descending in a black -dress. The room we were to occupy was an immense ball-room, utilized -in quiet times for a bed-room. Two candles burned in their tall -candlesticks on the center-table, and by the light of the twilight we -could see across the street some beautiful and curious carvings in the -opposite gabled houses. The price paid for accommodations was large -enough to have enabled us to see castles in the air, and to have our -ball-room illuminated with gas until morning. We concluded they seldom -had guests in this hotel, and therefore made heavy profits when some -did come along. - -That evening we wandered around the old crooked streets—paved in -cobble-stones, which wore our shoes almost in pieces—until we were glad -to pause in front of the great old red-brick cathedral. Its towers -cut the big yellow moon in two at every angle we could see them. -We stretched our heads to take in the tremendous dimensions of the -cathedral, and the ornamentations of some of the best houses, until -we suddenly remembered that it was nearing midnight, and that we had -been in actual service at sight-seeing and traveling since an early -hour that morning, so we returned to our ball-room and two candles. The -next morning, we imagined, we would have a great treat in hunting up -old carved furniture, for which Danzig, we had been told by our German -friends, was equal to Augsburg; but the antiquarians had left no place -unexplored. No trace of massive-legged table or curiously-carved chairs -was to be found, save in the Museum and the Rathhaus (Council Hall). -The stairway of the Council Hall remains indeed a monument to the -ingenious designer and skillful carver, and the judge’s chair is most -curious. - -A fine old convent has been turned into a museum. Its _kreuz gänge_, or -cross-passages, give the place a most mysterious, sequestered air, and -they are gradually collecting some great pictures and treasures within -its walls. But the Rathhaus, in its architecture, surpasses everything -in Danzig, excepting, perhaps, its fine old gateways. - -The most distinguished houses in Danzig have on either side of the -entrance, at a distance of five feet, immense stones hewn out of -solid rock. They are nine feet, probably, in circumference. A chain -is attached, which is given a graceful swing before being fastened -again to either side of the front door, about as high up as the brass -knocker. As these big round stones grow smaller in perspective, they -give a peculiar air to a street. They seem to be peculiar to Danzig, -unless one or two dwellings in Edinburgh have them. The big stones, -the large chains, the tremendous brass knockers, and the innumerable -windows in the six stories of the pointed gables, suggest aristocratic -dwellings, and surpass the houses in Nuremberg. - -An important political meeting at Stettin defeated our intention of -seeing Marienburg on our return to Berlin. Marienburg is a place few -foreigners find out, but Lübke, in his “History of Art,” represents the -architecture of the palace occupied by the knights, or crusaders, for -two centuries, as one of the most exquisite ruins in all Germany. Thorn -and Königsburg were also homes for this order of knights. - -The following day at noon it was rather refreshing to drive into so -modern and gay a place as Berlin, and forget that so many people must -exist in places like Danzig. Mediæval life seems still to enwrap them -there as in a garment. Their eyes are closed to any modern idea or -project. - -Berlin contains all that is new and progressive in Germany. That day -as we sat in the garden of the “Thiergarten Hotel,” eating delicious -salmon, the old emperor drove by in his open carriage, with his -faithful _jäger_. He was still a subject for curiosity, as it was -so soon after the attempt had been made to assassinate him, June 7, -1878. He was fired on as he drove by in this same open carriage with -this same faithful _jäger_. The sight of the old emperor recalled the -previous months which had been so full of political stir in Europe. The -session of the Berlin Congress, and the occupation of Bosnia by the -Austrians had taken place. - -To describe Berlin to those who have not visited it, is simply telling, -generally, the size of palaces, the number of art collections, the -width of streets, the squares occupied by statues, the places of -amusement, etc., but even when these objects and interests are put in -writing they leave little impression until the place is seen. But there -is another aspect of the great Prussian capital. It is a wonderful -place just now, attracting so many foreign students to its university, -the best musical talent to its conservatories, and the first military -genius within its walls. No matter what branch of study one may choose, -the instruction and illustration is right at hand. To the student of -politics it is a most fruitful field, not only because distinguished -statesmen frequent its streets every day, but because grave problems -in political science are discussed in the Reichstag or taught in the -University. The student of physics or of natural science can work -under Helmholz and others; the student of music can secure Joachim -or Clara Schumann, or the student of art, Knaus, or Richter. Berlin -has no pulpit orator. The Dom is more frequented because of its tombs -than for any living influence it extends. It contains the coffins of -Frederick William the great elector, and Frederick I., king of Prussia. -The Mendelssohn choir chants its anthems, and the emperor and empress -bow at its communion table; but St. Hedwig’s Church is better attended. -The American Chapel, built by the efforts of Mr. Whright, our American -minister to the Prussian court, a devout Methodist, is still occupied -and attended by travelers of the American-English type. - -The annual exhibition of pictures in the academy, the many fine -concerts, the treasures in the old museum, the Royal Library, the -palaces, and the lovely drives along “Unter den Linden,” are only -mentioned to show what Berlin does contain in the way of sights and -pleasures. This Unter den Linden, the street so well known, was planned -by Frederick William, in the seventeenth century, and is now worn by -many royal carriages and busy hurrying mortals. The street about the -opera house is crowded every morning by the eager buyers of tickets, -which must be secured in the morning. - -Surely life in Berlin can be made very attractive, but after a long -residence there I am convinced that it has little religious life. -The climate is depressing, the expense of living great, two other -detractions. Potsdam, Sans Souci, Charlottenburg Tegel, and many other -places in the suburbs, are, historically and naturally, charming -resorts. - -It is more compensating in Europe to go from place to place with some -special work or subject in view than to go for mere sight-seeing. -Your special work brings you nearer the people. If your landlady asks -you what it is, and you take the trouble to tell her, she or some of -her friends will at once see that you know all their acquaintances -who are engaged in the same line of inquiry, and while the new -acquaintances may not be socially or intellectually your ideals, yet -their conversation will help you in the language and give you many -opportunities. - -Dresden I only know through hard work in the galleries, as though all -its sights are familiar—the Schloss, Green Vaults with their immense -treasures, the Military Museum, Museum of Natural History, the Grand -Opera House, the Frauenkirche, Japanese Palace, cafés, coinages and -statues; yet the picture gallery, with its priceless “Madonna di San -Sisto” of Raphael is to me the starting point of interest and the -essence of Dresden life. - -From eight o’clock in the morning until four o’clock in the afternoon -faithful copyists labor in the gallery. The price received for their -work scarcely keeps them from starving. To go in among them for a time -and work and feel as they do, enlarges one’s sympathies, and teaches -one to love the masterpieces of the great artists. To the uninitiated -in such matters it may be well to explain that before the permission -is given to copy a picture in any of the European galleries, a good -deal of red tape must be looked after, especially in Germany. The -director demands a specimen of the applicant’s work, which must be a -study from nature, either figure or landscape or still life. It is with -considerable trepidation that the office of the “Herr Director” is -entered. If the applicant is successful, he or she comes out with an -elaborate paper containing the agreement, the name of picture to be -copied, the number, room, etc., with the director’s name and the seal -attached. One of the _gallerie diener_, as they are called in Germany, -takes you under his care, arranges an easel, a piece of carpet, a -rest-stick and table. You are recognized among the copyists, and the -hat of every _gallerie diener_ is raised at your approach or departure. -When you have finished, the inspector is allowed to criticise your -work. You must pay the _diener_ who has waited upon you some _trink -geld_, or a fee, as we would express it. At noon you can eat your cold -lunch, in company with the other copyists, in front of a Raphael or -a Correggio, a Titian or a Rubens, scrutinize its merits or laugh at -its blunders, or speculate on the old master’s methods of using their -pigments, without being amenable to any court. An artist’s life is a -life of liberty—of thought, at least. Many of these copyists spend -their afternoons in sketching, thus establishing their originality and -emancipating themselves from servile observance of other men’s methods. -In company with these plodding, intelligent artists, I have spent many -delightful hours sketching in the “Alt Markt,” or the Zwinger, or at -Sans Souci or Charlottenburg. - -I have often wondered if the little Greek church in the suburbs of -Dresden was as attractive to all travelers as to me. It is surrounded -on one side by golden wheat fields, with red poppies and dark blue corn -flowers growing among it. Its gilded dome, semi-domes, and minarets, -shine like blazing lights against the dark blue sky. The style is such -pure Byzantine and the inside so perfect in its appointments, and yet -so simple; the service conducted in so solemn and devout a spirit, -there seems to be much to impress the looker-on. There are no seats. -On one side stand the women and on the other side the men, and before -the altar the patriarch, or priest. The service is short, consisting -almost entirely of singing by the men and boys, without the aid of an -instrument. When the plate is passed for the collection it contains a -roll of bread, the meaning of which I have never discovered, although -James Freeman Clark may give it in the account of the Greek church in -his “Ten Great Religions.” Their belief that the Holy Ghost proceeds -from the Father, and not from the Father and Son, seems to be the most -essential difference in prayer between the English Church and the Greek. - -A summer in the Harz Mountains, taking in Weimar and Eisenach, and the -“Wartburg,” is a charming experience. To find out that one can live in -this age in so interesting a retreat as Weimar, for twenty dollars a -month, gives back some of the simplicity to German life. - -To a student of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder, no spot offers -more pleasure than the quiet, old streets and groves and houses of -Weimar. A mere drive through the park, passing Goethe’s summer house -and on out to “Tiefert,” where the Grand Duchess Amelia held her -little court, and the open air theater attracted a charming coterie to -listen to Goethe or Schiller in some representation, re-awakens the -genius of the times and arouses the appetite of the traveler for more -acquaintance with the place. The next drive or stroll through the park -will prove that every stone contains some rhyme, and every bench some -association with those great men. There is a line to Frau Von Stein in -the garden of Goethe’s country house, an elegy engraved on the stone -as one ascends to the Roman house in the park. The front approach to -this house is not so attractive, but the back is a fascinating place. -It contains on the first floor an open room with round table and -benches, where the Duke and his poets sat for hours, looking over the -old stone steps into the park. A short stroll from there brings one to -the large open space, in the middle of the park, which was laid out by -Goethe, and represents precisely the dimensions of St. Peter’s in Rome. -The immense ground plot of that church is here to be recognized more -definitely than when one stands under its dome. - -The grand ducal palace at Weimar contains one unique room, while all -the others are handsome. The one which differs from similar palatial -apartments is frescoed with scenes from the works of Weimar’s great -poets. The halls are silent and one longs to see little fat Karl August -step out of a _saal_ or the Duchess Amelia greet Goethe or Schiller -on the stairway as in days of yore. Mr. Lewis, in his life of Goethe, -portrays such scenes with a graphic pen. - -In 1832 the house in the Goethe-platz was left vacant by its great -occupant. Its art treasures, its library, its various collections, -showing how comprehensive Goethe’s mind was, and how many things he had -investigated, were abandoned, as all human efforts must be abandoned, -when the silent messenger calls the soul into the presence of its Great -Creator. If self-denial is required of those on earth who hope to enter -into his rest, then who can answer for Goethe? But surely the choir of -angels in “Faust” sing beautifully of it: - - “Christ is arisen, - Praised be his name; - His love shared our prison - Of guilt and of shame; - He hath borne the hard trial of self-denial, - And triumphant ascends - To the hills whence he came.” - -This house still stands as he left it, and is shown every Friday -afternoon to visitors. It has been occupied by his grandson for years. - -The church in which Lucas Cranach’s great picture is to be seen, and in -which Herder preached, is a cold, heartless structure to a stranger, -but its very stones and walls must respond to the prayers of the old -inhabitants. The _brunnen_, or town well, in front of Lucas Cranach’s -house, when surrounded by a crowd of peasants offers a _genre_ picture -for an artist. The picture gallery is new and good. A large fresco -representing Weimar celebrities is in the front entrance. Bettina Von -Arnim is the only woman in the group. Perhaps her correspondence, which -is by many considered spurious, will make the artist regret that he -has given her so important a position in this fresco. To take an early -breakfast in some lovely arbor, overlooking some historic grounds, then -spend the morning in the gallery and the afternoon in the park, and the -evening at the concert, is about the happiest program one can follow in -a small German town. - -Eisenach, the capital of Saxe-Weimar, a town of 10,000 inhabitants, -will always remain associated with Martin Luther. It is the principal -town in the Thuringian forest. The old “Wartburg,” one and a half -miles south of the town, is famous for its architecture and history. -Martin Luther, the Elector of Saxony, who rescued him, and earlier -the saintly Elizabeth and her cruel husband, are only a few names -which are associated with it. Of course the story of the Elector of -Saxony rescuing Luther, after the Diet of Worms, is well known. Yet -who can resist dwelling upon this bold character at this period. After -the Pope’s excommunication Luther defies all threats and starts out -on his return journey, with the emperor’s promise of a safe-conduct; -the decree for arrest follows closely every step. What a picture! to -have these armed knights attack him and carry him prisoner to the old -Wartburg. Then to discover afterward that a friend’s hand, and not an -enemy’s, had done this thing. There he remained ten months, and there -still remain the traces on the wall of the ink he threw at the devil. -Perhaps the chapel, where he preached on Sundays, is a more becoming -and decorous place to associate him with than this little room, always -pointed out first. - -The Wartburg has been so beautifully renovated of late at the expense -of the government, it is really worth a second visit to those who -may have seen it years ago. The banquet hall is certainly superb, -and the St. Elizabethangeng, with its beautiful frescoes and long -narrow proportions, almost enables one to see the good woman walking -up and down with her prayer-book, in deep meditation, before starting -out through the forest with her attendants, and her apron full of -provisions for the poor. It is told that once, when her liege-lord met -her, and inquired what she had in her apron (he had strictly forbidden -her taking things to the poor), she, with legendary faith, opened her -apron and forthwith the bread became roses. - -Taking your faithful donkey which has brought you up the hill, and -your Wartburg album collection of photographs, you find yourself soon -wandering through the lovely and fantastic _Annenthal_, and finally -resting near the depot at Eisenach. There the untiring finger of your -old guide points to Fritz Reuter’s house, and at last to his own little -bill, which he has carefully prepared and which he expects you as -carefully to pay. Never goes money from your pocket more liberally! - -The Harz Mountains, their legends and songs, have been so often written -of there is danger of stupid repetition if one goes over the ground. - -A novel experience for an American is to have an attack of rheumatism -in the house of an old Polish major in midsummer, in Wernigerode, and -be attended by the physician of Count Von Stolberg. To inform those -who may be so unfortunate as to meet with a similar fate what will -become of them, I would simply remark that the subterfuge of every -German doctor, when he finds a case getting beyond his control, is -to recommend a water-cure. The one at Magdeburg being the nearest to -Wernigerode, is the one which Count Von Stolburg’s physician would -be best acquainted with, so off to the old city and farewell to the -Harz! What rheumatic patient cares for a view of a fine old cathedral -from a window, or to be informed that the city has existed since the -eighth century? Do these facts lessen the pain or quiet the nerves? -After the bath has restored the patient, and he or she can walk out and -examine the cathedral, and read of the sufferings of the people in the -sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, and again how the Austrian army was -resisted by Wallenstein for seven months, and how the French besieged -and took it in 1806, and again in 1813—thus there is diversion in -finding oneself on such historic grounds and picturesque surroundings. - - [To be continued.] - - - - -IN FLOWERY FIELDS. - -By MARY HARRISON. - - - Ye flowers in your wonderful silence, - Ye birds with your wonderful sound, - The love of my God are declaring; - For ye are the language he found. - - Ye smile to the eye of my spirit, - Ye sing to the ear of my soul; - Ye waken soft echoes of anthems - Which over God’s Paradise roll. - - Ye bloom as ye bloomed once in Eden, - Make holy and sacred the sod; - Ye sing as you sang when in rapture - Man counted you angels of God. - - By you—common things of the desert— - God’s love has this miracle wrought: - Ye fill me with exquisite gladness, - With worship which silences thought. - —_London Sunday Magazine._ - - * * * * * - -REPUBLICS where high birth gives no right to the government of the -state, are in that respect the most happy; for the people have less -reason to envy an authority which they confer on whom they will, and -which they can again take away when they choose.—_Montesquieu._ - - - - -FAILINGS. - -By J. MORTIMER GRANVILLE. - - -We all have our _failings_, and for the most part we regard them -tenderly. They do not count as offences; scarcely are they held to be -faults. It is always a probable conjecture that an error of omission -has been unintentional; not unfrequently it seems possible it was -unavoidable. A sentiment of pity for, and even sympathy with, weakness -overpowers the sense of grievance; the voice of the inward monitor is -silenced, and the self-excused conscience sleeps. Meanwhile failings -are the worst and most mischievous, the deadliest and least curable, -of the ills to which the moral nature of man is heir. They are the -sources of evil whence spring the blackest vices of human character, -the false roots that nourish and sustain its parasites, and steal the -sap of its inner life. A failing is not merely negative; its sinister -aspect is one of positive wrong-doing, wherein some behest of the will -is disobeyed, a measure of moral power wasted, a rebel habit formed or -fostered. To compassionate failings in others is to beg the question of -fact for the sake of politeness; to look with leniency on the errors -which self would fain palliate, by assuming that they are unavoidable, -is to play the traitor to Truth, and let the enemy into the citadel; -whereas conscience is set to guard the nature of man from treachery not -less carefully than to protect it against assault. - -Failings may be moral, mental, or physical, as they show themselves -in the character, the intellect, or the bodily habit and powers. It -generally happens that what strikes the observer as a failing is -compounded of errors in feeling, thought, and action combined. The -practical question is how the overt evil came into existence; or, if -happily the failing should be detected in an earlier stage of growth, -before it has betrayed its presence by ugly consequences, we may ask: -what are the mischievous forces, where are they at work, how can they -be counteracted? Why has this person the “failing” of a tendency to -excessive indulgence in drink or the gratification of some unbridled -passion; and that individual a seeming inability to recognize and -pursue the right and honest course of conduct in the presence of any -so-called “temptation” or difficulty? - -Some of the most regrettable and injurious failings which disfigure -and defame the character run through families, appearing in successive -generations and seeming to be inherited. This theory of their -perpetuation is well founded; and it has been adduced as conclusive -evidence of the truth of the hypothesis that mind, and, of course, -character, is the mere outcome of matter. The force of the argument -obviously rests on the assumption that nothing more than, or outside, -matter can be transmitted from parent to child; that a particular -constitution of brain and nerve centres, a special arrangement or -combination of the elements which compose the mind-organ, may be -reproduced, and, if it is, a similarity of character will be entailed; -but as for the independent existence of mind, or spirit, that is a -pure figment of the imagination, which science will sooner or later -drive beyond the pale of credulity, and to which, even now, only a few -thinkers avowedly cling! - -Let us examine this proposition at close quarters. It may be stated -thus. All we know of mind is expressed, and understood, by physical -agencies and in the formulæ of material force. Speech communicates -thought, and we think in words. The faculty of forming and employing -words is a brain function. If a particular region of the brain be -injured or diseased, the power of using language, at least in speech, -is _generally_ lost. The materialist argues from this and many similar -facts that mind is the product of matter. He fails to perceive that the -only warrantable deduction from his own data is that mind or spirit, -call it what we will, _can only express itself_ through the brain as -an instrument. As well deny the skill or independent existence of a -musician because he can not play the full score of an opera on a flute, -as infer the non-existence of a soul from the fact that man cannot -perform intellectual work without the organ of thought—the brain! - -The capacity of the instrument doubtless limits the expression, but -it supplies no measure of the power or skill of the performer, except -in so far as the use he makes of the instrument may be a bad one. -This exception is of great significance, and there will be something -more to say about it presently. Meantime it is evident that, while -the range of brain-power determines the _manifestation_ of mind, it -neither measures, nor affirms, nor disproves the independent existence -of mind. The anatomist, the physiologist, and the chemist declare their -inability to discover the traces of a soul in the physical organism. -That no more proves the non-existence of a soul than the failure to -recognize more than a certain number of planets at any stage in the -history of astronomy demonstrated that there was nothing further to -find. - -The appeal against materialism lies to the instinct of common sense. -If mind were the mere outcome of matter, science would long since have -discovered some tolerably constant relation between peculiarities of -physical development and manifestations of character; whereas every -step onward in the progress of research tends to disprove the existence -of any certain dependency or connection between morals and matter. -Even such links as compose the stock-in-trade of the physiognomist and -phrenologist are shown to be illusory, except in so far as they may be -the effects, rather than the causes, of character, and are produced by -culture—witness the effects of education on facial expression in the -case of criminals. The theory of a criminal conformation of cranium has -been abandoned like the silly affectation of being able to detect an -offender by his “hang-dog” or “murderous” look. - -“Failings” must be studied in the light of the lessons these facts and -considerations combine to teach. The moral question involved is one of -responsibility for the use each individual may make of the brain-power -allotted to him. The neglect to employ gifts and capacities is as -grave an error, from an ethical point of view, as their application -to a bad purpose. The servant who buried his talent in the earth was -held accountable for the failure to use it, and thereby increase -its value. The parable sets forth a truth of the highest practical -interest. We are responsible for the development, by use, of the -faculties vouchsafed to us. If they are allowed to remain in abeyance, -or a rudimentary state, we are to blame for the deficiencies and the -failings to which this neglect gives rise, and are without excuse. The -obligation to act up to the level of known duty cannot be avoided. A -“failing” is an act of contempt for the law of development by use. -It is disobedience to an understood command. The fact that it is -recognized makes a failing an offence. There may be short-coming in the -performance of a good resolve. Few, if any, merely human efforts are -entirely successful; but the failure which occurs when an endeavor is -made in the energy of a resolute and well-aimed purpose is not so much -a fault as insufficiency. The rising tide reaches its highest level by -successive efforts. Self-improvement is effected in the same fashion. -The motive power of persistent good endeavor is accumulative—ever -advancing like the great tidal wave of the ocean—though the ground is -conquered by short and seemingly only half-successful advances. - -Failings, however, as we are now regarding them, are excused faults in -the character which the individual makes no serious effort to repair. -Some defects, as we have seen, are inherited, and upon them it is the -custom to bestow great commiseration and little blame. Now, in truth, -these are the least pardonable, because, if they are known to have -been transmitted from parent to child, the latter has, generally, the -advantage of an example, ever present to memory, by which to correct -his personal deficiencies. If the “failing” be a vicious propensity, -he can recall its hideousness, and thus stimulate will and conscience -to aid him in eradicating the fault. If it be some form of deficiency, -as indolence, lack of perseverance, want of principle, or the like, -he can study, as in the pages of history, the evil consequences -entailed by the defect, and with diligence order his own conduct in -better courses. Inherited failings are the least excusable. Even the -materialist, who claims them as the fruit of physical peculiarities, -must concede that by special culture they can be remedied, the healthy -organism being susceptible of increased development in any particular -direction when the proper stimuli are intelligently applied with a -view to its improvement. The apologist for failings which have been -inherited can find no comfort in the philosophy of materialism. - -Failings which are peculiar to the individual may be less easy to -detect, and the subject of these defects is, in a measure, dependent -upon experience and the monitions of those around him for the -information needed to correct them. This should keep the wise teachable -and apt to profit by the lessons life is ever reading for their -instruction. A self-reliant spirit is manly, and therefore commendable; -a self-sufficient spirit is unreasonable, and therefore despicable. It -is strange how few of us grow really wiser as we grow older. The work -of self-improvement is seldom commenced until forced upon the judgment -by some awakening experience, and this is rarely vouchsafed until the -ductile period of youth has gone by. Early in the adult age of man his -habits become rigidly formulated, and failings are then hard to mend. A -world of unhappiness and disappointment might be spared the later years -of life if the young would be warned to begin the business of training -the character before it is firmly set in the mould of circumstances, -with all the coarse elements—inherited and contracted—uneliminated, and -the errors of inconsistency and imperfect development uncorrected. - -It is in the period of youth and adolescence that the mind may be most -hopefully cultivated and the moral character intelligently formed. No -greater mistake can be made by a young and vigorous mind than to treat -the faculty of reason and the instinct of moral judgment as parts of -the being which may be left to their own devices. The young man bestows -some thought on his muscular system—he trains his eye, cultivates his -ear, and takes credit for prudence when he strives to develop the -vigor and to foster the healthy growth of his body. Is it wise—nay, -is it not rather the worst of folly and shortsightedness—to neglect -the ordinary development of those higher powers which man possesses in -a more exalted degree than any of the lower animals? Taking care for -the body while the mind is neglected is the worst of failings—the most -calamitous and the least excusable. - - - - -GONE! - -By E. G. CHARLESWORTH. - - - Alas! and have I lost thy voice, - Lost the sweet face that in my youth - Shone from my breast on things to be— - Hope-making, changing hope to truth, - Thy face, sweet love, - That madest beautiful the plainest thing - Below, above? - - No; like the priest in times of old, - Who drew the temple’s sacred veil, - Thou art gone into an inner fold; - And now, thy face turned heaven’s way, - A paler face, and yet not pale, - Looks for the sunset in the west; - Thy form appears with outspread wings, - I hear thee from thine altar say, - With angel-breath o’er former things, - _How beautiful is rest!_ - —_London Sunday Magazine._ - - - - -SOCIAL WRECKAGE. - -By ELLICE HOPKINS. - - -Mr. Francis Peek has recently published a useful but saddening little -book, whose title I have attached to this article. Not that it tells -anything new to one who has studied deeply the pages of that terrible -book of modern life, with its gilded leaves, but its unutterably dark -contents; it only focuses the scattered knowledge into alarmingly -clear vision. Indeed, in reading it, it is difficult to resist the old -nightmare feeling, that after all this little planet may be the small -rotary Vaudeville theater of the universe, where we poor actors in -life’s scene are playing out a series of farces for the amusement of -the angels, or more probably of darker and more distant visitants. The -admirably logical social life that religiously shuts all the museums -and picture-galleries on the Lord’s Day, and opens all the gin-shops; -that is never tired of iterating that the proper sphere of woman is -home, and brings up its 20,000 female orphans in large pauper barracks, -from which the last touch of home-life has disappeared; that goes to -meetings and loudly preaches thrift to the people, and then gruffly -whispers in their ear by guardians of the poor, “Only be drunk and -spendthrift enough, and we will house you and provide for your old -age;” that goes to church and preaches that the body is the temple -of the Holy Ghost, and leaves the people to litter down like pigs at -night—men and women, girls and boys, together in tenements where no -rich man would think of stabling his horses; that goes to school and -teaches its children the three R’s, and leaves them in dens of infamy -to learn a fourth R, by every sight and sound of the day and night, -ruin of body and soul; that virtuously declaims against the harlot, yet -leaves its little girls to be brought up in brothels; that believes a -fatal disorder is undermining the national health, and shuts the doors -of its hospitals against it, and denies it the public means of cure; -that legally protects the heiress up to twenty-one, and refuses to -protect the poor man’s daughter, even at sixteen, from the trade of -vice; that holds that the man is the responsible head of the woman, -and throws the blame and disgrace on the woman—alas! alas! what a heap -of anomalies is here—what real cause to complain of the methods of our -moral life! No wonder that the poor Dissenting minister, much entangled -in our social difficulties, and led on all sides to contradictory -conclusions, threw in a deprecatory clause in his prayer, “Paradoxical -as it may seem to thee, O Lord, it is nevertheless true.” - -And what are the results of such methods as these? What must be the -results? - -That we read that in the wealthiest nation in the world, one in every -thirty-one of our countrymen is a pauper; this, moreover, without -including any of that vast number of destitute persons who are -maintained in charitable institutions or by private benevolence. - -That in the richest city in the world there were in one year 101 deaths -from actual starvation, in full sight of well-stocked shops. - -That there are about 180,000 apprehensions each year for drunkenness, -and over 15,000 persons yearly charged with indictable crimes, and over -half a million convicted summarily before the magistrates, of which -latter nearly 100,000 are guilty of personal assaults, about 2,500 -being aggravated assaults upon women and children. - -That there are extensive districts in London, Liverpool, and all our -large towns, where our people are living in little more than half the -area of ground required for a corpse, and which they could claim if -they were dead, in tenements which are the graves of all decency and -chastity. - -That “in Liverpool alone, by a rough estimate, there are some -10,000 or more children who are neither properly fed, clothed nor -housed, and surrounded by such evil associations at home, or in the -low lodging-houses where they herd, that there is small chance of -their leading afterwards a useful life, and we can predict with -certainty that many of them will enter our prisons, penitentiaries and -workhouses.” - -Surely it must create an uneasy feeling in the most careless to realize -this mass of misery and sin on which the life of the well-to-do classes -in England is based— - - “This deep dark underworld of woe, - That underlies life’s shining surfaces, - Dim populous pain and multitudinous toil, - Unheeded of the heedless world that treads - Its piteous upturned faces underfoot, - In the gay rout that rushes to its ends.” - -It is impossible for me to deal adequately with the subject in the -narrow space of a short article, but let me touch on three of our -greatest problems—overcrowding, pauperism, and the care of the young. - -First, as to overcrowding. This is a question that distinctly affects -the state, and with regard to which we have to “live in the whole,” -and to see that the welfare of the community is at stake, and that -the state must have an authoritative voice in it. Virtue, sobriety, -decency, are physically impossible in the conditions under which a -vast number of its citizens are living. The national health and morals -are in danger. All the arguments that justified the interference of -the state with the rights of the Irish landlord, apply equally to the -London landlords, and the artificial forcing up of rents, which has -resulted from the necessity many workmen are under of living near their -work. Yet this question has been the subject of permissive legislation! -The Artisans’ Dwellings Improvement Act, an honest attempt on the part -of Sir Richard Cross to deal with the problem, was rendered applicable -to all towns of 28,000 inhabitants or upward—that is to say, about -eighty towns—but it was entrusted to the municipalities to carry it -out, the town councils which we have left to be composed chiefly of -men of narrow education, largely swayed by self-interest, and probably -extensive owners of the very property to be demolished! It is exactly -as if the Irish Land Bill had been permissive, and entrusted to the -Irish landlords to put it into execution! Can we wonder that in about -sixty out of the eighty towns, it remains a dead letter? In eleven it -has led to discussion; in two or three it has led to the demolition of -buildings, but not to their erection. Is there not a want of ordinary -_seeing_ in our moral life? Could we hope to solve a single scientific -problem on the methods on which we are content to live? - -“The commercial success,” as Mr. Peek observes, “that has been achieved -by several of the Artisans’ Dwellings Companies which, while providing -good houses, yet pay fair dividends, shows that the poorest pay rents -which give a fair interest on capital, so that the municipality will -not be compelled to embark in a ruinous undertaking, or one that will -not pay in the long run, to say nothing of the gain to the health and -morals of the nation.” - -Secondly, let us take pauperism. First of all let us clearly recognize -that no system of paid officials, no mechanical workhouse will take the -place of human thought and human care. Nothing will do instead of love. -Indeed, there are already signs that we are working out a _reductio ad -absurdum_ with these portentous and ever-increasing warehouses of the -destitute and the vicious that are springing up, throwing the winter -support of whole dissolute families on hard-working rate-payers, and -systematically discouraging thrift. But the problem has been solved -satisfactorily on a small scale, and can be on a larger. The Elberfield -experiment, which in twelve years reduced the number of paupers from -4,800 to 1,800, notwithstanding that the population had increased from -50,000 to 64,000, and that great commercial depression existed, has -been too often described not to be familiar to all. But a remarkable -parallel movement among the Jews is scarcely so well known as it -deserves to be. When “Oliver Twist” was published, the leading Jews -were so mortally ashamed of the picture drawn by the popular novelist -of Fagan and the low Jewish quarters in London, that they formed -themselves at once into an organization to remedy so disgraceful a -state of things. The numbers to be dealt with amounted to those of a -populous town, with the additional difficulty afforded by immigrant -Jews arriving in large numbers from the Continent in a state of the -greatest destitution. The investigation of every case requiring relief -was undertaken by volunteer workers, assisted by skilled officers, and -was not in the steam pig-killing style, but patient and exhaustive -with true human brotherhood; in deserving cases the relief given was -sufficient to make a guardian’s hair stand on end, but was given with -the view to helping the man to a means of livelihood. Especially this -wise liberality was shown in the treatment of their widows. Whilst Mr. -Peek has no better suggestion to offer than that the widows’ children -should be removed to the pauper barrack-schools to herd with the -lowest children of casuals, a system which Mr. Peek himself strongly -condemns, the Jews recognized that the mother, if well conducted, was -the proper person to have the care of them, and that her place was at -home. They therefore either provided their widows with indoor work, -or, when that was impossible, relieved them on a sufficient scale to -enable them to look after their children at home; the consequence being -that instead of feeding the outcast class, as the neglected children -of our widows too often do, they grew up productive and well-conducted -members of the community. If, however, a family was found overcrowding, -all relief was steadily refused till they consented to live a human -life, assistance being given to move into a larger tenement. By these -wise and thoughtful methods in the course of a single generation the -Jews have worked up the people from a considerably lower level to one -decidedly above our own. To be sure the Jew does not drink. Give the -most destitute Jew five pounds down, and at the end of the year you -will find him a small capitalist, having considerably despoiled the -Egyptians meanwhile. But the intemperance of our people is largely -caused by overcrowding, and by their amusements and recreation-rooms -being in the hands of those who make their profit not by the -entertainment but by the drink traffic, and indefinite improvement may -be brought about by wiser regulations that have the good of the people, -and not the fattening of publicans and brewers at heart. Surely the -success of the Jewish and Elberfeld efforts prove that the problem -of the reduction of pauperism and the inducing of healthy habits of -thrift and self-helping in the people is soluble, and with that army of -devoted Christian workers in our midst, to whose untiring efforts we -owe it that social disaster has not already overtaken us, it must be -possible for us to carry on the same movement, if Birmingham or one of -our public-spirited towns would lead the way. - -Lastly, we come to the vast, hopeful field, presented by greater care -for the young, and better methods of embodying it. - -First, let the law protect the young of both sexes up to the legal age -of majority from all attempts to lead them into a dissolute life. In -most continental countries the corruption of minors is an indictable -offense. The English penal code recognizes this principle in property; -it is felony to abduct an heiress up to twenty-one, and a young man’s -debts, except for bare necessaries, are null and void till he is of -age; but, as usual, our English law leaves the infinitely more precious -moral personality unprotected. There is no practical protection at any -age for an English child from the trade of vice. An unruly child of -fifteen or sixteen, or even younger, quarrels with her mother or with -her employer, and runs off in a fit of temper. Even if she leaves her -parents’ roof, it can not be brought under the law against abduction. -No one abducts her; the child abducts herself. Yet the keeper of the -lowest den of infamy can harbor that child for an infamous purpose, and -he or she commits no indictable offence. It is no wonder, therefore, -that the open profligacy of the young forms the very gravest feature -of our large towns. Thankful as we are for the honest effort to deal -with this monstrous anomaly in English law, shown by Lord Rosebery’s -bill, we can not but regret the extreme inadequacy of its provisions, -or that the legislature should refuse to extend legal protection from -even the trade of vice, to the most dangerous age of a girl’s life, the -age of sixteen—the age when, as the medical faculty are agreed, a girl -is least morally responsible, and most liable to sexual extravagances, -and when we can statistically prove that the greatest number of those -who go wrong are led astray. The country will not rest till the legal -protection from the trade of vice is extended to twenty-one. - -Secondly, let us recognize it as an axiom that parental rights do -not exist when wholly severed from parental duties; or, in other -words, that the child has its rights as well as the parent, and that -its indefeasible right is, in South’s strong words, “to be born and -not damned into the world.” Let it be recognized, then, that no -child of either sex is to be brought up in a den of infamy, and to -attend school from thence to the contamination of the children of the -respectable poor, the magistrates being no longer allowed to defeat -this beneficent provision of the Industrial Schools Act, and parental -responsibility being recognized by the parent being compelled to -pay toward the Christian and industrial training of the child; all -children living in, or frequenting, thieves’ dens and disorderly houses -to be at once removed. Let day industrial schools be formed for the -lowest class of children, so as to introduce some classification in -our board schools, the want of which is one of their gravest defects. -Let us adopt emigration to our colonies for our pauper and destitute -children, whenever possible. Any one who has gone into the question -can corroborate Mr. Samuel Smith’s statement in his able article in -the May number of the _Nineteenth Century_, that “£15 per head covers -all expenses, including a few months’ preparatory training, outfit, -passage, etc.” The average cost of each child in the metropolitan -district schools is nearly £25 per annum. About 11,000 pauper children -are brought up in these large establishments at a cost to the -ratepayers of London of £250,000 per annum. Probably each child is -kept, on the average, five years, costing, say, £120 in all. Truly Mr. -Smith may well add, “with a blindness that is incomprehensible, the -guardians have preferred herding them together at a vast expense, and -refused till quite lately to allow emigration to be tried.” And for -those children who through bad health, or any other disability, are -unable to emigrate, and can not be boarded out, as well as children -whose drunken and dissolute parents are bringing them up to crime, let -there be an order of teaching deaconesses instituted, and a state-aided -training college, where educated ladies may receive training in the -management of an industrial school, and from which the guardians can -supply themselves with mothers for cottage homes on the plan of the -Village Homes of Ilford, where the cost of a child is £14, instead of -£25. By this arrangement the children would come under higher influence -than the uneducated workhouse officials. Hundreds of ladies are wanting -remunerative employment, and would gladly undertake this, if they -could be put in the way of the work by a little preliminary training, -and freed from the necessity of “doing the washing” in the cottage -home. And, lastly, let it be a recognized theory that every Christian -household has one respectable but rough little girl to train under -its own upper class servants, to give her a good start in life, that -our houses, with all their culture and refinement, may no longer be -strongholds of _l’egoisme à plusieurs_, but centers for teaching good -work, high character, and fine manners—organs for the public good. - -And those social atomists who raise their vehement cry about personal -rights and the liberty of the subject over all compulsory measures for -saving children, I would remind that the question is not of compulsion -or non-compulsion; but whether the natural guardians of a child shall -be compelled to pay toward its Christian and industrial training, or -whether they and I, as ratepayers, shall be compelled to pay for its -degradation in prisons, in infirmary beds, and workhouses. Compulsion -there is anyhow: but surely no reasonable mind can doubt which -compulsion is most in accordance with the true right and true liberty. - -And how can I better close than with the impassioned words of Elizabeth -Barrett Browning, apostrophizing our material splendor, as shown in the -great Exhibition of 1851, by the side of our moral squalor: - - “O Magi of the East and of the West, - Your incense, gold and myrrh are excellent! - What gifts for Christ, then, bring ye with the rest? - Your hands have worked well: is your courage spent - In handiwork only? Have you nothing best - Which generous souls may perfect and present - And He shall thank the givers for? No light - Of teaching, liberal nations, for the poor - Who sit in darkness when it is not night? - No cure for wicked children? Christ—no cure! - No help for women sobbing out of sight - Because men made the laws? No brothel lure - Burnt out by popular lightnings? Hast thou found - No remedy, my England, for such woes? - - * * * * * - - Alas! great nations have great shames, I say. - - * * * * * - - O gracious nations, give some ear to me! - You all go to your fair, and I am one - Who at the roadside of humanity - Beseech your alms,—God’s justice to be done!” - —_The Contemporary Review._ - - - - -AT REST. - -By SARAH DOUDNEY. - - - Ah, silent wheel, the noisy brook is dry, - And quiet hours glide by - In this deep vale, where once the merry stream - Sang on through gloom and gleam; - Only the dove in some leaf-shaded nest - Murmurs of rest. - - Ah, weary voyager, the closing day - Shines on that tranquil bay, - Where thy storm-beaten soul has longed to be; - Wild blast and angry sea - Touch not this favored shore, by summer blest, - A home of rest. - - Ah, fevered heart, the grass is green and deep - Where thou art laid asleep; - Kissed by soft winds, and washed by gentle showers, - Thou hast thy crown of flowers; - Poor heart, too long in this mad world oppressed, - Take now thy rest. - - I, too, perplex’d with strife of good and ill, - Long to be safe and still; - Evil is present with me while I pray - That good may win the day; - Great Giver, grant me thy last gift and best, - The gift of rest! - - —_Good Words._ - - * * * * * - -BUSINESS requires earnestness and strength of character, life -must be allowed more freedom; business calls for the strictest -sequence, whereas in the conduct of life inconsecutiveness is often -necessary—nay, is charming and graceful. If thou art strict in the -first, thou mayest allow thyself more freedom in the second; while if -thou mix them up, thou wilt find the free interfering and breaking in -upon the fixed.—_Goethe._ - - - - -ECCENTRIC AMERICANS. - -By COLEMAN E. BISHOP. - - -I.—THE SAILOR, PEDDLER, FARMER, PREACHER. - -In mechanics, an eccentric is a wheel that can start all the rest of -the machinery with a jerk and a kick, and keep it going. It was the -little eccentrics that enabled ten thousand Chautauquans to scatter -to every part of the land in a few hours. The cam-motion in human -nature starts its machinery and scatters its thought. We ought to -thank God for the minds that wabble. Every originator has been counted -eccentric—many of them have been pronounced insane. The little Festuses -sitting in judgment are always crying to the inspired apostles of -truth, “Thou art beside thyself.” - -It is finite mechanism and finite thought that invent geometry and -theology. Men hang, cunningly and truly, their long counter-shafts of -creed, of behavior, of thought, of dress, of consistency, of loyalty; -they bolt and key thereto immovably all human characters which are -round, “line them up” all true and uniform, lubricate with lucre, -put on the steam and away they all go beautifully and all alike. -Woe be to one who wabbles in this machine-shop of society! But God -uses no plumb-lines, right-angles, levels or true circles. “Nature’s -geometrician,” the bee, never made a true hexagon. The old planets -go “spinning through the grooves of change” in eccentrics, and never -collide. Erratic comets dash through and among them, and never crash. -I suppose the most eccentric character that ever walked this earth was -that strange boy from Nazareth who confounded the doctors with his -unprecedented outgivings. His teachings were indeed so strange that -after the world has been for one thousand nine hundred years trying -to work its standard up to them, a perfect Christian would to-day be -accounted _non compos mentis_ by the rest of Christendom. - -So it is not a bad idea to study eccentric characters, especially if -they are strangely good and oddly useful. One such, at least, we have -at hand for the first study of this series—Rev. Edward T. Taylor, -“Father Taylor,” “The Sailor-Preacher,” of Boston and the world. - -Born in Virginia, reared on the sea, and adopted by New England. Born -a religionist, he preached “play” sermons when a child; born again a -Christian, he preached the gospel in the Methodist Episcopal Church -until all humanity claimed him. Born a poet, for ten years he studied -nature in her tragic and her melting moods upon the sea; studied man -in the forecastle, in the prison, upon the farm, in the market. Nature -was his university; humanity his text-book; hard experience his tutor. -At the age of twenty he had traveled the world over, had sounded the -depths of human fortune, passion, misery, and sin; was profoundly -learned in his great text-book, and the most inspired interpreter -of its unuttered wants—and did not know the alphabet! He had become -celebrated throughout New England as a marvelous prodigy in the -despised sect of “shouting Methodists” years before he could read a -text or “line” a hymn. And to the day of his death his preaching knew -no method, his eloquence no logic, his conduct no consistency, and -his power no limit or restraint. To this day no one has succeeded in -analyzing his genius. He could not himself account for his power, nor -could he control it. He seemed to play upon his audiences at will as a -master plays upon the harp; yet some unseen, mysterious force played -upon him in turn. His brethren in the ministry, who accounted for his -strange power by attributing it to the Holy Spirit, were confounded by -the rudeness, jocoseness, and at times almost profanity of his speech -at its highest flights; and they who undertook to resolve his efforts -into the accepted elements of human power were astounded by the more -than human resources of a mind uncultured and a nature as wild, as -uncontrollable, as bright and as sad as the sea he loved. Surely, if -ever man was inspired, Father Taylor was. - -His career, like his methods, answered to all the terms that can define -eccentricity. Deeply religious as the child was by nature, he ran away -to sea at the age of seven. His conversion was characteristic. Putting -into port at Boston, he strolled to a meeting-house where a revival -was in progress; instead of going in by the door, he listened outside, -and when stricken under conviction, with characteristic impulsiveness -he climbed in through the window. To use his own sailor words: “I was -dragged in through the ‘lubber hole,’ brought down by a broadside -from the seventy-four, Bishop Hedding, and fell into the arms of -Thomas W. Tucker.” This was at the age of nineteen. Then off to sea -as a privateersman in the war of 1812, he was captured and imprisoned -at Halifax, and here his preaching of the gospel strangely began. A -fellow-prisoner read texts to him till one flashed upon his conception -as the cue to his discourse. “Stop!” the boy would cry; “read that -again.” “That will do;” and he was ready to pour forth a fervid hour of -pathos, wit, brilliant imagery, all supported by perfect acting. - -Out of prison at last, he returns to Boston, leaves his seafaring -forever, and takes to the road with a tin peddler’s cart: clad in a -sailor’s jacket and tarpaulin, talking “sea lingo,” religion and poetry -in equal proportions, he traveled over New England as attractive a -sight as Don Quixote would have been. He came across an old lady who -taught him to read (age 21), and he paid her by gratefully holding -meetings in her big kitchen, and exhorting wondering crowds of rustics -and weeping crowds of penitents. Next he undertook to learn shoemaking, -and then worked a farm for a living—all the time concentrating his -intense nature on his grand passion for playing upon the human heart; -earning little bread for himself, and breaking the bread of life -abundantly to farmers, shoemakers, fishermen; in farm houses, school -houses, barns, camp-meetings; over a circuit of his own organization. -“He was a youthful rustic Whitefield,” says Bishop Haven, “thrilling -rustic audiences with his winged words and fiery inspiration.” He -loved to preach from the text, “How knoweth this man letters, having -never learned?” Taylor did not know letters, and his speech was rude -and coarse, his blunders innumerable: if words failed him out of his -limited vocabulary, he manufactured them. Once, completely at fault -in his struggle to express the burning thoughts that crowded his -brain he cried, with a perplexed but irradiated face: “I have lost my -nominative case, but I am on my way to glory!” A few smiled; all wept. -His earnestness atoned for many defects; his imagery was even now -beautiful, and his magnetism irresistible. - -Thus young Taylor preached, unlicensed, for five years. It was the -breaking-up and seed-time of New England Methodism. Between the -Puritans and Quakers, with their mutual antagonism, the shouting -Methodists were as corn between the millstones, a despised and -persecuted sect. - -About the age of twenty-five occurred three notable events in his life. -He was licensed by the Methodist Conference to preach. He attended -school a short time and began his education. He married one of God’s -noble-women to complete his education. For ten years he continued the -life of a circuit preacher, growing in culture, power, spirit, and -fame, under that wise and gentle nurture. No one can say how far short -of its fullness Father Taylor’s life might have fallen without Deborah -Taylor. - -All these seventeen years of his ministry he had, as far as possible, -kept near to the coast and the haunts of sailors; praying in the -forecastle and preaching on the decks of ships about to sail, wherever -he could reach them. The salt air was incense to him, and the music -of the surf seemed ever dwelling in the nautilus-chambers of his -heart. At last his life-work came in the direction of his longings. -At the age of thirty-fire he was called to preach to the sailors of -Boston. The meetings were a success from the first, and Mr. Taylor -went South and solicited the money ($2,100) to buy a house for their -Bethel. (More bread cast on the waters to return after many days to the -South.) The work grew, and soon an incorporated society was organized, -called the “Boston Port Society;” from the first nondenominational, -though a majority of its board were Methodists. The work still grew. -Soon the merchants of Boston assumed the burden of the work, and in -1833 “The Seamen’s Bethel” was completed at a cost of $24,000. Soon -a Seamen’s Savings Bank and then a Seamen’s Aid Society, a Seamen’s -Boarding-house, and then a Mariner’s Home (at a cost of $34,000), an -Industrial School for Seamen’s Children, and a Seamen’s Co-operative -Store, sprang up around this nucleus. These collateral enterprises -were largely the inspiration of Mother Taylor, but the burden of them -fell upon the Unitarians of Boston, who soon assumed entire control -of the noble charity and mission. Here Father Taylor fulfilled his -life-mission. “From 1829 to 1871 he trod this quarter-deck, its -master.” The fame of the Bethel and its chaplain, one and the same, -went to all quarters of the globe. Edward Everett styled him “The -Walking Bethel,” and Richard H. Dana in his “Two Years Before the -Mast,” said one of the first inquiries of sailors in foreign ports, -from him, was regarding the welfare of Father Taylor, the mariner’s -preacher in Boston. A sailor declared he had been in ports where the -United States had not been heard of, but never where Father Taylor -had not. Once, soliciting aid for Bethel before another audience than -his own, he glowingly promised: “Drop your gold into this ocean and -it will cast a wave on the shores of Europe which will strike back -to the islands of the Southern Sea, rebound on the Northwest coast, -and so make the circuit of the world and strike this port again.” The -realization of this prediction was more extravagant than the bold -imagery of it. At the dedication of the Bethel he cried: “America is -the center of the world, the center of America is Boston, and the -center of Boston is the Bethel.” - -The first place of a returning sailor’s thoughts became the Bethel, -instead of the groggery. Two of them, seeking it for the first time, -spelled out the name on the flag floating above it: “B-E-T, beat, -H-E-L, hell; beat-hell! This is Father Taylor’s place,” and they cast -anchor. “There he is, Bill,” said an old tar to another, as they -entered the Bethel; “there’s the old man walking the deck. He’s got his -guns double-shotted and will give it to us right and left. See how fast -he travels—fifteen knots on a taut bowline. When he walks that way he’s -ready for action.” - -There were strange scenes in that vast audience room. The body of -the church was reserved for sailors always, while the side slips and -galleries were for the general public. When the seats were all filled, -he would order the sailors forward like a sea captain, and crowd the -altar rail, the pulpit stairs, the pulpit, and the pulpit sofas with -the weather-beaten mariners, while the grandest in the land stood and -listened in the aisles. “Now,” he would say, with a beaming face, -“we have got the hold full and a deck load, and we’ll up anchor and -start.” Many of the best critics and reporters have tried to describe -and analyze a service after such a “start”—Dickens, Harriet Martineau, -Fredricka Bremer, Horace Mann, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and others—but all -fail to give us much comprehension of the method of the man; I suspect -because they were all so absorbed they forgot to take notes, mental -or otherwise. But they recall the _effects_ of the preaching vividly, -each in his own way. So much of the power of Father Taylor was in his -presence and action, that no report of one of his sermons has been made -and preserved. He said himself, “You might as well try to report chain -lightning.” Dr. Bellows said, twelve years ago, “Alas! nothing remains -of him but his memory and his influence. He will be an incredible myth -in another generation.” Why _need_ this be so? He has left a wealth of -original sayings behind him unequaled by the utterances of few save -Abraham Lincoln; and he may furnish the material for many rare studies -in character. We may be forgiven the presumption of attempting to help -rescue Father Taylor from vanishing into oblivion. What, then, were -the characteristics that lay at the foundations of this remarkable -character? I would classify them under four heads: - -1. _Intensity._ This gave him concentration of thought, earnestness of -belief, courage and aggressiveness in action. He went into everything -with an irresistible impulse. His training on the sea and in the -circuit gave free growth to this trait. He was never placed where he -needed to be politic or conservative; and his combativeness always had -free play. He was the champion of his despised sect, but he fought -with the polished weapons of a wit, and the impressive presence of a -will which the foes of his cause more dreaded than force. And then his -spirit was so lovable that there is no instance on record of any one -ever having laid hands on him, fierce disputant as he was. - -He was a man born to command. His will was imperious. The last -conscious act of his life was to shake his fist at his nurse, who -refused to let him rise from bed. Peter Cartwright said there were -two cataracts in this country—Niagara and Father Taylor. His brethren -called him “the breaking-up plow of the Church.” Miss Martineau -spoke of “the prodigious force which he carries in his magnificent -intellect and earnest heart.” Another English writer said, “He goes on -as energetically as any ‘Praise-God Barebones’ of the old Covenanter -times.” - -I think one thing all his biographers lost sight of was the fact that -his belief became a vital part of him, the very breath of his nostrils. -There is a mighty difference between truly believing, and simply -accepting a belief second-hand, which latter passes for belief with -most people. It is the men who genuinely believe who make others accept -and adopt their belief. In the pulpit his action is tremendous. He -always comes down wet through with perspiration, and a complete change -of wardrobe is necessary with every effort. - -2. _Imagination._ To this quality is to be referred his profound -religious nature, his poetry, dramatic power, eloquence, and (in -conjunction with his earnestness) even his faults. One called him a -poet; another, a born actor. James Freeman Clarke said he was the -only man he ever heard to whom the much-abused word, “eloquence,” -could be truly applied. But I think none of these terms so accurately -classify his genius as to call him a painter. His earnestness made -everything his quick imagination conjured up seem realistic to him; -and his dramatic power enabled him to make these images realistic to -his hearers. His thoughts were entities to him, and they always took -the form of objects real and visible. This differs from the _poetic_ -imagination, the essence of which is unsubstantiality. The poet sees -visions, the artist creates forms. Taylor was an artist, with words for -his colors, action for his pencil. One who heard him said: “While he -preached the ocean rolled and sparkled, the ship spread her sails, the -tempest lowered, the forked lightnings blazed, the vessel struck, her -disjointed timbers floated upon the waves. It was all pictured to the -eye as positive reality. You could hardly believe afterward you had not -actually witnessed the scene.” - -He describes a shipwreck, and at the climax, as the ship is slowly -settling in the water, and every face in the audience is livid with -fear, he roars, “Man the life boat!” and every sailor in the house -springs to his feet. Now sailors, under the influence of drink, have -killed their captain. He describes the deed. They start up before -the audience, creeping down the stairs and into the cabin; he raises -the imaginary knife, and half the men in the house jump forward to -arrest the blow, while women shriek in horror. Once, however, a -matter-of-fact, though possessed sailor, confused Father Taylor. He -had depicted the impenitent sinner, under the figure of a storm-tossed -ship, with her sails split, and driven by the gale toward the -rock-bound coast of Cape Ann. “Oh, how,” he exclaimed, in tones of -despair, “shall this poor sin-tossed sinner be saved?” “Put his helm -hard down, and _bear away for Squam_!” bellowed the old salt, springing -excitedly to his feet. - -So he painted the Mosaic miracles, “till the brethren saw the snakes -squirm, heard the frogs croak, felt the lice bite, brushed the flies -out of their faces and saw the Israelites march out of Egypt.” - -One of his last sermons, when he was old and feeble, ended thus: “My -work is almost done. Where are all my old shipmates—they who lay in -hammocks beside me and who have fought at the same guns? Gone, gone—all -gone! No, blessed be God! not _all_; there’s one left. [Here he made -the picture realistic by pointing to an old salt, gray, bent, and -knotty-faced.] Yes, there’s old Timberhead. He and I have weathered -many a storm together. It is only a little farther we have to sail. -Look, look ahead there! It is only to beat just around that point -yonder. Now—now! there is the peaceful, blessful haven and home full in -view.” By this time the audience was weeping, radiant with hope. - -Even his isolated sentences are full of this imaginary realism. -“Sailors ignorant!” he cried indignantly when one depreciated them; -“sailors know everything; they grasp the world in their hand like an -orange!” The boldness of this language is wonderful. Of superannuated -ministers he said: “They are like camels bearing precious spices and -browsing on bitter herbs. They were moral giants. When God made them he -rolled his sleeves up to the arm-pits.” - -It was the activity of his brain, the realism of his imagery and the -homely naturalness of his language that made some of his transitions -abrupt to grotesqueness and some of his speech border startlingly on -impropriety. He really thought aloud—which many a matter-of-fact, heavy -speaker would find it unsafe to do. Dissociated from their context and -from the earnestness and devout spirit of the man, they sound much -worse than when uttered. - -It was the combination of these two qualities also which made him -extravagant in speech, erratic in sentiment, and inconsistent with -himself. He _was_ whatever he thought or imagined for the moment; his -genius possessed and controlled him. Thus he was a radical temperance -reformer, but he denounced prohibitory legislation and hurled ridicule -at those who proposed the use of an unfermented wine in the sacrament; -he called it “raisin water.” Of rum-sellers he said: “I wonder that the -angels in heaven do not tear up the golden pavements and throw them on -their heads;” but he conjured those who should succeed him to “Cast out -from this church, in my name, any man that comes up to the altar with -his glue-pot and dye-stuff.” - -Dr. Jewett says: “I have heard him at times when I have been amazed -at the utter inconsistency of his views, not only with any standard -of doctrine recognized as sound by other men, but with his own public -utterances of perhaps the week previous. His imagination, once fairly -excited, could furnish in thirty minutes material for half-a-dozen -speeches of an hour each; and, unfortunately, it frequently happened -that different parts of the same speech could be used on opposite sides -of the same question.” - -So he denounced the abolitionists and slavery in the same breath. -“Before I would assist one of those Southern devils to catch a nigger,” -he shouted, after reading “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” “I would see them all -in hell, and I would shout hallelujah on to the end of it!” “You talk -like a rabid abolitionist,” said his interlocutor. “No,” he cried, with -even more vengeance; “no, I despise them. They have cursed the land!” -He called Foster, the abolitionist orator, “a devil on the platform.” -His reverence for the church led him to consign summarily to a hotter -climate those who came out on the anti-slavery issue; and he was a -vehement advocate of church authority, and evangelical orthodoxy, yet -the most of his life he preached for Unitarians; and he openly defied -the mandate of the conference regarding Masonry, being a member of the -fraternity, and he submitted to church discipline for his contumacy, -but refused to withdraw from the order, and prayed in public for the -anti-Masons, “O, Lord, make their hearts as soft as their heads are.” -Plainly, there was no managing such a tempestuous soul, and he was -left to go his own way. Honor be to the church that had the magnanimity -and broad charity to let him do his own grand work in his own grand -way. It was herein as grand and eccentric as an organization as he was -among men. - -His sarcasm, wit, terseness, and vigor of speech were the outcome of an -energetic and picturesque mind, struggling with a limited vocabulary -for its expression. His sentences were explosive. “This fast age,” he -said, “would be glad to put spurs to lightning, and blow a trumpet in -the ears of thunder.” Again, “Some people think they are saints. If -they could see themselves as the just in glory see them they wouldn’t -dare to look a decent devil in the face.” “If I owed the devil a -hypocrite, and he wouldn’t take that man for pay, I’d repudiate the -debt.” He called another minister, who had preceded him, and infringed -on his allotted time, “As selfish as a whale who takes in a ton of -herring before breakfast.” Again, “It is a great mistake to think of -converting the world without the help of sailors. You might as well -think of melting a mountain of ice with a moonbeam, or of heating an -oven with snow-balls.” He called morality, without religion, “Starting -a man to heaven with an icicle in his pocket.” “I am not two inches off -heaven!” he exclaimed, in a moment of religious exaltation. He said to -Channing, the Unitarian: “When you die angels will fight for the honor -of carrying you to heaven on their shoulders.” “Sailors’ hearts are -big as an ox’s; open like a sunflower, and they carry them in their -right hands ready to give them away.” One of his converts, gifted in -prayer, he always called “Salvation-set-to-music.” A colored brother, -speaking with the simple pathos of his race, drew from Father Taylor -the ejaculation, “There is rain in that cloud.” - -But, whether homely or lofty, whether pathetic or witty, he always -talked in dead earnest out of his warm heart, out of his seething -brain, and everything was gilded by the magic touch of imagination. -“A man,” says Stevens, “who could scarcely speak three sentences, -in the pulpit or out of it, without presenting a striking poetic -image, a phrase of rare beauty, or a sententious sarcasm, whose -discourses presented the strangest, the most brilliant exhibition of -sense, epigrammatic thought, pathos, and humor, spangled over by an -exhaustless variety of the finest images and pervaded by a spiritual -earnestness that subdued all listeners.” “His splendid thoughts come -faster than he can speak them,” said Harriet Martineau, “and at times -he could be totally overwhelmed by them if a burst of tears, of which -he was wholly unconscious, did not aid in his relief.” “I have seen a -diamond shining,” said Dr. Bartol, “but he was a diamond on fire.” - -3. _Sympathy._ Here was the secret of his power over men. His -emotional nature constantly overflowed all else. With a marvelous -intuition in reading character, a free-masonry with all phases of -human emotions, a magnetism that put him inside of every heart, he -became the better self, the ideal longing of each listener. It made -no difference how learned or stoical the man was; Father Taylor got -hold of him and stirred his heart from the bottom. A man of wit said, -“I am always afraid when I am laughing at Father Taylor’s wit, for -I know he will make me cry before he has done with me.” People cry -and laugh alternately, and sometimes both together. Laughter is the -best preparation for tears. “Man, thou pendulum betwixt a smile and -tear.” [Are we not all inconsistent, eccentric, at the bottom of our -natures, _i. e._, at our very best?] A New York comedian came to study -the method of one of whose acting he had heard much report; he was so -affected by the unlearned art of this master of the soul that he fairly -blubbered behind his handkerchief. - -Dr. Wentworth, of another occasion said: “The immense audience swayed -in the wealth of his eloquence like a forest of willows. We laughed, we -wept, we shouted in turns; and finally, finding myself getting utterly -unmanned, and rapidly dissolving into tears and brine, I fled the -pulpit and hid myself out of earshot of this extraordinary scene.” - -Dr. Wakely, of New York, describes the effects of a prayer by Father -Taylor, at the New York Conference: “The ministers wept all over -the house like little children. Dr. Capers and Dr. Pitman were in -the pulpit with me. Dr. Capers wept and trembled exceedingly; and -Dr. Pitman laughed and cried alternately—smiles and tears strangely -blended.” - -“His pathos is the most awful of his powers,” said Miss Martineau, -terrified at his control over her emotions; “I have seen a single -clause of a short sentence call up an instantaneous flush on hundreds -of hard faces.” - -Many would not expose their hearts to hear him a second time; they -could not bear the overmastering power. - -Dr. Bartol very finely said: “What was the secret but a sympathy, -raised to the highest power, so as to exceed all that we conceive under -that name, so that _he saw out of people as well as into them_! He put -on their eyes for his eyeglasses, looking at the world as they did, -and they found and felt him in them at the core and center.” “He was a -master of pathos,” said Dr. Bellows; “rough sailors and beautiful and -cultivated Boston girls, and men like Webster and Emerson, and shop -boys and Cambridge students, and Jenny Lind and Charles Dickens, and -Harriet Martineau, and everybody of taste or curiosity who visited -Boston were seen weeping together with Father Taylor. Ah, the human -heart, down at the bottom, is one.” - -He loved all little children with all his Master’s passion. The baptism -of infants was always a baptism of joy and tears with him. He would -gather one to his breast and kiss and croon over it like a mother. -Taking a beautiful little girl in his arms, he raised her before the -whole audience, and said, with streaming eyes, “Look at the sweet lamb! -Her mother has brought her to Christ’s fold. A baptism of heaven be on -thee, my pretty dove.” All children recognized him at sight for one -of their guild. A ragged little girl walked into the church at his -funeral, laid a buttonhole bouquet on the coffin, and said timidly -and sweetly, “He was _my_ friend,” and so departed. Once when he had -been called to several children’s funerals in succession, he said to a -friend whom he met in the street, “There is something wrong somewhere. -There are storms brewing when so many doves are flying aloft.” - -At funerals he was a refuge of consolation. He so entered into the -hearts bereaved that he felt their hurt. “Father, look upon us,” he -once implored, with mighty and tender supplication, “_we are a widow_!” -“It is no wonder to me,” said Harriet Martineau, “that the widow and -orphan are cherished by those who hear his prayers for them.” - -Drunken sailors or abandoned women, none were left out of reach of his -infinite sympathy; and it reached the uttermost parts of the earth. A -sailor boy has died and been buried in South America, and he prays that -the Comforter may be near the bereaved father “when his aged heart goes -forth from his bosom to flutter around the far southern grave of his -boy!” Is Shakspere more dramatic, Shelly more imaginative, Longfellow -more pathetic than this? - -Out of this fathomless love he preached his gospel of happiness and -purity and love; for it was doubtless true, as he declared, that “he -never knew the time when he did not love God.” Out of it came his -sweet charity and tolerance. His lovers were of all denominations and -of none—Catholics, Universalists, Unitarians—for he was “altogether -lovely.” When one at a camp-meeting excluded from salvation all these -sects, all men who used tobacco and all women who wore jewelry, Father -Taylor broke in indignantly, “If that’s true, Christ’s mission was a -failure. It’s a pity he came.” “How far apart are heaven and hell?” he -was asked. “I tell you,” said he, “they are so near that myriads of -souls to-day don’t know which they are in.” “Blessed Jesus,” he prayed, -“give us common sense, and let no man put blinkers on us, that we can -only see in a certain direction; for we want to look all around the -horizon—yea, to the highest heavens and to the lowest depths of the -ocean.” “When _Bigotry_ is buried I hope I shall be at the funeral,” -he said. His intimacy with the Unitarians, and his remarkable tribute -to Channing have been cited. Of Emerson he said: “He has the sweetest -soul God ever put into a man. If the devil gets him he will never know -what to do with him.” A theologian asked him what he was going to do -with the Unitarians; “I don’t know,” he said, confidentially; “if they -go to hell they’ll _change the atmosphere_.” “Is your son-in-law a -Christian?” asked a solicitous brother. “Not exactly,” replied Father -Taylor, “but he’s a very sweet sinner.” - -4. _His humor._ This kept all cheerful, healthy and bright. He was a -“laughing Christian.” I do not think he ever used humor merely to make -people laugh, but always with an earnest purpose back of it. He was no -joker, and rarely thought his own keen thrusts subjects for merriment. - -Of his manliness, his good sense, his improvidence, his sweet and -beautiful home life, space does not suffice to speak. - -If to be an original character among men is to be eccentric, Father -Taylor was indeed odd. “He was in all things himself and not any -one else; in this generation there has been but one Father Taylor,” -said Dr. Waterstone; and Dr. Bartol declared that, “No American -citizen—Webster, Clay, Everett, Lincoln, Choate—has a reputation more -impressive and unique.” No one understood his singularity better than -himself. “I will not wear a straight-jacket or Chinese shoes,” he -declared. Having been invited to lecture, he said: “I can’t lecture; I -would not lecture if I could. Your lectures are all macadamized; they -are entertainments where those go who dare not visit the theater. I -must cross-plow your fine paths. I am no man’s model, no man’s copyist, -no man’s agent; go on my own hook; say what I please, and you may help -yourselves.” - -Like all greatly-eccentric souls, I presume, he felt his own isolation -and want of comprehension of himself by others. One who sat far into -the night in communion of soul with him, said: “You are a strange -mortal!” “Well,” said he, pathetically, “I have made up my mind there -never was but one E. T. Taylor and, so far as I have anything to do -with it, there never shall be another.” - -When we think of his birth, training, and surroundings—the child of the -plantation and the graduate of the forecastle—and contrast this with -his peculiar powers, his strange career, and above all in rarity his -wonderful world-wide mission, it is not too much to say that Father -Taylor is without a parallel in American history. “An impulsive, -untrained, and erratic genius;” there was a fixed purpose and a -continuity of effort, such as is seen in few lives. If extravagant -in speech and inconsistent in views, his intensity, vividness, and -realism, make all sound like plain common-sense. Haughty and tender, -imperious and democratic, grand and simple, splendidly uncultured; a -strange, terrible power among men always used for leading, driving, -persuading to righteousness. He deserves a paraphrase of a higher -tribute than Phillips, the Irish barrister, gave to Napoleon. Such -a medley of contradictions and at the same time such individual -consistency for right were never before united in the same character. -In the solitude of his originality, he was always the same mysterious, -incomprehensible self—a man without a model and without a shadow. - -“When I am dead,” he pleaded, “I do not want to be buried in dirt. But -bury me rather in the deep salt sea, where the coral rocks shall be my -pillow, and the seaweeds shall be my winding-sheet, and the waves shall -sing my requiem forever.” - -And it was not done. Conventionality triumphed in death over the old -eccentric, who had defied it as long as he lived. - - * * * * * - -OBSERVE, the fates of men are balanced with wonderfully nice -adjustments. The scale of this life, if it sinks, rises there, -while if it rises here, it will sink to the ground there. What was -here temporary affliction, will be there eternal triumph; what was -here temporary triumph, will be there eternal and ever-enduring -despair.—_Schiller._ - - - - -C. L. S. C. WORK. - -By Rev. J. H. VINCENT, D.D., SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION C. L. S. C. - - -May the new year work be promptly begun, faithfully prosecuted, -satisfactorily completed! - - * * * * * - -October 1 is Memorial Day—the day of the beginning of our college year. -The bell at Chautauqua will ring at high noon. Listen for its echoes. - - * * * * * - -One member has already nearly finished two of the books since the -meetings closed at Chautauqua. He read on the train; he read at the -station; he read at the hotel; he read during the odd minutes at home. -This is a good example. - - * * * * * - -The readings for October are: History of Greece,[D] vol. 2, by Prof. -T. T. Timayenis, parts 7 and 8; Chautauqua Text-Books—No. 5, Greek -History, by Dr. J. H. Vincent; Primer of American Literature, by C. F. -Richardson; required readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -Let the members of the Class of ’83 who were not graduated in August, -now begin to read up the required books, and be ready for graduation in -1884. - - * * * * * - -In the earliest announcement of the course of study for 1883-84, the -little Chautauqua Text-Book No. 22, on Biology, was given. Many members -suppose that this is the substitute for “Easy Lessons in Vegetable -Biology,” an altogether different book. The price of Chautauqua -Text-Book No. 22 is 10 cents; the price of “Easy Lessons in Vegetable -Biology” is (in the cheapest edition) 25 cents. If they will return to -Phillips & Hunt, 805 Broadway, New York, the Chautauqua Text-Book and -15 cents additional, they will forward the “Easy Lessons in Vegetable -Biology.” - - * * * * * - -Students in the Class of 1887 should have Chautauqua Text-Books Nos. 4 -and 5, English and Greek History. They have already been read by the -other classes. Price, 10 cents each. - - * * * * * - -Members of the C. L. S. C. are earnestly urged to read Chautauqua -Text-Book No. 24, Canadian History. This should have been required in -the earlier lists. - - * * * * * - -All members of the C. L. S. C. should examine carefully the “Popular -Education” circular which appears in this number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, to -ascertain if they have the complete list of books for the year. - - * * * * * - -By the payment of one dollar, all graduates of the C. L. S. C. will be -entitled to all communications from the central office for four years, -the four white crystal seals, and any additional white seals which they -may gain. The one dollar does not, of course, pay for special seals. - - * * * * * - -The Chautauqua Hand-Book No. 2—known as the “Green Book”—which contains -a full account of the C. L. S. C. work, is now ready. Send a two cent -stamp to Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., and you will receive a -copy. - - * * * * * - -The Class of 1884 should send in their back reports as soon as -possible. It is so much better to get all ready in advance, and not -wait until the close of the year, when the general office is crowded, -the secretaries busy, and mistakes easily possible. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[D] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, not -having read volume 1 of Timayenis’s History of Greece, will not -be required to read volume 2, but, instead of volumes 1 and 2 of -Timayenis’s, will read “Brief History of Greece.” Price, paper, 60 -cents. - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLE NOTICE. - - -The full accounts of the C. L. S. C. commencement exercises at the -summer Assemblies, which we publish this month, take the place of the -reports from the local circles. It is only for this month, however. -The department will continue to be a regular feature of the magazine. -These reports have been of great service to local circles everywhere, -and we earnestly request that full and exact accounts of work should -be forwarded us by the president or secretary of each local circle. -Let any new feature in the program be fully described; give us all the -new plans for social work, give everything that will be suggestive and -helpful. Several times last year we were asked how to work up a new -circle, or to revive a dying one. Where leaders have had experience in -building up these circles let them give testimony through the “Local -Circle” column. It may help others in similar circumstances. The new -and helpful features are what we want for this department. If the -members will co-operate, the local circle reports will be very useful. - - - - -OUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. STUDIES. - - -OCTOBER, 1883. - -The required readings for October are: - -Parts 7 and 8 of the second volume of Timayenis’s “History of Greece” -for students having read the first volume, but for students of class -1887 the first ninety-one pages of “Brief History of Greece.” - -Chautauqua Text-book, No. 5, “Greek History,” by Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -“Primer of American Literature,” by C. F. Richardson. - -Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - -The division is as follows: - - _First Week_ (ending October 8)—1. The first three - chapters of part 7 of Timayenis’s “History of Greece;” - or from page 1 to “Age of Pericles,” page 23, in “Brief - History of Greece.” - - 2. American Literature, the first two chapters. - - 3. Readings in American Literature in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - 4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for - October 7. - - - _Second Week_ (ending October 16)—1. Timayenis’s - “History of Greece,” from chapter iv., part 7, - to chapter ii., part 8, or in “Brief History of - Greece,” from “The Age of Pericles,” page 23, to “The - Civilization,” page 46. - - 2. American Literature, from page 30 to page 55, - inclusive. - - 3. Readings in Physical Science in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - 4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for - October 14. - - - _Third Week_ (ending October 24)—1. “History of Greece” - (Timayenis’s) from chapter ii., page 73, to chapter - vi., page 115, or in “Brief History of Greece,” from - page 46, “The Civilization,” to “Manners and Customs,” - page 71. - - 2. American Literature, from page 56, section 34, to - page 81. - - 3. Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN on German History and - Political Economy. - - 4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for - October 21. - - - _Fourth Week_ (ending October 31)—1. “History of - Greece.” Finish part eighth, or in “Brief History - of Greece,” from page 71, “Manners and Customs,” to - “Readings in Greek History,” page 91. - - 2. American Literature, from section 34, page 81, to - end of volume. - - 3. Readings in Art, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - 4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for October 28. - - - - -POPULAR EDUCATION. - -CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE. - -_President_—Lewis Miller. - -_Superintendent of Instruction_—J. H. Vincent, D.D. - -_Counselors_—Lyman Abbott, D.D.; J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. -Warren, D.D.; W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. - -_Office Secretary_—Miss Kate F. Kimball. - -_General Secretary_—A. M. Martin. - - -1.—AIM. - -This new organization aims to promote habits of reading and study -in nature, art, science, and in secular and sacred literature, in -connection with the routine of daily life (especially among those whose -educational advantages have been limited), so as to secure to them -the college student’s general outlook upon the world and life, and to -develop the habit of close, connected, persistent thinking. - - -2.—METHODS. - -It proposes to encourage individual study in lines and by text-books -which shall be indicated; by local circles for mutual help and -encouragement in such studies; by summer courses of lectures and -“students’ sessions” at Chautauqua, and by written reports and -examinations. - - -3.—COURSE OF STUDY. - -The course of study prescribed by the C. L. S. C. shall cover a period -of four years. - - -4.—ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSES. - -_Each year’s Course of Study will be considered the “First Year” for -new pupils_ whether it be the first, second, third, or fourth of the -four years’ course. For example, “the class of 1887,” instead of -beginning October, 1883, with the same studies which were pursued in -1882-83 by “the class of 1886,” will fall in with “the class of ’86,” -and take for their first year the second year’s course of the ’86 -class. The first year for “the class of 1886” will thus in due time -become the fourth year for “the class of 1887.” - - -5.—C. L. S. C. COURSE OF READING, 1883-84 - - -I. REQUIRED. - - History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2; - parts 7, 8, 10 and 11. Price, $1.15. - - Stories in English History by the Great Historians. - Edited by C. E. Bishop, Esq. Price, $1. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 16, Roman History; No. 24, - Canadian History; No. 21, American History; No. 5, - Greek History. Price, 10 cents each. - - Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. - Wilkinson. Price, $1. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 23, English Literature. By - Prof. J. H. Gilmore. Price, 10 cents. - - Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. - Price, 30 cents. - - Biographical Stories by Hawthorne. Price, 15 cents. - - How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. - Price, cloth, 80 cents; paper, 50 cents. - - Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe. - Price, cloth, 40 cents; paper, 25 cents. - - Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. - Price, cloth, $1; paper, 50 cts. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 18, Christian Evidences; - No. 39, Sunday-School Normal Class Work; No. 43, Good - Manners; No. 4, English History. Price, 10 cents each. - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN, price, $1.50, in which will be - published: - - Sunday Readings. Selected by Dr. J. H. Vincent. - Readings in Commercial Law. By Edwin C. Reynolds, Esq. - Readings in Political Economy. By Prof. George M. Steele, D.D. - Readings in French History and Literature. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - Studies in American History and Literature. By A. M. Martin, Esq. - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN will also contain, in the department of - Required Readings, brief papers, as follows: - - Readings in German History and Literature. - Readings in Roman History. - Readings in American Literature. - Readings about the Arts, Artists, and their Masterpieces. - Readings in Physical Science. - - - ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR STUDENTS OF THE CLASS OF 1884. - - Hints for Home Reading. By Dr. Lyman Abbott. Price, - cloth, $1; boards, 75 cts. - - The Hall in the Grove. By Mrs. Alden. (A Story of - Chautauqua and the C. L. S. C.) Price, $1.50. - - Outline Study of Man. By Dr. Mark Hopkins. Price, $1.50. - - -II. FOR THE WHITE SEAL. - -Persons who pursue the “White Seal Course” of each year, in addition -to the regular course, will receive at the time of their graduation a -white seal for each year, to be attached to the regular diploma. - - History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2. - Completed. Price, $1.15. - - Chautauqua Library of English History and Literature. - Vol. 2. Price, cloth, 50 cents; paper, 35 cents. - - Church History. By Dr. Blackburn. Price, $2.25. - - Bacon’s Essays. Price, $1.25. - - -III. REQUIRED.—FOR THE WHITE (CRYSTAL) SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF ’82 AND -’83. - -For the benefit of graduates of the C. L. S. C. who, being members of -local circles, wish to continue in the same general line of reading -as undergraduate members, a White Crystal Seal Course is prepared. -This consists mainly of books belonging to the current year’s study, -but not previously read by the graduates. An additional white seal is -also offered to the graduates, the books for which are specified under -paragraph 4. Some of these books were in the first four year’s course, -and are therefore to be _re_-read. The payment of one dollar at one -time entitles a graduate to the White Crystal and White Seals for four -years. If only fifty cents is paid, it will be credited for but one -year. - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Required Reading. - - History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2. - Completed. Price, $1.15. - - Preparatory Latin Course in English. By. Dr. W. C. - Wilkinson. Price, $1. - - Credo. By Dr. L. T. Townsend. Price, $1. - - Bacon’s Essays. Price, $1.25. - - -IV. REQUIRED.—FOR ADDITIONAL WHITE SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF ’82 AND ’83. - - Brief History of Greece. By J. Dorman Steele. Price, 60 - cents. - - Stories in English History by the Great Historians. - Edited by C. E. Bishop. Price, $1. - - Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe. - Price, cloth, 40 cents; paper, 25 cents. - - Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne. Price, 15 - cents. - - How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. - Price, cloth, 80 cents; paper, 50 cents. - - Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. - Price, cloth, $1; paper, 50 cts. - - Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. - Price, 30 cents. - - Chautauqua Text-Books, Nos. 4, 5, 16, 18, 21, 23, 39 - and 43. Price, each, 10 cents. #/ - -The following is the distribution of the books and readings through the -year: - -_October._ - - History of Greece.[E] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. - Parts 7 and 8. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J. - H. Vincent. - - Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_November._ - - History of Greece.[F] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. - Parts 10 and 11. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J. - H. Vincent. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_December._ - - Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. Dr. J. H. Wythe. - - Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_January._ - - Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. - 14 chapters. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 18, Christian Evidences. By - Dr. J. H. Vincent. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 39, Sunday School Normal - Class Work. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_February._ - - Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. - Completed. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 21, American History; No. - 24, Canadian History. - - How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_March._ - - Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. - Wilkinson. Half of book. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_April._ - - Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. - Wilkinson. Completed. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 16, Roman History. By Dr. J. - H. Vincent. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_May._ - - Stories in English History by the Great Historians. By - C. E. Bishop. Half of book. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 4, English History. By Dr. - J. H. Vincent. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 23, English Literature. By - Prof. J. H. Gilmore. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -_June._ - - Stories in English History by the Great Historians. - Completed. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 4, English History. By Dr. - J. H. Vincent. - - Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 43, Good Manners. By J—— P——. - - Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -6.—SPECIAL COURSES. - -Members of the C. L. S. C. may take, in addition to the regular course -above prescribed, one or more special courses, and pass an examination -upon them. Pupils will receive credit and testimonial seals to be -appended to the regular diploma, according to the merit of examinations -on these supplemental courses. - - -7.—THE PREPARATORY COURSE. - -Persons who are too young, or not sufficiently advanced in their -studies to take the regular C. L. S. C. course, may adopt certain -_preparatory lessons_ for one or more years. - -For circulars of the preparatory course, address Miss K. F. KIMBALL, -Plainfield, New Jersey. - - -8.—INITIATION FEE. - -To defray the expenses of correspondence, memoranda, etc., an annual -fee of fifty cents is required. This amount should be forwarded to -Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., (by New York or Philadelphia -draft, Post-office order on Plainfield, N. J., or the new Postal Note, -to be ready about September 1.) Do not send postage-stamps if you can -possibly avoid it. _Three_-cent stamps will not be received. - -N. B.—In sending your fee, be sure to state to which class you belong, -whether 1884, 1885, 1886, or 1887. - - -9.—APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP. - -Persons desiring to unite with the C. L. S. C. should forward answers -to the following questions to MISS K. F. KIMBALL, PLAINFIELD, N. J. The -class graduating in 1887 should begin the study of the lessons required -October, 1883. They _may_ begin as late as January 1, 1884. - -1. Give your name in full. - -2. Your post-office address, with county and State. - -3. Are you married or single? - -4. What is your age? Are you between twenty and thirty, or thirty and -forty, or forty and fifty, or fifty and sixty, etc.? - -5. If married, how many children living under the age of sixteen -years?[G] - -6. What is your occupation? - -7. With what religious denomination are you connected? - -8. Do you, after mature deliberation, resolve, if able, to prosecute -the four years’ course of study presented by the C. L. S. C.? - -9. Do you promise, if practicable, to give an average of four hours a -week to the reading and study required by this course? - -10. How much more than the time specified do you hope to give to this -course of study? - - -10.—TIME REQUIRED. - -An average of forty minutes’ reading each week-day will enable the -student in nine months to complete the books required for the year. -More time than this will probably be spent by many persons, and for -their accommodation a special course of reading on the same subjects -has been indicated. The habit of thinking steadily upon worthy themes -during one’s secular toil will lighten labor, brighten life, and -develop power. - - -11.—MEMORANDA. - -The annual “examinations” will be held at the homes of the members, and -in writing. Duplicate Memoranda are forwarded, one copy being retained -by each student and the other filled out and forwarded to the office at -Plainfield, N. J. - - -12.—ATTENDANCE AT CHAUTAUQUA. - -Persons should be present to enjoy the annual meetings at Chautauqua, -but attendance there is not necessary to graduation in the C. L. S. C. -Persons who have never visited Chautauqua may enjoy the advantages, -diploma, and honors of the “Circle.” - - -13.—MISCELLANEOUS. - -For the history of the C. L. S. C., an explanation of the LOCAL -CIRCLES, the MEMORIAL DAYS to be observed by all true C. L. S. C. -members, ST. PAUL’S GROVE at Chautauqua, etc., etc., address (inclose -two-cent stamp) Miss K. F. KIMBALL, Plainfield, N. J., who will forward -the “Chautauqua Hand-Book, No. 2,” sixty-four pages. Blank forms, -containing the ten questions given in paragraph 9, will also be sent on -application. - - -14.—CHAUTAUQUA PERIODICALS. - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN, organ of the C. L. S. C.; 76 pages; ten numbers; -$1.50 per year. CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD, organ of Chautauqua -meetings; 8 pages; 48 columns. Daily in August; 19 numbers. Contains -the lectures delivered at Chautauqua; $1 per volume. Both periodicals -one year, $2.50. Address Dr. Theodore L. Flood, Editor and Proprietor, -Meadville, Pa. - - -15.—BOOKS OF THE C. L. S. C. - -For all the books address Phillips & Hunt, New York, or Walden & Stowe, -Cincinnati or Chicago. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[E] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, and -graduates of the classes of 1882 and 1883, not having read volume 1 of -Timayenis’s History of Greece, will not be required to read volume 2, -but instead of volume 2 of Timayenis’s, will read “Brief History of -Greece.” Price, paper, 60 cts. - -[F] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, not -having read volume 1 of Timayenis’s History of Greece, will not be -required to read volume 2, but instead of volume 2, of Timayenis’s, -will read “Brief History of Greece.” Price, paper, 60 cts. - -[G] We ask this question to ascertain the possible future intellectual -and moral influence of this “Circle” on your homes. - - - - - [_Not required._] - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -By A. M. MARTIN, GENERAL SECRETARY C. L. S. C. - - - I.—ONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “HISTORY OF - GREECE,” VOL. II., PARTS SEVENTH AND EIGHTH—THEBAN - SUPREMACY, AND MACEDONIAN HELLENISM. - -1. Q. What was the character of the Thebans in the fifth and fourth -centuries before Christ? A. They were brave soldiers, and possessed -souls, if not always noble, yet ever resolute; bodies, if not -prepossessing, yet athletic and well prepared, by exercise and thorough -drill from early childhood, for every military duty. - -2. Q. What two names are permanently associated with the rise of Theban -power? A. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. - -3. Q. What was the training and what some of the striking -characteristics of Epaminondas? A. He was trained from early youth in -all the branches of gymnastics and military duty; was distinguished by -the diligent care he took of his intellectual education; was modest and -wholly devoid of a boasting spirit, and was indifferent to money. - -4. Q. What did Epaminondas, with Pelopidas, organize that filled Hellas -with the fame of its achievements, and fell only when the autonomy of -Hellas disappeared? A. The famous lochos, or band, composed of three -hundred picked men, bound together by the closest ties of friendship, -and devoted to each other to the death. - -5. Q. What was the effect upon the Spartans of the war against the -Thebans, the latter being assisted by the Athenians, during the first -part of the fourth century before Christ? A. The Spartans were daily -losing their prestige and becoming humbled. - -6. Q. What was the most noted of the combats of the Thebans with the -Lacedæmonians in Bœotia at this time, which served as a sort of prelude -to that of Leuktra? A. The battle of Tegyra, in which the Thebans, led -by Pelopidas, achieved a splendid victory. - -7. Q. What disastrous visitations heightened the despondency of the -Spartans in 372 B. C.? A. The terrible earthquakes and rains which -during that year occurred in the Peloponnesus, and which they regarded -as tokens of the wrath of the god Poseidon. - -8. Q. What was the result of the Athenians having established their new -naval dominion on the Ionian Sea? A. They had no longer ground on which -to continue the war, and they therefore sent to Sparta for peace. - -9. Q. What was the result of the congress of the Hellenic nation which -followed in the year 371 B. C.? A. Agesilaus, on behalf of Sparta, -caused the names of the Thebans to be struck from the roll, and -declared war against them upon the spot. - -10. Q. What celebrated battle was fought soon after in Bœotia between -the Lacedæmonians and the Thebans? A. The battle of Leuktra. - -11. Q. Previous to this time how had Hellenic armies been drawn up in -order of battle? A. In parallel lines. - -12. Q. What plan did Epaminondas adopt on this occasion? A. He massed -upon the center a greater force than his opponent, and concentrated a -superior number upon the right wing. - -13. Q. What is said of the adoption of this arrangement of the forces -of an army afterward by military leaders? A. It was afterward largely -adopted by military leaders, and by its successful application some of -the greatest battles of the world have been gained by such generals as -Frederick of Prussia and Napoleon. - -14. Q. What was the result at the battle of Leuktra? A. The right wing -of the Spartans was completely driven back to their camp, and the -remainder of the army sought safety by retreat. - -15. Q. Following immediately upon the defeat at Leuktra what occurred -in the Peloponnesus? A. A great revolution broke out against Sparta. - -16. Q. What movement was next undertaken by Epaminondas? A. He invaded -the Peloponnesus with the Thebans and their allies, and approached -almost to the very gates of Sparta. - -17. Q. What is said of the appearance of an enemy before Sparta? A. -Full six hundred years had elapsed since the first establishment of -the Dorians in Lacedæmon, and this was the first time in all that long -period that they had seen an enemy in their territory. - -18. Q. What two enterprises did Epaminondas now execute which had -formed the special purpose of his expedition? A. The re-establishment -of Messenia and the consolidation of the Arkadians. - -19. Q. Within what space of time had this complete change of affairs -occurred in the Peloponnesus? A. Within a space of eighteen months from -the time the Thebans were insultingly driven from the national congress -by Sparta. - -20. Q. On the north what conquest was made by Pelopidas about the same -time? A. He invaded Thessaly, and subdued the greater part of the -country. - -21. Q. What were the terms of the permanent league into which the two -states of Athens and Sparta now entered? A. That the command both on -land and sea should alternate between Athens and Sparta for periods of -five days. - -22. Q. Notwithstanding this league what was the ruling city in Hellas? -A. Thebes. - -23. Q. What countries in Greece acknowledged Thebes as ruler and obeyed -her? A. Macedonia, Thessaly, most of the countries between Thermopylæ -and the isthmus, and most of the Peloponnesus. - -24. Q. About the end of the year 368 B. C., what battle was fought -between the Spartans and Arkadians during the absence of Epaminondas -from the Peloponnesus? A. What the Spartans called “The Tearless -Battle.” - -25. Q. What does Diodorus say of the slain? A. Ten thousand men were -slain, without the loss of a single Lacedæmonian. - -26. Q. At the instance of Pelopidas, in 366 B. C., what declaration was -made by the Persian king in regard to Thebes? A. Thebes was declared -the head city of Hellas, and any city refusing to admit her leadership -was menaced with instant compulsion by Persian force. - -27. Q. How was this declaration received by the allies of Thebes? A. -They collectively refused to adhere to the royal decree. - -28. Q. What occurred to Pelopidas while in the execution of his duty as -envoy to Thessaly in his efforts to have the supremacy of Thebes there -recognized? A. He was seized and detained as prisoner by Alexander of -Pheræ. - -29. Q. After he had been released through the efforts of Epaminondas, -what was the result of an engagement of the forces of Pelopidas with -those of Alexander of Thessaly? A. The army of Alexander was routed at -the battle of Kynos Kephalæ, but Pelopidas was slain. - -30. Q. About the middle of 362 B. C., for what purpose did Epaminondas -march again into the Peloponnesus? A. In order to strengthen the -adherents of the Thebans and to put down their numerous opponents. - -31. Q. What celebrated battle was fought between the forces under -Epaminondas and the allied army opposed? A. The battle of Mantineia. - -32. Q. What was the result of the engagement? A. The whole army in -opposition to Epaminondas was driven from the field. - -33. Q. What was the fate of Epaminondas? A. He received a wound in the -breast from the thrust of a spear which proved mortal. - -34. Q. What is the character of the opinions that have been uniformly -expressed, both in ancient and modern times concerning Epaminondas? A. -There has ever been for him only praise and admiration. - -35. Q. After he fell what prevailed for twenty-five years in Greece? A. -Political anarchy, ending only in the Macedonian supremacy. - -36. Q. Following the advice of Epaminondas what did the Thebans at once -do after the battle of Mantineia? A. They made peace with the enemy. - -37. Q. Where did the Spartan king, Agesilaus, soon after die? A. On -the march toward home from Egypt, where he unsuccessfully attempted an -expedition against the Persian empire. - -38. Q. What three islands and city revolted from Athens and her -confederacy which led to the three years’ “social war” from 358 to -355 B. C.? A. The islands of Chios, Kos and Rhodes, and the city of -Byzantium. - -39. Q. What war was carried on in Greece for the ten years from 355 to -346 B. C.? A. The second Sacred War. - -40. Q. During this war what desecration was committed by the Phokian -general Philomelus? A. The sanctuary of the Delphian temple was seized -and robbed of its treasures. - -41. Q. What noted king of Macedonia first took part in Hellenic affairs -during the second Sacred War? A. Philip. - -42. Q. What was the result of an engagement by the forces of Philip -with the Phokians? A. He became master of Thessaly, and proclaimed -himself the avenger of the Delphian god, and the defender of the -insulted Hellenic religion. - -43. Q. By whom was the advance of Philip into Hellas repelled? A. By -the Athenians, who occupied Thermopylæ in opposition to Philip. - -44. Q. What renowned orator attempted to arouse the Athenians to oppose -the advance of Philip in his efforts to reduce all Hellas to his sway? -A. Demosthenes. - -45. Q. Where does the criticism of the modern world and that of the -grandest orators of France and England unanimously place Demosthenes? -A. At the head of orators. - -46. Q. By what name are the most famous of the orations of Demosthenes -known? A. The Philipics. - -47. Q. What decisive battle was fought in 338 B. C. between the -Macedonian army and the Athenians and their allies? A. The battle of -Chœroneia. - -48. Q. What was the result of this battle? A. The Greeks were -conquered, and the Sacred Band of the Thebans to a man fell in this -battle as they stood in a solid phalanx, not one of the three hundred -yielding a foot. - -49. Q. To whom was the chief credit of this victory due? A. To the -youthful Alexander, the son of Philip. - -50. Q. At a congress of Hellenic cities Philip soon after convened at -Corinth to what position was he chosen? A. General-in-chief of all -Hellas. - -51. Q. What was the geographical position of Macedonia before its -enlargement through the conquests of Philip? A. It was an exclusively -inland country lying between two mountain ranges on the north side of -the great Kambunian chain. - -52. Q. What is said of the language of the Macedonians? A. It was -widely different from that of the Thracians on the east and the -Illyrians on the west, and was so nearly akin to the Hellenic that the -latter tongue was easily acquired by them. - -53. Q. In the earliest times how were the inhabitants of Macedonia -divided? A. Into a variety of independent tribes, each of which had its -own king or chieftain. - -54. Q. According to tradition who were the real founders of the -greatness of Macedonia? A. Fugitives from Hellas, belonging to the -royal Herakleid line of Argos, who are supposed to have arrived in the -country during the seventh century before Christ. - -55. Q. Who was the first Macedonian sovereign of real historic -importance? A. Amyntas. - -56. Q. Mention three other sovereigns of Macedonia before Philip. A. -Alexander, Perdikkas, and Archelaus. - -57. Q. Who was the father of Philip? A. Amyntas II. - -58. Q. What mode of life did the immediate predecessors of Philip seek -as much as possible to approach? A. The Attic mode of life. - -59. Q. What is said in regard to King Archelaus? A. That he introduced -many social improvements after Hellenic models, and was much attached -to the youthful Plato and his teacher Sokrates. - -60. Q. At the age of fifteen where was Philip taken as a hostage? A. To -Thebes. - -61. Q. How long did he remain there? A. Three years. - -62. Q. Though a hostage how was he welcomed? A. He was honorably and -cordially welcomed, received a scientific and oratorical training, and -studied philosophy. - -63. Q. Almost from the beginning of his reign what income did Philip -receive from the gold-producing regions of Mount Pangæus? A. According -to Diodorus a yearly income of one thousand talents. - -64. Q. How did this income compare with that received by the Athenians -and the Spartans? A. It was greater than that which the Athenians and -the Spartans obtained in the very acme of their power. - -65. Q. What steps did Philip take to make his army more efficient? A. -He reorganized the army and effected a complete transformation in their -armament and accomplishments. - -66. Q. What was the most formidable part of the army as organized by -Philip? A. The Macedonian phalanx. - -67. Q. What was the principal weapon of the soldiers serving in the -phalanx? A. A long pike called the sarissa, twenty-one feet in length. - -68. Q. After his return from Corinth in 337 B. C. what did Philip do -in regard to the invasion of Asia? A. He made so many preparations for -his intended expedition into Asia that he exhausted his accumulated -treasures. - -69. Q. What steps did he take in the spring of 336 B. C. to begin -hostilities against the Persians? A. He sent to Asia a portion of the -Macedonian army, under Parmenio and Attalus, to begin hostilities at -once until he assumed command of the expedition. - -70. Q. What was the result of a quarrel that occurred about this time -between Philip and one of his wives, Olympias, the mother of Alexander? -A. Olympias went to her brother, the King of Epirus, and Alexander soon -followed her, and expressed strong resentment at the treatment of his -mother. - -71. Q. In what way did Philip seek to reconcile the parties to this -quarrel, and at the same time ally himself to the King of Epirus? A. -By giving the King of Epirus his daughter by Olympias, Kleopatra, in -marriage. - -72. Q. How were the nuptials celebrated? A. With many splendid and -costly entertainments. - -73. Q. During the festivities how did Philip come to his death? A. -As he was walking toward the door of the theater he was suddenly -assassinated by Pausanias, one of the body-guard of the king. - -74. Q. At what age did Philip die, and how long was his reign? A. He -died at the age of forty-seven, after a reign of twenty-three years. - -75. Q. Who succeeded him to the throne? A. His son, Alexander the Great. - -76. Q. When was Alexander born? A. In July, 356 B. C. - -77. Q. What is said of Alexander and the Iliad? A. One of the first -books that he read was the Iliad, to which he became devotedly -attached, and a copy of which, corrected, as it is said, by Aristotle, -he carried with him in his military campaigns. - -78. Q. What was the effect of the reception of the news of the death -of Philip at Athens and elsewhere? A. There was an outbreak, caused -especially by Demosthenes, who represented his death as holding forth -new hopes of freedom to the city. There was also much disturbance in -other Hellenic cities. - -79. Q. When Alexander was informed of this crisis of affairs what -steps did he take? A. He hastened to Hellas with a considerable army, -reaching there within two months of the death of his father. - -80. Q. What action was taken by a common council of the Greeks that -Alexander assembled at Corinth? A. The council gave him, as it had done -to Philip two years before, the hegemony of the expedition against -Asia. The Lacedæmonians alone stood aloof, refusing all concurrence. - -81. Q. After his return to Macedonia, where did Alexander next go to -secure his domains? A. Into Thrace and bordering regions where he -subdued the tribes and brought them under his subjection. - -82. Q. In the meantime what Hellenic city revolted from the rule of -Alexander? A. Thebes. - -83. Q. What followed Alexander’s immediate march from the north to -Thebes? A. The city was taken after a desperate resistance, six -thousand of the inhabitants slain, thirty thousand sold into slavery, -and the houses leveled to the ground. - -84. Q. Upon his return to Macedonia what did Alexander institute? A. -Magnificent sacrifices to the gods, and scenic contests in honor of the -god Zeus and the Muses. - -85. Q. Who was now upon the throne of the Persian empire? A. Darius -Codomannus. - -86. Q. When did Alexander commence his invasion of Asia? A. In the year -334 B. C. - -87. Q. What was the size of the Macedonian army that Alexander led into -Asia? A. Thirty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry. - -88. Q. Where did he first encounter the Persian army? A. At the river -Granicus. - -89. Q. What was the result of the engagement that followed? A. The army -of Alexander forced the passage of the river in the face of the enemy -and entirely routed the Persian forces. - -90. Q. What followed Alexander’s march through Asia Minor? A. Many -cities surrendered without opposition, and the others he reached he -subdued. - -91. Q. As he was marching further into Asia, who now advanced to meet -Alexander? A. Darius himself with an immense army equipped in great -splendor. - -92. Q. Where did the hostile armies encounter each other? A. On the -plains of Issus. - -93. Q. What was the result of the battle there fought? A. The Persians -were completely routed with great loss, and Darius saved himself only -by precipitate flight. - -94. Q. What two cities refused to submit to Alexander, and were taken -by him only after prolonged sieges? A. Tyre and Gaza. - -95. Q. Into what country did Alexander next march, and what great -commercial city did he there found? A. Into Egypt, where he founded -Alexandria. - -96. Q. Where did Alexander again encounter the Persian army, and with -what results? A. On the plains of Arbela, eastward of the Tigris. The -immense army of the Persians was either cut to pieces, captured, or -dispersed, and no subsequent attempt was made to gather together a -large regular force. - -97. Q. What two great capitals of Persia now surrendered to Alexander -without a struggle? A. Babylon and Susa. - -98. Q. Into what region did Alexander further extend his conquests? A. -Into India. - -99. Q. Upon his return from India, when and where did Alexander die? A. -At Babylon in the year 323 B. C. - -100. Q. What became of the countries subdued by Alexander after his -death? A. The empire was subjected to protracted civil wars, and was -subsequently separated into numerous small kingdoms. - - -II.—FIFTY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -1. Q. As soon as the English colonists landed on American shores, at -Jamestown and Plymouth, for what purpose did they begin to think of the -establishment of schools of sound learning? A. In Virginia, for the -purpose of educating the Indians, and in Massachusetts Bay for the -supply of church pastors. - -2. Q. Until politics began to interest the colonists in a vital manner, -what formed the bulk of the issues of the press? A. Religious books and -tracts. - -3. Q. What was the first book written and printed in New England? A. -The Bay Psalm Book. - -4. Q. Of all the theological writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries, who were the most voluminous? A. Increase Mather and his son -Cotton. The publications of the former numbered eighty-five, and of the -latter no less than three hundred and eighty-two. - -5. Q. What is the chief monument of the industry and scholarship of -John Eliot, the “Apostle to the Indians?” A. His translation of the -entire Bible into the Indian tongue. This appeared in two parts, the -New Testament in 1661, and the whole Bible in 1663, and was the labor -of the unaided Eliot. - -6. Q. What are the names of three minor writers of the seventeenth -century? A. Capt. John Smith, Gov. John Winthrop, and Michael -Wigglesworth. - -7. Q. Upon what work does the reputation of Jonathan Edwards as -philosopher and theologian chiefly rest? A. His great treatise on the -“Freedom of the Will,” written about the middle of the eighteenth -century. - -8. Q. Who were the principal leaders in the eighteenth century of the -school of philosophy which Edwards shaped? A. Samuel Hopkins, Nathaniel -Emmons and Timothy Dwight. - -9. Q. What is one of the most remarkable of the names of great -Americans in the eighteenth century? A. Benjamin Franklin, who was a -master in whatever branch of learning he touched. - -10. Q. What is one of the best known of Franklin’s works? A. Poor -Richard’s Almanac. - -11. Q. What are the names of three minor writers of the eighteenth -century? A. William Stith, David Brainerd and John Woolman. - -12. Q. Of what character was a large part of the books and pamphlets -written during the revolutionary period? A. It was necessarily of -temporary interest, and of little value as literature. - -13. Q. In what particular did George Washington excel as a writer? A. -As a letter writer. - -14. Q. What are some of the most noted productions of Thomas Jefferson? -A. Notes on Virginia, his Correspondence, and the Declaration of -Independence. - -15. Q. What was the Federalist? A. It was a collection of essays -published periodically, and arguing in favor of the Constitution of the -United States adopted in 1789, and was the concerted work of Alexander -Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. - -16. Q. What work of Thomas Paine has always had a wide circulation -chiefly among the lower classes? A. The Age of Reason. It advocates a -pure deism, but its method of criticism and temper of attack are now -generally repudiated by more scholarly writers of the same school. - -17. Q. Who was the first American poet to attain eminence? A. Philip -Freneau, a Huguenot by descent and a New Yorker by birth. - -18. Q. Who was the first American novelist and what was his first work? -A. Charles Brockden Brown, and his first work called “Wieland” was -printed in 1798. - -19. Q. For what are the histories written during the last century -chiefly useful? A. As authorities for later writers. - -20. Q. Who were two biographical writers of the last century? A. -William Wirt, who wrote a readable life of Patrick Henry, and Chief -Justice John Marshall, who prepared a standard life of Washington. - -21. Q. What was incident to the beginning of the present century being -marked by a considerable controversial excitement among the New England -clergy? A. The spread of Unitarian views in and around Boston. - -22. Q. Who were the Unitarian leaders in this controversy? A. William -Ellery Channing, the Henry Wares, father and son, and Andrew Norton. - -23. Q. By whom were the conservative Congregationalists championed? -A. By Noah Worcester, of Salem, and Moses Stewart and Leonard Woods, -professors in the theological seminary at Andover. - -24. Q. What is the principal theological work that has appeared since -Edward’s famous treatise? A. The “Systematic Theology” of Charles -Hodge, professor in Princeton Seminary. - -25. Q. What two college presidents have devoted much thought and -ability to mental science? A. Mark Hopkins, of Williams, and Noah -Porter, of Yale. - -26. Q. What two names are prominent in the literature of Church -history? A. Dr. Philip Schaff and Prof. W. G. T. Shedd. - -27. Q. To whom is the term “the Knickerbocker writers” applied? A. To -certain authors who began to write soon after the beginning of the -century, who were for the most part residents of New York, and who were -in some cases descendants of the old Dutch stock. - -28. Q. What are the names of four prominent writers included under this -head? A. Washington Irving, James Kirke Paulding, Joseph Rodman Drake, -and Fitz-Greene Halleck. - -29. Q. What are the names of five poets made celebrated by single -pieces? A. Francis Scott Key, Samuel Woodworth, John Howard Payne, -Albert G. Greene, and William Augustus Muhlenberg. - -30. Q. What are the titles of the pieces for which they are celebrated? -A. “The Star Spangled Banner,” “The Old Oaken Bucket,” “Home, Sweet -Home,” “Old Grimes is Dead,” and “I would not live alway.” - -31. Q. What eminent name connected the earlier and later days of our -literature? A. William Cullen Bryant. - -32. Q. Who are termed the five great American poets? A. William Cullen -Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver -Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell. - -33. Q. Who was an entirely original figure in American literature? A. -Edgar Allen Poe. - -34. Q. What are the names of ten persons prominent as orators during -the present century? A. Webster, Calhoun, Clay, Everett, Choate, -Seward, Sumner, Winthrop, Garrison, and Phillips. - -35. Q. What are the names of five prominent American historians of the -present century? A. Richard Hildreth, George Bancroft, John G. Palfrey, -William H. Prescott, and John Lothrop Motley. - -36. Q. What three names are eminent in the literature of Arctic travel? -A. Elisha Kent Kane, Charles F. Hall, and Isaac I. Hayes. - -37. Q. Who was the first writer of American fiction whose works were -extensively read? A. James Fenimore Cooper. - -38. Q. What American author has James Russell Lowell called the -greatest imaginative writer since Shakspere? A. Nathaniel Hawthorne. - -39. Q. What work has had the greatest success of any American book? A. -Harriet Beecher Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” a novel directed against -slavery. Between five and six hundred thousand copies have been sold in -this country alone, and it has been forty times translated. - -40. Q. Who is the most distinguished of American essayists? A. Ralph -Waldo Emerson. - -41. Q. Give the chief among standard editions of Shakspere that have -been edited in this country. A. Those of Richard Grant White and Horace -Howard Furness. - -42. Q. Who are the authors of three notable histories of the late civil -war? A. Horace Greeley, Alexander H. Stephens, and Dr. John W. Draper. - -43. Q. What recent American author attained eminence as a writer of -travels, of novels, and as a poet? A. Bayard Taylor. - -44. Q. What two poets are the chief American kindred of the English -pre-Raphaelites? A. Walt Whitman and Joaquin Miller; but their kinship -is one of nature and not of imitation. - -45. Q. Who was the originator of a popular dialect poetry of the time, -which has found a troop of imitators? A. John Hay. - -46. Q. What author has found a special field in novels of pioneer -life in the uncivilized outposts of Western civilization? A. Edward -Eggleston. - -47. Q. Who is called the best of American writers of juveniles? A. -Louisa May Alcott. - -48. Q. Give the names of three prominent humorists. A. Charles Farrar -Browne, Henry W. Shaw, and David R. Locke. - -49. Q. What American writer has devoted the greater part of his -literary life to the production of biographies? A. James Parton. - -50. Q. Who has enjoyed the acquaintance of more English and American -authors than any other of our writers? A. James T. Fields. - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -THE TENTH ASSEMBLY. - -Ten years ago the First Assembly offered to the world the Chautauqua -Idea. It promised an almost ideal summer life, where health and -thought and brotherly love should abound. Ten years have passed, and -now the question is, has the scheme been carried out? Is the Assembly -a practical idea, and is it a permanency? The answers are most -decided. The original plan has not only been put into practice, but, -when enlarged an hundred fold, has been proven practicable. Is it a -permanency may be a harder question, but the tenth Assembly has, we -believe, in many ways proven it so. First, the character and growth of -all departments of Chautauqua work show them to be needed institutions, -and necessary institutions, as a rule, become permanent. The steady, -healthy growth of the different branches of work shows how enduring -is the Idea; the Normal department increased its alumni this year to -over 1,200; its plans for future work are much more elaborate than ever -before, its course of study much superior. The annual report from the -School of Languages shows a steady increase. Over two hundred full -tickets were sold in the school this year, and twenty-six different -states were represented. - -The Teachers’ Retreat for 1883 shows a great increase over previous -years: - -In 1879 there were enrolled 15 members. - -In 1880 there were enrolled 133 members. - -In 1881 there were enrolled 105 members. - -In 1882 there were enrolled 76 members. - -In 1883 there were enrolled 223 members. - -The C. L. S. C. has reached the enormous membership of nearly 50,000. -Besides the advance in the different schools, the attendance at the -Assembly was unprecedented. In the earlier years of an institution -this might mean very little—a boom, and nothing more—but in the tenth -year, when the place has become well-known, it does mean a great deal. -These people, too, were not all new friends. Chautauqua has been able -to keep its old friends, while every season it has added hosts of new -ones. The whole exterior showed it. When streets are lighted by the -electric light, and houses are built on stone foundations, lathed and -plastered, and furnished with modern improvements, a town has reached a -period of durability. Things are built to stay. Chautauqua puts up no -more shanties. It has become a city, not of a day but for all time. - -The genuine hearty enthusiasm which animates the workers and friends -of the movement is, to us, a most excellent reason for believing the -institution lasting. There is a feeling among many that enthusiasm -is a weakness, a quality not exactly in good form, not in keeping -with cultured minds. This is a mistake. Enthusiasm, combined with -good sense and industry, is the best equipment for any enterprise. As -Emerson says, “A man is at his best when enthusiastic,” and we believe -Chautauqua is most successful when most enthusiastic—most sure of -permanence because capable of always inspiring others with enduring -enthusiasm. - -The great Assembly opens its doors to every one, but few realize the -real value of the idea, or appreciate the conditions of society which -make feasible such an idea. Said an eminent German, after having -studied the Assembly thoroughly: “You Americans do not appreciate this -wonderful plant of yours. In my country we could not have a Chautauqua; -no other country under the sun could support such an institution. It is -peculiarly American.” We do not appreciate the Idea. It is too ideal -for the practical minds of the day. But though we may not grasp its -full meaning, the Tenth Assembly has proven that people are beginning -to understand the practicability, the breadth, and the permanence of -the Chautauqua Idea. - - -THE C. L. S. C. AN EDUCATIONAL NECESSITY OF THE TIMES. - -Necessity is a word which in its use depends on circumstances. What -is necessary to a people in one age may not have been to their -ancestors a generation earlier. Time was when the masses of men were -not required to act with intelligence of their own, but to follow the -decree of the privileged few or obey the behest of the autocratic -individual. Illustrations of such a state of society remain. They are -to be found wherever the autocracy or oligarchy, whether political or -ecclesiastical, continues its sway. - -Under such conditions it is easily seen that the only education -required is obedience, blind and unquestioning. All that goes beyond -this only makes the individual unhappy and embarrasses authority. -Hence, since her ambition has been absolute power, the wisdom of that -favorite motto of the Romish church, “keep the people in ignorance,” a -motto which she has done her best to put in practice. - -But our age and civilization have fallen upon other conditions. -Obedience is still required, and indeed ever must be, but it is no -longer with eyes tight shut, but open; and we are not only encouraged, -but by the very conditions of society, are required to ask questions -concerning the very grounds of obedience. Something has taken the -place of infallible Church and infallible State. That something is -enlightened conscience and educated judgment. - -In this country the corner-stone of whose stability and permanence must -rest on obedience born of intellectual and moral enlightenment, some -things have become, and daily are becoming more and more apparent. It -is apparent that universal education of a certain kind, a kind that -includes to no small degree both head and heart, must go with universal -suffrage. It is neither treason nor heresy to say that in the light of -experience and of the signs of the times, neither our common schools -on the one hand, nor our academies, colleges and universities on the -other, are competent to meet and provide for all the educational -needs of the American people. Too much can not be said in praise of -these institutions. They have been the conservators of our national -ideas in the past. But we are growing, and citizenship means higher -responsibilities and higher obligations than aforetime. The common -school which fits a man for the transactions of ordinary business and -prepares the foundation for a higher development, does a great work; -but the man who settles down to life without further inspiration and -opportunity can hardly be fitted for the higher work and duties of the -home and society. Whence then comes, or can come, this inspiration -and better preparation? Thus far in our history it has come through -the seminary and college. But it is evident that not more than one -in twenty of the American youth can have these higher advantages. -Reduce the expense to the minimum and there are still insurmountable -barriers in the way. It needs no argument, therefore, to show that -an organization with the plans, aims and methods of the _Chautauqua -Literary and Scientific Circle_ has a mission which bears the sanction -of necessity. The wide gap between the common school and the college -must be filled, and only can be filled by that which brings the means -of education to the home; to the youth learning his trade, to the man -or woman in the midst of daily duties and employments. The demand is -for that which will fill the atmosphere about life with aspiration and -the spirit of inquiry. It is for that which will furnish suggestions, a -plan and a guide to lead the inquiring mind. Precisely this is the C. -L. S. C. Here is its mission and here its _necessity_—and the necessity -likewise of all kindred similar organizations which are yet to spring -up and follow in her course. - - -THE SHAKSPERE CONTROVERSY. - -It is strange how sometimes an opinion altogether untenable, which -some one has broached, is taken up by others, and comes in time to be -accepted as true by a considerable number. It was some twenty-five -years ago that a Miss Delia Bacon published an elaborate argument whose -end was to show that not William Shakspere, but Lord Francis Bacon, -was the author of the immortal plays which bear the former’s name. She -first gave her discovery—unquestionably of the highest importance, if -correct—to the world in a magazine article; but afterward embodied -it in quite a large volume, to which Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote an -introduction, though he did not accept the writer’s theory. This was -the beginning of a controversy which is still alive. Perhaps the -number has never been very large of those who believe that the glory -of Shakspere belongs to Bacon; but there have always been some to -entertain the preposterous notion, from Miss Bacon to Mrs. Henry Pott. - -The latter lady has recently issued a book which has excited some -interest. The title—somewhat drawn out—is, “The Promus of Formularies -and Elegancies (being private notes, _circa_ 1594, hitherto -unpublished) of Francis Bacon, illustrated and elucidated by passages -from Shakspere.” Mrs. Pott’s undertaking is one more in the line of -Miss Delia Bacon. By a comparison of the Bacon notes, in forms of -expression and thought, with passages of the Shakspere tragedies and -comedies, she endeavors to verify the theory that the great English -philosopher—author of the “Novum Organum,” and characterized by Pope -as “the greatest, wisest, and meanest of mankind”—is also author of -the works accorded to the Bard of Avon. That she succeeds in her task -she herself evidently entertains no doubt, but probably not many will -agree with her. She finds correspondences and similarities in passages -compared where her readers will try in vain to find them; and it is -putting the matter mildly to say that her undertaking is a great -failure. - -Considerable ingenuity and much enthusiasm have been shown by advocates -of the theory which makes Lord Bacon the author of the works of -Shakspere; but the theory is an absurd one, with nothing whatever to -support it. The internal evidence, contained in the works of the two -authors, not only gives the theory no support, but is alone enough -to a sane mind completely to demolish it. The whole cast of Bacon’s -mind, as shown by his known writings, was as unlike as it could be to -that of the person who wrote the Shakspere dramas and sonnets. And -what other evidence is adduced by those who would have us transfer to -another the laurels of the man who was easily the greatest mind in all -literature? None whatever. The truth is, it is the improbability from -the nature of the case—or, as some would say, the impossibility—that -such a person as William Shakspere, the son of a Stratford yeoman, -with limited educational opportunities, whose youth was by no means -promising, should have produced the works to which for two centuries -his name has been attached, which is at the bottom of the theory which -gives the authorship to another. This, and nothing else, originated -the idea, and keeps it alive. We are told that to believe in Shakspere -as the author of these works, universally acknowledged as unapproached -and unapproachable, is to believe a miracle. “Whence hath this man -this wisdom?” it is asked, as was asked of the Divine Man; and we -are reminded that the stream never rises higher than the fountain. -Shakspere could not have produced the works—the power was not in him, -it is reasoned, but the wise Bacon might have done it; therefore people -search for the wherewithal to substantiate an assumption giving the -authorship to the latter. But we must believe the miracle; there is no -escape. Did Milton write the “Paradise Lost,” and Lord Bacon the “Novum -Organum?” Is the Iliad the work of Homer? It is just as certain that -the Shakspere writings were the offspring of Shakspere’s genius. We -admit the marvel, but there is no setting aside of the fact. And when -we are asked to explain how this man could have acquired the power to -produce these prodigies of human genius, we can only say, the Maker -gave it to him. - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -The C. L. S. C. received special attention at the summer Assemblies. -By referring to the reports published elsewhere in this number, our -readers will learn how the Chautauqua spirit spreads, and how the -organization is being strengthened in all parts of the land. - - * * * * * - -Recent Presidents of the United States have shown their taste for -recreation very positively. Ex-President Grant was fond of good horses -and rapid driving; ex-President Hayes visited colleges during the -commencement season, and loved his farm as a quiet retreat; President -Arthur turns from his arduous labors to the rod and line and long -journeys, such as he has made to Florida and the West during the past -year. - - * * * * * - -We can supply complete sets of the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD -for 1883, for $1.00, postage paid by us. Also complete sets of THE -CHAUTAUQUAN of volume two and three. - - * * * * * - -Prophecies are numerous from newspaper men as to who will be the -candidates for the presidency in 1884. Ex-Secretary Blaine is reported -as having turned his attention to literature, and announces that he -is not a candidate; Mr. Tilden has retired to the privacy of Gramercy -Park; ex-Secretary Windom, it is said by the wise ones, went out of -the succession when he failed of a re-election to the Senate. Reports -are rife in influential political circles that the Secretary of War is -likely to be one of his martyred fathers’ successors, but time alone -will show us the true successor. - - * * * * * - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN opens the fourth volume in a new dress. Our printer -does the work on copper-faced type, prepared with especial reference to -the neat and attractive typographical appearance of the magazine. - - * * * * * - -Mr. A. M. Sullivan, in a recent number of the _Nineteenth Century_, -discusses “Irish Emigration as a remedy for Irish trouble in Ireland.” -He says: “Of the group of dynamite conspirators who stood in the dock -at Newgate the other day—men whose frightful purpose was to bury London -in ruins—not one was born on Irish soil. All were the sons or grandsons -of men swept away from ‘congested districts,’ and sent or driven to -America ‘for the good of those who went, and of those who were left -behind.’ Whoever has recently traveled in America must have been struck -with the fact that animosity toward England often displays itself more -strongly in the second and third generations of Irish Americans than in -the men who were actually driven forth.” - - * * * * * - -The present administration is not all-powerful in a certain kind of -its political movements. The Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Folger, -was defeated for Governor of New York in the election last fall, and -recently Mr. Chandler, Secretary of the Navy, failed of an election to -the United States Senate in the New Hampshire Legislature. - - * * * * * - -Chautauqua grows in favor with the public. The Ohio State Teacher’s -Association held their annual convention there in July last, and with -social gatherings, lectures, and discussions on live questions, in -the educational world, they made it an interesting and profitable -session. The Pennsylvania State Teacher’s Association will hold their -convocation at Chautauqua Lake for 1884. It is an endorsement of -Chautauqua when large bodies of educators go from their own States -into another to hold their most important gatherings. The National -Teacher’s Association met at this center once, and the Ohio people have -been there twice. It is this sort of gatherings that the Chautauqua -authorities are especially pleased to welcome to the parks, public -buildings, and all the privileges of the classic groves. - - * * * * * - -The Royal Humane Society, in its recently issued report, gives the -following advice to swimmers and bathers: “Avoid bathing within two -hours after a meal. Avoid bathing when exhausted by fatigue, or -from any other cause. Avoid bathing when the body is cooling after -perspiration. Avoid bathing altogether in the open air if, after having -been a short time in the water, it causes a sense of chilliness with -numbness of the hands and feet. Bathe when the body is warm, provided -no time is lost in getting into the water. Avoid chilling the body by -sitting or standing undressed on the banks or in boats after having -been in the water. Avoid remaining too long in the water; leave the -water immediately if there is the slightest feeling of chilliness.” - - * * * * * - -The West promises to set a good example to the East in more than -one question of morals. The case deserving of mention now is where -Governor Crittenden, of Missouri, and Governor Glick, of Kansas, and -their Attorney-Generals, notified the two prize-fighters, Slade and -Mitchell, that even training for a prize-fight would send them to the -State prison. This so alarmed them that they quit the United States -and went to Mexico. The laws of the older States are as severe on this -brutal practice as those of Missouri and Kansas, but the laxity in the -enforcement of the laws is the only license that prize-fighters find to -justify their training in New York, Boston, and other old cities. Some -of our authorities could profitably “go West” to study how to enforce -civil law. - - * * * * * - -Dr. John Roche, an English physician who has had remarkable -experiences, gives as his conclusion that cholera is purely and simply -a specific fever, only inferior in its ravages to yellow fever, and -closely allied to it. Cholera has a period of incubation varying from -two to fourteen days; prone to attack the enervated and those subject -to depression from any cause. It is contagious, and liable to occur -periodically about every ten years in some parts of India. It seems to -have visited the British Isles about every sixteen years, and as the -period has elapsed since the last outbreak, it is more than likely to -occur this year. Those persons who indulge in no enervating habits, -and take nothing internally which would arrest the secretions nor too -drastically stimulate them, and partake of nothing which is highly -fermentable, may safely feel that they are cholera-proof during an -epidemic. - - * * * * * - -“The Old South Lectures for Young People” is a pleasing and successful -plan for teaching the History of America. Lectures are held Wednesday -afternoon at the “Old South Meeting House,” Boston, and the subjects -illustrate well the tenor of the meeting. Thus for September the topics -are “Franklin,” “How to Study American History,” “The Year 1777,” -“History in the Boston Streets.” - - * * * * * - -In the C. L. S. C. Commencement report the Lutheran has been omitted -from the list of denominations represented in the class of ’83. - - * * * * * - -On Sunday, the ninth day of September, the steamship “Nevada” landed -682 Mormons at New York, being the fourth company that has been brought -over this year. H. H. Evans, the secretary, said that there were in -the company 269 British, 106 Swiss and Germans, 284 Scandinavians, and -23 returning missionaries. “Every emigrant,” he added, “paid his or -her passage over. No aid is afforded them by the Mormon Church. The -majority have a little money with them, enough to establish themselves -in America. They will locate in sixteen towns in Utah. All we do is -to protect them while traveling from Liverpool to Utah. Some of these -immigrants have been years laying up money to pay their passage to this -country.” One of the Mormon immigrants did not go through to Utah. Her -name is Regina Andersen. She is a Swedish woman, spinster, thirty-five -years of age, and is afflicted with blindness. Her brother Leander and -her sister Anna, who live in Philadelphia, had heard of her intention -to go to Utah and were at Castle Garden to intercept her before the -“Nevada” arrived. They insisted upon talking with their blind sister, -and soon succeeded in persuading her to abandon the Mormon proselytes -and prepare to go with her relatives to Philadelphia. The Mormon -missionaries were strongly opposed to the woman leaving the party, -but the matter was brought before Superintendent Jackson, and the -woman was permitted to go to Philadelphia with her brother. She had -prepaid her passage to Salt Lake and did not receive her money back. In -conversation with a reporter the woman appeared not to know anything -about the peculiar institution of the Mormon Church—polygamy. Congress -could quite as consistently, and with better results to the country, -enact a law to prevent this kind of emigration, than the one they have -leveled against the Chinese. Why not meet Mormonism at New York harbor -and prevent this infamous traffic in human lives? - - * * * * * - -The Rev. Henry A. Powell, in his Congregational church in Williamsburg, -on a Sunday in September discussed “The sorrows of the Free Thinkers -as revealed at their recent convention,” from this suggestive text: -“The show of their countenances doth witness against them.” He stated -that over their platform were hung the pictures of Thomas Paine, R. -G. Ingersoll, and D. M. Bennett—Paine author of a book against the -Bible—Ingersoll, dispenser of blasphemy—Bennett, who not long since -served a term in the penitentiary for sending foul literature through -the mails. “How much better than such visionary wanderings is the old -story of a living Father in heaven, of a Savior who suffered on the -cross, and angel visitants to lead us from the life mortal to the life -immortal.” - - * * * * * - -We call the attention of our readers to the notice elsewhere -in this number of the “Chautauqua School of Languages,” the -different departments of which are to be organized into schools of -correspondence, so that students may, at their homes, study Hebrew, -German, French, etc., by corresponding with competent teachers. This -is a rare opportunity for members of the C. L. S. C., or any others -who desire, to study the languages, but are denied the privileges of -the schools. Next month we shall introduce the “Normal Work” into THE -CHAUTAUQUAN, in a few initial chapters, from the pens of Rev. Dr. -Hurlbut and Prof. R. S. Holmes, and thus extend to our readers through -the year the privilege of pursuing this course, which is a main feature -of the summer assemblies. - - * * * * * - -The telegraph operators have by their strike provoked a general -discussion in the press of the telegraph system of the country, besides -exciting the attention of Postmaster-General Gresham, who promises to -discuss in his annual report to Congress the practicability of the -general government assuming control of all telegraph lines as it does -of the postal service. It ought to work as well in the United States as -it does in England. Mr. Fawcett, Postmaster-General of Great Britain, -reports that “the number of telegraph messages sent in the United -Kingdom during the last year was 32,092,026.” Mr. Fawcett says that it -has been decided that as soon as the necessary increase of plant can be -made, the minimum charge for inland telegrams will be reduced from 24 -to 12 cents. - - * * * * * - -A correspondent says, under date of September 9: “The last spike on the -Northern Pacific Road was driven this afternoon on the Pacific slope of -the Rocky Mountains, 2,500 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and 800 miles -from the Pacific, and 91 years after the idea of a highway from the -Lakes to the Pacific was first suggested by Thomas Jefferson.” - - * * * * * - -Analogous to the Normal Class Bible work of the Chautauqua University -is a new movement in Russia. An organization called the _Stundists_ -bind themselves to devote an hour (_stunde_) every day to the study of -the Bible. The society has grown to immense proportions, and is said to -have reclaimed whole villages from drunkenness and crime. - - * * * * * - -Keshub Chunder Sen, the famous leader of the Brahmo Somaj, is about to -visit Europe and America again, to preach a new development of faith, -in which Hinduism and Christianity are to be combined. Little good, we -fear, will result from the Baboo’s advocacy of an eclectic system; for -his adherents will be content to stop in that dim twilight instead of -advancing into the full glory of the divine day. The teaching of the -leader himself seems latterly to have degenerated into ceremonialism, -and he attributes marvelous influence to external things; while some of -his followers are giving themselves up with the wildest enthusiasm to -perfect a sacred dance of a complex kind, organized with rotating rings -of participants dressed in garbs of varied hue. All this mummery is a -sad disappointment for those who hoped that Chunder Sen might destroy -heathenism besides purifying it. - - * * * * * - -The Louisville _Courier_ of August 9, referring to the great -Exposition, speaks thus of one of the exhibitions: “Last night the -electric railway was in operation, and the locomotive with two -cars attached made the tour of the park. To-day it will be running -constantly, and visitors will see what is the latest achievement of -science. It is an event of extraordinary interest. It is the practical -demonstration of the power of electricity applied as a motor. Without -fire or smoke, with no visible agent to propel it, moved by an unseen -and even as yet an almost unknown influence, it follows the path marked -out with all the celerity and certainty demanded by the most cautious -and practical.” - - * * * * * - -The directors of the Western Union Telegraph Company have made -a concession to their employes by issuing the following order: -“Commencing to-day (September 1), seven and a half hours actual service -in this office during week nights will constitute a day’s work, or, -in other words, the hours of the night force will be from 5:30 p. m. -till 1:30 a. m., allowing thirty minutes for lunch. Sunday service -will be paid for the same as other over-time services, at the rate of -one-seventh of a day’s pay for each hour. All payments for over-time, -including Sunday service, or for a fractional part of a month, will be -based upon the number of week days in the month.” - - * * * * * - -Professor Bell is reported as saying in a recent conversation that -there are more than 500,000 telephones in use in the United States, and -the manufacturers are unable to supply the demand so as to keep abreast -of orders. He said that the progress of the telephone would have been -greater but for the opposition of the telegraph companies, who regarded -it as, in part, a competitor instead of an ally. In other countries -the telegraph companies had very generally adopted the telephone as an -auxiliary, especially at city branch offices and at small offices in -the country. - - * * * * * - -Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, of England, is in this country, a guest -of the American bar. English judges may be aristocrats, but they are -generally above corruption. It is to be hoped that American ideas of -judicial dignity and honor will be raised by what they may observe in -this chief of the English bench. - - * * * * * - -Not a few Americans were astonished at the display of local -manufactures which Ireland exhibited in the Boston “Foreign Art and -Industrial Exhibition.” Among the objects were bog-wood ornaments, -hair ornaments, furniture, marbles, sculpture, etc. The variety of -work suggests that in the not distant future the distressed country -will have manufactures and arts to employ its people. Its resources -are particularly fitted to certain arts. Thus few countries boast so -great a variety of marbles; its clay is particularly suitable for -modeling: osiers grow readily on its soil, and the natural woods are -incomparably fine. With these industries developed, and a system of -railroads through the country, much would be done toward settling the -Irish question. - - * * * * * - -When a woman marries, and learns that in the race of life she is -better qualified to earn the family living than her husband, it will -be helpful to have a precedent at hand by which to govern her husband. -Here is one, taken from the communication of a successful working -woman to a Boston exchange. She says: “I am a milliner, and have made -between $1,500 and $2,500 a year in my business for some time past. I -married four years ago. My husband is kind and good looking, but he -never learned any trade, had no profession and could not average $500 -a year. I loved him, however, but I saw that it would not do to depend -upon him, so I kept on with my business. After a time I think he got -a little lazy, and as we were both away during the day, we could not -keep house and got sick of boarding. Finally I proposed that he should -keep house and I would run the business and find the money. We have -now lived very happily in this way for two years. My husband rises and -builds the fire, gets breakfast, and I leave at 7:45 for my place of -business. He does the washing, ironing, and cleaning, and I do not know -of any woman who can beat him. He is as neat as wax, and can cook equal -to any one in town. It may be an isolated case, but I think the time -has now come when women who have husbands to support should make them -do the work; otherwise they are luxuries we must do without.” - - - - -EDITOR’S TABLE. - - -Q. What is the meaning of boycotting? - -A. Boycott was the name of an Irish landlord whose tenants refused to -gather his crops, and endeavored to prevent his doing it. To withhold -help and patronage, or in any way to obstruct or hinder the business of -another—a meanness that is despicable—is to treat him as the tenants -treated Mr. Boycott. - -Q. Was General Grant the author of the expression, “We have met the -enemy and they are ours?” - -A. The above is very like to Cæsar’s “_veni, vidi, vici_,” and as a -general’s report of a great victory just won, is remarkable for its -comprehensive brevity. The words, though in harmony with the character -and sayings of General Grant, were not, if used, original with him, but -should be credited to Commodore Perry. - -Q. Why was the son of Edward III. called the Black Prince? - -A. Because of his black armor. - -Q. Was Alexander of Macedon, who informed the Greeks before the battle -of Platea of the intended attack, their ally? - -A. Not openly; but secretly he was, or the information would not have -been given. - -Q. Where is the mountain lake Shawangunk? - -A. The Shawangunk (Shon-gum) mountain is properly a continuation of the -Appalachian, or Allegheny chain in New York. Like the Adirondacks and -Catskills, south of the Mohawk, also outliers of the chain, it seems -separated by intervening lands of lower elevation, and the relationship -is shown by similarity of the geological formation. Look for the lake -in the same region. It is probably small, and may not be found on most -maps. - -Q. Was it not Leonidas who, before the battle of Thermopylæ, said, -“The Persians are so numerous that their arrows will darken the sun?” - -A. No. Those words may intimate fear of the overwhelming force of the -enemy, and the Greek historian does not mention their author, but says -that on hearing them, a brave Spartan replied: “All the better, as we -will then fight in the shade.” - -Q. Which construction? “Thus were music and poetry born in the same -family, and we shall notice how that they have clung to each other,” or -“how they have clung?” - -A. The latter is preferred. The conjunctive particle is not needed, -and though occasionally thus used by a good writer, only encumbers the -sentence. - -Q. Who was Caius Cestius? - -A. A wealthy Roman citizen of the Augustan age, a client of Cicero, of -not much distinction, though rich. A part of his estate was employed in -building for him a fine mausoleum, which remains to the present day, -though most of the contemporaneous surrounding structures have long -been in ruins. Near it lie the ashes of Keats and Shelly. After the -death of Keats, Shelly wrote of his friend: “He lies in the lovely, -romantic cemetery of the Protestants of Rome, near the tomb of Caius -Cestius, and within the mossy walls and towns, now mouldering and -desolate, which formed the circuit of ancient Rome. The cemetery is an -open space among the ruins, covered in winter with violets and daisies. -It might make one in love with death to think of being buried in so -sweet a place.” - -Q. Can you give the date of Mrs. Browning’s birth in 1809? - -A. We can not. No records now at hand give the day or month. It is -not best to be greatly troubled over our want of information on the -subject, as it is quite safe to conclude she was “well born” some time -during the year mentioned. Many other eminent writers have gone into -history with the same uncertainty as to the day of their birth. - -Q. In whose hands was the government of the United States from 1783 to -1789? - -A. Nominally in the Continental Congress—a kind of quasi central -government. Practically in the hands of the colonists and their -legislators. The war was ended and the United States acknowledged a -free, sovereign, and independent nation. But they were, as yet, united -only by the “articles of confederation” adopted in 1778; a bond of -union that was soon found inadequate to secure a strong, permanent -government amidst the perils that threatened the new republic. The -regulation of commerce, the adjustment of difficulties between -States, and the public defense were not sufficiently provided for. -Congress could devise and recommend measures, but had little power -to legislate, even on subjects that concerned the whole. There was -still more need of an efficient executive department. Feeling that the -articles of confederation were, in the changed state of the country, -no longer sufficient, the leading statesmen wisely framed, and the -country adopted the American Constitution, giving us a strong central -government, with the least possible surrender of rights by the States -thus united. - -Q. Was there any reason for calling Alexander the Great a Greek? - -A. Alexander was not a Greek, though educated by Greek teachers, and, -as other Macedonians, using the Greek language. Macedon was not a part -of Greece, but held Greece as a dependency, and used her power in -expelling the Persians. - -Q. After the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of mankind, into -what families lingual were they divided? - -A. Into _Shemetic_, _Hametic_, and _Japhetic_. The descendants of Shem -peopled central Asia, particularly the parts about the Euphrates. -The dialect or language called Aramaic prevailed in their northern -and northeastern territory, the Arabic in their southern, and in -their central and western the Hebrew. These are cognate languages, -and profitably studied in connection. The descendants of Japheth -spread over Europe and the northwest of Asia. Those of Ham occupied -the southern part of the globe, particularly Africa. The languages -spoken in these sections, respectively, may also be grouped together, -and, however different, give evidence of a common origin. The general -division into the above three classes has been found convenient, though -the patronymics are used only to indicate remote origin and kinship. - - - - -C. S. L. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR OCTOBER. - - -HISTORY OF GREECE. - -Instead of indicating the sounds of the vowels in the Greek and Latin -names given in the notes, we follow the plan of Webster’s Unabridged -Dictionary, giving rules for pronouncing the vowels and consonants. -As the two principal marks ([= ][) ]) are in Greek and Latin used -differently from what they are in English, indicating the _quantity_ -instead of _quality_, it will be found less confusing to adopt this -method. - -RULES FOR THE VOWELS. - -1. Any vowel at the end of an accented syllable, and _e_, _o_, and _u_, -at the end of an unaccented syllable, have the long English sound. - -2. _A_, ending an unaccented syllable, has the sound of _a_ in -_father_, or in _last_. - -3. _I_, ending a final syllable, has the long sound. At the end of an -initial unaccented syllable it varies between _i_ long and _i_ short -(like _i_ in _pin_). In all other cases _i_, ending an unaccented -syllable, is short. - -4. _Y_ is like _i_ in the same situation. - -5. _Æ_ and _æ_ like _e_ in the same situation. - -6. If a syllable end in a consonant the vowel has the short English -sound. - -7. _E_, in final _es_, like _e_ in Andes. - -RULES FOR CONSONANTS. - -1. _C_, before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, _œ_, is pronounced like _s_; before -_a_, _o_, and _u_, and before consonants, like _k_. - -2. _G_, before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, and _œ_, or another _g_ followed -by _e_, has the sound of _j_; before _a_, _o_ and _u_, and consonants -other than _g_, the hard sound. - -3. _Ch_ is like _k_, but is silent before a mute at the beginning of a -word. - -4. Initial _x_ is like _z_. - -5. _T_, _s_, and _c_, before _ia_, _ie_, _ii_, _io_, _iv_, and _ev_, -preceded immediately by the accent, change into _sh_ and _zh_; but when -the _t_ follows _s_, _t_, or _z_, or when the accent falls on the first -of the vowels following, the consonant preserves its pure sound. - -6. Initial _ph_, before a mute, is silent. - -P. 1—“Autonomy,” au-tŏn´o-my. The word is formed from the Greek -words for _law_ and _self_ and means a law unto one’s self, or -self-government. - -P. 1—“Koroneia” or Coronea, cor=´=o-ni´a. - -P. 2—“Antalkidas,” an-tal´ci-das. - -P. 2—“Phœbidas,” phœb´i-das. A Lacedæmonian of whom nothing of -importance is known save his part in the seizure of Thebes. Phœbidas -was slain in battle by the Thebans in 378. - -P. 2—“Leontiades,” le-on-ti´a-des; “Ismenias,” is-me´ni-as; -“Pelopidas,” pe-lop´i-das; “Mellon,” mel´lon; “Charon,” ka´ron; -“Gorgias,” gor´gi-as; “The´o-pom´pus.” - -P. 3—“Hegemony,” he-gĕm´o-ny. Leadership. Formed from the Greek word -for guide or leader. - -P. 3—“Polymnis,” po-lym´nis. - -P. 3—“Sparti,” spar´ti; the sown-men. The dragon from which these -ancestors of the Theban patricians sprung guarded a well near the site -of the Cadmeia. The men whom Cadmus had sent there to draw water had -been killed by the monster, and in return Cadmus had slain it, sowing -its teeth as Minerva advised. Fearing the armed men which sprang forth -he caused a quarrel among them, in which all but five were slain. - -P. 3—“Kadmus,” cad´mus. The mythical founder of Thebes, the son of a -king of Phœnicia and the brother of Europa. - -P. 3—“Simmias,” sim´mi-as. The two principal speakers, besides -Socrates, in Plato’s “Phædon” are Simmias and his brother. - -P. 3—“Tarentine,” ta-ren´tine; “Spin´tha-rus.” - -P. 3—“Grote.” (1794-1871.) An English historian, famous chiefly for his -History of Greece. - -P. 4—“Lysis,” ly´sis. An eminent philosopher driven out of Italy about -510 B. C., during the persecution of the Pythagorean club. He spent -the remainder of his life in Thebes, where he was held in the greatest -honor. - -P. 4—“Pythagorean Brotherhood,” pyth´a-gō´re-an. See p. 119, Vol. -1, Timayenis. As a political and social power the brotherhood died out -before the death of Pythagoras, though the sect still lived and kept up -their religious observances. - -P. 4—“Kadmeia,” cad-me´a. - -P. 5—“Polybius,” po-lyb´i-us. (204-122 B. C.) A Grecian historian. - -P. 6—“Leuktra,” luke´tra; “Mantineia,” man´ti-nei´a; “Megalopolis,” -meg=´=a-lop´o-lis; “Kleombrotus,” kle-om´bro-tus; “Agesilaus,” -a-ges-i-la´us; “Kithæron,” ci-thæ´ron; “Naxos,” nax´os; “Chabrias,” -cha´bri-as. - -P. 7—“Timotheus,” ti-mo´the-us. The son of the famous general Conon. - -P. 7—“Tegyra,” te-gy´ra; “Harmost,” har´most; “Orchomenus,” -or-chom´e-nus; “Polemarch,” pōl´e-march. - -P. 8—“Chæroneia,” chær´o-ne´a. - -P. 8—“Eurotas,” eu-ro´tas. The largest river of Laconia. - -P. 9—“Zacynthus,” za-cyn´thus. Now Zante; called by Homer the “Woody -Zacynthus.” - -P. 9—“Korkyra,” cor-cy´ra. Now the island of Corfu, one of the Ionian -islands belonging to the nomarchy Corfu of the kingdom of Greece. - -P. 9—“Periplus,” pĕs. A rare word from the Greek, meaning to sail -around a sea or coast. - -P. 9—“Iphikrates,” i-phic´ra-tes. - -P. 9—“Poseidon,” po-si´don. The Neptune of Roman mythology, the god of -the sea. - -P. 9—“Helike,” hel´i-ce; “Bu´ra.” - -P. 10—“Kallias,” cal´li-as. An Athenian family famous through several -generations for its wealth. - -P. 10—“Autokles,” au´to-cles; “Kallistratus,” cal-lis´tra-tus. - -P. 10—“Bœotarch,” bœ-o´tarch. One of the chief civil officers of Bœotia. - -P. 10—“Xenophon,” xen´o-phon. - -P. 11—“Philo-Laconian.” Friendly to Laconia. - -P. 12—“Ephors,” ěf´or. - -P. 14—“Helikon,” hel´i-con. - -P. 14—“Kopais,” cop´a-is. The largest lake of Greece. - -P. 14—“Kreusis,” creu´sis. The harbor of the city of Thespiæ. - -P. 14—“Krissæan,” cris-sæ´an; “Thespiæ,” thes´pi-æ. - -P. 16—“Deimon,” dei´mon; “Sphodrias,” spho´dri-as. - -P. 16—“Kleonymus,” cle-on´y-mus. The dearest friend of Archidamus, the -son of Agesilaus. - -P. 17—“Ægospotami,” æ´gos-pot´a-mi. - -P. 17—“Peiræus,” pi-ræ´us. The principal harbor of Athens, situated -about five miles southwest of the city. - -P. 18—“Archidamus,” ar-chi-da´mus. - -P. 18—“Pheræ.” A city of Thessaly, the site of the modern Velestino. - -P. 18—“Ægosthena,” æ-gos´the-na. - -P. 19—“Aristotle,” ar´is-to-tle. - -P. 19—“Epiknemidian,” e-pic´ne-mid=´=ian; “O-pun´tian.” The inhabitants -of Eastern Locris were divided into two tribes: the Locri Epicnemidii, -inhabiting the northern and the Locri Opuntii the southern part. - -P. 20—“Panarkadian,” pan-ar-ca´di-an. Belonging to all Arcadia. - -P. 20—“Tegea,” te´ge-a; “He-ræ´a.” - -P. 21—“Dorians,” do´ri-ans; “Lacedæmon,” lac´e-dæ=´=mon; “Kephisus,” -ce-phi´sus. There are four rivers in Greece which bore this name. One -the chief river of Bœotia, two in Attica (one of which is its chief -river, and the one here referred to), and a fourth in Argolis. - -P. 22—“Phliasians,” phli-a´si-ans; “Helots,” hē´lots, or hĕl´ots; -“Kinadon,” cin´a-don. - -P. 22—“Periœki,” per-i-œ´ci. From the same derivation we have the word -“periecians,” or “periœcians,” meaning those who dwell on the opposite -side of the globe, in the same parallel of latitude. - -P. 22—“Ithome,” i-tho´me. A strong fortress had stood on the mountains -for centuries. - -P. 23—“Peltasts,” pel´tasts; “Pol´y-phron”; “Pol´y-do´rus.” - -P. 24—“Larissa,” la-ris´sa. - -P. 24—“Pharsalus,” phar-sa´lus, now “Phersala.” Chiefly celebrated for -the battle fought there between Cæsar and Pompey in 48 B. C. - -P. 24—“Aleuadæ,” a-leu´a-dæ; “Amyntas,” a-myn´tas; “Krannon,” cran´non; -“Eurydike,” eu-ryd´i-ce; “Perdikkas,” per-dic´cas; “Pausanias,” -pau-sa´ni-as. - -P. 25—“Alorus,” a-lo´rus; “Oneium,” o-nei´um. - -P. 26—“Pammenes,” pam´me-nes. A Theban general, and a friend of -Epaminondas. - -P. 26—“Dyonysius,” di´o-nys´i-us. - -P. 28—“Susa,” su´sa. The Shushan of the Old Testament; the winter -residence of the Persian kings. - -P. 28—“Rescript.” The answer of the Roman emperor when consulted on any -question was called the _rescript_. - -P. 29—“Drachmæ,” drăch´mæ. A silver coin of the Greeks, worth about -eighteen cents. - -P. 30—“Chersonese,” cher´so-nese´; “Chalkidike,” chal-cid´i-ce. - -P. 30—“Byzantium,” by-zan´ti-um. Now Constantinople. - -P. 31—“Kynos Kephalæ,” cy´nos ceph´a-læ. - -P. 31—“Magnesians.” The inhabitants of Magnesia, the most easterly -portion of Thessaly. It contained the two mountains, Ossa and Pelion. - -P. 31—“Phthiotæ,” phthi-o´tæ. - -P. 32—“Ænianes,” æ´ni-a´nes. An ancient race originally near Ossa, but -afterwards in Southern Thessaly. - -P. 32—“Pallantium,” pal-lan´ti-um; “A´se-a.” Towns of Arcadia. - -P. 33—“Isidas,” is´i-das. - -P. 34—“Kephisodorus,” ce-phis´o-do´rus; “Gryllus,” gryl´lus; -“Euphranor,” eu-phra´nor; “Mænalian,” mæ-na´li-an. - -P. 35—“Tripolitza,” tre-po-lit´sa. - -P. 36—“Diodorus,” di´o-do´rus. A contemporary of Cæsar and Augustus. -He wrote “The Historical Library,” consisting of forty books, not half -of which are extant. - -P. 37—“Iolaidas,” i-o-la´i-das. - -P. 38—“_Status quo._” The state in which. - -P. 39—“Tachos,” ta´chos; “Nectanabis,” nec-tan´a-bis. - -P. 39—“Kyrene,” cy-re´ne. The chief city of Cyrenaica, in Northern -Africa. - -P. 40—“Klerouchi,” kle-rou´chi. - -P. 41—“Thebe,” the´be; “Timoleon,” ti-mo´le-on. - -P. 42—“Amphiktyonic,” am-phic´ty-on´ic. - -P. 43—“Kirrhæan,” cir-rhæ´an; “Delphi,” del´phi. - -P. 43—“Magnetes,” mag-ne´tes. The same as the Magnesians. - -P. 43—“Perrhæbians,” per-rhæ´bi-ans; “Athamanes,” ath´a-ma´nes; -“Dolopes,” dol´o-pes. - -P. 44—“Philomelus,” phil´o-me´lus; “Thracidæ,” thra´ci-dæ; “Pyth´i-an.” - -P. 45—“Onomarchus,” on´-o-mar´chus. - -P. 46—“Illyrians,” il-lyr´i-ans; “Pæonians,” pæ-o´ni-ans; “Eupatridæ,” -eu-pat´ri-dæ; “Lykophron,” lyc´o-phron. The brother-in-law of -Alexander, and his assistant in his murder. - -P. 47—“Æschines,” æs´chi-nes. The Athenian orator. - -P. 47—“Kleobule,” cle-o-bu´le; “Gylon,” gy´lon. - -P. 47—“Bosporus,” bos´po-rus. Literally the _ox-ford_. The name given -to any straits by the Greeks, but particularly to that uniting the Sea -of Azof with the Black Sea. The country on both sides this latter was -called Bosporus. Its cities became important commercial centers, and -from them large supplies of corn were annually sent to Athens. It was -in this country that Gylon made his money. - -P. 47—“Demochares,” de-moch´a-res. - -P. 48—“Aphobus,” aph´o-bus; “O-ne´tor.” - -P. 48—“Palæstra,” pa-læs´tra. In Greece a place for wrestling was -called _palæstra_. - -P. 48—“Plato.” The philosopher. After having been instructed by -the best teachers of his time Plato became a follower of Socrates. -After the death of the latter he traveled in many countries, seeking -knowledge, and at last returned to Athens to open a school in -his garden, near the academy. Here Plato taught and wrote almost -continuously until his death, about 348 B. C. His works have come -down to us very complete and perfect. They are mainly in the form -of dialogues, Socrates being one of the chief characters. His most -important doctrines are the existence of the soul before entering the -body, its independence of the body, and its immortality. - -P. 48—“Isokrates,” i-soc´ra-tes. (436-338 B. C.) One of the ten Attic -orators. He was carefully educated, but as he was too timid to come -forward as an orator, he devoted himself to teaching the art and -writing speeches for others. Although he took no part in public affairs -he loved his country, and despairing of its freedom after the battle of -Chæroneia, he took his own life. His style was artificial and labored, -but exercised immense influence upon oratory at Athens. - -P. 49—“Isæus,” i-sæ´us. One of the ten Attic orators. Instructed by -Lysias and Isokrates. We have no particulars of his life. Eleven of -his orations in existence are remarkable for their vigor and purity of -style. - -P. 49—“Thucydides,” thu-cyd´i-des. (471?-400?) The historian. Little -more is known of his life than is related by Timayenis (vol. i., p. -337). The accounts of his death are uncertain. The work which gives him -his place in history is his account of the Peloponnesian war. - -P. 49—“Lysias,” lys´i-as. (B. C. 458-378.) An Attic orator. When a -youth, Lysias emigrated to a colony in Italy, where he finished his -education. After the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily he returned to -Athens, but only to be imprisoned as an enemy of the government. He -escaped, and on the overthrow of the tyranny of the thirty tyrants -went back to Athens, where he wrote speeches. Only thirty-five are now -extant, but they are said to be specimens of the best Attic Greek. - -P. 49—“Bema,” be´ma. The Greek for the stage on which speakers stood. - -P. 50—“Phalerum,” pha-le´rum. The most easterly of the harbors of -Athens. - -P. 50—“Eunomus,” eu´no-mus; “Perikles,” per´i-cles; “Satyrus,” -sat´y-rus. - -P. 50—“Euripides,” eu-rip´i-des. (B. C. 480-406.) - -P. 50—“Sophocles,” soph´o-cles. (B. C. 495?-406). The chief of the trio -of Greek dramatists. In 468 he defeated Æschylus in a dramatic contest. -His character is said to have been that of a complete Greek, combining -symmetry of person, skill in music and gymnastics, self-possession, -genius, taste. Only seven of his dramas have been preserved. - -P. 51—“Dionysius of Halicarnassus.” A rhetorician who came from -Halicarnassus, a city in Asia Minor, about B. C. 29. His most ambitious -work is a history of Rome in twenty-two books. - -P. 52—“Herodotus,” he-rod´i-tus. - -P. 53—“Phokion,” pho´ci-on. - -P. 54—“Olynthians,” o-lyn´thi-ans. - -P. 55—“Perinthus,” pe-rin´thus. An important town in Thrace on the -Propontis. - -P. 55—“Chares,” cha´res. - -P. 56—“Amphissa,” am-phis´sa. Now Salona; though destroyed by Philip, -it was afterward rebuilt. - -P. 56—“Elateia,” el´a-te´a. Its ruins still exist near the town of -Elephtha. - -P. 58—“Solon,” so´lon; “The-og´nis;” “Alkaeus,” al´ce-us; “Pindar,” -pin´dar. - -P. 59—“Æschylus,” Æs´chy-lus. The great tragic poet. The Athenians -called Æschylus the father of tragedy because of the changes he made -in the representation of plays. He introduced a second actor, provided -scenic effects, gave his actors better costumes, and introduced -new figures into the choral dances. Only seven of his plays are in -existence. - -P. 59—“Iktinus,” ic-ti´nus. A contemporary of Phidias and Pericles, and -the architect of the Parthenon or temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis. - -P. 59—“Polygnotus,” pol´yg-no´tus. - -P. 59—“Aristophanes,” ar´is-toph´a-nes. The great comic poet of Athens, -born about B. C. 444, but of whose private life almost nothing is -known. His comedies are a series of caricatures on Athenians and their -follies. - -P. 61—“Skardus,” skar´dus; “Ber´mi-us;” “Kam-bu´ni-an;” “Ægæ,” Æ´gæ; -“E-des´sa.” - -P. 62—“Thermaic,” ther-ma´ic. See _Sinus Thermaicus_ on map. -“Pisistratidæ,” pis´is-trat´i-dæ. - -P. 62—“Strymon,” stry´mon. The boundary between Thrace and Macedon down -to the time of Philip. “Archelaus,” ar´che-la´us. - -P. 63—“_L’Etat, c’est moi._” “The State, it is I.” - -P. 63—“Orestes,” o-res´tes; “Aëropus,” a-er´o-pus. - -P. 65—“Nichomachus,” ni-chom´a-chus. - -P. 66—“Argæus,” ar-gæ´us; “Amphipolis,” am-phip´o-lis. - -P. 67—“Mantias,” man´ti-as; “Pangæus,” pan-gæ´us. - -P. 68—“Anthemus,” an´the-mus. - -P. 69—“Potidæa,” pot´i-dæ´a; “Thasians,” tha´si-ans. - -P. 69—“Neoptolemus,” ne´op-tol´e-mus; “Molossi,” mo-los´si; “Æakidæ,” -æ-ac´i-dæ; “Samothrake,” sam´o-thra´ce. - -P. 70—“Sarissa,” sa-ris´sa. - -P. 71—“Phalangites,” fal´an-gī-tes; “Hypaspists,” hy-pas´pists; -“Hetæri,” het´æ-ri. - -P. 72—“Paulus Æmilius,” pau´lus æ-mil´i-us. (B. C. 230-160.) A Roman -general. - -P. 74—“Pagasæ,” pag´a-sæ. Now Volo; also, the Pagasæan Gulf is now the -Gulf of Volo. - -P. 76—“Charidemus,” char-i-de´mus. - -P. 78—“Dionysia,” di-o-nys´i-a. A festival in honor of the god Bacchus, -celebrated in Athens in the spring, and with greater splendor than any -other festival of the god. - -P. 78—“Choregus.” The Greek word for a leader of the chorus. - -P. 78—“Apollodorus,” a´pol-lo-do=´=rus. - -P. 79—“Kritobulus,” crit-o-bu´lus. - -P. 81—“Phalækus,” pha-læ´cus; “Tenedos,” ten´e-dos. - -P. 82—“Elaphebolion,” el´a-phe-bo=´=li-on. The Greeks divided their -year into twelve lunar months. - -P. 84—“Prytaneium,” pryt-a-ne´um. The common hall of the Senate, in -which they met daily. - -P. 86—“Parmenio,” par-me´ni-o. Of whom Philip said “I have never been -able to find but one general, and that is Parmenio.” - -P. 86—“Attalus,” at´ta-lus. - -P. 88—“Leonnatus,” le´on-na´tus. - -P. 89—“Ambrakiot,” am-bra´ci-ot. - -P. 90—“Eurymedon,” eu-rym´e-don. - -P. 91—“Leonidas,” le-on´i-das. The hardy habits of self-denial which -Alexander displayed were attributed by him to the teachings of the -austere Leonidas. - -P. 91—“Lysimachus,” ly-sim´a-chus. - -P. 93—“Hæmus,” hæ´mus; “Triballi,” tri-bal´li. - -P. 94—“Onchestus,” on-ches´tus; a town a little south of Lake Copias. - -P. 94—“Lychnitis,” or Lychnidus, lych´ni-tis; “Kleitus,” clei´tus. - -P. 94—“Glaukias,” glau´ki-as. The king of one of the Illyrian tribes. - -P. 95—“Phœnix,” phœ´nix; “Proch´y-tes;” “Ephialtes,” eph´i-al´tes. - -P. 95—“Sinope,” si-no´pe. The most important of all the Greek colonies -on the Black Sea in Asia Minor. - -P. 95—“Diogenes,” di-og´e-nes. - -P. 96—“Artaxerxes,” ar´tax-erx´es; “Mne´mon;” “O´chus;” “Bagoas,” -ba-go´as; “Codomannus,” cod-o-man´nus. - -P. 97—“Abydos,” a´by-dos. It was from Abydos to Sestus that Leander -swam to Hero. - -P. 98—“Philotas,” phi-lo´tas; “Har´pa-lus;” “Er´-i-gy´i-us” (ji´yus). - -P. 99—“Zeleia,” ze-li´a. - -P. 99—“Arrian,” ar´ri-an, (100-170 A. D.) A native of Bithynia. One of -the best writers of his time. He strove to imitate Xenophon, attached -himself to the philosopher Epictetus, as Xenophon to Socrates; wrote -the lectures of Epictetus to correspond to the Memorabilia. His best -work is a history of Alexander’s Asiatic expedition, which, both in -style and matter, is similar to the Anabasis. He wrote numerous other -works, many of which are lost. - -P. 100—“Justin.” Lived in the third or fourth century. Justin left a -history of the Macedonian empire, compiled from a work now lost by -Trogus Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus. - -P. 100—“Granicus,” gra-ni´cus; “Skepsis,” scep´sis; “Adrasteia,” -ad´ras-ti´a; “Pri-a´pus;” “Pa´ri-um;” “A-ris´be.” - -P. 101—“Meleager,” me´le-a´ger; “Nikanor,” ni-ca´nor. - -P. 101—“Arrhibæus,” ar´rha-bæ´us; “Ag´a-thon.” - -P. 101—“Baktrians,” bac´tri-ans. The warlike inhabitants of Bactria, a -northeast province of the Persian Empire. - -P. 101—“Paphlagonians,” paph=´=la-go´ni-ans. A district on the north of -Asia Minor between Bithynia and Pontus. - -P. 101—“Hyrkanians,” hyr-ka´ni-ans. Hyrcania, the country of these -people, is on the southern and southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea. - -P. 101—“Arsites,” ar-si´tes; “Spith´ra-da´tes;” “Ar-sam´e-nes.” - -P. 103—“Demaratus,” dem´a-ra´tus; “Drop´i-des.” - -P. 104—“Lysippus,” ly-sip´pus. - -P. 104—“Sardis.” One of the most famous cities of Asia Minor. This -citadel had always been considered impregnable from its situation. - -P. 105—“Miletus,” mi-le´tus. - -P. 106—“Tralles,” tral´les; “Lycia,” lyc´i-a; “Pam-phyl´i-a;” -“Pi-sid´i-a;” “Gordium,” gor´di-um; “San-ga´ri-us;” “Phrygia,” -phryg´i-a. - -P. 108—“Mesopotamia,” mes´o-po-ta´mi-a. - -P. 108—“Sogdiana,” sog´di-a´na. The northeastern portion of the Persian -Empire, including portions of the present country of Turkestan and -Bokhara. - -P. 109—“Gates of Kilikia.” See on map, p. 108, _Pylæ Kikiliæ_, -“Amanus,” a-ma´nus. - -P. 110—“Beylan,” bā´lan. - -P. 112—“Kardakes,” car´da-ces. - -P. 113—“Seleukis,” se-leu´cis. - -P. 116—“Kœle-Syria,” cœl´e-syr´i-a. Hollow Syria. The name given to the -valley between the two ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, -and bordering on Palestine. - -P. 117—“Persepolis,” per-sep´o-lis. A treasure city of the Persians -situated on the north of the river Araxes. - -P. 119—“Pelusium,” pe-lu´si-um; “Hephæstion,” he-phæs´ti-on. - -P. 119—“Apis,” a´pis. The name given to the Bull of Memphis, worshiped -by the Egyptians as a god. There were certain signs by which the -animal was recognized to be the god: he must be black, a white, square -mark must be on his forehead, etc. When found he was worshiped with -greatest honors. Gradually the bull came to be regarded as a symbol, -and Apis was identified with the sun. - -P. 119—“Kanopus,” ca-no´pus. - -P. 119—“Pharos.” The island is mentioned by Homer. Alexander united it -to his new city by a mole. Ptolemy II. built a lighthouse here. Hence -we have the name Pharos often given to such buildings. The translators -of the Septuagint are said to have been confined here until they -finished their task. - -P. 119—“Mareotis,” ma-re-o´tis. - -P. 120—“Ammon.” Originally an Ethiopian god, afterward adopted by the -Egyptians. The Greeks called him Zeus Ammon, and the Romans, Jupiter -Ammon. The god was represented under the form of a ram, and this -seems to indicate that the original idea in the worship was that of a -protector of flocks. - -P. 121—“Arbela,” ar-be´la; “Gaugamela,” gau-ga-me´la. - -P. 123—“Albanians.” These people came from Albania, a country on the -west of the Caspian and in the southeast of Georgia. - -P. 123—“Karians,” from Karia; “Menidas,” men´i-das. - -P. 124—“Bessus,” bes´sus. - -P. 125—“Aretas,” ar´e-tas. - -P. 127—“Curtius,” cur´ti-us. The Roman historian of Alexander the -Great. Nothing is known of his life. His history is fairly reliable. - -P. 128—“Eulæus,” eu-læ´us. The Old Testament Ulai, rises in Media, and -uniting with the Pasitigris, flows into the Persian Gulf. - -P. 128—“Pasitigris,” pa-sit´i-gris. - -P. 129—“Tænarus,” tæn´a-rus. Now Cape Matapan. - -P. 131—“Drangiana,” dran´gi-a´na; “Ar´a-cho´si-a;” “Ge-dro´si-a;” -“Par´o-pa-mis´i-dæ;” “Seistan,” sā-stan´; “Candahar,” can-da-har´; -“Zurrah,” zur´rah. - -P. 132—“Ecbatana,” ec-bat´-a-na. - -P. 135—“Dioskuri,” di´os-cu´ri. Literally the sons of Jupiter. The -heroes Castor and Pollux. - -P. 136—“Oxyartes,” ox´y-ar´tes. - -P. 137—“Telestes,” te-les´tes; “Phi-lox´e-mus;” “Bukephalia,” -bu´ce-pha-li´a; “Akesines,” ac´e-si´nes; “Hyd-ra-o´tes;” “Hyph´a-sis.” - -P. 139—“Arabitæ,” ar´a-bi´tæ; “O-ri´tæ;” “Ich´thy-oph´a-gi.” - - -BRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE. - -The “Brief History of Greece” has not been annotated as the -pronunciation of the Greek and Latin names is marked, and its foot -notes are sufficient. - - -AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -P. 9—“Sandys,” săn´dĭs. - -P. 11—“Magnalia Christi Americana.” The great deeds of Christ in -America. - -P. 14—“Fox.” (1624-1690.) The founder of the sect of the Quakers. - -P. 14—“Ipswich,” ips´wich, “Ag-a-wam´.” The latter was the first name -given to Ipswich. - -P. 15—“Yale Library.” These forty books have increased to over 112,000, -exclusive of pamphlets. - -P. 18—“Hopkinsianism,” hop-kins´i-an-ism. - -P. 20—“Philomath,” phil´o-math. A lover of learning. - -P. 21—“Brainherd,” brā´nerd. - -P. 25—“Publius,” pŭb´li-us. - -P. 27—“Freneau,” fre-nō´. - -P. 27—“Huguenot,” hū´ge-not. Diminutive of Hugo, a heretic and -conspirator. The name was afterwards given to the French Protestants of -France. - -P. 27—“Columbiad,” co-lŭm´bi-ad. - -P. 28—“DeFoe,” de-fō´. (1661?-1731.) - -P. 30—“Hollis professorship.” Established in 1721 by Thomas Hollis. -Being a Baptist, he required that the candidate for the professorship -should be of orthodox principles. - -P. 31—“Trinitarian,” trĭn-i-ta´ri-an. Pertaining to the Trinity. - -P. 31—“Arian,” ā´ri-an. A follower of Arius, who held Christ to be a -created being. - -P. 36—“Schaff,” shäf. - -P. 36—“Swedenborgian,” swē-den-bôr´gi-an. - -P. 39—“Pseudonym,” sū´do-nĭm. A fictitious name. - -P. 39—“Salmagundi,” săl-ma-gŭn´dĭ. Originally a mixture of -chopped meats, fish with pepper, etc.; hence, a medley, a _pot-pourri_. - -P. 42—-“Granada,” gra-na´da; “Al-ham´bra.” - -P. 45—“Guildford,” gil´ford. - -P. 46—“Marco Bozzaris,” mar´cō bot´sä-ris. A Greek patriot, born in -1790, killed at Missolonghi in 1823. - -P. 46—“Buccanneer,” bŭc´ca-neer´. - -P. 47—“Muhlenburg,” mu´len-berg. - -P. 47—“Hadad,” hā´dăd. - -P. 48—“Thanatopsis;” than-a-top´sis. A view of death. - -P. 49—“Phi Beta Kappa Society.” A prominent Greek letter society, -founded in the College of William and Mary in 1776. - -P. 49—“Verplanck,” ver-plănk´. - -P. 51—“Lope de Vega,” lo´pā da vā´gä. (1562-1635.) A Spanish poet -and dramatist. - -P. 52—“Bruges,” brüzh. - -P. 54—“_Morituri Salutamus._” Literally, We about to die, salute you. - -P. 54—“Aftermath,” aft´er-măth. The second crop of grass mown in a -year. - -P. 54—“Outre-mer.” Beyond the sea. - -P. 54—“Hyperion,” hy-pe´rĭ-on; “Kavanagh,” kav´a-näh. - -P. 61—“Launfal,” laun´fal. - -P. 63—“Baudelaire,” bō-de-lar. - -P. 67—“Göttingen,” get´ting-en. - -P. 70—“Barneveld,” bar´ne-vĕlt. - -P. 72—“Mohicans,” mo-hi´cans. - -P. 74—“Surinam,” soo-rĭ-nam´. Dutch Guiana. - -P. 76—“Thoreau,” tho´ro. - -P. 78—“Aurelian,” au-re´li-an; “Ju´li-an;” “Ze-no´bia.” - -P. 78—“Yemassee,” ye-mas-see´. The Yemassees were the tribe of Indians -afterwards called Savannahs. - -P. 78—“Beauchampe,” bō´shŏn´. - -P. 81—“Potiphar,” pot´i-phar. - -P. 84—“Audubon,” aw´du-bon; “Agassiz,” ăg´a-see; “Guyot,” gē´o´. - -P. 87—“Pre-Raphaelites,” pre-răph´a-el-ītes. Following the style -before the time of Raphael. - -P. 89—“Improvisatori,” im-prŏ´vi-sa-tō´ri. Those who compose -extemporaneously. - -P. 92—“Rossetti,” ros-sĕt´ee. - -P. 94—“_Toujours amour._” Always love. - -P. 94—“Piatt,” pī´at. - -P. 103—“Azarian,” az´a-ri´an. - -P. 103—“Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen,” h-a-jal-mer h-a-jorth bo-yay-sen. - -P. 110—“Litterateur,” lē-tā´rä-tur. A literary man. - - - - -NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -P. 1, c. 1—“Clovis,” klō´vis; “Charlemagne,” shar´le-mān´; -“Rudolphus,” roo-dŏl´fus; “Swabian,” swa´bī-an; “Hohenstaufen,” -ho´en-stow´fen; “Westphalia,” west-phā´lĭ-a. - -P. 1, c. 1—“Maes.” The Flemish name for the Meuse. - -P. 1, c. 1—“March,” or “Morawa.” A river of Austria. Its position as -a boundary of Hungary, and proximity to Vienna, have often made it of -historical importance. - -P. 1, c. 1—“Mur,” or “Muir,” moor. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Prosna,” pros´na; “Nieman,” nee´man. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Teutoburg,” toi´to-boorg. A range of mountains in Western -Germany, about eighty miles in length. It was in this forest that the -German Arminius defeated the Romans in A. D. 9. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Erz,” erts. The Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, are on the -boundary between Bohemia and Saxony, extending about 100 miles. There -are several granite peaks in the range. These mountains have long been -famous for their mineral products of silver, tin, iron, cobalt, copper, -etc. Coal is found also and porcelain clay. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Riesen,” ree´zen. Giant mountains. A continuation of the -Erzgebirge, lying east of the river Elbe. The range extends about -seventy-five miles. It is of the same geological formation as the Erz. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Weser,” We´ser; “Vistula,” vist´yu-la. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Magyar,” mod´jor. A tribe which came from the far East. -In 887 they came into Hungary and soon conquered it and the adjoining -country. For one hundred years their conquests were extended, but at -last they consolidated the power within their own country. The Magyars -possessed an independent kingdom until the present century, but now -constitute one of the two leading divisions of the Austro-Hungarian -monarchy. The Emperor of Austria is the King of Hungary. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Turanians,” tu-ra´ni-ans. The tribes of the Turanians are -the Finns, the people of Siberia, the Tartars, the Mongols, and the -Mantchoos. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Aryan,” är´yan. The tribes speaking the Germanic, Slavic, -Celtic, Italic, Greek, Iranian, and Sanskrit languages belong to this -family. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Teutonic,” teū-ton´ic. The Teutonic dialects were the -languages spoken by the ancient Germans, so-called from one of the -tribes, the Teutons. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Pytheas,” pyth´e-as. He is said to have made two voyages, -one to Britain and Iceland, another to the northern coast of Europe. - -P. 1, c. 2—“Tuisko,” too-is´ko. The German legends describe the god as -a gray-haired man, clad in skins of animals, and with a scepter in his -right hand. - -P. 2, c. 1—“Tacitus,” tac´i-tus. (A. D. 55-117.) A Roman historian. His -histories of the condition and customs of the Britains and Germans are -trustworthy accounts, written in a clear and concise style. A history -of Rome is his most ambitious work. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Suetonius,” swe-to´ni-us. A Roman historian, living in the -latter half of the first century. His writings were very voluminous. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Kělt,” or “Cělt.” A race of Asiatic origin, which in -very early time passed into Europe and gradually worked their way to -the present countries of France, and Great Britain. The Irish, Welsh, -and the Scotch of the Highlands are descendants of the Celts. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Eagle.” From the time of Marius the eagle was the principal -emblem of the Roman Empire, and the standard of the legions. In the -fourteenth century the Germans adopted it, and afterwards Russia. The -arms of Prussia bear the black eagle, those of Poland bore the white. - -P. 2, c. 2—“De Moribus Germanorum.” Treatise concerning the customs of -the Germans. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Titus.” (A. D. 40-81.) Roman Emperor. Titus had -opportunities of observing the Germans when he was young, being -military tribune in Germany. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Wō´dan,” The same as Odin, Wuotan, and Wotan. See “Notes -on Scandinavian Literature,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for April. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Hertha,” also written Ærtha, or Nerthus. As goddess of the -earth Hertha was believed to bring fertility. In the spring festivities -were held to celebrate her arrival, all feuds were suspended and the -greatest rejoicing prevailed. - -P. 2, c. 2—“Runes.” The Norsemen had a peculiar alphabet of sixteen -letters, or signs. It was not used as we use our alphabet; indeed, as -the word _rune_ (mystery) signifies, its meaning was known to but few. -The letters were carved on rocks, stones, utensils, etc. Also, as in -the case alluded to, on smooth sticks for divination. A mysterious -power was supposed to reside in these characters. - - * * * * * - -The article on “Air,” in the Physical Science series, is abridged -from the “English Science Primer on Physical Geography,” by Archibald -Geikie. The clear, simple style of the article make annotations -unnecessary. The same is also true of the paper on “Political Economy.” - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -P. 6, c. 2—“Archæology,” är-chæ-ŏl´o-gy. The science of antiquities. - -P. 7, c. 1—“Guadaloupe,” gaw´da-loop´. An island of the West Indies. - -P. 7, c. 2—“Owen.” (1807-1860.) An American geologist. He made -geological surveys of several States of the West and published reports -of his labors. - -P. 8, c. 1—“Lamartine,” lä-mar-ten´. (1790-1869.) A French poet. After -several years of writing and travel Lamartine, in 1835, was chosen a -member of the Chamber of Deputies. Here his oratory won him laurels. -He was a Liberalist, and in 1848, during the establishment of the -republic, Lamartine’s eloquence and boldness prevented open attack -upon the aristocracy. He occupied several positions under the new -government, but finally retired to literary work. - - -READINGS IN ART. - -P. 11, c. 1—“Glyptics,” glyp´tics. Carving on precious stones. - -P. 11, c. 1—“Bas relief,” bä-re-leef´. “Michael Angelo,” me-kĕl -an´ja-lo. (1474-1562). The Italian painter and sculptor. - -P. 11, c. 2—“Lapidary,” lăp´i-da-ry. One who cuts, polishes, and -engraves stones. “Vitreous,” vĭt´re-ous, glassy; “Ter´ra cot´ta;” -“Chryselephantine,” chrys´el-e-phănt´ine; “To-reu´tic;” “Ar´ma-ture.” - -P. 12, c. 1—“Galvano-plastique,” gal-vā´no-plăs-teek; -“Băs´so-rē-liē´vo;” “Stiacciato,” stē-ät-chä´to; -“Mezzo-relievo,” mĕd´zo-re-liē´vo; “Al´to-re-liē-vo;” -“Ca-vo-re-liē´vo.” - -P. 12, c. 1—“Renaissance,” rŭh-nā´sŏngs´. The awakening or -new birth, that took place in architecture, literature, and the fine -arts from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. Men’s minds during -the middle ages had been under the influence of the church. Freedom of -thought and action became almost extinct. Reaction revived all branches -of art and literature, producing the period called the “Renaissance.” - -P. 12, c. 1—“Polycleitus,” pol´y-clei´tus. A Greek sculptor who lived -about 430 B. C. His statues of men are said to have surpassed those of -Phidias. The Spear Bearer was a statue so perfectly proportioned that -it was called the canon or rule. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Vitruvius Pollio,” vi-tru´vi-us pol´li-o. A Roman -architect who served under Cæsar. His treatise on architecture is a -compendium of Greek writers on the subject. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Mem´phis.” Meaning the abode of the good one. Once the -most magnificent city of Egypt, the capital of the kingdom, and -residence of several Egyptian deities. It is only of late that its site -has been known. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Cheops,” kē´ops. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Renan,” ree´nan. A French orientalist, author and critic. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Mariette,” mä=´=re=´=[)et]´. French Egyptologist. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Ghizeh,” jee´zeh, or gee´zeh. A village of Egypt three -miles from Cairo. The three great pyramids are but five miles from -Ghizeh. - -P. 12, c. 2—“Amosis,” a-mo´sis; “A-mu´nothph;” “Thoth´mo-sis;” -“Ni-to´cris.” - -P. 13, c. 1—“Karnak,” kar´nak. A modern village of Egypt, in which has -been found a portion of the ruins of Thebes. - -P. 13, c. 1—“Mem´non.” A statue of a hero of the Trojan war. It is -called musical because at sunrise a sound comes from it like the twang -of a harp string. It has been conjectured that this tone was caused by -the expansive effect of the sun’s rays upon the stone. - -P. 13, c. 1 “Ram´ses;” “Tu´rin.” - -P. 13, c. 1—“Osiris,” o-si´ris. One of the chief divinities of the -Egyptians. - -P. 13, c. 1—“Louvre,” loovr; “Abou Simbel,” â-boo-sim´bel; “Coptic,” -cŏp´tic. - -P. 13, c. 2—“Edfou,” ed´foo´; “Denderah,” den´der-äh. - -P. 13, c. 2-“Hadrian,” ha´drĭ-an, or Adrian. (76-138.) Roman Emperor. - -P. 13, c. 2—“Botta,” bot´ä; “Mo´sul.” - -P. 14, c. 1—“Sarcophaguses,” sar-cŏph´a-gŭses. Literally the word -means _eating flesh_, and was named from the peculiar kind of limestone -used by the Greeks for making coffins which consumed the body in a -short time. Now a coffin or tomb made from stone of any kind. - -P. 14, c. 1—“Cambyses,” kam-bī´sēz. The second king of Persia, -and probably the Ahasuerus mentioned in Ezra. - - -AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -P. 14, c. 2—“Sandys.” The extract here given is taken from the -dedication of one of Sandys’s works to Prince Charles, afterward -King Charles I. The work bears the ambitious title, “A Relation of a -Journey begun in A. D. 1610; Four Bookes containing a description of -the Turkish Empire, of Egypt, of the Holy Land, of the remote parts -of Italy and Islands adjoining.” Of this work a traveler of the times -says, “The descriptions are so faithful and perfect that they leave -little to be added by after-comers, and nothing to be corrected.” - -P. 15, c. 2—“Mogul,” mo-gūl´. A person of the Mongolian race. - -P. 15, c. 2—“_Cæteris paribus._” Other things being equal. - -P. 15, c. 2—“Boyle,” boil. (1626-1691.) An Irish chemist and -philosopher. He has been called the inventor of the air pump, and by it -he demonstrated the elasticity of the air. His charity and philanthropy -gave him the reverence of his associates and his philosophical -experiments placed him among scientists. He has been called “the great -Christian philosopher.” - -P. 15, c. 2—“Bodleian,” bōd´le-an. Pertaining to Sir Thomas Bodley, -who founded a celebrated library in Oxford in the sixteenth century. - -P. 15, c. 2—“Văt´i-can.” An assemblage of buildings in Rome, -including the Pope’s palace, museum, library, etc. - -P. 16, c. 1—“Edwards.” This selection is taken from Edwards’s treatise -on the “Religious Affections.” - - - - -CHAUTAUQUA CHILDREN’S CLASS, 1883. - - -The grades of the written examination are given upon the standard of -100. The three receiving 98⅔ in the full-course list are entitled to -the prizes. No prizes are given to those passing only on the lessons of -the first series, but their standards are given showing good work. - -FULL COURSE. - - Lillian Aldrich, box 79, Madisonville, O. 92⅔ - Edna Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O. 92⅔ - Helen Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa. 96 - James H. Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa. 95⅓ - Bessie Barrett, care C. S. Barrett, Titusville, Pa. 84⅔ - Grace E. Barrett, care C. S. Barrett, Titusville, Pa. 92 - Mary E. Bray, Parker’s Landing, Pa. 95⅓ - Irma Campbell, Hartfield, Chautauqua County, N. Y. 85⅓ - Lizzie Cary, Conneautville, Pa. 82 - Phrania Chesbro, Harrisville, Pa. 94 - Nell Clark, Union City, Pa. 95⅓ - Carrie Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa. 93⅓ - Mary Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa. 97⅓ - Rachel Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa. 78⅔ - Carrie M. Dixon, box 213, Titusville, Pa. 94 - Daisy A. Doren, 307 East Sixth Street, Dayton, O. 98⅔ - Elsie Downs, box 195, Chautauqua, N. Y. 92⅔ - Mary E. Ensign, Madison, O. 90 - Alice R. Eaton, Titusville, Pa. 96 - Louise Folley, 101 South Sixth Street, Lafayette, Ind. 96⅔ - Anna Funnell, care Mrs. J. McAllister, White Hall, Ill. 93⅓ - Emma G. Guernsey, Oil City, Pa. 87⅓ - Florence Guernsey, Oil City, Pa. 95⅓ - Mamie A. Guernsey, Canton, Bradford County, Pa. 98⅔ - Claire Hammond, Oil City, Pa. 91⅓ - Albert J. Harris, 530 South Division Street, Buffalo, N. Y. 74 - Inez Harris, box 1159, Bradford, Pa. 73⅓ - May Herrick, Chautauqua, N. Y. 78⅔ - Hattie K. Horr, Sidney, O. 96 - Edith D. Hunter, Mill Village, Erie County, Pa. 94 - Helen E. Irwin, Tampa, Fla. 95⅓ - Blanche Jackson, Collins Center, Erie County, N. Y. 88⅔ - Dora E. Jackson, Collins Center, Erie County, N. Y. 80⅔ - Willie Johnson, Girard, O. 74 - Cora B. Jones, Greenfield, Pa. 90 - Florence A. Jones, Greenfield, Pa. 96 - Florence E. Keller, Titusville, Pa. 84⅔ - Grace J. Kirkland, Dewittville, N. Y. 96 - Jessie Leslie, Chautauqua, N. Y. 90 - Fannie E. Lowes, Canonsburg, Pa. 97⅓ - Clair Metcalf, box 1194, Bradford, Pa. 79⅓ - Nellie M. Norris, West Farmington, O. 98⅔ - Herbert Russell, Mansfield, O. 96⅔ - Alma J. Schofield, Hartfield, N. Y. 79⅓ - Clyde Simmons, Oil City, Pa. 78⅔ - Mary A. Sixbey, Mayville, N. Y. 96 - Julia A. Tifft, care S. E. Tifft, Titusville, Pa. 93⅓ - Mary L. Turrill, Cumminsville Street, Cincinnati, O. 83⅓ - Harry B. Vincent, Pottsville Pa. 72 - -WRITTEN EXAMINATION—FIRST SERIES. - - Edna Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O. 97½ - William F. Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O. 97½ - Annie Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa. 91⅔ - Percy Barlow, 88 Mayberry Avenue, Detroit, Mich. 97½ - Carrie Bradley, Titusville, Pa. 79⅙ - Bessie Burwell, Mercer, Pa. 80⅚ - Ellis J. Chesbro, Harrisville, Pa. 99⅙ - Jessie Clauson, Rutland, Vt. 95⅚ - Jessie Galey, Pollock P. O., Pa. 100 - Helen M. Guernsey, Canton, Pa. 95 - Claire Hammond, Oil City, Pa. 100 - Maud Harkins, Chautauqua, N. Y. 82½ - Willie M. Hill, Liverpool, O. 91⅜ - Louie Hogan, West Monterey, Pa. 81⅔ - Grace Holmes, Union City, Pa. 88⅓ - Clara Irwin, Tampa, Fla. 95⅚ - Cora B. Jones, Greenfield, Pa. 99⅙ - Hudson Layton, 269 Liberty Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. 70 - Winnie Maguire, Pittsfield, Pa. 90 - Mabel Metcalf, Bradford, Pa. 83⅓ - Ettie Niles, Flushing, Mich. 98⅓ - Carrie Perkins, Dunkirk, N. Y. 82½ - Herbert Russell, Mansfield, O. 100 - Grace Vance, New Wilmington, Pa. 75⅔ - Nellie Vance, New Wilmington, Pa. 81⅔ - Bessie S. Williams, 221 N. Juniper, Philadelphia, Pa. 97½ - Nellie Wood, Kansas, Ill. 96⅔ - Lovie Yingling, Pollock P. O., Pa. 100 - _No name_ on a successful paper. 85 - - -ORAL EXAMINATION—FIRST SERIES. - - Russell Armor, Bradford, Pa. - Gracie Bosley, Bradford, Pa. - Miner D. Crary, Sheffield, Pa. - Carrie Darling, Spartansburg, Pa. - Eva Hall, Brockton, N. Y. - Ralph Harris, 530 South Division Street, Buffalo, N. Y. - Gracie Jones, Greenfield, Pa. - Nina Jones, Princeton, Ky. - Carlie F. Kittridge, Geneseo, N. Y. - Robert Kittridge, Geneseo, N. Y. - Hattie Miner, Deposit, N. Y. - Grace L. Smith, Union City, Mich. - Emily E. Spear, Spring Mills, N. Y. - Annie Taylor, Chautauqua, N. Y. - Willie F. Walworth, 107 Public Square, Cleveland, O. - - - - -[Illustration: ROYAL BAKING POWDER - -Absolutely Pure.] - -This powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength and -wholesomeness. More economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be -sold in competition with the multitude of low test, short weight, alum -or phosphate powders. _Sold only in cans._ ROYAL BAKING POWDER CO., 106 -Wall Street, New York. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Aterisks in the list below -indicate a space or smudged letter. - -Page 4, “temperture” changed to “temperature” (same temperature as the) - -Page 8, “skepic” changed to “skeptic” (Christian or skeptic) - -Page 10, “*ruths” changed to “truths” (truths. It is) - -Page 11, “bass” changed to “bas” (his statue, or bas) - -Page 13, the small-capital III. was changed to all-captials to match -the rest of the usage in the text (of Amunothph III., previously) - -Page 14, as above, B. C. was changed to B. C. twice to reflect majority -of usage in text. (560 B. C.) (331 B. C.) - -Page 15, “varietyt” changed to “variety,” (with such variety,) - -Page 16, “pay” changed to “day” (day. Thus it is) - -Page 17, “the of” changed to “of the” (a vivid picture of the) - -Page 19, the first column ends midline with the words: - - indissolubly, and the first line of the couplet: - -The next column does not have either a couplet or an indentation -indicating a new paragraph. It simply goes with the sentence. This was -retained as printed. - -Page 22, “Moliere” changed to “Molière” (and brought Molière) - -Page 26, “ot” changed to “to” (Athenæum to witness the) - -Page 27, “ther*” changed to “there” (no fear that there) - -Page 28, “Chautauqna” changed to “Chautauqua” (present at Chautauqua) - -Page 35, “slaves” changed to “Slavs” (the eastern Slavs there) - -Page 36, “portecochére” changed to “portecochère” (_portecochère_, were -whitened) - -Page 36, “inerests” changed to “interests” (these objects and interests) - -Page 37, “wlll” changed to “will” (yet their conversation will) - -Page 37, “Frauenkircho” changed to “Frauenkirche” (Opera House, the -Frauenkirche) - -Page 37, “eopy” changed to “copy” (copy a picture in) - -Page 39, “deficiences” changed to “deficiencies” (his personal -deficiencies) - -Page 52, “ora*ors” changed to “orators” (prominent as orators) - -Page 56, “Adriondacks” changed to “Adirondacks” (the Adirondacks and -Catskills) - -Page 58, “Pherae” changed to “Pheræ” (“Pheræ.” A city of Thessaly) - -Page 61, “We´ser;” changed to (“Weser,” We´ser;) to match rest of -entries in section. - -Page 61, “bearer” changed to “Bearer” (The Spear Bearer was a) - -Page 61, “Michæl” changed to “Michael” (“Michael Angelo,”) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, October 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAUTAUQUAN, OCTOBER 1883 *** - -***** This file should be named 51196-0.txt or 51196-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/1/9/51196/ - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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